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Counterculture
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Not to be confused with Countercult.
Mother Centre Meeting at Nambassa, 1979
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A counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores.[1][2] A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a specific population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes. Prominent examples of countercultures in Europe and North America include Romanticism (1790–1840), Bohemianism (1850–1910), the more fragmentary counterculture of the Beat Generation (1944–1964), followed by the globalized counterculture of the 1960s (1964–1974), usually associated with the hippie subculture [3] and the diversified Punk subculture of the 1980s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition and characteristics
2 Literature
3 Media
3.1 Assimilation
4 LGBT
5 History
5.1 United States
5.2 Great Britain
5.3 Russia/Soviet Union
5.4 Asia
6 See also
7 Bibliography
8 Notes
9 External links
Definition and characteristics[edit]
John Milton Yinger originated the term "contraculture" in his 1960 article in American Sociological Review. Yinger suggested the use of the term contraculture "wherever the normative system of a group contains, as a primary element, a theme of conflict with the values of the total society, where personality variables are directly involved in the development and maintenance of the group's values, and wherever its norms can be understood only by reference to the relationships of the group to a surrounding dominant culture." [4]
Some scholars have attributed the counterculture to Theodore Roszak,[3][5][6] author of The Making of a Counter Culture.[7] It became prominent in the news media amid the social revolution that swept the Americas, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s.[1][3][6]
Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to "counterculture". "Mainstream" culture is of course also difficult to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture (or "media culture"),[8] or middle-class culture and values.[9] Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values.[10]
Counterculture may or may not be explicitly political. It typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society.[11] It does not look favorably on party politics or authoritarianism.[12]
Typically, a "fringe culture" expands and grows into a counterculture by defining its own values in opposition to mainstream norms.[citation needed] Countercultures tend to peak, then go into decline, leaving a lasting impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance and absorption into the mainstream.[citation needed] During the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States.[13] The "cultural shadows" left by the Romantics, Bohemians, Beats and Hippies remain visible in contemporary Western culture.[citation needed]
According to Sheila Whiteley, "recent developments in sociological theory complicate and problematize theories developed in the 1960s, with digital technology, for example, providing an impetus for new understandings of counterculture".[14] Andy Bennett writes that "despite the theoretical arguments that can be raised against the sociological value of counterculture as a meaningful term for categorising social action, like subculture, the term lives on as a concept in social and cultural theory… [to] become part of a received, mediated memory". However, "this involved not simply the utopian but also the dystopian and that while festivals such as those held at Monterey and Woodstock might appear to embrace the former, the deaths of such iconic figures as Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison and Janis Joplin, the nihilistic mayhem at Altamont, and the shadowy figure of Charles Manson cast a darker light on its underlying agenda, one that reminds us that ‘pathological issues [are] still very much at large in today's world".[15]
Literature[edit]
The counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s generated its own unique brand of notable literature, including comics and cartoons, and sometimes referred to as the underground press. In the United States, this includes the work of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, and includes Mr. Natural; Keep on Truckin'; Fritz the Cat; Fat Freddy's Cat; Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers; the album cover art for Cheap Thrills; and in several countries contributions to International Times, The Village Voice, and Oz magazine. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, these comics and magazines were available for purchase in head shops along with items like beads, incense, cigarette papers, tie-dye clothing, Day-Glo posters, books, etc.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, some of these shops selling hippie items also became cafés where hippies could hang out, chat, smoke marijuana, read books, etc., e.g. Gandalf's Garden in the Kings Road, Chelsea, London, which also published a magazine of the same name.[16] Another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market area of Nottingham.[17][18]
Media[edit]
Some genres tend to challenge societies with their content that is meant to outright question the norms within cultures and even create change usually towards a more modern way of thought. More often than not, sources of these controversies can be found in art such as Marcel Duchamp whose piece Fountain was meant to be "a calculated attack on the most basic conventions of art"[19] in 1917. Contentious artists like Banksy base most of their works off of mainstream media and culture to bring pieces that usually shock viewers into thinking about their piece in more detail and the themes behind them. A great example can be found in Dismaland, the biggest project of "anarchism" to be organised and exhibited which showcases multiple works such as an "iconic Disney princess's horse-drawn pumpkin carriage, [appearing] to re-enact the death of Princess Diana".[20]
Assimilation[edit]
Many of these artists though once being taboo, have been assimilated into culture and are no longer a source of moral panic since they don't cross overtly controversial topics or challenge staples of current culture.[21][22] Instead of being a topic to fear, they have initiated subtle trends that other artists and sources of media may follow.[21]
LGBT[edit]
Gay liberation (considered a precursor of various modern LGBT social movements) was known for its links to the counterculture of the time (e.g. groups like the Radical Faeries), and for the gay liberationists' intent to transform or abolish fundamental institutions of society such as gender and the nuclear family;[23] in general, the politics were radical, anti-racist, and anti-capitalist in nature.[24] In order to achieve such liberation, consciousness raising and direct action were employed.[23]
At the outset of the 20th century, homosexual acts were punishable offenses in these countries.[25] The prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality was a moral failing that should be punished, as exemplified by Oscar Wilde's 1895 trial and imprisonment for "gross indecency". But even then, there were dissenting views. Sigmund Freud publicly expressed his opinion that homosexuality was "assuredly no advantage, but it is nothing to be ashamed of, no vice, no degradation; it cannot be classified as an illness; we consider it to be a variation of the sexual function, produced by a certain arrest of sexual development".[26] According to Charles Kaiser's The Gay Metropolis, there were already semi-public gay-themed gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United States (such as the annual drag balls held during the Harlem Renaissance). There were also bars and bathhouses that catered to gay clientele and adopted warning procedures (similar to those used by Prohibition-era speakeasies) to warn customers of police raids. But homosexuality was typically subsumed into bohemian culture, and was not a significant movement in itself.[27]
Eventually, a genuine gay culture began to take root, albeit very discreetly, with its own styles, attitudes and behaviors and industries began catering to this growing demographic group. For example, publishing houses cranked out pulp novels like The Velvet Underground that were targeted directly at gay people. By the early 1960s, openly gay political organizations such as the Mattachine Society were formally protesting abusive treatment toward gay people, challenging the entrenched idea that homosexuality was an aberrant condition, and calling for the decriminalization of homosexuality. Despite very limited sympathy, American society began at least to acknowledge the existence of a sizable population of gays. The film The Boys in the Band, for example, featured negative portrayals of gay men, but at least recognized that they did in fact fraternize with each other (as opposed to being isolated, solitary predators who "victimized" straight men).[citation needed]
Disco music in large part rose out of the New York gay club scene of the early 1970s as a reaction to the stigmatization of gays and other outside groups such as blacks by the counterculture of that era.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35] By later in the decade Disco was dominating the pop charts.[36] The popular Village People and the critically acclaimed Sylvester had gay-themed lyrics and presentation.[37][38]
Another element of LGBT counter-culture that began in the 1970s—and continues today—is the lesbian land, or Landdyke movement.[39] Radical feminists inspired by the back-to-the-land initiative abandoned their traditional roles and migrated to rural areas to create female-only lesbian communes.[40] "Free Spaces" are defined by Sociologist Francesca Polletta as "small-scale settings within a community or movement that are removed from the direct control of dominant groups, are voluntarily participated in, and generate the cultural challenge that precedes or accompanies political mobilization.[41] Women came together in Free Spaces like music festivals, activist groups and collectives to share ideas with like-minded people and to explore the idea of the lesbian land movement. The movement is closely tied to eco-feminism.[42]
The four tenets of the Landdyke Movement are relationship with the land, liberation and transformation, living the politics, and bodily Freedoms.[43] Most importantly, members of these communities seek to live outside of a patriarchal society that puts emphasis on "beauty ideals that discipline the female body, compulsive heterosexuality, competitiveness with other women, and dependence".[44] Instead of adhering typical female gender roles, the women of Landdyke communities value "self-sufficiency, bodily strength, autonomy from men and patriarchal systems, and the development of lesbian-centered community".[44] Members of the Landdyke movement enjoy bodily freedoms that have been deemed unacceptable in the modern Western world—such as the freedom to expose their breasts, or to go without any clothing at all.[45] An awareness of their impact on the Earth, and connection to nature is essential members of the Landdyke Movement's way of life.[46]
The watershed event in the American gay rights movement was the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York City. Following this event, gays and lesbians began to adopt the militant protest tactics used by anti-war and black power radicals to confront anti-gay ideology. Another major turning point was the 1973 decision by the American Psychiatric Association to remove homosexuality from the official list of mental disorders.[47] Although gay radicals used pressure to force the decision, Kaiser notes that this had been an issue of some debate for many years in the psychiatric community, and that one of the chief obstacles to normalizing homosexuality was that therapists were profiting from offering dubious, unproven "cures".[27]
The AIDS epidemic was initially an unexpected blow to the movement, especially in North America. There was speculation that the disease would permanently drive gay life underground. Ironically, the tables were turned. Many of the early victims of the disease had been openly gay only within the confines of insular "gay ghettos" such as New York City's Greenwich Village and San Francisco's Castro; they remained closeted in their professional lives and to their families. Many heterosexuals who thought they didn't know any gay people were confronted by friends and loved ones dying of "the gay plague" (which soon began to infect heterosexual people also). LGBT communities were increasingly seen not only as victims of a disease, but as victims of ostracism and hatred. Most importantly, the disease became a rallying point for a previously complacent gay community. AIDS invigorated the community politically to fight not only for a medical response to the disease, but also for wider acceptance of homosexuality in mainstream America. Ultimately, coming out became an important step for many LGBT people.[citation needed]
During the early 1980s what was dubbed "New Music", New wave, "New pop" popularized by MTV and associated with gender bending Second British Music Invasion stars such as Boy George and Annie Lennox became what was described by Newsweek at the time as an alternate mainstream to the traditional masculine/heterosexual rock music in the United States.[48][49][50]
In 2003, the United States Supreme Court officially declared all sodomy laws unconstitutional.[51]
History[edit]
Bill Osgerby argues that:
the counterculture's various strands developed from earlier artistic and political movements. On both sides of the Atlantic the 1950s "Beat Generation" had fused existentialist philosophy with jazz, poetry, literature, Eastern mysticism and drugs – themes that were all sustained in the 1960s counterculture.[52]
United States[edit]
Main articles: Counterculture of the 1960s and Timeline of 1960s counterculture
In the United States, the counterculture of the 1960s became identified with the rejection of conventional social norms of the 1950s. Counterculture youth rejected the cultural standards of their parents, especially with respect to racial segregation and initial widespread support for the Vietnam War,[2][53] and, less directly, the Cold War—with many young people fearing that America's nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, coupled with its involvement in Vietnam, would lead to a nuclear holocaust.
In the United States, widespread tensions developed in the 1960s in American society that tended to flow along generational lines regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations, sexual mores, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, and a materialist interpretation of the American Dream. White, middle class youth—who made up the bulk of the counterculture in western countries—had sufficient leisure time, thanks to widespread economic prosperity, to turn their attention to social issues.[54] These social issues included support for civil rights, women's rights, and gay rights movements, and a rejection of the Vietnam War. The counterculture also had access to a media which was eager to present their concerns to a wider public. Demonstrations for social justice created far-reaching changes affecting many aspects of society. Hippies became the largest countercultural group in the United States.[13]
"The 60s were a leap in human consciousness. Mahatma Gandhi, Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Che Guevara, Mother Teresa, they led a revolution of conscience. The Beatles, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix created revolution and evolution themes. The music was like Dalí, with many colors and revolutionary ways. The youth of today must go there to find themselves."
— Carlos Santana[55]
Rejection of mainstream culture was best embodied in the new genres of psychedelic rock music, pop-art and new explorations in spirituality. Musicians who exemplified this era in the United Kingdom and United States included The Beatles, Neil Young, Bob Dylan, The Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Jimi Hendrix, The Doors, Frank Zappa, The Rolling Stones, Velvet Underground, Janis Joplin, The Who, Joni Mitchell, The Kinks, Sly and the Family Stone and, in their early years, Chicago. New forms of musical presentation also played a key role in spreading the counterculture, with large outdoor rock festivals being the most noteworthy. The climactic live statement on this occurred from August 15–18, 1969, with the Woodstock Music Festival held in Bethel, New York—with 32 of rock's and psychedelic rock's most popular acts performing live outdoors during the sometimes rainy weekend to an audience of half a million people. (Michael Lang stated 400,000 attended, half of which did not have a ticket.)[56] It is widely regarded as a pivotal moment in popular music history—with Rolling Stone calling it one of the 50 Moments That Changed the History of Rock and Roll.[57] According to Bill Mankin, "It seems fitting… that one of the most enduring labels for the entire generation of that era was derived from a rock festival: the ‘Woodstock Generation’."[58]
Sentiments were expressed in song lyrics and popular sayings of the period, such as "do your own thing", "turn on, tune in, drop out", "whatever turns you on", "Eight miles high", "sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll", and "light my fire". Spiritually, the counterculture included interest in astrology, the term "Age of Aquarius" and knowing people's astrological signs of the Zodiac. This led Theodore Roszak to state "A [sic] eclectic taste for mystic, occult, and magical phenomena has been a marked characteristic of our postwar youth culture since the days of the beatniks."[6] In the United States, even actor Charlton Heston contributed to the movement, with the statement "Don't trust anyone over thirty" (a saying coined in 1965 by activist Jack Weinberg) in the 1968 film Planet of the Apes; the same year, actress and social activist Jane Fonda starred in the sexually-themed Barbarella. Both actors opposed the Vietnam War during its duration, and Fonda would eventually become controversially active in the peace movement.
The counterculture in the United States has been interpreted as lasting roughly from 1964 to 1972[59]—coincident with America's involvement in Vietnam—and reached its peak in August 1969 at the Woodstock Festival, New York, characterized in part by the film Easy Rider (1969). Unconventional or psychedelic dress; political activism; public protests; campus uprisings; pacifist then loud, defiant music; drugs; communitarian experiments, and sexual liberation were hallmarks of the sixties counterculture—most of whose members were young, white and middle-class.[60]
In the United States, the movement divided the population. To some Americans, these attributes reflected American ideals of free speech, equality, world peace, and the pursuit of happiness; to others, they reflected a self-indulgent, pointlessly rebellious, unpatriotic, and destructive assault on the country's traditional moral order. Authorities banned the psychedelic drug LSD, restricted political gatherings, and tried to enforce bans on what they considered obscenity in books, music, theater, and other media.
The counterculture has been argued to have diminished in the early 1970s, and some have attributed two reasons for this. First, it has been suggested that the most popular of its political goals—civil rights, civil liberties, gender equality, environmentalism, and the end of the Vietnam War—were "accomplished" (to at least some degree); and also that its most popular social attributes—particularly a "live and let live" mentality in personal lifestyles (the "sexual revolution")—were co-opted by mainstream society.[54][61] Second, a decline of idealism and hedonism occurred as many notable counterculture figures died, the rest settled into mainstream society and started their own families, and the "magic economy" of the 1960s gave way to the stagflation of the 1970s[54]—the latter costing many in the middle-classes the luxury of being able to live outside conventional social institutions. The counterculture, however, continues to influence social movements, art, music, and society in general, and the post-1973 mainstream society has been in many ways a hybrid of the 1960s establishment and counterculture.[61]
The counterculture movement has been said to be rejuvenated in a way that maintains some similarities from the Counterculture of the 1960s, but it is different as well. Photographer Steve Schapiro investigated and documented these contemporary hippie communities from 2012 to 2014. He traveled the country with his son, attending festival after festival. These findings were compiled in Schapiro’s book Bliss: Transformational Festivals & the Neo Hippie. One of his most valued findings was that these “Neo Hippies” experience and encourage such a spiritual commitment to the community.
Great Britain[edit]
Starting in the late 1960s the counterculture movement spread from the US like a wildfire.[62] Britain did not experience the intense social turmoil produced in America by the Vietnam War and racial tensions. Nevertheless, British youth readily identified with their American counterparts' desire to cast off the older generation's social mores. The new music was a powerful weapon. In this case, it took the form of a wholesale revolt against the class system, which was now being questioned for the first time in the nation's history. Rock music, which had first been introduced from the US in the 1950s, became a key instrument in the social uprisings of the young generation and Britain soon became a groundswell of musical talent thanks to groups like the Beatles, Rolling Stones, The Who, Pink Floyd, and more in coming years.[63][64][65]
The antiwar movement in Britain closely collaborated with their American counterparts, supporting peasant insurgents in the Asian jungles.[66] The "Ban the Bomb" protests centered around opposition to nuclear weaponry; the campaign gave birth to what was to become the peace symbol of the 1960s.
Russia/Soviet Union[edit]
Although not exactly equivalent to the English definition, the term Контркультура (Kontrkul'tura) became common in Russian to define a 1990s cultural movement that promoted acting outside of cultural conventions: the use of explicit language; graphical descriptions of sex, violence and illicit activities; and uncopyrighted use of "safe" characters involved in such activities.
During the early 1970s, the Soviet government rigidly promoted optimism in Russian culture. Divorce and alcohol abuse were viewed as taboo by the media. However, Russian society grew weary of the gap between real life and the creative world,[citation needed] and underground culture became "forbidden fruit". General satisfaction with the quality of existing works led to parody, such as how the Russian anecdotal joke tradition turned the setting of War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy into a grotesque world of sexual excess. Another well-known example is black humor (mostly in the form of short poems) that dealt exclusively with funny deaths and/or other mishaps of small, innocent children.
In the mid-1980s, the Glasnost policy permitted the production of less optimistic works. As a consequence, Russian cinema during the late 1980s and the early 1990s was action movies with explicit (but not necessarily graphic) scenes of ruthless violence and social dramas about drug abuse, prostitution and failing relationships. Although Russian movies of the time would be rated "R" in the United States due to violence, the use of explicit language was much milder than in American cinema.
In the late 1990s, Russian counterculture became increasingly popular on the Internet. Several websites appeared that posted user-created short stories dealing with sex, drugs and violence. The following features are considered the most popular topics in such works:
Wide use of explicit language;
Deliberate misspelling;
Descriptions of drug use and consequences of abuse;
Negative portrayals of alcohol use;
Sex and violence: nothing is a taboo – in general, violence is rarely advocated, while all types of sex are considered good;
Parody: media advertising, classic movies, pop culture and children's books are considered fair game;
Non-conformance; and
Politically incorrect topics, mostly racism, xenophobia and homophobia.
A notable aspect of counterculture at the time was the influence of contra-cultural developments on Russian pop culture. In addition to traditional Russian styles of music, such as songs with jail-related lyrics, new music styles with explicit language were developed.
Asia[edit]
In the recent past, Dr. Sebastian Kappen, an Indian theologian, has tried to redefine counterculture in the Asian context. In March 1990, at a seminar in Bangalore, he presented his countercultural perspectives (Chapter 4 in S. Kappen, Tradition, modernity, counterculture: an Asian perspective, Visthar, Bangalore, 1994). Dr. Kappen envisages counterculture as a new culture that has to negate the two opposing cultural phenomena in Asian countries:
invasion by Western capitalist culture, and
the emergence of revivalist movements.
Kappen writes, "Were we to succumb to the first, we should be losing our identity; if to the second, ours would be a false, obsolete identity in a mental universe of dead symbols and delayed myths".
The most important countercultural movement in India had taken place in the state of West Bengal during the 1960s by a group of poets and artists who called themselves Hungryalists.
See also[edit]
Alternative culture
Alternative fashion
Alternative lifestyle
Alternative music
Anti-establishment
Avant-garde
Beat generation
Beatnik
Bohemianism
Civil disobediance
Counterculture of the 1960s
Counter-economics
Culture jamming
Cyberculture
Deviance (sociology)
Dialectic of Enlightenment
Exi (subculture)
Flower power
Freak scene
Guerrilla theatre
Hippie movement
Hipster (contemporary subculture)
Hipster (1940s subculture)
La Movida Madrileña
Nambassa
Nonconformity[disambiguation needed]
Outsider art
Outsider music
Paradigm shift
Peace movement
Psychedelic movement
Punk subculture
Radicalization
Rebellion
Revolution
Second-wave feminism
Subculture
Subversion
Timeline of 1960s counterculture
Turn on, tune in, drop out
Underground (British subculture)
Underground culture
Youth culture
Youth subculture
Bibliography[edit]
Bennett, Andy (2012). Reappraising "counterculture". Volume!, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie Seteun.
Curl, John (2007), Memories of Drop City, The First Hippie Commune of the 1960s and the Summer of Love, a memoir, iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-42343-4. https://web.archive.org/web/20090413150607/http://red-coral.net/DropCityIndex.html
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. (Vol. 7, pp. 123–245). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1905)
Gelder, Ken (2007), Subcultures: Cultural Histories and Social Practice, London: Routledge.
Goffman, Ken (2004), Counterculture through the ages Villard Books ISBN 0-375-50758-2
Heath, Joseph and Andrew Potter (2004) Nation of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer Culture Collins Books ISBN 0-06-074586-X
Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo (2009), Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700616336
Hall, Stuart and Tony Jefferson (1991), Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-war Britain, London: Routledge.
Hazlehurst, Cameron and Kayleen M. Hazlehurst (1998), Gangs and Youth Subcultures: International Explorations, New Brunswick & London: Transaction Publishers.
Hebdige, Dick (1979), Subculture: the Meaning of Style, London & New York: Routledge.
Paul Hodkinson and Wolfgang Deicke (2007), Youth Cultures Scenes, Subcultures and Tribes, New York: Routledge.
Macfarlane, Scott (2007),The Hippie Narrative: A Literary Perspective on the Counterculture, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co Inc, ISBN 0-7864-2915-1 & ISBN 978-0-7864-2915-8.
McKay, George (1996), Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance since the Sixties. London Verso. ISBN 1-85984-028-0.
Nelson, Elizabeth (1989), The British Counterculture 1966-73: A Study of the Underground Press. London: Macmillan.
Roszak, Theodore (1968) The Making of a Counter Culture.
Isadora Tast (2009), Mother India. Searching For a Place. Berlin: Peperoni Books, ISBN 978-3-941825-00-0
Whiteley, Sheila (2012). Countercultures: Music, Theories & Scenes. Volume!, n°9-1, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie Seteun.
Whiteley, Sheila (2012). Countercultures: Utopias, Dystopias, Anarchy. Volume!, n°9-1&2, Nantes, Éditions Mélanie Seteun.
Whiteley, Sheila and Sklower, Jedediah (2014), Countercultures and Popular Music, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4724-2106-7.
Беляев, И. А. Культура, субкультура, контркультура / И. А. Беляев, Н. А. Беляева // Духовность и государственность. Сборник научных статей. Выпуск 3; под ред. И. А. Беляева. — Оренбург: Филиал УрАГС в г. Оренбурге, 2002. — С. 5-18.
Yinger, John Milton (1982). Countercultures: The Promise and Peril of a World Turned Upside Down. New York: Free Press.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "counterculture," Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, 2008, MWCCul.
^ Jump up to: a b Eric Donald Hirsch. The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65597-8. (1993) p 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. In the 1960s and Europe before fading in the 1970s... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."
^ Jump up to: a b c F.X. Shea, S.J., "Reason and the Religion of the Counter-Culture", Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 66/1 (1973), pp. 95-111, JSTOR-3B2-X.
Jump up ^ “Contraculture and Subculture” by J. Milton Yinger, Source: American Sociological Review, Vol. 25, No. 5 (Oct., 1960) https://www.jstor.org/stable/2090136
Jump up ^ Gollin, Andrea (April 23, 2003). "Social critic Theodore Roszak *58 explores intolerance in new novel about gay Jewish writer". PAW Online. Retrieved June 21, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Roszak, Theodore, The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition, 1968/1969, Doubleday, New York, ISBN 978-0-385-07329-5.
Jump up ^ His conception of the counterculture is discussed in Whiteley, 2012 & 2014 and Bennett, 2012.
Jump up ^ Gelder, Subcultures (2007) p. 4. "...to the banalities of mass cultural forms".
Jump up ^ Hodkinson and Deicke, Youth Cultures (2007), p. 205. "...opposition to, the middle-class establishment of adults."
Jump up ^ Hebdige, Subculture (1979), p.127. "defining themselves against the parent culture."
Jump up ^ Hall & Jefferson, Resistance Through Rituals (1991), p.61. "They make articulate their opposition to dominant values and institutions—even when, as frequently occurred, this does not take the form of an overtly political response."
Jump up ^ Hazlehurst & Hazlehurst, Gangs and Youth Subcultures (1998), p.59. "There does seem to be some general commitment towards antiauthoritarianism, a rejection of the traditional party political system which is considered irrelevant."
^ Jump up to: a b Yablonsky, Lewis (1968), The Hippie Trip, New York: Western Publishing, Inc., ISBN 978-0595001163, pp 21-37.
Jump up ^ Cf. Whiteley, 2012 & 2014.
Jump up ^ Cf. Andy Bennett, 2012.
Jump up ^ London a Map of the Underground Archived August 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Mushroom Books, Nottingham
Jump up ^ Founder of radical bookshop dies
Jump up ^ "Making Sense of Marcel Duchamp". www.understandingduchamp.com. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Many are finding this shocking piece hidden inside Banksy's 'Dismaland' gut-wrenching". Tech Insider. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Stop Fooling Yourself: Coachella Style Is Trash—"Counterculture" and "subculture" have been assimilated into a commercialized "pop culture" product". Complex CA. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kornblum, William (January 31, 2011). Sociology in a Changing World. Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781133172857.
^ Jump up to: a b Hoffman, Amy (2007) An Army of Ex-Lovers: My life at the Gay Community News. University of Massachusetts Press. pp.xi-xiii. ISBN 978-1558496217
Jump up ^ "Gay Liberation Front: Manifesto. London". 1978 [1971].
Jump up ^ See sodomy law for more information
Jump up ^ Freud 1992, pp. 423–424
^ Jump up to: a b Kaiser, C (1997). The Gay Metropolis. New York: Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-15-600617-0.
Jump up ^ (2007) The 1970s, ISBN 978-0-313-33919-6, p.203–204: "During the late 1960s various male counterculture groups, most notably gay, but also heterosexual black and Latino, created an alternative to rock'n'roll, which was dominated by white—and presumably heterosexual—men. This alternative was disco"
Jump up ^ Disco Double Take: New York Parties Like It's 1975. Village Voice.com. Retrieved on August 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ What's That Sound? • W. W. Norton and Company, Inc.. What's That Sound? • W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. wwnorton.com. Retrieved on August 4, 2009
Jump up ^ MacArthur's Disco : Disco Clubs at DiscoMusic.com Archived December 9, 2012, at Archive.is. Discotheques and Clubs of the 1970s/80s: "MacArthur's Disco". DiscoMusic.com. Retrieved on August 4, 2009.
Jump up ^ (1998) "The Cambridge History of American Music", ISBN 978-0-521-45429-2, p.372: "Initially, disco musicians and audiences alike belonged to marginalized communities: women, gay, black, and Latinos"
Jump up ^ (2002) "Traces of the Spirit: The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music", ISBN 978-0-8147-9809-6, p.117: "New York City was the primary center of disco, and the original audience was primarily gay African Americans and Latinos."
Jump up ^ (1976) "Stereo Review", University of Michigan, p.75: "[..] and the result—what has come to be called disco—was clearly the most compelling and influential form of black commercial pop music since the halcyon days of the "Motown Sound" of the middle Sixties."
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Peter. "Turn the Beat Around: The Rise and Fall of Disco", Macmillan, 2006. p.204–206: "'Broadly speaking, the typical New York discotheque DJ is young (between 18 and 30), Italian, and gay,' journalist Vince Aletti declared in 1975...Remarkably, almost all of the important early DJs were of Italian extraction...Italian Americans have played a significant role in America's dance music culture...While Italian Americans mostly from Brooklyn largely created disco from scratch..." [1].
Jump up ^ Allmusic Disco genre
Jump up ^ Allmusic bio The Village People
Jump up ^ Allmusic bio Sylvester
Jump up ^ Anahita, Sine. "Nestled Into Niches: Prefigurative Communities on Lesbian Land." Journal of Homosexuality, 56 (2009):719.
Jump up ^ Lord, A., and Zajicek, A. M. "The history of the contemporary grassroots women's movement in northwest Arkansas, 1970–2000." Fayetteville, AR
Jump up ^ Polletta, Francesca. "Free Spaces in Collective Action" Theory and Society, 28/1. (Feb 1999):1.
Jump up ^ Anahita, Sine. "Nestled Into Niches: Prefigurative Communities on Lesbian Land." Journal of Homosexuality, 56 (2009):720-722.
Jump up ^ Anahita, Sine. "Nestled Into Niches: Prefigurative Communities on Lesbian Land." Journal of Homosexuality, 56 (2009):720-719.
^ Jump up to: a b Anahita, Sine. "Nestled Into Niches: Prefigurative Communities on Lesbian Land". Journal of Homosexuality, 56 (2009):729.
Jump up ^ Anahita, Sine. "Nestled Into Niches: Prefigurative Communities on Lesbian Land." Journal of Homosexuality, 56 (2009):734.
Jump up ^ Anahita, Sine. "Nestled Into Niches: Prefigurative Communities on Lesbian Land". Journal of Homosexuality, 56 (2009):732.
Jump up ^ Conger, J. J. (1975) "Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1974: Minutes of the Annual meeting of the Council of Representatives." American Psychologist, 30, 620-651.
Jump up ^ Triumph of the New Newsweek on Campus reprinted by the Michigan Daily March 2, 1984
Jump up ^ Rip it Up and Start Again Post Punk 1978-1984 by Simon Reynolds United States Edition pp. 332-352
Jump up ^ Cateforis, Theo. Are We Not New Wave Modern Pop at the Turn of the 1980s. The University of Michigan Press, 2011. ISBN 0-472-03470-7.
Jump up ^ "LAWRENCE ET AL. v. TEXAS" (PDF). June 26, 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2007. Retrieved March 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ Bill Osgerby, "Youth Culture" in Paul Addison and Harriet Jones, eds. A Companion to Contemporary Britain: 1939-2000 (2005) pp 127–44, quote at p. 132.
Jump up ^ Mary Works Covington, Rockin' At the Red Dog: The Dawn of Psychedelic Rock, 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b c Krugman, Paul (2007). The Conscience of a Liberal. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-06069-1. Chapter 5. Economist Paul Krugman comments on the effects of the economy on the counterculture: "In fact," he argues, "you have to wonder whether the Nixon recession of 1969-1971 [which nearly doubled the unemployment rate] didn't do more to end the hippie movement than the killings at Altamont."
Jump up ^ Carlos Santana: I’m Immortal interview by Punto Digital, October 13, 2010
Jump up ^ "State Investigating Handling of Tickets At Woodstock Fair". New York Times. August 27, 1969. p. 45.
Jump up ^ "Woodstock in 1969". Rolling Stone. June 24, 2004. Retrieved April 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ Mankin, Bill. We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America. Like the Dew. 2012.
Jump up ^ Riech, Robert (2004). Reason: Why Liberals Will Win the Battle for America. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4221-6. Chapter 1, pp. 13-14
Jump up ^ Ankony, Robert C., "Counterculture of the 1960s," Criminology Brief of Theorists, Theories, and Terms, CFM Research, Jul. 2012. p.36.
^ Jump up to: a b Yenne, Bill (1989). The Beatles. Longmeadow Press. ISBN 0-681-00576-9. pp. 46-55
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Nelson, The British Counter-Culture, 1966-73: A Study of the Underground Press (1989) excerpt
Jump up ^ Steven D. Stark, Meet the Beatles: a cultural history of the band that shook youth, gender, and the world (2005).
Jump up ^ Barry J. Faulk, British rock modernism, 1967-1977: the story of music hall in rock (2016).
Jump up ^ William Osgerby, Youth in Britain since 1945 (1998)
Jump up ^ Sylvia A. Ellis, "Promoting solidarity at home and abroad: the goals and tactics of the anti-Vietnam War movement in Britain." European Review of History: Revue européenne d’histoire 21.4 (2014): 557-576.
External links[edit]
Look up counterculture in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Counterculture.
Dugald Baird, How International Times sparked a publishing revolution, The Guardian, 17 July 2009
"Perspectives", Vietnam magazine, World History Group, Leesburg, VA, (Aug. 2002):58-62.
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Elliot Fletcher
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Elliot Fletcher
Elliot speaking to fans at a Faking It panel in West Hollywood, California.
Born
(1996-06-30) June 30, 1996 (age 21)
Los Angeles, California
Occupation
Actor
Elliot Fletcher (born June 30, 1996)[1] is an American transgender actor known for his work on the MTV comedy series Faking It and Freeform's The Fosters.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Life and career
2 Filmography
3 References
4 External links
Life and career
Fletcher was born a female and raised in Los Angeles, California, by his parents, actors Julia Fletcher and John DeMita.[4] He came out to his parents as transgender in 2013, during his senior year of high school.[5]
Fletcher joined the cast of Faking It as Noah, the show's first transgender character, in early 2016.[6][7] In April 2016, it was announced that Fletcher would be joining the cast of The Fosters in a recurring guest-starring role as Aaron, an "attractive and intriguing law student" and potential romantic interest of Callie (Maia Mitchell).[2] Fletcher originally considered auditioning for the role of Cole on The Fosters, but decided against it. The role was later filled by Fletcher's close friend Tom Phelan.[8]
Elliot also appeared in season 7 and then became a recurring cast member in season 8 of the Showtime TV show Shameless. He plays Trevor, a trans man who works for an organization that helps find homes for runaways and homeless teens. He then befriends and gets into a relationship with Ian Gallagher.[9]
In 2017, transgender actors and actresses including Fletcher (with the help of GLAAD and ScreenCrush) were part of a filmed letter to Hollywood written by Jen Richards, asking for more and improved roles for transgender people.[10][11]
Filmography
Television roles
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2016 Faking It Noah Recurring role
2016–present The Fosters Aaron Recurring role
2016 Shameless Trevor Recurring role
References
Jump up ^ Helling, Steve (January 7, 2015). "The DeMita Fletcher Family: What We Learned From Our Transgender Son". People. Julia Fletcher vividly remembers the day her child, Elliot, came out as transgender. 'It was August 21, 2013 ... he was 17 [by that date].'
^ Jump up to: a b "'The Fosters' Enlists 'Faking It' Breakout for Season 4 (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
Jump up ^ Bernardino, Shiena (27 April 2016). "'The Fosters' casts 'Faking It' and 'Shameless' transgender star Elliot Fletcher for season 4 | Christian News on Christian Today". Christian Today. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "One Family's Story: What We Learned From Our Transgender Son". PEOPLE.com. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/storywall/transgender-today/stories/elliot-fletcher "Transgender Lives: Your Stories--Elliot Fletcher", New York Times, Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Faking It' Casts Trans Actor to Play Trans Character for Season 3". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
Jump up ^ Gilchrist, Tracy (18 February 2016). "Trans Man Elliot Fletcher Joins MTV's Faking It in Show's First Trans Role". Pride. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Elliot Fletcher talks playing the new trans guy character on "Faking It" - AfterEllen". AfterEllen. 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2016-05-06.
Jump up ^ "'Shameless': How a Transgender Storyline Brings the Show Back to its Roots". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Video Breaks Down Why Hollywood Needs Transgender Actors | HuffPost". Huffingtonpost.com. 2017. Retrieved 2017-06-21.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Daniel. "Trans Actors Ask Hollywood for Roles With Dignity and Depth in Open Letter". Advocate.com. Retrieved 2017-06-21.
External links
Elliot Fletcher on IMDb
Elliot Fletcher on Twitter
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elliot_Fletcher&oldid=800614580"
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1996 births
21st-century American male actors
LGBT entertainers from the United States
LGBT people from California
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American male television actors
Transgender and transsexual male actors
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Sweet and sour
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Sweet and Sour (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Deep fried fish in a sweet and sour sauce
Sweet and sour
Traditional Chinese
甜酸醬
Simplified Chinese
甜酸酱
Literal meaning
Sweet and sour sauce
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
tián suān jiàng
Hakka
Romanization
tiam son jiong
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
tìhm syūn jeung
Jyutping
tim4 syun1 zoeng3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
tiⁿ-sng-chiùⁿ
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
糖醋醬
Simplified Chinese
糖醋酱
Literal meaning
Sugar and vinegar sauce
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
táng cù jiàng
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
tòhng chou jeung
Sweet and sour is a generic term that encompasses many styles of sauce, cuisine and cooking methods. Commonly used in China, it has been used in England since the Middle Ages,[1] and remains popular in Europe and in the Americas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Chinese cuisine
1.1 Regional variations
1.1.1 Guo bao rou
1.1.2 Squirrel-shaped Mandarin fish
1.1.3 Sweet and sour Yellow River carp
1.1.4 Sweet and sour spare ribs
1.1.5 Hong Kong/Cantonese
2 Outside China
2.1 Korea
2.2 Western world
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Chinese cuisine[edit]
Sweet and sour Bid-bid (Pacific Tenpounder) balls
Some authors say that the original sweet and sour sauce (simplified Chinese: 糖醋酱; traditional Chinese: 糖醋醬; pinyin: tángcùjiàng) came from the Chinese province of Hunan,[2] but the sauce in this area is a light vinegar and sugar mixture not resembling what most people, including the Chinese, would call sweet and sour. Many places in China use a sweet and sour sauce as a dipping sauce for fish and meat, rather than in cooking as is commonly found in westernized Chinese cuisine.[3]
This style of using sauces is popular amongst Chinese who tie certain sauces to particular meats such as chili and soy for shrimp and vinegar and garlic for goose. There are, however, some dishes, such as the Cantonese sweet and sour pork or Loong har kow (sweet and sour lobster balls), in which the meat is cooked and a sauce added to the wok before serving.[4]
Not all dishes are cooked; some, such as "sweet and sour fruit and vegetable" salad from the eastern regions of China, also find their way in Chinese cuisine.[5] This dish combines salad vegetables such as cucumber, tomato, bell pepper, and onion with a mixture of pineapple (or pear), vinegar, and sugar to make a cold served dish.
In China traditionally the sauces are made from mixing sugar or honey with a sour liquid such as rice vinegar, soy sauce, and spices such as ginger and cloves. Sometimes a paste made from tomatoes is used but this is rare and normally restricted to western cooking.[6]
Sweet and sour seabass
Cantonese sweet and sour sauce is the direct ancestor of sauce of the same name in the West, and originally developed for sweet and sour pork. The late renowned chef from Hong Kong, Leung King, included the following as his sweet and sour source sauce recipe: white rice vinegar, salt, Chinese brown candy, ketchup, Worcestershire sauce, and dark soy sauce. Hong Kong's gourmet Willie Mak, himself a long time friend of Leung, suggests contemporary eateries not to resort to cheap bulk manufactured versions of vinegar, ketchup, and Worcestershire sauce, or the sauce will risk being too sharp in taste and might break the balance of flavours. He suggests the more acidic white rice vinegar could be replaced with apple cider vinegar, and ketchup and Worcestershire sauce should be of renowned gourmet brands.[7]
Regional variations[edit]
Guo bao rou[edit]
Guō bāo ròu (simplified Chinese: 锅包肉; traditional Chinese: 鍋包肉; pinyin: guōbāoròu) is a classic dish from North East (Dongbei) China, originating in the city of Harbin, Heilongjiang Province.[8] It consists of large thinly sliced pieces of pork in potato starch batter, deep-fried twice until crispy. They are then lightly coated in a variation of a sweet and sour sauce, made from freshly prepared syrup and rice vinegar, flavoured with ginger and garlic. The batter absorbs the sauce and softens. A Beijing variant has the sauce thin and watery, while the dish as prepared in the North East is often a thicker sauce with some ketchup added to it. However true guō bāo ròu is made with an amber coloured sauce due to the fact that it uses caramelized sugar.[citation needed]
Squirrel-shaped Mandarin fish[edit]
Two versions of Sōngshǔ guì yú
From Suzhou, Jiangsu province, the squirrel-shaped Mandarin fish (Chinese: 松鼠鳜鱼; pinyin: Sōngshǔ guì yú) has a crisp skin but soft centre. The fish body of Siniperca chuatsi is scored such that it fans out when cooked, similar in appearance to a bushy squirrel tail. The fish is served with a sweet and sour sauce drizzled on top and garnished with a little shrimp meat and dried bamboo shoots.[9]
Sweet and sour Yellow River carp[edit]
A speciality of Shandong province, in particular the city of Jinan,[10] the Yellow River carp is prepared by making diagonal slices partway through its flesh. It is next coated in corn flour then deep fried causing the fish to curl and the slices to open out. Finally a sweet and sour sauce is poured over the cooked fish. This is one of the distinctive dishes typical of Lu Cuisine.
Sweet and sour spare ribs[edit]
A popular dish in Shanghai cuisine, sweet and sour spare ribs (Chinese: 糖醋小排; pinyin: tángcù xiǎopái) are made using pork ribs that are lightly coated in corn starch and seasoned before being fried and served in a sweet and sour sauce.
Hong Kong/Cantonese[edit]
The original Cantonese sweet and sour pork (simplified Chinese: 咕噜肉; traditional Chinese: 咕嚕肉; pinyin: gūlūròu; Jyutping: gu1 lou1 juk6) is made with vinegar, preserved plums and hawthorn candy for an almost scarlet colour and sweet-sour taste.[11] A related Hong Kong/Cantonese-based dish is sweet and sour spare-ribs (Chinese: 生炒排骨; pinyin: Shēng chǎo páigǔ English translation: stir-fried spare ribs) and it is identical in methods except spare-ribs are used in place of pork loins.
Outside China[edit]
Korea[edit]
Tangsuyuk
In South Korea, a sweet and sour meat dish known as tangsuyuk (탕수육) is one of the most popular Korean Chinese dishes. Made with either pork or beef, the bite-sized pieces are usually coated with potato/sweet potato/corn starch or glutinous rice flour, and double-fried in oil.[12][13][14] The dish is served with sweet and sour sauce, typically made by boiling vinegar, sugar, and water, with variety of fruits and vegetables like carrot, cucumber, onion, wood ear mushroom, and pineapple. Starch slurry is used to thicken the sauce.[12]
Western world[edit]
Sweet and sour pork
Sweet and sour chicken
Sweet and sour chicken is a dish frequently served in Chinese restaurants in various Western countries. It is common in Australia, Europe, North America and South America, and is available at some restaurants in East and Southeast Asia in an essentially identical version. The dish generally comprises cubes of white meat chicken deep-fried in batter and served with sweet and sour sauce. Sometimes it is topped with pineapple, green pepper, carrot, or sweet pickles.
Sweet and sour pork is a Chinese dish particularly popular in westernised Cantonese cuisine and may be found all over the world. Several provinces in China produce various dishes that claim to be the ancestor including a traditional Jiangsu dish called Pork in a sugar and vinegar sauce (糖醋里脊; pinyin: táng cù lǐjǐ).
The dish consists of deep fried pork in bite sized pieces, and subsequently stir-fried in a more customized version of sweet and sour sauce made of sugar, ketchup, white vinegar, and soy sauce, and additional ingredients including pineapple, green pepper (capsicum), and onion. In more elaborate preparations, the dish's tartness is controlled by requiring that Chinese white rice vinegar be used sparingly and using ketchups with less vinegary tastes, while some restaurants use unripe kiwifruits and HP sauce in place of vinegar.[citation needed] [15]
Western cultures use sweet and sour sauce in two different ways. Dishes can either include the sauce as an ingredient in cooking or use the sauce as a pour-over or dipping sauce for the meal.
Sweet and sour sauces have been used in English cuisine since the Middle Ages, with recipes for sweet and sour meat and fish in the 1390 cookery book The Forme of Cury.[1]
Chinese restaurants in Western countries commonly serve chicken, pork, or shrimp that has been battered and deep-fried, then served with a sweet and sour sauce poured over the meat. It is also common to find the sweet and sour sauce cooked with sliced green peppers, onions and pineapple before it is poured over the meat.
Many western dishes involve cooking the meat with a variety of ingredients to make a complete sweet and sour dish in the manner of the Gu lo yuk. The most popular dishes are those of pork and shrimp. In French cuisine, it has been developed contrary to traditional French cooking practices and preparation of sweet and sour sauce (Aigre-douce) often involves immersing the food in a plentiful amount of sauce.[16]
Common in Western sweet and sour sauce is the addition of fruits such as pineapple and vegetables such as sweet pepper and green onions. Traditional rice vinegar is becoming more readily available due to the increase in Asian food stores but a mixture of vinegar and dry sherry is often still used in sweet and sour dishes. Also common is the use of corn starch as thickener for the sauce and tomato ketchup to give a stronger red colour to the dish and to add a Western taste. Most supermarkets across Europe and America carry a range of prepared sweet and sour sauces either for adding to a stir-fry or for use as a dipping sauce.
Primarily in North America, sweet and sour sauce is available in small plastic packets or containers at Chinese take-out establishments for use as a dipping sauce.
In Britain, Thai-style sweet chilli dipping sauce has recently overtaken the previous popularity of Chinese-style sweet-sour sauce to the extent it can often be found at non-Asian establishments for a wide variety of western-style snacks from fishcakes to chips and seafood such as calamari and prawns.
A number of variations are used in barbecue cuisine, either home-made or prepared from a number of common brands.
Besides American Chinese restaurants, popular fast food restaurants such as McDonald's,[17][18] Burger King,[19][20] and Wendy's[21] carry their own proprietary brands of sweet and sour sauce packets. These are commonly offered and used as a dipping sauce for chicken fingers and chicken nuggets.[19]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Agrodolce
Gastrique
Duck sauce
Hoisin sauce
List of dips
List of Chinese sauces
List of sauces
Lychee pork
Plum sauce
Rainbow sauce
Sweet chili sauce
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Dickson Wright, Clarissa (2011) A History of English Food. Random House. ISBN 978-1-905-21185-2. Pages 52–53
Jump up ^ Simoons, Frederick J (1991). Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry. CRC Press:Boca Raton.
Jump up ^ Anderson, E.N. (1988). The Food of China,. Yale University Press:New Haven.
Jump up ^ Patten, Maguerite (1973). International Cooking in Colour. Hamlyn, Middlesex, England. p. 113.
Jump up ^ Doeser, Linda (2001). Asian Cooking. Hermes House. p. 370.
Jump up ^ Kiple, Kenneth F; Kriemhild Conee Ornelas (2000). Cambridge World Encyclopaedia of Food, Volume II, China. Cambridge University Press:, Cambridge, England. pp. 1165–1175.
Jump up ^ Mak, Willie (17 August 2007). "Sweet and Sour Spare-ribs". Eat and Travel Weekly. Eat and Travel Weekly Company Ltd, Hong Kong (629). Archived from the original on 23 December 2007.
Jump up ^ "锅包肉"来自道台府. 生活报 (in Chinese). 黑龙江新闻网. 25 October 2005. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Food and Dining". classicsuzhou.com. Suzhou Tourism Bureau. 2 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sweet and Sour Yellow River Carp". www.china-sd.com. Information office of Jinan Municipal People's Government. 2 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
Jump up ^ CNN Go 40 Hong Kong foods we can't live without 13 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-09
^ Jump up to: a b Ro, Hyo-sun (28 March 2014). "Tangsuyuk (sweet and sour pork)". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Joo, J. (2016). Korean Food Made Simple. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-544-66308-4. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "tangsuyuk" 탕수육. Standard Korean Language Dictionary (in Korean). National Institute of Korean Language. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
Jump up ^ pg 27, Issue 758, Eat and Travel Weekly, Eat and Travel Weekly Company Ltd, Hong Kong, 2 August 2006
Jump up ^ Chang, K.C (Ed) (1977). Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives. Yale University Press, :New Haven. p. 362. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Sauces and Dressings". McDonald's. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
Jump up ^ "McDonald's USA Nutrition Facts for Popular Menu Items" (PDF). McDonald's. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
^ Jump up to: a b "BK - Chicken Fries". Burger King. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
Jump up ^ "BURGER KING® USA Nutritionals: Core, Regional and Limited Time Offerings" (PDF). Burger King. October 2017. p. 5. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
Jump up ^ "Nutrition Information" (PDF). Wendy's. June 2016. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sweet and sour sauce, Sweet and sour chicken and sweet and sour pork.
General sauce recipes
Sweet and Sour Recipe
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Avatars in the Mahabharata
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List of the avatars of great epic Mahābhārata and the original devatas or deities whose Avatars they were.
Shantanu
Character
Avatar of
Abhimanyu Budha, son of Chandra Dev[1]
Balarama Shesha[2]
Krishna Vishnu[3]
Subhadra Yogmaya
Rukmini Lakshmi[4]
Draupadi Sachi, wife of Indra.[5][6]
Duryodhana Kali demon
Shakuni Dvapara (Dvapara Yuga)
Kauravas Gandhar
Rukmi Aruna
Dantavakra Vijaya
Parikshit Varun Dev
Gandhari (character) Part of Mati goddess.
Vasudev Kashyapa
Pandu Younger brother of Gandharva hamsa
Devaki Aditi
Rohini Surabhi
Kunti Part incarnation of Siddhi.
Madri Gandharav Kumari
Hanuman a portion of Shiva
Bhishma 8th Vasu
Drona Brihaspati[7]
Vidura Part incarnation of Dharmathakur
Shishupala Jaya
Ashwatthama Shiva
Varuna[8]
Bharata Kama[9]
Vyasa Vishnu
Abhimanyu Budha[6]
Durvasa Shiva
Kamsa Kalanemi[10]
Dhrishtadyumna Agni[6]
Pradyumna Kama
Jarasandha Viprachitti[6]
Yudhishthira a portion of Yama
Arjuna Nara a sage
Bhima a portion of Vayu
Karna Dwapar yuga {Son of surya he was kind and he donated his life for the other people }
Nakula Ashvins
Sahadeva Ashvins
Kritavarma Maruts
Satyaki Maruts
Drupada Maruts
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Devlok with Devdutt Pattanaik Season 2. ISBN 9780143427421.
Jump up ^ Shesha
Jump up ^ "Vishnu". sanatansociety.org.
Jump up ^ "The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXVII". sacred-texts.com.
Jump up ^ "The Mahabharata, Book 18: Svargarohanika Parva Index". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2016-01-30.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section LXVII". sacred-texts.com.
Jump up ^ "The Mahabharata". books.google.com.
Jump up ^ "mahaabhaarata taatparya nirNaya". mahabharata-resources.org.
Jump up ^ Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya Chapter 2
Jump up ^ "The Hare Krsnas - Battles of Vishnu Avatars - Kalanemi". harekrsna.com.
hide
v
t
e
Mahabharata
Books (parvas)
Adi
Sabha
Vana
Virata
Udyoga
Bhishma
Drona
Karna
Shalya
Sauptika
Stri
Shanti
Anushasana
Ashvamedhika
Ashramavasika
Mausala
Mahaprasthanika
Svargarohana
Harivamsa
Kuru Kingdom
Shantanu
Ganga
Bhishma
Satyavati
Chitrāngada
Vichitravirya
Ambika
Ambalika
Vidura
Dhritarashtra
Gandhari
Pandu
Kunti
Madri
Pandavas
Yudhisthira
Bhima
Arjuna
Nakula
Sahadeva
Draupadi
Kauravas
Duryodhana
Dushasana
Vikarna
Yuyutsu
Dushala
Hidimbi
Ghatotkacha
Ahilawati
Subhadra
Uttarā
Ulupi
Chitrāngadā
Abhimanyu
Iravan
Babruvahana
Barbarika
Upapandavas
Parikshit
Janamejaya
Other characters
Amba
Ashwatthama
Balarama
Bhagadatta
Brihannala
Chitrasena
Dhrishtadyumna
Drona
Drupada
Durvasa
Ekalavya
Hidimba
Jarasandha
Jayadratha
Kali (demon)
Karna
Kichaka
Kindama
Kripa
Krishna
Kritavarma
Mayasura
Sanjaya
Satyaki
Shakuni
Shalya
Shikhandi
Shishupala
Bahlika
Sudeshna
Uttara Kumara
Virata
Vrishasena
Vyasa
Related articles
Avatars
Hastinapur
Indraprastha
Kingdoms
Kurukshetra War
Bhagavad Gita
Vedic-Puranic chronology
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values: মহাভারতে অবতারগণ – Bangla

values: महाभारत में विभिन्न अवतार – Hindi

values: Аватары в Махабхарате – Russian

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