text:
List of Miss USA titleholders
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This is a list of women who have won the Miss USA beauty pageant. Eight Miss USA winners have gone on to become Miss Universe and are indicated in bold face. From 1967 on, a runner-up was selected to replace any Miss USA titleholder who won the Miss Universe pageant.
Year
Miss USA
Hometown
State
Age[a]
Height
Placement at Miss Universe
Image
Notes
1952 Jackie Loughery Brooklyn New York 22 5 ft 4 in (163 cm) Top 10
1953 Myrna Hansen[1] Chicago Illinois 18 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) 1st Runner-Up
1954 Miriam Stevenson[2] Winnsboro South Carolina 21 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) Miss Universe 1954
1955 Carlene King Johnson[3] Rutland Vermont 22 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 15 Died at age 35 due to complications of diabetes.[4]
1956 Carol Morris[5] Ottumwa Iowa 20 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Miss Universe 1956
1957 Mary Leona Gage Glen Burnie Maryland 18 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Top 15 (Disqualified) Gage was ejected from the competition when it was discovered she was married and the mother of two children.[6]
Died at age 71 of heart failure.[7]
Charlotte Sheffield[8] Salt Lake City Utah 20 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Succeeded Mary Leona Gage as Miss USA 1957, after she was dethroned. She competed at Miss World 1957, but was a Non-finalist. [6]
1958 Eurlyne Howell[9] Bossier City Louisiana 18 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) 3rd Runner-Up
1959 Terry Lynn Huntingdon[10] Mount Shasta California 19 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) 2nd Runner-Up
1960 Linda Bement[11] Salt Lake City Utah 18 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) Miss Universe 1960
1961 Sharon Brown[12] Minden Louisiana 18 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) 4th Runner-Up
1962 Macel Wilson Honolulu Hawaii 19 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 15 1st Asian-American Miss USA.
Her great grandparents were from Iloilo, Philippines.
1963 Marite Ozers Chicago Illinois 19 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) Top 15 First Foreign-born Miss USA. Born in Latvia.
1964 Bobbi Johnson Washington, D.C. District of Columbia 19 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 15
1965 Sue Ann Downey Columbus Ohio 20 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 2nd Runner-Up
1966 Maria Remenyi El Cerrito California 21 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) Top 15 Born in Denmark.
1967 Sylvia Hitchcock Miami, FL Alabama 21 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Miss Universe 1967
Cheryl Patton North Miami Florida 18 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) 2nd Runner-Up at Miss USA, took over Miss USA title after 1st Runner-Up declined when Sylvia Hitchcock won Miss Universe.
1968 Dorothy Anstett Kirkland Washington 20 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) 4th Runner-Up
1969 Wendy Dascomb Metairie, LA Virginia 19 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Top 15
1970 Deborah Shelton Norfolk Virginia 20 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 1st Runner-Up
1971 Michele McDonald Butler Pennsylvania 18 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 12
1972 Tanya Wilson Honolulu Hawaii 22 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 12
1973 Amanda Jones Evanston Illinois 22 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 1st Runner-Up
1974 Karen Morrison St. Charles Illinois 19 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) Top 12
1975 Summer Bartholomew Merced California 23 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 2nd Runner-Up
1976 Barbara Peterson Edina Minnesota 22 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Unplaced
1977 Kimberly Tomes Houston Texas 21 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 12
1978 Judi Andersen Honolulu Hawaii 20 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) 1st Runner-Up
1979 Mary Therese Friel Pittsford New York 20 5 ft 7 1⁄2 in (171 cm) Top 12
1980 Shawn Weatherly Sumter South Carolina 20 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Miss Universe 1980
Jineane Ford Gilbert Arizona 20 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) 1st Runner-Up at Miss USA, took over Miss USA crown when Shawn Weatherly, won Miss Universe.
1981 Kim Seelbrede Germantown Ohio 20 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 12
1982 Terri Utley Cabot Arkansas 20 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 4th Runner-Up
1983 Julie Hayek Westwood California 22 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) 1st Runner-Up
1984 Mai Shanley Alamogordo New Mexico 21 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 10
1985 Laura Martinez-Herring El Paso Texas 21 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 10 First Hispanic-American Miss USA.
Born in Mexico.
1986 Christy Fichtner Dallas Texas 23 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 1st Runner-Up
1987 Michelle Royer Keller Texas 21 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 2nd Runner-Up
1988 Courtney Gibbs Fort Worth Texas 21 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Top 10
1989 Gretchen Polhemus Fort Worth Texas 23 5 ft 11 1⁄2 in (182 cm) 2nd Runner-Up
1990 Carole Gist Detroit Michigan 20 6 ft 0 in (183 cm) 1st Runner-Up 1st African-American Miss USA.
1991 Kelli McCarty Liberal Kansas 21 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) Top 6
1992 Shannon Marketic Malibu California 21 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 10
1993 Kenya Moore Detroit Michigan 22 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) Top 6
1994 Lu Parker Charleston South Carolina 25 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) Top 6
1995 Chelsi Smith Deer Park Texas 21 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Miss Universe 1995
Shanna Moakler New York New York 20 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 1st Runner-Up at Miss USA, took over Miss USA crown when Chelsi Smith won Miss Universe. Miss Rhode Island Teen USA 1992.
Top 12 Semi-Finalist at Miss Teen USA 1992.
1996 Ali Landry Breaux Bridge Louisiana 22 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Top 6 Miss Louisiana Teen USA 1990.
Top 12 Semi-Finalist at Miss Teen USA 1990.
1997 Brook Lee Pearl City Hawaii 26 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Miss Universe 1997
Brandi Sherwood Idaho Falls Idaho 26 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) 1st Runner-Up at Miss USA, took over Miss USA crown when Brook Lee won Miss Universe. Miss Idaho Teen USA 1989.
Miss Teen USA 1989.
1998 Shawnae Jebbia Boston Massachusetts 26 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Top 5 (3rd Runner-Up)
1999 Kimberly Pressler Franklinville New York 21 5 ft 6 in (168 cm) Unplaced Miss New York Teen USA 1994.
2000 Lynnette Cole Columbia Tennessee 21 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 5 (4th Runner-Up) Miss Tennessee Teen USA 1995.
Top 6 Finalist at Miss Teen USA 1995.
2001 Kandace Krueger Austin Texas 24 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 2nd Runner-Up
2002 Shauntay Hinton Washington, D.C. District of Columbia 23 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Unplaced
2003 Susie Castillo Lawrence Massachusetts 23 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 15 Miss Massachusetts Teen USA 1998.
2004 Shandi Finnessey Florissant Missouri 25 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 1st Runner-Up Miss Missouri 2001.
2005 Chelsea Cooley Charlotte North Carolina 21 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 10 Miss North Carolina Teen USA 2000.
2006 Tara Conner Russell Springs Kentucky 20 5 ft 4 in (163 cm) 4th Runner-Up Miss Kentucky Teen USA 2002.
2nd Runner-Up at Miss Teen USA 2002.
2007 Rachel Smith Clarksville Tennessee 21 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 4th Runner-Up Born in Panama
Miss Tennessee Teen USA 2002.
Top 10 Finalist at Miss Teen USA 2002.
2008 Crystle Stewart Missouri City Texas 26 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Top 10
2009 Kristen Dalton Wilmington North Carolina 22 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Top 10
2010 Rima Fakih Dearborn Michigan 24 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) Unplaced First Arab-American Miss USA.
Born in Lebanon.
2011 Alyssa Campanella Los Angeles California 21 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 16 Miss New Jersey Teen USA 2007.
1st Runner-up at Miss Teen USA 2007.
2012. Olivia Culpo[13] Cranston Rhode Island 20 5 ft 7 in (170 cm) Miss Universe 2012
Nana Meriwether Potomac Maryland 27 6 ft 0 in (183 cm) 1st Runner-up at Miss USA, took over Miss USA crown when Olivia Culpo won Miss Universe. Born in South Africa.
2013 Erin Brady East Hampton Connecticut 26 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) Top 10
2014 Nia Sanchez Las Vegas Nevada 24 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 1st Runner-Up
2015 Olivia Jordan Tulsa Oklahoma 26 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 2nd Runner-Up Miss World America 2013.
Top 20 at Miss World 2013.
2016 Deshauna Barber Washington, D.C. District of Columbia 26 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) Top 9 First winner to be in the armed forces. She is a reserve in the army.
2017 Kára McCullough Washington, D.C. District of Columbia 25 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) Top 10 Born in Italy. Works as a nuclear chemist for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission's Office of Nuclear Security and Incident Response.
2018 Sarah Rose Summers Omaha Nebraska 23 5 ft 5 in (165 cm) TBA Miss Nebraska Teen USA 2012.
Contents
1 Gallery
2 List of Miss USA winners by state
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Gallery[edit]
Miss USA 2017
Kára McCullough, District of Columbia
Miss USA 2016
Deshauna Barber, District of Columbia
Miss USA 2014
Nia Sanchez, Nevada.
Miss USA 2013
Erin Brady, Connecticut.
Miss USA 2012
Nana Meriwether, Maryland
(Became Miss USA after Olivia Culpo became Miss Universe 2012).
Miss Universe 2012
Olivia Culpo, Rhode Island.
Miss USA 2011
Alyssa Campanella, California
Miss USA 2010
Rima Fakih, Michigan
Miss USA 2009
Kristen Dalton, North Carolina
Miss USA 2008
Crystle Stewart, Texas
Miss USA 2007
Rachel Smith, Tennessee
Miss USA 2006
Tara Conner, Kentucky
Miss USA 2005
Chelsea Cooley, North Carolina
Miss USA 2004
Shandi Finnessey, Missouri
Miss USA 2003
Susie Castillo, Massachusetts
Miss USA 2002
Shauntay Hinton, District of Columbia
Miss USA 2001
Kandace Krueger, Texas
Miss Universe 1997
Brook Lee, Hawaii
Miss USA 1996
Ali Landry, Louisiana
Miss USA 1995
Shanna Moakler, New York
(Became Miss USA after Chelsi Smith became Miss Universe 1995).
Miss USA 1987
Michelle Royer, Texas
Miss USA 1986
Christy Fichtner, Texas
Miss USA 1985
Laura Harring, Texas
Miss USA 1983
Julie Hayek, California
List of Miss USA winners by state[edit]
Miss USA winners by state up to 2015 (Includes dethroned winners and those who have inherited the title.)
State
Number
Years
Texas 9 1977, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1995,[b] 2001, 2008
California 6 1959, 1966, 1975, 1983, 1992, 2011
District of Columbia 4 1964, 2002, 2016, 2017
New York 1952, 1979, 1995,[c] 1999
Hawaii 1962, 1972, 1978, 1997[b]
Illinois 1953, 1963, 1973, 1974
Michigan 3 1990, 1993, 2010
Louisiana 1958, 1961, 1996
South Carolina 1954,[b] 1980,[b] 1994
Maryland 2 1957,[d] 2012[c]
North Carolina 2005, 2009
Tennessee 2000, 2007
Massachusetts 1998, 2003
Ohio 1965, 1981
Virginia 1969, 1970
Utah 1957,[e] 1960[b]
Nebraska 1 2018
Oklahoma 2015
Nevada 2014
Connecticut 2013
Rhode Island 2012[b]
Kentucky 2006
Missouri 2004
Idaho 1997[c]
Kansas 1991
New Mexico 1984
Arkansas 1982
Arizona 1980[c]
Minnesota 1976
Pennsylvania 1971
Washington 1968
Alabama 1967[b]
Florida 1967[f]
Iowa 1956[b]
Vermont 1955
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ages at the time of Miss USA
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Won Miss Universe and thus resigned the title to her 1st Runner-Up
^ Jump up to: a b c d Was 1st Runner-Up, and took over the Miss USA crown when the original winner won Miss Universe
Jump up ^ Was dethroned
Jump up ^ Was 1st Runner-Up, and took over the Miss USA crown when the original winner was dethroned
Jump up ^ Was 2nd Runner-Up, and took over the Miss USA crown when the original winner won Miss Universe and the 1st Runner-Up declined the title
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Chicagoan Named Miss US". Spokane Daily Chronicle. 1953-07-16. p. 6.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (1954-07-24). "Dixie Beauty Picked as "Miss Universe"". The Miami News. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (1955-07-21). "Miss Vermont is Miss USA". The Nashua Telegraph. p. 16.
Jump up ^ "Pageant officials search for missing beauty queens". The Bryan Times. 1986-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Iowa Girl acclaimed as "Miss Universe"". Tri City Herald. 1956-07-22. p. 2.
^ Jump up to: a b "MANNERS & MORALS: Stairway to the Stars". Time. 1957-07-29.
Jump up ^ Kay, Liz F. (October 10, 2010). "Miss Maryland from 1957, Who Had Miss USA Title Stripped, Dies". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved October 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Beauty Named 1957 Miss USA". Sarasota Journal. 1957-07-18.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Lovely Chosen Miss US". The Miami News. 1958-07-24. p. 1.
Jump up ^ "Coed Named Miss USA". Reading Eagle. 1959-07-23. p. 6.
Jump up ^ "Utah Beauty Named New Miss USA". Daytona Beach Morning Journal. 1960-07-08.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Lass is "Miss USA"". The Tuscaloosa News. 1961-07-14. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Miss Rhode Island, Cranston's Olivia Culpo, wins Miss USA pageant
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miss USA.
Miss USA official website
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Miss_USA_titleholders&oldid=856108169"
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text:
Crista galli
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Crista galli
Ethmoid bone from above.
Ethmoid bone from behind.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Crista galli
TA
A02.1.07.004
FMA
57442
Anatomical terms of bone
[edit on Wikidata]
The crista galli (Latin: "crest of the rooster") is the upper part of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone[1], which rises above the cribrifrom plate. The falx cerebri (fold of the dura mater) attaches to the crista galli.
The olfactory bulbs of the olfactory nerve lie on either side of the crista galli on top of the cribriform plate.
Additional images[edit]
Ethmoid bone from the right side.
Lateral wall of nasal cavity, showing ethmoid bone in position.
Left orbicularis oculi, seen from behind.
Human brain dura mater (reflections)
Crista galli
Crista galli
Crista galli process
Crista galli
External links[edit]
MedEd at Loyola Radio/curriculum/ENT/jay84a.jpg
Floor of the cranial cavity (close-up)[dead link] - BioWeb at University of Wisconsin System
"Anatomy diagram: 34257.000-2". Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator. Elsevier. Archived from the original on 2014-01-01.
Cross section image: skull/x-front—Plastination Laboratory at the Medical University of Vienna
[hide]
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The neurocranium of the skull
Occipital
Squamous part
external
Inion/External occipital protuberance
External occipital crest
Nuchal lines
planes
Occipital
Nuchal
internal
Cruciform eminence
Internal occipital protuberance
Internal occipital crest
Groove for transverse sinus
Lateral parts
Condyle
Condyloid fossa
Condylar canal
Hypoglossal canal
jugular
Jugular process
Jugular tubercle
Basilar part
Pharyngeal tubercle
Clivus
Other
Foramen magnum
Basion
Opisthion
Parietal
Parietal eminence
Temporal line
Parietal foramen
Sagittal sulcus
Frontal
Squamous part
Frontal suture
Frontal eminence
external
Superciliary arches
Glabella
foramina
Supraorbital
Cecum
Zygomatic process
internal
Sagittal sulcus
Frontal crest
Orbital part
Ethmoidal notch
Fossa for lacrimal gland
Trochlear fovea
Frontal sinus
Frontonasal duct
Temporal
Squamous part
Articular tubercle
Suprameatal triangle
Mandibular fossa
Petrotympanic fissure
Zygomatic process
Mastoid part
Mastoid foramen
Mastoid process (Mastoid cells)
Mastoid notch
Occipital groove
Sigmoid sulcus
Mastoid antrum (Aditus)
Petrous part
Carotid canal
Facial canal
Hiatus
Internal auditory meatus
Cochlear aqueduct
Stylomastoid foramen
fossae
Subarcuate fossa
Jugular fossa
canaliculi
Inferior tympanic
Mastoid
Styloid process
Petrosquamous suture
(note: ossicles in petrous part, but not part of temporal bone)
Tympanic part
Suprameatal spine
Sphenoid
Surfaces
Superior surface: Sella turcica
Dorsum sellae
Tuberculum sellae
Hypophysial fossa
Posterior clinoid processes
Ethmoidal spine
Chiasmatic groove
Middle clinoid process
Petrosal process
Clivus
Lateral surface: Carotid groove
Sphenoidal lingula
Anterior surface: Sphenoidal sinuses
Great wings
foramina
Rotundum
Ovale
Vesalii
Spinosum
Spine
Infratemporal crest
Sulcus of auditory tube
Small wings
Superior orbital fissure
Anterior clinoid process
Optic canal
Pterygoid
processes
fossae
Pterygoid
Scaphoid
pterygoid plates
Lateral
Medial
Pterygoid canal
Hamulus
Other
Body
Sphenoidal conchae
Ethmoid
Plates
Cribriform plate
Crista galli
Olfactory foramina
Perpendicular plate
Surfaces
Lateral surface Orbital lamina
Uncinate process
Medial surface Supreme nasal concha
Superior nasal concha
Superior meatus
Middle nasal concha
Middle meatus
Labyrinth
Ethmoid sinus
ethmoidal foramina
Posterior
Anterior

This human musculoskeletal system article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Jump up ^ "Ethmoid bone". www.anatomynext.com. Retrieved 2018-03-01.
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Louisiana Purchase
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Louisiana Purchase (disambiguation).
Louisiana Purchase
Vente de la Louisiane
Expansion of the United States
←
1803–1804 →

→
The modern United States, with Louisiana Purchase overlay
History
• Established July 4, 1803
• Disestablished October 1, 1804
Today part of United States
Canada
The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana") was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles or 2.14 million km²) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000) for a total of sixty-eight million francs ($15 million, equivalent to $300 million in 2016). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small portions of land within the present Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves.[1]
The Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, then the First Consul of the French Republic, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, regained ownership of Louisiana. However, France's failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States to fund his military. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the port city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands, but quickly accepted the bargain. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition; they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Negotiation
3 Domestic opposition and constitutionality
4 Treaty signing
5 Formal transfers and initial organization
6 Boundaries
7 Slavery
8 Asserting U.S. possession
9 Financing
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Footnotes
11.2 Works cited
12 Further reading
13 External links
Background
1804 map of "Louisiana", edged on the west by the Rocky Mountains
Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics.[2] It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.[3]
Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece." The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration" of this policy necessary.[2] New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit" in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.[3]
In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.[4] The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on December 20, 1803.[5] A further ceremony was held in St. Louis, Upper Louisiana regarding the New Orleans formalities. The March 9–10, 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.[6][7]
James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.[8]
The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish didn't want the Americans to settle in their territory.[9]
Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States.[10] On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:
The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I cannot forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...
Jefferson's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans." Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France's history, for it would seal America's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.[11]
Negotiation
While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere.[12] Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction.[12] In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.
Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801[13] after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.
In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.[14]
In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere.[15] In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.[16]
In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back-channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.[17]
Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.[citation needed]
Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two.[citation needed] Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.
Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.
As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.[18]
Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million,[19] (equivalent to about $300 million in 2016 dollars,[20]) which averages to less than three cents per acre (7 ¢/ha).[21][22]
The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.[23]
The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803.[24] On July 4, 1803, the treaty was announced,[25] but the documents did not arrive in Washington, D.C. until July 14.[26] The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.
Domestic opposition and constitutionality
The original treaty of the Louisiana Purchase
Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase.[27] This argument goes as follows:
The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.[citation needed]
Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59–57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.[28]
The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave-holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.
Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.[29]
Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.[30]
Transfer of Louisiana by Ford P. Kaiser for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904)
Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless."[31] The sale of course was not "worthless"—the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests." Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.[32]
Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.[33]
Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution"), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction" if the Congress approved the treaty.[34]
The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.[35][36]
The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self-interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.[35][37]
When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.[38]
Treaty signing
Issue of 1953, commemorating the 150th Anniversary of signing
The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on April 30 by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank."[39]
The United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of twenty-four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.
On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[40]
A timeline of legislation can be found at the Library of Congress: American Memory:The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline--1803-1804.[41]
Formal transfers and initial organization
Flag raising in the Place d'Armes of New Orleans, marking the transfer of sovereignty over French Louisiana to the United States, December 20, 1803, as depicted by Thure de Thulstrup
France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag-raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.
On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.[citation needed]
Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805–1812).[citation needed]
New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.[citation needed]
Boundaries
A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.[42]
The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida.[43] Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis.[44] The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.[citation needed]
The Purchase was one of several territorial additions to the U.S.
The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain's internal provinces.[45]
If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill-defined British possession—Rupert's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.[citation needed]
The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.[citation needed]
Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.
Slavery
See also: History of slavery in Louisiana, History of slavery in Missouri, and Slavery in the United States
Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present-day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present-day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.
During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French-speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American-held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint-Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.[46]
The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African-Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over).[47] In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836.[47] The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later.[46] As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states."
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.[citation needed]
Asserting U.S. possession
Plan of Fort Madison, built in 1808 to establish U.S. control over the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase, drawn 1810
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox.[48] In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present-day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present-day Iowa.[49] With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.
During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.[49]
Financing
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations.[50] Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.
Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France.[50] Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.[51]
See also
France portal
History portal
Louisiana portal
Alaska Purchase
Florida Purchase
Corps of Discovery
Foreign affairs of the Jefferson administration
Franco-American alliance
List of French possessions and colonies
New France
Historic regions of the United States
Louisiana Purchase Historic State Park
Territorial evolution of the United States
Territories of the United States on stamps
References
Footnotes
Jump up ^ "Congressional series of United States public documents". U.S. Government Printing Office. January 1, 1864 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b Herring (2008), p. 99
^ Jump up to: a b Meinig (1995)[page needed]
Jump up ^ Warren, Rebecca (1976). "The Role of American Diplomacy in the Louisiana Purchase". pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Purchase | History, Facts, & Map". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Three Flags Day - Naked History". Naked History. March 15, 2017. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Reliving Lewis and Clark: Louisiana Purchase Ceremony". news.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "8 Things You May Not Know About the Louisiana Purchase". HISTORY.com. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Purchase - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved July 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Thompson (2006), pp. 4–48
Jump up ^ Cerami (2003), pp. 57-58
^ Jump up to: a b Herring (2008), p. 100
Jump up ^ "Milestones: 1801–1829 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved February 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Matthewson (1995), p. 221
Jump up ^ Matthewson (1995), p. 209
Jump up ^ Matthewson (1996), pp. 22–23
Jump up ^ Duke (1977), pp. 77–83
Jump up ^ Herring (2008), p. 101
Jump up ^ Kuepper, Justin (October 8, 2012). "3 Of The Most Lucrative Land Deals In History".
Jump up ^ Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 5, 2018. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
Jump up ^ Burgan (2002), p. 36.
Jump up ^ "Primary Documents of American History: Louisiana Purchase". Web Guides. Library of Congress. March 29, 2011. Retrieved March 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Malone, Roeder & Lang (1991), p. 30
Jump up ^ Louisiana Purchase Treaty. Wikisource.
Jump up ^ "The Louisiana Purchase: Jefferson's constitutional gamble". National Constitution Center. October 20, 2017. Retrieved April 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Purchase of Louisiana, [5 July 1803]". Founders Online. National Archives and Records Administration. Footnote 2. Retrieved 2018-04-29.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez (2002), pp. 139–40
Jump up ^ Fleming (2003), pp. 149ff
Jump up ^ Nugent (2009), pp. 65–68.
Jump up ^ Gayarre (1867), p. 544.
Jump up ^ Adams (2011), pp. 56–57
Jump up ^ Nugent (2009), pp. 66–67
Jump up ^ Lawson & Seidman (2008), pp. 20–22
Jump up ^ Banning (1995), pp. 7–9, 178, 326–7, 330–3, 345–6, 360–1, 371, 384.
^ Jump up to: a b Ketcham (2003), pp. 420–2.
Jump up ^ The fledgling United States did not have $15 million in its treasury; it borrowed the sum from Great Britain, at an annual interest rate of six percent. [1]
Jump up ^ Lewis (2003), p. 79
Jump up ^ Peterson, Merrill D. (1974). "James Madison: A Biography in his Own Words". Newsweek. pp. 237–46. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ "America's Louisiana Purchase: Noble Bargain, Difficult Journey". Lpb.org. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana Purchase | Thomas Jefferson's Monticello". www.monticello.org. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline". The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline. Library of Congress. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Schoultz (1998), pp. 15–16
Jump up ^ Haynes (2010), pp. 115–16
Jump up ^ Hämäläinen (2008), p. 183
Jump up ^ Weber (1994), pp. 223, 293
^ Jump up to: a b Herring (2008), p. 104
^ Jump up to: a b Foley, William E. (October 1984). "Slave Freedom Suits before Dred Scott: The Case of Marie Jean Scypion's Descendants". Missouri Historical Review. 79 (1): 1. Retrieved February 18, 2011 – via The State Historical Society of Missouri. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Luttig (1920).[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Prucha (1969).[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Ziegler (1988).[page needed]
Jump up ^ Fleming (2003), pp. 129ff.
Works cited
Adams, Henry (2011) [1889]. History of the United States of America (1801–1817). vol.2: During the First Administration of Thomas Jefferson. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108033039.
Banning, Lance (1995). The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Burgan, Michael (2002). The Louisiana Purchase. Capstone. ISBN 9780756502102.
Cerami, Charles A. (2003). Jefferson's Great Gamble. Sourcebooks. ISBN 9781402234354.
Duke, Marc (1977). The du Ponts: Portrait of a Dynasty. Saturday Review Press. ISBN 0-8415-0429-6.
Fleming, Thomas J. (2003). The Louisiana Purchase. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-26738-6.
Gayarre, Charles (1867). History of Louisiana.
Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). The Comanche Empire. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12654-9.
Haynes, Robert V. (2010). The Mississippi Territory and the Southwest Frontier, 1795–1817. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2577-0.
Herring, George (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-976553-7.
Ketcham, Ralph (2003). James Madison: A Biography. Newtown CT: American Political Biography Press. ISBN 9780813912653.
Kennedy, David M.; Cohen, Lizabeth & Bailey, Thomas Andrew (2008). The American Pageant: A History of the American People. Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-547-16654-4.
Lawson, Gary & Seidman, Guy (2008). The Constitution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300128967.
Lewis, James E., Jr. (2003). The Louisiana Purchase: Jefferson's Noble Bargain?. UNC Press Books.
Luttig, John C. (1920). Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812–1813. Kansas City MO: The Missouri Historical Society.
Malone, Michael P.; Roeder, Richard B. & Lang, William L. (1991). Montana: A History of Two Centuries. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97129-0.
Meinig, D.W. (1995). The Shaping of America: Volume 2. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300062908.
Matthewson, Tim (May 1995). "Jefferson and Haiti". The Journal of Southern History. 61 (2): 209–48. JSTOR 2211576.
Matthewson, Tim (March 1996). "Jefferson and the Non-Recognition of Haiti". American Philosophical Society. 140 (1): 22–48. JSTOR 987274.
Nugent, Walter (2009). Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansionism. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-7818-9.
Prucha, Francis P. (1969). The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. New York: Macmillan.
Rodriguez, Junius P. (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: A Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071885.
Schoultz, Lars (1998). Beneath the United States. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-92276-1.
Thompson, Linda (2006). The Louisiana Purchase. Rourke Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59515-513-9.
Weber, David J. (1994). The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05917-5.
Ziegler, Philip (1988). The Sixth Great Power: Barings 1762–1929. London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-217508-8.
Further reading
Hermann (1900). The Louisiana Purchase and our title west of the Rocky Mountains: with a review of annexation by the United States.
Hosmer, James Kendall (1902). Louisiana Purchase. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
Marshall (1914). A History of the Western Boundary of the Louisiana Purchase, 1819-1841.
U.S. Dept. of State (1903). State papers and correspondence bearing upon the purchase of the territory of Louisiana.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Louisiana Purchase.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Text of the Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Library of Congress: Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Teaching about the Louisiana Purchase
Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial 1803–2003*Lewis and Clark Trail
Louisiana Purchase and Lewis & Clark student and teacher guide: dates, people, analysis, multimedia
New Orleans/Louisiana Purchase 1803
The Haitian Revolution and the Louisiana Purchase
Case and Controversies in U.S. History, Page 42 Senator Pickering explains his opposition to the Louisiana Purchase, 1803.
Booknotes interview with Jon Kukla on A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America, July 6, 2003.
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