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Once Upon a Time in the West
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This article is about the spaghetti western film. For other uses, see Once Upon a Time in the West (disambiguation).
Once Upon a Time in the West
(C'era una volta il West)
US film poster by Frank McCarthy
Directed by
Sergio Leone
Produced by
Fulvio Morsella
Bino Cicogna
Screenplay by
Sergio Donati
Sergio Leone
Story by
Dario Argento
Bernardo Bertolucci
Sergio Leone
Starring
Claudia Cardinale
Henry Fonda
Jason Robards
Charles Bronson
Gabriele Ferzetti
Music by
Ennio Morricone
Cinematography
Tonino Delli Colli
Edited by
Nino Baragli
Production
company
Rafran Cinematografica
Finanzia San Marco
Paramount Pictures
Distributed by
Euro International Film (Italy)
Paramount Pictures (United States)
Release date
21 December 1968 (1968-12-21) (Italy)
Running time
165 minutes
Country
Italy
United States
Spain
Language
English
Budget
$5 million
Box office
$5,321,508 (US)[1]
14,873,804 admissions (France)[2]
Once Upon a Time in the West (Italian: C'era una volta il West)[3] is a 1968 epic Spaghetti Western film co-written and directed by Sergio Leone. It stars Henry Fonda, cast against type, as the villain,[4] Charles Bronson as his nemesis, Claudia Cardinale as a newly widowed homesteader, and Jason Robards as a bandit. The screenplay was written by Sergio Donati and Leone, from a story by Dario Argento, Bernardo Bertolucci and Leone. The widescreen cinematography was by Tonino Delli Colli, and the acclaimed film score was by Ennio Morricone.
After directing The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Leone decided to retire from Westerns and desired to produce his film based on The Hoods, which eventually became Once Upon a Time in America. However, Leone accepted an offer from Paramount Pictures to provide access to Henry Fonda and to use a budget to produce another Western film. He recruited Bertolucci and Argento to devise the plot of the film in 1966, researching other Western films in the process. After Clint Eastwood turned down an offer to play the movie's protagonist, Bronson was offered the role. During production, Leone recruited Donati to rewrite the script due to concerns over time limitations.
The original version by the director was 166 minutes (2 hours and 46 minutes) when it was first released on December 21, 1968. This was the version that was to be shown in European cinemas and was a box office success. For the US release on May 28, 1969, Once Upon a Time in the West was edited down to 145 minutes (2 hours and 25 minutes) by Paramount and was a financial flop. The film is considered by some[who?] to be the first installment in Leone's Once Upon a Time Trilogy, followed by Duck, You Sucker!, called Once Upon a Time... the Revolution in parts of Europe, and Once Upon a Time in America, though the films do not share any characters in common.
The film is now generally acknowledged as a masterpiece and one of the greatest films ever made.[5] In 2009, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being “culturally, historically or aesthetically significant”.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Origins
3.2 Style and pacing
3.3 Locations
3.4 Casting
3.5 Music
4 Reception
4.1 Accolades
5 Releases
5.1 European release
5.2 American release
5.3 Director's cut
5.4 Home video releases
6 Film references
7 Notes
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Plot[edit]
The film portrays two conflicts that take place around Flagstone, a fictional town in the American Old West: a land battle related to construction of a railroad, and a mission of vengeance against a cold-blooded killer. A struggle exists for Sweetwater, a piece of land near Flagstone containing the region's only water source. The land was bought by Brett McBain (Frank Wolff), who foresaw that the railroad would have to pass through that area to provide water for the steam locomotives. When crippled railroad tycoon Morton (Gabriele Ferzetti) learns of this, he sends his hired gun Frank (Henry Fonda) to intimidate McBain to move off the land, but Frank instead kills McBain and his three children, planting evidence to frame the bandit Cheyenne (Jason Robards). It appears the land has no owner; however, a former prostitute (Claudia Cardinale) arrives from New Orleans, revealing she is Jill McBain, Brett's new wife and the owner of the land.
Meanwhile, a mysterious harmonica-playing gunman (Charles Bronson), whom Cheyenne later dubs "Harmonica", pursues Frank. In the film's opening scene, Harmonica kills three men sent by Frank to kill him. In a roadhouse on the way to Sweetwater, he informs Cheyenne that the three gunfighters appeared to be posing as Cheyenne's men.
Back at Sweetwater, construction materials are delivered to build a railroad station and a small town. Harmonica explains that Jill will lose Sweetwater unless the station is built by the time the track's construction crews reach that point, so Cheyenne puts his men to work building it.
Frank turns against Morton, who wanted to make a deal with Jill; Morton's disability makes him unable to fight back. After raping Jill, Frank forces her to sell the property in an auction. He tries to buy the farm cheaply by intimidating the other bidders, but Harmonica arrives, holding Cheyenne at gunpoint and makes a much higher bid based on his reward money for delivering Cheyenne to the authorities. Harmonica rebuffs an offer by Frank to buy the farm from him for one dollar more than he paid at the auction. As Cheyenne is placed on a train bound for the Yuma prison, two members of his gang purchase one-way tickets for the train, intending to help him escape.
Frank's men betray and ambush him, having been paid by Morton to turn against him, but—much to Jill's outrage—Harmonica helps Frank kill them, intending to kill Frank himself. Frank returns to Morton, only to find that he and the rest of Frank's men have been killed in a battle with Cheyenne's gang. Frank then goes to Sweetwater to confront Harmonica. On two occasions, Frank has asked Harmonica who he is, but both times Harmonica refused to answer him. Instead, he mysteriously quoted names of men Frank has murdered. This time, Harmonica says he will reveal who he is "only at the point of dying". The two men position themselves for a gun duel, at which point Harmonica's motive for revenge is revealed in a flashback:
A younger Frank, already a cruel bandit, is forcing a boy to support on his shoulders his older brother, whose neck is in a noose strung from an arch. As the boy struggles to hold his brother's weight, Frank stuffs a harmonica into the boy's mouth and tells him to play. The older brother curses Frank and kicks his young brother away and dies. The boy (Harmonica) collapses onto the ground clutching the harmonica in his mouth.
Harmonica draws first and shoots Frank. As he lies dying, Frank again asks who he is, and Harmonica stuffs his harmonica into Frank's mouth, like Frank did to him when he was a child. Frank suddenly remembers Harmonica as a boy, collapses to the ground clutching the harmonica in his mouth and dies. Harmonica and Cheyenne say goodbye to Jill, who is supervising construction of the railway station as the track-laying crews reach Sweetwater. Cheyenne collapses, revealing that he was mortally wounded by Morton during the fight with Frank's gang. As the work train arrives, Jill carries water to the rail workers, while Harmonica rides away with Cheyenne's dead body.
Cast[edit]
Claudia Cardinale as Jill McBain
Henry Fonda as Frank
Jason Robards as Manuel "Cheyenne" Gutiérrez
Charles Bronson as "Harmonica"
Gabriele Ferzetti as Mr. Morton
Paolo Stoppa as Sam, the Coachman
Marco Zuanelli as Wobbles
Keenan Wynn as the Sheriff of Flagstone
Frank Wolff as Brett McBain
Lionel Stander as the barman
Woody Strode as Stony, first gunman
Jack Elam as Snaky, second gunman
Al Mulock as Knuckles, third gunman
Enzo Santaniello as Timmy McBain
Simonetta Santaniello as Maureen McBain
Stefano Imparato as Patrick McBain
Antonio Palombi as the old Stationmaster
Claudio Mancini as "Harmonica"'s brother
Dino Mele as young "Harmonica"
Michael Harvey as Frank's Lieutenant
Benito Stefanelli as Frank's Lieutenant
Aldo Sambrell as Cheyenne's Lieutenant
With the death of Gabriele Ferzetti in 2015,[7] Claudia Cardinale is the sole surviving member of the film's main cast.
Production[edit]
Origins[edit]
After making his American Civil War epic The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Leone had intended to retire from making Westerns, believing he had said all he wanted to say. He had come across the novel The Hoods by the pseudonymous "Harry Grey", an autobiographical book based on the author's own experiences as a Jewish hood during Prohibition, and planned to adapt it into a film (this would eventually, seventeen years later, become his final film, Once Upon a Time in America). Leone though was offered only Westerns by the Hollywood studios. United Artists (who had produced the Dollars Trilogy) offered him the opportunity to make a film starring Charlton Heston, Kirk Douglas and Rock Hudson, but Leone refused. However, when Paramount offered Leone a generous budget along with access to Henry Fonda—his favorite actor, and one whom he had wanted to work with for virtually all of his career—Leone accepted the offer.
Leone commissioned Bernardo Bertolucci and Dario Argento—both of whom were film critics before becoming directors—to help him develop the film in late 1966. The men spent much of the following year watching and discussing numerous classic Westerns such as High Noon, The Iron Horse, The Comancheros, and The Searchers at Leone's house, and constructed a story made up almost entirely of "references" to American Westerns.
Ever since The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, which originally ran for three hours, Leone's films were usually cut (often quite dramatically) for box office release. Leone was very conscious of the length of Once Upon a Time in the West during filming and later commissioned Sergio Donati, who had worked on several of Leone's other films, to help him refine the screenplay, largely to curb the length of the film towards the end of production. Many of the film's most memorable lines of dialogue came from Donati, or from the film's English dialogue adapter, expatriate American actor Mickey Knox.[8]
Style and pacing[edit]
For Once Upon a Time in the West, Leone changed his approach over his earlier Westerns. Whereas the "Dollars" films were quirky and up-tempo, a celebratory yet tongue-in-cheek parody of the icons of the Wild West, this film is much slower in pace and sombre in theme. Leone's distinctive style, which is very different from, but very much influenced by, Akira Kurosawa's Sanshiro Sugata (1943), is still present but has been modified for the beginning of Leone's second trilogy, the so-called Once Upon a Time Trilogy. The characters in this film are also beginning to change markedly over their predecessors in the Dollars Trilogy. They are not quite as defined and, unusual for Leone characters up to this point, they begin to change (or at least attempt to) over the course of the story. This signals the start of the second phase of Leone's style, which would be further developed in Duck, You Sucker! and Once Upon a Time in America.
The film features long, slow scenes in which there is very little dialogue and little happens, broken by brief and sudden violence. Leone was far more interested in the rituals preceding violence than in the violence itself. The tone of the film is consistent with the arid semi-desert in which the story unfolds, and imbues it with a feeling of realism that contrasts with the elaborately choreographed gunplay.
Sergio Leone liked to tell the story of a cinema in Paris where the film ran uninterrupted for two years. When he visited this theatre, he was surrounded by fans who wanted his autograph, as well as the projectionist, who was less than enthusiastic. Leone claimed the projectionist told him "I kill you! The same movie over and over again for two years! And it's so SLOW!"[9]
Locations[edit]
Monument Valley, Utah
Most of the film was shot in Cinecittà studios, Rome. The brick arch where Bronson's character flashbacks to his youth and the original lynching incident was built near a small airport fifteen miles north of Monument Valley, in Utah and two miles from U.S. Route 163 (which links Gouldings Lodge and Mexican Hat). The opening sequence with the three gunmen meeting the train was one of the sequences filmed in Spain. Shooting for scenes at Cattle Corner Station, as the location was called in the story, was scheduled for four days and was filmed at the 'ghost' train station in the municipality of La Calahorra, county of Gaudix, near Guadix, in the Province of Granada, Spain, as were the scenes of Flagstone, and shooting for the scenes in the middle of the railway were filmed along the Guadix - Hernan Valle railway line.[10][11][12]
Casting[edit]
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Fonda did not accept Leone's first offer to play Frank, so Leone flew to New York to convince him, telling him: "Picture this: the camera shows a gunman from the waist down pulling his gun and shooting a running child. The camera tilts up to the gunman's face and...it's Henry Fonda." After meeting with Leone, Fonda called his friend Eli Wallach, who had co-starred in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Wallach advised Fonda to do the film, telling him "You will have the time of your life."
When he accepted the role, Fonda came to the set with brown contacts and facial hair. Fonda felt having dark eyes and facial hair would blend well with his character's evil and also help the audience to accept this "new" Fonda as the bad guy, but Leone immediately told him to remove the contacts and facial hair. Leone felt that Fonda's blue eyes best reflected the cold, icy nature of the killer. It was one of the first times in a Western film where the villain would be played by the lead actor.
Leone originally offered the role of Harmonica to Clint Eastwood; when he turned it down, Leone hired Charles Bronson who had originally been offered and turned down the part of the Man with No Name in A Fistful of Dollars. James Coburn was also approached for Harmonica, but demanded too much money.
Robert Ryan was offered the role of the Sheriff played by Keenan Wynn. Ryan initially accepted, but backed out after being given a larger role in Sam Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch.
Enrico Maria Salerno and Robert Hossein were both offered the role of Morton before Gabriele Ferzetti was cast; Hossein had accepted, but had to drop out for a theatre commitment. Ferzetti, who considers it one of his best roles, referred to his casting as "Fate, Destiny" in an interview for the DVD release.
Actor Al Mulock (featured as Knuckles in the opening train sequence, as well as in Leone's The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) committed suicide during shooting of the film by leaping from his Guadix hotel room in full costume. Frank Wolff, the actor who plays McBain, also committed suicide in a Rome hotel in 1971.
Following the film's completion, Once Upon a Time in the West was dubbed into several languages, including Italian, French, German, Spanish and English. For the English dub, the voices of much of the American cast, including Fonda, Bronson, Jason Robards, Jack Elam, Wynn, Wolff and Lionel Stander, were used. However, the rest of the cast had to be dubbed by other actors, including Ferzetti, who was dubbed by actor Bernard Grant (who is believed to have voiced Gian Maria Volontè and Aldo Giuffrè in the Dollars Trilogy), and Claudia Cardinale, who was voiced by Grant's wife, Joyce Gordon.[13]
Music[edit]
Main article: Once Upon a Time in the West (soundtrack)
The music was written by composer Ennio Morricone, Leone's regular collaborator, who wrote the score under Leone's direction before filming began. As in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, the haunting music contributes to the film's grandeur and, like the music for The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, is considered one of Morricone's greatest compositions.
The film features leitmotifs that relate to each of the main characters (each with their own theme music) as well as to the spirit of the American West.[14] Especially compelling are the wordless vocals by Italian singer Edda Dell'Orso during the theme music for the Claudia Cardinale character. It was Leone's desire to have the music available and played during filming. Leone had Morricone compose the score before shooting started and would play the music in the background for the actors on set.[14]
Except for about a minute of the "Judgment" motif, before Harmonica kills the three outlaws, no soundtrack music is played until at the end of the second scene, when Henry Fonda makes his first entry. During the beginning of the film, Leone instead uses a number of natural sounds, for instance a turning wheel in the wind, sound of a train, grasshoppers, shotguns while hunting, wings of pigeons, etc., in addition to the harmonica played by Bronson's character, since that sound is "explained" by the fact that the sound of the harmonica is diegetic rather than a true soundtrack.
Reception[edit]
Though less popular in the US than the earlier Dollars Trilogy, Once Upon a Time in the West has gained a cult following around the world, particularly among cineastes and filmmakers. In the late 1960s and 1970s, it was re-evaluated by young filmmakers and critics, many of whom called it a masterpiece. Directors including Quentin Tarantino, Martin Scorsese, George Lucas, John Carpenter, Vince Gilligan,[15] and John Boorman have spoken about the influence that the film had on them. It is now considered one of the greatest films ever made and some critics consider it to be the finest Western and Sergio Leone's finest accomplishment as a director. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 56 critics and gave the film a score of 98%. Once Upon a Time in the West can be found on numerous film polls and 'best of' lists.
Accolades[edit]
Time named Once Upon a Time in the West as one of the 100 greatest films of all-time.[16]
In They Shoot Pictures, Don't They's list of the 1000 Greatest Films, Once Upon a Time in the West is placed at number 62.[17]
Total Film magazine placed Once Upon a Time in the West in their special edition issue of the 100 Greatest Movies.[18]
In 2008, Empire held a poll of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time", taking votes from 10,000 readers, 150 filmmakers and 50 film critics. "Once Upon a Time in the West" was voted in at number 14, the highest Western on the list.[19]
In 2009, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being “culturally, historically or aesthetically significant”.[6]
In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films.[20] Once Upon A Time In The West placed 30th on their list.[21]
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Frank – Nominated Villain[22]
2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated[23]
Releases[edit]
European release[edit]
The movie was a massive hit in France[2] and was easily the most successful film released there in 1969.[24] It sparked a brief fashion trend for duster coats which took such proportions that Parisian department stores such as Au Printemps had to affix signs on escalators warning patrons to keep their "maxis," as they were called, clear from the edges of moving steps to prevent jamming.
American release[edit]
In the US, Paramount edited the film to about 145 minutes for the wide release, but the film underperformed at the box office, earning $2.1M in rentals in North America.[25]
The following scenes were cut for the American release:
The entire scene at Lionel Stander's trading post. Cheyenne (Robards) was not introduced in the American release until his arrival at the McBain ranch later in the film. Stander remained in the credits, even though he did not appear in this version at all.
The scene in which Morton and Frank discuss what to do with Jill at the Navajo Cliffs.
Morton's death scene was reduced considerably.
Cheyenne's death scene was completely excised.
Otherwise, one scene was slightly longer in the US version than in the international film release:
Following the opening duel (where all four gunmen fire and fall), Charles Bronson's character stands up again showing that he had only been shot in the arm. This part of the scene had been originally cut by director Sergio Leone for the worldwide theatrical release. It was added again for the U.S. market because the American distributors feared American viewers would not understand the story otherwise, especially since Harmonica's arm wound is originally shown for the first time in the scene at the trading post which was cut for the shorter U.S. version.
The English-language version was restored to approximately 165 minutes for a re-release in 1984, and for its video release the following year.
Director's cut[edit]
In Italy, a 175-minute director's cut features a yellow tint filter, and several scenes augmented with additional material. This director's cut was released on home video until the early 2000s, and still airs on TV, but more recent home video releases have used the international cut.
Home video releases[edit]
After years of public requests, Paramount released a 2-Disc "Special Collector's Edition" of Once Upon a Time in the West on November 18, 2003, with a running time of 165 minutes (158 minutes in some regions).[nb 1] This release is the color 2.35:1 aspect ratio version in anamorphic wide-screen, closed captioned and Dolby. Commentary is also provided by film experts and historians including John Carpenter, John Milius, Alex Cox, film historian and Leone biographer Sir Christopher Frayling, Dr. Sheldon Hall, as well as actors Claudia Cardinale and Gabriele Ferzetti, and director Bernardo Bertolucci, a co-writer of the film.
The second disc has special features, including three recent documentaries on several aspects of the film:
An Opera of Violence
The Wages of Sin
Something to Do with Death
The film was released on Blu-ray on May 31, 2011.
Film references[edit]
Leone's intent was to take the stock conventions of the American Westerns of John Ford, Howard Hawks and others, and rework them in an ironic fashion, essentially reversing their intended meaning in their original sources to create a darker connotation.[26] The most obvious example of this is the casting of veteran film good guy Henry Fonda as the villainous Frank, but there are also many other, more subtle reversals throughout the film. According to film critic and historian Christopher Frayling, the film quotes from as many as 30 classic American Westerns.
The major films referenced include:
The Comancheros (1961): The names "McBain" and "Sweetwater" may come from this film. (Contrary to popular belief, the name of the town "Sweetwater" was not taken from Victor Sjöström's silent epic drama The Wind. Bernardo Bertolucci has stated that he looked at a map of the southwestern United States, found the name of the town in Arizona, and decided to incorporate it into the film. However, both "Sweetwater" and a character named "McBain" appeared in The Comancheros, which Leone admired.[27])
Johnny Guitar (1954): Jill and Vienna have similar backstories (both are former prostitutes who become saloonkeepers), and Harmonica, like Sterling Hayden's title character, is a mysterious, gunslinging outsider known by his musical nickname. Some of West's central plot (Western settlers vs. the railroad company) may be recycled from Nicholas Ray's film.[27]
The Iron Horse (1924): West may contain several subtle references to this film, including a low angle shot of a shrieking train rushing towards the screen in the opening scene, and the shot of the train pulling into the Sweetwater station at the end.[27]
Shane (1953): The massacre scene in West features young Timmy McBain out hunting with his father, just as Joey does in this movie. The funeral of the McBains is borrowed almost shot-for-shot from Shane.[27] Also, the movie ends with the wounded gunslingers leaving town, unable to stay in civilization, as does Shane.
The Searchers (1956): Leone admitted that the rustling bushes, the silencing of insect sounds, and the fluttering grouse that suggest menace approaching the farmhouse when the McBain family is massacred were all taken from The Searchers. The ending of the film—where Western nomads Harmonica and Cheyenne move on rather than join modern society—also echoes the famous ending of Ford's film.[27]
Winchester '73 (1950): It has been claimed that the scenes in West at the trading post are based on those in Winchester '73, but the resemblance is slight.[27]
The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962): The dusters (long coats) worn by Cheyenne and his gang (and by Frank and his men while impersonating them) resemble those worn by Liberty Valance (Lee Marvin) and his henchmen when they are introduced in this film. In addition, the auction scene in West was intended to recall the election scene in Liberty Valance.[27]
The Last Sunset (1961): The final duel between Frank and Harmonica is shot almost identically to the duel between Kirk Douglas and Rock Hudson in this film.[27]
Duel in the Sun (1946): The character of Morton, the crippled railroad baron in West, was based on the character played by Lionel Barrymore in this film.[27]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The 7-minute regional variation in DVD running time is due to the 4% speed difference between the 24 fps NTSC and 25 fps PAL video formats. There is no difference in content.
See also[edit]
Film in the United States portal
Italy portal
Film portal
List of Italian films of 1968
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Box Office Information for Once Upon a Time in the West. The Numbers. Retrieved September 12, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Box office information for film at Box Office Story
Jump up ^ "C'era una volta il West". Wikipedia (in Italian). 2016-10-18.
Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (25 April 2007). "Top 25 Greatest Villains - Henry Fonda as Frank". Time. Time Inc. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Cale, Matt (29 May 2004). "Open Range". film.thedigitalfix.com. Archived from the original on 2012-04-18. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
^ Jump up to: a b "25 new titles added to National Film Registry". Yahoo News. Yahoo. Associated Press. 2009-12-30. Archived from the original on July 10, 2012. Retrieved 2009-12-30.
Jump up ^ La Repubblica. "Addio a Gabriele Ferzetti, il seduttore introverso del nostro cinema.". Retrieved 2 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "http://www.fistful-of-leone.com/articles/knox.html". Fistful-of-leone.com. Retrieved 2011-06-12. External link in |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Frayling, Christopher (2012). Sergio Leone: Something to do with Death. University of Minnesota Press. p. 296. ISBN 9780816646838.
Jump up ^ "La Calahorra, una estación de cine para los 'western' españoles", 20 Minutos, 1 March 2013 (in Spanish). Accessed 17 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Estados Unidos en Granada. La Calahorra: escenario de WEsterns", Guía Repsol, 10 October 2015 (in Spanish). Accessed 17 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Location Filming for Once Upon A Time in the West". Fistfuloflocations.com. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
Jump up ^ Howard Hughes (2007). Stagecoach to Tombstone: The Filmgoers' Guide to the Great Westerns. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 9781845115715. p.166.
^ Jump up to: a b Kehr, Dave (2011). "Once Upon a Time in the West". When movies mattered : reviews from a transformative decade. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-42941-0.
Jump up ^ "Breaking Bad Series Creator Vince Gilligan Answers Viewer Questions". AMC.com. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Time Magazine’s All-Time 100 Movies | The Moving Arts Film Journal". Themovingarts.com. Retrieved 2013-01-08.
Jump up ^ "TSPDT - 1,000 Greatest Films (Full List)". Theyshootpictures.com. Retrieved 2013-02-18.
Jump up ^ "100 Greatest Movies of All Time". Drskantze.com. Retrieved 2013-02-18.
Jump up ^ "Empire's 500 Greatest Movies Of All Time". Empireonline.com. 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2013-01-08.
Jump up ^ "The 100 best action movies". Time Out. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.timeout.com/newyork/film/the-100-best-action-movies-30-21?package_page=23379
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains Nominees" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-06.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores Nominees" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-06.
Jump up ^ Box office information for 1969 in France at Box Office Story
Jump up ^ "Big Rental Films of 1969", Variety, 7 January 1970 p 15
Jump up ^ 'An Opera of Violence', documentary on the DVD Once Upon a Time in the West: Special Collector's Edition
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Frayling[full citation needed]
Further reading[edit]
Fawell, John (2005). The art of Sergio Leone's Once upon a time in the West: a critical appreciation. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-2092-8.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Once Upon a Time in the West
Once Upon a Time in the West on IMDb
Once Upon a Time in the West at the TCM Movie Database
Once Upon a Time in the West at AllMovie
Once Upon a Time in the West at the American Film Institute Catalog
Once Upon a Time in the West at Metacritic
Once Upon a Time in the West at Rotten Tomatoes
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Films directed by Sergio Leone
The Last Days of Pompeii (1959)
The Colossus of Rhodes (1961)
A Fistful of Dollars (1964)
For a Few Dollars More (1965)
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966)
Once Upon a Time in the West (1968)
Duck, You Sucker! (1971)
Once Upon a Time in America (1984)
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Ionic compound
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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It has been suggested that this article be merged with Salt (chemistry). (Discuss) Proposed since June 2017.
The crystal structure of sodium chloride, NaCl, a typical ionic compound. The purple spheres represent sodium cations, Na+, and the green spheres represent chloride anions, Cl−.
In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. These can be simple ions such as the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) in sodium chloride, or polyatomic species such as the ammonium (NH+
4) and carbonate (CO2−
3) ions in ammonium carbonate. Individual ions within an ionic compound usually have multiple nearest neighbours, so are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network, usually in a crystalline structure.
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those containing basic ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Ionic compounds without these ions are also known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. Ionic compounds can also be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation of their solvent, precipitation, freezing, a solid-state reaction, or the electron transfer reaction of reactive metals with reactive non-metals, such as halogen gases.
Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard and brittle. As solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they become highly conductive, because the ions are mobilized.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of discovery
2 Formation
3 Bonding
4 Structure
4.1 Defects
4.2 Acidity/basicity
4.3 Melting and boiling points
4.4 Brittleness
4.5 Compressibility
4.6 Solubility
4.7 Electrical conductivity
4.8 Colour
5 Uses
6 Nomenclature
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
History of discovery[edit]
The word ion is the Greek ἰόν, ion, "going", the present participle of ἰέναι, ienai, "to go". This term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium.[1][2]
X-ray spectrometer developed by Bragg
In 1913 the crystal structure of sodium chloride was determined by William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg.[3][4][5] This revealed that there were six equidistant nearest-neighbours for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range crystalline order.[5] Many other inorganic compounds were also found to have similar structural features.[5] These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral atoms, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when X-ray reflection experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.[5][6]
Principal contributors to the development of a theoretical treatment of ionic crystal structures were Max Born, Fritz Haber, Alfred Landé, Erwin Madelung, Paul Peter Ewald, and Kazimierz Fajans.[7] Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to thermochemical measurements, further supporting the assumption.[5]
Formation[edit]
Halite, the mineral form of sodium chloride, forms when salty water evaporates leaving the ions behind.
Ionic compounds can be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation, precipitation, or freezing. Reactive metals such as the alkali metals can react directly with the highly electronegative halogen gases to form an ionic product.[8] They can also be synthesized as the product of a high temperature reaction between solids.[9]
If the ionic compound is soluble in a solvent, it can be obtained as a solid compound by evaporating the solvent from this electrolyte solution.[10] As the solvent is evaporated, the ions do not go into the vapour, but stay in the remaining solution, and when they become sufficiently concentrated, nucleation occurs, and they crystallize into an ionic compound. This process occurs widely in nature, and is the means of formation of the evaporite minerals.[11] Another method of recovering the compound from solution involves saturating a solution at high temperature and then reducing the solubility by reducing the temperature until the solution is supersaturated and the solid compound nucleates.[10]
Insoluble ionic compounds can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain counterions of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated ionic compound, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate.[12] If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an acid–base reaction or a neutralization reaction to form water.[13] Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as spectator ions.[12]
If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the ionic crystal formed also includes water of crystallization, so the product is known as a hydrate, and can have very different chemical properties.[14]
Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their freezing point.[15] This is sometimes used for the solid-state synthesis of complex ionic compounds from solid reactants, which are first melted together.[16] In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a solid-state reaction route. In this method the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste, and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighbouring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven.[9] Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct stoichiometric ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.[9]
In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from Group 1 or Group 2) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by electron transfer,[17] a process thermodynamically understood using the Born–Haber cycle.[18]
Bonding[edit]
A schematic electron shell diagram of sodium and fluorine atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically. The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form a solid.
Main article: Ionic bonding
Ions in ionic compounds are primarily held together by the electrostatic forces between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged Coulomb attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations.[19] There is also a small additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions.[20] When a pair of ions comes close enough for their outer electron shells (most simple ions have closed shells) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs,[21] due to the Pauli exclusion principle.[22] The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with a minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance.[21]
If the electronic structure of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed.[23] Ionic compounds are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most electronegative/electropositive pairs such as those in caesium fluoride exhibit a small degree of covalency.[24][25] Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character.[23] The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using Fajans' rules, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge.[26] More generally HSAB theory can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation.[27][28] This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).[29]
Structure[edit]
The unit cell of the zinc blende structure
Ions typically pack into extremely regular crystalline structures, in an arrangement that minimizes the lattice energy (maximizing attractions and minimizing repulsions). The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighbour distance by a multiplicative constant called the Madelung constant[21] that can be efficiently computed using an Ewald sum.[30] When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the Born–Landé equation,[31] the Born–Mayer equation, or in the absence of structural information, the Kapustinskii equation.[32]
Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to close-packed arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral interstices.[33][34] Depending on the stoichiometry of the ionic compound, and the coordination (principally determined by the radius ratio) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed,[35] and theoretically rationalized by Pauling's rules.[36]
Common ionic compound structures with close-packed anions[35]
Stoichiometry
Cation:anion coordination
Interstitial sites
Cubic close packing of anions
Hexagonal close packing of anions
occupancy
critical radius ratio
name
Madelung constant
name
Madelung constant
MX 6:6 all octahedral 0.4142[33] sodium chloride 1.747565[37] nickeline <1.73[a][38]
4:4 alternate tetrahedral 0.2247[39] zinc blende 1.6381[37] wurtzite 1.641[5]
MX2 8:4 all tetrahedral 0.2247 fluorite 5.03878[40]
6:3 half octahedral (alternate layers fully occupied) 0.4142 cadmium chloride 5.61[41] cadmium iodide 4.71[40]
MX3 6:2 one-third octahedral 0.4142 rhodium(III) bromide[b][42][43] 6.67[44][c] bismuth iodide 8.26[44][d]
M2X3 6:4 two-thirds octahedral 0.4142 corundum 25.0312[40]
ABO3 two-thirds octahedral 0.4142 ilmenite depends on charges and structure [e]
AB2O4 one-eighth tetrahedral and one-half octahedral rA/rO = 0.2247, rB/rO = 0.4142[f] spinel, inverse spinel depends on cation site distributions[47][48][49] olivine depends on cation site distributions[50]
In some cases the anions take on a simple cubic packing, and the resulting common structures observed are:
Common ionic compound structures with simple cubic packed anions[43]
Stoichiometry
Cation:anion coordination
Interstitial sites occupied
Example structure
name
critical radius ratio
Madelung constant
MX 8:8 entirely filled cesium chloride 0.7321[51] 1.762675[37]
MX2 8:4 half filled calcium fluoride
M2X 4:8 half filled lithium oxide
Some ionic liquids, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal nucleation to occur, so an ionic glass is formed (with no long-range order).[52]
Defects[edit]
Frenkel defect
Schottky defect
See also: crystallographic defect
Within an ionic crystal, there will usually be some point defects, but to maintain electroneutrality, these defects come in pairs.[53] Frenkel defects consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal,[53] occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions.[54] Schottky defects consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal,[53] occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size.[54] If the cations have multiple possible oxidation states, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a non-stoichiometric compound.[53] Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an F-center, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy.[55] When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible.[53] All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an equilibrium concentration. Because they are energetically costly, but entropically beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and solid state ionic conductivity.[53] When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the lattice parameters, reducing the overall density of the crystal.[53] Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different crystal-field symmetry, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites.[53] This results in a different splitting of d-electron orbitals, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration.[53]
== ties==
Acidity/basicity[edit]
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those containing electropositive cations[56] and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions.[57] If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base, the result is an acidic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a basic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid ion, such as ammonium acetate.
Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a base.[58] This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead(II) oxide.[59]
Melting and boiling points[edit]
Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high melting and boiling points and a low vapour pressure.[60] Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account.[61] Above their melting point ionic solids melt and become molten salts (although some ionic compounds such as aluminium chloride and iron(III) chloride show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase).[62] Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed ionic liquids.[63] Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky substituents like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.[64]
Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase.[65] This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil.[65] Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions.[65] When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules".[66]
Brittleness[edit]
Most ionic compounds are very brittle. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform mealleably, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes fracture via cleavage.[67] As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a ductile–brittle transition occurs, and plastic flow becomes possible by the motion of dislocations.[67][68]
Compressibility[edit]
The compressibility of an ionic compound is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the coordination number. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4.[69]
Solubility[edit]
When ionic compounds dissolve, the individual ions dissociate and are solvated by the solvent and dispersed throughout the resulting solution.[70] Because the ions are released into solution when dissolved, and can conduct charge, soluble ionic compounds are the most common class of strong electrolytes, and their solutions have a high electrical conductivity.[71]
The aqueous solubility of a variety of ionic compounds as a function of temperature. Some compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behaviour have been included.
The solubility is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol/gasoline).[72] This is principally because the resulting ion–dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases.[73] There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.[73]
Electrical conductivity[edit]
Although ionic compounds contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile.[74] This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.[75]
In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses,[52] one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid.[76] This is often highly temperature dependant, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration.[76] These materials are used in all solid-state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical sensors.[77][78]
Colour[edit]
Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride,
CoCl2
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate,
CoCl2·6H2O
See also: Color of chemicals
The colour of an ionic compound is often different to the colour of an aqueous solution containing the constituent ions,[79] or the hydrated form of the same compound.[14]
The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colourless (with an absorption band in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum).[80] In compounds with less ionic character, their colour deepens through yellow, orange, red and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum).[80]
The absorption band of simple cations shift toward shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions.[80] This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so colourless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colourful in solution.[80]
Uses[edit]
Ionic compounds have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many minerals are ionic.[81] Humans have processed common salt (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, agriculture, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses.[82] Many ionic compounds are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime.[83]
Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation.[84] Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution.[85] The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the electrical double layer around colloidal particles, and therefore the stability of emulsions and suspensions.[86]
The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, fluoride containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for water fluoridation.[87]
Solid ionic compounds have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity.[88] Since 1801 pyrotechnicians have described and widely used metal-containing ionic compounds as sources of colour in fireworks.[89] Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited.[90] These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present.[91][92]
In chemistry, ionic compounds are often used as precursors for high-temperature solid-state synthesis.[93]
Many metals are geologically most abundant as ionic compounds within ores.[94] To obtain the elemental materials, these ores are processed by smelting or electrolysis, in which redox reactions occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.[95][96]
Nomenclature[edit]
See also: IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry
According to the nomenclature recommended by IUPAC, ionic compounds are named according to their composition, not their structure.[97] In the most simple case of a binary ionic compound with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the stoichiometry, the common name is written using two words.[98] The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion.[99][100] For example, MgCl2 is named magnesium chloride, and Na2SO4 is named sodium sulfate (SO2−
4, sulfate, is an example of a polyatomic ion). To obtain the empirical formula from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.
If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions,[101] and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order.[102] For example, KMgCl3 is named magnesium potassium trichloride to distinguish it from K2MgCl4, magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride[103] (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the symbol for potassium is K).[104] When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, ...) are used.[105] For example, Ba(BrF4)2 is named barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate).[106]
Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/oxidation states will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions.[106] Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers.[106] These are written as an arabic integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them).[106] For example, FeSO4 is named iron(2+) sulfate (with the 2+ charge on the Fe2+ ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe2(SO4)3 is named iron(3+) sulfate (because the two iron ions in each formula unit each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions).[106] Stock nomenclature, still in common use, writes the oxidation number in Roman numerals (... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named iron(II) sulfate and iron(III) sulfate respectively.[107] For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the uranyl(2+) ion, UO2+
2, has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature.[108] An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes -ous and -ic to the Latin root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states.[109] For example, this scheme uses "ferrous" and "ferric", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively,[109] so the examples given above were classically named ferrous sulfate and ferric sulfate.
See also[edit]
Bonding in solids
Ioliomics
Ionic bond
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This structure type has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this.
Jump up ^ This structure has been referred to in references as yttrium(III) chloride and chromium(III) chloride, but both are now known as the RhBr3 structure type.
Jump up ^ The reference lists this structure as MoCl3, which is now known as the RhBr3 structure.
Jump up ^ The reference lists this structure as FeCl3, which is now known as the BiI3 structure type.
Jump up ^ This structure type can accommodate any charges on A and B that add up to six. When both are three the charge structure is equivalent to that of corrundum.[45] The structure also has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this.
Jump up ^ However, in some cases such as MgAl2O4 the larger cation occupies the smaller tetrahedral site.[46]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Bragg, W. H. (22 September 1913). "The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals. (II.)". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 89 (610): 246–248. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89..246B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0082.
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International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly, ed. Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005 (New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. ISBN 0-85404-438-8.
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