text:
Cytoplasm
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Cell biology
The animal cell
Components of a typical animal cell:
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Ribosome (little dots)
Vesicle
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body")
Cytoskeleton
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Cytosol (fluid that contains organelles, comprising the cytoplasm)
Lysosome
Centrosome
Cell membrane
In cell biology, the cytoplasm is the material within a living cell, excluding the cell nucleus. It comprises cytosol (the gel-like substance enclosed within the cell membrane) and the organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures. All of the contents of the cells of prokaryotic organisms (such as bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm. Within the cells of eukaryotic organisms the contents of the cell nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm, and are then called the nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually colorless.[1]
The submicroscopic ground cell substance or cytoplasmatic matrix which remains after exclusion the cell organelles and particles is groundplasm. It is the hyaloplasm of light microscopy, and high complex, polyphasic system in which all of resolvable cytoplasmic elements of are suspended, including the larger organelles such as the ribosomes, mitochondria, the plant plastids, lipid droplets, and vacuoles.
It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic pathways including glycolysis, and processes such as cell division. The concentrated inner area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell cortex or the ectoplasm.
Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is a signaling activity for metabolic processes.[2]
In plants, movement of the cytoplasm around vacuoles is known as cytoplasmic streaming.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Physical nature
2.1 As a sol-gel
2.2 As a glass
2.3 Other perspectives
3 Constituents
3.1 Cytosol
3.2 Organelles
3.3 Cytoplasmic inclusions
3.4 Controversy and research
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The term was introduced by Rudolf von Kölliker in 1863, originally as a synonym for protoplasm, but later it has come to mean the cell substance and organelles outside the nucleus.[3][4]
There has been certain disagreement on the definition of cytoplasm, as some authors prefer to exclude from it some organelles, especially the vacuoles[5] and sometimes the plastids.[6]
Physical nature[edit]
The physical properties of the cytoplasm have been contested in recent years.[citation needed] It remains uncertain how the varied components of the cytoplasm interact to allow movement of particles[clarification needed] and organelles while maintaining the cell’s structure. The flow of cytoplasmic components plays an important role in many cellular functions which are dependent on the permeability of the cytoplasm.[7] An example of such function is cell signalling, a process which is dependent on the manner in which signaling molecules are allowed to diffuse across the cell.[8] While small signaling molecules like calcium ions are able to diffuse with ease, larger molecules and subcellular structures often require aid in moving through the cytoplasm.[9] The irregular dynamics of such particles have given rise to various theories on the nature of the cytoplasm.
As a sol-gel[edit]
There has long been evidence that the cytoplasm behaves like a sol-gel.[10] It is thought that the component molecules and structures of the cytoplasm behave at times like a disordered colloidal solution (sol) and at other times like an integrated network, forming a solid mass (gel). This theory thus proposes that the cytoplasm exists in distinct fluid and solid phases depending on the level of interaction between cytoplasmic components, which may explain the differential dynamics of different particles observed moving through the cytoplasm.
As a glass[edit]
Recently it has been proposed that the cytoplasm behaves like a glass-forming liquid approaching the glass transition.[9] In this theory, the greater the concentration of cytoplasmic components, the less the cytoplasm behaves like a liquid and the more it behaves as a solid glass, freezing larger cytoplasmic components in place (it is thought that the cell's metabolic activity is able to fluidize the cytoplasm to allow the movement of such larger cytoplasmic components).[9] A cell's ability to vitrify in the absence of metabolic activity, as in dormant periods, may be beneficial as a defence strategy. A solid glass cytoplasm would freeze subcellular structures in place, preventing damage, while allowing the transmission of very small proteins and metabolites, helping to kickstart growth upon the cell's revival from dormancy.[9]
Other perspectives[edit]
There has been research examining the motion of cytoplasmic particles independent of the nature of the cytoplasm. In such an alternative approach, the aggregate random forces within the cell caused by motor proteins explain the non-Brownian motion of cytoplasmic constituents.[11]
Constituents[edit]
The three major elements of the cytoplasm are the cytosol, organelles and inclusions.
Cytosol[edit]
Main article: Cytosol
The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water. The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes.[12] The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.
Proteins in different cellular compartments and structures tagged with green fluorescent protein
Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other.
Organelles[edit]
Main article: Organelle
Organelles (literally "little organs"), are usually membrane-bound structures inside the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts.
Cytoplasmic inclusions[edit]
Main article: Cytoplasmic inclusion
The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants,[13][14] to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch,[15] glycogen,[16] or polyhydroxybutyrate.[17] A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols.[18] Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types.
Controversy and research[edit]
The cytoplasm, mitochondria and most organelles are contributions to the cell from the maternal gamete. Contrary to the older information that disregards any notion of the cytoplasm being active, new research has shown it to be in control of movement and flow of nutrients in and out of the cell by viscoplastic behavior and a measure of the reciprocal rate of bond breakage within the cytoplasmic network.[19]
The material properties of the cytoplasm remain an ongoing investigation. Recent measurements using force spectrum microscopy reveal that the cytoplasm can be likened to an elastic solid, rather than a viscoelastic fluid.
See also[edit]
Amoeboid movement
Cytoplasmic streaming
Protoplasm, a general term for cytoplasm
Syncytium
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Shepherd, V. A. (2006). "The cytomatrix as a cooperative system of macromolecular and water networks". Current Topics in Developmental Biology. Current Topics in Developmental Biology. 75: 171–223. doi:10.1016/S0070-2153(06)75006-2. ISBN 9780121531751. PMID 16984813.
Jump up ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2010). "Calcium" in Encyclopedia of Earth. A. Jorgensen, C. Cleveland (eds.). National Council for Science and the Environment.
Jump up ^ Kölliker, R. A. v. (1863). Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen. 4. Auflage. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.
Jump up ^ Bynum, W. F., Browne, E. J. and Porter, Ray (1981). Dictionary of the history of science. Princeton University Press.
Jump up ^ Parker, J. (1972). "Protoplasmic resistance to water deficits", pp. 125–176 in Kozlowski, T. T. (ed.), Water deficits and plant growth. Vol. III. Plant responses and control of water balance. Academic Press, New York, p. 144, [1].
Jump up ^ Strasburger, E. (1882). "Ueber den Theilungsvorgang der Zellkerne und das Verhältnis der Kernteilung zur Zellteilung". Arch Mikr Anat. 21: 476–590.
Jump up ^ Cowan AE, Moraru II, Schaff JC, Slepchenko BM, Loew LM (2012). "Spatial Modeling of Cell Signaling Networks". Methods in Cell Biology. Methods in Cell Biology. 110: 195–221. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-388403-9.00008-4. ISBN 9780123884039. PMC 3519356  . PMID 22482950.
Jump up ^ Holcman, David; Korenbrot, Juan I. (2004). "Longitudinal Diffusion in Retinal Rod and Cone Outer Segment Cytoplasm: The Consequence of Cell Structure". Biophysical Journal. 86 (4): 2566–2582. Bibcode:2004BpJ....86.2566H. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(04)74312-X. PMC 1304104  . PMID 15041693.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Parry, Bradley R.; Surovtsev, Ivan V.; Cabeen, Matthew T.; o'Hern, Corey S.; Dufresne, Eric R.; Jacobs-Wagner, Christine (2014). "The Bacterial Cytoplasm Has Glass-like Properties and is Fluidized by Metabolic Activity". Cell. 156 (1–2): 183–94. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.11.028. PMC 3956598  . PMID 24361104.
Jump up ^ Taylor, C. V. (1923). "The contractile vacuole in Euplotes: An example of the sol-gel reversibility of cytoplasm". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 37 (3): 259–289. doi:10.1002/jez.1400370302.
Jump up ^ Guo, Ming; Ehrlicher, Allen J.; Jensen, Mikkel H.; Renz, Malte; Moore, Jeffrey R.; Goldman, Robert D.; Lippincott-Schwartz, Jennifer; MacKintosh, Frederick C.; Weitz, David A. (2014). "Probing the Stochastic, Motor-Driven Properties of the Cytoplasm Using Force Spectrum Microscopy". Cell. 158 (4): 822–32. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.06.051. PMC 4183065  . PMID 25126787.
Jump up ^ van Zon A, Mossink MH, Scheper RJ, Sonneveld P, Wiemer EA (September 2003). "The vault complex". Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 60 (9): 1828–37. doi:10.1007/s00018-003-3030-y. PMID 14523546.
Jump up ^ Prychid, Christina J.; Rudall, Paula J. (1999). "Calcium Oxalate Crystals in Monocotyledons: A Review of their Structure and Systematics". Annals of Botany. 84 (6): 725–739. doi:10.1006/anbo.1999.0975.
Jump up ^ Prychid, C. J.; Rudall, P. J.; Gregory, M. (2004). "Systematics and Biology of Silica Bodies in Monocotyledons". The Botanical Review. 69 (4): 377–440. doi:10.1663/0006-8101(2004)069[0377:SABOSB]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 4354467.
Jump up ^ Ball SG, Morell MK (2003). "From bacterial glycogen to starch: understanding the biogenesis of the plant starch granule". Annu Rev Plant Biol. 54: 207–33. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134927. PMID 14502990.
Jump up ^ Shearer J, Graham TE (April 2002). "New perspectives on the storage and organization of muscle glycogen". Can J Appl Physiol. 27 (2): 179–203. doi:10.1139/h02-012. PMID 12179957.
Jump up ^ Anderson AJ, Dawes EA (1 December 1990). "Occurrence, metabolism, metabolic role, and industrial uses of bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates". Microbiol. Rev. 54 (4): 450–72. PMC 372789  . PMID 2087222.
Jump up ^ Murphy DJ (September 2001). "The biogenesis and functions of lipid bodies in animals, growth and microorganisms". Prog. Lipid Res. 40 (5): 325–438. doi:10.1016/S0163-7827(01)00013-3. PMID 11470496.
Jump up ^ Feneberg, Wolfgang; Sackmann, Erich; Westphal, Monika (2001). "Dictyostelium cells' cytoplasm as an active viscoplastic body". European Biophysics Journal. 30 (4): 284–94. doi:10.1007/s002490100135. PMID 11548131.
External links[edit]
Luby-Phelps K (2000). "Cytoarchitecture and physical properties of cytoplasm: volume, viscosity, diffusion, intracellular surface area" (PDF). Int Rev Cytol. International Review of Cytology. 192: 189–221. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60527-6. ISBN 9780123645968. PMID 10553280.
[hide]
v
t
e
Structures of the cell / organelles (TH H1.00.01.2-3)
Endomembrane system
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Parenthesome
Autophagosome
Vesicles
Exosome
Lysosome
Endosome
Phagosome
Vacuole
Acrosome
Cytoplasmic granules
Melanosome
Microbody
Glyoxysome
Peroxisome
Weibel–Palade body
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
MTOCs
Centrosome
Centriole
Basal body
Spindle pole body
Myofibril
Endosymbionts
Mitochondrion
Plastids
Chloroplast
Chromoplast
Gerontoplast
Leucoplast
Amyloplast
Elaioplast
Proteinoplast
Tannosome
Other internal
RNA
Ribosome
Spliceosome
Vault
Cytoplasm
Proteasome
External
Undulipodium
Cilium
Flagellum
Axoneme
Radial spoke
Extracellular matrix
Cell wall
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Pan (god)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Pan
God of nature, the wild, shepherds, flocks, of mountain wilds, and is often associated with sexuality
Pan teaching his eromenos, the shepherd Daphnis, to play the pan flute, Roman copy of Greek original c. 100 BCE, second century CE, found in Pompeii,
Abode
Arcadia
Symbol
Pan flute, goat
Personal information
Consort
Syrinx, Echo, Pitys
Children
Silenos, Iynx, Krotos, Xanthus (out of Twelve)
Parents
many variations including: Hermes and Driope, Aphrodite, or Penelope
Siblings
Satyrs, Laertes, Circe, Maenads
Roman equivalent
Faunus
Mask of the god Pan, detail from a bronze stamnoid situla, 340-320 BCE, part of the Vassil Bojkov collection, Sofia, Bulgaria
Greek deities
series
Primordial deities
Titans and Olympians
Aquatic deities
Chthonic deities
Mycenaean deities
Other deities
Anemoi
Apate
Asclepius
Iris
Leto
Keres
Muses
Nymphes
Pan
Psyche
v
t
e
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Pan (/pæn/;[1] Ancient Greek: Πάν, Pan) is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature of mountain wilds, rustic music and impromptus, and companion of the nymphs.[2] He has the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, in the same manner as a faun or satyr. With his homeland in rustic Arcadia, he is also recognized as the god of fields, groves, wooded glens and often affiliated with sex; because of this, Pan is connected to fertility and the season of spring. The ancient Greeks also considered Pan to be the god of theatrical criticism.[3] The word panic ultimately derives from the god's name.
In Roman religion and myth, Pan's counterpart was Faunus, a nature god who was the father of Bona Dea, sometimes identified as Fauna; he was also closely associated with Sylvanus, due to their similar relationships with woodlands. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Pan became a significant figure in the Romantic movement of western Europe and also in the 20th-century Neopagan movement.[4]
Contents
1 Origins
2 Worship
3 Mythology
3.1 Parentage
3.2 Battle with Typhon
3.3 Nymphs
3.4 Panic
3.5 Erotic aspects
3.6 Music
3.7 Capricornus
3.8 Epithets
3.9 All of the Pans
4 "The Great God Pan is dead"
5 Influence
5.1 Revivalist imagery
5.2 Identification with Satan
5.3 Neopaganism
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Sources
9 External links
Origins[edit]
Many modern scholars consider Pan to be derived from the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European god *Péh2usōn, whom these scholars believe to have been an important pastoral deity[5] (*Péh2usōn shares an origin with the modern English word "pasture").[6] The Rigvedic god Pushan is believed to be a cognate of Pan. The connection between Pan and Pushan was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar Hermann Collitz.[7][8] According to Edwin L. Brown, the name Pan is probably a cognate with the Greek word ὀπάων "companion".[9]
In his earliest appearance in literature, Pindar's Pythian Ode iii. 78, Pan is associated with a mother goddess, perhaps Rhea or Cybele; Pindar refers to maidens worshipping Cybele and Pan near the poet's house in Boeotia.[10]
Worship[edit]
The worship of Pan began in Arcadia which was always the principal seat of his worship. Arcadia was a district of mountain people, culturally separated from other Greeks. Arcadian hunters used to scourge the statue of the god if they had been disappointed in the chase.[11]
Being a rustic god, Pan was not worshipped in temples or other built edifices, but in natural settings, usually caves or grottoes such as the one on the north slope of the Acropolis of Athens. These are often referred to as the Cave of Pan. The only exceptions are the Temple of Pan on the Neda River gorge in the southwestern Peloponnese – the ruins of which survive to this day – and the Temple of Pan at Apollonopolis Magna in ancient Egypt.[12] In the 4th century BCE Pan was depicted on the coinage of Pantikapaion.[13]
Representations of Pan on 4th-century BCE gold and silver Pantikapaion coins.
Mythology[edit]
Parentage[edit]
The parentage of Pan is unclear;[14] generally he is the son of Hermes, although occasionally in some myths he is the son of Zeus, or Dionysus, with whom his mother is said to be a wood nymph, sometimes Dryope or, even in the 5th-century AD source Dionysiaca by Nonnus (14.92), Penelope of Mantineia in Arcadia. In some early sources such as Pindar, his father is Apollo via Penelope, the wife of Odysseus.[15] Herodotus (2.145), Cicero (ND 3.22.56), Apollodorus (7.38) and Hyginus (Fabulae 224) all make Hermes and Penelope his parents. Pausanias 8.12.5 records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to her husband, who banished her to Mantineia upon his return. Other sources (Duris of Samos; the Vergilian commentator Servius) report that Penelope slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus' absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result.[16] This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pan's name (Πάν) with the Greek word for "all" (πᾶν).[17]
In the mystery cults of the highly syncretic Hellenistic era,[18] Pan is made cognate with Phanes/Protogonos, Zeus, Dionysus and Eros.[19]
Accounts of Pan's genealogy are so varied that it must lie buried deep in mythic time. Like other nature spirits, Pan appears to be older than the Olympians, if it is true that he gave Artemis her hunting dogs and taught the secret of prophecy to Apollo. Pan might be multiplied as the Pans (Burkert 1985, III.3.2; Ruck and Staples, 1994, p. 132[20]) or the Paniskoi. Kerenyi (p. 174) notes from scholia that Aeschylus in Rhesus distinguished between two Pans, one the son of Zeus and twin of Arcas, and one a son of Cronus. "In the retinue of Dionysos, or in depictions of wild landscapes, there appeared not only a great Pan, but also little Pans, Paniskoi, who played the same part as the Satyrs".
Battle with Typhon[edit]
The goat-god Aegipan was nurtured by Amalthea with the infant Zeus in Crete. In Zeus' battle with Typhon, Aegipan and Hermes stole back Zeus' "sinews" that Typhon had hidden away in the Corycian Cave.[21] Pan aided his foster-brother in the battle with the Titans by letting out a horrible screech and scattering them in terror. According to some traditions, Aegipan was the son of Pan, rather than his father.
Nymphs[edit]
One of the famous myths of Pan involves the origin of his pan flute, fashioned from lengths of hollow reed. Syrinx was a lovely wood-nymph of Arcadia, daughter of Landon, the river-god. As she was returning from the hunt one day, Pan met her. To escape from his importunities, the fair nymph ran away and didn't stop to hear his compliments. He pursued from Mount Lycaeum until she came to her sisters who immediately changed her into a reed. When the air blew through the reeds, it produced a plaintive melody. The god, still infatuated, took some of the reeds, because he could not identify which reed she became, and cut seven pieces (or according to some versions, nine), joined them side by side in gradually decreasing lengths, and formed the musical instrument bearing the name of his beloved Syrinx. Henceforth Pan was seldom seen without it.
Echo was a nymph who was a great singer and dancer and scorned the love of any man. This angered Pan, a lecherous god, and he instructed his followers to kill her. Echo was torn to pieces and spread all over earth. The goddess of the earth, Gaia, received the pieces of Echo, whose voice remains repeating the last words of others. In some versions, Echo and Pan had two children: Iambe and Iynx. In other versions, Pan had fallen in love with Echo, but she scorned the love of any man but was enraptured by Narcissus. As Echo was cursed by Hera to only be able to repeat words that had been said by someone else, she could not speak for herself. She followed Narcissus to a pool, where he fell in love with his own reflection and changed into a narcissus flower. Echo wasted away, but her voice could still be heard in caves and other such similar places.
Pan also loved a nymph named Pitys, who was turned into a pine tree to escape him.
Panic[edit]
Disturbed in his secluded afternoon naps, Pan's angry shout inspired panic (panikon deima) in lonely places.[22][23] Following the Titans' assault on Olympus, Pan claimed credit for the victory of the gods because he had frightened the attackers. In the Battle of Marathon (490 BCE), it is said that Pan favored the Athenians and so inspired panic in the hearts of their enemies, the Persians.[24]
Erotic aspects[edit]
Pan having sex with a goat, statue from Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum.
Pan is famous for his sexual powers, and is often depicted with a phallus. Diogenes of Sinope, speaking in jest, related a myth of Pan learning masturbation from his father, Hermes, and teaching the habit to shepherds.[25]
Pan's greatest conquest was that of the moon goddess Selene. He accomplished this by wrapping himself in a sheepskin[26] to hide his hairy black goat form, and drew her down from the sky into the forest where he seduced her.
Music[edit]
"Sweet, piercing sweet was the music of Pan's pipe" reads the caption on this depiction of Pan (by Walter Crane)
In two late Roman sources, Hyginus[27] and Ovid,[28] Pan is substituted for the satyr Marsyas in the theme of a musical competition (agon), and the punishment by flaying is omitted.
Pan once had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the lyre, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes and gave great satisfaction with his rustic melody to himself and to his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer and turned Midas' ears into those of a donkey.
In another version of the myth, the first round of the contest was a tie, so the competitors were forced to hold a second round. In this round, Apollo demanded that they play their instruments upside-down. Apollo, playing the lyre, was unaffected. However, Pan's pipe could not be played while upside down, so Apollo won the contest.
Capricornus[edit]
The constellation Capricornus is traditionally depicted as a sea-goat, a goat with a fish's tail (see "Goatlike" Aigaion called Briareos, one of the Hecatonchires). A myth reported as "Egyptian" in Hyginus' Poetic Astronomy[29] that would seem to be invented to justify a connection of Pan with Capricorn says that when Aegipan — that is Pan in his goat-god aspect —[30] was attacked by the monster Typhon, he dove into the Nile; the parts above the water remained a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish.
Epithets[edit]
Aegocerus "goat-horned" was an epithet of Pan descriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat.[31]
All of the Pans[edit]
Marble table support adorned by a group including Dionysos, Pan and a Satyr; Dionysos holds a rhyton (drinking vessel) in the shape of a panther; traces of red and yellow colour are preserved on the hair of the figures and the branches; from an Asia Minor workshop, 170-180 AD, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece
Pan could be multiplied into a swarm of Pans, and even be given individual names, as in Nonnus' Dionysiaca, where the god Pan had twelve sons that helped Dionysus in his war against the Indians. Their names were Kelaineus, Argennon, Aigikoros, Eugeneios, Omester, Daphoenus, Phobos, Philamnos, Xanthos, Glaukos, Argos, and Phorbas.
Two other Pans were Agreus and Nomios. Both were the sons of Hermes, Agreus' mother being the nymph Sose, a prophetess: he inherited his mother's gift of prophecy, and was also a skilled hunter. Nomios' mother was Penelope (not the same as the wife of Odysseus). He was an excellent shepherd, seducer of nymphs, and musician upon the shepherd's pipes. Most of the mythological stories about Pan are actually about Nomios, not the god Pan. Although, Agreus and Nomios could have been two different aspects of the prime Pan, reflecting his dual nature as both a wise prophet and a lustful beast.
Aegipan, literally "goat-Pan," was a Pan who was fully goatlike, rather than half-goat and half-man. When the Olympians fled from the monstrous giant Typhoeus and hid themselves in animal form, Aegipan assumed the form of a fish-tailed goat. Later he came to the aid of Zeus in his battle with Typhoeus, by stealing back Zeus' stolen sinews. As a reward the king of the gods placed him amongst the stars as the Constellation Capricorn. The mother of Aegipan, Aix (the goat), was perhaps associated with the constellation Capra.
Sybarios was an Italian Pan who was worshipped in the Greek colony of Sybaris in Italy. The Sybarite Pan was conceived when a Sybarite shepherd boy named Krathis copulated with a pretty she-goat amongst his herds.
"The Great God Pan is dead"[edit]
Pan, painted by Mikhail Vrubel in 1900.
According to the Greek historian Plutarch (in De defectu oraculorum, "The Obsolescence of Oracles"),[32] Pan is the only Greek god (other than Asclepius) who actually dies. During the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE), the news of Pan's death came to one Thamus, a sailor on his way to Italy by way of the island of Paxi. A divine voice hailed him across the salt water, "Thamus, are you there? When you reach Palodes,[33] take care to proclaim that the great god Pan is dead." Which Thamus did, and the news was greeted from shore with groans and laments.
Christian apologists such as G. K. Chesterton have repeated and amplified the significance of the "death" of Pan, suggesting that with the "death" of Pan came the advent of theology. To this effect, Chesterton once said, "It is said truly in a sense that Pan died because Christ was born. It is almost as true in another sense that men knew that Christ was born because Pan was already dead. A void was made by the vanishing world of the whole mythology of mankind, which would have asphyxiated like a vacuum if it had not been filled with theology."[34][35][36] It was interpreted with concurrent meanings in all four modes of medieval exegesis: literally as historical fact, and allegorically as the death of the ancient order at the coming of the new.[original research?] Eusebius of Caesarea in his Praeparatio Evangelica (book V) seems[dubious – discuss] to have been the first Christian apologist to give Plutarch's anecdote, which he identifies as his source[citation needed], pseudo-historical standing, which Eusebius buttressed with many invented passing details that lent verisimilitude.[citation needed]
In more modern times, some have suggested a possible a naturalistic explanation for the myth. For example, Robert Graves (The Greek Myths) reported a suggestion that had been made by Salomon Reinach[37] and expanded by James S. Van Teslaar[38] that the sailors actually heard the excited shouts of the worshipers of Tammuz, Thamus Panmegas tethneke, "All-great Tammuz is dead!", and misinterpreted them as a message directed to an Egyptian sailor named 'Thamus': "Great Pan is Dead!" Van Teslaar explains, "[i]n its true form the phrase would have probably carried no meaning to those on board who must have been unfamiliar with the worship of Tammuz which was a transplanted, and for those parts, therefore, an exotic custom."[39] Certainly, when Pausanias toured Greece about a century after Plutarch, he found Pan's shrines, sacred caves and sacred mountains still very much frequented. However, a naturalistic explanation might not be needed. For example, William Hansen[40] has shown that the story is quite similar to a class of widely known tales known as Fairies Send a Message.
The cry "Great Pan is dead" has appealed to poets, such as John Milton, in his ecstatic celebration of Christian peace, On the Morning of Christ's Nativity line 89,[41] and Elizabeth Barrett Browning.[42]
One remarkable commentary of Herodotus[43] on Pan is that he lived 800 years before himself (c. 1200 BCE), this being already after the Trojan War.
Influence[edit]
Revivalist imagery[edit]
Pan depicted on the cover of The Wind in the Willows
The Magic of Pan's Flute, by John Reinhard Weguelin (1905)
In the late 18th century, interest in Pan revived among liberal scholars. Richard Payne Knight discussed Pan in his Discourse on the Worship of Priapus (1786) as a symbol of creation expressed through sexuality. "Pan is represented pouring water upon the organ of generation; that is, invigorating the active creative power by the prolific element."[44]
In the English town of Painswick in Gloucestershire, a group of 18th-century gentry, led by Benjamin Hyett, organised an annual procession dedicated to Pan, during which a statue of the deity was held aloft, and people shouted 'Highgates! Highgates!" Hyett also erected temples and follies to Pan in the gardens of his house and a "Pan's lodge", located over Painswick Valley. The tradition died out in the 1830s, but was revived in 1885 by the new vicar, W. H. Seddon, who mistakenly believed that the festival had been ancient in origin. One of Seddon's successors, however, was less appreciative of the pagan festival and put an end to it in 1950, when he had Pan's statue buried.[45]
John Keats's "Endymion" opens with a festival dedicated to Pan where a stanzaic hymn is sung in praise of him. "Keats's account of Pan's activities is largely drawn from the Elizabethan poets. Douglas Bush notes, 'The goat-god, the tutelary divinity of shepherds, had long been allegorized on various levels, from Christ to "Universall Nature" (Sandys); here he becomes the symbol of the romantic imagination, of supra-mortal knowledge.'"[46]
In the late 19th century Pan became an increasingly common figure in literature and art. Patricia Merivale states that between 1890 and 1926 there was an "astonishing resurgence of interest in the Pan motif".[47] He appears in poetry, in novels and children's books, and is referenced in the name of the character Peter Pan.[48] In the Peter Pan stories, Peter represents a golden age of pre-civilisation in both the minds of very young children, before enculturation and education, and in the natural world outside the influence of humans. Peter Pan’s character is both charming and selfish emphasizing our cultural confusion about whether human instincts are natural and good, or uncivilised and bad. J. M. Barrie describes Peter as ‘a betwixt and between’, part animal and part human, and uses this device to explore many issues of human and animal psychology within the Peter Pan stories.[49]
He is the eponymous "Piper at the Gates of Dawn"[50] in the seventh chapter of Kenneth Grahame's The Wind in the Willows (1908). Grahame's Pan, unnamed but clearly recognisable, is a powerful but secretive nature-god, protector of animals, who casts a spell of forgetfulness on all those he helps. He makes a brief appearance to help the Rat and Mole recover the Otter's lost son Portly.
Arthur Machen's 1894 novella The Great God Pan uses the god's name in a simile about the whole world being revealed as it really is: "seeing the Great God Pan". The novella is considered by many (including Stephen King) as being one of the greatest horror stories ever written.
Pan entices villagers to listen to his pipes as if in a trance in Lord Dunsany's novel The Blessing of Pan published in 1927. Although the god does not appear within the story, his energy certainly invokes the younger folk of the village to revel in the summer twilight, and the vicar of the village is the only person worried about the revival of worship for the old pagan god.
Pan is also featured as a prominent character in Tom Robbins' Jitterbug Perfume (1984). Aeronautical engineer and occultist Jack Parsons invoked Pan before test launches at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
The British writer and editor Mark Beech of Egaeus Press published in 2015 the limited-edition anthology Soliloquy for Pan[51] which includes essays and poems such as "The Rebirthing of Pan" by Adrian Eckersley, "Pan's Pipes" by Robert Louis Stevenson, "Pan with Us" by Robert Frost, and "The Death of Pan" by Lord Dunsany. Some of the detailed illustrated depictions of Pan included in the volume are by the artists Giorgio Ghisi, Sir James Thornhill, Bernard Picart, Agostino Veneziano, Vincenzo Cartari, and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.
Identification with Satan[edit]
Francisco Goya, Witches' Sabbath (El aquelarre), of Basque mythology. 1798. Oil on canvas, 44 × 31 cm. Museo Lázaro Galdiano, Madrid.
Pan's goatish image recalls[citation needed] conventional faun-like depictions of Satan. Although Christian use of Plutarch's story is of long standing,[original research?][citation needed] Ronald Hutton[52] has argued that this specific association is modern and derives from Pan's popularity in Victorian and Edwardian neopaganism. Medieval and early modern images of Satan tend, by contrast, to show generic semi-human monsters with horns, wings, and clawed feet.
Neopaganism[edit]
In 1933, the Egyptologist Margaret Murray published the book, The God of the Witches, in which she theorised that Pan was merely one form of a horned god who was worshipped across Europe by a witch-cult.[53] This theory influenced the Neopagan notion of the Horned God, as an archetype of male virility and sexuality. In Wicca, the archetype of the Horned God is highly important, as represented by such deities as the Celtic Cernunnos, Hindu Pashupati, and Greek Pan.
A modern account of several purported meetings with Pan is given by Robert Ogilvie Crombie in The Findhorn Garden (Harper & Row, 1975) and The Magic of Findhorn (Harper & Row, 1975). Crombie claimed to have met Pan many times at various locations in Scotland, including Edinburgh, on the island of Iona and at the Findhorn Foundation.
See also[edit]
Agreus & Nomios
Dryad
Faun
Golden Age
Kokopelli
Pan in popular culture
Pan, sculpture by Roger White
Pangu
Puck
Pūṣan, a Vedic guardian of flocks and herds
Satyr
Syrinx
The Great God Pan
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Pan" (Greek mythology) entry in Collins English Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Edwin L. Brown, "The Lycidas of Theocritus Idyll 7", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 1981:59–100.
Jump up ^ Alfred Wagner, Das historische Drama der Griechen, Münster 1878, p. 78.
Jump up ^ The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, Ronald Hutton, chapter 3
Jump up ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 434. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2.
Jump up ^ "*pa-". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ H. Collitz, "Wodan, Hermes und Pushan," Festskrift tillägnad Hugo Pipping pȧ hans sextioȧrsdag den 5 November 1924 1924, pp 574–587.
Jump up ^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 1149.
Jump up ^ Edwin L. Brown, "The Divine Name 'Pan'", Transactions of the American Philological Association 107 (1977:57–61), notes (p. 59) that the first inscription mentioning Pan is a 6th-century dedication to ΠΑΟΝΙ, a "still uncontracted" form.
Jump up ^ The Extant Odes of Pindar at Project Gutenberg. See note 5 to Pythian Ode III, "For Heiron of Syracuse, Winner in the Horse-race."
Jump up ^ Theocritus. vii. 107
Jump up ^ Horbury, William (1992). Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-521-41870-6.
Jump up ^ Sear, David R. (1978). Greek Coins and Their Values . Volume I: Europe (pp. 168-169). Seaby Ltd., London. ISBN 0 900652 46 2
Jump up ^ W. H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der Gr. u. Röm. Mythologie (1909:1379f) finds eighteen variants for Pan's genealogy.
Jump up ^ Pindar, Fr. 90 (Bowra)
Jump up ^ Footnote in the Library by Apollodorus (of Athens), edited by E. Capps Ph.D, LL.D.; T. E. Page, Litt.D.; W. H. D. Rouse, Litt.d.; Webster Collection of Social Anthropology, p. 305
Jump up ^ The Homeric Hymn to Pan provides the earliest example of this wordplay, suggesting that Pan's name was born from the fact that he delighted "all" the gods.
Jump up ^ Eliade, Mircea (1982) A History of Religious Ideas Vol. 2. University of Chicago Press. § 205.
Jump up ^ In the second-century "Hieronyman Theogony', which harmonized Orphic themes from the theogony of Protogonos with Stoicism, he is Protogonos, Phanes, Zeus and Pan; in the Orphic Rhapsodies he is additionally called Metis, Eros, Erikepaios and Bromios. The inclusion of Pan seems to be a Hellenic syncretization (West, M. L. (1983) The Orphic Poems. Oxford:Oxford University Press. p. 205).
Jump up ^ Pan "even boasted that he had slept with every maenad that ever was—to facilitate that extraordinary feat, he could be multiplied into a whole brotherhood of Pans."
Jump up ^ "In this story Hermes is clearly out of place. He was one of the youngest sons of Zeus and was brought into the story only because... he was a master/thief. The real participant in the story was Aigipan: the god Pan, that is to say. in his quality of a goat (aix). (Kerenyi, p. 28). Kerenyi points out that Python of Delphi had a son Aix (Plutarch, Moralia 293c) and detects a note of kinship betrayal.
Jump up ^ "Pan (mythology) – Discussion and Encyclopedia Article. Who is Pan (mythology)? What is Pan (mythology)? Where is Pan (mythology)? Definition of Pan (mythology). Meaning of Pan (mythology)". Knowledgerush.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
Jump up ^ Robert Graves,The Greek Myths, p.101
Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pan". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 662–663.
Jump up ^ Dio Chrysostom, Discourses, vi. 20.
Jump up ^ Kerenyi, p. 175.
Jump up ^ Hyginus, Fabulae, 191 (on-line source).
Jump up ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses, 11.146ff (on-line source).
Jump up ^ Poetic Astronomy 2.18: see Theony Condos, Star Myths of the Greeks and Romans 1997:72.
Jump up ^ Kerenyi, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Lucan, ix. 536; Lucretius, v. 614.
Jump up ^ Moralia, Book 5:17.
Jump up ^ "Where or what was Palodes?".
Jump up ^ G.K. Chesterton, "The End of the World", The Everlasting Man, 1925
Jump up ^ The Collected Works of G.K. Chesterton II. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1986. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-89870-116-6.
Jump up ^ Orthodoxy. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 2004. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-486-43701-9.
Jump up ^ Reinach, in Bulletin des correspondents helleniques 31 (1907:5–19), noted by Van Teslaar.
Jump up ^ Van Teslaar, "The Death of Pan: a classical instance of verbal misinterpretation", The Psychoanalytic Review 8 (1921:180–83).
Jump up ^ Van Teslaar 1921:180.
Jump up ^ William Hansen (2002) "Ariadne's thread: A guide to international tales found in classical literature" Cornell University Press. pp.133-136
Jump up ^ Kathleen M. Swaim, "'Mighty Pan': Tradition and an Image in Milton's Nativity 'Hymn'", Studies in Philology 68.4 (October 1971:484–495)..
Jump up ^ See Corinne Davies, "Two of Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Pan poems and their after-life in Robert Browning's 'Pan and Luna'", Victorian Poetry 44,.4, (Winter 2006:561–569).
Jump up ^ Herodotus, Histories II.145
Jump up ^ Payne-Knight, R. Discourse on the Worship of Priapus, 1786, p.73
Jump up ^ Hutton, Ronald. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft pp 161–162
Jump up ^ Barnard, John. John Keats : The Complete Poems, p. 587, ISBN 978-0-14-042210-8
Jump up ^ Merivale, Patricia. Pan the Goat-God: his Myth in Modern Times, Harvard University Press, 1969, p.vii.
Jump up ^ Lurie, Alison. Afterword in Peter Pan, Signet, 2003, p198. books.google.com
Jump up ^ Ridley, Rosalind (2016). Peter Pan and the Mind of J M Barrie. UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-9107-3.
Jump up ^ Pink Floyd used the chapter title "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" as the title of their 1967 debut album.
Jump up ^ Beech, Mark (2015). Soliloquy for Pan (Illustrated. First ed. limited to 300 copies ed.). UK: Egaeuspress. pp. 350 pp. ISBN 978-0-957160682.
Jump up ^ Hutton, The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, Oxford University Press, 1999
Jump up ^ The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, Ronald Hutton, page 199
Sources[edit]
Borgeaud, Philippe (1979). Recherches sur le Dieu Pan. Geneva University.
Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press.
Diotima (2007), The Goat Foot God, Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Kerenyi, Karl (1951). The Gods of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson.
Laurie, Allison, "Afterword" in Peter Pan, J. M. Barrie, Signet Classic, 1987. ISBN 978-0-451-52088-3.
Malini, Roberto (1998), Pan dio della selva, Edizioni dell'Ambrosino, Milano
Ruck, Carl A. P.; Danny Staples (1994). The World of Classical Myth. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 0-89089-575-9.
Vinci, Leo (1993), Pan: Great God Of Nature, Neptune Press, London
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pan (mythology).
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GND: 118789406
LCCN: no2015029260
VIAF: 8183772
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pan_(god)&oldid=856609524"
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Pan (god)
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text:
Almost Cut My Hair
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Almost Cut My Hair" is a song by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, originally released on the band's 1970 album Déjà Vu.[1]
The song describes a real-life dilemma faced by many hippies: whether to cut one's hair to a more practical length, or leave it long as a symbol of rebellion.[2] It was written by David Crosby, and features solo vocals by Crosby, with the rest of the band joining in on instruments rather than (as in many of their other songs) on vocal harmony. Unlike most of the tracks on Déja Vu, the quartet and their studio musicians, Dallas Taylor (drums) and Greg Reeves (bass), all recorded it at the same place and time.[1] It was one of only two songs from the album that Neil Young joined in on despite not writing.[3]
Although the notion of long hair as a "freak flag" appeared earlier, notably in a 1967 Jimi Hendrix song "If 6 Was 9", Crosby's song has been credited with popularizing the idea of long hair as a deliberate and visible symbol of the wearer's affiliation with the counterculture, and opposition to establishment values. James Perone writes that, "more than any other song of the entire era", it "captures the extent to which the divisiveness in American society ... had boiled over into violence and terror".[1]
It became one of Crosby's "signature songs",[4] and "probably his most important political song".[5] Crosby himself stated "It was the most juvenile set of lyrics I've ever written ... but it has a certain emotional impact, there's no question about that."[4]
Personnel[edit]
David Crosby – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
Stephen Stills – guitars
Graham Nash – keyboards
Neil Young – guitars
Additional musicians
Dallas Taylor – drums, percussion
Greg Reeves – bass
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Perone, James E. (2012), The Album: A Guide to Pop Music's Most Provocative, Influential, and Important Creations, Volume 1, The Praeger Singer-Songwriter Collection, ABC-CLIO, p. 21, ISBN 9780313379062 .
Jump up ^ Bingham, Clara (2016), Witness to the Revolution: Radicals, Resisters, Vets, Hippies, and the Year America Lost Its Mind and Found Its Soul, Random House Publishing Group, p. 108, ISBN 9780679644743 .
Jump up ^ Downing, David (1994), A Dreamer of Pictures: Neil Young, the Man and His Music, Da Capo Press, p. 64, ISBN 9780306806117 .
^ Jump up to: a b Hoye, Jacob (2003), 100 Greatest Albums, Simon and Schuster, p. 138, ISBN 9780743448765 .
Jump up ^ v.d. Luft, Eric (2009), Die at the Right Time!: A Subjective Cultural History of the American Sixties, Gegensatz Press, p. 424, ISBN 9781933237398 .
[hide]
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Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young
David Crosby
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CSN
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Related bands
The Byrds
Buffalo Springfield
The Hollies
CPR
Crosby & Nash
The Stills-Young Band
Manassas
Crazy Horse
Related people
Joni Mitchell
Judy Collins
Chris Hillman
Cass Elliot
Timothy B. Schmit
Greg Reeves
Dallas Taylor
Other related articles
Discography
CSNY/Déjà Vu
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Almost_Cut_My_Hair&oldid=802094116"
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Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young songs
1970 singles
Songs written by David Crosby
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