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The A-Team (film)
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The A-Team
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Joe Carnahan
Produced by
Stephen J. Cannell
Tony Scott
Spike Seldin
Jules Daly
Alex Young
Iain Smith
Screenplay by
Joe Carnahan
Brian Bloom
Skip Woods
Based on
The A-Team
by Stephen J. Cannell and Frank Lupo
Starring
Liam Neeson
Bradley Cooper
Jessica Biel
Quinton Jackson
Sharlto Copley
Brian Bloom
Patrick Wilson
Narrated by
Corey Burton
Music by
Alan Silvestri
Cinematography
Mauro Fiore
Edited by
Roger Barton
Jim May
Production
company
Dune Entertainment
Top Cow Productions
Scott Free Productions
Distributed by
20th Century Fox
Release date
June 11, 2010 (2010-06-11)
Running time
119 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$110 million[2][3]
Box office
$177.2 million[3]
The A-Team is a 2010 American action comedy film based on the television series of the same name created by Frank Lupo and Stephen J. Cannell. Co-written (with Brian Bloom and Skip Woods) and directed by Joe Carnahan, the film stars Liam Neeson, Bradley Cooper, Quinton Jackson, Sharlto Copley, Jessica Biel, Patrick Wilson and Brian Bloom. The film tells the story of "The A-Team", a United States Army Ranger team imprisoned for a crime they did not commit, who escape and set out to clear their names. The film was produced by Stephen J. Cannell,[4] Ridley Scott and Tony Scott.[5][6] The film was theatrically released on June 11, 2010 by 20th Century Fox.
The film had been in development since the mid-1990s having gone through a number of writers and story ideas and being put on hold a number of times. Upon its release, the film received mixed reviews from critics[7] and underperformed at the box office making $177 million on a $110 million budget.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Locations and filming
3.2 Development
3.3 Casting
4 Marketing
4.1 Comics
4.2 Video game
5 Release
5.1 Home media
6 Reception
6.1 Critical response
6.2 Comments by original cast
6.3 Box office
6.4 Accolades
6.5 Soundtrack
7 Cancelled sequel
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
John "Hannibal" Smith is held captive in Mexico by two Federal Police officers working for renegade General Javier Tuco. Hannibal escapes and sets out to rescue Templeton "Faceman" Peck, who is held captive at Tuco's ranch. Hannibal saves Face after enlisting fellow Ranger B.A. Baracus, driving to the rescue in BA's modified GMC Vandura van.[9] Pursued by Tuco, they stop at a nearby Army Hospital to recruit the services of eccentric pilot Howling Mad Murdock. They flee in a medical helicopter, chased by Tuco, in a dogfight that leaves BA with a fear of flying. The battle ends when they lure Tuco's helicopter into American airspace, where it is shot down by a USAF F-22 Raptor for trespassing.
Eight years later in Iraq, Hannibal is contacted by CIA Special Activities Division operative Lynch, who assigns them a black ops mission to recover from Iraqi insurgents U.S. Treasury plates and over $1 billion in cash slated to move it out of Baghdad in an armored convoy. Hannibal's commanding officer, General Morrison, consents to the operation but Face's former girlfriend, Defense Criminal Investigative Service Capt. Charissa Sosa, tries to discourage the team against getting the plates. The mission is successful; when the team returns to base, however, the money and Morrison's vehicle are destroyed by Brock Pike and his men from the private security firm Black Forest. Without Morrison (the only proof that they were authorized to act), Hannibal, Face, Murdock, and BA are court-martialed, are sentenced to ten years in separate prisons, and dishonorably discharged. Sosa also ended up court-martialed and is demoted to lieutenant.
Six months later, Lynch visits Hannibal in prison and tells him that Pike may be trying to sell the plates with the help of an Arab backer. Hannibal, who has been tracking Pike on his own, makes a deal with Lynch: full reinstatement and clean records for his team in return for the plates. Lynch agrees and Hannibal escapes, breaking out Face, BA, and Murdock in the process. Sosa is hot on the team's trail. The team hijacks a USAF Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft, which is later shot down by Reaper UCAVs, but not before the team parachutes away in a tank stashed aboard and make it to the ground safely. The team moves to reclaim the plates and kidnap Pike's backer. It is revealed that the backer is actually General Morrison, who plotted with Lynch and Pike to steal the plates but teamed up with Pike to double-cross Lynch and fake his death. Lynch orders an airstrike to kill the team and Morrison, but the team manages to escape.
Hannibal arranges to meet Sosa on board a container ship at the Los Angeles docks, saying he will hand over Morrison and the plates. Face then calls Sosa on a drop phone he planted on her at the train station, and conspires a different plan with her. It all unfolds according to plan until Pike, who is now working with Lynch, blows up the container ship and chases Face to near death. BA (having converted to Buddhism while in prison) finally gives up his pacifist ways and kills Pike, saving Face. Hannibal leads Lynch into a container with Murdock, who, wearing a covered bullet-proof helmet, is portraying Morrison. Lynch shoots at Murdock’s head, believing that he is killing Morrison, and is later tricked into admitting that he stole the plates, and is subsequently arrested by Sosa.
The CIA agents led by a separate "Lynch" comes and claims custody of the original one. Despite their success and proving themselves innocent, the military still arrests the team for escaping from prison, also a crime; they and Sosa are angered by this, since it is only being done so Sosa's boss does not have to fill out paperwork. Sosa is reinstated to captain, but she promises to do all she can to set the team free and kisses Face as everybody is led into a prison van. In the van, everyone starts saying that the system has burned us again, but Hannibal tells them that there is always a way out of any situation, and turns towards Face, who smiles and says "I don't want to steal your line, boss, but... I love it when a plan comes together" and opens his mouth and reveals a handcuff key, given to him by Sosa through the kiss. The final scene includes a narration (spoken by Corey Burton) similar to the show's opening narration.
In a post-credits scene, Murdock and Face of The A-Team's original cast are seen.
Cast[edit]
Liam Neeson, Bradley Cooper, Quinton Jackson and Sharlto Copley as John "Hannibal" Smith, Templeton Peck, B. A. Baracus and Howling Mad Murdock.
Liam Neeson as Colonel John "Hannibal" Smith
Bradley Cooper as First Lieutenant Templeton "Face" Peck
Quinton Jackson as Sergeant First Class Bosco "B.A." Baracus
Sharlto Copley as Captain H.M. "Howling Mad" Murdock
Jessica Biel as Charissa Sosa[10]
Patrick Wilson as Agent Vance Burress a.k.a. Agent Lynch[11]
Brian Bloom as Brock Pike. Bloom was also a writer on the film.[12]
Gerald McRaney as General Russell Morrison
Jon Hamm as Lynch (uncredited)
Terry Chen as Ravech
C. Ernst Harth as Crematorium Attendant
Corey Burton as Narrator
Yul Vazquez as General Javier Tuco
In a post-credits scene, original series actors Dirk Benedict (Face) and Dwight Schultz (Murdock) have cameos with their film equivalents Bradley Cooper and Sharlto Copley. Benedict plays Face's fellow tanning bed client, credited as "Pensacola Prisoner Milt", and Schultz plays one of two neurologists observing Murdock during a shock-therapy session.
Production[edit]
Locations and filming[edit]
The entire film was shot at various locations in Canada including Kamloops, Vancouver, Cache Creek and Ashcroft,[13] British Columbia, with much of the studio works being done at Mammoth Studios.[11][14][15][16] Other footage was included as well, such as aerial shots of the Cologne train station (though referred to as Frankfurt in the movie) as well as an aerial shot of the Frankfurt skyline.[17] Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake is also featured in the German escape scene where a number of base buildings and landmarks are clearly visible, as is the false canopy painted under the CF-18s. The Royal Canadian Air Force along with some USMC squadrons are the only Hornet users to have the false canopy painted on the bottom. American markings were digitally added later. The Hawaii Mars Martin Mars water bomber, based at Sproat Lake, British Columbia, is also used in one scene of the movie to cross the Atlantic.
Development[edit]
Joe Carnahan at the film's premiere.
The film had been in development since the mid-1990s, going through a number of writers and story ideas, and being put on hold a number of times. Producer Stephen J. Cannell hoped to update the setting, perhaps using the Gulf War as part of the backstory.[18][19] John Singleton was initially assigned to direct, but in October 2008 he pulled out of the project.[20] When Singleton was still attached to the project as director, Ice Cube was approached for the role of B.A. Baracus.[21]
The production budget for the film was $110 million,[3][22] but the cost came in at $100 million after tax credits.[2]
Casting[edit]
In June 2009, Variety revealed that Liam Neeson was in negotiations with 20th Century Fox to star as Hannibal Smith,[23] and Bradley Cooper announced to MTV News[24] that he would be playing the role of Templeton Peck after he first denied the rumors saying that he was not involved and insisted that he had not seen any script.[25]
On August 26, 2009, MMAjunkie.com reported that mixed martial arts fighter Quinton Jackson would play the role of B.A. Baracus in the upcoming film,[26] but this was later denied by a representative for Jackson.[27] In September 2009, The Vancouver Sun suggested that Jackson has been attached to the role and was postponing his fight at UFC 107 with Rashad Evans due to filming for The A-Team. Filming started in Vancouver in late 2009, and Jackson's involvement was then confirmed.[28][29]
On September 15, 2009, Variety confirmed the casting of Neeson, Cooper and Jackson. They additionally reported that Sharlto Copley and Jessica Biel were in final negotiations to join the cast. Copley would be playing the role of H.M. Murdock and Biel would be playing the ex-lover of Face who is a disillusioned and ruthless Army officer in charge of pursuing the team.[30] 20th Century Fox later confirmed that Copley and Biel were cast in the film.[11]
On September 30, 2009, Liam Neeson and the rest of the cast were seen filming scenes in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, as shooting got under way.[31] The first official pictures of Neeson, Cooper, Copley and Jackson in character were soon released, including one which features the iconic van in the background.[16]
On October 30, 2009, Dwight Schultz confirmed that he had filmed a cameo scene for the movie.[32] This news was followed on the November 23, 2009, that Dirk Benedict would also make a cameo.[33] Schultz and Benedict played Howling Mad Murdock and Templeton Peck respectively in the original series. Mr. T, the original BA Baracus, did not appear in the film. In an interview with Wendy Williams, he said he did not like doing a cameo appearance in a film based on the original series he once did.
Marketing[edit]
Comics[edit]
In February 2010, it was announced a series of comics for the movie would be released beginning in March. Written by Carnahan and Chuck Dixon, the series, The A-Team: War Stories is a prequel to the film, featuring one-shots focusing each on Hannibal, Face, BA, and Murdock.[34] A second series, The A-Team: Shotgun Wedding, is a tie-in to the film by showing an all-new adventure set after the quartet escaped. Film director Joe Carnahan and Tom Waltz collaborated to pen the series.
Jazwares released a line of action figures featuring the four main characters, plus the GMC Vandura.
Video game[edit]
An application for the iPhone was released as part of the marketing blitz for the film. The A-Team application is a side-scrolling, third person, action shooter game. Produced by RealNetworks the game includes voice-overs from B.A. Baracus.[35]
Release[edit]
The film's first trailer was released January 8, 2010.[36] The film's second trailer was released April 1, 2010.[37] The film premiered in Los Angeles on Thursday June 3, 2010, at Grauman's Chinese Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard. Liam Neeson arrived in The A-Team custom Chevrolet G20 van; Bradley Cooper and Sharlto Copley rode in on a real U.S. Army tank.[38][39] The film opened nationwide on June 11, 2010.[40]
The film premiered in the United Kingdom on July 27, before going on general release the next day. The event was attended by the four team members along with Jessica Biel, and the A-Team van.[41]
Home media[edit]
The film was released on December 14, 2010 on DVD and Blu-ray.[42] It was released on DVD and Blu-ray on October 27 in Australia and on November 29, 2010 in the UK. An extended cut was also released, pushing the running time to 133 minutes.[43] Two of the most noteworthy additions in the extended cut were the two cameo scenes of the original Face and Murdock, which were pushed back after the end credits in the original cut due to pacing.[44]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the action, humor and acting, mostly from Sharlto Copley, but criticized the story for being generic and predictable.[7] Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 47%, based on reviews from 203 critics, with an average rating of 5.4/10.[45] The site's critical consensus is: "For better and for worse, Joe Carnahan's big-screen version of The A-Team captures the superficial, noisy spirit of the TV series."[45] Another aggregator, Metacritic, calculated a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[7]
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly says of the film: "It's trash so compacted it glows".[46] Richard Corliss of Time magazine calls the film "the best in a mediocre line-up of summer-action flicks". He goes on to say the film lacks "a coherent plot and complex characterization", though he does note that these qualities "are irrelevant to the genre".[47] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine calls the film, "big, loud, ludicrous and edited into visual incomprehension", but "pity the fool who lets that stand in the way of enjoying The A-Team".[48] In contrast, Lou Lumenick of the New York Post, who titled his piece "Pity the fool who sees 'The A-Team'", is among the most critical, calling the film "overlong, overblown and utterly forgettable."[49] The Hollywood Reporter criticizes the film's story, character development and logic, calling it "nearly writer-free",[50] while the St. Petersburg Times was far more positive, calling the film "literally a blast" from start to finish, and praises it for "containing more thrills than the average shoot-em-up".[51]
Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said The A-Team is an incomprehensible mess, criticizing the film for being as shallow as the television series, which he describes as "punishment" when drawn out to a two-hour-long film.[52] Stephen Whitty of The Star-Ledger complains the film makers remembered little more from the television series than a Dirty Dozen gimmick and compares the film to the "awful" Smokin' Aces by the same director.[53]
Comments by original cast[edit]
Dirk Benedict, who played Templeton Peck in the TV series, spoke of regretting his cameo, stating "You'll miss me if you blink. I kind of regret doing it because it's a non-part. They wanted to be able to say, 'Oh yeah, the original cast are in it,' but we're not. It is three seconds. It's kind of insulting."[54]
Mr. T, the original B. A. Baracus, was offered a cameo, but turned it down.[55] In a 2010 interview with Script magazine director Joe Carnahan claimed that Mr. T, after viewing scenes from the film, thought the final product was "the greatest thing in the world".[56] After the premiere of the film Mr. T allegedly stated that he had become disillusioned and felt the story emphasized sex and violence, and that it was unfaithful to the original series.[57] An attorney for Mr. T later stated that the actor had not yet seen the film and could not comment on it.[58]
Dwight Schultz, who played the TV series' "Howling Mad" Murdock, issued a statement to his official fansite that the film "pays homage to the series while it eschews its essential working premise: a band of capable military brothers for hire determined to save underdog and usually poor civilians from scum. ... The team characters are sufficiently different and, with so many roles reversed from the original, one could say they are not really derivative, save for their names." He also noted that Sharlto Copley's Murdock "is faithful to the original, but at the same time is big screen twisted and right at home with the new team."
In the psychiatric hospital scene, Reginald Barclay, Schultz's character from Star Trek: The Next Generation, is credited during the opening title of a film, as is G.F. Starbuck, referencing Lieutenant Starbuck, Benedict's character from the original Battlestar Galactica.[59]
Box office[edit]
The film fell slightly short of expectations for its opening weekend, earning $26 million, as opposed to the initially predicted $30–35 million.[2] The film opened behind The Karate Kid, which took in $56 million.[60][61] The film opened in the UK/Ireland on July 28, 2010, and came at No. 3 in at the box office with a first weekend haul of $5.6 million.[3] As of August 26, 2010[update], The A-Team had taken over $77 million at the U.S. box office, and $99 million internationally, for a worldwide total of over $176 million.[3]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
IGN Award Best Action Movie The A-Team Nominated
Teen Choice Award Choice Summer Movie The A-Team Nominated
Taurus Award Hardest Hit Brian Machleit (stunt double) Won
Soundtrack[edit]
The A-Team: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
Soundtrack album by Alan Silvestri
Released
June 21, 2010 (2010-06-21)
Genre
Film score
Length
72:28
Label
Varèse Sarabande
Producer
Alan Silvestri
Alan Silvestri chronology
A Christmas Carol
(2009)A Christmas Carol2009 The A-Team
(2010) Captain America: The First Avenger
(2011)Captain America: The First Avenger2011
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
Allmusic [62]
The soundtrack album of The A-Team was released on June 21, 2010,[63] by Varèse Sarabande.[64] On December 1, 2009, it was announced that Alan Silvestri would compose the film score.[65] Silvestri recorded his score with a 90-piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Newman Scoring Stage at 20th Century Fox.[66]
Track listing
All music composed by Alan Silvestri unless stated otherwise.
No.
Title
Length
1. "Somewhere in Mexico" (Uses original The A-Team Theme composed by Mike Post and Pete Carpenter) 2:12
2. "Saving Face" 3:32
3. "Alpha Mike Foxtrot" 4:29
4. "Welcome to Baghdad" 4:22
5. "The Plan" 6:11
6. "Court Martial" 3:09
7. "Putting the Team Back Together" 3:39
8. "Flying a Tank" 6:10
9. "Frankfurt" 4:11
10. "Retrieving the Plates" 4:09
11. "Safehouse" 3:50
12. "Safehouse Aftermath" 4:58
13. "Shell Game" 2:44
14. "The Docks (Part 1)" 7:35
15. "The Docks (Part 2)" 5:47
16. "I Love It When a Plan Comes Together" (Uses original The A-Team Theme composed by Mike Post and Pete Carpenter) 5:26
Total length: 72:28
Songs used in the film are:
"House of Pain" by The Game
"Shut Up" by Trick Daddy
"Trio Para Enamorados (Trio for Lovers)" by Jorge Calandrelli
"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)" (Sung onscreen by Sharlto Copley)
"A-Team Blastoff Suite" by Tom Morello
"I Got Mine" by The Black Keys
"I've Been Lonely for So Long" by Frederick Knight
"The Washington Post" by John Phillip Sousa
"I Don't Want to Change Your Mind" by Wildlife
"My Girl Has Rosenmand" written by Johannes Brahms and performed by Peter Schreier and Konrad Ragossnig
"The Little Drummer Boy" written by Harry Simeone, Katherine K. Davis and Henry Onorati
"Anarchy in the U.K." by Sex Pistols
"I Ran 6 Miles" by Gary Sredzienski
"Reelin' In the Years" written by Steely Dan
Cancelled sequel[edit]
Neeson, Cooper, Copley and Jackson originally expressed interest in doing a sequel.[67][68] Joe Carnahan has expressed interest in directing a sequel and said it will depend on DVD and Blu-ray sales and rentals.[69] On March 10, 2011, Cooper stated that the film had not generated enough revenue for there to be a sequel.[70] This was confirmed by Liam Neeson in a webchat.[71] Neeson later commented in early 2012 that he understood why the film was not successful: "I watched it about two months ago and I found it a little confusing and I was in the thing. I just couldn’t figure out who was who and what’s been done to him and why, a little bit."[72] Later in 2013 Carnahan said on his Twitter account "For the record guys and as much as I appreciate all the A-TEAM love. There will NOT be a sequel. It didn't make enough $$$ and that's that."[73]
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Jump up ^ The A-Team Soundtrack VSD-7032. Retrieved September 16, 2014
Jump up ^ "Alan Silvestri has been slated to score 'The A-Team' for director Joe Carnahan". 2009-12-01. cf. "Alan Silvestri slated to score 'The A-Team'". Movie Score Magazine. 2009-12-02.
Jump up ^ Goldwasser, Dan (August 4, 2010). "Alan Silvestri scores The A-Team". ScoringSessions.com. Retrieved 2010-09-21.
Jump up ^ "Liam Neeson | Liam Neeson Wants A-Team Sequel In New York". Contactmusic. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Bradley Cooper achieved his dream in The A-Team, hints at sequel - Coventry Telegraph - The Geek Files". Blogs.coventrytelegraph.net. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Joe Carnahan Talks 'A-Team' DVD And Sequel, Says 'The Grey' Will Be 'Jaws-Like'". Moviesblog.mtv.com. 2010-12-17. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Bradley Cooper: There'll Be No A-Team 2". Empire. March 10, 2011. Retrieved March 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Liam Neeson: I'm a big wuss in real life!". MSN. September 13, 2012. Retrieved September 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Howell, Peter (2012-01-26). "Liam Neeson’s an action man for all seasons - thestar.com". thestar.com. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Joe Carnahan on Twitter: "For the record guys and as much as I appreciate all the A-TEAM love. There will NOT be a sequel. It didn't make enough $$$ and that's that."". Retrieved October 4, 2014.
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Apocrypha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Apocryphal" redirects here. For the section found in some Bibles called Apocrypha, see Biblical apocrypha. For The X-Files episode, see Apocrypha (The X-Files).
Apocryphal letter of Sultan Mohammed II to the Pope ("Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades au XVe siècle") / published by Nicolas Jorga. Series 4: 1453–1476, Paris; Bucarest, 1915, pages 126–127
Apocrypha are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin.[1] Biblical apocrypha is a set of texts included in the Latin Vulgate and Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. While Catholic tradition considers the texts to be deuterocanonical, Protestants consider them apocryphal. Thus, Protestant bibles do not include the books within the Old Testament but have often included them in a separate section. Other non-canonical apocryphal texts are generally called pseudepigrapha, a term that means "false writings".[2]
The word's origin is the Medieval Latin adjective apocryphus, "secret, or non-canonical", from the Greek adjective ἀπόκρυφος (apokryphos), "obscure", from the verb ἀποκρύπτειν (apokryptein), "to hide away".[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Examples
2.1 Esoteric writings and objects
2.2 Writings of questionable value
2.3 Spurious writings
2.4 Other
2.5 Metaphorical usage
3 Texts
3.1 Judaism
3.2 Intertestamental
3.3 Christianity
3.3.1 Disputes over canonicity
3.3.2 New Testament apocrypha
3.3.3 List of Sixty
3.4 Confucianism and Taoism
3.5 Buddhism
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links
Introduction[edit]
Apocrypha is commonly applied in Christian religious contexts involving certain disagreements about biblical canonicity. Apocryphal writings are a class of documents rejected by some as being either pseudepigraphical and/or unworthy to be properly called Scripture, though, as with other writings, they may sometimes be referenced for support, such as the Book of Jasher. While writings that are now accepted by Christians as Scripture were recognized as being such by various believers early on, the establishment of a largely settled uniform canon was a process of centuries, and what the term "canon" (as well as "apocrypha") precisely meant also saw development. The canonical process took place with believers recognizing writings as being inspired by God from known or accepted origins, subsequently being followed by official affirmation of what had become largely established through the study and debate of the writings.[4] The Roman Catholic church provided its first dogmatic definition of her entire canon in 1546, which put a stop to doubts and disagreements about the status of the Apocrypha, as well as certain other books, which had continued from the beginning of the NT church.[5] The leader of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther, like the Catholic church father Jerome (and certain others), favored the Masoretic canon for the Old Testament, excluding apocryphal books in his non-binding canon as being worthy to properly be called Scripture, but included most of them in a separate section, as per Jerome.[6] Luther also doubted the canonicity of four New Testament books (Hebrews, James and Jude, and Revelation), which judgment Protestantism did not follow, but he did not title them Apocrypha.
Explaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Today Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon.
Examples[edit]
Esoteric writings and objects[edit]
The word "apocryphal" (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied[by whom?] to writings which were kept secret[citation needed] because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered too profound or too sacred to be disclosed to anyone other than the initiated. For example, the disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted that they possessed the secret (ἀπόκρυφα) books of Zoroaster. The term in general enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (see Acts of Thomas, pp. 10, 27, 44).[7]
Sinologist Anna Seidel refers to texts and even items produced by ancient Chinese sages as apocryphal and studied their uses during Six Dynasties China (A.D. 220 to 589). These artifacts were used as symbols legitimizing and guaranteeing the Emperor's Heavenly Mandate. Examples of these include talismans, charts, writs, tallies, and registers. The first examples were stones, jade pieces, bronze vessels and weapons, but came to include talismans and magic diagrams.[8] From their roots in Zhou era China (1066 to 256 B.C.) these items came to be surpassed in value by texts by the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 220). Most of these texts have been destroyed as Emperors, particularly during the Han dynasty, collected these legitimizing objects and proscribed, forbade and burnt nearly all of them to prevent them from falling into the hands of political rivals.[8] It is therefore fitting with the Greek root of the word, as these texts were obviously hidden away to protect the ruling Emperor from challenges to his status as Heaven's choice as sovereign.
Writings of questionable value[edit]
"Apocrypha" was also applied to writings that were hidden not because of their divinity but because of their questionable value to the church. Many in Protestant traditions cite Revelation 22:18–19 as a potential curse for those who attach any canonical authority to extra-biblical writings such as the Apocrypha. However, a strict explanation of this text would indicate it was meant for only the Book of Revelation. Rv.22:18–19f. (KJV) states: "For I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book: And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are written in this book." In this case, if one holds to a strict hermeneutic, the "words of the prophecy" do not refer to the Bible as a whole but to Jesus' Revelation to John. The early Christian theologian Origen, in his Commentaries on Matthew, distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings: γραφὴ μὴ φερομένη μέν ἒν τοῖς κοινοῖς καὶ δεδημοσιευμένοις βιβλίοις εἰκὸς δ' ὅτι ἒν ἀποκρύφοις φερομένη (writing not found on the common and published books in one hand, actually found on the secret ones on the other).[9] The meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to "excluded from the public use of the church", and prepares the way for an even less favourable use of the word.[7]
Spurious writings[edit]
In general use, the word "apocrypha" came to mean "false, spurious, bad, or heretical." This meaning also appears in Origen's prologue to his commentary on the Song of Songs, of which only the Latin translation survives: De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem.[7] "Concerning these scriptures, which are called apocryphal, for the reason that many things are found in them corrupt and against the true faith handed down by the elders, it has pleased them that they not be given a place nor be admitted to authority."
Other[edit]
Other uses of apocrypha developed over the history of Western Christianity. The Gelasian Decree (generally held now as being the work of an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553) refers to religious works by church fathers Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria as apocrypha. Augustine defined the word as meaning simply "obscurity of origin," implying that any book of unknown authorship or questionable authenticity would be considered apocryphal. On the other hand, Jerome (in Protogus Galeatus) declared that all books outside the Hebrew canon were apocryphal. In practice, Jerome treated some books outside the Hebrew canon as if they were canonical, and the Western Church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, instead retaining the word's prior meaning (see: Deuterocanon).[7] As a result, various church authorities labeled different books as apocrypha, treating them with varying levels of regard.
Origen (who stated that "the canonical books, as the Hebrews have handed them down, are twenty-two"),[10] Clement and others cited some apocryphal books as "scripture," "divine scripture," "inspired," and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine and familiar with the Hebrew canon excluded from the canon all of the Old Testament not found there. This view is reflected in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. A third view was that the books were not as valuable as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, but were of value for moral uses, as introductory texts for new converts from paganism, and to be read in congregations. They were referred to as "ecclesiastical" works by Rufinus.[7]
These three opinions regarding the apocryphal books prevailed until the Protestant Reformation, when the idea of what constitutes canon became a matter of primary concern for Roman Catholics and Protestants alike. In 1546 the Catholic Council of Trent reconfirmed the canon of Augustine, dating to the second and third centuries, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, were declared canonical at Trent.[7] The Protestants, in comparison, were diverse in their opinion of the deuterocanon early on. Some considered them divinely inspired, others rejected them. Anglicans took a position between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Churches; they kept them as Christian intertestamental readings and a part of the Bible, but no doctrine should be based on them.[citation needed] John Wycliffe, a 14th-century Christian Humanist, had declared in his biblical translation that "whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief."[7] Nevertheless, his translation of the Bible included the apocrypha and the Epistle of the Laodiceans.[11]
Martin Luther did not class apocryphal books as being Scripture, but in both the German (1534) translation of the Bible, the apocrypha are published in a separate section from the other books, although the Lutheran and Anglican lists are different. In some editions (like the Westminster), readers were warned that these books were not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings." A milder distinction was expressed elsewhere, such as in the "argument" introducing them in the Geneva Bible, and in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine.[7] Among some other Protestants, the term apocryphal began to take on extra or altered connotations: not just of dubious authenticity, but having spurious or false content,[4] not just obscure but having hidden or suspect motives.[citation needed] Protestants were (and are) not unanimous in adopting those meanings. The Church of England agreed, and that view continues today throughout the Lutheran Church, the worldwide Anglican Communion, and many other denominations.[citation needed] Whichever implied meaning is intended, Apocrypha was (and is) used primarily by Protestants, in reference to the books of questioned canonicity. Catholics and Orthodox sometimes avoid using the term in contexts where it might be disputatious or be misconstrued as yielding on the point of canonicity. Thus the respect accorded to apocryphal books varied between Protestant denominations. Most Protestant published Bibles that include the apocryphal books will relocate them into a separate section (rather like an appendix), so as not to intermingle them with their canonical books.
According to the Orthodox Anglican Church:
On the other hand, the Anglican Communion emphatically maintains that the Apocrypha is part of the Bible and is to be read with respect by her members. Two of the hymns used in the American Prayer Book office of Morning Prayer, the Benedictus es and Benedicite, are taken from the Apocrypha. One of the offertory sentences in Holy Communion comes from an apocryphal book (Tob. 4: 8–9). Lessons from the Apocrypha are regularly appointed to be read in the daily, Sunday, and special services of Morning and Evening Prayer. There are altogether 111 such lessons in the latest revised American Prayer Book Lectionary [The books used are: II Esdras, Tobit, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Three Holy Children, and I Maccabees.] The position of the Church is best summarized in the words of Article Six of the Thirty-nine Articles: "In the name of Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical Books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority there was never any doubt in the Church... And the other Books (as Hierome [St. Jerome] saith) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine.[12]
With few exceptions, the 66 book Protestantism canon (such as listed in the Westminster Confession of 1646)[13] has been well established for centuries, and with many today contending against the Apocrypha using various arguments.[14][15][16]
Metaphorical usage[edit]
The adjective apocryphal is commonly used in modern English to refer to any text or story considered to be of dubious veracity or authority, although it may contain some moral truth. In this broader metaphorical sense, the word suggests a claim that is in the nature of folklore, factoid or urban legend.
Texts[edit]
Judaism[edit]
Main article: Jewish apocrypha
Although Orthodox Jews believe in the exclusive canonization of the current 24 books in the Tanakh, they also consider the Oral Torah to be authoritative, which they believe was handed down from Moses. The Sadducees—unlike the Pharisees but like the Samaritans—seem to have maintained an earlier and smaller number of texts as canonical, preferring to hold to only what was written in the Law of Moses[17] (making most of the presently accepted canon, both Jewish and Christian, apocryphal in their eyes). Certain circles in Judaism, such as the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt, were said to have a secret literature (see Dead Sea scrolls). Other traditions maintained different customs regarding canonicity.[18] The Ethiopic Jews, for instance, seem to have retained a spread of canonical texts similar to the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians,[19] cf Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol 6, p 1147.
Intertestamental[edit]
Main article: Biblical apocrypha
See also: Intertestamental period
During the birth of Christianity, some of the Jewish apocrypha that dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom became popular in the rising Jewish Christian communities. Occasionally these writings were changed or added to, but on the whole it was found sufficient to reinterpret them as conforming to a Christian viewpoint. Christianity eventually gave birth to new apocalyptic works, some of which were derived from traditional Jewish sources. Some of the Jewish apocrypha were part of the ordinary religious literature of the Early Christians. This was strange, as the large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Greek Septuagint, which is the source of the deuterocanonical books[20] as well as most of the other biblical apocrypha.[21]
Slightly varying collections of additional Books (called deuterocanonical by the Roman Catholic Church) form part of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox canons. See Development of the Old Testament canon.
The Book of Enoch is included in the biblical canon only of the Oriental Orthodox churches of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Epistle of Jude quotes the book of Enoch, and some believe the use of this book also appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter.[22][23] The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Epistle of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria[7] and much of the early church. The epistles of Paul and the gospels also show influences from the Book of Jubilees, which is part of the Ethiopian canon, as well as the Assumption of Moses and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which are included in no biblical canon.
The high position which some apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences in the Christian church.[7] All claims to the possession of a secret tradition (as held by many Gnostic sects) were denied by the influential theologians like Irenaeus and Tertullian, which modern historians refer to as the Proto-orthodox, the timeframe of true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as proof of apostolic authorship. As these principles gained currency, books deemed apocryphal tended to become regarded as spurious and heretical writings, though books now considered deuterocanonical have been used in liturgy and theology from the first century to the present.
Christianity[edit]
Disputes over canonicity[edit]
The actual status of the books which the Catholic church terms Deuterocanonicals (second canon) and Protestantism refers to as Apocrypha has been an issue of disagreement which preceded the Reformation. Many believe that the pre-Christian-era Jewish translation (into Greek) of holy scriptures known as the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures originally compiled around 280 B.C., originally included the apocryphal writings in dispute, with little distinction made between them and the rest of the Old Testament. Others argue that the Septuagint of the first century did not contain these books but were added later by Christians,[24][25] The earliest extant manuscripts of the Septuagint are from the fourth century, and suffer greatly from a lack of uniformity as regards containing apocryphal books,[26][27][28] and some also contain books classed as Pseudepigrapha, from which texts were cited by some early writers in the second and later centuries as being Scripture.[4]
While a few scholars conclude that the Jewish canon was the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty,[29] it is generally considered to not have been finalized until about 100 A.D.[30] or somewhat later, at which time considerations of Greek language and beginnings of Christian acceptance of the Septuagint weighed against some of the texts. Some were not accepted by the Jews as part of the Hebrew Bible canon and the Apocrypha is not part of the historical Jewish canon.
Early church fathers such as Athanasius, Melito, Origen, and Cyril of Jerusalem, spoke against the canonicity of much or all of the apocrypha,[24] but the most weighty opposition was the fourth century Catholic scholar Jerome who preferred the Hebrew canon, whereas Augustine and others preferred the wider (Greek) canon,[31] with both having followers in the generations that followed. The Catholic Encyclopedia states as regards the Middle Ages,
"In the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages [5th century to the 15th century] we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals. There is a current friendly to them, another one distinctly unfavourable to their authority and sacredness, while wavering between the two are a number of writers whose veneration for these books is tempered by some perplexity as to their exact standing, and among those we note St. Thomas Aquinas. Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity." The prevailing attitude of Western medieval authors is substantially that of the Greek Fathers.[32]
The wider Christian canon accepted by Augustine became the more established canon in the western Church[33] after being promulgated for use in the Easter Letter of Athanasius (circa 372 A.D., though in the same letter he denied all apocryphal books as being Scripture, except for Baruch, while excluding Esther).[34] the Synod of Rome (382 A.D., but its Decretum Gelasianum is generally considered to be a much later addition[35] ) and the local councils of Carthage and Hippo in north Africa (391 and 393 A.D). Nevertheless, none of these constituted indisputable definitions, and significant scholarly doubts and disagreements about the nature of the Apocrypha continued for centuries and even into Trent,[36][37][38] which provided the first infallible definition of the Catholic canon in 1546.[39][40] This canon came to see appropriately 1,000 years of nearly uniform use by the majority, even after the 11th-century schism that separated the church into the branches known as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers challenged the canonicity of the books and partial-books found in the surviving Septuagint but not in the Masoretic Text. In response to this challenge, after the death of Martin Luther (February 8, 1546) the ecumenical Council of Trent officially ("infallibly") declared these books (called "deuterocanonical" by Catholics) to be part of the canon in April, 1546 A.D. While the Protestant Reformers rejected the parts of the canon that were not part of the Hebrew Bible, they included the four New Testament books Luther held as doubtful canonicity along with the Apocrypha in his non-binding canon (though most were separately included in his bible,[4] as they were in some editions of the KJV bible until 1947).[41] Protestantism therefore established a 66 book canon with the 39 books based on the ancient Hebrew canon, along with the traditional 27 books of the New Testament. Protestants also rejected the Catholic term "deuterocanonical" for these writings, preferring to apply the term "apocryphal" which was already in use for other early and disputed writings. As today (but along with others reasons),[24] various reformers argued that those books contained doctrinal or other errors and thus should not have been added to the canon for that reason. The differences between canons can be seen under Biblical canon and Development of the Christian biblical canon.
Explaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Those differences (in matters of jurisdictional authority) were contributing factors in the separation of the Roman Catholics and Orthodox around 1054, but the formation of the canon which Trent would later officially definitively settle was largely complete by the fifth century, in not settled, six centuries before the separation. In the eastern part of the church, it took much of the fifth century also to come to agreement, but in the end it was accomplished. The canonical books thus established by the undivided church became the predominate canon for what was later to become Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox alike. The East did already differ from the West in not considering every question of canon yet settled, and it subsequently adopted a few more books into its Old Testament. It also allowed consideration of yet a few more to continue not fully decided, which led in some cases to adoption in one or more jurisdictions, but not all. Thus, there are today a few remaining differences of canon among Orthodox, and all Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon. The Psalms of Solomon, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, the Epistle of Jeremiah the Book of Odes, the Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 are included in some copies of the Septuagint,[42] some of which are accepted as canonical by Eastern Orthodox and some other churches. Protestants accept none of these additional books as canon either, but see them having roughly the same status as the other Apocrypha.
New Testament apocrypha[edit]
Main article: New Testament apocrypha
New Testament apocrypha—books similar to those in the New Testament but almost universally rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants—include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some were written by early Jewish Christians (see the Gospel according to the Hebrews). Others of these were produced by Gnostic authors or members of other groups later defined as heterodox. Many texts believed lost for centuries were unearthed in the 19th and 20th centuries, producing lively speculation about their importance in early Christianity among religious scholars,[citation needed] while many others survive only in the form of quotations from them in other writings; for some, no more than the title is known. Artists and theologians have drawn upon the New Testament apocrypha for such matters as the names of Dismas and Gestas and details about the Three Wise Men. The first explicit mention of the perpetual virginity of Mary is found in the pseudepigraphical Infancy Gospel of James.
Before the fifth century, the Christian writings that were then under discussion for inclusion in the canon but had not yet been accepted were classified in a group known as the ancient antilegomenae. These were all candidates for the New Testament and included several books which were eventually accepted, such as: The Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, 3 John and the Revelation of John (Apocalypse). None of those accepted books can be considered Apocryphal now, since all Christendom accepts them as canonical. Of the uncanonized ones, the Early Church considered some heretical but viewed others quite well. Some Christians, in an extension of the meaning, might also consider the non-heretical books to be "apocryphal" along the manner of Martin Luther: not canon, but useful to read. This category includes books such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and The Shepherd of Hermas which are sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Gnostic tradition was a prolific source of apocryphal gospels.[7] While these writings borrowed the characteristic poetic features of apocalyptic literature from Judaism, Gnostic sects largely insisted on allegorical interpretations based on a secret apostolic tradition. With them, these apocryphal books were highly esteemed. A well-known Gnostic apocryphal book is the Gospel of Thomas, the only complete text of which was found in the Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. The Gospel of Judas, a Gnostic gospel, also received much media attention when it was reconstructed in 2006.
Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians as well as Protestants generally agree on the canon of the New Testament, see Development of the New Testament canon. The Ethiopian Orthodox have in the past also included I & II Clement and Shepherd of Hermas in their New Testament canon.
List of Sixty[edit]
The List of Sixty, dating to around the 7th century, lists the sixty books of the Bible. The unknown author also lists several apocryphal books that are not included amongst the sixty. These books are:[2]
Adam
Enoch
Lamech
Twelve Patriarchs
Prayer of Joseph
Eldad and Modad
Testament of Moses
Assumption of Moses
Psalms of Solomon
Apocalypse of Elijah
Ascension of Isaiah
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
Apocalypse of Zechariah
Apocalyptic Ezra
History of James
Apocalypse of Peter
Itinerary and Teaching of the Apostles
Epistle of Barnabas
Acts of Paul
Apocalypse of Paul
Didascalia of Clement
Didascalia of Ignatius
Didascalia of Polycarp
Gospel According to Barnabas
Gospel According to Matthew
Confucianism and Taoism[edit]
Prophetic texts called the Ch'an-wei (zh:讖緯) were written by Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE) Taoist priests to legitimize as well as curb imperial power.[43] They deal with treasure objects that were part of the Zhou (1066 to 256 BCE) royal treasures. Emerging from the instability of the Warring States period (476–221 BCE), ancient Chinese scholars saw the centralized rule of the Zhou as an ideal model for the new Han empire to emulate. The Ch'an-wei are therefore texts written by Han scholars about the Zhou royal treasures, only they were not written to record history for its own sake, but for legitimizing the current imperial reign. These texts took the form of stories about texts and objects being conferred upon the Emperors by Heaven and comprising these ancient sage-king's (this is how the Zhou emperors were referred to by this time, about 500 years after their peak) royal regalia.[43] The desired effect was to confirm the Han emperor's Heavenly Mandate through the continuity offered by his possession of these same sacred talismans. It is because of this politicized recording of their history that it is difficult to retrace the exact origins of these objects. What is known is that these texts were most likely produced by a class of literati called the fangshi. These were a class of nobles who were not part of the state administration; they were considered specialists or occultists, for example diviners, astrologers, alchemists or healers.[43] It is from this class of nobles that the first Taoist priests are believed to have emerged. Seidel points out however that the scarcity of sources relating to the formation of early Taoism make the exact link between the apocryphal texts and the Taoist beliefs unclear.[43]
Buddhism[edit]
Main article: Buddhist apocrypha
Apocryphal Jatakas of the Pali Buddhist canon, such as those belonging to the Paññāsajātaka collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain Southeast Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals.[44][45]
Within the Pali tradition, the apocryphal Jatakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) are treated as a separate category of literature from the "Official" Jataka stories that have been more-or-less formally canonized from at least the 5th century—as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls.
See also[edit]
Occult
Shakespeare apocrypha
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Little, Williams. Onions, C.T., editors. The Oxford Universal Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1955
^ Jump up to: a b Bromiley, Geoffrey William, ed. (2009). "Apocrypha". The International standard Bible encyclopedia (2 ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans.
Jump up ^ "Apocrypha - Definition". merriam-webster.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McDonald, Lee Martin (2009). Forgotten Scriptures: The Selection and Rejection of Early Religious Writings. Louisville, KY 40202-1396. pp. 11–33. ISBN 978-0664233570. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
Jump up ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia (Vol. 3 ed.). , Washington, DC 20064: Catholic University of America. 2003. pp. 20, 26.
Jump up ^ Coogan, Michael David (2007). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books . Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 457.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Charles 1911
^ Jump up to: a b Seidel, Anna. "Imperial treasures and Taoist sacraments", in M. Strickmann, ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honor of Rolf A. Stein, II, Bruxelles, Institut belge des hautes etudes chinoises. pp. 291-371.
Jump up ^ Commentaries on Matthew, X. 18, XIII. 57[not specific enough to verify]
Jump up ^ "Origen on the Canon". BibleResearcher.com. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "John Wycliffe's Translation". nnu.edu.
Jump up ^ The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments Archived August 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "THE WESTMINSTER CONFESSION OF FAITH". BibleResearcher.com. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Blocher, Henri (2004). "Helpful or Harmful? The "Apocrypha" and Evangelical Theology". European Journal of Theology (13.2): 81–90.
Jump up ^ Webster, William. "The Old Testament Canon and the Apocrypha Part 3". Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Shamoun, Sam. "Are The Jewish Apocrypha Inspired Scripture? Pt. 4". Answering Islam - A Christian-Muslim dialog. Answering Islam. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "SADDUCEES". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ The Old Testament Canon Archived December 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ethiopian Orthodox Old Testament Archived December 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Deuterocanonical books literally means books of the second canon. The term was coined in the 16th century.
Jump up ^ The Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical literature instead of apocrypha in academic writing, although not all apocryphal books are properly deuterocanonical.
Jump up ^ Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament", Cornerstone Publications (2008), ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5
Jump up ^ http://www.accordancebible.com/Comprehensive-Crossreferences
^ Jump up to: a b c Wegner, Paul D. (2004). The Journey from Texts to Translations: The Origin and Development of the Bible. Baker Academic. p. 14. ISBN 978-0801027994.
Jump up ^ Beckwith, Roger T. (November 1, 2008). The Canon of the Old Testament (PDF). Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Pub. pp. 62, 382–83. ISBN 978-1606082492. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Ellis, E. E. (1992). The Old Testament in Early Christianity. Ada, MI 49301: Baker. pp. 34–35.
Jump up ^ Archer, Jr, Gleason (2007). A survey of Old Testament introduction ([Rev. and expanded]. ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. pp. 75–86. ASIN 0802484344. ISBN 978-0802484345. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Jump up ^ Biddle, Martin Hengel with the assistance of Roland Deines; introd. by Robert Hanhart; transl. by Mark E. (2004). The Septuagint as Christian Scripture : its prehistory and the problem of its canon (North American paperback ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. pp. 57–59. ISBN 080102790X.
Jump up ^ Davies, Philip R. (September 1, 2013). Rethinking Biblical Scholarship: Changing Perspectives 4. Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 978-1844657278.
Jump up ^ Newman, Robert C. "THE COUNCIL OF JAMNIA AND THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON" (PDF). Gordon Faculty Online. Gordon College. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Correspondence of Augustine and Jerome concerning the Latin Translation of the Scriptures". bible-researcher.com.
Jump up ^ Knight, Kevin. ". Canon of the Old Testament". New Advent. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Lienhard, S.J. A.B., Joseph. The Bible, the Church, and Authority. Collegeville, Minnesota: Fordham University. p. 59.
Jump up ^ bible-researcher.com. "Athanasius on the Canon". Retrieved 26 November 2015.
Jump up ^ BURKITT, F. C. "THE DECRETUM GELASIANUM.". tertullian.org. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Jedin, Hubert (1947). Papal Legate At The Council Of Trent. St Louis: B. Herder Book Co. pp. 270–271.
Jump up ^ Wicks, Jared (1978). Cajetan Responds: A Reader in Reformation Controversy. Washington: The Catholic University Press of America.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce (1957). An Introduction to the Apocrypha. New York: Oxford. p. 180.
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (1908). Canon of the Old Testament. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ H. Tavard,, George (1959). Holy Writ or Holy Church. London: Burns & Oates. pp. 16–17.
Jump up ^ Hiers, Richard H. (October 1, 2001). The Trinity Guide to the Bible. Norcross, GA 3007: Trinity Press International. p. 148. ISBN 1563383403. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Old Testament Canon and Apocrypha". BibleResearcher. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Seidel, Anna. "Imperial treasures and Taoist sacraments", in M. Strickmann, ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honor of Rolf A. Stein, II, Bruxelles, Institut belge des hautes etudes chinoises. 291–371.
Jump up ^ (Phra), Hōrāthibō̜dī; Siam), Nārāi (King of; Prince Paramānuchit Chinōrot (Son Of Phutthayō̜Tfā Čhulālōk, King of Siam (1993). The Tale of Prince Samuttakote. ISBN 9780896801745.
Jump up ^ http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/the_tham_vessantara_jataka_-_a_critical_study_of_the_vj_and_its_influence_on_kengtung_buddhism_eastern_shan_state.pdf
Sources[edit]
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Charles, Robert Henry (1911). "Apocryphal Literature". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 175–183.
External links[edit]
Look up apocrypha in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apocrypha
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Deuterocanonical books.
Alin Suciu's blog on various Coptic apocrypha
The Apocrypha is in the religion section at the e.Lib.
Noncanonical Literature
Complete NT Apocrypha Claims to be the largest collection of New Testament apocrypha online
Deuterocanonical books - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also presents the full text in Arabic)
LDS Bible Dictionary - Apocrypha – Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions.
Aldenicum The Trilogy, an apocryphal view on life and reality around us.
Christian Cyclopedia article on Apocrypha
New Testament Allusions to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Canon Comparison Chart
Schem, A. J. (1879). "Apocrypha". The American Cyclopædia.
"Apocrypha". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Apocrypha public domain audiobook at LibriVox
EarlyChristianWritings.com A chronological list of early Christian books and letters, both complete and incomplete works; canonical, apocryphal and Gnostic. Many with links to English translations.
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Houston black (soil)
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Houston black soil extends over 1,500,000 acres (6,100 km2) of the Texas blackland prairies and is the Texas state soil. The series is composed of expansive clays and is considered one of the classic vertisols.[1]
Houston black soils are used extensively for grain sorghum, cotton, corn, small grain, and forage grasses. In their natural state, they support mostly tall and mid grass prairies of big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi), sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), with some elm (Ulmus spp.), hackberry (Celtis spp.) and mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) trees.[2][3] The soil also shrinks and swells with variations in how much water it contains.[4] In the USDA taxonomic system it is designated an "Udic Haplusterts".[5]
See also[edit]
Pedology (soil study)
Soil types
List of U.S. state soils
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Houston Black -- Texas State Soil". US Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved 2013-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Houston Black Series". National Cooperative Soil Survey. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2013-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Houston Black: Proposed State Soil for Texas". US Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Archived from the original on 2010-10-08. Retrieved 2010-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Houston Black -- Texas State Soil". University of Illinois Urban Resources. Retrieved 2010-11-11.
Jump up ^ "What on Earth is Houston Black Soil?" (pdf). US Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. February 2003. Retrieved 2010-11-11. [permanent dead link]
This agriculture article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Houston_black_(soil)&oldid=831735501"
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