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Kenneth Burke
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For the Irish hurler, see Kenneth Burke (hurler).
Kenneth Duva Burke
Born
May 5, 1897
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Died
November 19, 1993 (aged 96)
Andover, New Jersey
Known for
Literary theorist and philosopher
Kenneth Duva Burke (May 5, 1897 – November 19, 1993) was an American literary theorist, as well as poet, essayist, and novelist, who wrote on 20th-century philosophy, aesthetics, criticism, and rhetorical theory.[1] As a literary theorist, Burke was best known for his analyses based on the nature of knowledge. Furthermore, he was one of the first individuals to stray away from more traditional rhetoric and view literature as "symbolic action."
Burke was unorthodox, concerning himself not only with literary texts, but with the elements of the text that interacted with the audience: social, historical, political background, author biography, etc.[2]
For his career, Burke has been praised by The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism as "one of the most unorthodox, challenging, and theoretically sophisticated American-born literary critics of the twentieth century." His work continues to be discussed by rhetoricians and philosophers.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal history
2 Persuasions and influences
3 Philosophy
3.1 Dramatism
3.2 Rebirth Cycle
3.3 Terministic screen
4 Principal works
5 Honors
6 References
7 External links
Personal history[edit]
He was born on May 5 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and graduated from Peabody High School, where his friend Malcolm Cowley was also a student. While he attended Ohio State University to pursue courses in French, German, Greek, and Latin, he later dropped out to move closer to New York City where he enrolled at Columbia University. During his time there, he was a member of the Boar's Head Society.[4] Due to the constraining learning environment, however, Burke also left Columbia, never receiving a college diploma.[5] In Greenwich Village he kept company with avant-garde writers such as Hart Crane, Malcolm Cowley, Gorham Munson, and later Allen Tate.[6] Raised by a Christian Science mother, Burke later became an avowed agnostic.
In 1919, he married Lily Mary Batterham, with whom he had three daughters: the late feminist, Marxist anthropologist Eleanor Leacock (1922–1987); musician (Jeanne) Elspeth Chapin Hart (b. 1920); and writer and poet France Burke (b. ~1925). He would later marry her sister Elizabeth Batterham in 1933 and have two sons, Michael and Anthony. Burke served as the editor of the modernist literary magazine The Dial in 1923, and as its music critic from 1927-1929. Kenneth himself was an avid player of the piano. He received the Dial Award in 1928 for distinguished service to American literature. He was the music critic of The Nation from 1934–1936, and was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1935.[7]
His work on criticism was a driving force for placing him back into the university spotlight. As a result, he was able to teach and lecture at various colleges, including Bennington College, while continuing his literary work. Many of Kenneth Burke's personal papers and correspondence are housed at Pennsylvania State University's Special Collections Library. However, despite his stint lecturing at Universities, Burke was an autodidact and a self-taught scholar. [8]
In later life, his New Jersey farm was a popular summer retreat for his extended family, as reported by his grandson Harry Chapin, a contemporary popular song artist. He died of heart failure at his home in Andover, New Jersey.[9]
Persuasions and influences[edit]
Burke, like many twentieth century theorists and critics, was heavily influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and Friedrich Nietzsche. He was a lifelong interpreter of Shakespeare and was also significantly influenced by Thorstein Veblen. He resisted being pigeonholed as a follower of any philosophical or political school of thought, and had a notable and very public break with the Marxists who dominated the literary criticism set in the 1930s.
Burke corresponded with a number of literary critics, thinkers, and writers over the years, including William Carlos Williams, Malcolm Cowley, Robert Penn Warren, Allen Tate, Ralph Ellison, Albert Murray, Katherine Anne Porter, Jean Toomer, Hart Crane, and Marianne Moore.[10] Later thinkers who have acknowledged Burke's influence include Harold Bloom, Stanley Cavell, J. Hillis Miller, Susan Sontag (his student at the University of Chicago), Erving Goffman,[11] Geoffrey Hartman, Edward Said, René Girard, Fredric Jameson, Michael Calvin McGee, Dell Hymes and Clifford Geertz. Burke was one of the first prominent American critics to appreciate and articulate the importance of Thomas Mann and André Gide; Burke produced the first English translation of "Death in Venice", which first appeared in The Dial in 1924. It is now considered to be much more faithful and explicit than H. T. Lowe-Porter's more famous 1930 translation.
Burke's political engagement is evident—A Grammar of Motives takes as its epigraph, ad bellum purificandum (toward the purification of war).
American literary critic Harold Bloom singled out Burke's Counterstatement and A Rhetoric of Motives for inclusion in his "Western Canon".
Beyond his contemporary influences, Burke took Aristotle's teachings into account while developing his theories on rhetoric. A significant source of his ideas is Aristotle's Rhetoric. Drawing from this work, Burke oriented his writing about language specifically to its social context. Similarly, he studied language as involving more than logical discourse and grammatical structure because he recognized that the social context of language cannot be reduced to principles of pure reason.
Burke draws a line between a Platonic and a more contemporary view of rhetoric, described as “old rhetoric” and “new rhetoric” respectively. The former is defined by persuasion by any means, while the latter is concerned with “identification.” In Burke's use of the word identification he is describing the process by which the speaker associates herself/himself with certain groups, such as a target audience. His idea of "identification" is similar to ethos of classical rhetoric, but it also explains the use of logos and pathos in an effort to create a lasting impression on the auditors. This theory differs from ethos most significantly in Burke's conception of artistic communication that he believes is defined by eloquence, which is “simply the end of art and therefore its essence.” The use of rhetoric conveys aesthetic and social competence which is why a text can rarely be reduced to purely scientific or political implications, according to Burke. Rhetoric forms our social identity by a series of events usually based on linguistics, but more generally by the use of any symbolic figures. He uses the metaphor of a drama to articulate this point, where interdependent characters speak and communicate with each other while allowing the others to do the same. Also, Burke describes identification as a function of persuasive appeal.[12]
Burke defined rhetoric as the “use of words by human agents to form attitudes or to induce actions in other human agents.” His definition builds on the preexisting ideas of how people understand the meaning of rhetoric. Burke describes rhetoric as using words to move people or encourage action.[citation needed] Furthermore, he described rhetoric as being almost synonymous with persuasion (A Rhetoric of Motives, 1950). Burke argued that rhetoric works to bring about change in people. This change can be evident through attitude, motives or intentions as Burke stated but it can also be physical. Calling for help is an act of rhetoric. Rhetoric is symbolic action that calls people to physical action. Ultimately, rhetoric and persuasion become interchangeable words according to Burke. Other scholars have similar definitions of rhetoric. Aristotle argued that rhetoric was a tool for persuading people (but also for gaining information). He stated that rhetoric had the power to persuade people if the speaker knew how. One way in which Aristotle formed his arguments was through syllogism. Another example of how rhetoric was used to persuade was deliberate discourse. Here, politicians and lawyers used speech to pass or reject policies. Sally Gearhart states that rhetoric uses persuasion to induce change. Although she argues persuasion is violent and harmful, she uses it as a tool herself to bring about change.
Philosophy[edit]
The political and social power of symbols was central to Burke's scholarship throughout his career. He felt that through understanding "what is involved when we say what people are doing and why they are doing it", we could gain insight into the cognitive basis for our perception of the world. For Burke, the way in which we decide to narrate gives importance to specific qualities over others. He believed that this could tell us a great deal about how we see the world.
Dramatism[edit]
Burke called the social and political rhetorical analysis "dramatism" and believed that such an approach to language analysis and language usage could help us understand the basis of conflict, the virtues and dangers of cooperation, and the opportunities of identification and consubstantiality.
Burke defined the rhetorical function of language as "a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols." His definition of humanity states that "man" is "the symbol using, making, and mis-using animal, inventor of the negative, separated from his natural condition by instruments of his own making, goaded by the spirit of hierarchy, and rotten with perfection."[13][14] For Burke, some of the most significant problems in human behavior resulted from instances of symbols using human beings rather than human beings using symbols.
Burke proposed that when we attribute motives to others, we tend to rely on ratios between five elements: act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. This has become known as the dramatistic pentad. The pentad is grounded in his dramatistic method, which considers human communication as a form of action. Dramatism "invites one to consider the matter of motives in a perspective that, being developed from the analysis of drama, treats language and thought primarily as modes of action" (Grammar of Motives xxii). Burke pursued literary criticism not as a formalistic enterprise but rather as an enterprise with significant sociological impact; he saw literature as "equipment for living," offering folk wisdom and common sense to people and thus guiding the way they lived their lives.
Rebirth Cycle[edit]
Through the use of dramatism, one can ultimately utilize Burke’s Rebirth Cycle. This cycle encompasses three distinct phases, which include: Guilt/Pollution, Purification, and Redemption. Burke introduced the phases and their functionality through the use of a poem. The poem follows, Here are the steps In the Iron Law of History That welds Order and Sacrifice Order leads to Guilt (For who can keep commandments!) Guilt needs Redemption (for who would not be cleaned!) Redemption needs Redeemer (which is to say, a Victim!) Order Through Guilt To Victimage (hence: Cult of the Kill)...” (p. 4-5) [15] Burke’s poem provides a basis of for the interactions of the three phases. Order’s introduction into the life of human enables the creation of guilt. In order to alleviate the results produced by the creation of Guilt, redemption is necessitated. Through the abstraction of redemption, Burke leads to the completion of the cycle.
Pollution initially constitutes actions taken by an individual that result in the creation of Guilt. The creation of Guilt occurs upon the rejection of a hierarchy. Challenges to relationships, changes in power, and appropriateness of behaviors to change are each contributing factors toward the formation of Guilt.[16] It is appropriate to draw parallels between the creation of Guilt, and the concept of original sin. Original sin constitutes “... an offense that cannot be avoided or a condition in which all people share”.[17] Guilt represents the initial action that strips a situation of its perceived purity. The establishment of Guilt necessarily leads to the need to undergo purification to cleanse the individual affected by its recognition. Purification is thus accomplished through two forms of “ritual purification.” Mortification and victimage represent the available avenues of purification
Stratification within society created by hierarchies allows for marginalization within societies. Marginalization thus is a leading factor in the creation of Guilt, and leads to the need for mortification. Burke stated, “In an emphatic way, mortification is the exercising of oneself in ‘virtue’; it is a systematic way of saying no to Disorder, or obediently saying yes to Order”.[18] Mortification allows an individual’s self-sacrifice which consequently enables them to rid themselves of impurities. Purification will only be reached, if it is equal to an individual’s degree of guilt. If mortification cannot be reached, individuals will ultimately be forced to project, “his conflict upon a scapegoat, by ‘passing the buck,’ by seeking a sacrificial vessel upon which he can vent, as from without, a turmoil that is actually within”.[19] Sacrificial vessels allow for the extermination of an individual’s Guilt while enabling them to remain virtuous. Victimage is the second form of ritual purification. Burke highlights society’s need to rectify division within its ranks. He contended that “People so dislike the idea of division, their dislike can easily be turned against the man or group who would so much as name it, let alone proposing to act upon it”.[20] Victimage allows for the creation of a scapegoat that serves as a depository of impurities in order to protect against entities that are alien to a particular society. The scapegoat takes on the sins of the impure, thus allowing redemption for the Guilty party. Unfortunately, through the course of these actions the scape goat is harnessed with the sins of the Guilty.
Redemption is reached through one of two options. Tragic redemption revolves around the idea that guilt combines with the principles of perfection and substitution in order that victimage can be utilized. This can be viewed as the “guilty is removed from the rhetorical community through either scapegoating or mortification”.[21] Comic enlightenment is the second form of redemption. This option allows the sins of the guilty to be adopted by Society as a whole, ultimately making Society guilty by association.
Terministic screen[edit]
Another key concept for Burke is the Terministic screen—a set of symbols that becomes a kind of screen or grid of intelligibility through which the world makes sense to us. Here Burke offers rhetorical theorists and critics a way of understanding the relationship between language and ideology. Language, Burke thought, doesn't simply "reflect" reality; it also helps select reality as well as deflect reality. In Language as Symbolic Action (1966), he writes, "Even if any given terminology is a reflection of reality, by its very nature as a terminology it must be a selection of reality; and to this extent must function also as a deflection of reality.[22] Burke describes terministic screens as reflections of reality—we see these symbols as things that direct our attention to the topic at hand. For example, photos of the same object with different filters each direct the viewer's attention differently, much like how different subjects in academia grab the attention differently. Burke states, “We must use terministic screens, since we can’t say anything without the use of terms; whatever terms we use, they necessarily constitute a corresponding kind of screen; and any such screen necessarily directs the attention to one field rather than another.” Burke drew not only from the works of Shakespeare and Sophocles, but from films and radio that were important to pop culture, because they were teeming with "symbolic and rhetorical ingredients." We as a people can be cued to accept the screen put in front of us, and mass culture such as TV and websites can be to blame for this. Media today has altered terministic screens, or as Richard Toye wrote in his book Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction, the "linguistic filters which cause us to see situations in particular fashions." [23][24]
Principal works[edit]
In "Definition of Man", the first essay of his collection Language as Symbolic Action (1966), Burke defined humankind as a "symbol using animal" (p. 3). This definition of man, he argued, means that "reality" has actually "been built up for us through nothing but our symbol system" (p. 5). Without our encyclopedias, atlases, and other assorted reference guides, we would know little about the world that lies beyond our immediate sensory experience. What we call "reality," Burke stated, is actually a "clutter of symbols about the past combined with whatever things we know mainly through maps, magazines, newspapers, and the like about the present . . . a construct of our symbol systems" (p. 5). College students wandering from class to class, from English literature to sociology to biology to calculus, encounter a new reality each time they enter a classroom; the courses listed in a university's catalogue "are in effect but so many different terminologies" (p. 5). It stands to reason then that people who consider themselves to be Christian, and who internalize that religion's symbol system, inhabit a reality that is different from the one of practicing Buddhists, or Jews, or Muslims. The same would hold true for people who believe in the tenets of free market capitalism or socialism, Freudian psychoanalysis or Jungian depth psychology, as well as mysticism or materialism. Each belief system has its own vocabulary to describe how the world works and what things mean, thus presenting its adherents with a specific reality (no page reference).
Burke’s poetry appears in four collections: Book of Moments (1955), Collected Poems 1915–1967 (1968), the posthumously published The Late Poems: 1968-1993 Attitudinizings Verse-wise, While Fending for One's Selph, and in a Style Somewhat Artificially Colloquial (2005), and Here & Elsewhere: The Collected Fiction of Kenneth Burke (2005).
His other principal works are
Counter-Statement (1931)
"Towards a Better Life" (1932), Googlebooks preview, pp. 25–233 not shown.
Permanence and Change (1935)
Attitudes Toward History (1937)
The Rhetoric of Hitler's "Battle" (1939)
Philosophy of Literary Form (1941)
A Grammar of Motives (1945)
A Rhetoric of Motives (1950)
Linguistic Approaches to Problems of Education (1955)
The Rhetoric of Religion (1961)
Language As Symbolic Action (1966)
Dramatism and Development (1972): a description of the contents of the two part lecture devoted to biological, psychological and sociocultural phenomena
Here and Elsewhere (2005)
Essays Toward a Symbolic of Motives (2006)
Kenneth Burke on Shakespeare (2007)
Full list of his works from The Journal of the Kenneth Burke Society
He also wrote the song "One Light in a Dark Valley," later recorded by his grandson Harry Chapin.[3]
Burke's most notable correspondence is collected in:
Jay, Paul, editor, The Selected Correspondence of Kenneth Burke and Malcolm Cowley, 1915-1981, New York: Viking, 1988, ISBN 0-670-81336-2
East, James H., editor, The Humane Particulars: The Collected Letters of William Carlos Williams and Kenneth Burke, Columbia, USC, 2004
Honors[edit]
Kenneth Burke was awarded the National Medal for Literature at the American Book Awards in 1981. According to the New York Times, April 20, 1981, 'The $15,000 award, endowed in memory of the late Harold Guinzberg, founder of the Viking Press, honors a living American writer for a distinguished and continuing contribution to American letters. '
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Richard Toye, Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Kenneth Burke." Encyclopædia Britannica. [1] Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Jump up ^ "Kenneth Burke." Encyclopædia Britannica. [2] Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013.
Jump up ^ Wolin, Ross (2001). The Rhetorical Imagination of Kenneth Burke. University of South Carolina Press. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Burke, Kenneth Duva." Edited by Bekah Shaia Dickstein, 2004. http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Burke__Kenneth.html.
Jump up ^ Selzer, Jack. Kenneth Burke in Greenwich Village: Conversing with the Moderns, 1915–1931. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996.
Jump up ^ Twentieth Century Authors: A Biographical Dictionary of Modern Literature, edited by Stanley J. Kunitz and Howard Haycraft, New York, The H. W. Wilson Company, 1942.
Jump up ^ "Letters from Kenneth Burke to William H. Rueckert, 1959-198", edited by William H. Rueckert, Indiana, Parlor Press LLC, 2003.
Jump up ^ "KENNETH BURKE, 96 PHILOSOPHER, WRITER ON LANGUAGE", Boston Globe, November 22, 1993. Accessed July 16, 2008. "Kenneth Burke, a philosopher who was influential in American literary circles, has died. He was 96. Mr. Burke died Friday of heart failure at his home in Andover, N.J."
Jump up ^ "List of Correspondents in Kenneth Burke Papers", Kenneth Burke Papers, Special Collections Library, Pennsylvania State University.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, J. N. (1978). Social Exchange, Dramaturgy and Ethnomethodology: Toward a Paradigmatic Synthesis. New York: Elsevier.
Jump up ^ Hanson, Gregory. "Kenneth Burke's Rhetorical Theory within the Construction of the Enthnography of Speaking."
Jump up ^ Burke, Kenneth. "Definition of Man." The Hudson Review 16 4 (1963/1964): 491-514
Jump up ^ Coe, Richard M. "Defining Rhetoric—and Us: A Meditation on Burke's Definition." Composition Theory for the Postmodern Classroom. Eds. Olson, Gary A. and Sidney I. Dobrin. Albany: SUNY Press, 1994. 332-44.
Jump up ^ Burke, Kenneth. The Rhetoric of Religion. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961. Print.
Jump up ^ Rybacki, Karyn & Rybacki, Donald. Communication Criticism: Approaches and Genres. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1991. Print.
Jump up ^ Foss, Sonja K., Foss, Karen A., and Trapp, Robert. Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 2014. Print.
Jump up ^ Burke, Kenneth. The Rhetoric of Religion. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961. Print.
Jump up ^ Burke, Kennth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkley: University of California Press, 1969. Print.
Jump up ^ Burke, Kenneth“The Rhetoric of Hitler’s “Battle.”” Readings in Rhetorical Criticism. Ed. Carl R. Burgchardt. State College: STRATA Publishing, Inc. 2010. 238-253.
Jump up ^ Borchers, Timothy. Rhetorical Theory: An Introduction, Long Grove: Waveland Press, 2006. Print.
Jump up ^ Bizzell; Herzberg. Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg, eds. The Rhetorical Tradition (2 ed.). pp. 1340–47. |access-date= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Killian, Justin; Larson, Sean; Emanuelle Wessels. "Language as Symbolic Action". University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2014-02-19.
Jump up ^ Toye, Richard (2013). Rhetoric: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 71–73. ISBN 978-0-19-965136-8.
External links[edit]
Author and Book Info.com offering a list of works and their description
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Kenneth Burke
[4] Kenneth Burke Papers at the Pennsylvania State University.
KB Journal, KB Journal's mission is to explore what it means to be "Burkean"
The Kenneth Burke Society
A short introduction to Burkean rhetoric, with all relative concepts defined
Burke's lecture A Theory of Terms, at Drew Theological Seminary, Complete text and audio
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Metrization theorem
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In topology and related areas of mathematics, a metrizable space is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space. That is, a topological space ( X , T ) {\displaystyle (X,{\mathcal {T}})} is said to be metrizable if there is a metric
d : X × X → [ 0 , ∞ ) {\displaystyle d\colon X\times X\to [0,\infty )}
such that the topology induced by d is T {\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}} .[1][2] Metrization theorems are theorems that give sufficient conditions for a topological space to be metrizable.
Contents
[hide]
1 Properties
2 Metrization theorems
3 Examples
4 Examples of non-metrizable spaces
5 See also
6 References
Properties[edit]
Metrizable spaces inherit all topological properties from metric spaces. For example, they are Hausdorff paracompact spaces (and hence normal and Tychonoff) and first-countable. However, some properties of the metric, such as completeness, cannot be said to be inherited. This is also true of other structures linked to the metric. A metrizable uniform space, for example, may have a different set of contraction maps than a metric space to which it is homeomorphic.
Metrization theorems[edit]
One of the first widely recognized metrization theorems was Urysohn's metrization theorem. This states that every Hausdorff second-countable regular space is metrizable. So, for example, every second-countable manifold is metrizable. (Historical note: The form of the theorem shown here was in fact proved by Tychonoff in 1926. What Urysohn had shown, in a paper published posthumously in 1925, was that every second-countable normal Hausdorff space is metrizable). The converse does not hold: there exist metric spaces that are not second countable, for example, an uncountable set endowed with the discrete metric.[3] The Nagata–Smirnov metrization theorem, described below, provides a more specific theorem where the converse does hold.
Several other metrization theorems follow as simple corollaries to Urysohn's Theorem. For example, a compact Hausdorff space is metrizable if and only if it is second-countable.
Urysohn's Theorem can be restated as: A topological space is separable and metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and second-countable. The Nagata–Smirnov metrization theorem extends this to the non-separable case. It states that a topological space is metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and has a σ-locally finite base. A σ-locally finite base is a base which is a union of countably many locally finite collections of open sets. For a closely related theorem see the Bing metrization theorem.
Separable metrizable spaces can also be characterized as those spaces which are homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube [ 0 , 1 ] N {\displaystyle \lbrack 0,1\rbrack ^{\mathbb {N} }} , i.e. the countably infinite product of the unit interval (with its natural subspace topology from the reals) with itself, endowed with the product topology.
A space is said to be locally metrizable if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood. Smirnov proved that a locally metrizable space is metrizable if and only if it is Hausdorff and paracompact. In particular, a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact.
Examples[edit]
The group of unitary operators U ( H ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {U} ({\mathcal {H}})} on a separable Hilbert space H {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}} endowed with the strong operator topology is metrizable (see Proposition II.1 in [4]).
Examples of non-metrizable spaces[edit]
Non-normal spaces cannot be metrizable; important examples include
the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or on the spectrum of a ring, used in algebraic geometry,
the topological vector space of all functions from the real line R to itself, with the topology of pointwise convergence.
The real line with the lower limit topology is not metrizable. The usual distance function is not a metric on this space because the topology it determines is the usual topology, not the lower limit topology. This space is Hausdorff, paracompact and first countable.
The long line is locally metrizable but not metrizable; in a sense it is "too long".
See also[edit]
Uniformizability, the property of a topological space of being homeomorphic to a uniform space, or equivalently the topology being defined by a family of pseudometrics
Moore space (topology)
Apollonian metric
Nagata–Smirnov metrization theorem
Bing metrization theorem
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Simon, Jonathan. "Metrization Theorems" (PDF). Retrieved 16 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Munkres, James (1999). Topology (second edition). Pearson. p. 119.
Jump up ^ http://www.math.lsa.umich.edu/~mityab/teaching/m395f10/10_counterexamples.pdf
Jump up ^ Neeb, Karl-Hermann, On a theorem of S. Banach. J. Lie Theory 7 (1997), no. 2, 293–300.
This article incorporates material from Metrizable on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrization_theorem&oldid=731619410"
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History of time in the United States
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1913
Map of U.S. time zones between April 2, 2006 and March 11, 2007. The current situation is different only in that six Indiana counties have since been moved from the Central time zone to the Eastern time zone.
The history of standard time in the United States began November 18, 1883, when United States and Canadian railroads instituted standard time in time zones. Before then, time of day was a local matter, and most cities and towns used some form of local solar time, maintained by some well-known clock (for example, on a church steeple or in a jeweler's window). The new standard time system was not immediately embraced by all.
Use of standard time gradually increased because of its obvious practical advantages for communication and travel. Standard time in time zones was not established in U.S. law until the Standard Time Act of 1918 of March 19, 1918, also known as the Calder Act (15 USC 260).[1][2] The act also established daylight saving time, itself a contentious idea.
Daylight saving time was repealed in 1919, but standard time in time zones remained in law, with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) having the authority over time zone boundaries. Daylight time became a local matter. It was re-established nationally early in World War II, and was continuously observed until the end of the war.
After the war its use varied among states and localities. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 provided standardization in the dates of beginning and end of daylight time in the U.S. but allowed for local exemptions from its observance. The act also continued the authority of the ICC over time zone boundaries. In subsequent years, the United States Congress transferred the authority over time zones to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), modified (several times) the beginning date of daylight time, and renamed the three westernmost time zones.
Time zone boundaries have changed greatly since their original introduction and changes still occasionally occur. DOT issues press releases when these changes are made. Generally, time zone boundaries have tended to shift westward. Places on the eastern edge of a time zone can effectively move sunset an hour later (by the clock) by shifting to the time zone immediately to their east.
If they do so, the boundary of that zone is locally shifted to the west; the accumulation of such changes results in the long-term westward trend. The process is not inexorable, however, since the late sunrises experienced by such places during the winter may be regarded as too undesirable. Furthermore, under the law, the principal standard for deciding on a time zone change is the "convenience of commerce". Proposed time zone changes have been both approved and rejected based on this criterion, although most such proposals have been accepted.
Contents
1 War Time 1918 and 1942
2 Daylight Saving Time 1945 to 1966
3 DST 1966
4 DST 2007
5 Start and end dates of United States Daylight Saving Time
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
War Time 1918 and 1942[edit]
"War Time" redirects here. This usage refers to the changes of the US War Time Act, not a general period of war.
Daylight saving time was established by the Standard Time Act of 1918. The Act was intended to save electricity for seven months of the year, during World War I.[3] DST was repealed in 1919 over a Presidential veto,[4] but standard time in time zones remained in law, with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) having the authority over time zone boundaries. Daylight time became a local matter.
During World War II, Congress enacted the War Time Act (56 Stat. 9) on January 20, 1942. Year-round DST was reinstated in the United States on February 9, 1942, again as a wartime measure to conserve energy resources.[5] This remained in effect until after the end of the war. The Amendment to the War Time Act (59 Stat. 537), enacted September 25, 1945, ended DST as of September 30, 1945. During this period, the official designation War Time was used for year-round DST. For example, Eastern War Time (EWT) would be the equivalent of Eastern Daylight Time during this period.
Daylight Saving Time 1945 to 1966[edit]
From 1945 to 1966 U.S. federal law did not address DST. States and cities were free to observe DST or not, and most places that did observe DST did so from the last Sunday in April to the last Sunday in September. In the mid-1950s many areas in the northeastern United States began extending DST to the last Sunday in October. The lack of standardization led to a patchwork where some areas observed DST while adjacent areas did not, and it was not unheard of to have to reset a clock several times during a short trip (e.g., bus drivers operating on West Virginia Route 2 between Moundsville, West Virginia, and Steubenville, Ohio had to reset their watches seven times over 35 miles).[6]
In summer 1960 April–October Daylight Time was nearly universal in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and states east and north of there. In Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky and Virginia and states north and east of there, some areas had it and some did not. Except for California and Nevada, which had April-Sept Daylight Time, 99% of the rest of the country used Standard Time year-round. (The Official Guide says "State law prohibits the observance of "Daylight Saving" time in Kentucky but Anchorage, Louisville and Shelbyville will advance their clocks one hour from Central Standard time for the period April 24 to October 29, inclusive.")
In the middle 1960s the airline and other transportation industries lobbied for uniformity of Daylight dates in the United States.
DST 1966[edit]
The U.S. federal Uniform Time Act became law on April 13, 1966 and it mandated that DST begin nationwide on the last Sunday in April and end on the last Sunday in October, effective in 1967. The act explicitly preempted all previously enacted state laws related to the beginning and ending of DST effective in 1966. Any state that wanted to be exempt from DST could do so by passing a state law, provided that it exempted the entire state, and Alaska, Arizona, Hawaii, Indiana, and Michigan chose to do so. However, Alaska, Indiana, and Michigan subsequently chose to observe DST. The law was amended in 1972 to permit states that straddle a time zone boundary to exempt the entire area of the state lying in one time zone. Indiana chose to exempt the portion of the state lying in the Eastern Time Zone; however, that exemption was eliminated in 2006 and the entire state of Indiana now observes DST, leaving Arizona (with the exception of the Navajo Nation) and Hawaii as the only two states not to observe DST. On July 8, 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1986 into law that contained a daylight saving rider authored by Senator Slade Gorton (R-WA).[3] The starting date of DST was amended to the first Sunday in April effective in 1987. DST continued to end on the last Sunday in October. While the states retain the capability to exempt themselves from DST, they are forbidden by the 1966 federal law (15 USC 260a(b))[7] from increasing a state's time spent on DST, unless the United States Congress does this for the entire nation.
In response to the 1973 energy crisis, DST in the United States began earlier in both 1974 and 1975, commencing on the first Sunday in January (January 6) in the former year and the last Sunday in February (February 23) in the latter. The extension of daylight saving time was not continued due to public opposition to late sunrise times during the winter months. In 1976, the United States reverted to the schedule set in the Uniform Time Act.
DST 2007[edit]
Starting March 11, 2007, DST was extended another four to five weeks, from the second Sunday of March to the first Sunday of November. The change was introduced by Representatives Fred Upton (R-MI) and Edward Markey (D-MA) and added to the Energy Policy Act of 2005; the House had originally approved a motion that would have extended DST even farther from the first Sunday in March to the last Sunday in November, but Senators Jeff Bingaman (D-NM) and Pete Domenici (R-NM) agreed to scale back the proposal in conference committee due to complaints from farmers and the airline industry. Proponents claimed that the extension would save "the equivalent of" 10,000 barrels (1,600 m3) of oil per day, but this figure was based on U.S. Department of Energy information from the 1970s, the accuracy and relevance of which the DoE no longer stands by. Later studies by the U.S. Department of Energy and the California Energy Commission have predicted much smaller energy benefits.[8] There is very little recent research on what the actual positive effects, if any, might be.
Since DST moves sunrise one hour later by the clock, late sunrise times become a problem when DST is observed either too far before the vernal equinox or too far after the autumnal equinox. Because of this, the extension was greeted with criticism by those concerned for the safety of children who would have been forced to travel to school before sunrise, especially in the month of March. In addition, the airline industry was especially concerned if DST were to be extended through to the last Sunday in November, as this is very often (6 out of every 7 years) the Sunday after Thanksgiving. This is one of the busiest travel days at American airports, and could have resulted in much havoc among travelers who forgot that the clocks were changing that day.
If the original proposal to extend DST through the last Sunday in November had been adopted, the entire United States, with the exception of the states that exempted themselves, would have experienced the latest sunrises of the year during the month of November, which would have approached the extremely late sunrise times when DST went into effect on January 6, 1974 due to the 1973 energy crisis creeping after 9 am in places like New Salem, North Dakota at the northwestern edges of time zones.
Start and end dates of United States Daylight Saving Time[edit]
Key to colors
future date
2nd Sunday March, 1st Sunday November
1st Sunday April, last Sunday October
last Sunday April, last Sunday October
Year
Begins (local)
Ends (local)
Notes
2020
Sun March 8 02:00 Sun November 1 02:00
2019
Sun March 10 02:00 Sun November 3 02:00
2018
Sun March 11 02:00 Sun November 4 02:00
2017
Sun March 12 02:00 Sun November 5 02:00
2016
Sun March 13 02:00 Sun November 6 02:00
2015
Sun March 8 02:00 Sun November 1 02:00
2014
Sun March 9 02:00 Sun November 2 02:00
2013
Sun March 10 02:00 Sun November 3 02:00
2012
Sun March 11 02:00 Sun November 4 02:00
2011
Sun March 13 02:00 Sun November 6 02:00
2010
Sun March 14 02:00 Sun November 7 02:00
2009
Sun March 8 02:00 Sun November 1 02:00
2008
Sun March 9 02:00 Sun November 2 02:00
2007
Sun March 11 02:00 Sun November 4 02:00 Energy Policy Act of 2005
2006
Sun April 2 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00 All of Indiana now on DST
2005
Sun April 3 02:00 Sun October 30 02:00
2004
Sun April 4 02:00 Sun October 31 02:00
2003
Sun April 6 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00
2002
Sun April 7 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00
2001
Sun April 1 02:00 Sun October 28 02:00
2000
Sun April 2 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00
1999
Sun April 4 02:00 Sun October 31 02:00
1998
Sun April 5 02:00 Sun October 25 02:00
1997
Sun April 6 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00
1996
Sun April 7 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00
1995
Sun April 2 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00
1994
Sun April 3 02:00 Sun October 30 02:00
1993
Sun April 4 02:00 Sun October 31 02:00
1992
Sun April 5 02:00 Sun October 25 02:00
1991
Sun April 7 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00
1990
Sun April 1 02:00 Sun October 28 02:00
1989
Sun April 2 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00
1988
Sun April 3 02:00 Sun October 30 02:00
1987
Sun April 5 02:00 Sun October 25 02:00 Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1986
1986
Sun April 27 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00
1985
Sun April 28 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00
1984
Sun April 29 02:00 Sun October 28 02:00
1983
Sun April 24 02:00 Sun October 30 02:00 Alaska time zones changed Sun October 30 02:00
1982
Sun April 25 02:00 Sun October 31 02:00
1981
Sun April 26 02:00 Sun October 25 02:00
1980
Sun April 27 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00
1979
Sun April 29 02:00 Sun October 28 02:00
1978
Sun April 30 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00
1977
Sun April 24 02:00 Sun October 30 02:00
1976
Sun April 25 02:00 Sun October 31 02:00
1975
Sun February 23 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00 Emergency Daylight Time Act
Michigan exempted, began DST Sun April 27 02:00
1974
Sun January 6 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00 Emergency Daylight Time Act
Southern Idaho and eastern Oregon (Mountain time zone)
began DST Sun February 3 02:00
1973
Sun April 29 02:00 Sun October 28 02:00 All of Michigan now on DST
1972
Sun April 30 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00
1971
Sun April 25 02:00 Sun October 31 02:00 Indiana (Eastern time zone) opts out
1970
Sun April 26 02:00 Sun October 25 02:00
1969
Sun April 27 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00 All of Alaska and Indiana now on DST
1968
Sun April 28 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00 Arizona and Michigan opt out
1967
Sun April 30 02:00 Sun October 29 02:00 Uniform Time Act of 1966
Alaska, Hawaii, Indiana and territories opt out
1966
Sun April 24 02:00 Sun October 30 02:00 Uniform Time Act of 1966 required states that used DST in 1966 to conform to last Sunday in April to last Sunday in October
1946–65
Local decision, various dates
1945
Sun September 30 02:00 War Time ends
1944
War Time all year
Arizona War Time not observed Sat January 1 02:00–Sat April 1 02:00
Arizona War Time ends Sat September 30 02:00[9]
1943
War Time all year
1942
Mon February 9 02:00 War Time begins year round
1920–41
Local decision, various dates
1919
Sun March 30 02:00 Sun October 26 02:00 War Time ends
1918
Sun March 31 02:00 Sun October 27 02:00 War Time begins summer only
See also[edit]
Time in the United States
Time in Indiana
Daylight saving time in the United States - gives a list of future daylight saving dates
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ United States statutes at large: containing the laws and concurrent resolutions enacted during the second session of the one hundred fifth congress of the United States of America 1998 and proclamations. Government Printing Office. 1999. p. 599.
Jump up ^ History of Daylight Time in the U.S., United States Naval Observatory
^ Jump up to: a b A Time-Change Timeline, National Public Radio, March 8, 2007
Jump up ^ An Act For the repeal of the daylight-saving law, Pub.L. 66–40, 41 Stat. 280, enacted August 20, 1919
Jump up ^ 24/7: A Resource Guide to the Law of Time Standards" Archived 2006-06-18 at the Wayback Machine., June 3, 2002
Jump up ^ Daylight Saving Time: Early adoption in law
Jump up ^ 15 USC 260a
Jump up ^ Energy Concerns Push Clocks Forward this Weekend by Nell Boyce. Morning Edition, National Public Radio, 9 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Daylight Saving Time in Arizona
References[edit]
Prerau, David. Seize the Daylight: The Curious and Contentious Story of Daylight Saving Time (Thunder’s Mouth Press; ISBN 1-56025-655-9) Discusses the establishment of standard time and daylight saving time.
External links[edit]
U.S. Navy time zone page
Standard Time Zone Boundaries 49CFR71
U.S. Law 15USC260-267
History of Daylight Saving Time at WebExhibits
Congressional Research on Daylight Saving Time
History of DST in Arizona
A Resource Guide to the Law of Time Standards
1918 and 1942 Acts
Indiana Time Zone Article
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_time_in_the_United_States&oldid=855070625"
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Zachary Gordon
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Zachary Gordon
Gordon at a screening of Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules
Born
Zachary Adam Gordon
(1998-02-15) February 15, 1998 (age 20)
Oak Park, California, U.S.
Nationality
American
Occupation
Actor, voice actor
Years active
2006–present
Zachary Adam Gordon (born February 15, 1998) is an American actor. Beginning his professional acting career at the age of eight, Gordon is a three-time Young Artist Award Best Leading Young Actor nominee, best known for playing Greg Heffley in the first three films of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film franchise.
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal life
2 Career
3 Filmography
3.1 Film
3.2 Television
4 Awards and nominations
5 References
6 External links
Personal life[edit]
Gordon was born in Oak Park, California, to Linda and Kenneth Gordon.[1] He has two brothers and was raised in Southern California.[2][3][4] Zach graduated from a public high school in Oak Park[1][5] [6]
Career[edit]
Gordon's resumé includes multiple television appearances, on programs such as How I Met Your Mother and All of Us.[7] He has also appeared in the 2008 opening of Desperate Housewives, plus two other episodes, and in two episodes of 24, which aired in January 2009. He also appeared in three episodes (2014) as a guest star on Tim Allen's sitcom, where he played Tim's daughter's boyfriend.
His film credits (2007–2008) include Sex and Death 101, Lower Learning, the Garry Marshall film Georgia Rule (for which he won the "Young Artist Award" for his portrayal of Ethan), The Brothers Bloom, as Young Bloom, and alongside Nicolas Cage in National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007) and many others. Gordon has been credited with numerous voice-over roles including "Brad Spolyt" in The Chubbchubbs Save Xmas, "Ricky Garcia" in Project Gilroy, "San San" in Nick Jr.'s Ni Hao, Kai-Lan and The Mighty B! He is a series regular as the voice of Gil, one of the lead roles in the Nickelodeon series, Bubble Guppies. Gordon has voice cameo acted as Baby Melman in the animated film, Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa, Kotaro in Afro Sumurai: Resurrection, and Young Tony Stark in The Super Hero Squad Show. In 2010, he played Greg Heffley in the film Diary of a Wimpy Kid. In 2011 he appeared as Papi Jr. in Beverly Hills Chihuahua 2 and as Paws in Disney's The Search for Santa Paws.
In June 2010, 20th Century Fox announced a sequel to Diary of a Wimpy Kid; Gordon returned as Greg Heffley and the film, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules, was released on March 25, 2011. It was the #1 Box office movie in the United States for the following two weeks.[8]
In 2011, Gordon provided voices for Charlie Brown, Linus and Franklin on the comedy show Robot Chicken, and in 2012, he reprised the role of Greg Heffley for the last time in Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days. In the fourth film, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, he was replaced by Jason Drucker.
In 2013, Gordon was chosen to host a miniseries for Nintendo, called Skylander's Boomcast on YouTube channel SkylandersGame, reviewing and talking about the very successful video game series Skylanders.[9]
Additional films for 2013 included The Incredible Burt Wonderstone and a role as "Pete Kidder" in Walden Media's and Hallmark Channel's Pete's Christmas with veteran actor Bruce Dern playing his cantankerous grandfather.
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Ref
2007 Because I Said So Little Arthur Uncredited
The Chubbchubbs Save Xmas Brad Spoylt Short film
Georgia Rule Ethan [10]
National Treasure: Book of Secrets Lincoln Conspiracy Kid [10]
Sex and Death 101 Barbeque Brat
2008 The Brothers Bloom Young Bloom
Four Christmases Kid #6 in Jump-Jump
Lower Learning Frankie Fowler [11]
Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa Baby Melman Voice Cameo [11]
2009 The Search for Santa Paws Paws Direct to video
Voice; main role [10]
2010 Diary of a Wimpy Kid Greg Heffley Lead role [11]
2011 Beverly Hills Chihuahua 2 Papi Junior Direct to video
Voice [10]
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules Greg Heffley Lead role [12]
2012 Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Class Clown Greg Heffley Short film
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days Greg Heffley Lead role
Young Paul Ryan Young Paul Ryan Short film
2013 The Incredible Burt Wonderstone Will
2014 The Boxcar Children Henry Voice
Yellowbird Max Voice
English version
2015 Huevos: Little Rooster's Egg-cellent Adventure Rolo Voice
English version
Killing Animals Jeremy
2016 Kingsglaive: Final Fantasy XV Young Ravus Voice
Norm of the North Norm Cub Voice
Uncredited
2017 The Gettysburg Address Daniel Skelly Voice
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Ref
2006, 2007 All of Us Richie 2 episodes
2006, 2009 How I Met Your Mother Stacy's son, Tyler Stinson (Grant), Ted's nephew 3 episodes [10]
2007, 2011 Robot Chicken Charlie Brown, Linus 2 episodes; voice
2008 David's Solution Little David Television movie
Desperate Housewives Little Robin Hood "Now You Know"
MADtv The Joker 1 episode
The Mighty B! Gwen's Brother #4 1 episode; voice [11]
Special Agent Oso Rasheed/Tyler "License to Chill/GoldenFly," "The Man with the Golden Retriever/The Chairs Are Not Enough"
Voice
2008, 2009 Handy Manny Little Lopart "Abuelito's Telescope/Little Lopart", "Lyle & Leland Lopart/Blackout on the Block"
Voice
2008–2009 Ni Hao, Kai-lan San San 15 episodes
2008, 2010 Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Bruce Wayne, Young Aqualad 3 episodes; voice
2009 24 8 Year-Old Boy 2 episodes
Afro Samurai: Resurrection Kotaro Television film
Voice
2011 Childrens Hospital Cody/Mike 1 episode
Family Guy Homeless Little Boy 1 episode
2011–2012 Bubble Guppies Gil Voice; main role
2012 R.L. Stine's The Haunting Hour Seth/Seti 1 episode [13]
The Unprofessional Dylan Television film
2012–2016 Lake Munro Lucas Coleman Series regular; 17–26
2013 Pete's Christmas Pete Kidder Television film
Uncle Grandpa Belly Kid 1 episode; voice
2014 Last Man Standing Andrew 3 episodes
2016 Dead of Summer Jason "Blotter" Cohen Recurring role
Pals Himself Director
Television movie
2016, 2017 Star Wars Rebels Mart Mattin, Imperial Technician #1 2 episodes; voice
2017 The Good Doctor Brandon "Apple"
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
2008 Young Artist Award Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actor (Comedy or Musical) Georgia Rule Won
2010 Sierra Award Youth in Film Diary of a Wimpy Kid Nominated
2011 Young Artist Award Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor Diary of a Wimpy Kid Nominated
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast Diary of a Wimpy Kid Won
2012 Young Artist Award Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules Nominated
2013 Young Artist Award Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days Nominated
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days Won
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Fischer, Sophia (June 26, 2008). "Child actor learning Hollywood ways". The Acorn. Retrieved March 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ Baylen, Ashley (August 21, 2012) Top 20 Under 40 Los Angeles- Zachary Gordon – Page1. Shalom Life. Retrieved on March 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Miller, Gerri (February 2012). "Zachary Gordon: The Wimpy Kid". Buzzyquote. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lara, Monica (December 9, 2012) Chabad hosts Hanukkah celebration in Oak Park » Ventura County Star. Vcstar.com.
Jump up ^ Fischer, Sophia (March 11, 2010). "Oak Park boy stars in 'Wimpy Kid' film". The Acorn. Retrieved March 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ http://www.shalomlife.com/culture/17783/top-20-under-40-los-angeles-zachary-gordon/?PageSpeed=noscript
Jump up ^ "Zachary Gordon". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (June 23, 2010). "David Bowers to direct 'Wimpy' sequel". The Hollywood Reporter. e5 Global Media. Archived from the original on June 27, 2010. Retrieved August 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ Martin, John Llewellyn (October 4, 2013). "Skylander: Swap Force Video: The Boomcast Premieres". Screen Crush. Retrieved January 14, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Zachary Gordon: Credits". TVGuide. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Zachary Gordon New York Times Film Credits". The New York Times. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hale, Mike (March 24, 2011). "The Sequel to 'Diary of a Wimpy Kid'". The New York Times. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ ""Wimpy Kid" Zachary Gordon wants his "Mummy" in a new episode of "The Haunting Hour"". Retrieved February 23, 2012.
External links[edit]
Zachary Gordon on IMDb
Zachary Gordon on Facebook
Interview with Gordon on Channel One News
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 158694363
LCCN: no2010123814
ISNI: 0000 0001 1958 7866
BNF: cb165071882 (data)
BIBSYS: 11042726
BNE: XX5169001
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zachary_Gordon&oldid=835480188"
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