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Flag of Turkey
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Flag of Turkey
Use
National flag and ensign
Proportion
2:3
Adopted
1844 (Ottoman flag)
1936 (current flag)
Design
A red field with a white star and crescent slightly left of center.[1]
The flag of the Republic of Turkey, often referred to as the Turkish flag (Turkish: Türk bayrağı) is a red flag featuring a white star and crescent. The flag is often called al bayrak (the red flag), and is referred to as al sancak (the red banner) in the Turkish national anthem. The current design of the Turkish flag is directly derived from the late Ottoman flag, which had been adopted in the late 18th century and acquired its final form in 1844. The measures, geometric proportions, and exact tone of red of the flag of Turkey were legally standardised with the Turkish Flag Law on 29 May 1936.[2]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Legendary origins
2 Legal basis
3 Construction
3.1 Colours
3.2 Dimensions
4 Display and use
4.1 State institutions
4.2 Uniforms
4.3 Days of display
4.4 Funerals
5 Gallery
6 Notes and references
7 External links
History[edit]
Further information: Flags of the Ottoman Empire
The star and crescent flag of the Ottoman Empire, a late 18th-century design officially adopted in 1844
The star and crescent design appears on Ottoman flags beginning in the late 18th or early 19th century. The introduction of the white star and crescent on red as the flag of the Ottoman Empire dates to the Tanzimat reforms of 1844.
After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the new state maintained the last flag of the Ottoman Empire. Proportional standardisations were introduced in the Turkish Flag Law of 1936.
Legendary origins[edit]
In accounting for the crescent and star symbol, the Ottomans sometimes referred to a legendary dream of the eponymous founder of the Ottoman house, Osman I, in which he is reported to have seen a moon rising from the breast of a qadi whose daughter he sought to marry. "When full, it descended into his own breast. Then from his loins there sprang a tree, which as it grew came to cover the whole world with the shadow of its green and beautiful branches." Beneath it Osman saw the world spread out before him, surmounted by the crescent.[3]
Legal basis[edit]
Fundamentals of the Turkish flag were laid down by Turkish Flag Law No. 2994 on 29 May 1936 during the Republic period of Turkey. Turkish Flag Regulation No. 2/7175 dated 28 July 1937, and Supplementary Regulation No. 11604/2 dated 29 July 1939, were enacted to describe how the flag law would be implemented. The Turkish Flag Law No. 2893 dated 22 September 1983, and Published in the Official Gazette on 24 September 1983, was promulgated six months after its publication. According to Article 9 of Law No. 2893, a statute including the fundamentals of the implementation was also published.
Construction[edit]
Colours[edit]
In an RGB colour space, the red colour of the Turkish flag is composed of 89% red, 3.9% green, and 9% blue (in hexadecimal colour code #E30A17). In a CMYK colour space, it is composed of 0% cyan, 95.6% magenta, 89.9% yellow and 11% black. It has a hue angle of 356.4 degrees, a saturation of 91.6%, and a lightness of 46.5%. The red colour on the Turkish flag is vivid red and this colour can be obtained by blending #FF142E with #C70000. The closest websafe colour is: #d11919.
The colors approximation is listed below:

Colours scheme
Red
White
RGB 227-10-23 255-255-255
Hexadecimal #E30A17FF #FFFFFF
CMYK 0, 96, 90, 11 0, 0, 0, 0
Dimensions[edit]
The specification below, given by Turkish Flag Law, implies that the distance between (the left edge of) the inner circle of the crescent and a vertical line connecting the two pointed ends of the crescent is 279⁄800 G = 0.34875 G; thus, the left point of the star intrudes about 0.0154 G beyond that line.
Construction sheet
Letter
Measure
Length
G Width
A Distance between the centre of the outer crescent and the seam of the white band 1⁄2 G
B Diameter of the circle around the star 1⁄4 G
C Distance between the centres of the inner and outer circles of the crescent 1⁄16 G
D Diameter of the inner circle of the crescent 2⁄5 G
E Distance between the inner circle of the crescent and the circle around the star 1⁄3 G
F Diameter of the outer circle of the crescent 1⁄2 G
L Length 1 1⁄2 G
M Width of the white hem at the hoist 1⁄30 G
Display and use[edit]
The Turkish Flag in vertical format
The National Cockade of Turkey
State institutions[edit]
The flag is always displayed prominently in state institutions from schools to ministries. The Çankaya Mansion, Parliament, ministries, schools, military, councils, governors buildings, muhtars offices, bridges, airports, and every state owned building in the country features one or more Turkish flags.
Uniforms[edit]
On military uniforms the flag is displayed on a patch either on the right shoulder or on the front of the uniform. Helmets can display the flag too on the front or the sides. Flight suits, navy uniforms, Jandarma uniforms and others feature the flag on shoulder patches or helmets. Along with uniforms several emblems and patches display the flag with prominence or minor alteration.
Days of display[edit]
Turkey celebrates many national events such as battle victories and Republic Day. People come to the streets with their flags to celebrate such days. On other occasions the public uses the flag heavily when protesting or commemorating certain events or deaths respectively. Statues and monuments may be draped with the flag while marches and songs are played. On television screens the flag is displayed in celebration of such events too with the portrait of Atatürk next to it. The flag may also be presented at half staff in mourning of tragic events or important days.
Funerals[edit]
The flag has a prominent display on state and military funerals. A burial flag is always draped over the deceased coffin and is carried by the military police or relatives of the deceased. Soldiers of all types and the Presidential Guard also carry the coffin at times. Many attendees also feature the flag on their lapels along with an image of the deceased.
Gallery[edit]
The Turkish flag on the Bosphorus
The flag is prominently displayed in classrooms and any and all state institutions.
The Turkish flag brought upon the annexation of Hatay.
Celebration of Republic Day
Funeral of President Evren
Turkish flag by the Bosphorus Bridge
The Turkish Embassy in Somalia
Turkish flags at half staff.
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ "Yurtdışı Yükseköğretim Diplomaları Denklik Yönetmeliği". Mevzuat.meb.gov.tr. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Türk Bayrağı Kanunu" [Law on Turkish Flag] (PDF). Tbmm.gov.tr. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1977, pp 23-24, ISBN 978-0688080938
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Turkey.
Türk Bayrağı Kanunu, the Turkish text of the Turkish Flag Law No. 2893 dated September 22, 1983, establishing the proportions, production, and rules of usage of the flag of Turkey
Turkey at Flags of the World
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Geography of Russia
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Coordinates: 60°N 100°E / 60°N 100°E / 60; 100
Geography of Russia
Continent
Eurasia
Region
Eastern Europe, Northern Asia
Coordinates
60°00′00″N 100°00′00″E / 60.000°N 100.000°E / 60.000; 100.000
Area
Ranked 1st
• Total
17,098,246 km2 (6,601,670 sq mi)
• Land
90.79%
• Water
9.21%
Coastline
37,654 km (23,397 mi)
Borders
Norway 195.8 km (121.7 mi)
Finland 1,271.8 km (790.3 mi)
Estonia 138 km (86 mi)
Latvia 270.5 km (168.1 mi)
Lithuania 266 km (165 mi)
Poland 204.1 km (126.8 mi)
Belarus 1,239 km (770 mi)
Ukraine 1,925.8 km (1,196.6 mi)
Georgia 875.5 km (544.0 mi)
Azerbaijan 372.6 km (231.5 mi)
Kazakhstan 7,512.8 km (4,668.2 mi)
Mongolia 3,485 km (2,165 mi)
China 4,209.3 km (2,615.5 mi)
North Korea 17 km (11 mi)
Highest point
Mount Elbrus
5,642 m (18,510 ft)
Lowest point
Caspian Sea,
−28 m (−92 ft)
Longest river
Yenisei–Angara–Selenge,
5,539 km (3,442 mi)
Largest lake
Lake Baikal
31,722 km2 (12,248 sq mi)
Climate
European and Asian Russia: mostly cool continental climate, extreme North: tundra, extreme southeast: temperate continental
Terrain
Most of Russia consists of two plains (the East European Plain and the West Siberian Plain), two lowlands (the North Siberian and the Kolyma, in far northeastern Siberia), two plateaus (the Central Siberian Plateau and the Lena Plateau to its east), and a series of mountainous areas mainly concentrated in the extreme northeast or extending intermittently along the southern border.
Natural Resources
minerals, oil, gas, coal, and timber
Natural Hazards
earthquakes, landslides, storms, hurricanes, forest fires and floods
Environmental Issues
deforestation, energy irresponsibility, pollution, and nuclear waste
Köppen climate types of Russia
The geography of Russia describes the geographic features of Russia, a country extending over much of northern Eurasia. Comprising much of eastern Europe and northern Asia, it is the world's largest country in total area.[1] Due to its size, Russia displays both monotony and diversity. As with its topography, its climates, vegetation, and soils span vast distances.[2] From north to south the East European Plain is clad sequentially in tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broadleaf forests, grassland (steppe), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. Siberia supports a similar sequence but is predominantly taiga. The country contains forty UNESCO biosphere reserves.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Global position and boundaries
2 Administrative and territorial divisions
3 Topography and drainage
3.1 Ecoregions
3.1.1 East European plain
3.1.2 Icecaps
3.1.3 Taiga
3.1.4 Mixed and deciduous forests
3.1.5 Steppe
3.2 Topography
3.2.1 Ural Mountains
3.2.2 West Siberian plain
3.2.3 Central Siberian plateau
3.2.4 Sayan and Stanovoy Mountains
3.2.5 Caucasus Mountains
3.2.6 Northeast Siberia and Kamchatka
3.3 Drainage
4 Climate
5 Area and boundaries
6 Natural resources and land use
7 Natural hazards
8 Antipodes
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Global position and boundaries[edit]
Russia on the globe.
Located in the north, west and east latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, most of Russia is much closer to the North Pole than to the equator. Individual country comparisons are of little value in gauging Russia's enormous size and diversity. The country's 17.09 million square kilometers include one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Its European portion, which occupies a substantial part of continental Europe, is home to most of Russia's industrial activity and is where, roughly between the Dnieper River and the Ural Mountains, the Russian Empire took shape. Russia includes the entire northern portion of Asia.
From west to east, the country stretches from Kaliningrad (the exclave separated by the 1990 secession of Lithuania from the then-Soviet Union) to Ratmanov Island (one of the Diomede Islands) in the Bering Strait. This distance spanning about 6,800 kilometres (4,200 mi), to Nome, Alaska. From north to south, the country ranges from the northern tip of the Russian Arctic islands at Franz Josef Land to the southern tip of the Republic of Dagestan on the Caspian Sea, spanning about 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi) of extremely varied, often inhospitable terrain.
Extending for 57,792 kilometres (35,910 mi), the Russian border is the world's longest. Along the 20,139-kilometer land frontier, Russia has boundaries with 14 countries: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland (via the Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the People's Republic of China and North Korea.
Approximately two-thirds of the frontier is bounded by seawater. Virtually all of the lengthy northern coast is well above the Arctic Circle; except for the port of Murmansk—which receives currents that are somewhat warmer than would be expected at that latitude, due to the effects of the Gulf Stream—that coast is locked in ice much of the year. Thirteen seas and parts of three oceans—the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific—wash Russian shores.
Russia shares a maritime boundary with the United States and with Japan.
Administrative and territorial divisions[edit]
Main article: Subdivisions of Russia
With a few changes of status, most of the Soviet-era administrative and territorial divisions of the Russian Republic were retained in constituting the Russian Federation. As of 2014, there are eighty-five administrative territorial divisions (called federal subjects): twenty-two republics, nine krais (territories), forty-six oblasts (provinces), one autonomous oblast, four autonomous okrugs, and three cities with federal status, namely the cities of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Sevastopol.
The republics include a wide variety of peoples, including northern Europeans, Tatars, Caucasus peoples, and indigenous Siberians. The largest federal subjects are in Siberia. Located in east-central Siberia, the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) is the largest federal subject in the country (and the largest country subdivision in the world), twice the size of Alaska. Second in size is Krasnoyarsk Krai, located west of Sakha in Siberia. Kaliningrad Oblast, which is a noncontiguous constituent entity of Russia, is the smallest oblast. The Republic of Ingushetia is both the smallest republic and the smallest federal subject of Russia except for the three federal cities. The two most populous federal subjects, Moscow Oblast (with Moscow) and Krasnodar Krai, are in European Russia.
Topography and drainage[edit]
Geographers traditionally divide the vast territory of Russia into five natural zones: the tundra zone; the taiga, or forest, zone; the steppe, or plains, zone; the arid zone; and the mountain zone. Most of Russia consists of two plains (the East European Plain and the West Siberian Plain), two lowlands (the North Siberian and the Kolyma, in far northeastern Siberia), two plateaus (the Central Siberian Plateau and the Lena Plateau to its east), and a series of mountainous areas mainly concentrated in the extreme northeast or extending intermittently along the southern border.
Ecoregions[edit]
The wider area of the Urals, showing the transition of temperate forest, taiga, steppe and semi-desert
desert tundra alpine tundra taiga forest
temperate broadleaf forest temperate steppe steppe
East European plain[edit]
The East European Plain encompasses most of European Russia. The West Siberian Plain, which is the world's largest, extends east from the Urals to the Yenisei River. Because the terrain and vegetation are relatively uniform in each of the natural zones, Russia presents an illusion of uniformity. Nevertheless, Russian territory contains all the major vegetation zones of the world except a tropical rain forest.
Icecaps[edit]
Map of arctic tundra
Map of the Russian Arctic.
Further information: Arctic
The Russian Arctic stretches for close to 7,000 kilometres (4,300 mi) west to east, from Karelia and the Kola Peninsula to Nenetsia, the Gulf of Ob, the Taymyr Peninsula and the Chukchi Peninsula (Kolyma, Anadyr River, Cape Dezhnev). Russian islands and archipelagos in the Arctic Sea include Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, and the New Siberian Islands.
About 57 percent of Russia is tundra—a treeless, marshy plain. The tundra is Russia's northernmost zone, stretching from the Finnish border in the west to the Bering Strait in the east, then running south along the Pacific coast to the northern Kamchatka Peninsula. The zone is known for its herds of wild reindeer, for so-called white nights (dusk at midnight, dawn shortly thereafter) in summer, and for days of total darkness in winter. The long, harsh winters and lack of sunshine allow only mosses, lichens, and dwarf willows and shrubs to sprout low above the barren permafrost. Although several powerful Siberian rivers traverse this zone as they flow northward to the Arctic Ocean, partial and intermittent thawing hamper drainage of the numerous lakes, ponds, and swamps of the tundra. Frost weathering is the most important physical process here, gradually shaping a landscape that was severely modified by glaciation in the last ice age. Less than one percent of Russia's population lives in this zone. The fishing and port industries of the northwestern Kola Peninsula and the huge oil and gas fields of northwestern Siberia are the largest employers in the tundra. With a population of 180,000, the industrial frontier city of Norilsk is second in population to Murmansk among Russia's settlements above the Arctic Circle. From here you can also see the auroras (northern lights).
Taiga[edit]
Taiga - the most extensive natural area of Russia - stretches from the western borders of Russia to the Pacific. It occupies the territory of the Eastern Europe and West Siberian plains to the north of 56 ° -58 ° N and most of the territory east of Yenisei River taiga forests reach the southern borders of Russia in Siberia taiga only accounts for over 60% of Russia. In the north-south direction the eastern taiga is divided (east of the Yenisei River), with a continental climate, and west, with a milder climate, in general, the climate zone is moist, moderately warm (cool in the north) in the summer and harsh winter, there is a steady snow cover in the winter. In the latitudinal direction the taiga is divided into three subzones - northern, middle and southern taiga. In the western taiga dense spruce and fir forests on wetlands alternate with pine forests, shrubs and meadows on the lighter soils. Such vegetation is typical of the eastern taiga, but it plays an important role not fir and larch. Coniferous forest, however, does not form a continuous array and sparse areas of birch, alder, willow (mainly in river valleys), the wetlands - marshes. Within the taiga are widespread fur-bearing animals - sable, marten, ermine, moose, brown bear, wolverine, wolf, and muskrat.[4]
Moose
In the taiga is dominated by podzolic and cryogenic taiga soils, characterized by clearly defined horizontal structure (only in the southern taiga there are sod-podzolic soil). Formed in a leaching regime, poor humus om. Groundwater is normally found in the forest close to the surface, washing calcium from the upper layers, resulting in the top layer of soil of the taiga discolored and oxidized. Few areas of the taiga, suitable for farming, are located mainly in the European part of Russia. Large areas are occupied by sphagnum marshes (here is dominated by podzolic-boggy soil). To enrich the soil for agricultural purposes should be making lime and other fertilizer.
Russian Taiga has the world's largest reserves of coniferous wood, but from year to year - as a result of intensive logging - they decrease. Development of hunting, farming (mainly in river valleys).
Mixed and deciduous forests[edit]
A birch forest in Novosibirsk. Birch is a national tree of Russia.
The mixed and deciduous forest belt is triangular, widest along the western border and narrower towards the Ural Mountains. The main trees are Oak and Spruce, but many other growths of vegetation such as ash, aspen, birch, hornbeam, maple, and pine reside there. Separating the taiga from the wooded steppe is a narrow belt of birch and aspen woodland located east of the Urals as far as the Altay Mountains. Much of the forested zone has been cleared for agriculture, especially in European Russia. Wildlife is more scarce as a result of this, but the roe deer, wolf, fox, and squirrel are very common.
Steppe[edit]
Further information: Eurasian Steppe and Pontic-Caspian steppe
The steppe has long been depicted as the typical Russian landscape. It is a broad band of treeless, grassy plains, interrupted by mountain ranges, extending from Hungary across Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan before ending in Manchuria. Most of the Soviet Union's steppe zone was located in the Ukrainian and Kazakh republics; the much smaller Russian steppe is located mainly between those nations, extending southward between the Black and Caspian Seas before blending into the increasingly desiccated territory of the Republic of Kalmykia. In a country of extremes, the steppe zone provides the most favorable conditions for human settlement and agriculture because of its moderate temperatures and normally adequate levels of sunshine and moisture. Even here, however, agricultural yields are sometimes adversely affected by unpredictable levels of precipitation and occasional catastrophic droughts. The soil is very dry.
Topography[edit]
Russia's mountain ranges are located principally along its continental dip (the Ural Mountains), along the southwestern border (the Caucasus), along the border with Mongolia (the eastern and western Sayan Mountains and the western extremity of the Altay Mountains), and in eastern Siberia (a complex system of ranges in the northeastern corner of the country and forming the spine of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and lesser mountains extending along the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan). Russia has nine major mountain ranges. In general, the eastern half of the country is much more mountainous than the western half, the interior of which is dominated by low plains. The traditional dividing line between the east and the west is the Yenisei River valley. In delineating the western edge of the Central Siberian Plateau from the West Siberian Plain, the Yenisey runs from near the Mongolian border northward into the Arctic Ocean west of the Taymyr Peninsula.
Ural Mountains[edit]
Main article: Ural Mountains
Yugyd Va National Park
The Ural Mountains form the natural boundary between Europe and Asia; the range extends about 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) from the Arctic Ocean to the northern border of Kazakhstan. Several low passes provide major transportation routes through the Urals eastward from Europe. The highest peak, Mount Narodnaya, is 1,894 metres (6,214 ft). The Urals also contain valuable deposits of minerals.
West Siberian plain[edit]
Main article: West Siberian plain
Vasyugan River
To the east of the Urals is the West Siberian Plain, stretching about 6 kilometers from west to east and about 670 kilometers from north to south. With more than half its territory below 200 meters in elevation, the plain contains some of the world's largest swamps and floodplains. Most of the plain's population lives in the drier section south of 77 north latitude.
Central Siberian plateau[edit]
Main article: Central Siberian Plateau
The region directly east of the West Siberian Plain is the Central Siberian Plateau, which extends eastward from the Yenisei River valley to the Lena River valley. The region is divided into several plateaus, with elevations ranging between 320 and 740 meters; the highest elevation is about 1,800 meters, in the northern Putoran Mountains. The plain is bounded on the south by the Baikal Mountains system and on the north by the North Siberian Lowland, an extension of the West Siberian Plain extending into the Taymyr Peninsula on the Arctic Ocean.
Sayan and Stanovoy Mountains[edit]
Altay Mountains
In the mountain system west of Lake Baikal in south-central Siberia, the highest elevations are 3,300 meters in the Western Sayan, 3,200 meters in the Eastern Sayan, and 4,500 meters at Belukha Mountain in the Altay Mountains. The Eastern Sayan reach nearly to the southern shore of Lake Baikal; at the lake, there is an elevation difference of more than 4,500 meters between the nearest mountain, 2,840 meters high, and the deepest part of the lake, which is 1,700 meters below sea level. The mountain systems east of Lake Baikal are lower, forming a complex of minor ranges and valleys that reaches from the lake to the Pacific coast. The maximum height of the Stanovoy Range, which runs west to east from northern Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk, is 2,550 meters. To the south of that range is southeastern Siberia, whose mountains reach 800 meters. Across the Strait of Tartary from that region is Sakhalin Island, Russia's largest island, where the highest elevation is about 1,700 meters. The small Moneron Island, the site of the shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, is found to its west.
Caucasus Mountains[edit]
Caucasus Mountains
Truly alpine terrain appears in the southern mountain ranges. Between the Black and Caspian seas, the Caucasus Mountains rise to impressive heights, forming a boundary between Europe and Asia. One of the peaks, Mount Elbrus, is the highest point in Europe, at 5,642 meters. The geological structure of the Caucasus extends to the northwest as the Crimean and Carpathian Mountains and southeastward into Central Asia as the Tian Shan and Pamirs. The Caucasus Mountains create an imposing natural barrier between Russia and its neighbors to the southwest, Georgia and Azerbaijan.
Northeast Siberia and Kamchatka[edit]
Northeastern Siberia, north of the Stanovoy Range, is an extremely mountainous region. The long Kamchatka Peninsula, which juts southward into the Sea of Okhotsk, includes many volcanic peaks, some of which are still active. The highest is the 4,750-meter Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest point in the Russian Far East. The volcanic chain continues from the southern tip of Kamchatka southward through the Kuril Islands chain and into Japan. Kamchatka also is one of Russia's two centers of seismic activity (the other is the Caucasus). In 1995, a major earthquake largely destroyed the oil-processing town of Neftegorsk. Also located in this region is the very large Beyenchime-Salaatin crater.
Drainage[edit]
A clear view of Lake Baikal captured by SeaWiFS.
Crossing of the rivers Chusovaya (tributary) and Kama (main river) near the city of Perm. Ural mountains on the right.
Russia is a water-rich country, divided into twenty watershed districts. The earliest settlements in the country sprang up along the rivers, where most of the urban population continues to live. The Volga, Europe's longest river, is by far Russia's most important commercial waterway. Four of the country's thirteen largest cities are located on its banks: Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Kazan, and Volgograd. The Kama River, which flows west from the southern Urals to join the Volga in the Republic of Tatarstan, is a second key European water system whose banks are densely populated.
Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water, providing it with one of the world's largest surface-water resources. However, most of Russia's rivers and streams belong to the Arctic drainage basin, which lies mainly in Siberia but also includes part of European Russia. Altogether, 84 percent of Russia's surface water is located east of the Urals in rivers flowing through sparsely populated territory and into the Arctic and Pacific oceans. In contrast, areas with the highest concentrations of population, and therefore the highest demand for water supplies, tend to have the warmest climates and highest rates of evaporation. As a result, densely populated areas such as the Don and Kuban River basins north of the Caucasus have barely adequate (or in some cases inadequate) water resources.
Forty of Russia's rivers longer than 1,000 kilometers are east of the Urals, including the three major rivers that drain Siberia as they flow northward to the Arctic Ocean: the Irtysh-Ob system (totaling 5,380 kilometers), the Yenisei (4,000 kilometers), and the Lena (3,630 kilometers). The basins of those river systems cover about eight million square kilometers, discharging nearly 50,000 cubic meters of water per second into the Arctic Ocean. The northward flow of these rivers means that source areas thaw before the areas downstream, creating vast swamps such as the 48,000-square-kilometer Vasyugan Swamp in the center of the West Siberian Plain. The same is true of other river systems, including the Pechora and the Northern Dvina in Europe and the Kolyma and the Indigirka in Siberia. Approximately 10 percent of Russian territory is classified as swampland.
A number of other rivers drain Siberia from eastern mountain ranges into the Pacific Ocean. The Amur River and its main tributary, the Ussuri, form a long stretch of the winding boundary between Russia and China. The Amur system drains most of southeastern Siberia. Three basins drain European Russia. The Dnieper, which flows mainly through Belarus and Ukraine, has its headwaters in the hills west of Moscow. The 1,860-kilometer |Don originates in the Central Russian Upland south of Moscow and then flows into the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea at Rostov-on-Don. The Volga is the third and by far the largest of the European systems, rising in the Valdai Hills west of Moscow and meandering southeastward for 3,510 kilometers before emptying into the Caspian Sea. Altogether, the Volga system drains about 1.4 million square kilometers. Linked by several canals, European Russia's rivers long have been a vital transportation system; the Volga system still carries two-thirds of Russia's inland water traffic.
Russia's inland bodies of water are chiefly a legacy of extensive glaciation. In European Russia, the largest lakes are Ladoga and Onega northeast of Saint Petersburg, Lake Peipus on the Estonian border, and the Rybinsk Reservoir north of Moscow. Smaller man-made reservoirs, 160 to 320 kilometers long, are on the Don, the Kama, and the Volga rivers. Many large reservoirs also have been constructed on the Siberian rivers; the Bratsk Reservoir northwest of Lake Baikal is one of the world's largest.
The most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is Lake Baikal, the world's deepest and most capacious freshwater lake. Lake Baikal alone holds 85% of the freshwater resources of the lakes in Russia and 20% of the world's total. It extends 632 kilometers in length and 59 kilometers across at its widest point. Its maximum depth is 1,713 meters. Numerous smaller lakes dot the northern regions of the European and Siberian plains. The largest of these are lakes Belozero, Topozero, Vygozero, and Ilmen in the European northwest and Lake Chany in southwestern Siberia.
Climate[edit]
Main article: Climate of Russia
Lake Baikal. Lake ice is beginning to form at the northernmost end of the lake and in a bay at the middle.
Russia has a largely continental climate because of its sheer size and compact configuration. Most of its land is more than 400 kilometers (250 mi) from the sea, and the centre is 3,840 kilometers (2,386 mi) from the sea. In addition, Russia's mountain ranges, predominantly to the south and the east, block moderating temperatures from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, but European Russian and northern Siberia lack such topographic protection from the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans.
Because only small parts of Russia are south of 50° north latitude and more than half of the country is north of 60° north latitude, extensive regions experience six months of snow cover over subsoil that is permanently frozen to depths as far as several hundred meters. The average yearly temperature of nearly all of Siberia is below freezing, and the average for most of European Russia is between 5 and 0 °C (41 and 32 °F). Most of Russia has only two seasons, summer and winter, with very short intervals of moderation between them. Transportation routes, including entire railroad lines, are redirected in winter to traverse rock-solid waterways and lakes. Some areas constitute important exceptions to this description, however: the moderate maritime climate of Kaliningrad Oblast on the Baltic Sea is similar to that of the American Northwest; the Russian Far East, under the influence of the Pacific Ocean, has a monsoonal climate that reverses the direction of wind in summer and winter, sharply differentiating temperatures; and a narrow, subtropical band of territory provides Russia's most popular summer resort area on the Black Sea.
In winter, an intense high-pressure system causes winds to blow from the south and the southwest in all but the Pacific region of the Russian landmass; in summer, a low-pressure system brings winds from the north and the northwest to most of the landmass. Russia is the coldest country of the world (average annual temperature is −5.5 °C (22.1 °F)). That meteorological combination reduces the wintertime temperature difference between north and south. Thus, average January temperatures are −6 °C (21 °F) in Saint Petersburg, −27 °C (−17 °F) in the West Siberian Plain, and −43 °C (−45 °F) at Yakutsk (in east-central Siberia, at approximately the same latitude as Saint Petersburg), while the winter average on the Mongolian border, whose latitude is some 10° farther south, is barely warmer. Summer temperatures are more affected by latitude, however; the Arctic islands average 4 °C (39.2 °F), and the southernmost regions average 20 °C (68 °F). Russia's potential for temperature extremes is typified by the national record low of −68 °C (−90 °F), recorded at Verkhoyansk in north-central Siberia and the record high of 45 °C (113.0 °F), recorded at several southern stations (Utta).
The long, cold winter has a profound impact on almost every aspect of life in Russia. It affects where and how long people live and work, what kinds of crops are grown, and where they are grown (no part of the country has a year-round growing season). The length and severity of the winter, together with the sharp fluctuations in the mean summer and winter temperatures, impose special requirements on many branches of the economy. In regions of permafrost, buildings must be constructed on pilings, machinery must be made of specially tempered steel, and transportation systems must be engineered to perform reliably in extremely low and extremely high temperatures. In addition, during extended periods of darkness and cold, there are increased demands for energy, health care, and textiles.
Because Russia has little exposure to ocean influences, most of the country receives low to moderate amounts of precipitation. The highest precipitation falls in the northwest, with amounts decreasing from northwest to southeast across European Russia. The wettest areas are the small, lush subtropical region adjacent to the Caucasus and along the Pacific coast: Sochi receives 1,500 millimetres (60 in) per year and the Kuril Islands typically around 1,000 to 1,500 millimetres (40 to 60 in) - much of which is snow. Along the Baltic coast, average annual precipitation is 600 millimeters (20 in), and in Moscow it is 525 millimeters (20 in). An average of only 20 millimeters (0.8 in) falls along the Russian–Kazakh border, and as little as 15 millimeters (0.6 in) may fall along Siberia's Arctic coastline. Average annual days of snow cover, a critical factor for agriculture, depends on both latitude and altitude. Cover varies from forty to 200 days in European Russia, and from 120 to 250 days in Siberia.
Area and boundaries[edit]
Area (excluding Crimea):
Total: 17,098,242 km²
Land: 17,021,900 km²
Water: 79,400 km²
Area - comparative:
Slightly larger than twice size of Brazil
Land boundaries:
Total (excluding Crimea): 19,917 km
Kaliningrad forms the westernmost part of Russia, having no land connection to the rest of the country. It is bounded by Poland, Lithuania, and the Baltic Sea.
Crimea, a peninsula on the Black Sea, is claimed and de facto administered by the Russian Federation since Russia annexed it in March 2014. It is recognized as a territory of Ukraine by most of the international community.
Border countries:
Table of countries with a land border with Russia
(listed anti-clockwise around Russia).[5]
Country
Length (km)
Norway 195.8
Finland 1,271.8
Estonia 138
Latvia 270.5
Lithuania 266
Poland 204.1
Belarus 1,239
Ukraine 1,925.8
Georgia 875.5
Azerbaijan 372.6
Kazakhstan 7,512.8
Mongolia 3485
China 4,209.3
North Korea 17
Japan water
US water
If Abkhazia and South Ossetia are counted as sovereign states:[6]
Country
Length (km)
Abkhazia 255.4
South Ossetia 70
remaining border with Georgia 365
Coastline excluding Crimea: 37,653 km (23,396 mi)
Maritime claims:
Russian continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
Exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi)
Territorial sea: 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
Elevation extremes:
See also: Extreme points of Russia
Lowest point: Caspian Sea: −28 m
Highest point: Mount Elbrus: 5,642 m
Natural resources and land use[edit]
Further information: Siberian natural resources
Russia holds the greatest reserves of mineral resources than any country in the world. Though they are abundant, they are in remote areas with extreme climates, making them expensive to mine. The country is the most abundant in mineral fuels. It may hold as much as half of the world's coal reserves and even larger reserves of petroleum. Deposits of coal are scattered throughout the region, but the largest are located in central and eastern Siberia. The most developed fields lie in western Siberia, in the northeastern European region, in the area around Moscow, and in the Urals. The major petroleum deposits are located in western Siberia and in the Volga-Urals. Smaller deposits are found throughout the country. Natural gas, a resource of which Russia holds around forty percent of the world's reserves, can be found along Siberia's Arctic coast, in the North Caucasus, and in northwestern Russia. Major iron-ore deposits are located south of Moscow, near the Ukrainian border in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly; this area contains vast deposits of iron ore that have caused a deviation in the Earth's magnetic field. There are smaller deposits in other parts of the country. The Ural mountains hold small deposits of manganese. Nickel, tungsten, cobalt, molybdenum and other iron alloying elements occur in adequate quantities.
Russia also contains most of the nonferrous metals. Aluminium ores are scarce and are found primarily in the Ural region, northwestern European Russia, and south central Siberia. Copper is more abundant and major reserves are located in the Urals, the Norilsk area near the mouth of the Yenisey in eastern Siberia, and the Kola Peninsula. Another vast deposit located east of Lake Baikal only became exploited when the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) railroad was finished in 1989.
The North Caucasus, far eastern Russia, and the western edge of the Kuznetsk Basin in southern Siberia contain an abundance of lead and zinc ores. These are commonly found along with copper, gold, silver, and a large amount of other rare metals. The country has one of the largest gold reserves in the world; mostly in Siberia and the Urals. Mercury deposits can be found in the central and southern Urals and in south central Siberia.
Raw materials are abundant as well, including potassium and magnesium salt deposits in the Kama River region of the western Urals. Russia also contains one of the world's largest deposits of apatite found in the central Kola Peninsula. Rock salt is located in the southwestern Urals and the southwest of Lake Baikal. Surface deposits of salt are found in salt lakes along the lower Volga Valley. Sulfur can be found in the Urals and the middle Volga Valley.
Eight percent of the land is used for arable farming, four percent—for permanent pastures, forty-six percent of the land is forests and woodland, and forty-two percent is used for other purposes.
Natural hazards[edit]
Volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands and volcanoes and earthquakes on the Kamchatka peninsula are other natural hazards.
Antipodes[edit]
The antipodes of Russia lie in the South Pacific and South Atlantic near Antarctica. Only a small amount is antipodal to land. This includes the arctic islands of Franz Josef Land, Victoria, and North Novaya Zemlya (to Marie Byrd Land in Antarctica); Severnaya Zemlya (to the Ronne Ice Shelf and the Ellsworth Mountains behind it); the De Long Islands (to Coats Land, or just off shore); and Wrangel Island (to Queen Maud Land and its offshore Fimbul Ice Shelf).
In addition, northern Ellsworth Land and the base of the Antarctic Peninsula are largely antipodal to the Taymyr Peninsula, while Alexander Island is antipodal to eastern Taymyria south of the Khatanga Gulf. The free part of the Antarctic Peninsula is antipodal to the western Sakha Republic, from its northwestern coast southward, running east of the Lena River, with the northern end of the peninsula covering the towns of Vilyuysk and Kysyl-Syr and stopping about 300 km short of Yakutsk.
The antipodes of the South Orkney Islands are on the Aldan River on the other side of Yakutsk, between Ust-Maya and Eldikan, in southwestern Sakha. The southern two South Sandwich Islands are antipodal to the Pyagin Peninsula east of Magadan. Western South Georgia Island is antipodal to the northern tip of Sakhalin.
Peter I Island, claimed by Norway on the other side of the Peninsula, is opposite a spot 70 km SE of Norilsk.
The only inhabited lands antipodal to Russia are southern Patagonia, including Tierra del Fuego, which correspond to much of Buryatia, the western shore of Lake Baikal in Irkutsk Oblast, and southwestern Zabaykalsky Krai, down to the Mongolian border, with Ulan-Ude being antipodal to Puerto Natales, Chile. The sparsely inhabited West Falkland and neighboring islets are antipodal to eastern Zabaykalsky on the border with northern Inner Mongolia.
See also[edit]
Geography of the Soviet Union
Geology of Russia
List of Russian explorers
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Geography of Russia.
Great russian landscape places (20 photo)
Jump up ^ "Russia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ "Russia::Climate and vegetation". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
Jump up ^ The World Network of Biosphere Reserves — UNESCO. "Russian Federation". Archived from the original on February 22, 2008. Retrieved December 26, 2007.
Jump up ^ :84–109
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-10-11. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
Jump up ^ Georgia and the majority of the world does not recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, considering the Russian border with these countries as part of the Russian–Georgian border.
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
Further reading[edit]
Blinnikov, Mikhail S. A geography of Russia and its neighbors (Guilford Press, 2011)
Catchpole, Brian. A map history of Russia (1983)
Chew, Allen F. An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders (2nd ed. 1967)
Gilbert, Martin. Routledge Atlas of Russian History (4th ed. 2007) excerpt and text search
Henry, Laura A. Red to green: environmental activism in post-Soviet Russia (2010)
Kaiser, Robert J. The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (1994).
Medvedev, Andrei. Economic Geography of the Russian Federation by (2000)
Parker, William Henry. An historical geography of Russia (University of London Press, 1968)
Shaw, Denis J.B. Russia in the modern world: A new geography (Blackwell, 1998)
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Plantations in the American South
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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See also: List of plantations in the United States
A cotton plantation on the Mississippi, 1884 lithograph
Plantations were an important aspect of the history of the American South, particularly the antebellum (pre-American Civil War) era. The mild subtropical climate, plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the Southeastern United States allowed large plantations to flourish; where large numbers of workers, usually Africans held captive for slave labor, were required for agricultural production.
Contents
[hide]
1 Personnel
1.1 Plantation owner
1.2 Overseer
1.3 Slaves
2 Plantation crops
3 Plantation architecture and landscape
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
6.1 Primary sources
Personnel[edit]
Plantation owner[edit]
Three planters, after 1845, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War by Confederate chaplain and planter James Battle Avirett
An individual who owned a plantation was known as a planter. Historians of the antebellum South have generally defined "planter" most precisely as a person owning property (real estate) and 20 or more slaves.[1] The wealthiest planters, such as the Virginia elite with plantations near the James River, owned more land and slaves than other farmers. Tobacco was the major cash crop in the Upper South (in the original Chesapeake Bay Colonies of Virginia and Maryland, and in parts of the Carolinas).
The later development of cotton and sugar cultivation in the Deep South in the early 18th century led to the establishment of large plantations which had hundreds of slaves. The great majority of Southern farmers owned no slaves or owned fewer than five slaves. Slaves were much more expensive than land.
In the "Black Belt" counties of Alabama and Mississippi, the terms "planter" and "farmer" were often synonymous;[2] a "planter" was generally a farmer who owned many slaves. While most Southerners were not slave-owners, and while the majority of slaveholders held ten or fewer slaves, planters were those who held a significant number of slaves, mostly as agricultural labor. Planters are often spoken of as belonging to the planter elite or to the planter aristocracy in the antebellum South.
The historians Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman define large planters as those owning over 50 slaves, and medium planters as those owning between 16 and 50 slaves.[3] Historian David Williams, in A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom, suggests that the minimum requirement for planter status was twenty negroes, especially since a southern planter could exempt Confederate duty for one white male per twenty slaves owned.[4] In his study of Black Belt counties in Alabama, Jonathan Weiner defines planters by ownership of real property, rather than of slaves. A planter, for Weiner, owned at least $10,000 worth of real estate in 1850 and $32,000 worth in 1860, equivalent to about the top 8 percent of landowners.[5] In his study of southwest Georgia, Lee Formwalt defines planters in terms of size of land holdings rather than in terms of numbers of slaves. Formwalt's planters are in the top 4.5 percent of landowners, translating into real estate worth six thousand dollars or more in 1850, 24,000 dollars or more in 1860, and eleven thousand dollars or more in 1870.[6] In his study of Harrison County, Texas, Randolph B. Campbell classifies large planters as owners of 20 slaves, and small planters as owners of between 10 and 19 slaves.[7] In Chicot and Phillips Counties, Arkansas, Carl H. Moneyhon defines large planters as owners of twenty or more slaves, and of six hundred or more acres.[8]
Many nostalgic memoirs about plantation life were published in the post-bellum South.[9] For example, James Battle Avirett, who grew up on the Avirett-Stephens Plantation in Onslow County, North Carolina and served as an Episcopal chaplain in the Confederate States Army, published The Old Plantation: How We Lived in Great House and Cabin before the War in 1901.[9] Such memoirs often included descriptions of Christmas as the epitome of anti-modern order exemplified by the "great house" and extended family.[10]
Overseer[edit]
On larger plantations an overseer represented the planter in matters of daily management. Usually portrayed as uncouth, ill-educated and low-class, he had the difficult and often despised task of middleman and the often contradictory goals of fostering both productivity and the enslaved work-force.[11]
Slaves[edit]
Main article: Slavery in the United States
Plantation crops[edit]
Crops cultivated on antebellum plantations included cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo, rice, and to a lesser extent okra, yam, sweet potato, peanuts, and watermelon. By the late 18th century, most planters in the Upper South had switched from exclusive tobacco cultivation to mixed-crop production.
In the Lowcountry of South Carolina, even before the American Revolution, planters in South Carolina typically owned hundreds of slaves. (In towns and cities, families held slaves to work as household servants.) The 19th-century development of the Deep South for cotton cultivation depended on large tracts of land with much more acreage than was typical of the Chesapeake Bay area, and for labor, planters held dozens, or sometimes hundreds, of slaves.
Plantation architecture and landscape[edit]
Main article: Plantation complexes in the Southern United States
Antebellum architecture can be seen in many extant "plantation houses", the large residences of planters and their families. Over time in each region of the plantation south a regional architecture emerged inspired by those who settled the area. Most early plantation architecture was constructed to mitigate the hot subtropical climate and provide natural cooling.
Some of earliest plantation architecture occurred in southern Louisiana by the French. Using styles and building concepts they had learned in the Caribbean, the French created many of the grand plantation homes around New Orleans. French Creole architecture began around 1699, and lasted well into the 1800s. In the Lowcountry of South Carolina and Georgia, the Dogtrot style house was built with a large center breezeway running through the house to mitigate the subtropical heat. The wealthiest planters in colonial Virginia constructed their manor houses in the Georgian style, e.g. the mansion of Shirley Plantation. In the 19th century, Greek Revival architecture also became popular on some of the plantation homes of the deep south.
Common plants and trees incorporated in the landscape of Southern plantation manors included Southern live oak and Southern magnolia. Both of these large trees are native to the Southern United States and were classic symbols of the old south. Southern live oaks, classically draped in Spanish moss, were planted along long paths or walkways leading to the plantation to create a grand, imposing, and majestic theme. Plantation landscapes were very well maintained and trimmed, usually, the landscape work was managed by the planter, with assistance from slaves or workers. Planters themselves also usually maintained a small flower or vegetable garden. Cash crops were not grown in these small garden plots, but rather garden plants and vegetables for enjoyment.
See also[edit]
Plantation economy
Plantation era
Plain Folk of the Old South
American gentry
J. H. Netterville, 20th-century plantation manager
Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States
List of plantations in the United States
History of the Southern United States
Plantations of Leon County
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, xiii
Jump up ^ Oakes, Ruling Race, 52.
Jump up ^ Fogel, Robert William; Engerman, Stanley L. (1974). Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 311437227.
Jump up ^ David Williams, "A People's History of the Civil War: Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom", New York: The New Press, 2005.
Jump up ^ Wiener, Jonathan M. (Autumn 1976). "Planter Persistence and Social Change: Alabama, 1850–1870". Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 7 (2): 235–60. JSTOR 202735.
Jump up ^ Formwalt, Lee W. (October 1981). "Antebellum Planter Persistence: Southwest Georgia—A Case Study". Plantation Society in the Americas. 1 (3): 410–29. ISSN 0192-5059. OCLC 571605035.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Randolph B (May 1982). "Population Persistence and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Texas: Harrison County, 1850–1880". Journal of Southern History. 48 (2): 185–204. JSTOR 2207106.
Jump up ^ Moneyhon, Carl H. (1992). "The Impact of the Civil War in Arkansas: The Mississippi River Plantation Counties". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 51 (2): 105–18. JSTOR 40025847.
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, David (February 2005). "Down Memory Lane: Nostalgia for the Old South in Post-Civil War Plantation Reminiscences". The Journal of Southern History. 71 (1): 105–136. JSTOR 27648653. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ Anderson, David J. (Fall 2014). "Nostalgia for Christmas in Postbellum Plantation Reminiscences". Southern Studies: an Interdisciplinary Journal of the South. 21 (2): 39–73.
Jump up ^ Richter:, William L. (2009-08-20). "Overseers". The A to Z of the Old South. The A to Z Guide Series. 51. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press (published 2009). p. 258. ISBN 9780810870000. Retrieved 2016-11-29. On larger plantations, the planter's direct representative in day-to-day management of the crops, care of the land, livestock, farm implements, and slaves was the white overseer. It was his job to work the labor force to produce a profitable crop. He was an indispensable cog in the plantation machinery. [...] The overseer has usually been portrayed as an uncouth, uneducated character of low class whose main purpose was to harass the slaves and get in the way of the planter's progressive goals of production. More than that, the overseer had a position between master and slave in which it was hard to win. Directing slave labor was looked down upon by a large number of people, North and South. He was faced with planter demands that were at times unreasonable. He was forbidden to fraternize with the slaves. He had no chance of advancement unless he left the profession. He was bombarded with incessant complaints from masters, who did not appreciate the task he faced, and slaves, who sought to play off master and overseer against each other to avoid work and gain privileges. [...] The very nature of the job was difficult. The overseer had to care for the slaves and gain the largest crop possible. These were often contradictory goals.
Further reading[edit]
Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (1979)
* Evans, Chris, "The Plantation Hoe: The Rise and Fall of an Atlantic Commodity, 1650–1850," William and Mary Quarterly, (2012) 69#1 pp 71–100.
Phillips, Ulrich B. American Negro Slavery; a Survey of the Supply, Employment, and Control of Negro Labor, as Determined by the Plantation Regime. (1918; reprint 1966)online at Project Gutenberg; google edition
Phillips, Ulrich B. Life and Labor in the Old South. (1929). excerpts and text search
Phillips, Ulrich B. Phillips, Ulrich B. (1905). "The Economic Cost of Slaveholding in the Cotton Belt". Political Science Quarterly. 20 (2): 257–275. doi:10.2307/2140400. JSTOR 2140400.
Thompson, Edgar Tristram. The Plantation edited by Sidney Mintz and George Baca (University of South Carolina Press; 2011) 176 pages; 1933 dissertation
Weiner, Marli Frances. Mistresses and Slaves: Plantation Women in South Carolina, 1830-80 (1997)
White, Deborah G. Ar'n't I a Woman?: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (2nd ed. 1999) excerpt and text search
Primary sources[edit]
Phillips, Ulrich B., ed. Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources. 2 Volumes. (1909). online edition
[hide]
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The plantation
Plantations in the American South
Plantation economy
Plantation complexes in the Southern United States
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Slavery
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This page was last edited on 23 May 2018, at 16:30.
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values: Плантацыі Поўдня ЗША – Belarusian

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