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List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign
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Elizabeth II
The following is a list, ordered by length of reign, of the monarchs of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1927–present), the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1927), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801), the Kingdom of England (871–1707), the Kingdom of Scotland (878–1707), the Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1800), and the Principality of Wales (1216–1542).
Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning British monarch on 9 September 2015 when she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother Victoria.[1][2] On 6 February 2017 she became the first British monarch to celebrate a Sapphire Jubilee, commemorating 65 years on the throne.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overall
1.1 Gallery
1.2 Elizabeth II
2 Unitary monarchy
2.1 United Kingdom
2.2 Great Britain
3 Kingdoms
3.1 England
3.2 Scotland
3.3 Ireland
4 Principalities
4.1 Gwynedd
4.2 Wales
5 See also
6 References
Overall[edit]
These are the ten longest reigning monarchs in Britain for whom there is reliable recorded evidence.
No.
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
Days
Years, days
1 Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom 6 February 1952 Present 24,118 7004241180000000000♠66 years, 11 days
2 Victoria of the United Kingdom 20 June 1837 22 January 1901 23,226 63 years, 216 days
3 George III of the United Kingdom 25 October 1760 29 January 1820 21,644 59 years, 96 days
4 James VI of Scotland 24 July 1567 27 March 1625 21,066 7004210660000000000♠57 years, 246 days
5 Henry III of England 18 October 1216 16 November 1272 20,483 7004204830000000000♠56 years, 29 days
6 Edward III of England 25 January 1327 20 June 1377 18,410 7004184100000000000♠50 years, 147 days
7 William I of Scotland 9 December 1165 4 December 1214 17,892 7004178920000000000♠48 years, 360 days
8 Llywelyn of Gwynedd 1195 11 April 1240 16,173–16,902 c. 44–45 years
9 Elizabeth I of England 17 November 1558 24 March 1603 16,198 7004161980000000000♠44 years, 127 days
10 David II of Scotland 7 June 1329 22 February 1371 15,235 7004152350000000000♠41 years, 260 days
The longest claim by a pretender was that of James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"), who was the Jacobite pretender to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland for 64 years, 3 months, and 16 days (17 September 1701 – 1 January 1766).
Gallery[edit]
1 – Elizabeth II
2 – Victoria
3 – George III
4 – James VI
5 – Henry III
6 – Edward III
7 – William I
8 – Llywelyn I
9 – Elizabeth I
10 – David II
Elizabeth II[edit]
On 9 September 2015 (at the age of 7004326480000000000♠89 years, 141 days), Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning female monarch in world history.[3][4] On 23 May 2016 (at the age of 7004329050000000000♠90 years, 32 days), her reign surpassed the claimed reign of James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender").[5] On 13 October 2016 (at the age of 7004330480000000000♠90 years, 175 days), she became the world's longest-reigning current monarch (and the world's longest-serving current head of state) after the death of Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), King of Thailand.[6][7]
Should she still be reigning on –
18 July 2020 (at age 7004344220000000000♠94 years, 88 days), she would have been queen for 25,000 days.[8]
6 February 2022 (at age 7004349900000000000♠95 years, 291 days), she would celebrate her platinum jubilee, marking 70 years on the throne.[9]
27 May 2024 (at age 7004358310000000000♠98 years, 36 days), she would surpass Louis XIV of France as the longest-reigning monarch of a major European country.[10]
Unitary monarchy[edit]
See also: List of British monarchs
United Kingdom[edit]
On 1 January 1801 the Kingdom of Great Britain united with the Kingdom of Ireland to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, becoming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland by Act of Parliament in 1927[11] following the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922.
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
Elizabeth II 6 February 1952 Present 24,118 7004241180000000000♠66 years, 11 days
Victoria 20 June 1837 22 January 1901 23,226 63 years, 216 days
George V 6 May 1910 20 January 1936 9,390 7003939000000000000♠25 years, 259 days
George III [12] 1 January 1801 29 January 1820 6,967 7003696700000000000♠19 years, 28 days
George VI 11 December 1936 6 February 1952 5,535 7003553500000000000♠15 years, 57 days
George IV 29 January 1820 26 June 1830 3,801 7003380100000000000♠10 years, 148 days
Edward VII 22 January 1901 6 May 1910 3,391 7003339100000000000♠9 years, 104 days
William IV 26 June 1830 20 June 1837 2,551 7003255100000000000♠6 years, 359 days
Edward VIII 20 January 1936 11 December 1936 326 326 days
Great Britain[edit]
On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England united with the Kingdom of Scotland as the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
George III[12]
(also United Kingdom) 25 October 1760 1 January 1801 14,677 7004146770000000000♠40 years, 68 days
George II 22 June 1727N.S. 25 October 1760 12,168 7004121680000000000♠33 years, 114 days
George I 1 August 1714 11 June 1727 4,697 7003469700000000000♠12 years, 314 days
Anne[13] 1 May 1707 1 August 1714 2,649 7003264900000000000♠7 years, 92 days
Kingdoms[edit]
England[edit]
See also: List of English monarchs
Includes English monarchs from the installation of Alfred the Great as King of Wessex in 871 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
Henry III 18 or 19 October 1216 16 November 1272 20,482
or 20,483 7004204820000000000♠56 years, 28 days
or 29 days
Edward III 25 January 1327 21 June 1377 18,410 7004184100000000000♠50 years, 147 days
Elizabeth I 17 November 1558 24 March 1603 16,198 7004161980000000000♠44 years, 127 days
Henry VI[14] 31 August 1422
31 October 1470
4 March 1461
11 April 1471
14,065
162
Total: 14,227 7004140650000000000♠38 years, 185 days
162 days
38 years, 347 days
Æthelred II[14] 18 March 978
3 February 1014
25 December 1013
23 April 1016
13,065
810
Total: 13,875 7004130650000000000♠35 years, 282 days
7002810000000000000♠2 years, 80 days
37 years, 362 days
Henry VIII 22 April 1509 28 January 1547 13,795 7004137950000000000♠37 years, 281 days
Charles II[15] 30 January 1649 6 February 1685 13,156 7004131560000000000♠36 years, 7 days
Henry I 3 August 1100 1 December 1135 12,903 7004129030000000000♠35 years, 120 days
Henry II
(co-ruler with Henry the Young King) 25 October 1154 6 July 1189 12,673 7004126730000000000♠34 years, 254 days
Edward I 20 November 1272 7 July 1307 12,646 7004126460000000000♠34 years, 229 days
Alfred the Great 24 April 871 26 October 899 10,412 7004104120000000000♠28 years, 185 days
Edward the Elder 27 October 899 17 July 924 9,029 7003902900000000000♠24 years, 264 days
Charles I[16] 27 March 1625 30 January 1649 8,710 7003871000000000000♠23 years, 309 days
Henry VII 22 August 1485 21 April 1509 8,642 7003864200000000000♠23 years, 242 days
Edward the Confessor 8 June 1042 5 January 1066 8,612 7003861200000000000♠23 years, 211 days
Richard II 22 June 1377 29 September 1399 8,134 7003813400000000000♠22 years, 99 days
James I[17] 24 March 1603 27 March 1625 8,039 7003803900000000000♠22 years, 3 days
Edward IV[14] 4 March 1461
11 April 1471
3 October 1470
9 April 1483
3,500
4,381
Total: 7,881 7003350000000000000♠9 years, 213 days
7003438100000000000♠11 years, 363 days
21 years, 211 days
William I 12 December 1066 9 September 1087 7,563 7003756300000000000♠20 years, 258 days
Edward II 7 July 1307 20 January 1327 7,137 7003713700000000000♠19 years, 197 days
Cnut 30 November 1016 12 November 1035 6,921 7003692100000000000♠18 years, 347 days
Stephen[14] 22 December 1135
1 November 1141
7 April 1141
25 October 1154
1,933
4,741
Total: 6,674 7003193300000000000♠5 years, 106 days
7003474100000000000♠12 years, 358 days
18 years, 99 days
John 6 April 1199 19 October 1216 6,406 7003640600000000000♠17 years, 196 days
Edgar I 1 October 959 8 July 975 5,759 7003575900000000000♠15 years, 280 days
Æthelstan 2 August 924
(or 925) 27 October 939 5,564
or 5,199 7003556400000000000♠15 years, 86 days
or 7003519900000000000♠14 years, 86 days
Henry IV 29 September 1399 20 March 1413 4,920 7003492000000000000♠13 years, 172 days
William III[18]
(co-ruler with Mary II) 13 February 1689 8 March 1702 4,770 7003477000000000000♠13 years, 23 days
Henry the Young King
(co-ruler with Henry II) 14 June 1170 11 June 1183 4,745 7003474500000000000♠12 years, 362 days
William II 9 September 1087 2 August 1100 4,710 7003471000000000000♠12 years, 327 days
Richard I 6 July 1189 6 April 1199 3,561 7003356100000000000♠9 years, 274 days
Eadred 26 May 946 23 November 955 3,468 7003346800000000000♠9 years, 181 days
Henry V 21 March 1413 31 August 1422 3,450 7003345000000000000♠9 years, 163 days
Edmund I 27 October 939 26 May 946 2,403 7003240300000000000♠6 years, 211 days
Edward VI 28 January 1547 6 July 1553 2,351 7003235100000000000♠6 years, 159 days
Mary II[19]
(co-ruler with William III) 13 February 1689 28 December 1694 2,144 7003214400000000000♠5 years, 318 days
Mary I
19 July 1553 17 November 1558 1,947 7003194700000000000♠5 years, 121 days
Anne[13]
(also Kingdom of Great Britain) 8 March 1702 30 April 1707 1,879 7003187900000000000♠5 years, 53 days
Eadwig 23 November 955 1 October 959 1,408 7003140800000000000♠3 years, 312 days
James II[20] 6 February 1685 11 December 1688 1,404 7003140400000000000♠3 years, 309 days
Edward the Martyr 9 July 975 18 March 978 984 7002984000000000000♠2 years, 253 days
Harold I 12 November 1037 17 March 1040 856 7002856000000000000♠2 years, 126 days
Harthacnut 17 March 1040 8 June 1042 813 7002813000000000000♠2 years, 83 days
Richard III 26 June 1483 22 August 1485 788 7002788000000000000♠2 years, 57 days
Harold II 5 January 1066 14 October 1066 282 282 days
Edmund II 23 April 1016 30 November 1016 221 221 days
Matilda (disputed) 7 April 1141 1 November 1141 208 208 days
Edward V 9 April 1483 26 June 1483 78 78 days
Edgar II 15 October 1066 17 December 1066 63 63 days
Sweyn Forkbeard 25 December 1013 3 February 1014 40 40 days
Jane (disputed) 10 July 1553 19 July 1553 9 9 days
Scotland[edit]
See also: List of Scottish monarchs
Includes Scottish monarchs from the installation of Kenneth I (House of Alpin) in 848 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
James VI[17] 24 July 1567 27 March 1625 21,066 7004210660000000000♠57 years, 246 days
William I 9 December 1165 4 December 1214 17,892 7004178920000000000♠48 years, 360 days
Constantine II 900 943 c. 15,500 c. 43 years
David II 7 June 1329 22 February 1371 15,235 7004152350000000000♠41 years, 260 days
Alexander III 6 July 1249 19 March 1286 13,405 7004134050000000000♠36 years, 256 days
Malcolm III 17 March 1058 13 November 1093 13,025 7004130250000000000♠35 years, 241 days
Alexander II 4 December 1214 6 July 1249 12,633 7004126330000000000♠34 years, 214 days
James I 4 April 1406 21 February 1437 11,281 7004112810000000000♠30 years, 323 days
Malcolm II 25 March 1005 25 November 1034 10,837 7004108370000000000♠29 years, 245 days
James V 9 September 1513 14 December 1542 10,688 7004106880000000000♠29 years, 96 days
David I 23 April 1124 24 May 1153 10,623 7004106230000000000♠29 years, 31 days
James III 3 August 1460 11 June 1488 10,174 7004101740000000000♠27 years, 313 days
Charles II[15] 30 January 1649
29 May 1660
3 September 1651
6 February 1685
946
9,019
Total: 9,965 7002946000000000000♠2 years, 216 days
7003901900000000000♠24 years, 253 days
27 years, 104 days
James IV 11 June 1488 9 September 1513 9,220 7003922000000000000♠25 years, 90 days
Mary I 14 December 1542 24 July 1567 8,988 7003898800000000000♠24 years, 222 days
Charles I[16] 27 March 1625 30 January 1649 8,710 7003871000000000000♠23 years, 309 days
Kenneth II 971 995 c. 8,700 c. 23-24 years
James II 21 February 1437 3 August 1460 8,564 7003856400000000000♠23 years, 164 days
Robert I 25 March 1306 7 June 1329 8,475 7003847500000000000♠23 years, 74 days
Robert II 22 February 1371 19 April 1390 6,996 7003699600000000000♠19 years, 56 days
Alexander I 8 January 1107 23 April 1124 6,315 7003631500000000000♠17 years, 106 days
Macbeth 14 August 1040 15 August 1057 6,210 7003621000000000000♠17 years, 1 day
Robert III 19 April 1390 4 April 1406 5,828 7003582800000000000♠15 years, 350 days
Constantine I 862 877 c. 5,400 c. 15 years
Kenneth MacAlpin 843 13 February 858 c. 5,100 c. 14 years
William II[18] 11 May 1689 8 March 1702 4,683 7003468300000000000♠12 years, 301 days
Malcolm IV 24 May 1153 9 December 1165 4,582 7003458200000000000♠12 years, 199 days
Giric
(co-ruler with Eochaid?) 878 889 c. 4.000 c. 11 years
Donald II 889 900 c. 4,000 c. 11 years
Malcolm I 943 954 c. 3,600 c. 10-11 years
Edgar 1097 8 January 1107 c. 3,600 c. 10 years
Kenneth III 997 25 March 1005 c. 2,900 c. 8 years
Indulf 954 962 c. 2,700 c. 8 years
Duncan I 25 November 1034 14 August 1040 2,089 7003208900000000000♠5 years, 263 days
Mary II[19] 11 April 1689 28 December 1694 2,087 7003208700000000000♠5 years, 261 days
Amlaíb 971 977 c. 2,000 c. 5-6 years
Anne[13]
(also Kingdom of Great Britain) 8 March 1702 30 April 1707 1,879 7003187900000000000♠5 years, 53 days
Dub 962 c. 966-967 c. 1,800 c. 5 years
Cuilén c. 966-967 971 c. 1,800 c. 5 years
Domnall mac Ailpín 858 13 April 862 c. 1.300 c. 4 years
James VII[21] 6 February 1685 11 December 1688
(claimed until 16 September 1701.) 1,404
(claimed 6,065.) 7003140400000000000♠3 years, 309 days
claimed 7003606500000000000♠16 years, 222 days
Margaret 25 November 1286 26 September 1290 1,401 7003140100000000000♠3 years, 305 days
John Balliol 17 November 1292 10 July 1296 1,331 7003133100000000000♠3 years, 236 days
Donald III 13 November 1093 1097 c. 1,000 c. 3-4 years
Constantine III 1095 1097 c. 700 c. 2 years
Áed mac Cináeda 877 878 c. 365 c. 1 year
Lulach 15 August 1057 17 March 1058 212 7002212000000000000♠212 days
Duncan II May 1094 12 November 1094 c. 195 "less than 7 months"
Ireland[edit]
See also: Monarchy of Ireland
The High King of Ireland (846–1198) was primarily a titular title (with the exception of Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair who was regarded as the first "King of Ireland"). The later Kingdom of Ireland (1542–1800) came into being under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the long title of which was "An Act that the King of England, his Heirs and Successors, be Kings of Ireland". In 1801 the Irish crown became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2018)
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair 1166 1193 c. 26-27 years
Edward Bruce (disputed) June 1315 14 October 1318 c. 3 years, 100 days
Brian Ua Néill (disputed) 1258 1260 c. 1-2 years
Principalities[edit]
Gwynedd[edit]
See also: List of rulers of Gwynedd
The Principality (or Kingdom) of Gwynedd (5th century–1216) was based in northwest Wales, its rulers were repeatedly acclaimed as "King of the Britons" before losing their power in civil wars or Saxon and Norman invasions. In 1216 it was superseded by the title Principality of Wales, although the new title was not first used until the 1240s.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2018)
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
Gruffudd ap Cynan 1081 1137 c. 55-56 years
Llywelyn the Great 1195 11 April 1240 >16,172 c. 44-45 years
Owain Gwynedd 1137 1170 >11,688 c. 33 years
Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd 1170 1195 >8,766 c. 25 years
Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd 1170 1170 <1 year
Wales[edit]
See also: List of Princes of Wales
The Principality of Wales (1216–1542) was a client state of England for much of its history, except for brief periods when it was de facto independent under a Welsh Prince of Wales (see House of Aberffraw). From 1301 it was first used as a title of the English (and later British) heir apparent. The Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 formally incorporated all of Wales within the Kingdom of England.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2018)
Name
Reign
Duration
From
To
(days)
(years, days)
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd 1253 11 December 1282 >10,572 c. 29 years
Owain Glyndŵr (disputed) 16 September 1400 c. 1416 >5,585 c. 16 years
Owain Goch ap Gruffydd 25 February 1246 1255 >3,000 c. 9 years
Owain Lawgoch (disputed) May 1372 July 1378 >2,221 c. 6 years
Dafydd ap Llywelyn 12 April 1240 25 February 1246 2,145 7003214500000000000♠5 years, 319 days
Dafydd ap Gruffydd 11 December 1282 3 October 1283 296 296 days
Charles, Prince of Wales, is the longest-serving Prince of Wales, with a tenure of 7004217560000000000♠59 years, 206 days since his proclamation as such in 1958.
See also[edit]
Current reigning monarchs by length of reign
List of British monarchs by longevity
List of British monarchy records
List of longest-reigning monarchs
Line of succession to the British throne
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Patricia Treble (30 December 2014). "Palace calculations: Queen Elizabeth II set to lap Victoria". Maclean's. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Official Website of the British Monarchy". Retrieved 5 September 2015. On 9 September 2015, The Queen will become the longest reigning British Monarch, surpassing Queen Victoria.
Jump up ^ Warren Gaebel. "Longest Reigning British Monarch". Warren Gaebel. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Elizabeth is about to become Britain's longest-reigning queen. Here's how she's changed monarchy". The Spectator. 2015-01-03. Retrieved 2015-03-08.
Jump up ^ "Famous Stewarts". www.stewartsociety.org. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej dies at 88". BBC News. 2016-10-13. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ By PA Oct 13, 2016. "Queen takes over longest reign mantle after Thailand's King Bhumibol dies". Aol.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-10-13. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Queen Elizabeth II becomes longest-reigning British monarch". Deutsche Welle. 2015-09-09. Retrieved 2016-04-04.
Jump up ^ Victoria Arbiter (September 9, 2015). "Queen Elizabeth II: The platinum monarch?". CNN. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Elledge, Jonn (9 September 2015). "Queen Elizabeth II is about to become Britain's longest reigning monarch so here are some charts". New Statesman.
Jump up ^ "Royal And Parliamentary Titles Act 1927". Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
^ Jump up to: a b George III, King of Great Britain, became King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.
^ Jump up to: a b c Anne, Queen of England and Queen of Scots, became Queen of Great Britain on 1 May 1707.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Monarch's total length of reign is the sum of the two reigns displayed.
^ Jump up to: a b Charles II King of England and King of Scots concurrently from 30 January 1649 to 6 February 1685.
^ Jump up to: a b Charles I was King of England and King of Scots concurrently.
^ Jump up to: a b James VI, King of Scots, became James I, King of England, in 1603.
^ Jump up to: a b William of Orange became William III, King of England, on 13 February 1689 and William II, King of Scots, on 11 May 1689.
^ Jump up to: a b Mary II became Queen of England on 13 February 1689 and Queen of Scots on 11 May 1689.
Jump up ^ James was James II, King of England, and James VII, King of Scots, concurrently.
Jump up ^ James was James II, King of England, and James VII, King of Scotland, concurrently.
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text:
Lazarillo de Tormes
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Lazarillo de Tormes
Title page of the 1554 edition
Author
anonymous
Original title
La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes y de sus fortunas y adversidades
Country
Spain
Language
Spanish
Genre
Picaresque
Publication date
1554
Media type
Print (Hardback & Paperback)
The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes and of His Fortunes and Adversities (Spanish: La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes y de sus fortunas y adversidades [la ˈβiða ðe laθaˈɾiʎo ðe ˈtormes i ðe sus forˈtunas i aðβersiˈðaðes]) is a Spanish novella, published anonymously because of its anticlerical content. It was published simultaneously in three cities in 1554: Alcalá de Henares, Burgos and Antwerp. The Alcalá de Henares edition adds some episodes which were probably written by a second author.
Contents
1 Summary
2 Importance as a novella
3 Prohibition
4 Literary significance and criticism
5 Reference in Don Quixote
6 Social criticism
7 Authorship
8 Sequels
9 Adaptations
10 Non-literary influence
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Summary[edit]
Lázaro is a boy of humble origins from Salamanca. After his stepfather is accused of thievery, his mother asks a wily blind beggar to take on Lazarillo (little Lázaro) as his apprentice. Lázaro develops his cunning while serving the blind beggar and several other masters, while also learning to take on his father's practice.
Table of contents:
Prologue
Chapter (or treatise) 1: childhood and apprenticeship to a blind man.
Chapter 2: serving a priest.
Chapter 3: serving a squire.
Chapter 4: serving a friar.
Chapter 5: serving a pardoner.
Chapter 6: serving a chaplain.
Chapter 7: serving a pardoner and an archpriest.
Importance as a novella[edit]
Besides its importance in the Spanish literature of the Golden Age, Lazarillo de Tormes is credited with founding a literary genre, the picaresque novel, from the Spanish word pícaro, meaning "rogue" or "rascal." In novels of this type, the adventures of the pícaro expose injustice while amusing the reader. This extensive genre includes Cervantes' Rinconete y Cortadillo and El coloquio de los perros, Henry Fielding's Tom Jones and Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Its influence extends to twentieth century novels, dramas and films featuring the "anti-hero".
Prohibition[edit]
Lazarillo de Tormes was banned by the Spanish Crown and included in the Index of Forbidden Books of the Spanish Inquisition; this was at least in part due to the book's anti-clerical flavor. In 1573, the Crown allowed circulation of a version which omitted Chapters 4 and 5 and assorted paragraphs from other parts of the book. An unabridged version did not appear in Spain until the nineteenth century. It was the Antwerp version that circulated throughout Europe, translated into French (1560), English (1576), Dutch (after the northern, largely Protestant Seven Provinces of the Low Countries revolted against Spain in 1579), German (1617), and Italian (1622).
Spanish first edition title pages in 1554 of Lazarillo de Tormes.
Burgos, Juan de Junta
Medina del Campo, Hermanos Del Canto
Alcalá de Henares, Salcedo
Antwerp, Martín Nucio
Literary significance and criticism[edit]
The primary objections to Lazarillo had to do with its vivid and realistic descriptions of the world of the pauper and the petty thief. The "worm's eye view" of society contrasted sharply with the more conventional literary focus on superhuman exploits recounted in chivalric romances such as the hugely popular Amadís de Gaula. In Antwerp, it followed the tradition of the impudent trickster figure Till Eulenspiegel.
Lazarillo introduced the picaresque device of delineating various professions and levels of society. A young boy or young man or woman describes masters or "betters" with ingenuously presented realistic details. But Lazarillo speaks of "the blind man," "the squire," "the pardoner," presenting these characters as types.
Significantly, the only named characters are Lazarillo and his family: his mother Antoña Pérez, his father Tomé Gonzáles, and his stepfather El Zayde. The surname de Tormes comes from the river Tormes. In the narrative, Lazarillo explains that his father ran a mill on the river, where he was literally born on the river. The Tormes runs through Lazarillo's home town, Salamanca, a Castilian-Leonese university city. (There is an old mill on the river, and a statue of Lazarillo and the blind man next to the Roman bridge [puente romano] in the city.)
Lazarillo is the diminutive of the Spanish name Lázaro. There are two appearances of the name Lazarus in the Bible, and not all critics agree as to which story the author was referring when he chose the name. The more well-known tale is in John 11:41–44, in which Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead. The second is in Luke 16:19–31, a parable about a beggar named Lazarus at the gate of a stingy rich man's house.
In contrast to the fancifully poetic language devoted to fantastic and supernatural events about unbelievable creatures and chivalric knights, the realistic prose of Lazarillo described suppliants purchasing indulgences from the Church, servants forced to die with their masters on the battlefield (as Lazarillo's father did), thousands of refugees wandering from town to town, poor beggars flogged away by whips because of the lack of food. The anonymous author included many popular sayings and ironically interpreted popular stories.
The Prologue with Lázaro's extensive protest against injustice is addressed to a high-level cleric, and five of his eight masters in the novel serve the church. Lazarillo attacked the appearance of the church and its hypocrisy, though not its essential beliefs, a balance not often present in following picaresque novels.
Besides creating a new genre, Lazarillo de Tormes was critically innovative in world literature in several aspects:
Long before the Emile (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) or Oliver Twist (Charles Dickens) or Huckleberry Finn the anonymous author of Lazarillo treated a boy as a boy, not a small adult.
Long before Moll Flanders (Daniel Defoe), Lazarillo describes the domestic and working life of a poor woman, wife, mother, climaxing in the flogging of Lazarillo's mother through the streets of the town after her black husband Zayde is hanged as a thief.
Long before modern treatment of "persons of color", this author treats sympathetically the pleasures and pains of an interracial family in his descriptions of life with his black stepfather and negrito half-brother, though their characterization is based on stereotypes.[1]
Reference in Don Quixote[edit]
In his book Don Quixote, Cervantes introduces a gypsy thief called Ginés de Pasamonte who claims to be a writer (and who later in Part II masquerades as a puppeteer while on the run). Don Quixote interrogates this writer about his book;
“ "Is it so good?" said Don Quixote.
"So good is it," replied Gines, "that a fig for 'Lazarillo de Tormes,' and all of that kind that have been written, or shall be written compared with it: all I will say about it is that it deals with facts, and facts so neat and diverting that no lies could match them."
"And how is the book entitled?" asked Don Quixote.
"The Life of Gines de Pasamonte, replied the subject of it.
"And is it finished?" asked Don Quixote.
"How can it be finished," said the other, "when my life is not yet finished?
”
— Literature Network: Miguel de Cervantes: Don Quixote, [2]
Social criticism[edit]
The author criticises many organisations and groups in his book, most notably the Catholic Church and the Spanish aristocracy.
These two groups are clearly criticised through the different masters that Lazarillo serves. Characters such as the Cleric, the Friar, the Pardoner, the Priest and the Archbishop all have something wrong either with them as a person or with their character. The self-indulgent cleric concentrates on feeding himself, and when he does decide to give the "crumbs from his table" to Lazarillo, he says, "toma, come, triunfa, para tí es el mundo" "take, eat, triumph – the world is yours" a clear parody of a key communion statement.
In the final chapter, Lazarillo works for an Archpriest, who arranges his marriage to the Archpriest's maid. It is clear that Lazarillo's wife cheats on him with the Archpriest, and all vows of celibacy are forgotten.
In Chapter 3, Lazarillo becomes the servant of a Squire. The Squire openly flaunts his wealth despite not being able to feed himself, let alone Lázaro. This is a parody of the importance of having a strong image among the nobility.
Authorship[edit]
The identity of the author of Lazarillo has been a puzzle for nearly four hundred years. Given the subversive nature of Lazarillo and its open criticism of the Catholic Church, it is likely that the author chose to remain anonymous out of fear of religious persecution.
Neither the author nor the date and place of the first appearance of the work is known. It appeared anonymously; and no author's name was accredited to it until 1605, when the Hieronymite monk José de Sigüenza named as its author Fray Juan de Ortega. Two years later, it was accredited by the Belgian Valère André to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. In 1608, André Schott repeated this assertion, although less categorically. Despite these claims, the assignment of the work to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza was generally accepted, until Alfred Paul Victor Morel-Fatio, in 1888, demonstrated the untenability of that candidate[clarification needed]. The earliest known editions are the four of Alcalá de Henares, Antwerp, Medina del Campo, and Burgos, all of which appeared in 1554. Two continuations (or second parts) appeared – one, anonymously, in 1555, and the other, accredited to H. Luna, in 1620.
There has been some suggestion that the author was originally of Jewish extraction, who in 1492 had to convert to Catholicism to avoid being expelled from Spain; it could be used to explain the animosity towards the Catholic Church displayed in the book.[citation needed] Apart from the chronological difficulties this hypothesis presents, it should be noted that Catholic criticism of Catholic clergy, including the pope, was common; by then, such criticism had had a long and even reputable tradition that can be seen in the works of famous Catholic writers such as Chaucer, Dante and Erasmus.
Documents recently discovered by the Spanish paleographer Mercedes Agulló support the hypothesis that the author was, in fact, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza.[3]
Sequels[edit]
In 1555, only a year after the first edition of the book, a sequel by another anonymous author was attached to the original Lazarillo in an edition printed in Antwerp, Low Countries. This sequel is known as El Lazarillo de Amberes, Amberes being the Spanish name for Antwerp.
Lázaro leaves his wife and child with the priest, in Toledo, and joins the Spanish army in their campaign against the Moors. The ship carrying the soldiers sinks, but before it does, Lázaro drinks as much wine as he can. His body is so full of wine that there is no place for the water to enter him, and by that means he survives under the sea. Threatened by the tuna fish there, Lázaro prays for mercy and is eventually metamorphosized into a tuna himself. Most of the book tells about how Lázaro struggles to find his place in tuna society.
In 1620, another sequel, by Juan de Luna, appeared in Paris. In the prologue, the narrator (not Lázaro himself but someone who claims to have a copy of Lázaro's writings) tells the reader that he was moved to publish the second part of Lázaro's adventures after hearing about a book which, he alleges, had falsely told of Lázaro being transformed into a tuna (obviously a disparaging reference to Lazarillo de Amberes).
Adaptations[edit]
1617: a play Spaansche Brabander by Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Bredero.
1959: a film adaptation El Lazarillo de Tormes, film director César Fernández Ardavín.
1987: a loose film adaptation The Rogues, film director Mario Monicelli.
2001: a film adaptation Lázaro de Tormes, film directors Fernando Fernán Gómez, José Luis García Sánchez.
2015: animation adaptation, El lazarillo de Tormes, film director Pedro Alonso Pablos.
Non-literary influence[edit]
Because of Lazarillo's first adventures, the Spanish word lazarillo has taken on the meaning "guide", as to a blind person. Consequently, in Spanish a guide dog is still informally called a perro lazarillo, as it was called before perro guía became common.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Aproximación socio-histórica al fenómeno afro-cultural en el cuento 'Barlovento', de Marvel Moreno: Estereotipos y discriminación (Parte I)", Dinah Orozco Herrera, La casa de Asterión, ISSN 0124-9282, Volumen V – Número 20, Enero-Febrero–Marzo de 2005.
Jump up ^ "Don Quixote, Chapter XXII". English Translation by John Ormsby, 1885. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "El Lazarillo no es anónimo (Spanish)". El Mundo. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Anon, Lazarillo de Tormes, in: Two Spanish Picaresque Novels, Trans. Michael Alpert. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969.
Benito-Vessels, Carmen, and Michael Zappala, Eds. The Picaresque: A Symposium on the Rogue’s Tale. Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press / London & Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1994.
Fiore, Robert L. Lazarillo de Tormes. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1984.
Maravall, José Antonio. La Literatura Picaresca desde la Historia Social (Siglos XVI al XVII). Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1987.
Parker, A. A. Literature and the Delinquent: the Picaresque Novel in Spain and Europe: 1599–1753. Edinburgh University Press, 1967.
Sicroff, Albert A. "Sobre el estilo del Lazarillo de Tormes", in Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica, Vol 11, No. 2 (1957).
External links[edit]
El lazarillo de Tormes 2015 animated mini-series
The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes and of His Machine Learning Adversities
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