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Oogenesis
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Oogenesis
Dorlands
/Elsevier
12339107
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Oogenesis, ovogenesis, or oögenesis /ˌoʊ.əˈdʒɛnɪsɪs/[1] is the differentiation of the ovum (egg cell) into a cell competent to further development when fertilized.[2] It is developed from the primary oocyte by maturation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Oogenesis in mammals
1.1 The creation of oogonia
2 Human oogenesis
2.1 Oogenesis
2.1.1 Number of primary oocytes
2.2 Ootidogenesis
2.2.1 Meiosis I
2.2.2 Meiosis II
2.2.3 Folliculogenesis
2.3 Maturation into ovum
2.4 In vitro maturation
3 Oogenesis in non-mammals
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Oogenesis in mammals[edit]
Diagram showing the reduction in number of the chromosomes in the process of maturation of the ovum. (In mammals, the first polar body normally disintegrates before dividing, so only two polar bodies are produced.)
In mammals, the first part of oogenesis starts in the germinal epithelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles, the functional unit of the ovary.
Oogenesis consists of several sub-processes: oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form an ovum (oogenesis proper). Folliculogenesis is a separate sub-process that accompanies and supports all three oogenetic sub-processes.
Cell type ploidy/chromosomes chromatids Process Time of completion
Oogonium diploid/46(2N) 2C Oocytogenesis (mitosis) Third trimester
primary oocyte diploid/46(2N) 4C Ootidogenesis (meiosis I) (Folliculogenesis) Dictyate in prophase I for up to 50 years
secondary oocyte haploid/23(1N) 2C Ootidogenesis (meiosis II) Halted in metaphase II until fertilization
Ootid haploid/23(1N) 1C Ootidogenesis (meiosis II) Minutes after fertilization
Ovum haploid/23(1N) 1C
Oogonium —(Oocytogenesis)—> Primary Oocyte —(Meiosis I)—> First Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte —(Meiosis II)—> Second Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovum
Oocyte meiosis, important to all animal life cycles yet unlike all other instances of animal cell division, occurs completely without the aid of spindle-coordinating centrosomes.[3][4]
The creation of oogonia[edit]
The creation of oogonia traditionally doesn't belong to oogenesis proper, but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis, which, in the female human, begins with the processes of folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis.
Human oogenesis[edit]
Oogenesis[edit]
Oogenesis starts with the process of developing oogonia, which occurs via the transformation of primordial follicles into primary oocytes, a process called oocytogenesis.[5] Oocytogenesis is complete either before or shortly after birth.
Number of primary oocytes[edit]
It is commonly believed that, when oocytogenesis is complete, no additional primary oocytes are created, in contrast to the male process of spermatogenesis, where gametocytes are continuously created. In other words, primary oocytes reach their maximum development at ~20[6] weeks of gestational age, when approximately seven million primary oocytes have been created; however, at birth, this number has already been reduced to approximately 1-2 million.
Recently, however, two publications have challenged the belief that a finite number of oocytes are set around the time of birth.[7][8] The renewal of ovarian follicles from germline stem cells (originating from bone marrow and peripheral blood) has been reported in the postnatal mouse ovary. In contrast, DNA clock measurements do not indicate ongoing oogenesis during human females' lifetimes.[9] Thus, further experiments are required to determine the true dynamics of small follicle formation.
Ootidogenesis[edit]
The succeeding phase of ootidogenesis occurs when the primary oocyte develops into an ootid. This is achieved by the process of meiosis. In fact, a primary oocyte is, by its biological definition, a cell whose primary function is to divide by the process of meiosis.[10]
However, although this process begins at prenatal age, it stops at prophase I. In late fetal life, all oocytes, still primary oocytes, have halted at this stage of development, called the dictyate. After menarche, these cells then continue to develop, although only a few do so every menstrual cycle.
Meiosis I[edit]
Meiosis I of ootidogenesis begins during embryonic development, but halts in the diplotene stage of prophase I until puberty. The mouse oocyte in the dictyate (prolonged diplotene) stage actively repairs DNA damage, whereas DNA repair is not detectable in the pre-dictyate (leptotene, zygotene and pachytene) stages of meiosis.[11] For those primary oocytes that continue to develop in each menstrual cycle, however, synapsis occurs and tetrads form, enabling chromosomal crossover to occur. As a result of meiosis I, the primary oocyte has now developed into the secondary oocyte and the first polar body.
Meiosis II[edit]
Immediately after meiosis I, the haploid secondary oocyte initiates meiosis II. However, this process is also halted at the metaphase II stage until fertilization, if such should ever occur. When meiosis II has completed, an ootid and another polar body have now been created.
Folliculogenesis[edit]
Main article: Folliculogenesis
Synchronously with ootidogenesis, the ovarian follicle surrounding the ootid has developed from a primordial follicle to a preovulatory one.
Maturation into ovum[edit]
Both polar bodies disintegrate at the end of Meiosis II, leaving only the ootid, which then eventually undergoes maturation into a mature ovum.
The function of forming polar bodies is to discard the extra haploid sets of chromosomes that have resulted as a consequence of meiosis.
In vitro maturation[edit]
Main article: In vitro maturation
In vitro maturation (IVM) is the technique of letting ovarian follicles mature in vitro. It can potentially be performed before an IVF. In such cases, ovarian hyperstimulation isn't essential. Rather, oocytes can mature outside the body prior to IVF. Hence, no (or at least a lower dose of) gonadotropins have to be injected in the body.[12] However, there still isn't enough evidence to prove the effectiveness and security of the technique.[12]
Oogenesis in non-mammals[edit]
Main article: Evolution of sexual reproduction
Diagram of oogenesis in a digenean (Platyhelminthes)
Some algae and the oomycetes produce eggs in oogonia. In the brown alga Fucus, all four egg cells survive oogenesis, which is an exception to the rule that generally only one product of female meiosis survives to maturity.
In plants, oogenesis occurs inside the female gametophyte via mitosis. In many plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms, egg cells are formed in archegonia. In flowering plants, the female gametophyte has been reduced to an eight-celled embryo sac within the ovule inside the ovary of the flower. Oogenesis occurs within the embryo sac and leads to the formation of a single egg cell per ovule.
In ascaris, the oocyte does not even begin meiosis until the sperm touches it, in contrast to mammals, where meiosis is completed in the estrus cycle.
See also[edit]
Anisogamy
Archegonium
Evolution of sexual reproduction
Female infertility
Female reproductive system
Meiosis
Oncofertility
Oogonium
Oocyte
Origin and function of meiosis
Sexual reproduction
Spermatogenesis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary Definition: Oogenesis
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F. (2000-01-01). "Oogenesis".
Jump up ^ Szollosi D, Calarco P, Donahue RP (1972). "Absence of centrioles in the first and second meiotic spindles of mouse oocytes". J Cell Sci. 11 (2): 521–541. PMID 5076360.
Jump up ^ Manandhar G, Schatten H, Sutovsky P (January 2005). "Centrosome reduction during gametogenesis and its significance". Biol. Reprod. 72: 2–13. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.104.031245. PMID 15385423.
Jump up ^ NCBI - The saga of the germ line
Jump up ^ Lobo RA (September 2003). "Early ovarian ageing: a hypothesis. What is early ovarian ageing?". Hum. Reprod. 18 (9): 1762–4. doi:10.1093/humrep/deg377. PMID 12923124.
Jump up ^ Johnson J, Bagley J, Skaznik-Wikiel M, et al. (July 2005). "Oocyte generation in adult mammalian ovaries by putative germ cells in bone marrow and peripheral blood". Cell. 122 (2): 303–15. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2005.06.031. PMID 16051153.
Jump up ^ Johnson J, Canning J, Kaneko T, Pru J, Tilly J (2004). "Germline stem cells and follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary". Nature. 428 (6979): 145–50. doi:10.1038/nature02316. PMID 15014492.
Jump up ^ Forster P, Hohoff C, Dunkelmann B, Schürenkamp M, Pfeiffer H, Neuhuber F, Brinkmann B (2015). "Elevated germline mutation rate in teenage fathers". Proc R Soc B. 282: 20142898. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.2898. PMC 4345458  . PMID 25694621.
Jump up ^ Biochem
Jump up ^ Guli CL, Smyth DR (1988). "UV-induced DNA repair is not detectable in pre-dictyate oocytes of the mouse". Mutat Res. 208 (2): 115–119. doi:10.1016/s0165-7992(98)90010-0. PMID 3380109.
^ Jump up to: a b Vejledning om kunstig befrugtning 2006 (Danish)
Bibliography
Manandhar G, Schatten H and Sutovsky P (2005). Centrosome reduction during gametogenesis and its significance. Biol Reprod, 72(1)2-13.
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Cristina Yang
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Cristina Yang
Grey's Anatomy character
First appearance
"A Hard Day's Night" (1.01)
March 27, 2005
Last appearance
"Fear (of the Unknown)" (10.24)
May 15, 2014
(as series regular)
"She's Leaving Home" (11.22)
April 30, 2015
(stand-in)
Created by
Shonda Rhimes
Portrayed by
Sandra Oh
Information
Full name
Cristina Yang
Occupation
Chief Medical Officer at Klausman Institute for Medical Research
Smith College, BA. Stanford MD, first of her class. Berkeley, Phd. Biochemistry (S02E20, Band-Aid Covers The Bullet Hole)
Director of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Klausman Institute for Medical Research
Cardiothoracic surgical Fellow at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital
Board Member at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital
Title
M.D
Ph.D.
F.A.C.S.
Family
Saul Rubenstein (step-father)
Helen Rubenstein (mother)
Spouse(s)
Owen Hunt (ex-husband)
Significant other(s)
Colin Marlow
Preston Burke (ex-fiancé)
Darren Parker
Shane Ross
Religion
Judaism
Cristina Yang, M.D., Ph.D., is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey's Anatomy, which has aired for over 14 years on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and is portrayed by actress Sandra Oh. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Yang worked her way up to resident level, eventually becoming a cardiothoracic surgical fellow, while her relationships with colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), George O'Malley (T. R. Knight), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) formed a focal point of the series. Yang earlier in the series got engaged to Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington), in the past had a relationship with renowned surgeon and mentor Colin Marlow, and wed but later divorced Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd).
Oh originally auditioned for the role of Miranda Bailey, although Chandra Wilson was ultimately cast in the part. Oh has received generally positive reviews for her portrayal, with Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considering her friendship with Meredith to be "the secret core of Grey's". Oh has also garnered numerous awards and nominations for her role as Yang, including Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award wins in 2006. She was additionally nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series each year, from 2005 to 2009. Characterizing the character, ABC noted her competitiveness, ambition, and intelligence as her main traits, while her aggressive, and tactless attitude was highlighted as her main weakness. In May 2012, E! Online reported that Oh had signed on for two more years, along with her fellow cast members. Oh left the show after season 10, and her character Cristina Yang was written out of the storyline as a main cast member.[1]
Contents
1 Storylines and character
2 Development
2.1 Casting and creation
2.2 Characterization
3 Reception
3.1 Reviews
3.2 Awards
4 References
5 External links
Storylines and character[edit]
Cristina Yang is introduced as a graduate from Smith College and a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers); the five of them working under Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). An atheistic competitive intern of Korean-American ancestry, she first desired to become a doctor after a childhood car accident which killed her biological father. Yang also suffers from dyslexia, and was raised in Beverly Hills, California by her mother and supportive Jewish stepfather. She has BA from Smith College, an MD from Stanford University and a PhD from University of California, Berkeley, making her a "double doctor". While her emotional pragmatism, competitive perfectionism, and logical nature lead many to view her as a cutthroat "robot", Cristina hits it off with Meredith on their first day and the pair soon become best friends and each other's "person", sharing the same "dark and twisty" sense of humor.
During her internship, Cristina has an on-off relationship with the chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) that leads to an accidental pregnancy. Yang schedules an abortion without telling him about the pregnancy due to Burke's behavior towards their lack of relationship status. However, Yang experiences an ectopic pregnancy and Burke discovers the pregnancy after Yang collapses from a burst fallopian tube. Burke and Yang begin a relationship in the aftermath of her miscarriage. After Burke is shot in the arm and develops a hand tremor, Yang helps him cover it up by developing a covert partnership wherein she performs most of his surgeries. Yang initially denies involvement during a confrontation, but then confesses everything to Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), the chief of surgery. Yang's actions jeopardize Burke's chances of becoming chief, which he sees as a huge betrayal. After a short breakup, Yang breaks the silence and Burke proposes marriage, which Yang accepts after eight days of hesitation. Burke calls off the wedding, leaving Yang at the altar. She goes on her honeymoon to Hawaii with Meredith to recover, returning to discover that Burke has disappeared from her life and transferred to a different hospital.
Burke is replaced by Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), who immediately dislikes Yang for her trend of having affairs with famous surgeons, such as Burke, going so far as refusing to let her scrub in on cardiac surgeries. Eventually, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) moves in with Yang, and she still tries to earn Hahn's approval. Hahn reveals that she dislikes Yang because she reminds her of an early version of herself and continues to cut Yang out of cardio surgeries and neglects to teach her, before eventually quitting the hospital and leaving Seattle Grace without a head of cardio. Without a teacher, Yang begins to seriously doubt the purpose of remaining in her place at Seattle Grace when the program falls to twelfth on a list of the best teaching hospitals, and Burke wins the Harper-Avery award without mentioning her at all, despite her saving his career. Yang tells the Chief that her current existence in the hospital is "unbearable" and that she has turned into a ghost.
Yang meets Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), an army trauma surgeon, when he patches her up from being stabbed in the stomach by a falling icicle. The pair are immediately attracted to each other and share a brief kiss. After Owen Hunt is honorably discharged, he is hired as Seattle Grace's chief of trauma surgery and he and Yang begin a flirtation. Yang grows emotionally when she decides to support Meredith in her relationship with Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), despite her logical misgivings about their staying power, and begins to be more emotionally open towards Hunt. However, Hunt has repressed memories of his time in Iraq and PTSD which causes Hunt to behave erratically, and attack and strangle her while asleep. Yang attempts to be emotionally supportive, but ends their relationship as she is afraid of sleeping next to him. Cristina loses her shot at being the first resident to perform a solo surgery despite being unanimously chosen by the attending surgeons, having been disciplined from failing to report the irresponsible behavior of the new interns. Meredith and Cristina have a fight during the intern scandal, and Cristina chooses Alex to be her replacement. They eventually reconcile. When Izzie Stevens discovers her life-threatening cancer, Yang is the one she confides in over her other friends due to Yang's ability to remain emotionally distant. Yang saves Izzie's life by coming up with a treatment plan and forcing Izzie to tell their friends of her diagnosis. Hunt begins seeing a therapist, and Yang confesses her love for him. The pair begin a tentative relationship, hampered by Hunt's therapeutic progress and his hot and cold professional behavior, wherein he frequently ignores or penalizes Yang to avoid the appearance of favoritism.
Hunt hires ex-colleague from the Army, Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), to become the chief of cardio-thoracic surgery as a "gift" for Yang, after she breaks down over having no new head of cardio. Yang is unimpressed with Altman, neither published nor famous, but her calm proficiency and belief in Yang's skills win her over. A conflict arises in the trio due to Altman and Hunt's repressed feelings for each other. Altman chooses to resign her place as temporary head of cardio because of her feelings for Hunt. Devastated by the blow to her education and the depressing potential of returning to her previous directionless state, Yang begs Altman to stay and teach her, offering Hunt to Altman in exchange. Altman intellectually understands Yang choosing her gift over a man and their relationship is repaired, but Hunt is very hurt that Yang would trade him away. Hunt subconsciously tries to sabotage Yang's education and the two break up again after Hunt is unable to decide between the two women. Cristina saves Derek's life with a gun to her head after he is shot by Gary Clarke, a grieving widow who commits mass murder at the hospital. Hunt is injured by the same shooter after he chooses to return for Yang over Altman, and Grey treats him as Yang saves Grey's husband. Following the attack on the hospital, Hunt and Yang impulsively decide to get married. Yang is suffering from severe PTSD and is unable to bear being alone, making marriage to Hunt, who understands what she's going through, attractive. Yang spends the early days of her marriage in shock and hiding at Meredith's.
Due to having severe PTSD and being unable to do her job correctly anymore, Cristina quits and begins bartending and eventually throws a housewarming party. Derek helps Cristina emotionally and she ultimately decides to go to work after helping the victim of a school shooting. Yang discovers she is pregnant with Hunt's child, and decides to get an abortion. Though Hunt accompanies her to the abortion, he is extremely angry with her decision. Yang then operates on Henry Burton (Scott Foley), Altman's husband, unknown of his identity. When the surgery fails and he dies, Yang is guilt stricken upon learning of her patient's identity. Altman forgives Yang and forces Yang to realize that she did everything possible. Altman's mentorship of Yang is punishing at times, and Altman brutally emphasizes that Yang must learn patience, compassion, and the basics over the flashy surgeries Yang prefers. Altman's tutelage is successful, and Yang evolves into an aware and well-rounded surgeon because of it. Altman allows Yang to come up with a wish list of dream surgeries to fulfill before Altman resigns and moves on.
Yang and Hunt distance themselves from each other as they keep fighting over the abortion, despite attending marriage counselling. Hunt has a one-night stand with a patient's friend, leaving Yang heartbroken. She decides to move on, unsure of her future with him. As the end of the fifth year of residency is near, the surgical residents, including Yang, prepare for their medical boards and for the different fellowships they plan on joining. After she passes her exams, Yang reconciles with Hunt and tells him she is leaving Seattle for the Mayo Clinic, Minnesota. Afterward, Yang, Meredith, Shepherd, Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) are involved in an aviation accident while on the way to Boise, Idaho to perform surgery on conjoined twins. Lexie dies, and Mark later succumbs to his injuries after they are rescued and dies. Following their rescue, Yang, traumatized, suffers from brief reactive psychosis which provokes violent outbursts and makes her unresponsive. Yang leaves Seattle to become a cardiothoracic surgical fellow and goes, as planned, to the Mayo Clinic, but has difficulties adapting to her new colleagues' way of working. While in Minnesota, Yang develops a friendship with a near-retirement cardio surgeon, Craig Thomas (William Daniels). She mainly teases him with comments regarding his old age. She also begins an affair with the head of surgery Dr. Parker (Steven Culp) who has issues with Thomas. After Thomas dies from a heart attack, Yang returns to Seattle.
Cristina is re-hired and Owen asks for a divorce once Cristina wants to reconcile. Shocked, Cristina agrees, but later finds out that the potential conflict of interest regarding the plane crash lawsuit was a key motive behind Owen's request and confronts him. Owen tells her that he 'feels responsible' and was worried as he thought she was dead. They have a sexual relationship after divorcing. The hospital is sued and found guilty of negligence. The surviving doctors, including Yang, must receive $15 million of compensation each, which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurers refuse to pay. Yang, Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), and the other surviving doctors buy the hospital with the help of the Harper-Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing, and each become members of the new directing board. After buying the hospital, Yang realizes that she was made for the O.R. and breaks things off with Owen because he still wants kids and she still doesn't.
After breaking up with Owen, Cristina continues to excel at surgery and becomes de facto chief of cardio. Although supportive of Meredith's choice to become a mother, Cristina points out the fact that it has hurt Meredith's career and clinical judgement. This causes a wedge in their friendship. Grey attempts to catch up professionally with a research trial, but the divide widens when Cristina's trial overshadows Grey's and steals Grey's resources. When Dr. Shane Ross, a second-year resident, stands up to Meredith for her, Cristina gives Shane a kiss. Later, she begins sleeping with him, as well as becoming his mentor and passing on the skills learned from Altman. Cristina's project is immensely successful and she is informed that she could be considered for the Harper Avery award from her 3-D printing of a heart conduit. Grey and Yang reconcile when Grey acknowledges that Yang is correct, she has surpassed Grey, and that Grey is jealous of Yang's professional freedom and success, while her own is hampered by her family.
Cristina is nominated for the Harper Avery award and is a strong candidate, however she is passed over due to her relationship with the Harper-Avery Foundation that co-owns the hospital. Cristina goes to speak at a hospital in Zurich, Switzerland, orchestrated by Preston Burke who built his own hospital following his winning of the Harper Avery. He offers Cristina his job as the head of the hospital so that he can spend more time with his wife and kids.
Cristina accepts the offer and interviews candidates for her replacement position at the hospital, including Maggie Pierce for new chief of cardio. Cristina transfers her hospital shares to Alex Karev and recommends he take over her seat on the board.
At the end of season 10, she says goodbye to her fellow co-workers she has come to know and love including Owen and Meredith. Cristina and Meredith share special moments together reminiscing about all the horrors they went through and dancing it out one last time. Cristina leaves for Zurich with surgical intern Shane Ross, who chooses to leave in order to study under her in Switzerland.
Development[edit]
Casting and creation[edit]
Sandra Oh's character was not supposed to be of Asian descent.
On the creation of Yang, Shonda Rhimes said the character contained "a little bit of [her] personality".[2] Speaking with talk show host Oprah Winfrey, Rhimes said: "Cristina was second, simply because she's the kind of woman I know really well, and I like her. There's something interesting about a person who is that driven, a little bit emotionally disconnected but still a caring, sweet, and smart individual you could be friends with."[3] Sandra Oh, initially auditioned for the character of Bailey, adding: "Thank God I did not get that part", explaining the show would not be the same without fellow cast member, Wilson.[4] Discussing casting Oh as Yang, Rhimes said: "She brought this energy that felt very fresh. From the beginning, I've been shaping Cristina around Sandra a little bit. One of my favorite things to do is take as much of her dialogue out of a scene as possible because she does so much nonverbally. Then I just watch what she manages to do without having a word to say."[2]
The character of Yang was not originally supposed to be of Asian descent. Oh said her character was "a pert little blonde and the thing is the woman who runs the show, Shonda Rhimes, is a black woman, which makes a big [expletive] difference."[5] In 2009, when asked why Oh signed on for Grey's Anatomy, Oh said:
"I'm very proud of this show and I think it came along at the right time for me. It's a changing time on television because five or ten years ago you wouldn't have a major network show where half of the cast were not white."[6] Oh's original contract with the show expired after season eight, however, E! Online reported in May 2012, that Oh, as well as all original cast members, had signed on for two more years.[7]
Characterization[edit]
The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Yang as "competitive", "ambitious", and "intelligent", while also noting her weaknesses: "bossy", "aggressive", and "tactless".[8] Oh said of her character: "I've always tried to play Cristina with a tremendous amount of focus and ambition—which is the reality for a female surgeon. I mean, in real life there aren't many of them. But the ones you encounter are at the very top of their game. You have to have a kind of ascetic personality to survive."[9] James Pickens, Jr. who portrays Dr. Webber said: "That character itself set a bar in terms of how we look at millennial women: independent yet vulnerable, seriously competitive yet caring."[10] Rhimes referred to Yang's relationship with Burke by the portmanteau "Burktina", citing "Losing My Religion" as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end.[11]
Kevin McKidd's character was introduced as a love interest for Yang.
Rhimes commented, "[We see] her struggle to suppress all of her humanity in pursuit of perfection. And in my mind, what we realize is that she is not cold. She is terrified. Scared that if she lets her emotions out, they will overtake her and she will be hurt. And you can't hate her. Because it's so incredibly human and understandable."[11] Yang's friendship with Meredith has been looked upon as "sisterhood", and Yang has repeatedly referred to the former as "her person". This led to the two being dubbed "the twisted sisters". At the conclusion of season three, the duo went on a "honeymoon" together, and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale.[12]
New York magazine wrote of the character: "There's probably no woman on TV right now more single-mindedly dedicated to her career than Cristina. It has long been her defining characteristic. If it occasionally makes her into a caricature, it has also unquestionably established that she would have an abortion in this circumstance."[13] Talking about Yang's abortion in the eighth season, Rhimes explained she intended Yang to have an abortion already in the second season but changed it with an ectopic pregnancy at the suggestion of one of her writers because "that was so much more interesting, story-wise". As for the abortion in the eighth season, Rhimes commented: "I really wanted Cristina Yang to stay true to who Cristina Yang is. And I feel like that is a character who has never really wanted to be a mother. The idea that this woman would have a child that she did not want and resented for ruining her career and resented Owen for making her have [it] would have been hideous. [The abortion] made sense for the character."[14]
Discussing his onscreen relationship with Yang, McKidd said: "It's not going to be easy for them. What I read when I read the season premiere, and this is just my take on it, is that it was very much two very analytical people, Owen and Cristina. They're very similar in a way, I think, as people. Two analytical people see each other over a crowded ER room and their eyes meet."[15] On the topic of Yang's triumphs and challenges in the eighth season, Oh said: "It has been an extremely challenging year that has had a lot of ups and downs, both challenging and exhilarating. We would shoot all our scenes for a day or two straight, and that was extremely challenging because emotionally and physically it becomes really exhausting."[16]
Oh said of Yang's expressions of emotions during season eight: "You see her express her emotions with only two people: her best friend Meredith and her husband Owen. To see someone being pulled apart so intensely, which honestly most everyone goes through in their life in some ways, if you're lucky you're completely pulled apart and then you have to pull yourself together, which hopefully will be the exploration within hopefully the next season."[16] Although the characters' marriage is tested, McKidd reported to The Hollywood Reporter: "I think they're meant for each other. I hold out faith in Cristina and Owen, even though they go to the darkest places out of all the couples on the show. It's going to get worse but it's going to get better soon."[17]
Reception[edit]
Reviews[edit]
Isaiah Washington's character's relationship with Yang was positively received.
The character was well received by the critics at the time of its inception and as the series went on the reviews became increasingly positive and Cristina went on the become an iconic character not just for Grey's but for television itself. Kelli Catana of The Huffington Post named Yang "the best damn character" of the series.[18] Yang appeared in Comcast's list of TV's Most Intriguing Characters, with the website commenting that she is "an engaging yet comedic factor for the prime-time soap Grey's Anatomy."[19] Philadelphia Magazine included Yang in its list of the "10 Best Doctors on Television".[20] However, the same periodical listed her as one of "The 12 Most Annoying Women on TV".[21] Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considers her friendship with Meredith to be "the secret core of Grey's and perhaps creator Shonda Rhimes' greatest contribution to prime time."[22] The Huffington Post's writer Kelli Catana agreed, saying: "the Meredith/Yang relationship is probably the most true friendship on network television."[18] Their friendship was listed in AOL TV's "Top 20: TV's Best BFFs" and in Entertainment Weekly's "30 Best TV Bromances/Gal Pals".[23][24] Yahoo! Voices also put Yang on their list of "The Most Loyal TV Best Friends of All Time".[25] Television Without Pity writer Lauren Shotwell claimed Yang is "the only one of these five [residents] that regularly acts like an actual doctor".[26]
Yang's relationship with Burke was positively received; it was considered as "one of the most interesting relationships on the show".[27] Similarly, The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became "one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey's Anatomy."[28] Christopher Monfette of IGN was critical of their wedding planning in the third season, saying: "The will-they's and won't-they's fly and fall like hobbled pigeons until the season finale when the show solves both its personal and professional problems in the most obvious and least compelling of ways."[29] UGO.com placed their break-up on its list of the most horrible TV breakups.[30] In 2009, Monfette said of Yang's relationship with Owen: "[Hunt's] interactions with Cristina were perfectly balanced for optimum drama, never together and never apart for so long that the back-and-forth became frustrating. Viewers could clearly see a softening of the typically hard-edged Cristina, a pleasant change for what had become something of a one-note character."[31]
Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly also praised the pairing, especially in "Elevator Love Letter", saying: "As good as they've been at amping up the romance crackling between Owen and Cristina, Kevin McKidd and Sandra Oh brought the Emmy consideration tonight from scene 1."[32] She also added: "I loved seeing Cristina at least try to stand by her man."[32] Of Yang and Owen's wedding, Armstrong said: "Glad we made a clean disposal of the Teddy-Owen-Cristina love triangle, though, when he quipped to Teddy, "I heard there's a guy," and she said she was happy for him."[33] She also praised Owen's proposal scene, giving it an "A".[33] Later, she praised their marriage, saying: "I am absolutely loving the stronger-than-ever lady-bond between these two this season. Is it because they're both married now? Just growing up? Whatever, it's the opposite of Blair and Serena's annoyingly fickle frenemy status on Gossip Girl, and I can't get enough."[34]
New York Magazine praised the abortion storyline, saying that the show "was brave enough to do what almost no other series will: show this one particular, totally legal medical procedure on TV" and that the abortion was "the only plausible resolution" for Yang's pregnancy.[13] Tanner Stransky, also of Entertainment Weekly, said of Yang's actions after Owen's affair: "It alternately seems silly and not silly, when you really think about it."[35] Robert Bianco of USA Today praised Yang's storylines in the eighth season, saying: "Their stories are effectively tied into that of a patient whose ability to move forward is complicated by a complex response to a hideous past."[36] HitFix writer Liane Bonin Starr applauded Yang's brief departure from Seattle Grace to Mayo Clinic in the ninth season, which was "interesting" as "it showed us a new side of her—and after so many seasons, that was some welcome insight."[37]
The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show. Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be "the secret core of Grey's". Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that "With those two characters, showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television."[38] Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because "they don't try to be". There's nothing fake about them, which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television. She further went on to call them 'soulmates', "And even though they'd never dare get sappy enough to say it, they're soul mates.[39] Margaret Lyons of Vulture (magazine) called the friendship "dream BFF relationship." and the primary focus of the show, "One of the series' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships."[40]
E! at the time of Sandra Oh's exit wrote, "In Grey's Anatomy's 10-year history, the doctor duo has been through a lot together: weddings, deaths, plane crashes, bomb threats, shooting, you name it, they've lived (and danced) through it." and added, "And with the three words, "You're my person." Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen's best best friends ever."[41]
Awards[edit]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Grey's Anatomy
Oh received five straight nominations at the Primetime Emmy Awards from 2005–09.
Oh has received numerous awards and nominations for her portrayal of Yang. In 2005, she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, which she was nominated for every year until 2009.[42] Also in 2005, she was nominated for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 10th Satellite Awards.[43] The next year, the cast won the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Television Series.[44] In 2006, Oh won the award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards.[45] In 2006, the cast was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series,[46] which they won in 2007,[47] and were nominated for again the following year.[48] Also at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Oh won the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series.[46] In 2010, Oh was nominated for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series at the 41st NAACP Image Awards,[49] which she was nominated for again in 2012,[50] and in 2011, she was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 42nd NAACP Image Awards.[51] In 2011, Oh was nominated for Favorite TV Drama Actress and Favorite TV Doctor at the 37th People's Choice Awards an award she was nominated again for three years later at the 40th People's Choice Awards and also the subsequent year at the 41st People's Choice Awards. She was also nominated alongside Pompeo for the Favorite TV Gal Pals category.[52]
References[edit]
Specific
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Jump up ^ Rhimes, Shonda (October 3, 2007). "Shonda on the Season Premiere Episode "A Change Is Gonna Come"..." greyswriters.com. Grey Matter. Archived from the original on March 31, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
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^ Jump up to: a b "The 12th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards". Screen Actors Guild Awards. January 29, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
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General
"Grey's Anatomy: Episode Recap Guide". ABC. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
External links[edit]
Grey's Anatomy portal
Fictional characters portal
Cristina Yang at ABC.com
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Dual-sector model
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This article is about the economic model. For the diagram representing atomic bonding, see Lewis structure. For the system of tertiary education, see Dual sector education.
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The dual-sector model is a model in developmental economics. It is commonly known as the Lewis model after its inventor W. Arthur Lewis. It explains the growth of a developing economy in terms of a labour transition between two sectors, the capitalist sector and the subsistence sector.[1]
Contents
1 History
2 Assumptions
3 Theory
3.1 The capitalist sector
3.2 The subsistence sector
3.3 Relationship between the two sectors
4 Surplus labour and the growth of the economy
5 Capital accumulation
6 Criticism
7 Empirical tests and practical application of the Lewis model
8 See also
9 References
History[edit]
Initially the dual-sector model as given by W. Arthur Lewis was enumerated in his article entitled "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor" written in 1954, the model itself was named in Lewis's honor. First published in The Manchester School in May 1954,[2] the article and the subsequent model were instrumental in laying the foundation for the field of developmental economics. The article itself has been characterized by some as the most influential contribution to the establishment of the discipline.[3]
Assumptions[edit]
The model assumes that a developing economy has a surplus of unproductive labor in the agricultural sector.
These workers are attracted to the growing manufacturing sector where higher wages are offered.
It also assumes that the wages in the manufacturing sector are more or less fixed.
Entrepreneurs in the manufacturing sector make profit because they charge a price above the fixed wage rate.
The model assumes that these profits will be reinvested in the business in the form of fixed capital.
An advanced manufacturing sector means an economy has moved from a traditional to an industrialized one.[4]
Theory[edit]
W. A. Lewis divided the economy of an underdeveloped country into 2 sectors:
The capitalist sector[edit]
Lewis defined this sector as "that part of the economy which uses reproducible capital and pays capitalists thereof". The use of capital is controlled by the capitalists, who hire the services of labour. It includes manufacturing, plantations, mines etc. The capitalist sector may be private or public.
The subsistence sector[edit]
This sector was defined by him as "that part of the economy which is not using reproducible capital". It can also be adjusted as the indigenous traditional sector or the "self employed sector". The per head output is comparatively lower in this sector and this is because it is not fructified with capital. The "Dual Sector Model" is a theory of development in which surplus labor from traditional agricultural sector is transferred to the modern industrial sector whose growth over time absorbs the surplus labour, promotes industrialization and stimulates sustained development.
In the model, the subsistence agricultural sector is typically characterized by low wages, an abundance of labour, and low productivity through a labour-intensive production process. In contrast, the capitalist manufacturing sector is defined by higher wage rates as compared to the subsistence sector, higher marginal productivity, and a demand for more workers. Also, the capitalist sector is assumed to use a production process that is capital intensive, so investment and capital formation in the manufacturing sector are possible over time as capitalists' profits are reinvested in the capital stock. Improvement in the marginal productivity of labour in the agricultural sector is assumed to be a low priority as the hypothetical developing nation's investment is going towards the physical capital stock in the manufacturing sector.
Relationship between the two sectors[edit]
The primary relationship between the two sectors is that when the capitalist sector expands, it extracts or draws labour from the subsistence sector. This causes the output per head of labourers who move from the subsistence sector to the capitalist sector to increase. Since Lewis in his model considers overpopulated labour surplus economies he assumes that the supply of unskilled labour to the capitalist sector is unlimited. This gives rise to the possibility of creating new industries and expanding existing ones at the existing wage rate. A large portion of the unlimited supply of labor consists of those who are in disguised unemployment in agriculture and in other over-manned occupations such as domestic services casual jobs, petty retail trading. Lewis also accounts for two other factors that cause an increase in the supply of unskilled labour, they are women in the household and population growth.
The agricultural sector has a limited amount of land to cultivate, the marginal product of an additional farmer is assumed to be zero as the law of diminishing marginal returns has run its course due to the fixed input, land. As a result, the agricultural sector has a quantity of farm workers that are not contributing to agricultural output since their marginal productivities are zero. This group of farmers that is not producing any output is termed surplus labour since this cohort could be moved to another sector with no effect on agricultural output. (The term surplus labour here is not being used in a Marxist context and only refers to the unproductive workers in the agricultural sector.) Therefore, due to the wage differential between the capitalist and subsistence sector, workers will tend to transition from the agricultural to the manufacturing sector over time to reap the reward of higher wages. However even though the marginal product of labor is zero, it still shares a part in the total product and receives approximately the average product.
If a quantity of workers moves from the subsistence to the capitalist sector equal to the quantity of surplus labour in the subsistence sector, regardless of who actually transfers, general welfare and productivity will improve. Total agricultural product will remain unchanged while total industrial product increases due to the addition of labour, but the additional labour also drives down marginal productivity and wages in the manufacturing sector. Over time as this transition continues to take place and investment results in increases in the capital stock, the marginal productivity of workers in the manufacturing will be driven up by capital formation and driven down by additional workers entering the manufacturing sector. Eventually, the wage rates of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors will equalize as workers leave the agriculture sector for the manufacturing sector, increasing marginal productivity and wages in agriculture whilst driving down productivity and wages in manufacturing.
The end result of this transition process is that the agricultural wage equals the manufacturing wage, the agricultural marginal product of labour equals the manufacturing marginal product of labour, and no further manufacturing sector enlargement takes place as workers no longer have a monetary incentive to transition.[5]
Surplus labour and the growth of the economy[edit]
Surplus labour can be used instead of capital in the creation of new industrial investment projects, or it can be channeled into nascent industries, which are labour-intensive in their early stages. Such growth does not raise the value of the subsistence wage, because the supply of labor exceeds the demand at that wage, and rising production via improved labour techniques has the effect of lowering the capital coefficient. Although labour is assumed to be in surplus, it is mainly unskilled. This inhibits growth since technical progress necessary for growth requires skilled labor. But should there be a labor surplus and a modest capital, this bottleneck can be broken through the provision of training and education facilities. The utility of unlimited supplies of labour to growth objectives depends upon the amount of capital available at the same time. Should there be surplus labour, agriculture will derive no productive use from it, so a transfer to a non agriculture sector will be of mutual benefit. It provides jobs to the agrarian population and reduces the burden of population from land. Industry now obtains its labour. Labour must be encouraged to move to increase productivity in agriculture. To start such a movement, the capitalist sector will have to pay a compensatory payment determined by the wage rate that people can earn outside their present sector, plus a set of other amounts includes the cost of living in the new sector and changes in the level of profits in the existing sector. The margin capitalists may have to pay is as much as 30 per cent above the average subsistence wage, WW1 in figure which represents the capitalist sector is shown by N; OW is the industrial wage. Given the profit maximization assumption, employment of labor within the industrial sector is given by the point where marginal product is equal to the rate of wages, i.e. OM.
Since the wages in the capitalist sector depend on the earnings of the subsistence sector, capitalists would like to keep down productivity/wages in the subsistence sector, so that the capitalist sector may expand at a fixed wage. In the capitalist sector labor is employed up to the point where its marginal product equals wage, since a capitalist employer would be reducing his surplus if he paid labor more than he received for what is produced. But this need not be true in subsistence agriculture as wages could be equal to average product or the level of subsistence. The total product labor ONPM is divided between the payments to labor in the form of wages, OWPM, and the capitalist surplus, NPW. The growth of the capitalist sector and the rate of labor absorption from the subsistence sector depends on the use made of capitalist surplus. When the surplus is reinvested, the total product of labor will rise. The marginal product line shifts upwards to the right, that is to N1. Assuming wages are constant, the industrial sector now provides more employment. Hence employment rises by MM1. The amount of capitalist surplus goes up from WNP to WN1P'. This amount can now be reinvested and the process will be repeated and all the surplus labor would eventually be exhausted. When all the surplus labor in the subsistence sector has been attracted into the capitalist sector, wages in the subsistence sector will begin to rise, shifting the terms of trade in favor of agriculture, and causing wages in the capitalist sector to rise. Capital accumulation has caught up with the population and there is no longer scope for development from the initial source, i.e. unlimited supplies of labor. When all the surplus labor is exhausted, the supply of labor to the industrial sector becomes less than perfectly elastic. It is now in the interests of producers in the subsistence sector to compete for labor as the agricultural sector has become fully commercialized. It is the increase in the share of profits in the capitalist sector which ensures that labor surplus is continuously utilized and eventually exhausted. Real wages will tend to rise along with increases in productivity and the economy will enter into a stage of self-sustaining growth with a consistent nature.[6]
Capital accumulation[edit]
The process of economic growth is inextricably linked to the growth of capitalist surplus, that is as long as the capitalist surplus increases, the national income also increases raising the growth of the economy. The increase in capitalist surplus is linked to the use of more and more labor which is assumed to be in surplus in case of this model. This process of capital accumulation does come to an end at some point.
This point is where capital accumulation catches up with population so that there is no longer any surplus labor left. Lewis says that it the point where capital accumulation comes to a stop can come before also that is if real wages rise so high so as to reduce capitalists' profits to the level at which profits are all consumed and there is no net investment.
This can take place in the following ways:
If the capital accumulation is proceeding faster than population growth which causes a decline in the number of people in the agricultural or subsistence sector.
The increase in the size of the capitalist or industrial sector in comparison to the subsistence sector may turn the terms of trade against the capitalist sector and therefore force the capitalists to pay the workers/laborers a higher percentage of their product in order to keep their real income constant.
The subsistence sector may adopt new and improved methods and techniques of production, this will raise the level of subsistence wages in turn forcing an increase in the capitalist wages. Thus both the surplus of the capitalists and the rate of capital accumulation will then decline.
Even though the productivity of capitalist sector remains unchanged, the workers in the capitalist sector may begin to imitate the capitalist style and way of life and therefore may need more to live on, this will raise the subsistence wage and also the capitalist wage and in turn the capitalist surplus and the rate of capital accumulation will decline.[5]
Criticism[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Lewis model has attracted attention of underdeveloped countries because it brings out some basic relationships in dualistic development. However it has been criticized on the following grounds:
Economic development takes place via the absorption of labor from the subsistence sector where opportunity costs of labor are very low. However, if there are positive opportunity costs, e.g. loss of crops in times of peak harvesting season, labor transfer will reduce agricultural output.
Absorption of surplus labor itself may end prematurely because competitors may raise wage rates and lower the share of profit. It has been shown that rural-urban migration in the Egyptian economy was accompanied by an increase in wage rates of 15 per cent and a fall in profits of 12 per cent. Wages in the industrial sector were forced up directly by unions and indirectly through demands for increased wages in the subsistence sector, as payment for increased productivity. In fact, given the urban-rural wage differential in most poor countries, large scale unemployment is now seen in both the urban and rural sectors.
The Lewis model underestimates the full impact on the poor economy of a rapidly growing population, i.e. its effects on agriculture surplus, the capitalist profit share, wage rates and overall employment opportunities. Similarly, Lewis assumed that the rate of growth in manufacturing would be identical to that in agriculture, but if industrial development involves more intensive use of capital than labor, then the flow of labor from agriculture to industry will simply create more unemployment.
Lewis seems to have ignored the balanced growth between agriculture and industry. Given the linkages between agricultural growth and industrial expansion in poor countries, if a section of the profit made by the capitalists is not devoted to agricultural development, the process of industrialization would be jeopardized.
Possible leakages from the economy seem to have been ignored by Lewis. He assumes boldly that a capitalist's marginal propensity to save is close to one, but a certain increase in consumption always accompanies an increase in profits, so the total increment of savings will be somewhat less than increments in profit. Whether or not capitalist surplus will be used constructively will depend on the consumption- saving patterns of the top 10 percent of the population. But capitalists alone are not the only productive agents of society. Small farmers producing cash crops in Egypt have shown themselves to be quite capable of saving the required capital. The world's largest cocoa industry in Ghana is entirely the creation of small enterprise capital formation.
The transfer of unskilled workers from agriculture to industry is regarded as almost smooth and costless, but this does not occur in practice because industry requires different types of labor. The problem can be solved by investment in education and skill formation, but the process is neither smooth nor inexpensive.
The model assumes rationality, perfect information and unlimited capital formation in industry. These do not exist in practical situations and so the full extent of the model is rarely realised. However, the model does provide a good general theory on labour transitioning in developing economies.[6]
Empirical tests and practical application of the Lewis model[edit]
Empirical evidence does not always provide much support for the Lewis model. Theodore Schultz in an empirical study of a village in India during the influenza epidemic of 1918–19 showed that agricultural output declined, although his study does not prove whether output would have declined had a comparable proportion of the agricultural population left for other occupations in response to economic incentive. Again disguised unemployment may be present in one sector of the economy but not in others. Further, empirically it is important to know not only whether the marginal productivity is equal to zero, but also the amount of surplus labor and the effect of its withdrawal on output.
The Lewis model was applied to the Egyptian economy by Mabro in 1967 and despite the proximity of Lewis's assumptions to the realities of the Egyptian situation during the period of study, the model failed firstly because Lewis seriously underestimated the rate of population growth and secondly because the choice of capital intensiveness in Egyptian industries did not show much labor using bias and as such, the level of unemployment did not show any tendency to register significant decline.
The validity of the Lewis model was again called into question when it was applied to Taiwan. It was observed that, despite the impressive rate of growth of the economy of Taiwan, unemployment did not fall appreciably and this is explained again in reference to the choice of capital intensity in industries in Taiwan. This raised the important issue whether surplus labor is a necessary condition for growth.[7]
This model has been employed quite successfully in Singapore. Ironically however it has not been employed in Sir Arthur Lewis' home country of St. Lucia.
See also[edit]
Middle Income Trap
Development economics
Technological Dualism
Fei–Ranis model of economic growth
Social dualism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hunt, Diana (1989). "W. A. Lewis on 'Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour'". Economic Theories of Development: An Analysis of Competing Paradigms. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf. pp. 87–95. ISBN 0-7450-0237-4.
Jump up ^ Lewis, W. Arthur (1954). "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor". The Manchester School. 22: 139–91. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9957.1954.tb00021.x.
Jump up ^ Gollin, Douglas (2014). "The Lewis Model: A 60-Year Retrospective". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 28 (3): 71–88. doi:10.1257/jep.28.3.71. JSTOR 23800576.
Jump up ^ "Lewis dual sector model". Archived from the original on April 6, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b S. K. Misra; V. K. Puri (2010). Economics Of Development And Planning — Theory And Practice (12th ed.). Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House. p. 263. ISBN 81-8488-829-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Ghatak, Subrata (1978). Development Economics. Prentice Hall Press. pp. 80–83. ISBN 0-582-44873-5.
Jump up ^ Gary S. Fields (December 2004). "Dualism in the Labor Market: a Perspective on the Lewis Model after Half a Century" (PDF). The Manchester School. 72 (6): 724–735. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9957.2004.00432.x. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
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Development Economics : Partial Theories of Development
Dual-sector model
Big push model
Critical minimum effort theory
Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory
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1976 Milton Friedman
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1978 Herbert A. Simon
1979 Theodore W. Schultz / Sir Arthur Lewis
1980 Lawrence R. Klein
1981 James Tobin
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1983 Gérard Debreu
1984 Richard Stone
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1987 Robert M. Solow
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