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Virtue ethics
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Virtue ethics (or aretaic ethics[1] /ˌærəˈteɪɪk/, from Greek ἀρετή (arete)) are normative ethical theories which emphasize virtues of mind and character. Virtue ethicists discuss the nature and definition of virtues and other related problems. For example, how are virtues acquired? How are they applied in various real life contexts? Are virtues rooted in a universal human nature or in a plurality of cultures?
Contents
[hide]
1 Key concepts
2 History of virtue
2.1 Contemporary "aretaic turn"
3 Lists of virtues
4 Criticisms
4.1 Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism
4.2 Utopianism and pluralism
5 Topics in virtue ethics
5.1 Virtue ethics as a category
5.2 Virtue and politics
5.3 Applied virtue ethics
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Key concepts[edit]
The western tradition's key concepts derive from ancient Greek philosophy. These concepts include arete (excellence or virtue), phronesis (practical or moral wisdom), and eudaimonia (flourishing).
A virtue is generally agreed to be a character trait, such as a habitual action or settled sentiment.[2] Specifically, a virtue is a positive trait that makes its possessor a good human being. A virtue is thus to be distinguished from single actions or feelings. Rosalind Hursthouse says:
A virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency to do what is honest or generous, nor is it to be helpfully specified as a “desirable” or “morally valuable” character trait. It is, indeed a character trait—that is, a disposition which is well entrenched in its possessor, something that, as we say “goes all the way down”, unlike a habit such as being a tea-drinker—but the disposition in question, far from being a single track disposition to do honest actions, or even honest actions for certain reasons, is multi-track. It is concerned with many other actions as well, with emotions and emotional reactions, choices, values, desires, perceptions, attitudes, interests, expectations and sensibilities. To possess a virtue is to be a certain sort of person with a certain complex mindset. (Hence the extreme recklessness of attributing a virtue on the basis of a single action.)
Practical wisdom is an acquired trait that enables its possessor to identify the thing to do in any given situation.[3] Unlike theoretical wisdom, practical reason results in action or decision.[4] As John McDowell puts it, practical wisdom involves a "perceptual sensitivity" to what a situation requires.[5]
Eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία) is a state variously translated from Greek as 'well-being', 'happiness', 'blessedness', and in the context of virtue ethics, 'human flourishing'.[6] Eudaimonia in this sense is not a subjective, but an objective, state. It characterizes the well-lived life. According to Aristotle, the most prominent exponent of eudaimonia in the Western philosophical tradition, "eudaimonia" is the proper goal of human life. It consists of exercising the characteristic human quality -- reason—as the soul's most proper and nourishing activity. In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle, like Plato before him, argued that the pursuit of eudaimonia is an "activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue",[7] which further could only properly be exercised in the characteristic human community—the polis or city-state.
Although, eudaimonia was first popularized by Aristotle, it now belongs to the tradition of virtue theories generally. For the virtue theorist, eudaimonia describes that state achieved by the person who lives the proper human life, an outcome that can be reached by practicing the virtues. A virtue is a habit or quality that allows the bearer to succeed at his, her, or its purpose. The virtue of a knife, for example, is sharpness; among the virtues of a racehorse is speed. Thus, to identify the virtues for human beings, one must have an account of what the human purpose is.
History of virtue[edit]
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Like much of the Western tradition, virtue theory seems to have originated in ancient Greek philosophy.
Virtue ethics began with Socrates, and was subsequently developed further by [8][9][10] Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. Virtue ethics refers to a collection of normative ethical philosophies that place an emphasis on being rather than doing. Another way to say this is that in virtue ethics, morality stems from the identity and/or character of the individual, rather than being a reflection of the actions (or consequences thereof) of the individual. Today, there is debate among various adherents of virtue ethics concerning what specific virtues are morally praiseworthy. However, most theorists agree that morality comes as a result of intrinsic virtues. Intrinsic virtues are the common link that unites the disparate normative philosophies into the field known as virtue ethics. Plato and Aristotle's treatment of virtues are not the same. Plato believes virtue is effectively an end to be sought, for which a friend might be a useful means. Aristotle states that the virtues function more as means to safeguard human relations, particularly authentic friendship, without which one's quest for happiness is frustrated.
Discussion of what were known as the Four Cardinal Virtues – wisdom, justice, fortitude, and temperance – can be found in Plato's Republic. The virtues also figure prominently in Aristotle's moral theory (see below). Virtue theory was inserted into the study of history by moralistic historians such as Livy, Plutarch, and Tacitus. The Greek idea of the virtues was passed on in Roman philosophy through Cicero and later incorporated into Christian moral theology by St. Ambrose of Milan. During the scholastic period, the most comprehensive consideration of the virtues from a theological perspective was provided by St. Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologiae and his Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics.
Though the tradition receded into the background of European philosophical thought in these centuries, the term "virtue" remained current during this period, and in fact appears prominently in the tradition of classical republicanism or classical liberalism. This tradition was prominent in the intellectual life of 16th-century Italy, as well as 17th- and 18th-century Britain and America; indeed the term "virtue" appears frequently in the work of Niccolò Machiavelli, David Hume, the republicans of the English Civil War period, the 18th-century English Whigs, and the prominent figures among the Scottish Enlightenment and the American Founding Fathers.
Contemporary "aretaic turn"[edit]
Although some Enlightenment philosophers (e.g. Hume) continued to emphasise the virtues, with the ascendancy of utilitarianism and deontology, virtue theory moved to the margins of Western philosophy. The contemporary revival of virtue theory is frequently traced to the philosopher G. E. M. Anscombe's 1958 essay "Modern Moral Philosophy". Following this:
In the 1976 paper "The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories", Michael Stocker summarises the main aretaic criticisms of deontological and consequentialist ethics.[11]
Philippa Foot, who published a collection of essays in 1978 entitled Virtues and Vices.
Alasdair MacIntyre has made an effort to reconstruct a virtue-based theory in dialogue with the problems of modern and postmodern thought; his works include After Virtue and Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry.
Paul Ricoeur has accorded an important place to Aristotelian teleological ethics in his hermeneutical phenomenology of the subject, most notably in his book Oneself as Another.
Theologian Stanley Hauerwas has also found the language of virtue quite helpful in his own project.
Rosalind Hursthouse has published On Virtue Ethics.
Roger Crisp and Michael Slote have edited a collection of important essays titled Virtue Ethics.
Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen have employed virtue theory in theorising the capability approach to international development.
Julia Annas wrote The Morality of Happiness (1993).
Lawrence C. Becker identified current virtue theory with Stoicism (or Modern Stoicism) in A New Stoicism. (1998).
The aretaic turn in moral philosophy is paralleled by analogous developments in other philosophical disciplines. One of these is epistemology, where a distinctive virtue epistemology has been developed by Linda Zagzebski and others. In political theory, there has been discussion of "virtue politics", and in legal theory, there is a small but growing body of literature on virtue jurisprudence. The aretaic turn also exists in American constitutional theory, where proponents argue for an emphasis on virtue and vice of constitutional adjudicators.
Aretaic approaches to morality, epistemology, and jurisprudence have been the subject of intense debates. One criticism that is frequently made focuses on the problem of guidance; opponents, such as Robert Louden in his article "Some Vices of Virtue Ethics", question whether the idea of a virtuous moral actor, believer, or judge can provide the guidance necessary for action, belief formation, or the decision of legal disputes.
Lists of virtues[edit]
There are several different lists of particular virtues. Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge, which suggests that there is really only one virtue.[12] The Stoics concurred, claiming the four cardinal virtues were only aspects of true virtue. John McDowell is a recent defender of this conception. He argues that virtue is a "perceptual capacity" to identify how one ought to act, and that all particular virtues are merely "specialized sensitivities" to a range of reasons for acting.[13]
Aristotle's list
Aristotle identifies approximately eighteen virtues that enable a person to perform their human function well.[14] He distinguished virtues pertaining to emotion and desire from those pertaining to the mind.[15] The first he calls "moral" virtues, and the second intellectual virtues (though both are "moral" in the modern sense of the word). Each moral virtue was a mean (see golden mean) between two corresponding vices, one of excess and one of deficiency. Each intellectual virtue is a mental skill or habit by which the mind arrives at truth, affirming what is or denying what is not.[16] In the Nicomachean Ethics he discusses about 11 moral virtues:
Moral Virtues
1. Courage in the face of fear
2. Temperance in the face of pleasure and pain
3. Liberality with wealth and possessions
4. Magnificence with great wealth and possessions
5. Magnanimity with great honors
6. Proper ambition with normal honors
7. Truthfulness with self-expression
8. Wittiness in conversation
9. Friendliness in social conduct
10. Modesty in the face of shame or shamelessness
11. Righteous indignation in the face of injury
Intellectual virtues
Nous (intelligence), which apprehends fundamental truths (such as definitions, self-evident principles)
Episteme (science), which is skill with inferential reasoning (such as proofs, syllogisms, demonstrations)
Sophia (theoretical wisdom), which combines fundamental truths with valid, necessary inferences to reason well about unchanging truths.
Aristotle also mentions several other traits:
Gnome (good sense) -- passing judgment, "sympathetic understanding"
Synesis (understanding) -- comprehending what others say, does not issue commands
Phronesis (practical wisdom) -- knowledge of what to do, knowledge of changing truths, issues commands
Techne (art, craftsmanship)
Aristotle's list is not the only list, however. As Alasdair MacIntyre observed in After Virtue, thinkers as diverse as: Homer; the authors of the New Testament; Thomas Aquinas; and Benjamin Franklin; have all proposed lists.[17]
Criticisms[edit]
Some philosophers criticise virtue ethics as culturally relative. Since different people, cultures and societies often have different opinions on what constitutes a virtue, perhaps there is no one objectively right list.
For example, regarding what are the most important virtues, Aristotle proposed the nine listed earlier (just above Historical origins): wisdom; prudence; justice; fortitude; courage; liberality; magnificence; magnanimity; temperance. In contrast, one modern-era philosopher proposed as the four cardinal virtues: ambition/humility; love; courage; and honesty.[18]
As another example, regarding virtues once supposedly applicable to women, many would have once considered a virtuous woman to be quiet, servile, and industrious. This conception of female virtue no longer holds true in many modern societies. Proponents of virtue theory sometimes respond to this objection by arguing that a central feature of a virtue is its universal applicability. In other words, any character trait defined as a virtue must reasonably be universally regarded as a virtue for all sentient beings. According to this view, it is inconsistent to claim for example servility as a female virtue, while at the same time not proposing it as a male one.
Other proponents of virtue theory, notably Alasdair MacIntyre, respond to this objection by arguing that any account of the virtues must indeed be generated out of the community in which those virtues are to be practiced: the very word "ethics" implies "ethos". That is to say that the virtues are, and necessarily must be, grounded in a particular time and place. What counts as virtue in 4th-century Athens would be a ludicrous guide to proper behavior in 21st-century Toronto, and vice versa. To take this view does not necessarily commit one to the argument that accounts of the virtues must therefore be static: moral activity—that is, attempts to contemplate and practice the virtues—can provide the cultural resources that allow people to change, albeit slowly, the ethos of their own societies. MacIntyre appears to take this position in his seminal work on virtue ethics, After Virtue. One might cite (though MacIntyre does not) the rapid emergence of abolitionist thought in the slave-holding societies of the 18th-century Atlantic world as an example of this sort of change: over a relatively short period of time, perhaps 1760 to 1800, in Britain, France, and British America, slave-holding, previously thought to be morally neutral or even virtuous, rapidly became seen as vicious among wide swathes of society. While the emergence of abolitionist thought derived from many sources, the work of David Brion Davis, among others[who?], has established that one source was the rapid, internal evolution of moral theory among certain sectors of these societies, notably the Quakers.
Another objection to virtue theory is that the school does not focus on what sorts of actions are morally permitted and which ones are not, but rather on what sort of qualities someone ought to foster in order to become a good person. In other words, while some virtue theorists may not condemn, for example, murder as an inherently immoral or impermissible sort of action, they may argue that someone who commits a murder is severely lacking in several important virtues, such as compassion and fairness. Still, antagonists of the theory often object that this particular feature of the theory makes virtue ethics useless as a universal norm of acceptable conduct suitable as a base for legislation. Some virtue theorists concede this point, but respond by opposing the very notion of legitimate legislative authority instead, effectively advocating some form of anarchism as the political ideal.[citation needed] Others argue that laws should be made by virtuous legislators. Still others argue that it is possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather than rules.
Some virtue theorists might respond to this overall objection with the notion of a "bad act" also being an act characteristic of vice[citation needed]. That is to say that those acts that do not aim at virtue, or stray from virtue, would constitute our conception of "bad behavior". Although not all virtue ethicists agree to this notion, this is one way the virtue ethicist can re-introduce the concept of the "morally impermissible". One could raise objection with Foot that she is committing an argument from ignorance by postulating that what is not virtuous is unvirtuous. In other words, just because an action or person 'lacks of evidence' for virtue does not, all else constant, imply that said action or person is unvirtuous.
Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism[edit]
Martha Nussbaum has suggested that while virtue ethics is often considered to be anti-Enlightenment, "suspicious of theory and respectful of the wisdom embodied in local practices",[19] it is actually neither fundamentally distinct from, nor does it qualify as a rival approach to deontology and utilitarianism. She argues that philosophers from these two Enlightenment traditions often include theories of virtue. She pointed out that Kant's "Doctrine of Virtue" (in The Metaphysics of Morals) "covers most of the same topics as do classical Greek theories", "that he offers a general account of virtue, in terms of the strength of the will in overcoming wayward and selfish inclinations; that he offers detailed analyses of standard virtues such as courage and self-control, and of vices, such as avarice, mendacity, servility, and pride; that, although in general he portrays inclination as inimical to virtue, he also recognizes that sympathetic inclinations offer crucial support to virtue, and urges their deliberate cultivation."[19]
Nussbaum also points to considerations of virtue by utilitarians such as Henry Sidgwick (The Methods of Ethics), Jeremy Bentham (The Principles of Morals and Legislation), and John Stuart Mill, who writes of moral development as part of an argument for the moral equality of women (The Subjection of Women). She argues that contemporary virtue ethicists such as Alasdair MacIntyre, Bernard Williams, Philippa Foot, and John McDowell have few points of agreement, and that the common core of their work does not represent a break from Kant.
Utopianism and pluralism[edit]
Robert Louden criticises virtue ethics on the basis that it promotes a form of unsustainable utopianism. Trying to come to a single set of virtues is immensely difficult in contemporary societies as, according to Louden, they contain "more ethnic, religious, and class groups than did the moral community which Aristotle theorized about" with each of these groups having "not only its own interests but its own set of virtues as well". Louden notes in passing that MacIntyre, a supporter of virtue-based ethics, has grappled with this in After Virtue but that ethics cannot dispense with building rules around acts and rely only on discussing the moral character of persons.[20]
Topics in virtue ethics[edit]
Virtue ethics as a category[edit]
Virtue ethics can be contrasted to deontological ethics and consequentialist ethics by an examination of the other two (the three being together the most predominant contemporary normative ethical theories).
Deontological ethics, sometimes referred to as duty ethics, places the emphasis on adhering to ethical principles or duties. How these duties are defined, however, is often a point of contention and debate in deontological ethics. One of the predominant rule schemes utilized by deontologists is the Divine Command Theory. Deontology also depends upon meta-ethical realism, in that it postulates the existence of moral absolutes that make an action moral, regardless of circumstances. For more information on deontological ethics refer to the work of Immanuel Kant.
The next predominant school of thought in normative ethics is consequentialism. While deontology places the emphasis on doing one's duty, which is established by some kind of moral imperative (in other words, the emphasis is on obedience to some higher moral absolute), consequentialism bases the morality of an action upon the consequences of the outcome. Instead of saying that one has a moral duty to abstain from murder, a consequentialist would say that we should abstain from murder because it causes undesirable effects. The main contention here is what outcomes should/can be identified as objectively desirable. The Greatest Happiness Principle of John Stuart Mill is one of the most commonly adopted criteria. Mill asserts that our determinant of the desirability of an action is the net amount of happiness it brings, the number of people it brings it to, and the duration of the happiness. He also tries to delineate classes of happiness, some being preferable to others, but there is a great deal of difficulty in classifying such concepts. For a more complete outline of the niceties of Mill's classification system see the page on utilitarianism or read Mill's works Utilitarianism, Defense of Utilitarianism, and On Liberty. Examining the meta-ethical theories of naturalism, upon which many consequentialist theories rely, may provide further clarification. Having looked at the other two normative ethical theories we come at last to virtue ethics.
As stated before, deontology focuses on adhering to ethical duties, while consequentialism focuses on the outcomes (consequences) of actions. Here virtue ethics differs in that the focus is instead upon being rather than doing. A virtue ethics philosopher will identify virtues, desirable characteristics, that the moral or virtuous person embodies. Possessing these virtues, in virtue ethics, is what makes one moral, and one's actions are a mere reflection of one's inner morality. To the virtue philosopher, action cannot be used as a demarcation of morality, because a virtue encompasses more than just a simple selection of action. Instead, it is about a way of being that would cause the person exhibiting the virtue to make a certain "virtuous" choice consistently in each situation. There is a great deal of disagreement within virtue ethics over what are virtues and what are not. There are also difficulties in identifying what is the "virtuous" action to take in all circumstances, and how to define a virtue.
Consequentialist and deontological theories often still employ the term 'virtue', but in a restricted sense, namely as a tendency or disposition to adhere to the system's principles or rules. These very different senses of what constitutes virtue, hidden behind the same word, are a potential source of confusion. This disagreement over the meaning of virtue points to a larger conflict between virtue theory and its philosophical rivals. A system of virtue theory is only intelligible if it is teleological: that is, if it includes an account of the purpose (telos) of human life, or in popular language, the meaning of life.[citation needed] Obviously, strong claims about the purpose of human life, or of what the good life for human beings is, will be highly controversial. Virtue theory's necessary commitment to a teleological account of human life thus puts the tradition in sharp tension with other dominant approaches to normative ethics, which, because they focus on actions, do not bear this burden.[citation needed]
Virtue and politics[edit]
Virtue theory emphasises Aristotle's belief in the polis as the acme of political organisation, and the role of the virtues in enabling human beings to flourish in that environment. Classical republicanism in contrast emphasises Tacitus' concern that power and luxury can corrupt individuals and destroy liberty, as Tacitus perceived in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire; virtue for classical republicans is a shield against this sort of corruption and a means to preserve the good life one has, rather than a means by which to achieve the good life one does not yet have. Another way to put the distinction between the two traditions is that virtue ethics relies on Aristotle's fundamental distinction between the human-being-as-he-is from the human-being-as-he-should-be, while classical republicanism relies on the Tacitean distinction of the human-being-as-he-is from the human-being-as-he-is-at-risk-of-becoming.[21]
Applied virtue ethics[edit]
Virtue ethics has a number of contemporary applications.
Social and political philosophy
Within the field of social ethics, Deirdre McCloskey[22] argues that virtue ethics can provide a basis for a balanced approach to understanding capitalism and capitalist societies.
Education
Within the field of philosophy of education, James Page[23] argues that virtue ethics can provide a rationale and foundation for peace education. Schools like the Intellectual Virtue Academy in Long Beach CA build their pedagogy around cultivating intellectual virtues.
Health care and medical ethics
Thomas Alured Faunce has argued that whistleblowing in the healthcare setting would be more respected within clinical governance pathways if it had a firmer academic foundation in virtue ethics.[24][25] He called for whistleblowing to be expressly supported in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights.[26] Barry Schwartz argues that "practical wisdom" is an antidote to much of the inefficient and inhumane bureaucracy of modern health care systems.[27]
See also[edit]
Aretaic turn
Arete
Aristotelian ethics
Applied ethics
Buddhist Ethics (discipline)
Confucianism
Cardinal virtues
Cynicism
Environmental virtue ethics
Eudaimonism
Modern Stoicism
Phronesis
Rule according to higher law
Seven virtues
Stoicism
Virtue
Virtue epistemology
Virtue jurisprudence
References[edit]
Jump up ^ David Carr, Jan Steutel (eds.), Virtue Ethics and Moral Education, Routledge, 1999, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Hursthouse, Rosalind (2013-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. Virtue Ethics (Fall 2013 ed.).
Jump up ^ Pincoffs, Edmund (1971). Quandary ethics. _Mind_ 80 (320):552-571.
Jump up ^ Kraut, Richard (2016-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. Aristotle's Ethics (Spring 2016 ed.).
Jump up ^ McDowell, John. "Virtue and Reason". _The Monist_. 1979.
Jump up ^ Pojman, L.P. & Fieser, J. (2009). Virtue Theory. In Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong (pp. 146-169). (6th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. pp. Book I.
Jump up ^ P Gardiner - A virtue ethics approach to moral dilemmas in medicine Journal of Medical Ethics / Volume 29, Issue 5 https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jme.29.5.297 Accessed November 24th, 2017
Jump up ^ J. Bowin - Aristotle's Virtue Ethics University of Santa Cruz (California) Accessed November 24th, 2017
Jump up ^ T. Chappell (2010) - Plato: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide p.10 ISBN 019980902X Accessed November 24th, 2017
Jump up ^ Stocker, Michael (1976). "The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories". The Journal of Philosophy. 73 (14): 453–466. doi:10.2307/2025782.
Jump up ^ Plato, Meno.
Jump up ^ McDowell, John. "Virtue and reason." The monist 62.3 (1979): 331-350.
Jump up ^ Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics.
Jump up ^ Nicomachean Ethics, Book II.
Jump up ^ Nicomachean Ethics Book VI
Jump up ^ MacIntyre, After Virtue, chp 16.
Jump up ^ Kaufmann, W., 1961. The Faith Of A Heretic. Doubleday & Co., pages 317-338.
^ Jump up to: a b Nussbaum, Martha C. (1999). "Virtue Ethics: A Misleading Category?". The Journal of Ethics. 3 (3): 163–201. JSTOR 25115613.
Jump up ^ Louden, Robert B. (July 1984). "On Some Vices of Virtue Ethics". American Philosophical Quarterly. 21 (3): 227–236. JSTOR 20014051.
Jump up ^ J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment
Jump up ^ McCloskey, D. The Bourgeois Virtues: Ethics for an Age of Commerce. (2007) Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-55664-2.
Jump up ^ Page, James S. (2008) Peace Education: Exploring Ethical and Philosophical Foundations. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59311-889-1.
Jump up ^ Faunce TA Developing and Teaching the Virtue-Ethics Foundations of Healthcare Whistle Blowing Monash Bioethics Review 2004; 23(4): 41-55
Jump up ^ Faunce TA and Jefferys S. Whistleblowing and Scientific Misconduct: Renewing Legal and Virtue Ethics Foundations Journal of Medicine and Law 2007, 26 (3): 567-84
Jump up ^ Faunce TA and Nasu H. Normative Foundations of Technology Transfer and Transnational Benefit Principles in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human RightsJournal of Medicine and Philosophy, 0 : 1 – 26, 2009 doi:10.1093/jmp/jhp021
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Barry. "Our loss of wisdom". www.ted.com. Retrieved 2016-05-05.
Further reading[edit]
Crisp, Roger; Slote, Michael (1997). Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Darwall, ed., Stephen (2003). Virtue Ethics. Oxford: B. Blackwell. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Devettere, Raymond J. (2002). Introduction to Virtue Ethics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Gardiner, ed., Stephen M. (2005). Virtue Ethics, Old and New. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Hursthouse, Rosalind (2001). On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swanton, Christine (2003). Virtue Ethics: a Pluralistic View. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Russell, ed., Daniel C. (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Taylor, Richard (2002). An Introduction to Virtue Ethics. Amherst: Prometheus Books.
Virtue: Confucius and Aristotle by Jiyuan Yu
External links[edit]
"Virtue Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Hursthouse, Rosalind. "Virtue Ethics". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Homiak, Marcia. "Moral Character". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Virtue Ethics - summary, criticisms and how to apply the theory
Legal theory lexicon: Virtue ethics by Larry Solum.
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A Christmas Carol (1984 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Christmas Carol
Home video cover
Genre
Drama
Family
Fantasy
Based on
A Christmas Carol
1843 novel
by Charles Dickens
Screenplay by
Roger O. Hirson
Directed by
Clive Donner
Starring
George C. Scott
Frank Finlay
David Warner
Susannah York
Edward Woodward
Roger Rees
Theme music composer
Nick Bicât
Country of origin
United Kingdom
United States
Original language(s)
English
Production
Executive producer(s)
Robert E. Fuisz
Producer(s)
George F. Storke
Alfred R. Kelman
Cinematography
Tony Imi
Editor(s)
Peter Tanner
Running time
100 minutes
Production company(s)
Entertainment Partners Ltd.
Distributor
CBS
Release
Original network
CBS
Original release
17 December 1984 (1984-12-17)
A Christmas Carol is a 1984 British-American made-for-television film adaptation of Charles Dickens' famous 1843 novella of the same name. The film is directed by Clive Donner, who had been an editor of the 1951 film Scrooge, and stars George C. Scott as Ebenezer Scrooge. It was filmed in the historic medieval county town of Shrewsbury in Shropshire.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Differences between book and film
5 Critical response
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
On Christmas Eve in 1843 London, Ebenezer Scrooge, a miserly money-lender at a local counting house, does not share the merriment of Christmas. He declines Fred Hollywell's invitation for Christmas dinner and reluctantly accepts his loyal employee Bob Cratchit's offer to have Christmas off since there will be no business for Scrooge during the day. As he leaves for the Royal Stock Exchange, Scrooge encounters Bob's ill son Tiny Tim waiting across from Scrooge's office. After initially mistaking Tim for a beggar, Scrooge assures him that he will have a long wait for his father in the cold before leaving.
In the stock exchange, Scrooge is greeted by three other businessmen who wish to purchase some corn; they had delayed in concluding the deal, apparently in hopes that Scrooge would lower his price. To their dismay, however, Scrooge informs them that the price has gone up 5% because of the delay, and unless they come to an agreement, the price would go up another 5% the next day. Before leaving, Scrooge informs them that he will not ship without the cash in hand. After being approached by two gentlemen collecting money for charity, Mr. Poole and Mr. Hacking, Scrooge turns down their offer. In his house, Scrooge encounters the ghost of his deceased business partner Jacob Marley, who warns him to repent his wicked ways or he will be condemned in the afterlife like he did, carrying heavy chains forged for his own greedy ways. He informs Scrooge that three time-travelling spirits will visit him for that night.
At one o'clock, the child-like Ghost of Christmas Past visits Scrooge and takes him back in time to his childhood and early adult life. They visit Scrooge's time as a boarding school student. He sees his father Silas, who has him become an employee under Fezziwig, and his sister Fan, who died after giving birth to Fred. Eventually becoming a successful career in money lending and business, SCrooge becomes engaged to a woman named Belle. However, the Ghost shows Scrooge how Belle left him when he chose his wealth over her. A distraught Scrooge puts out the spirit with its cap as he returns to the present.
At two o'clock, Scrooge meets the Ghost of Christmas Present, who shows him the joys and wonder of Christmas Day. Scrooge and the Ghost visit Bob's house, learning his family is surprisingly content with their small dinner, Scrooge taking pity on Tim. Scrooge and the spirit go to a desolate street, where the latter disappears, warning Scrooge about the evils of "Ignorance" and "Want". The Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come arrives, appearing as a silent, cloaked shadow, and takes Scrooge into the future. Scrooge witnesses the businessmen discussing the death of an unnamed colleague where they would only attend the funeral if lunch is provided. The spirit shows him that several of his possessions have been stolen and brought to fence named Old Joe. The spirit transports Scrooge to Bob's residence where he learns Tim had died. Scrooge is escorted to a cemetery, where the spirit points out his own grave, revealing Scrooge was the man who died. Realizing this, Scrooge decides to change his ways.
Awakening in his bedroom on Christmas Day, Scrooge finds the ghosts had visited him all in one night. Gleeful at having survived the spirits, Scrooge decides to surprise Bob's family with a turkey dinner, ventures out with the charity workers and the citizens of London to spread happiness in the city, and accepts Fred's invitation after reconciling with him. The following day, he gives Cratchit a raise and becomes like "a second father" to Tim, who escapes death. A changed man, Scrooge now treats everyone with kindness, generosity, and compassion; he now embodies the spirit of Christmas.
Cast[edit]
Tombstone from the graveyard scene. To the current day, the stone remains in the graveyard of St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury where the scene was filmed
George C. Scott – Ebenezer Scrooge
Mark Strickson – Young Ebenezer Scrooge
Frank Finlay – Marley's Ghost
Angela Pleasence – Ghost of Christmas Past
Edward Woodward – Ghost of Christmas Present
Michael Carter – Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come
David Warner – Bob Cratchit
Susannah York – Mrs. Cratchit
Anthony Walters – Tiny Tim Cratchit
Roger Rees – Fred Hollywell/Narrator
Caroline Langrishe – Janet Hollywell
Lucy Gutteridge – Belle (Scrooge's unappreciated fiancée)
Nigel Davenport – Silas Scrooge (Ebenezer and Fan's cruel father)
Joanne Whalley – Fan Scrooge (Ebenezer's beloved sister and Fred's mother)
Timothy Bateson – Mr. Fezziwig
Michael Gough – Mr. Poole
John Quarmby – Mr. Hacking
Peter Woodthorpe – Old Joe
Liz Smith – Mrs. Dilber
John Sharp – Tipton
Derek Francis – Pemberton
Danny Davies – Forbush
Brian Pettifer – Ben
Catherine Hall – Meg
Cathryn Harrison – Kate
Note: Local resident, Martin Wood was both Woodward's stand-in and Carter's body double.
Production[edit]
This movie was filmed on location in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, in The Midlands. It originally aired on the American television network CBS on 17 December 1984, and was released theatrically in Great Britain. The U.S. debut was sponsored by IBM, which purchased all of the commercial spots for the two-hour premiere. The film brought in a 20.7/30 rating/share, winning its time slot and ranking No. 10 for the week.[1] The film was marketed with the tagline "A new powerful presentation of the most loved ghost story of all time!" Scott was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or a Special for his portrayal of Scrooge.
The movie has run in syndication on local American channels since it debuted in 1984, earning a loyal fanbase, but was not released on VHS until 1989 (in the UK)[2] and to DVD in 1999. This was because Scott himself (and later his estate through Baxter Healthcare, to whom the Scott family donated their copyright) owned the rights to this film. On 25 November 2007, it returned to national television on AMC for the first time since its debut, and the network continues to broadcast it each December under license from the Scott estate and 20th Century Fox (the latter's distribution rights the result of their owning the video rights). In 2009, the Hallmark Channel also ran the movie soon after Thanksgiving. It remains among most beloved of the several adaptations of A Christmas Carol. In 2009, the film was re-released on DVD by Fox, with updated box art but the same menu and features as the previous DVD release. Fox released it on Blu-ray in December 2010.
Differences between book and film[edit]
Although the film was very close to the book, there were a few changes:
Scrooge's nephew Fred, whose full name was never given in the book, is surnamed Hollywell. His wife, whose name was also never mentioned in the book, is called Janet. The Blind man's buff game, with Topper cheating, is changed to a game of Similes.
In the book, the three spirits are promised to visit Scrooge at one on two successive nights then at midnight on the third night; in this version the visitations all happen on the same night, starting at 1 am.
Although Marley's ghost initially appears transparent as described in the book, it "solidifies" immediately after. Also, as it makes its exit, although audiences hear moans when Scrooge looks outside from his window, the street is quiet and empty. In the book, he sees a vision of other ghosts in chains like Marley's wandering in torment for being selfish, greedy misers when these people were living.
As in the 1951 film version with Alastair Sim, it is mentioned in a dialogue between Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Past that Scrooge's mother died giving birth to him; Ebenezer explains that his father resented him because of this. Fan's appearance and personality suggest that she is younger than Ebenezer but it is not explained how Scrooge can have a younger sister if his mother died giving birth to him, unless Fan is his half-sister, though a stepmother to Scrooge is not seen or mentioned. It is possible that despite her youthful appearance and attitude, Fan is actually the older sibling; however, Scrooge addressing her as "Little Fan" implies she is younger than he is, although it may also refer to her being petite.
This is the first version to actually show Scrooge's father (here named Silas Scrooge), a character referred to in the book but never seen. Despite his agreeing to grant Fan's request to let Scrooge come home for Christmas, he makes it quite clear to Ebenezer when he comes personally to pick him up from school that he still wants nothing to do with his son, and plans to ship him off to Mr. Fezziwig's establishment as soon as Christmas is over. Yet, Ebenezer is not disowned completely, as the elder Scrooge did leave him "a small inheritance," which became the foundation of the young man's financial success. Silas's gruff treatment of Fan is not explained.
A subplot is added to explain what it was that caused Ebenezer to dedicate his life to the accumulation of money, putting the kindly youth on a path to hard-heartedness. During the visions of the Ghost of Christmas Past, it is shown that young Scrooge believed his lack of a fortune made him unworthy of Belle's attention and that to deserve her he must be able to finance their future together.
The period during Scrooge's time with the Ghost of Christmas Present when, in the novel, they roam the world observing the goodness of people in all situations is represented in the movie by a scene featuring an impoverished family surviving under a bridge with London's homeless population, unwilling to separate by abandoning the father and going to the poorhouse.
The Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come does not speak but is accompanied by an eerie metallic noise that evokes the screech of a cemetery's gate.
Scott's Scrooge differs from most portrayals in that not only is he stocky rather than scrawny, he is portrayed as a ruthless businessman rather than an archetypal miser.
Another difference from typical portrayals is the dry humor exhibited by Scott's Scrooge, who laughs at his own joke when delivering the "stake of holly through his heart" line.
Scrooge in this version stops at the Royal Stock Exchange on his way home from work, not only giving us a look at how ruthless he is in dealing with his colleagues, but also it is where he encounters the charity collectors rather than at his office.
In the rag and bottle shop scene, the undertaker and the charwoman are omitted, leaving only the laundress Mrs. Dilber to sell off the dead Scrooge's bed curtains and other stolen belongings to Old Joe. Liz Smith, who plays Mrs. Dilber here, would reprise the character in the 1999 television film adaptation with Patrick Stewart. The young couple who are relieved that Scrooge has died and that they will be able to pay off their debt to a more lenient creditor, are also not seen.
Scrooge does not appear at Fred's house on Christmas Day during dinner and asks to be let in, but rather arrives beforehand to accept the invitation if it still stands, which Fred joyously says it does. Scrooge also asks Fred's pardon for the things he said the day before regarding Christmas.
Critical response[edit]
Novelist and essayist Louis Bayard, writing for Salon.com, described this adaptation as "the definitive version of a beloved literary classic", praising its fidelity to Dickens' original story, the strength of the supporting cast, and especially Scott's performance as Scrooge.[3]
Novelist Anne Rice has stated: "I've always been obsessed with Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, absolutely obsessed with the idea that three spirits would come to Scrooge and transform him. I mean, I'm overly obsessed with A Christmas Carol. I've watched the English film version of it probably more than anyone in history has ever watched it, and read and re-read the story, trying to think how to redo a modern version, wanting very much for there to be a new film version, and being furious with the one they did for TV with George C. Scott. Did you see that? It was awful. And Scrooge, the one with Albert Finney, which at least was better than nothing. I'll sit and watch that rather than have nothing." (Conversations with Anne Rice by Michael Riley (Ballantine, 1996), pg 284–285)
See also[edit]
List of ghost films
Adaptations of A Christmas Carol
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.tvtango.com/listings/1984/12/17/christmas_carol_a
Jump up ^ http://www.videocollector.co.uk/christmas-carol-a/13185
Jump up ^ Bayard, Louis (24 December 2009). "The best 'Christmas Carol' ever". Salon. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 25 December 2009.
External links[edit]
A Christmas Carol on IMDb
A Christmas Carol at AllMovie
A Christmas Carol at the TCM Movie Database
A Christmas Carol at Rotten Tomatoes
[show]
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Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol
Characters
Ebenezer Scrooge
Bob Cratchit
Mr. Fezziwig
Ghost of Christmas Past
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Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come
Jacob Marley
Tiny Tim
Films
Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost
A Christmas Carol (1908)
A Christmas Carol (1910)
Scrooge (1913)
Scrooge (1935)
A Christmas Carol (1938)
Scrooge (1951)
It's Never Too Late
A Christmas Carol (1960)
Scrooge (1970)
A Christmas Carol (1971)
An American Christmas Carol
Mickey's Christmas Carol
Scrooged
The Muppet Christmas Carol
A Christmas Carol (1997)
A Diva's Christmas Carol
Christmas Carol: The Movie
A Carol Christmas
Springtime with Roo
Chasing Christmas
A Christmas Carol (2006)
A Dennis the Menace Christmas
An American Carol
Ghosts of Girlfriends Past
A Christmas Carol (2009)
The Smurfs: A Christmas Carol (2011)
Television
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A Christmas Carol (1954)
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A Carol for Another Christmas
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The Stingiest Man in Town
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A Christmas Carol (1982)
A Christmas Carol (1984)
Blackadder's Christmas Carol
A Flintstones Christmas Carol
Ebbie
Ebenezer
An All Dogs Christmas Carol
A Christmas Carol (1999)
A Christmas Carol (2000)
An Easter Carol
A Christmas Carol (2004)
Karroll's Christmas
Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas
Nan's Christmas Carol
"A Christmas Carol" (Doctor Who)
It's Christmas, Carol!
Kelly Clarkson's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale
Musicals
Scrooge (1992)
A Christmas Carol (1994)
Mrs. Bob Cratchit's Wild Christmas Binge (2002)
Plays
A Christmas Carol (1988)
Fellow Passengers (2004)
A Klingon Christmas Carol (2007)
Soundtracks
A Christmas Carol (2009)
Doctor Who: A Christmas Carol (2011)
Other
Adaptations of A Christmas Carol
Batman: Noël (comic)
"Green Christmas" (single)
The Misadventures of the Wholesome Twins
The Man Who Invented Christmas
[show]
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Films directed by Clive Donner
The Secret Place (1957)
Heart of a Child (1958)
The Sinister Man (1961)
Some People (1962)
The Caretaker (1963)
Nothing But the Best (1964)
What's New Pussycat? (1965)
Luv (1967)
Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush (1967)
Alfred the Great (1969)
Vampira (1974)
Rogue Male (1976)
Spectre (1977)
The Three Hostages (1977)
The Thief of Baghdad (1978)
The Nude Bomb (1980)
Charlie Chan and the Curse of the Dragon Queen (1981)
Oliver Twist (1982)
The Scarlet Pimpernel (1982)
To Catch a King (1984)
A Christmas Carol (1984)
Merlin and the Sword (1985)
Dead Man's Folly (1986)
Babes in Toyland (1986)
Stealing Heaven (1988)
Charlemagne, le prince à cheval (miniseries, 1993)
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