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Dura mater
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Dura mater
Meninges of the CNS
The dura mater extends into the skull cavity as the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli etc.
Details
Pronunciation
UK: /ˈdjʊərə ˈmeɪtər/, US: /- ˈmætər/
Precursor
Neural crest
Part of
Meninges surrounding the brain and spinal cord
Identifiers
Latin
Dura mater
MeSH
D004388
TA
A14.1.01.101
FMA
9592
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Dura mater, or dura, is a thick membrane made of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. It is the outermost of the three layers of membrane called the meninges that protect the central nervous system. The other two meningeal layers are the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The dura surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and is responsible for keeping in the cerebrospinal fluid. It is derived from neural crest cells.[1]
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Folds and reflections
1.2 Blood supply
1.3 Drainage
1.4 Nerve supply
2 Clinical significance
3 History
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
The dura mater has several functions and layers. The dura mater is a membrane that envelops the arachnoid mater. It surrounds and supports the dural sinuses (also called dural venous sinuses, cerebral sinuses, or cranial sinuses) and carries blood from the brain toward the heart.
The dura mater has two layers, or lamellae: The superficial layer (also called the periosteal layer), which serves as the skull's inner periosteum, called the endocranium; and a deep layer called the meningeal layer; the actual dura mater. When it covers the spinal cord it is known as the dural sac or thecal sac.
Folds and reflections[edit]
Spinal reflections and folds.
The dura separates into two layers at dural reflections (also known as dural folds), places where the inner dural layer is reflected as sheet-like protrusions into the cranial cavity. There are two main dural reflections:
The tentorium cerebelli exists between and separates the cerebellum and brainstem from the occipital lobes of the cerebrum.[2]
The falx cerebri, which separates the two hemispheres of the brain, is located in the longitudinal cerebral fissure between the hemispheres.[3]
Two other dural infoldings are the cerebellar falx and the sellar diaphragm:
The cerebellar falx (or falx cerebelli) is a vertical dural infolding that lies inferior to the cerebellar tentorium in the posterior part of the posterior cranial fossa. It partially separates the cerebellar hemispheres.
The sellar diaphragm is the smallest dural infolding and is a circular sheet of dura that is suspended between the clinoid processes, forming a partial roof over the hypophysial fossa. The sellar diaphgram covers the pituitary gland in this fossa and has an aperture for passage of the infundibulum (pituitary stalk) and hypophysial veins.
Blood supply[edit]
This depends upon the area of the cranial cavity: in the anterior cranial fossa the anterior meningeal artery (branch from the ethmoidal artery) is responsible for blood supply, in the middle cranial fossa the middle meningeal artery and some accessory arteries are responsible for blood supply, the middle meningeal artery is a direct branch from the maxillary artery and enter the cranial cavity through the foramen spinosum and then divides into anterior (which runs usually in vertical direction across the pterion) and posterior (which runs posteriosuperiorly) branches, while the accessory meningeal arteries (which are branches from the maxillary artery) enter the skull through foramen ovale and supply area between the two foramina, and the in posterior cranial fossa the dura mater has numerous blood supply from different possible arteries:
A. posterior meningeal artery (from the ascending pharyngeal artery through the jugular foramen)
B. meningeal arteries (from the ascending pharyngeal artery through hypoglossal canal)
C. meningeal arteries (from occipital artery through jugular or mastoid foramen)
D. meningeal arteries (from vertebral artery through foramen magnum)
Drainage[edit]
The two layers of dura mater run together throughout most of the skull. Where they separate, the gap between them is called a dural venous sinus. These sinuses drain blood and cerebrospinal fluid from the brain and empty into the internal jugular vein.
Arachnoid villi, which are outgrowths of the arachnoid mater (the middle meningeal layer), extend into the venous sinuses to drain CSF. These villi act as one-way valves. Meningeal veins, which course through the dura mater, and bridging veins, which drain the underlying neural tissue and puncture the dura mater, empty into these dural sinuses. A rupture of a bridging vein causes a subdural hematoma.
Nerve supply[edit]
The supratentorial dura mater membrane is supplied by small meningeal branches of the trigeminal nerve (V1, V2 and V3).[4] The innervation for the infratentorial dura mater are via upper cervical nerves.
Clinical significance[edit]
Many medical conditions involve the dura mater. A subdural hematoma occurs when there is an abnormal collection of blood between the dura and the arachnoid, usually as a result of torn bridging veins secondary to head trauma. An epidural hematoma is a collection of blood between the dura and the inner surface of the skull, and is usually due to arterial bleeding. Intradural procedures, such as removal of a brain tumour, or treatment of trigeminal neuralgia via a microvascular decompression require that an incision is made to the dura mater. To achieve a watertight repair and avoid potential post-operative complications the dura is typically closed with sutures. In the event that there is a dural deficiency, a dural substitute may be used to replace this membrane. Small gaps in the dura can be covered with a surgical sealant film.
In 2011, researchers discovered a connective tissue bridge from the rectus capitis posterior major to the cervical dura mater. Various clinical manifestations may be linked to this anatomical relationship such as headaches, trigeminal neuralgia and other symptoms that involved the cervical dura.[5] The rectus capitis posterior minor has a similar attachment.[6]
The dura-muscular, dura-ligamentous connections in the upper cervical spine and occipital areas may provide anatomic and physiologic answers to the cause of the cervicogenic headache. This proposal would further explain manipulation's efficacy in the treatment of cervicogenic headache.[7]
The American Red Cross and some other agencies accepting blood donations consider dura mater transplants, along with receipt of pituitary-derived growth hormone, a risk factor due to concerns about Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.[8]
Cerebellar tonsillar ectopia, or Chiari, is a condition that was previously thought to be congenital but can be induced by trauma, particularly whiplash trauma.[9] Dural strain may be pulling the cerebellum inferiorly, or skull distortions may be pushing the brain inferiorly.
Dural ectasia is the enlargement of the dura and is common in connective tissue disorders, such as Marfan syndrome and Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. These conditions are sometimes found in conjunction with Arnold–Chiari malformation.
Spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak is the fluid and pressure loss of spinal fluid due to holes in the dura mater.
History[edit]
The name dura mater derives from the Latin for tough mother, a loan translation of Arabic أم الدماغ الصفيقة (umm al-dimāgh al-ṣafīcah), literally thick mother of the brain, matrix of the brain,[10][11] and is also referred to by the term "pachymeninx" (plural "pachymeninges"). [10] The dura has been described as "tough" and "leather-like".[citation needed]
Additional images[edit]
Dura mater (spinal section)
Diagrammatic representation of a section across the top of the skull, showing the membranes of the brain, etc.
Diagrammatic transverse section of the medulla spinalis and its membranes.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Meninges
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gray's Anatomy. 2016. p. 287. ISBN 9780702052309.
Jump up ^ Shepherd S. 2004. "Head Trauma." Emedicine.com.
Jump up ^ Vinas FC and Pilitsis J. 2004. "Penetrating Head Trauma." Emedicine.com.
Jump up ^ 'Gray's Anatomy for Students' 2005, Drake, Vogl and Mitchell, Elsevier
Jump up ^ Frank Scali; Eric S. Marsili; Matt E. Pontell (2011). "Anatomical Connection Between the Rectus Capitis Posterior Major and the Dura Mater". Spine. 36: E1612–E1614. doi:10.1097/brs.0b013e31821129df. PMID 21278628.
Jump up ^ Hack, GD (Dec 1, 1995). "Anatomic relation between the rectus capitis posterior minor muscle and the dura mater". Spine. 20: 2484–6. doi:10.1097/00007632-199512000-00003. PMID 8610241.
Jump up ^ Gary D. Hack; Peter Ratiu; John P. Kerr; Gwendolyn F. Dunn; Mi Young Toh. "Visualization of the Muscle-Dural Bridge in the Visible Human Female Data Set". The Visible Human Project, National Library of Medicine.
Jump up ^ International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement - redcross.org
Jump up ^ Freeman, MD (2010). "A case-control study of cerebellar tonsillar ectopia (Chiari) and head/neck trauma (whiplash)". Brain Injury. 24 (7–8): 988–94. doi:10.3109/02699052.2010.490512. PMID 20545453.
^ Jump up to: a b medterms.com
Jump up ^ D. Harper - ety
External links[edit]
Media related to Dura mater at Wikimedia Commons
show
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Meninges of the brain and spinal cord
Layers
Dura mater
Falx cerebri
Tentorium cerebelli
Falx cerebelli
Diaphragma sellae
Trigeminal cave
Arachnoid mater
Arachnoid granulation
Arachnoid trabeculae
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Pontine cistern
Interpeduncular cistern
Chiasmatic cistern
Of lateral cerebral fossa
Superior cistern
Of lamina terminalis
Pia mater
Denticulate ligaments
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Terminal ventricle
Grey columns
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Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
Nucleus proprius
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Lateral grey column
Intermediolateral nucleus
Posterior thoracic nucleus
Anterior grey column
Interneuron
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Rexed laminae
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Posterior
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Corticospinal
Anterior
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External features
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Alcohol laws of West Virginia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Alcohol laws of West Virginia are more complex on paper than in actual practice, owing to a provision of the state constitution and "work-arounds" of its terms.
Contents
[hide]
1 Constitution
2 Retail sale of beer and wine
3 Retail sale of liquor
4 By the drink sale of beer
5 By the drink sale of wine and liquor
6 Raising the ABV% Cap
7 Days and hours
8 Drinking age and dry counties
9 Cross-border issues
10 References
Constitution[edit]
The state constitution, Article VI, Section 46, passed to repeal prohibition in 1934, prohibits the consumption of "intoxicating liquors" in a "saloon or other public place".
Retail sale of beer and wine[edit]
Beer has been available in general, privately owned, retail stores since 1934. Wine was transferred from the state-owned ABC stores system to private sale in 1981.
Retail sale of liquor[edit]
Prior to 1990, liquor was sold only in a state owned system of stores, known as ABC Stores. In that year, the state withdrew from the retail liquor business and auctioned off permits to private businesses, who operate as "agents of the state". In smaller counties, a local monopoly was provided for, with only one agent per area, but in larger counties, multiple competing agencies were granted. Agencies are rebid every 10 years. In the 2010 rebid, the following agencies were granted:
Rite-Aid drug store chain, 42 agencies
CVS drug store chain, 9 agencies
Seven-Eleven convenience store chain, 20 agencies
Sam's Club warehouse store chain, 2 agencies
Kroger grocery store chain, 1 agency
privately owned convenience stores, 31 agencies
privately owned alcohol and tobacco shops, 14 agencies
privately owned grocery stores, 7 agencies
privately owned souvenir shop, 1 agency
privately owned stand-alone liquor only stores, 40 agencies
By the drink sale of beer[edit]
In 1937, the state "worked around" the constitutional prohibition on public consumption by redefining standard beer as "non-intoxicating beer" and thus permitting the sale of this product in bars and restaurants. All beer vendors to this day are legally selling "non-intoxicating beer".
By the drink sale of wine and liquor[edit]
Following World War II, there was a desire to provide for the sale of wine and liquor by the drink, particularly in the northern parts of the state. In 1948 the state provided for the licensing of private clubs, such as veteran's organizations, fraternal organizations, and golf and country clubs, on the theory that these were not "public places".
Throughout the 1950s, however state voters regularly rejected constitutional amendments which provided for public consumption. Votes were generally along regional lines, with northern areas and larger cities supporting repeal, and southern and rural areas supporting the continued ban. In 1961, the state legislature found a "work-around" that short-circuited another vote. The new law provided for a new type of "private club". In actual practice, these "private clubs" are simply public places. Patrons become "members" for one dollar with the purchase of their first drink, which comes with a one dollar "discount", with the law requiring that the club may not refuse "membership" to any person over age 21. In previous years, patrons were actually issued membership cards, but this practice has fallen into disuse and 99% of patrons are unaware that they are members of any such "club". Technically, public bars and saloons remain illegal in the state to this day. The 1961 law was a part of a political deal whereby southern legislators agreed to these changes, and northern legislators withdrew their blocking of the renaming of Marshall College, which had been accredited as a "university" since 1937 and which is located in southern West Virginia, to Marshall University. This system remains in effect to this day. Such "clubs" are required to post a registry number which begins with the letter "ABCC" followed by a serial number, over their doors.
The Greenbrier Resort in White Sulphur Springs, simply adds a $10 "alcohol membership fee" to the bill of all first time patrons.
Raising the ABV% Cap[edit]
Prior to July 2009, non-intoxicating beer was defined as all malt based beverages that contained at least 0.5% ABV and not more than 6% ABV. Therefore, all beer sold in WV could not contain more than 6% ABV. This effectively eliminated nearly 2/3 of all beer being produced throughout the world from being purchased in WV. Beginning in 2005 there were many attempts to raise that limit so that the WV market would be opened to the many world class beers that were, at the time, illegal to purchase in WV. The WV Beer Wholesalers Association were initially opposed to the change in the law stating that it would cause higher rates of underage drinking and DUI's. The facts however showed that this was not the case and in 2009, the WV Beer Wholesalers Association changed their stance on the subject and, along with the beer consumer advocacy group West Virginia Craft Beer Society, proceeded to lobby the Legislature to pass HB 2719, aka "The Craft Beer Bill" and change the definition of "non-intoxicating beer" to all malt based beverages between 0.5% and 12% ABV. The WV Legislature passed the bill in April 2009 and Governor Joe Manchin signed the bill into law in July 2009.
Days and hours[edit]
Retail sale of beer and wine is prohibited on Sundays between 2:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. and between 2:00 a.m. and 7:00 a.m. on weekdays and Saturdays. Retail sale of liquor is prohibited on Sundays, Christmas Day, and between 12:00 midnight and 8:00 a.m on all other days.[1][2]
On weekdays and Saturdays, drink establishments of all types must close by 3:30 a.m. and remain closed until 8:00 a.m. On Sundays, they must be closed between 3:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m.
In 2016, the state permitted a local option election whereby counties may change the Sunday 1:00 p.m. time to 10:00 a.m. Several counties immediately scheduled such elections for November 2016.
Drinking age and dry counties[edit]
The drinking age was 18 for beer/wine and 21 for liquor until 1972, when it was lowered to 18 for all beverages (along with the age of majority).[3] It was then raised to 19 in 1983 (21 for non-residents) and 21 for all in 1986. Persons under 18 are also not allowed to sell alcohol. Calhoun County is “dry.”
Cross-border issues[edit]
Because its laws are less restrictive than its neighbor states, West Virginia benefits from sales to border residents, especially from the southern part of its border with Kentucky which has several "dry" counties. Huntington also benefits from neighboring Lawrence County, Ohio having several dry townships.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.legis.state.wv.us/wvcode/Code.cfm?chap=11
Jump up ^ http://www.legis.state.wv.us/wvcode/Code.cfm?chap=60
Jump up ^ https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40816FE3A591A7493C2A8178DD85F468785F9 Legal Age Cut to 50, New York Times, June 10, 1972
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Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
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United Nations Declaration
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The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was adopted by the General Assembly on Thursday, 13 September 2007, by a majority of 144 states in favour, 4 votes against (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States) and 11 abstentions (Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine).[1] The work towards this declaration can be seen as far as in 1923 and 1925 by the works of Haudenosaunee Chief Deskaheh and Māori T.W. Ratana who attempted to bring issues of Canada and New Zealand failure to uphold treaties to the League of Nations [precursor to the United Nations].[2][3]
In May 2016 Canada officially removed its objector status to UNDRIP, almost a decade after it was adopted by the General Assembly. By now also the other 3 objectors have, to various degrees, turned their vote.
While as a General Assembly Declaration it is not a legally binding instrument under international law,[4] according to a UN press release it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN's member states to move in certain directions"; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool towards eliminating human rights violations against the planet's 370 million indigenous people and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalisation."
UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary challenges and socio-economic, political and cultural aspirations" and is the "culmination of generations-long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to generate support for their political agendas."[5] Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan[6][7] Ken Coates argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with Indigenous peoples, while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Purpose
2 Content
2.1 Provisions
3 Negotiation and adoption
4 Reaction
4.1 Support and compromises
4.1.1 Australia
4.2 Criticism, defiance and "aspirational" nullification
4.2.1 Australia
4.2.2 Canada
4.2.3 New Zealand
4.2.4 United States
4.2.5 United Kingdom
4.2.6 Finland
4.3 Abstentions
4.3.1 Ukraine
4.3.2 Pacific Island states
5 Notes
6 References
6.1 Additional references
7 External links
Purpose[edit]
Due to the past and ongoing violence and abuse of Indigenous individuals and peoples, the UN created this non-legally binding declaration as an aspiration for how Indigenous individuals and peoples should be treated. The Declaration sets out the individual and collective rights of Indigenous peoples, as well as their rights to culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and other issues. It also "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations".[8] It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples", and it "promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development".[8][9] The goal of the Declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside indigenous peoples to solve global issues, like development, multicultural democracy and decentralization.[10] According to Article 31, there is a major emphasis that the indigenous peoples will be able to protect their cultural heritage and other aspects of their culture and tradition in order to preserve their heritage from over controlling nation-states.
The elaboration of this Declaration had already been recommended by the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action.[11]
This declaration is a resolution, meaning it is not a law bearing document. Indigenous people are not considered a country [nation - state] and do not have right to international law protection through the international court of justice. Article 40 states that Indigenous peoples have right to fair procedures for the resolution of conflicts and dispute with countries or other parties, because Indigenous people cannot use the International court of justice, UNDRIP has no indication of which judicial power indigenous peoples are to bring disputes to.[12]
Content[edit]
The Declaration is structured as a United Nations resolution, with 23 preambular clauses and 46 articles. In most articles, an aspiration for how the State should promote and protect the rights of indigenous people is included (see Provision for further explanation). Major themes of the articles include:
Rights of self-determination of indigenous individuals and peoples (Articles 1 - 8; 33 -34)
The difference is between the individual and people’s group
Rights of indigenous individuals and people to protect their culture through practices, languages, education, media, and religion (Articles 9 - 15, 16, 25, and 31)
Asserts the indigenous peoples’ right to own type of governance and to economic development (Articles 17 - 21, 35 -37)
Health rights (Article 23 -24)
Protection of subgroups ex. elderly, women, and children (Article 22)
Land rights from ownership (including reparation, or return of land i.e. Article 10) to environmental issues (Articles 26 -30, and 32)
Dictates how this document should be understood in future reference(Articles 38 - 46).[13]
Provisions[edit]
The opening and Article 2 of the Declaration provide that “indigenous peoples are equal to all other peoples” (source). Besides asserting the rights that indigenous individuals and peoples’ have as other peoples, there are Articles (23 of the 46) pointing to how States should interact with the declaration. Most of the articles point to States working in conjunction with the indigenous peoples. Some measures countries are suggested to take are
to return land (article 26), ceremonial objects (article 12), and human remains (article 12)
To place “programmes for monitoring, maintaining, and restoring the health of indigenous peoples” (article 29 )
To protect and uphold the rights of indigenous individuals and peoples (subpoint in many articles; see Declaration) [13]
Negotiation and adoption[edit]
UN General Assembly
Resolution 61/295
Date
13 December 2007
Code
A/61/295 (Document)
Subject
Indigenous rights
Voting summary
143 voted for
4 voted against
11 abstained
Result
Adopted
The Declaration was over 25 years in the making. The idea originated in 1982 when the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) set up its Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), established as a result of a study by Special Rapporteur José Ricardo Martínez Cobo on the problem of discrimination faced by indigenous peoples. Tasked with developing human rights standards that would protect indigenous peoples, in 1985 the Working Group began working on drafting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The draft was finished in 1993 and was submitted to the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, which gave its approval the following year. During this the International Labour Organisation adopted the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.
The Draft Declaration was then referred to the Commission on Human Rights, which established another Working Group to examine its terms. Over the following years this Working Group met on 11 occasions to examine and fine-tune the Draft Declaration and its provisions. Progress was slow because of certain states' concerns regarding some key provisions of the Declaration, such as indigenous peoples' right to self-determination and the control over natural resources existing on indigenous peoples' traditional lands.[14] The final version of the Declaration was adopted on 29 June 2006 by the 47-member Human Rights Council (the successor body to the Commission on Human Rights), with 30 member states in favour, 2 against, 12 abstentions, and 3 absentees.[15]
The Declaration (document A/61/L.67) was then referred to the General Assembly, which voted on the adoption of the proposal on 13 September 2007 during its 61st regular session.[16]
The vote was, in favour 143 countries: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chile, China, Comoros, Congo, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia (Federated States of), Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United Republic of Tanzania, Uruguay, Venezuela, Viet Nam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
Against: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United States. All four member states that voted against have their origins as colonies of the United Kingdom, and have large non-indigenous immigrant majorities and thriving indigenous populations. Since then, all four countries have moved to endorse the declaration in some informal way in which it would not actually become binding law pleadable in court. Canada, under a Conservative Party leadership made official public statements against the application of the UN DRIP in Canada, e.g.
"Indian Affairs Minister Jim Prentice has stated publicly that the Declaration conflicts with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms but has never substantiated this extraordinary claim."[17].
However, the Liberal Government elected to leadership in 2015, has unequivocally indicated Canada's support for the UN DRIP and is working on amending Canada's laws accordingly.
Australian government interventions have been challenged under its terms without success.[18]
Abstaining, 11 countries:[19] Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine. Colombia and Samoa have since endorsed the document.[20]
Absent:[21] Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gambia, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Israel, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Montenegro, Morocco, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Romania, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Tajikistan, Togo, Tonga, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu.
Reaction[edit]
Support and compromises[edit]
In contrast to the Declaration's initial rejection by Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States over legal concerns (all 4 countries later switched their positions to accepting the declaration as a non-legally-binding document), United Nations officials and other world leaders expressed pleasure at its adoption. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon described it as a "historic moment when UN Member States and indigenous peoples have reconciled with their painful histories and are resolved to move forward together on the path of human rights, justice and development for all." Louise Arbour, a former justice of the Supreme Court of Canada then serving as the UN's High Commissioner for Human Rights, expressed satisfaction at the hard work and perseverance that had finally "borne fruit in the most comprehensive statement to date of indigenous peoples' rights."[9] Similarly, news of the Declaration's adoption was greeted with jubilation in Africa[22] and, present at the General Assembly session in New York, Bolivian foreign minister David Choquehuanca said that he hoped the member states that had voted against or abstained would reconsider their refusal to support a document he described as being as important as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[23] Bolivia has become the first country to approve the U.N. declaration of indigenous rights. Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, stated, "We are the first country to turn this declaration into a law and that is important, brothers and sisters. We recognize and salute the work of our representatives. But if we were to remember the indigenous fight clearly, many of us who are sensitive would end up crying in remembering the discrimination, the scorn."
Stephen Corry, Director of the international indigenous rights organization Survival International, said, "The declaration has been debated for nearly a quarter century. Years which have seen many tribal peoples, such as the Akuntsu and Kanoê in Brazil, decimated and others, such as the Innu in Canada, brought to the edge. Governments that oppose it are shamefully fighting against the human rights of their most vulnerable peoples. Claims they make to support human rights in other areas will be seen as hypocritical."[24]
Australia[edit]
The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies formally acknowledges and upholds the principles of the Declaration in both their Collection Access and Use Policy[25] and their Guidelines for Ethical Research in Australian Indigenous Studies.[26]
Criticism, defiance and "aspirational" nullification[edit]
Prior to the adoption of the Declaration, and throughout the 62nd session of the General Assembly, a number of countries expressed concern about some key issues, such as self-determination, access to lands, territories and resources and the lack of a clear definition of the term "indigenous".[27] In addition to those intending to vote against the adoption of the declaration, a group of African countries represented by Namibia proposed to defer action, to hold further consultations, and to conclude consideration of the declaration by September 2007.[28] Ultimately, after agreeing on some adjustments to the Draft Declaration, a vast majority of states recognized that these issues could be addressed by each country at the national level.
The four states that voted against continued to express serious reservations about the final text of the Declaration as placed before the General Assembly.[29] As mentioned above, all four opposing countries have since then changed their vote in favour of the Declaration.
Australia[edit]
Australia's government opposed the Declaration in the General Assembly vote of 2007, but has since endorsed the Declaration. Australia's Mal Brough, Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, referring to the provision regarding the upholding of indigenous peoples' customary legal systems, said that "There should only be one law for all Australians and we should not enshrine in law practices that are not acceptable in the modern world."[16]
Marise Payne, Liberal Party Senator for New South Wales, further elaborated on the Australian government's objections to the Declaration in a speech to the Australian Senate:[30]
Concerns about references to self-determination and their potential to be misconstrued.
Ignorance of contemporary realities concerning land and resources. "They seem, to many readers, to require the recognition of Indigenous rights to lands which are now lawfully owned by other citizens, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous, and therefore to have some quite significant potential to impact on the rights of third parties."[30]
Concerns over the extension of Indigenous intellectual property rights under the declaration as unnecessary under current international and Australian law.
The potential abuse of the right under the Declaration for indigenous peoples to unqualified consent on matters affecting them, "which implies to some readers that they may then be able to exercise a right of veto over all matters of state, which would include national laws and other administrative measures."[30]
The exclusivity of indigenous rights over intellectual, real and cultural property, that "does not acknowledge the rights of third parties – in particular, their rights to access Indigenous land and heritage and cultural objects where appropriate under national law."[30] Furthermore, that the Declaration "fails to consider the different types of ownership and use that can be accorded to Indigenous people and the rights of third parties to property in that regard."[30]
Concerns that the Declaration places indigenous customary law in a superior position to national law, and that this may "permit the exercise of practices which would not be acceptable across the board",[30] such as customary corporal and capital punishments.
In October 2007 former Australian Prime Minister John Howard pledged to hold a referendum on changing the constitution to recognise indigenous Australians if re-elected. He said that the distinctiveness of people's identity and their rights to preserve their heritage should be acknowledged.[31]
On 3 April 2009, the Rudd Government formally endorsed the Declaration.[32]
Canada[edit]
The Canadian government said that while it supported the "spirit" of the declaration, it contained elements that were "fundamentally incompatible with Canada's constitutional framework",[16] which includes both the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and Section 35, which enshrines aboriginal and treaty rights. In particular, the Canadian government had problems with Article 19 (which appears to require governments to secure the consent of indigenous peoples regarding matters of general public policy), and Articles 26 and 28 (which could allow for the re-opening or repudiation of historically settled land claims).[33]
Former Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Chuck Strahl described the document as "unworkable in a Western democracy under a constitutional government."[34] Strahl elaborated, saying "In Canada, you are balancing individual rights vs. collective rights, and (this) document ... has none of that. By signing on, you default to this document by saying that the only rights in play here are the rights of the First Nations. And, of course, in Canada, that's inconsistent with our constitution." He gave an example: "In Canada ... you negotiate on this ... because (native rights) don't trump all other rights in the country. You need also to consider the people who have sometimes also lived on those lands for two or three hundred years, and have hunted and fished alongside the First Nations."[35]
The Assembly of First Nations passed a resolution in December 2007 to invite Presidents Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales to Canada to put pressure on the government to sign the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, calling the two heads of state "visionary leaders" and demanding Canada resign its membership on the United Nations Human Rights Council.[36]
On 3 March 2010, in the Speech From the Throne, the Governor General of Canada announced that the government was moving to endorse the declaration. "We are a country with an Aboriginal heritage. A growing number of states have given qualified recognition to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Our Government will take steps to endorse this aspirational document in a manner fully consistent with Canada’s Constitution and laws."
On 12 November 2010, Canada officially endorsed the declaration but without changing its position that it was 'aspirational'.[37]
Anishinabek spiritual leader, Chief William Commanda (1908-3 August 2011) was honoured at the 21st annual week-long First Peoples' Festival held in Montreal from 2–9 August 2011, celebrating Canada's 2010 adoption of the U. N. declaration. AFN Innu representative, Ghislain Picard's tribute praised Grandfather Commanda for his work that was "key not only in the adoption of the U.N. declaration, but in all the work leading up to it throughout the last 25 years."[38]
In 2015, Romeo Saganash (a Cree Member of Parliament for Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou) sponsored Private Member's Bill C-641, the "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act", which would have required the Canadian government to ensure that the laws of Canada are in harmony with UNDRIP but it was defeated on May 6, 2015.[39]
In 2016, Canada officially adopted and promised to implement the declaration fully. Speaking at the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada minister Carolyn Bennett announced, "We are now a full supporter of the declaration, without qualification. We intend nothing less than to adopt and implement the declaration in accordance with the Canadian Constitution."[40] Bennett described the Declaration as "breathing life into Section 35 [of the Canadian Constitution] and recognizing it as a full box of rights for Indigenous Peoples in Canada."[40] In July 2016, Kwakwaka’wakw Justice Minister Jody Wilson-Raybould gave a speech that stated that "adopting the UNDRIP as being Canadian law are unworkable", due to its incompatibility with the Indian Act, the current governing statute.[41]
The federal government pledged on 21 June 2017 to rename its National Aboriginal Day to be consistent with the terminology used by the Declaration.[42]
In September 2017, British Columbia provincial government announced that it will govern in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration.[43]
New Zealand[edit]
New Zealand delegation at the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. New Zealand endorsed the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in April 2010.
In 2007 New Zealand's Minister of Māori Affairs Parekura Horomia described the Declaration as "toothless", and said, "There are four provisions we have problems with, which make the declaration fundamentally incompatible with New Zealand's constitutional and legal arrangements." Article 26 in particular, he said, "appears to require recognition of rights to lands now lawfully owned by other citizens, both indigenous and non-indigenous. This ignores contemporary reality and would be impossible to implement."[44]
In response, Māori Party leader Pita Sharples said it was "shameful to the extreme that New Zealand voted against the outlawing of discrimination against indigenous people; voted against justice, dignity and fundamental freedoms for all".[45]
On 7 July 2009, the New Zealand government announced that it would support the Declaration; this, however, appeared to be a premature announcement by Pita Sharples, the current Minister of Māori Affairs, as the New Zealand government cautiously backtracked on Sharples' July announcement.[46] However, on 19 April 2010, Sharples announced New Zealand's support of the declaration at a speech in New York.[47][48]
United States[edit]
Speaking for the United States mission to the UN, spokesman Benjamin Chang said, "What was done today is not clear. The way it stands now is subject to multiple interpretations and doesn't establish a clear universal principle."[49] The U.S. mission also issued a floor document, "Observations of the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples", setting out its objections to the Declaration. Most of these are based on the same points as the three other countries' rejections but, in addition, the United States drew attention to the Declaration's failure to provide a clear definition of exactly whom the term "indigenous peoples" is intended to cover.[50]
On 16 December 2010, President Obama declared that the United States would "lend its support" to the Declaration. The decision was announced during the second White House Tribal Nations Conference, where he said he is "working hard to live up to" the name that was given to him by the Crow Nation: "One Who Helps People Throughout the Land." Obama has told Native American leaders that he wants to improve the "nation-to-nation" relationship between the United States and the tribes and repair broken promises. Today, there are more than 560 Indian tribes[51] in the United States that are recognized at the federal level, with some sixty-plus tribes recognized at the state level. Many had representatives at the White House conference and applauded Obama's announcement.[52]
The Obama administration's decision came after three consultation meetings with Native Americans and more than 3,000 written comments on the subject.[53] The support of the government also included several interpretations of the meaning of the Declaration. In the view of the United States government, the Declaration advances "a new and distinct international concept of self-determination specific to indigenous peoples," which is not the same as the existing concept in international law.[53] The statement also interprets free, prior, and informed consent, "which the United States understands to call for a process of meaningful consultation with tribal leaders, but not necessarily the agreement of those leaders, before the actions addressed in those consultations are taken."[53]
United Kingdom[edit]
Speaking on behalf of the United Kingdom government, UK Ambassador and Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Karen Pierce, "emphasized that the Declaration was non-legally binding and did not propose to have any retroactive application on historical episodes. National minority groups and other ethnic groups within the territory of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories did not fall within the scope of the indigenous peoples to which the Declaration applied."[54]
The UK position was also clearly intended to prevent formal appeal of Canadian decisions to UK courts: Canadian indigenous peoples never accepted the 1982 constitution in which such appeal (regarding early treaties made with the Crown of the British Empire) was cut off. Under the prior 1867 constitution, 1920s Dominion of Canada and earlier law, which continue to apply to these peoples and treaties, the UN DRIP could have been pleaded in a UK court in conflicts between treaty and Canadian law. Calls to pursue this approach have been common among Canadian natives. [2]
Finland[edit]
Finland signed the International Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples when it was originally put forward.[55][56] However the reindeer owners and Forest Administration (Metsähallitus) have a long dispute in the area of the forests.[57] The UN Human Rights Committee ordered the Finnish State to stop logging in some of the disputed areas.[citation needed]
Abstentions[edit]
Ukraine[edit]
Ukraine, which initially abstained from adopting the Declaration, changed its approach to indigenous issues in response to the recent annexation of Crimea, asserting that Crimean Tatars are an Indigenous people. In May 2014, the country formally endorsed the UNDRIP.[58]
Pacific Island states[edit]
Ten UN member states in the Pacific, all with indigenous majorities, were absent from the assembly at the time of the vote: Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu. It is unclear whether this represents the equivalent of deliberate abstention, or whether the country delegations were absent for some other reason. The constitutions of these states typically make mention of "indigenous inhabitants" and accommodate customary laws in at least part of their modern legal systems. The constitution of Papua New Guinea, for example, has an explanatory section on the "underlying law" being based on custom, while Sch.1.2. says that "custom" means "the customs and usages of indigenous inhabitants of the country ..." (emphasis added). It may be the case, therefore, that the governments of these states took the position that their own legal systems offered sufficient protection to their own indigenous peoples. There has been no suggestion at any time since decolonisation commenced in the 1960s and the present that indigenous people are absent from any of the ten countries.
Nonetheless, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu are among countries in this group plagued by land grabbing in recent years.[59] Researchers have warned that as much as 12% of the land surface of Papua New Guinea has been leased without informed consultation and consent from landowners, typically suppressing customary rights for 99 years.[60] Given that land grabbing was recently ruled to lie within the remit of the International Criminal Court,[61] it is a reasonable conclusion that legal systems in the Pacific, unsupported by UNDRIP, have insufficient built-in safeguards for the protection of indigenous rights.
There are also significant implications in the extractive sector for these states not having signed UNDRIP. Mining companies that are members of the International Council on Mining and Metals commit to respect the ICMM's position statement on indigenous peoples. However, ambiguity surrounds how or if member companies recognise when they are dealing with indigenous peoples. For example, Barrick Gold lists only its operations in North and South America as lying on indigenous land, yet operates in Fiji and Papua New Guinea (where a subsidiary has operated the Porgera gold mine since 2007).[62] Another member, Newmont Mining, said in its 2011 Sustainability Report[63] that it had been conducting mining exploration in Papua New Guinea for three years, yet its disclosures do not show how activities in this country may have followed the ICCM's Indigenous Peoples and Mining Good Practice Guide, first published in 2010.
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
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Additional references[edit]
UN (18 March 2008), United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (PDF), United Nations, retrieved 20 September 2013
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as Adopted by the General Assembly, 13 September 2007 Full text of the Declaration.
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