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OSI model
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OSI model
by layer
7. Application layer[show]
NNTP
SIP
SSI
DNS
FTP
Gopher
HTTP
NFS
NTP
SMPP
SMTP
SNMP
Telnet
DHCP
Netconf
more....
6. Presentation layer[show]
MIME
XDR
ASN.1
5. Session layer[show]
Named pipe
NetBIOS
SAP
PPTP
RTP
SOCKS
SPDY
4. Transport layer[show]
TCP
UDP
SCTP
DCCP
SPX
3. Network layer[show]
IP
IPv4
IPv6
ICMP
IPsec
IGMP
IPX
AppleTalk
X.25 PLP
2. Data link layer[show]
ATM
ARP
IS-IS
SDLC
HDLC
CSLIP
SLIP
GFP
PLIP
IEEE 802.2
LLC
MAC
L2TP
IEEE 802.3
Frame Relay
ITU-T G.hn DLL
PPP
X.25 LAPB
Q.921 LAPD
Q.922 LAPF
1. Physical layer[show]
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
ITU-T V-Series
I.430
I.431
PDH
SONET/SDH
PON
OTN
DSL
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.15
IEEE 802.16
IEEE 1394
ITU-T G.hn PHY
USB
Bluetooth
RS-232
RS-449
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The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1.
Communication in the OSI-Model (example with layers 3 to 5)
Contents
1 History
2 Description of OSI layers
2.1 Layer 1: Physical Layer
2.2 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
2.3 Layer 3: Network Layer
2.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer
2.5 Layer 5: Session Layer
2.6 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
2.7 Layer 7: Application Layer
3 Cross-layer functions
4 Interfaces
5 Examples
6 Comparison with TCP/IP model
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.[2]
Description of OSI layers[edit]
The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
OSI Model
Layer
Protocol data unit (PDU)
Function[3]
Host
layers
7. Application Data High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access
6. Presentation Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption
5. Session Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes
4. Transport Segment, Datagram Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing
Media
layers
3. Network Packet Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control
2. Data link Frame Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer
1. Physical Symbol Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:
The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device (layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1 PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer, until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-T X.800 Recommendation[4]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.[citation needed]
Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]
Main article: Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between a device and a physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals. Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of a network topology. Bluetooth, Ethernet, and USB all have specifications for a physical layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]
Main article: Data link layer
The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[5]
Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.
Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]
Main article: network layer
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called packets) from one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[6]
Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]
Main article: transport layer
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates segments out of the message received from the application layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[7]
Feature name
TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4
Connection-oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Connectionless network No No No No Yes
Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Error recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Reinitiate connectiona No Yes No Yes No
Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes
Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes
Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes
Reliable transport service No Yes No Yes Yes
a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport segments.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.
Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]
Main article: session layer
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]
Main article: presentation layer
The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation protocol data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[8] The presentation layer can include compression functions.[9] The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN.1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]
Main article: application layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions[edit]
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Security service (telecommunication)[4] as defined by ITU-T X.800 recommendation.
Management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application-layer protocol, common management information protocol (CMIP) and its corresponding service, common management information service (CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) MPLS, ATM, and X.25 are 3a protocols. OSI divides the Network Layer into 3 roles: 3a) Subnetwork Access, 3b) Subnetwork Dependent Convergence and 3c) Subnetwork Independent Convergence. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram-based service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. Sometimes one sees reference to a Layer 2.5.
ARP determines the mapping of an IPv4 address to the underlying MAC address. This is not a translation function. If it were IPv4 and the MAC address would be at the same layer. The implementation of the MAC protocol decodes the MAC PDU and delivers the User-Data to the IP-layer. Because Ethernet is a multi-access media, a device sending a PDU on an Ethernet frame needs to know what IP address maps to what MAC address.
DHCP assigns IPv4 addresses to new systems joining a network. There is no means to derive or obtain an IPv4 address from an Ethernet address.
Domain Name Service is an Application Layer service which is used to look up the IP address of a given domain name. Once a reply is received from the DNS server, it is then possible to form a Layer 4 connection or flow to the desired host. There are no connections at Layer 3.
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in wireless networks because of the time varying nature of wireless channels. By scheduling packet transmission only in favorable channel conditions, which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel state information from the PHY layer, network throughput can be significantly improved and energy waste can be avoided.[10]
Interfaces[edit]
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation-specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
Examples[edit]
Layer
OSI protocols
TCP/IP protocols
Signaling
System 7[11]
AppleTalk
IPX
SNA
UMTS
Miscellaneous examples
No.
Name
7 Application
FTAM
X.400
X.500
DAP
ROSE
RTSE
ACSE[12]
CMIP[13]
INAP
MAP
TCAP
ISUP
TUP
AFP
ZIP
RTMP
NBP
SAP
APPC
HL7
Modbus
HTTP
6 Presentation
ISO/IEC 8823
X.226

ISO/IEC 9576-1
X.236
MIME
SSL
TLS
XDR
AFP
TDI
ASCII
EBCDIC
MIDI
MPEG
5 Session
ISO/IEC 8327
X.225

ISO/IEC 9548-1
X.235
Sockets (session establishment in TCP / RTP / PPTP)
ASP
ADSP
PAP
NWLink
DLC?
Named pipes
NetBIOS
SAP
half duplex
full duplex
simplex
RPC
SOCKS
4 Transport
ISO/IEC 8073
TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4 (X.224)
ISO/IEC 8602
X.234
TCP
UDP
SCTP
DCCP
DDP
SPX
NBF
3 Network
ISO/IEC 8208
X.25 (PLP)

ISO/IEC 8878
X.223
ISO/IEC 8473-1
CLNP X.233
ISO/IEC 10589
IS-IS
IP
IPsec
ICMP
IGMP
OSPF
RIP
SCCP
MTP
ATP (TokenTalk / EtherTalk)
IPX
RRC / BMC
NBF
Q.931
NDP
IS-IS
2 Data link
ISO/IEC 7666
X.25 (LAPB)

Token Bus
X.222
ISO/IEC 8802-2
LLC (type 1 / 2)[14]
PPP
SBTV
SLIP
MTP
Q.710
LocalTalk
ARA
PPP
IEEE 802.3 framing
Ethernet II framing
SDLC
PDCP[15]
LLC
MAC
ARP
ARQ
ATM
Bit stuffing
CDP
CRC
DOCSIS
FDDI
FDP
Fibre Channel
Frame Relay
HDP
HDLC
IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n (Ethernet MAC and LLC)
IEEE 802.1Q (VLAN)
ISL
ITU-T G.hn DLL
Linux interface bonding
PPP
Q.921
Token Ring
1 Physical
X.25 (X.21bis
EIA/TIA-232
EIA/TIA-449
EIA-530
G.703)[14]
MTP
Q.710
RS-232
RS-422
PhoneNet
Twinax
UMTS air interfaces
RS-232
Full duplex
RJ45 (8P8C)
V.35
V.34
I.430
I.431
T1
E1
10BASE-T
100BASE-TX
1000BASE-T
POTS
SONET
SDH
DSL
802.11a/b/g/n PHY
ITU-T G.hn PHY
CAN bus
DOCSIS
DWDM
OTN
Comparison with TCP/IP model[edit]
The design of protocols in the TCP/IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering.[16] RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful".[17] TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end-to-end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.[18]
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network layer.
These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.[citation needed]
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application-layer protocol in its own right.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Computing portal
Layer 8
Hierarchical internetworking model
Management plane
Service layer
Protocol stacks
IBM Systems Network Architecture
Internet protocol suite
WAP protocol suite
Recursive InterNetwork Architecture (RINA)
List of information technology initialisms
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ITU-T X-Series Recommendations
Jump up ^ "Publicly Available Standards". Standards.iso.org. 2010-07-30. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained". Microsoft Support. Retrieved 2014-12-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "ITU-T Recommendataion X.800 (03/91), Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications". ITU. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "5.2 RM description for end stations". IEEE Std 802-2014, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture. ieee.
Jump up ^ International Organization for Standardization (1989-11-15). "ISO/IEC 7498-4:1989 -- Information technology -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Basic Reference Model: Naming and addressing". ISO Standards Maintenance Portal. ISO Central Secretariat. Retrieved 2015-08-17.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T Recommendation X.224 (11/1995) ISO/IEC 8073, Open Systems Interconnection - Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service". ITU.
Jump up ^ Grigonis, Richard (2000). Computer telephony- encyclopaedia. CMP. p. 331. ISBN 9781578200450.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T X.200 - Information technology – Open Systems Interconnection – Basic Reference Model: The basic model".
Jump up ^ Miao, Guowang; Song, Guocong (2014). Energy and spectrum efficient wireless network design. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1107039886.
Jump up ^ "ITU-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993)], Architecture framework for the development of signaling and OA&M protocols using OSI concepts". ITU. pp. 4, 7.
Jump up ^ ITU Rec. X.227 (ISO 8650), X.217 (ISO 8649).
Jump up ^ X.700 series of recommendations from the ITU-T (in particular X.711) and ISO 9596.
^ Jump up to: a b "Internetworking Technology Handbook - Internetworking Basics [Internetworking]". Cisco. 15 January 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "3GPP specification: 36.300". 3gpp.org. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ RFC 3439
Jump up ^ "RFC 3439 - Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy". ietf.org. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Walter Goralski. The Illustrated Network: How TCP/IP Works in a Modern Network (PDF). Morgan Kaufmann. p. 26. ISBN 978-0123745415.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to OSI model.
Microsoft Knowledge Base: The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions Explained
ISO/IEC standard 7498-1:1994 (PDF document inside ZIP archive) (requires HTTP cookies in order to accept licence agreement)
ITU-T X.200 (the same contents as from ISO)
"INFormation CHanGe Architectures and Flow Charts powered by Google App Engine". infchg.appspot.com. The ISO OSI Reference Model, Beluga graph of data units and groups of layers. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26.
Zimmermann, Hubert (April 1980). "OSI Reference Model — The ISO Model of Architecture for Open Systems Interconnection". IEEE Transactions on Communications. 28 (4): 425–432. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.9497  . doi:10.1109/TCOM.1980.1094702.
Cisco Systems Internetworking Technology Handbook
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-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
128
216
217
226
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233
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269
302
306
361
428
500
518
519
639
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-5
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646
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704
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898
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999
1000
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1073-1
1155
1413
1538
1629
1745
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2022
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2047
2108
2145
2146
2240
2281
2533
2709
2711
2720
2788
2848
2852
3029
3103
3166
-1
-2
-3
3297
3307
3601
3602
3864
3901
3950
3977
4031
4157
4165
4217
4909
5218
5426
5427
5428
5725
5775
5776
5800
5964
6166
6344
6346
6385
6425
6429
6438
6523
6709
6943
7001
7002
7010
7027
7064
7098
7185
7200
7498
-1
7736
7810
7811
7812
7813
7816
7942
8000
8093
8178
8217
8373
8501-1
8571
8583
8601
8613
8632
8651
8652
8691
8805/8806
8807
8820-5
8859
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-8-I
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
-16
8879
9000/9001
9036
9075
9126
9141
9227
9241
9293
9314
9362
9407
9506
9529
9564
9592/9593
9594
9660
9797-1
9897
9899
9945
9984
9985
9995
10000–19999
10005
10006
10007
10116
10118-3
10160
10161
10165
10179
10206
10218
10303
-11
-21
-22
-28
-238
10383
10487
10585
10589
10646
10664
10746
10861
10957
10962
10967
11073
11170
11179
11404
11544
11783
11784
11785
11801
11898
11940 (-2)
11941
11941 (TR)
11992
12006
12182
12207
12234-2
13211
-1
-2
13216
13250
13399
13406-2
13450
13485
13490
13567
13568
13584
13616
14000
14031
14224
14289
14396
14443
14496
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-3
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-12
-14
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14644
14649
14651
14698
14750
14764
14882
14971
15022
15189
15288
15291
15292
15398
15408
15444
-3
15445
15438
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text:
Fourteen Points
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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U.S. President Woodrow Wilson
The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to the United States Congress by President Woodrow Wilson. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson's points,[1] but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.[2]
The United States had joined the Allied Powers in fighting the Central Powers on April 6, 1917. Its entry into the war had in part been due to Germany's resumption of submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France and Britain and also the interception of the Zimmermann Telegram. However, Wilson wanted to avoid the United States' involvement in the long-standing European tensions between the great powers; if America was going to fight, he wanted to try to separate that participation in the war from nationalistic disputes or ambitions. The need for moral aims was made more important, when after the fall of the Russian government, the Bolsheviks disclosed secret treaties made between the Allies. Wilson's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin's Decree on Peace of November 1917, immediately after the October Revolution in 1917.[3]
The speech made by Wilson took many domestic progressive ideas and translated them into foreign policy (free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination). Three days earlier United Kingdom Prime Minister Lloyd George had made a speech setting out Britain's war aims which bore some similarity to Wilson's speech but which proposed reparations be paid by the Central Powers and which was more vague in its promises to the non-Turkish subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The Fourteen Points in the speech were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisers led by foreign-policy adviser Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference.
Contents
1 Background
2 Speech
3 The Fourteen Points
3.1 Territorial issues
3.2 League of Nations
4 Reaction
4.1 Reaction by the Allied Powers
4.2 Reaction by the Central Powers
4.3 Reaction in America
4.4 Wilson's speech vs. Treaty of Versailles
4.5 Nobel Peace Prize
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Background[edit]
Original Fourteen Points speech, January 8, 1918.
The immediate cause of the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917 was the German announcement of renewed unrestricted submarine warfare and the subsequent sinking of ships with Americans on board. But President Wilson's war aims went beyond the defense of maritime interests. In his War Message to Congress, Wilson declared that the United States' objective was "to vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world." In several speeches earlier in the year, Wilson sketched out his vision of an end to the war that would bring a "just and secure peace," not merely "a new balance of power."[4]
President Wilson subsequently initiated a secret series of studies named the Inquiry, primarily focused on Europe, and carried out by a group in New York which included geographers, historians and political scientists; the group was directed by Colonel House.[5] Their job was to study Allied and American policy in virtually every region of the globe and analyze economic, social, and political facts likely to come up in discussions during the peace conference.[1] The group produced and collected nearly 2,000 separate reports and documents plus at least 1,200 maps.[1] The studies culminated in a speech by Wilson to Congress on January 8, 1918, wherein he articulated America's long-term war objectives. The speech was the clearest expression of intention made by any of the belligerent nations, and it projected Wilson's progressive domestic policies into the international arena.[5]
Speech[edit]
The speech, known as the Fourteen Points, was developed from a set of diplomatic points by Wilson[6] and territorial points drafted by the Inquiry's general secretary, Walter Lippmann, and his colleagues, Isaiah Bowman, Sidney Mezes, and David Hunter Miller.[7] Lippmann's draft territorial points were a direct response to the secret treaties of the European Allies, which Lippmann had been shown by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker.[7] Lippmann's task according to House was "to take the secret treaties, analyze the parts which were tolerable, and separate them from those which we regarded as intolerable, and then develop a position which conceded as much to the Allies as it could, but took away the poison. ... It was all keyed upon the secret treaties."[7]
In the speech, Wilson directly addressed what he perceived as the causes for the world war by calling for the abolition of secret treaties, a reduction in armaments, an adjustment in colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and colonists, and freedom of the seas.[1] Wilson also made proposals that would ensure world peace in the future. For example, he proposed the removal of economic barriers between nations, the promise of self-determination for national minorities,[1] and a world organization that would guarantee the "political independence and territorial integrity [of] great and small states alike"—a League of Nations.[4]
Though Wilson's idealism pervades the Fourteen Points, he also had more practical objectives in mind. He hoped to keep Russia in the war by convincing the Bolsheviks that they would receive a better peace from the Allies, to bolster Allied morale, and to undermine German war support. The address was well received in the United States and Allied nations, and even by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, as a landmark of enlightenment in international relations. Wilson subsequently used the Fourteen Points as the basis for negotiating the Treaty of Versailles that ended the war.[4]
The Fourteen Points[edit]
Wilson's Fourteen Points as the only way to peace for German government, American political cartoon, 1918.
In his speech to Congress, President Wilson declared fourteen points which he regarded as the only possible basis of an enduring peace. They were according to him:[8]
I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.
II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.
III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.
IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.
V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable government whose title is to be determined.
Territorial issues[edit]
Map of Wilsonian Armenia. The borders decision was made by Wilson
VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.
VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.
IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
X. The people of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.
XI. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.
XII. The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.
XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.
League of Nations[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Fourteen Points Speech
XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.
Reaction[edit]
Reaction by the Allied Powers[edit]
Wilson with his 14 points choosing between competing claims. Babies represent claims of the British, French, Italians, Polish, Russians, and enemy. American political cartoon, 1919.
President Wilson at first considered abandoning his speech after Lloyd George delivered a speech outlining British war aims, many of which were similar to Wilson's aspirations, at Caxton Hall on January 5, 1918. Lloyd George stated that he had consulted leaders of "the Great Dominions overseas" before making his speech, so it would appear Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland were in broad agreement.[9] Wilson was persuaded by his adviser Colonel House to go ahead, and his speech overshadowed Lloyd George's, and is better remembered by posterity.[10]
The speech was made without prior coordination or consultation with Wilson's counterparts in Europe. Clemenceau, upon hearing of the Fourteen Points, was said to have sarcastically proclaimed The good Lord only had ten! (Le bon Dieu n'en avait que dix !). As a major public statement of war aims, it became the basis for the terms of the German surrender at the end of the First World War. After the speech, Colonel House worked to secure the acceptance of the Fourteen Points by Entente leaders. On October 16, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson and Sir William Wiseman, the head of British intelligence in America, had an interview. This interview was one reason why the German government accepted the Fourteen Points and the stated principles for peace negotiations.[citation needed]
The report was made as negotiation points, and later the Fourteen Points were accepted by France and Italy on November 1, 1918. Britain later signed off on all of the points except the freedom of the seas.[11] The United Kingdom also wanted Germany to make reparation payments for the war, and thought that that should be added to the Fourteen Points. The speech was delivered 10 months before the Armistice with Germany and became the basis for the terms of the German surrender, as negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.[12]
Reaction by the Central Powers[edit]
The speech was widely disseminated as an instrument of Allied propaganda and was translated into many languages for global dissemination.[13] Copies were also dropped behind German lines, to encourage the Central Powers to surrender in the expectation of a just settlement.[1] Indeed, in a note sent to Wilson by Prince Maximilian of Baden, the German imperial chancellor, in October 1918 requested an immediate armistice and peace negotiations on the basis of the Fourteen Points.[14]
Reaction in America[edit]
Theodore Roosevelt, in an article "The League of Nations" published by Metropolitan Magazine (January 1919), warned: "If the League of Nations is built on a document as high-sounding and as meaningless as the speech in which Mr. Wilson laid down his fourteen points, it will simply add one more scrap to the diplomatic waste paper basket. Most of these fourteen points ... would be interpreted ... to mean anything or nothing."[15]
Senator William Borah after 1918 wished "this treacherous and treasonable scheme" of the League of Nations to be "buried in hell" and promised that if he had his way it would be "20,000 leagues under the sea".[16]
Wilson's speech vs. Treaty of Versailles[edit]
President Wilson became physically ill at the beginning of the Paris Peace Conference, giving way to French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau to advance demands substantially different from Wilson's Fourteen Points. Clemenceau viewed Germany as having unfairly attained an economic victory over France, due to the heavy damage German forces dealt to France's industries even during the German retreat, and expressed dissatisfaction with France's allies at the peace conference.
Notably, Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which would become known as the War Guilt Clause, was seen by the Germans as assigning full responsibility for the war and its damages on Germany; however, the same clause was included in all peace treaties and historian Sally Marks has noted that only German diplomats saw it as assigning responsibility for the war. The Allies would initially assess 269 billion marks in reparations. In 1921, this figure was established at 192 billion marks. However, only a fraction of this total had to be paid. The figure was designed to look imposing and show the public that Germany was being punished, while it also recognized what Germany could not realistically pay. Germany's ability and willingness to pay that sum continues to be a topic of debate among historians.[17][18] Germany was also denied an air force, and the German army was not to exceed 100,000 men.
The text of the Fourteen Points had been widely distributed in Germany as propaganda prior to the end of the war, and was well known by the Germans. The differences between this document and the final Treaty of Versailles fueled great anger in Germany.[19] German outrage over reparations and the War Guilt Clause is viewed as a likely contributing factor to the rise of National Socialism. At the end of World War I, foreign armies had only entered Germany's prewar borders twice: the advance of Russian troops into the Eastern border of Prussia, and following the Battle of Mulhouse the settlement of the French army in the Thann valley. This lack of any important Allied incursions contributed to the popularization of the stab-in-the-back myth in Germany after the war.
Nobel Peace Prize[edit]
Woodrow Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize for his peace-making efforts.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "President Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points". www.ourdocuments.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Jump up ^ Irwin Unger, These United States (2007) 561.
Jump up ^ Hannigan, Robert E. (2016-11-11). The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914-24. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 125–129. ISBN 9780812248593.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Wilson's Fourteen Points, 1918 - 1914–1920 - Milestones - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 2016-01-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Heckscher, p. 470.
Jump up ^ Grief, Howard (2008-01-01). The Legal Foundation and Borders of Israel Under International Law: A Treatise on Jewish Sovereignty Over the Land of Israel. Mazo Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 9789657344521.
^ Jump up to: a b c Godfrey Hodgson, Woodrow Wilson's Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House (Yale University Press, 2006), pp. 160-63.
Jump up ^ "Avalon Project - President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points". avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Jump up ^ "Prime Minister Lloyd George on the British War Aims". The World War I Document Archive. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Grigg 2002, pp.383-5
Jump up ^ Grigg 2002, pp.384
Jump up ^ Hakim, Joy (2005). War, Peace, and All That Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 16–20. ISBN 0195327233.
Jump up ^ Heckscher, p. 471.
Jump up ^ Heckscher, pp. 479-88.
Jump up ^ Cited in Newer Roosevelt Messages, (ed. Griffith, William, New York: The Current Literature Publishing Company 1919). vol III, p 1047.
Jump up ^ Cited in Ivo Daalder and James Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), p 7.
Jump up ^ Markwell, Donald (2006). John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Hantke, Max; Spoerer, Mark (2010). "The imposed gift of Versailles: the fiscal effects of restricting the size of Germany's armed forces, 1924–9" (PDF). Economic History Review. 63 (4): 849–864. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00512.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-27.
Jump up ^ The Concise Encyclopedia of World History (edited by John Bowle), publisher: Hutchinson of London (Great Portland Street) printed by Taylor, Garnett, Evans & co. in 1958, chapter 20 by John Plamenatz (no ISBN available)
References[edit]
Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth Century Conflict and the Decline of the West. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 1594201005.
Grigg, John (2002). Lloyd George: War Leader. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9343-X.
Heckscher, August (1991). Woodrow Wilson. Easton Press. ISBN 0-6841-9312-4.
MacMillan, Margaret (2001). Paris 1919. Random House. ISBN 0-375-76052-0.
Snell, John L. (1954). "Wilson on Germany and the Fourteen Points". Journal of Modern History. 26 (4): 364–369. doi:10.1086/237737. JSTOR 1876113.
External links[edit]
Text of Wilson's message to Congess outlining 14 points January 8, 1918
Text and commentary from ourdocuments.gov
Interpretation of President Wilson's Fourteen Points by Colonel House
"President Wilson's Fourteen Points" from the World War I Document Archive
Wilson's shorthand notes from the Library of Congress
Arthur Balfour's speech on the Fourteen Points to Parliament, on 27 February 1918 – firstworldwar.com
Woodrow Wilson Library Wilson's Noble Peace Prize is digitized. From the Library of Congress
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