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Oyster
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For other uses, see Oyster (disambiguation).
Oyster
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Pacific oyster from the Marennes-Oléron basin in France
Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all, oysters are in the superfamily Ostreoidea.
Some kinds of oysters are commonly consumed by humans, cooked or raw, and are regarded as a delicacy. Some kinds of pearl oysters are harvested for the pearl produced within the mantle. Windowpane oysters are harvested for their translucent shells, which are used to make various kinds of decorative objects.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Types
2.1 True oysters
2.2 Pearl oysters
2.3 Other types of oysters
3 Anatomy
4 Habitat and behaviour
5 Nutrient cycling
6 Ecosystem services
7 Human history
7.1 Fishing from the wild
7.2 Cultivating oysters
7.3 Restoration and recovery
7.4 Human impact
8 As food
8.1 Depuration
8.2 Nutrition
8.3 Selection, preparation and storage
8.4 Opening oysters
9 Diseases
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Etymology[edit]
First attested in English during the 14th century,[1] the word "oyster" comes from Old French oistre, in turn from Latin ostrea, the feminine form of ostreum,[2] which is the latinisation of the Greek ὄστρεον (ostreon), "oyster".[3] Compare ὀστέον (osteon), "bone".[4]
Types[edit]
True oysters[edit]
True oysters are members of the family Ostreidae. This family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Ostreola, Magallana, and Saccostrea. Examples include the Belon oyster, eastern oyster, Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, and the Sydney rock oyster.
Pearl oysters[edit]
Removing a pearl from a pearl oyster
Main article: Pearl oyster
Almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable.
Pearl oysters are not closely related to true oysters, being members of a distinct family, the feathered oysters (Pteriidae). Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater mussels, also yield pearls of commercial value.
The largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls naturally. In fact, in a harvest of two and a half tons of oysters, only three to four oysters produce what commercial buyers consider to be absolute perfect pearls.[citation needed]
In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invasive object with nacre.[5] Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the natural pigment of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant.
Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, inside the oyster. In three to seven years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. These pearls are not as valuable as natural pearls, but look exactly the same. In fact, since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market.
Other types of oysters[edit]
A number of bivalve molluscs (other than true oysters and pearl oysters) also have common names that include the word "oyster", usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters, or because they yield noticeable pearls. Examples include:
Thorny oysters in the genus Spondylus
Pilgrim oyster, another term for a scallop, in reference to the scallop shell of St. James
Saddle oysters, members of the Anomiidae family also known as jingle shells
Dimydarian oysters, members of the family Dimyidae
Windowpane oysters
Pacific oyster
Pacific oyster, opened
In the Philippines, a local thorny oyster species known as Tikod Amo is a favorite seafood source in the southern part of the country.[6] Because of its good flavor, it commands high prices.
Anatomy[edit]
Oysters are filter feeders, drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended plankton and particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, and expelled as feces or pseudofeces. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F). An oyster can filter up to 5 L (1.3 US gal) of water per hour. The Chesapeake Bay's once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered excess nutrients from the estuary's entire water volume every three to four days. Today, that would take nearly a year.[7] Excess sediment, nutrients, and algae can result in the eutrophication of a body of water. Oyster filtration can mitigate these pollutants.
In addition to their gills, oysters can also exchange gases across their mantles, which are lined with many small, thin-walled blood vessels. A small, three-chambered heart, lying under the adductor muscle, pumps colorless blood to all parts of the body. At the same time, two kidneys, located on the underside of the muscle, remove waste products from the blood. Their nervous system includes two pairs of nerve cords and three pairs of ganglia.
While some oysters have two sexes (European oyster and Olympia oyster), their reproductive organs contain both eggs and sperm. Because of this, it is technically possible for an oyster to fertilize its own eggs. The gonads surround the digestive organs, and are made up of sex cells, branching tubules, and connective tissue.
Once the female is fertilized, she discharges millions of eggs into the water. The larvae develop in about six hours and exist suspended in the water column as veliger larvae for two to three weeks before settling on a bed and maturing to sexual adulthood within a year.
Habitat and behaviour[edit]
Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at Hunting Island State Park, South Carolina
A group of oysters is commonly called a bed or oyster reef.
Rocks in intertidal zone covered by oysters, at Bangchuidao Scenic Area, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China
As a keystone species, oysters provide habitat for many marine species. Crassostrea and Saccostrea live mainly in the intertidal zone, while Ostrea is subtidal. The hard surfaces of oyster shells and the nooks between the shells provide places where a host of small animals can live. Hundreds of animals, such as sea anemones, barnacles, and hooked mussels, inhabit oyster reefs. Many of these animals are prey to larger animals, including fish, such as striped bass, black drum and croakers.
An oyster reef can increase the surface area of a flat bottom 50-fold. An oyster's mature shape often depends on the type of bottom to which it is originally attached, but it always orients itself with its outer, flared shell tilted upward. One valve is cupped and the other is flat.
Oysters usually reach maturity in one year. They are protandric; during their first year, they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over the next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs. Bay oysters usually spawn from the end of June until mid-August. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in the water and develop into larvae, which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than 25 mm (1 in) long. Many species of bivalves, oysters included, seem to be stimulated to settle near adult conspecifics.
Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas equipped with activity electrodes to follow their daily behaviour
Oysters are considered to filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe (exchange O2 and CO2 with water) but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter a resting state, even when they are permanently submersed. In fact their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative moon and sun positions. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during the spring tide.[8]
Some tropical oysters, such as the mangrove oyster in the family Ostreidae, grow best on mangrove roots. Low tide can expose them, making them easy to collect. In Trinidad in the West Indies, tourists are often astounded when they are told, in the Caribbean, "oysters grow on trees".
The largest oyster-producing body of water in the United States is Chesapeake Bay, although these beds have decreased in number due to overfishing and pollution. Willapa Bay in Washington produces more oysters than any other estuary in the US.[9] Other large oyster farming areas in the US include the bays and estuaries along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Apalachicola, Florida in the east to Galveston, Texas in the west. Large beds of edible oysters are also found in Japan and Australia. In 2005, China accounted for 80% of the global oyster harvest.[10] Within Europe, France remained the industry leader.
Common oyster predators include crabs, seabirds, starfish, and humans. Some oysters contain live crabs, known as oyster crabs.
Nutrient cycling[edit]
Bivalves, including oysters, are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur.[11] As filter feeders, oysters remove plankton and organic particles from the water column.[12] Multiple studies have shown individual oysters are capable of filtering up to 50 gallons of water per day, and thus oyster reefs can significantly improve water quality and clarity.[13][14][15][16] Oysters consume nitrogen-containing compounds (nitrates and ammonia), phosphates, plankton, detritus, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter, removing them from the water. [17] What is not used for animal growth is then expelled as solid waste pellets, which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen.[5] In Maryland, the Chesapeake Bay Program plans to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the Chesapeake Bay by 8,600 t (19,000,000 lb) per year by 2010.[18] Several studies have shown that oysters and mussels have the capacity to dramatically alter nitrogen levels in estuaries.[19][20][21] In the U.S., Delaware is the only East Coast state without aquaculture, but making aquaculture a state-controlled industry of leasing water by the acre for commercial harvesting of shellfish is being considered.[22] Supporters of Delaware's legislation to allow oyster aquaculture cite revenue, job creation, and nutrient cycling benefits. It is estimated that one acre can produce nearly 750,000 oysters, which could filter between 57,000 to 150,000 m3 (15,000,000 to 40,000,000 US gal) of water daily.[22] Also see nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation.
Ecosystem services[edit]
As an ecosystem engineer oysters provide "supporting" ecosystem services, along with "provisioning", "regulating" and "cultural" services. Oysters influence nutrient cycling, water filtration, habitat structure, biodiversity, and food web dynamics.[23] Oyster feeding and nutrient cycling activities could "rebalance" shallow, coastal ecosystems if restoration of historic populations could be achieved.[24] Furthermore, assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus into shellfish tissues provides an opportunity to remove these nutrients from the environment, but this benefit has only recently been recognized.[24][25][26] In California's Tomales Bay, native oyster presence is associated with higher species diversity of benthic invertebrates[27] but other ecosystem services have not been studied.[28] As the ecological and economic importance of oyster reefs has become more widely acknowledged, creation of oyster reef habitat through restoration efforts has become more important- often with the goal of restoring multiple ecosystem services associated with natural oyster reefs.[29]
Human history[edit]
Still-Life with Oysters by Alexander Adriaenssen
The Whaleback Shell Midden in Maine contains the shells from oysters harvested for food dating from 2200-1000 years ago
Middens testify to the prehistoric importance of oysters as food, with some middens in New South Wales, Australia dated at ten thousand years.[30] They have been cultivated in Japan from at least 2000 BC.[30] In the United Kingdom, the town of Whitstable is noted for oyster farming from beds on the Kentish Flats that have been used since Roman times. The borough of Colchester holds an annual Oyster Feast each October, at which "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, Ostrea edulis) are consumed. The United Kingdom hosts several other annual oyster festivals, for example Woburn Oyster Festival is held in September. Many breweries produce Oyster Stout, a beer intended to be drunk with oysters that sometimes includes oysters in the brewing process.
The French seaside resort of Cancale in Brittany is noted for its oysters, which also date from Roman times. Sergius Orata of the Roman Republic is considered the first major merchant and cultivator of oysters. Using his considerable knowledge of hydraulics, he built a sophisticated cultivation system, including channels and locks, to control the tides. He was so famous for this, the Romans used to say he could breed oysters on the roof of his house.[31]
In the early 19th century, oysters were cheap and mainly eaten by the working class. Throughout the 19th century, oyster beds in New York Harbor became the largest source of oysters worldwide. On any day in the late 19th century, six million oysters could be found on barges tied up along the city's waterfront. They were naturally quite popular in New York City, and helped initiate the city's restaurant trade.[32] New York's oystermen became skilled cultivators of their beds, which provided employment for hundreds of workers and nutritious food for thousands. Eventually, rising demand exhausted many of the beds. To increase production, they introduced foreign species, which brought disease; effluent and increasing sedimentation from erosion destroyed most of the beds by the early 20th century. Oysters' popularity has put ever-increasing demands on wild oyster stocks.[33] This scarcity increased prices, converting them from their original role as working-class food to their current status as an expensive delicacy.
In the United Kingdom, the native variety (Ostrea edulis) requires five years to mature and is protected by an Act of Parliament during the May to August spawning season. The current market is dominated by the larger Pacific oyster and rock oyster varieties which are farmed year round.
Fishing from the wild[edit]
Oysters are harvested by simply gathering them from their beds. In very shallow waters, they can be gathered by hand or with small rakes. In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or oyster tongs are used to reach the beds. Patent tongs can be lowered on a line to reach beds that are too deep to reach directly. In all cases, the task is the same: the oysterman scrapes oysters into a pile, and then scoops them up with the rake or tongs.
In some areas, a scallop dredge is used. This is a toothed bar attached to a chain bag. The dredge is towed through an oyster bed by a boat, picking up the oysters in its path. While dredges collect oysters more quickly, they heavily damage the beds, and their use is highly restricted. Until 1965, Maryland limited dredging to sailboats, and even since then motor boats can be used only on certain days of the week. These regulations prompted the development of specialized sailboats (the bugeye and later the skipjack) for dredging.
Similar laws were enacted in Connecticut before World War I and lasted until 1969. The laws restricted the harvesting of oysters in state-owned beds to vessels under sail. These laws prompted the construction of the oyster sloop-style vessel to last well into the 20th century. Hope is believed to be the last-built Connecticut oyster sloop, completed in 1948.
Oysters can also be collected by divers.
In any case, when the oysters are collected, they are sorted to eliminate dead animals, bycatch (unwanted catch), and debris. Then they are taken to market, where they are either canned or sold live.
Cultivating oysters[edit]
Oyster culture in Riec-sur-Belon, France
Main article: Oyster farming
Oysters have been cultured for well over a century. The Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas) is presently the most widely grown bivalve around the world.[34] Two methods are commonly used, release and bagging. In both cases, oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat, when they can attach themselves to a substrate. They may be allowed to mature further to form 'seed oysters'. In either case, they are then placed in the water to mature. The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds, allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters. Bagging has the cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom. Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters. The latter method prevents losses to some predators, but is more expensive.[35]
The Pacific oyster has been grown in the outflow of mariculture ponds. When fish or prawns are grown in ponds, it takes typically 10 kg (22 lb) of feed to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of product (dry-dry basis). The other 9 kg (20 lb) goes into the pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster.
To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding tetraploid and diploid oysters. The resulting triploid oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats.[36]
Restoration and recovery[edit]
In many areas, non-native oysters have been introduced in attempts to prop up failing harvests of native varieties. For example, the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) was introduced to California waters in 1875, while the Pacific oyster was introduced there in 1929.[37] Proposals for further such introductions remain controversial.
The Pacific oyster prospered in Pendrell Sound, where the surface water is typically warm enough for spawning in the summer. Over the following years, spat spread out sporadically and populated adjacent areas. Eventually, possibly following adaptation to the local conditions, the Pacific oyster spread up and down the coast and now is the basis of the North American west coast oyster industry. Pendrell Sound is now a reserve that supplies spat for cultivation.[38] Near the mouth of the Great Wicomico River in the Chesapeake Bay, five-year-old artificial reefs now harbor more than 180 million native Crassostrea virginica. That is far lower than in the late 1880s, when the bay's population was in the billions, and watermen harvested about 910,000 m3 (25,000,000 imp bsh) annually. The 2009 harvest was less than 7,300 m3 (200,000 imp bsh). Researchers claim the keys to the project were:
using waste oyster shells to elevate the reef floor 25–45 cm (9.8–17.7 in) to keep the spat free of bottom sediments
building larger reefs, ranging up to 8.1 ha (20 acres) in size
disease-resistant broodstock[39]
The "oyster-tecture" movement promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation. An oyster-tecture project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at a site where pollution was affecting beach tourism.[40] Currently, for the installation cost of $3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water are being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, the Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay, citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of the public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters. New Jersey Baykeepers responded by changing their strategy for utilizing oysters to clean up the waterway, by partnering with Naval Weapons Station Earle. The Navy station is under 24/7 security and therefore eliminates any poaching and associated human health risk.[41] Oyster-tecture projects have been proposed to protect coastal cities, such as New York, from the threat of rising sea levels due to climate change.[42]
Human impact[edit]
The accidental or intentional introduction of species by humans has the potential to negatively impact native oyster populations. For example, non-native species in Tomales Bay have resulted in the loss of half of California's Olympia oysters.[43]
In October 2017, it was reported that underwater noise pollution can affect oysters as they close their shells when exposed to low frequencies of sounds in experimental conditions. Oysters rely on hearing waves and currents to regulate their circadian rhythms, and perception of weather events—such as rain—may induce spawning. Cargo ships, pile drivers, and explosions conducted underwater produce low frequencies that may be detected by oysters.[44]
As food[edit]
Chargrilled oysters
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oyster dishes.
Raw oysters presented on a plate
Oysters served on ice and with a piece of lemon on the side
Jonathan Swift is quoted as having said, "He was a bold man that first ate an oyster",[45] but evidence of oyster consumption goes back into prehistory, evidenced by oyster middens found worldwide. Oysters were an important food source in all coastal areas where they could be found, and oyster fisheries were an important industry where they were plentiful. Overfishing and pressure from diseases and pollution have sharply reduced supplies, but they remain a popular treat celebrated in oyster festivals in many cities and towns.
It was once assumed that oysters were only safe to eat in months with the letter 'r' in their English and French names. This myth is based in truth, in that in the Northern Hemisphere, oysters are much more likely to spoil in the warmer months of May, June, July, and August.[46] In recent years, pathogens such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus have caused outbreaks in several harvesting areas of the eastern United States during the summer months, lending further credence to this belief.
Depuration[edit]
Depuration of oysters is a common industry practice and widely researched in the scientific community but is not commonly known by end consumers. The main objective of seafood depuration is to remove fecal contamination in seafood before being sold to end consumers. Oyster depuration is useful since they are generally eaten raw and in many countries, the requirement to process is government-regulated or mandatory. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) formally recognizes depuration and has published detailed documents on the process,[47] whereas the Codex Alimentarius, encourages the application of seafood depuration.[48]
Oyster depuration begins after the harvest of oysters from farmed locations. The oysters are transported and placed into tanks pumped with clean water for periods of 48 to 72 hours. The holding temperatures and salinity vary according to species. The seawater that the oysters were originally farmed in does not remain in the oyster, since the water used for depuration must be fully sterilized, plus the depuration facility would not necessarily be located near the farming location.[49] Depuration of oysters can remove moderate levels of contamination of most bacterial indicators and pathogens. Well-known contaminants include Vibrio parahaemolyticus which is a bacterium found in seawater animals that is temperature sensitive, and Escherichia coli which is a bacterium found in coastal waters near highly populated cities having sewage systems discharging waste nearby, or from agricultural discharges.[50] Depuration expands beyond oysters into many shellfish and other related products, especially in seafood that is known to come from potentially polluted areas; depurated seafood is effectively a product cleansed from inside-out to make it safe for human consumption.
Nutrition[edit]
Oysters are an excellent source of zinc, iron, calcium, and selenium, as well as vitamin A and vitamin B12. Oysters are low in food energy; one dozen raw oysters contains 110 kilocalories (460 kJ).[51] They are rich in protein (approximately 9g in 100g of pacific oysters).[52]
Traditionally, oysters are considered to be an aphrodisiac, partially because they resemble female sex organs.[53] A team of American and Italian researchers analyzed bivalves and found they were rich in amino acids that trigger increased levels of sex hormones.[54] Their high zinc content aids the production of testosterone.[32]
Dietary supplements may contain calcium carbonate from oyster shells, though no evidence shows this offers any benefits beyond what calcium may offer.
Selection, preparation and storage[edit]
Unlike most shellfish, oysters can have a fairly long shelf life of up to four weeks. However, their taste becomes less pleasant as they age. Oysters should be refrigerated out of water, not frozen, and in 100% humidity. Oysters stored in water under refrigeration will open, consume available oxygen, and die.
Freshly opened pearl oysters
Freshly shucked European flat Oyster
Oysters must be eaten alive, or cooked alive. The shells of live oysters are usually tightly closed or snap shut given a slight tap. If the shell is open, the oyster is dead, and cannot be eaten safely. Cooking oysters in the shell kills the oysters and causes them to open by themselves. Traditionally, oysters that do not open have been assumed to be dead before cooking and therefore unsafe.[55] However, according to at least one marine biologist, Nick Ruello, this advice may have arisen from an old, poorly researched cookbook's advice regarding mussels, which has now become an assumed truism for all shellfish. Ruello found 11.5% of all mussels failed to open during cooking, but when forced open, 100% were "both adequately cooked and safe to eat."[56]
Giant oyster in southern Angola
Fried oyster with egg and flour is a common dish in Malaysia[57] and Singapore.
Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, smoked, boiled, baked, fried, roasted, stewed, canned, pickled, steamed, or broiled, or used in a variety of drinks. Eating can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. Butter and salt are often added. In the case of Oysters Rockefeller, preparation can be very elaborate. They are sometimes served on edible seaweed, such as brown algae.
Care should be taken when consuming oysters. Purists insist on eating them raw, with no dressing save perhaps lemon juice, vinegar (most commonly shallot vinegar), or cocktail sauce. Upscale restaurants pair raw oysters with a home-made Mignonette sauce, which consists primarily of fresh chopped shallot, mixed peppercorn, dry white wine and lemon juice or sherry vinegar. Like fine wine, raw oysters have complex flavors that vary greatly among varieties and regions: salty, briny, buttery, metallic, or even fruity. The texture is soft and fleshy, but crisp on the palate. North American varieties include: Kumamoto and Yaquina Bay from Oregon, Duxbury and Wellfleet from Massachusetts, Malpeque from Prince Edward Island, Canada, Blue Point from Long Island, New York, Pemaquid from Maine, and Cape May oysters from New Jersey. Variations in water salinity, alkalinity, and mineral/nutritional content influence their flavor profile.
Oysters can contain harmful bacteria. Oysters are filter feeders, so will naturally concentrate anything present in the surrounding water. Oysters from the Gulf Coast of the United States, for example, contain high bacterial loads of human pathogens in the warm months, most notably Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. In these cases, the main danger is for immunocompromised individuals, who are unable to fight off infection and can succumb to septicemia, leading to death. Vibrio vulnificus is the most deadly seafood-borne pathogen.
Opening oysters[edit]
Special knives for opening live oysters, such as this one, have short and stout blades.
Fresh oysters must be alive just before consumption or cooking. There is only one criterion: the oyster must be capable of tightly closing its shell. Open oysters should be tapped on the shell; a live oyster will close up and is safe to eat. Oysters which are open and unresponsive are dead and must be discarded. Some dead oysters, or oyster shells which are full of sand may be closed. These make a distinctive noise when tapped, and are known as 'clackers'.
Opening oysters, referred to as oyster-shucking, requires skill. The preferred method is to use a special knife (called an oyster knife, a variant of a shucking knife), with a short and thick blade about 5 cm (2.0 in) long.
While different methods are used to open an oyster (which sometimes depend on the type), the following is one commonly accepted oyster-shucking method.
Insert the blade, with moderate force and vibration if necessary, at the hinge between the two valves.
Twist the blade until there is a slight pop.
Slide the blade upward to cut the adductor muscle which holds the shell closed.
Inexperienced shuckers can apply too much force, which can result in injury if the blade slips. Heavy gloves are necessary; apart from the knife, the shell itself can be razor sharp. Professional shuckers require fewer than three seconds to open the shell.[32]
If the oyster has a particularly soft shell, the knife can be inserted instead in the 'sidedoor', about halfway along one side where the oyster lips widen with a slight indentation.
Opening or "shucking" oysters has become a competitive sport. Oyster-shucking competitions are staged around the world. Widely acknowledged to be the premiere event, the Guinness World Oyster Opening Championship is held in September at the Galway Oyster Festival. The annual Clarenbridge Oyster Festival 'Oyster Opening Competition' is also held in Galway, Ireland.
Diseases[edit]
Oysters are subject to various diseases which can reduce harvests and severely deplete local populations. Disease control focuses on containing infections and breeding resistant strains, and is the subject of much ongoing research.
"Dermo" is caused by a protozoan parasite (Perkinsus marinus). It is a prevalent pathogen, causes massive mortality, and poses a significant economic threat to the oyster industry. The disease is not a direct threat to humans consuming infected oysters.[58] Dermo first appeared in the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s, and until 1978 was believed to be caused by a fungus. While it is most serious in warmer waters, it has gradually spread up the east coast of the United States.[59]
Multinucleated sphere X (MSX) is caused by the protozoan Haplosporidium nelsoni, generally seen as a multinucleated Plasmodium. It is infectious and causes heavy mortality in the eastern oyster; survivors, however, develop resistance and can help propagate resistant populations. MSX is associated with high salinity and water temperatures.[58] MSX was first noted in Delaware Bay in 1957, and is now found all up and down the East Coast of the United States. Evidence suggests it was brought to the US when Crassostrea gigas, a Japanese oyster variety, was introduced to Delaware Bay.[59]
Some oysters also harbor bacterial species which can cause human disease; of importance is Vibrio vulnificus, which causes gastroenteritis, which is usually self-limiting, and cellulitis. Cellulitis can be so severe and rapidly spreading, often it requires amputation. It is usually acquired when the contents of the oyster come in contact with a cut skin lesion, as when shucking an oyster.
See also[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Oyster
Food portal
Angels on horseback (classic recipe)
Auckland oyster
Belon oyster
Bluff oyster
Eastern oyster
List of delicacies
List of smoked foods
Olympia oyster
Ostrea angasi (Australian southern mud or native flat oyster)
Oyster cracker
Oyster farming
Oyster festival
Oyster omelette
Oyster pirate
Oyster sauce
Oysters Kirkpatrick (classic recipe and minor English literary character)
Oysters Rockefeller
Pacific oyster
Pearl
Pearl oyster
Red tide
Rolled oyster
Rock oyster
San Leandro Oyster Beds
Shellder
Sydney rock oyster
Tabby (cement)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Oysters in Cynee, Recipe for Oysters in Bread Sauce (Oysters in Cynee) from the 1390 English text, The Forme of Cury, from Celtnet Recipes
Jump up ^ ostrea, ostreum, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus
Jump up ^ ὄστρεον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
Jump up ^ ὀστέον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ Jump up to: a b "A dozen ocean-cleaners and a pint of Guinness, please". The Economist. 2008-12-18. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ http://www.worldngayon.com/2011/12/native-oyster-species-in-surigao-del-sur-draws-attention-for-rd/
Jump up ^ "Oyster Reefs: Ecological importance" (PDF). US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ Tran, D., Nadau, A., Durrieu, G., Ciret, P., Parisot, JP., Massabuau, JC. 2011. Field chronobiology of a Molluscan bivalve: how the moon and sun cycles interact to drive oyster activity rhythms. Chronobiology International, Vol. 28, Num. 4: 307-317.
Jump up ^ Ruesink Lab - About the Bay
Jump up ^ "China harvests almost 4 m tonnes of oyster in 2005".
Jump up ^ Padilla, D.K. 2010. Context-dependent Impacts of a Non-native Ecosystem Engineer, the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas. Integrative and Comparative Biology, Vol. 50, Num. 2: 213-225.
Jump up ^ Jud and Layman. 2011. Loxahatchee River oyster reef restoration monitoring report: Using baselines derived from long-term monitoring of benthic community structure on natural oyster reefs to assess the outcome of large-scale oyster reef restoration. Prepared for Martin County, state of Florida.
Jump up ^ Jonas, R.B., 1997. Bacteria, dissolved organics and oxygens consumption in salinity stratified Chesapeake Bay, an anoxia paradigm. Am. Zool. 37, 612-620.
Jump up ^ Officer, C.B., Smayda, T.J. and Mann, R., 1982. Benthic Filter Feeding - a Natural Eutrophication Control. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 9, 203-210.
Jump up ^ Ulanowicz, R.E. and Tuttle, J.H., 1992. The Trophic Consequences of Oyster Stock Rehabilitation in Chesapeake Bay. Estuaries 15, 298-306.
Jump up ^ Newell, R. 2004. Ecosystem Influences of Natural and Cultivated Populations of Suspension-Feeding Bivalve Molluscs: A Review. J. Shellfish Research, 23(1):51-61.
Jump up ^ Crisp et al. 1985. Feeding by oyster larvae: the functional response, energy budget and comparison with mussel larvae. J. Marine Biology Assoc. U.K 65:759-783.
Jump up ^ "Oyster Restoration Projected to Provide Significant Boost to Bay Grasses While Removing Nitrogen Pollution from the Bay". Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original on 2006-09-03. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ Newell, R.I.E., Fisher, T.R., Holyoke, R.R., Cornwell, J.C. (2005). "Influence of eastern oysters on nitrogen and phosphorus regeneration in Chesapeake Bay, USA". In Dame, R., Olenin, S. The Comparative Roles of Suspension Feeders in Ecosystems, Vol. 47 (NATO Science Series IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences ed.). Netherlands: Springer. pp. 93–120. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Grabowski, J.H., Petersen, C.H. (2007). Cuddington, K., Byers, J.E., Wilson, W.G., Hastings, A, ed. Restoring oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services (Ecosystem Engineers: Concepts, Theory and Applications ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier-Academic Press. pp. 281–298. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Rose JM, Tedesco M, Wikfors GH, Yarish C (2010). "International Workshop on Bioextractive Technologies for Nutrient Remediation Summary Report". US Dept Commer, Northeast Fish Sci Cent Ref Doc. 10-19; 12 p. Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1026.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, Ashton (June 10, 2013). "'Aquaculture' shellfish harvesting bill moves forward". Delaware State News. Retrieved June 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schulte, David M. et al. 2009. Unprecedented Restoration of a Native Oyster Metapopulation. Science 1124, 325.
^ Jump up to: a b Wikfors, Gary H. 2011. Trophic interactions between phytoplankton and bivalve aquaculture. In, Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Ed: S.E. Shumway. John Wiley & Sons.
Jump up ^ Officer, C.B., T.J. Smayda & R. Mann. 1982. Benthic filter feeding, a natural eutrophication control. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 9:203-120.
Jump up ^ Lindahl, O., et al. 2005. Improving marine water quality by mussel farming- a profitable solution for Swedish society. Ambio 131-138.
Jump up ^ Kimbro, D. L. & E. D. Grosholz. 2006. Disturbance influences oyster community richness and evenness, but not diversity. Ecology 87:2378–2388
Jump up ^ Camara, M. and Vadopalas, B. 2009. Genetic aspects of restoring Olympia oysters and other native bivalves: Balancing the need for action, good intentions, and the risk of making things worse. Journal of Shellfish Research 28(1):121-145
Jump up ^ Jud and Layman. 2011. Loxahatchee River oyster reef restoration monitoring report: Using baselines derived from long-term monitoring of benthic community structure on natural reefs to assess the outcome of large-scale oyster reef restoration. http://www.loxahatcheeriver.org/pdf/FIU_NOAAMonitRpt_2011.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b "Oyster industry in NSW". NSW Department of Primary Industries. NSW Government. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon. ISBN 0-385-50313-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kurlansky, Mark (2006). The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-47638-8.
Jump up ^ Clover, Charles (2004). The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. London: Ebury Press. ISBN 0-09-189780-7.
Jump up ^ FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Aquatic species
Jump up ^ "Oyster Farming in Louisiana" (PDF). Louisiana State University. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ Nell J. A. (2002). "Farming triploid oysters". Aquaculture. 210: 69–88. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00861-4.
Jump up ^ Conte, Fred S. "California Oyster Culture" (PDF). University of California, Davis Department of Animal Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Shellfish Tenures Locations Map". Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ Fountain, Henry (August 3, 2009). "Oysters Are on the Rebound in the Chesapeake Bay". The New York Times. Retrieved August 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ http://dirt.asla.org/2011/02/24/oyster-tecture-in-action/
Jump up ^ Welcome to BayKeeper
Jump up ^ http://www.scapestudio.com/projects/oyster-tecture/
Jump up ^ "Invasive Species Threaten Critical Habitats, Oyster Among Victims". ScienceDaily. August 10, 2009. Retrieved November 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Quenqua, Douglas (October 25, 2017). "Yes, Oysters Can 'Hear.' They Probably Wish We'd Clam Up". New York Times. Archived from the original on October 25, 2017. Retrieved November 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Polite Conversations, 1738, cited e.g. in "Oyster Heaven". Wilmington Magazine. Wilmington Star-News. November 24, 2004. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Nefsc Fish Faq". Nefsc.noaa.gov. 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
Jump up ^ (Bivalve Depuration: fundamental and practical aspects. FAO Fisheries Technical paper. No 511. Rome FAO 2008.)
Jump up ^ (Code of Practice for fish and fishery products (first edition) Rome 2009. WHO and FAO ISBN 978-92-5-105914-2)
Jump up ^ (Impact of water salinity and types of oysters on depuration for reducing Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) Feb 2013 Sureerat Phuvasate, Yi-Cheng Su)
Jump up ^ (Escherichia coli in seafood: A brief overview, Renata Albuquerque Costa, Fisheries Engineering, INTA Faculty, Sobral-Ceara, Brazil feb 2013)
Jump up ^ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Mollusks, oyster, eastern, wild, raw". Nutritiondata.com. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
Jump up ^ "Calories in pacific Oyster". Recipeofhealth.com. 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ Stott, Rebecca (2004). Oyster. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9781861892218. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Pearly wisdom: oysters are an aphrodisiac". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2005-03-24.
Jump up ^ "Safely Cooking Oysters and Other Molluscan Shellfish". SafeOysters.org. 2009-03-09. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Mussel myth an open and shut case". ABC Science. 2008-10-29. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Fried Oyster". Best Malaysian Food Guide. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oyster Diseases". Connecticut Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2008-01-16. External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "MSX/Dermo". Chesapeake Bay Program. Retrieved 2009-04-05. External link in |publisher= (help)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oyster.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Oysters
Look up oyster in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
MolluSCAN eye, a website devoted to the online study of molluscan bivalve behavior around the world, including oysters. Daily update.
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Fal Oyster Boat, Sunny South
Oysters grown on trestles in Ireland
Nutrition Facts for Oysters
Oyster farming in the Rivers Crouch, Roach and Blackwater of Eastern Essex
"Oyster". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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text:
Benjamin (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Benjamin
Film poster
Directed by
Michel Deville
Produced by
Mag Bodard
Written by
Michel Deville
Nina Companéez
Starring
Michèle Morgan
Catherine Deneuve
Pierre Clémenti
Michel Piccoli
Music by
Jean Wiener
Cinematography
Ghislain Cloquet
Edited by
Nina Companeez
Production
company
Marianne Productions
Parc Film
Distributed by
Les Films Paramount
Release date
12 January 1968 (1968-01-12)
Running time
90 minutes
Country
France
Language
French
Box office
2,542,714 admissions (France)[1]
Benjamin (original title: Benjamin ou les Mémoires d'un puceau; U.S title: The Diary of an Innocent Boy) is a 1968 French comedy film directed by Michel Deville who co-wrote the screenplay with Nina Companéez.
"Benjamin was a role that I really liked," said Deneuve later. "It was a comedy, but in the spirit and tone particular."[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box Office
4.2 Critical response
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
In the eighteenth century, seventeen-year-old virgin Benjamin comes with his old servant to stay at the estate of his aunt, Countess de Valandry, who is having an affair with Count Philippe. Benjamin is pursued by various woman, including the beautiful Anne, who really loves Philippe.
Cast[edit]
Michèle Morgan as Countess de Valandry.
Catherine Deneuve as Anne
Pierre Clémenti as Benjamin
Michel Piccoli as Count Philippe
Francine Bergé as Marion
Anna Gaël as Célestine
Catherine Rouvel as Victorine
Jacques Dufilho as Camille
Odile Versois as Married woman
Production[edit]
Filming began in June 1967.[3] The day before, Catherine Deneuve's sister and fellow actress Françoise Dorléac had died in a car accident.
"It is a painful time in my life," she later recalled. "I was in a cloud. I shot like a misty PLC. Fortunately, grief did not score the film."[2]
Reception[edit]
Box Office[edit]
The film was the eleventh most popular movie at the French box office in 1968.[4]
Critical response[edit]
The critic for The Guardian claimed that "the dialogue is stylish without being witty and it is continuously and tiresomely arch."[5] The Los Angeles Times said the film was "as superlatively acted as it is photographed and scored".[6] The Washington Post said the film "has little to be said for it except is evidently authentic chateux".[7]
Pauline Kael wrote that Pierre Clementi "indicates adolescent innocence by being loose-limbed and girlish. It is essential for the boy to suggest the kind of man he will become once he has learned what everyone is so eager to teach him, but Clémenti looks as though he would become a lesbian."[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Box office information for Catherine Deneuve films at Box Office Story
^ Jump up to: a b Interview with Catherine Denuenve, Catherine Deneuve Tribute site accessed 15 Sept 2014
Jump up ^ Eva Renzie in 'Pink Jungle' Martin, Betty. Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File) [Los Angeles, Calif] 28 June 1967: e11.
Jump up ^ "French Box Office 1968". Box Office Story.
Jump up ^ Death by adventure Lennon, Peter. The Guardian (1959-2003) [London (UK)] 22 Jan 1968: 6.
Jump up ^ 'Benjamin' Playing at Plaza Theater Thomas, Kevin. Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File) [Los Angeles, Calif] 11 Apr 1968: 31.
Jump up ^ 'Kinetic Art' Diverting Bill By Richard L. Coe. The Washington Post, Times Herald (1959-1973) [Washington, D.C] 06 Apr 1968: C6.
Jump up ^ Pierre Clementi obituary, The Guardian January 2000 accessed 13 September 2014
External links[edit]
Benjamin at the TCM Movie Database
Benjamin on IMDb
Benjamin at AllMovie
Review of film at New York Times
Review of film by Roger Ebert
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Michel Deville
A Bullet in the Gun Barrel (1958)
Tonight or Never (1961)
Adorable Liar (1962)
Because, Because of a Woman (1963)
Girl's Apartment (1963)
Lucky Jo (1964)
The Mona Lisa Has Been Stolen (1966)
Kiss Me General (1966)
Zärtliche Haie (1967)
Benjamin (1968)
Bye bye, Barbara (1969)
The Bear and the Doll (1970)
Raphael, or The Debauched One (1971)
The Woman in Blue (1973)
Love at the Top (1974)
The Apprentice Heel (1977)
Dossier 51 (1978)
Le Voyage en douce (1980)
Eaux profondes (1981)
The Little Bunch (1983)
Death in a French Garden (1985)
Paltoquet (1986)
The Reader (1988)
Summer Night in Town (1990)
Lest We Forget (1991)
Toutes peines confondues (1992)
Aux petits bonheurs (1994)
La Divine Poursuite (1997)
Sachs' Disease (1999)
Almost Peaceful (2002)
The Art of Breaking Up (2005)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_(film)&oldid=800679178"
Categories:
1968 films
French-language films
1960s historical films
1960s romantic comedy films
Films about virginity
Films set in country houses
Films set in the 18th century
French coming-of-age films
French films
French historical films
French romantic comedy films
Louis Delluc Prize winners
Romantic period films
Films directed by Michel Deville
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text:
List of National Basketball Association annual blocks leaders
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In basketball, a block (short for blocked shot) occurs when a defender deflects or stops a field goal attempt without committing a foul.[1] The National Basketball Association's (NBA) block title is awarded to the player with the highest blocks per game average in a given season. The block title was first recognized in the 1973–74 season when statistics on blocks were first compiled.[2] To qualify for the blocks title, the player must appear in at least 70 games (out of 82) or have at least 100 blocks. This is the requirement since the 1974–75 season, with requirements changing with the schedule length several times before that.[3]
Mark Eaton holds the all-time records for total blocks (456) and blocks per game (5.56) in a season; both achieved in the 1984–85 season.[2] Manute Bol holds the rookie records for total blocks and blocks per game when he had 397 and averaged 5.0 in the 1985–86 season.[2] Among active players, Marcus Camby had the highest season block total (285) in the 2007–08 season and Hassan Whiteside had the highest season block average (3.68) in the 2015–16 season.[a]
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Eaton and Marcus Camby all won the most block titles, with four.[2] George Johnson, Manute Bol, Hakeem Olajuwon, Dikembe Mutombo, Alonzo Mourning, Theo Ratliff, Dwight Howard, Anthony Davis, and Serge Ibaka have also won the title more than once. Both Mutombo and Camby have also won the most consecutive block titles, with three. Two players have won both the block title and the NBA championship in the same season: Bill Walton in 1977 with the Portland Trail Blazers and Abdul-Jabbar in 1980 with the Los Angeles Lakers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Key
2 Season leaders
3 Multiple-time leaders
4 Notes
5 References
Key[edit]
^ Denotes player who is still active in the NBA
* Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame
Player (X) Denotes the number of times the player had been the
blocks leader up to and including that season
G Guard F Forward C Center
Season leaders[edit]
Season
Player
Position[b]
Team(s)
Games
played
Total blocks
Blocks per game
References
1973–74 Smith, ElmoreElmore Smith C Los Angeles Lakers 81 393 4.85 [4][5]
1974–75 Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar*[c] C Milwaukee Bucks 65 212 3.26 [6][7]
1975–76 Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar* (2) C Los Angeles Lakers 82 338 4.12 [7][8]
1976–77 Walton, BillBill Walton*[d] C/F Portland Trail Blazers 65 211 3.25 [9][10]
1977–78 Johnson, George T.George T. Johnson C/F New Jersey Nets 81 274 3.38 [11][12]
1978–79 Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar* (3) C Los Angeles Lakers 80 316 3.95 [7][13]
1979–80 Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar* (4) C Los Angeles Lakers 82 280 3.41 [7][14]
1980–81 Johnson, George T.George T. Johnson (2) C/F San Antonio Spurs 82 278 3.39 [12][15]
1981–82 Johnson, George T.George T. Johnson (3) C/F San Antonio Spurs 75 234 3.12 [12][16]
1982–83 Rollins, TreeTree Rollins C Atlanta Hawks 80 343 4.29 [17][18]
1983–84 Eaton, MarkMark Eaton C Utah Jazz 82 351 4.28 [19][20]
1984–85 Eaton, MarkMark Eaton (2) C Utah Jazz 82 456 5.56 [20][21]
1985–86 Bol, ManuteManute Bol C Washington Bullets 80 397 4.96 [22][23]
1986–87 Eaton, MarkMark Eaton (3) C Utah Jazz 79 321 4.06 [20][24]
1987–88 Eaton, MarkMark Eaton (4) C Utah Jazz 82 304 3.71 [20][25]
1988–89 Bol, ManuteManute Bol (2) C Golden State Warriors 80 345 4.31 [23][26]
1989–90 Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon*[e] C Houston Rockets 82 376 4.59 [30][31]
1990–91 Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon* (2)[f] C Houston Rockets 56 221 3.95 [31][32]
1991–92 Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson* C San Antonio Spurs 68 308 4.49 [33][34]
1992–93 Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon* (3) C Houston Rockets 82 342 4.17 [31][35]
1993–94 Mutombo, DikembeDikembe Mutombo* C Denver Nuggets 82 336 4.10 [36][37]
1994–95 Mutombo, DikembeDikembe Mutombo* (2) C Denver Nuggets 82 321 3.91 [37][38]
1995–96 Mutombo, DikembeDikembe Mutombo* (3) C Denver Nuggets 74 332 4.49 [37][39]
1996–97 Bradley, ShawnShawn Bradley[g] C New Jersey Nets
Dallas Mavericks 73 248 3.40 [40][41]
1997–98 Camby, MarcusMarcus Camby[h] C/F Toronto Raptors 63 230 3.65 [42][43]
1998–99[i] Mourning, AlonzoAlonzo Mourning* C Miami Heat 46 180 3.91 [45][46]
1999–00 Mourning, AlonzoAlonzo Mourning* (2) C Miami Heat 79 294 3.72 [46][47]
2000–01 Ratliff, TheoTheo Ratliff[j] C/F Philadelphia 76ers 50 187 3.74 [48][49]
2001–02 Wallace, BenBen Wallace F/C Detroit Pistons 80 278 3.48 [50][51]
2002–03 Ratliff, TheoTheo Ratliff (2) C/F Atlanta Hawks 81 262 3.23 [49][52]
2003–04 Ratliff, TheoTheo Ratliff (3)*[k] C/F Atlanta Hawks
Portland Trail Blazers 85 307 3.61 [49][53]
2004–05 Kirilenko, AndreiAndrei Kirilenko[l] F Utah Jazz 41 136 3.32 [54][55]
2005–06 Camby, MarcusMarcus Camby^ (2)[m] C/F Denver Nuggets 56 184 3.29 [43][56]
2006–07 Camby, MarcusMarcus Camby^ (3) C/F Denver Nuggets 70 231 3.30 [43][57]
2007–08 Camby, MarcusMarcus Camby^ (4) C/F Denver Nuggets 79 285 3.61 [43][58]
2008–09 Howard, DwightDwight Howard^ C Orlando Magic 79 231 2.92 [59]
2009–10 Howard, DwightDwight Howard^ (2) C Orlando Magic 82 228 2.78 [59]
2010–11 Bogut, AndrewAndrew Bogut^[n] C Milwaukee Bucks 65 168 2.58 [61]
2011–12[o] Ibaka, SergeSerge Ibaka^ F Oklahoma City Thunder 66 241 3.65 [63]
2012–13 Ibaka, SergeSerge Ibaka^ (2) F Oklahoma City Thunder 80 242 3.03 [63]
2013–14 Davis, AnthonyAnthony Davis^[p] F/C New Orleans Pelicans 67 189 2.82 [65]
2014–15 Davis, AnthonyAnthony Davis^ (2) F/C New Orleans Pelicans 68 200 2.94 [65]
2015–16 Whiteside, HassanHassan Whiteside^ C Miami Heat 73 269 3.68 [66]
2016–17 Rudy Gobert^ C Utah Jazz 80 214 2.64 [67]
Multiple-time leaders[edit]
Ranking
Player
Team
Times leader
Years
1 Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
Marcus Camby
Mark Eaton Milwaukee Bucks (1) / Los Angeles Lakers (3)
Toronto Raptors (1) / Denver Nuggets (3)
Utah Jazz 4 1975, 1976, 1979, 1980
1998, 2006, 2007, 2008
1984, 1985, 1987, 1988
2 George T. Johnson
Dikembe Mutombo
Hakeem Olajuwon
Theo Ratliff New Jersey Nets (1) / San Antonio Spurs (2)
Denver Nuggets
Houston Rockets
Philadelphia 76ers (1) / Atlanta Hawks (1) / Atlanta Hawks/Portland Trail Blazers (1) 3 1978, 1981, 1982
1994, 1995, 1996
1990, 1991, 1993
2001, 2003, 2004
3 Manute Bol
Anthony Davis
Dwight Howard
Serge Ibaka
Alonzo Mourning Washington Bullets (1) / Golden State Warriors (1)
New Orleans Pelicans
Orlando Magic
Oklahoma City Thunder
Miami Heat 2 1986, 1989
2014, 2015
2009, 2010
2012, 2013
1999, 2000
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In the 1997–98 season, Marcus Camby had 3.6508 blocks per game, while in the 2011–12 season, Serge Ibaka had 3.6515 blocks per game.
Jump up ^ The player's primary position is listed first.
Jump up ^ In the 1974–75 season, Elmore Smith had the highest block total (216) but was second in block average (2.92).
Jump up ^ In the 1976–77 season, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Elvin Hayes both had higher block totals (261 and 220 respectively) but they ranked second and third in block average (3.18 and 2.68 respectively).
Jump up ^ When Olajuwon arrived in the United States, the University of Houston incorrectly spelled his first name "Akeem". He used that spelling until March 9, 1991, when he announced that he would add an H.[27][28][29]
Jump up ^ In the 1990–91 season, David Robinson, Patrick Ewing and Manute Bol all had higher block totals (320, 258 and 247 respectively) but they ranked second, third and fourth in block average (3.90, 3.19 and 3.01 respectively).
Jump up ^ In the 1996–97 season, Dikembe Mutombo had the highest block total (264) but was second in block average (3.30).
Jump up ^ In the 1997–98 season, Dikembe Mutombo and Theo Ratliff both had higher block totals (277 and 258 respectively) but they ranked second and fourth in block average (3.38 and 3.15 respectively).
Jump up ^ The 1998–99 season was shortened to 50 games due to the league's lockout.[44] The qualification of this season's block title is to appear in at least 43 games (out of 50) or to have at least 61 blocks.[3]
Jump up ^ In the 2000–01 season, Theo Ratliff had only played in 50 games and ranked eighth in block total. Jermaine O'Neal and Shawn Bradley both shared the highest total (228).
Jump up ^ In the 2003–04 season, Ratliff appeared in 85 games due to a mid-season trade.
Jump up ^ In the 2004–05 season, Kirilenko had only played in 41 games and ranked thirteenth in block total. Marcus Camby had the highest total (199).
Jump up ^ In the 2005–06 season, Andrei Kirilenko, Josh Smith and Elton Brand all had higher block totals (220, 208 and 201 respectively) but they ranked second, fourth and fifth in block average (3.19, 2.60 and 2.54 respectively).
Jump up ^ In the 2010–11 season, Serge Ibaka, JaVale McGee and Dwight Howard all had higher block totals (198, 193 and 186 respectively) but they ranked third, second and fourth in block average (2.41, 2.44 and 2.38 respectively).[60]
Jump up ^ The 2011–12 season was shortened to 66 games due to the league's lockout.[62] The qualification of this season's scoring title is to appear in at least 57 games (out of 66) or to have at least 80 blocks.[3]
Jump up ^ In the 2013–14 season, Serge Ibaka and DeAndre Jordan both had higher block totals (219 and 203 respectively) but they ranked second and third in block average (2.7 and 2.5 respectively).[64]
References[edit]
General
"Yearly Leaders and Records for Blocks Per Game". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Specific
Jump up ^ "Basketball glossary". FIBA.com. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Regular Season Records: Blocked Shots". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Rate Statistic Requirements". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1973–74". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Elmore Smith NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1974–75". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Kareem Abdul-Jabbar NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1975–76". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1976–77". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bill Walton NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1977–78". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "George Johnson NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1978–79". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1979–80". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1980–81". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1981–82". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1982–83". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Tree Rollins NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1983–84". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Mark Eaton NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1984–85". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1985–86". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Manute Bol NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1986–87". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1987–88". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1988–89". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Hakeem Olajuwon Bio: 1992–93". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
Jump up ^ Dufresne, Chris (March 11, 1991). "Hakeem Still Can Be Called 'the Dream'". Los Angeles Times. p. 2.
Jump up ^ Olajuwon and Knobler. pg. 207
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1989–90". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Hakeem Olajuwon NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1990–91". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1991–92". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "David Robinson NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1992–93". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1993–94". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Dikembe Mutombo NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1994–95". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1995–96". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1996–97". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Shawn Bradley NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1997–98". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Marcus Camby NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ Beck, Howard (February 14, 2009). "N.B.A. and Union Are Discussing New Labor Deal". The New York Times. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1998–99". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alonzo Mourning NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 1999–2000". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2000–01". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Theo Ratliff NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2001–02". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Ben Wallace NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2002–03". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2003–04". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2004–05". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Andrei Kirilenko NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2005–06". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2006–07". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "League Leaders: Blocks – 2007–08". NBA.com. Turner Sports Interactive, Inc. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dwight Howard NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
Jump up ^ "2010–11 NBA season Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved April 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Andrew Bogut NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved April 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Beck, Howard (November 28, 2011). "Two Exhibition Games for N.B.A. Teams". The New York Times. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Serge Ibaka NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ "2013-14 NBA Season Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved April 17, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Anthony Davis Stats". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Hassan Whiteside NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved April 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Rudy Gobert NBA & ABA Statistics". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
[show]
v
t
e
NBA season blocks leaders
1974: Smith
1975: Abdul-Jabbar
1976: Abdul-Jabbar
1977: Walton
1978: Johnson
1979: Abdul-Jabbar
1980: Abdul-Jabbar
1981: Johnson
1982: Johnson
1983: Rollins
1984: Eaton
1985: Eaton
1986: Bol
1987: Eaton
1988: Eaton
1989: Bol
1990: Olajuwon
1991: Olajuwon
1992: Robinson
1993: Olajuwon
1994: Mutombo
1995: Mutombo
1996: Mutombo
1997: Bradley
1998: Camby
1999: Mourning
2000: Mourning
2001: Ratliff
2002: Wallace
2003: Ratliff
2004: Ratliff
2005: Kirilenko
2006: Camby
2007: Camby
2008: Camby
2009: Howard
2010: Howard
2011: Bogut
2012: Ibaka
2013: Ibaka
2014: Davis
2015: Davis
2016: Whiteside
2017: Gobert
[show]
v
t
e
National Basketball Association statistical leaders
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Season
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Misc
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_National_Basketball_Association_annual_blocks_leaders&oldid=783597854"
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