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Skeletal muscle
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Skeletal striated muscle/ Striated voluntary muscle
A top-down view of skeletal muscle
Details
Latin
muscularis striatus skeletalis
TH
H2.00.05.2.00002
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. It is a form of striated muscle tissue which is under the 'voluntary' control of the somatic nervous system.[1] Most skeletal muscles are attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons.
A skeletal muscle refers to multiple bundles of cells called muscle fibers (fascicles). The fibres and muscles are surrounded by connective tissue layers called fasciae. Muscle fibres, or muscle cells, are formed from the fusion of developmental myoblasts in a process known as myogenesis. Muscle fibres are cylindrical, and have more than one nucleus. It has multiple mitochondria to meet energy needs.
Muscle fibers are in turn composed of myofibrils. The myofibrils are composed of actin and myosin filaments, repeated in units called sarcomeres, which are the basic functional units of the muscle fiber. The sarcomere is responsible for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle, and forms the basic machinery necessary for muscle contraction.
Contents
[hide]
1 Skeletal muscles
1.1 Muscle fibers
1.2 Arrangement of muscle fibres
2 Function
2.1 Cellular physiology and contraction
2.2 Physics
2.3 Signal transduction pathways
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Research
4 See also
5 References
Skeletal muscles[edit]
Connective tissue is present in all muscles as fascia. Enclosing each muscle is a layer of connective tissue known as the epimysium; enclosing each fascicle is a layer called the perimysium, and enclosing each muscle fiber is a layer of connective tissue called the endomysium.
Muscle fibers[edit]
3D rendering of a skeletal muscle fiber.
Skeletal muscle fibers show sarcomeres clearly
Main article: Myocyte
Muscle fibres are the individual contractile units within muscle. A single muscle such as the biceps brachii contains many muscle fibres.
Another group of cells, the myosatellite cells are found between the basement membrane and the sarcolemma of muscle fibers.[2] These cells are normally quiescent but can be activated by exercise or pathology to provide additional myonuclei for muscle growth or repair.
Development
Individual muscle fibers are formed during development from the fusion of several undifferentiated immature cells known as myoblasts into long, cylindrical, multi-nucleated cells. Differentiation into this state is primarily completed before birth with the cells continuing to grow in size thereafter.
Microanatomy
Skeletal muscle exhibits a distinctive banding pattern when viewed under the microscope due to the arrangement of cytoskeletal elements in the cytoplasm of the muscle fibers. The principal cytoplasmic proteins are myosin and actin (also known as "thick" and "thin" filaments, respectively) which are arranged in a repeating unit called a sarcomere. The interaction of myosin and actin is responsible for muscle contraction.
Every single organelle and macromolecule of a muscle fiber is arranged to ensure form meets function. The cell membrane is called the sarcolemma with the cytoplasm known as the sarcoplasm. In the sarcoplasm are the myofibrils. The myofibrils are long protein bundles about 1 micrometer in diameter each containing myofilaments. Pressed against the inside of the sarcolemma are the unusual flattened myonuclei. Between the myofibrils are the mitochondria.
While the muscle fiber does not have a smooth endoplasmic cisternae , it contains a sarcoplasmic reticulum. The sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds the myofibrils and holds a reserve of the calcium ions needed to cause a muscle contraction. Periodically, it has dilated end sacs known as terminal cisternae. These cross the muscle fiber from one side to the other. In between two terminal cisternae is a tubular infolding called a transverse tubule (T tubule). T tubules are the pathways for action potentials to signal the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium, causing a muscle contraction. Together, two terminal cisternae and a transverse tubule form a triad.[3]
Arrangement of muscle fibres[edit]
Main article: Muscle architecture
Muscle architecture refers to the arrangement of muscle fibers relative to the axis of force generation of the muscle. This axis is a hypothetical line from the muscle's origin to insertion. For some longitudinal muscles, such as the biceps brachii, this is a relatively simple concept. For others, such as the rectus femoris or deltoid muscle, it becomes more complicated. While the muscle fibers of a fascicle lie parallel to one another, the fascicles themselves can vary in their relationship to one another and to their tendons.[4] The different fiber arrangements produce broad categories of skeletal muscle architectures including longitudinal, pennate, unipennate, bipennate, and multipennate.[5] Because of these different architectures, the tension a muscle can create between its tendons varies by more than simply its size and fiber-type makeup.
Longitudinal architecture
The fascicles of longitudinally arranged, parallel, or fusiform muscles run parallel to the axis of force generation, thus these muscles on a whole function similarly to a single, large muscle fiber.[4] Variations exist, and the different terms are often used more specifically. For instance, fusiform refers to a longitudinal architecture with a widened muscle belly (biceps), while parallel may refer to a more ribon-shaped longitudinal architecture (rectus abdominis). A less common example would be a circular muscle such as the orbicularis oris, in which the fibers are longitudinally arranged, but create a circle from origin to insertion.
Unipennate architecture
The fibers in unipennate muscles are all oriented at the same (but non-zero) angle relative to the axis of force generation.[5] This angle reduces the effective force of any individual fiber, as it is effectively pulling off-axis. However, because of this angle, more fibers can be packed into the same muscle volume, increasing the Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). This effect is known as fiber packing, and—in terms of force generation—it more than overcomes the efficiency loss of the off-axis orientation. The trade-off comes in overall speed of muscle shortening and in total excursion. Overall muscle shortening speed is reduced compared to fiber shortening speed, as is the total distance of shortening.[5] All of these effects scale with pennation angle; greater angles lead to greater force due to increased fiber packing and PCSA, but with greater losses in shortening speed and excursion. The vastus lateralis is an example of unipennate architecture.
Multipennate architectures
The fibers in multipennate muscles are arranged at multiple angles in relation to the axis of force generation, and are the most general and most common architecture.[5] Several fiber orientations fall into this category; bipennate, convergent, and multipennate. While the determination of PCSA becomes more difficult in these muscle architectures, the same tradeoffs as listed above apply.
Bipennate arrangements are essentially "V"s of fibers stacked on top of each other, such as in the rectus femoris.
Convergent arrangements are triangle or fan shaped, with wide origins and more narrow insertions.[4] The wide variation of pennation angles in this architecture can actually allow for multiple functions. For instance, the trapezius, a prototypical convergent muscle, can aid in both shoulder elevation and depression.
Multipennate arrangements are not limited to a particular arrangement, but—when used specifically—commonly refer to what is essentially a combination of bipennate or unipennate arrangements with convergent arrangements. An example of this architecture would be the human deltoid muscle.
Function[edit]
Cellular physiology and contraction[edit]
In addition to the actin and myosin components that constitute the sarcomere, skeletal muscle fibers also contain two other important regulatory proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, that are necessary for muscle contraction to occur. These proteins are associated with actin and cooperate to prevent its interaction with myosin. Skeletal muscle cells are excitable and are subject to depolarization by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, released at the neuromuscular junction by motor neurons.[6]
Once a cell is sufficiently stimulated, the cell's sarcoplasmic reticulum releases ionic calcium (Ca2+), which then interacts with the regulatory protein troponin. Calcium-bound troponin undergoes a conformational change that leads to the movement of tropomyosin, subsequently exposing the myosin-binding sites on actin. This allows for myosin and actin ATP-dependent cross-bridge cycling and shortening of the muscle.
Physics[edit]
Muscle force is proportional to physiologic cross-sectional area (PCSA), and muscle velocity is proportional to muscle fiber length.[7] The torque around a joint, however, is determined by a number of biomechanical parameters, including the distance between muscle insertions and pivot points, muscle size and Architectural gear ratio. Muscles are normally arranged in opposition so that when one group of muscles contracts, another group relaxes or lengthens. Antagonism in the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles means that it is impossible to fully stimulate the contraction of two antagonistic muscles at any one time. During ballistic motions such as throwing, the antagonist muscles act to 'brake' the agonist muscles throughout the contraction, particularly at the end of the motion. In the example of throwing, the chest and front of the shoulder (anterior Deltoid) contract to pull the arm forward, while the muscles in the back and rear of the shoulder (posterior Deltoid) also contract and undergo eccentric contraction to slow the motion down to avoid injury. Part of the training process is learning to relax the antagonist muscles to increase the force input of the chest and anterior shoulder.
Contracting muscles produce vibration and sound.[8] Slow twitch fibers produce 10 to 30 contractions per second (10 to 30 Hz). Fast twitch fibers produce 30 to 70 contractions per second (30 to 70 Hz).[9] The vibration can be witnessed and felt by highly tensing one's muscles, as when making a firm fist. The sound can be heard by pressing a highly tensed muscle against the ear, again a firm fist is a good example. The sound is usually described as a rumbling sound. Some individuals can voluntarily produce this rumbling sound by contracting the tensor tympani muscle of the middle ear. The rumbling sound can also be heard when the neck or jaw muscles are highly tensed.
Signal transduction pathways[edit]
Skeletal muscle fiber-type phenotype in adult animals is regulated by several independent signaling pathways. These include pathways involved with the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, calcineurin, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV, and the peroxisome proliferator γ coactivator 1 (PGC-1). The Ras/MAPK signaling pathway links the motor neurons and signaling systems, coupling excitation and transcription regulation to promote the nerve-dependent induction of the slow program in regenerating muscle. Calcineurin, a Ca2+/calmodulin-activated phosphatase implicated in nerve activity-dependent fiber-type specification in skeletal muscle, directly controls the phosphorylation state of the transcription factor NFAT, allowing for its translocation to the nucleus and leading to the activation of slow-type muscle proteins in cooperation with myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) proteins and other regulatory proteins. Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase activity is also upregulated by slow motor neuron activity, possibly because it amplifies the slow-type calcineurin-generated responses by promoting MEF2 transactivator functions and enhancing oxidative capacity through stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis.
Contraction-induced changes in intracellular calcium or reactive oxygen species provide signals to diverse pathways that include the MAPKs, calcineurin and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV to activate transcription factors that regulate gene expression and enzyme activity in skeletal muscle.
Exercise-Included Signaling Pathways in Skeletal Muscle That Determine Specialized Characteristics of slow twitch and fast twitch Muscle Fibers
PGC1-α (PPARGC1A), a transcriptional coactivator of nuclear receptors important to the regulation of a number of mitochondrial genes involved in oxidative metabolism, directly interacts with MEF2 to synergistically activate selective slow twitch (ST) muscle genes and also serves as a target for calcineurin signaling. A peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ)-mediated transcriptional pathway is involved in the regulation of the skeletal muscle fiber phenotype. Mice that harbor an activated form of PPARd display an “endurance” phenotype, with a coordinated increase in oxidative enzymes and mitochondrial biogenesis and an increased proportion of ST fibers. Thus—through functional genomics—calcineurin, calmodulin-dependent kinase, PGC-1α, and activated PPARδ form the basis of a signaling network that controls skeletal muscle fiber-type transformation and metabolic profiles that protect against insulin resistance and obesity.
The transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism during intense work requires that several systems are rapidly activated to ensure a constant supply of ATP for the working muscles. These include a switch from fat-based to carbohydrate-based fuels, a redistribution of blood flow from nonworking to exercising muscles, and the removal of several of the by-products of anaerobic metabolism, such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid. Some of these responses are governed by transcriptional control of the fast twitch (FT) glycolytic phenotype. For example, skeletal muscle reprogramming from an ST glycolytic phenotype to an FT glycolytic phenotype involves the Six1/Eya1 complex, composed of members of the Six protein family. Moreover, the hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α (HIF1A) has been identified as a master regulator for the expression of genes involved in essential hypoxic responses that maintain ATP levels in cells. Ablation of HIF-1α in skeletal muscle was associated with an increase in the activity of rate-limiting enzymes of the mitochondria, indicating that the citric acid cycle and increased fatty acid oxidation may be compensating for decreased flow through the glycolytic pathway in these animals. However, hypoxia-mediated HIF-1α responses are also linked to the regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction through the formation of excessive reactive oxygen species in mitochondria.
Other pathways also influence adult muscle character. For example, physical force inside a muscle fiber may release the transcription factor serum response factor (SRF) from the structural protein titin, leading to altered muscle growth.
Clinical significance[edit]
Main article: Neuromuscular disease
Diseases of skeletal muscle are termed Myopathies, while diseases of nerves are called Neuropathies. Both can affect muscle function and/or cause muscle pain, and fall under the umbrella of Neuromuscular disease. Myopathies have been modeled with cell culture systems of muscle from healthy or diseased tissue biopsies. Another source of skeletal muscle and progenitors is provided by the directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells .[10]
Research[edit]
Research on skeletal muscle properties uses many techniques. Electrical muscle stimulation is used to determine force and contraction speed at different stimulation frequencies, which are related to fiber-type composition and mix within an individual muscle group. In vitro muscle testing is used for more complete characterization of muscle properties.
The electrical activity associated with muscle contraction are measured via electromyography (EMG). EMG is a common technique used in many disciplines within the Exercise and Rehab Sciences. Skeletal muscle has two physiological responses: relaxation and contraction.[11] The mechanisms for which these responses occur generate electrical activity measured by EMG. Specifically, EMG can measure the action potential of a skeletal muscle, which occurs from the hyperpolarization of the motor axons from nerve impulses sent to the muscle (1). EMG is used in research for determining if the skeletal muscle of interest is being activated, the amount of force generated, and an indicator of muscle fatigue.[12] The two types of EMG are intra-muscular EMG and the most common, surface EMG. The EMG signals are much greater when a skeletal muscle is contracting verses relaxing. However, for smaller and deeper skeletal muscles the EMG signals are reduced and therefore are viewed as a less valued technique for measuring the activation.[13] In research using EMG, a maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) is commonly performed on the skeletal muscle of interest, to have reference data for the rest of the EMG recordings during the main experimental testing for that same skeletal muscle.[14]
B. K. Pedersen and her colleagues have conducted research showing that skeletal muscle functions as an endocrine organ by secreting cytokines and other peptides, now referred to as myokines. Myokines in turn are believed to mediate the health benefits of exercise.[15]
See also[edit]
Hill's muscle model
In vitro muscle testing
Muscle atrophy
Musculoskeletal injury
Myopathy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Birbrair, Alexander; Zhang, Tan; Wang, Zhong-Min; Messi, Maria Laura; Enikolopov, Grigori N.; Mintz, Akiva; Delbono, Osvaldo (2013-03-21). "Role of Pericytes in Skeletal Muscle Regeneration and Fat Accumulation". Stem Cells and Development. 22 (16): 2298–2314. doi:10.1089/scd.2012.0647. ISSN 1547-3287. PMC 3730538  . PMID 23517218.
Jump up ^ Zammit, PS; Partridge, TA; Yablonka-Reuveni, Z (November 2006). "The skeletal muscle satellite cell: the stem cell that came in from the cold". Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 54 (11): 1177–91. doi:10.1369/jhc.6r6995.2006. PMID 16899758.
Jump up ^ Saladin, Kenneth S. (2010). Anatomy and Physiology (3rd ed.). New York: Watnick. pp. 405–406. ISBN 9780072943689.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martini, Frederic H.; Timmons, Michael J.; Tallitsch, Robert B. (2008). Human Anatomy (6 ed.). Benjamin Cummings. pp. 251–252. ISBN 978-0-321-50042-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lieber, Richard L. (2002) Skeletal muscle structure, function, and plasticity. Wolters Kluwer Health.
Jump up ^ Costanzo, Linda S. (2002). Physiology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 23. ISBN 0-7216-9549-3.
Jump up ^ Quoted from National Skeletal Muscle Research Center; UCSD, Muscle Physiology Home Page – Skeletal Muscle Architecture, Effect of Muscle Architecture on Muscle Function
Jump up ^ Barry, D. T. (1992). "Vibrations and sounds from evoked muscle twitches". Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 32 (1–2): 35–40. PMID 1541245.
Jump up ^ [1], Peak Performance – Endurance training: understanding your slow twitch muscle fibres will boost performance
Jump up ^ Chal J, Oginuma M, Al Tanoury Z, Gobert B, Sumara O, Hick A, Bousson F, Zidouni Y, Mursch C, Moncuquet P, Tassy O, Vincent S, Miyanari A, Bera A, Garnier JM, Guevara G, Hestin M, Kennedy L, Hayashi S, Drayton B, Cherrier T, Gayraud-Morel B, Gussoni E, Relaix F, Tajbakhsh S, Pourquié O (August 2015). "Differentiation of pluripotent stem cells to muscle fiber to model Duchenne muscular dystrophy". Nature Biotechnology. 33: 962–9. doi:10.1038/nbt.3297. PMID 26237517.
Jump up ^ The electrical activity associated with muscle contraction are measured via electromyography (EMG)
Jump up ^ Cè, E; Rampichini, S; Limonta, E; Esposito, F (Dec 10, 2013). "Fatigue effects on the electromechanical delay components during the relaxation phase after isometric contraction". Acta physiologica (Oxford, England). 211 (1): 82–96. doi:10.1111/apha.12212. PMID 24319999.
Jump up ^ Xu, Q; Quan, Y; Yang, L; He, J (Jan 2013). "An adaptive algorithm for the determination of the onset and offset of muscle contraction by EMG signal processing". IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering : a publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 21 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2012.2226916. PMID 23193462.
Jump up ^ Milder, DA; Sutherland, EJ; Gandevia, SC; McNulty, PA (2014). "Sustained maximal voluntary contraction produces independent changes in human motor axons and the muscle they innervate". PLoS ONE. 9 (3): e91754. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991754M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091754. PMC 3951451  . PMID 24622330.
Jump up ^ Pedersen, B. K. (2013). "Muscle as a Secretory Organ". Comprehensive Physiology. Comprehensive Physiology. 3. pp. 1337–62. doi:10.1002/cphy.c120033. ISBN 9780470650714. PMID 23897689.
[show]
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Fusiform
Pennate muscle
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Other
Anatomical terms of muscle
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List of muscles of the human body
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v
t
e
Muscle tissue
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Calmodulin
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muscle
Costamere/
DAPC
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DAP:
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B
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B1
B2
G1
G2
Syncoilin
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related:
NOS1
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(a, i, and h bands;
z and m lines)
Myofilament
thin filament/actin
thick filament/myosin
elastic filament/titin
nebulin
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T
C
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Connective tissue in skeletal muscle
General
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NDL: 001143838
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text:
I Don't Want to Talk About It
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1993 film, see I Don't Want to Talk About It (film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"I Don't Want to Talk About It"
Song by Crazy Horse
from the album Crazy Horse
Released
February 1971
Genre
Country rock
Length
5:18
Label
Reprise
Songwriter(s)
Danny Whitten
Producer(s)
Jack Nitzsche, Russ Titelman
"I Don't Want to Talk About It"
Single by Rod Stewart and Chrissie Hynde
from the album Atlantic Crossing
B-side
"The First Cut Is the Deepest"
"The Best Days of My Life" (US)
Released
1977 (Europe)
1979 (US)
Format
7" single
Recorded
1975
Genre
Rock
Length
4:13 (single version)
Label
Riva
Songwriter(s)
Danny Whitten
Producer(s)
Tom Dowd
Rod Stewart and Chrissie Hynde singles chronology
"Get Back"
(1976) "I Don't Want to Talk About It"
(1977) "The First Cut Is the Deepest"
(1977)
"Get Back"
(1976) "I Don't Want to Talk About It"
(1977) "The First Cut Is the Deepest"
(1977)
Music video
"I Don't Want to Talk About It" on YouTube
"I Don't Want to Talk About It" is a song written by Danny Whitten. It was first recorded by Crazy Horse and issued as the final track on side one of their 1971 eponymous album. It was Whitten's signature tune, but gained more fame via its numerous cover versions, especially that by Rod Stewart.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cover versions
2 Original recording personnel
3 References
4 External links
Cover versions[edit]
In 1975, Rod Stewart recorded the song at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama, for his album Atlantic Crossing. This became successful when it was released as a single. In the United States, it became a top fifty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in early 1980 (#46 pop and #44 adult contemporary). In the United Kingdom, it topped the UK Singles Chart as a double A-side with "The First Cut Is the Deepest" in 1977.[1]
In 1989, Stewart recorded a new version of "I Don't Want to Talk About It" for Storyteller – The Complete Anthology: 1964–1990. It was later included on Downtown Train – Selections from the Storyteller Anthology and released as a single in 1990. It received extensive airplay on adult contemporary radio stations in the United States as an album cut, reaching number two on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. Stewart also sang this song as a duet with Amy Belle during his 2004 tour[2] and it is included in his concert DVD.
In June 1988, Everything but the Girl released their version as a single and featured from the 1988 album Idlewild. This also met with success in the UK, peaking at number three on the UK Singles Chart. It was their first British top ten hit and would remain their only one until 1995, when the remix of "Missing" also peaked at number three. Tracey Thorn has said that Stewart had been regarded as "a heroic figure" in her home when she was growing up, and that her brother Keith owned the "albums with grimy-sounding titles like An Old Raincoat Won't Ever Let You Down, and Gasoline Alley". She herself had "always liked Atlantic Crossing."[3]
Other notable artists who have recorded versions of this song include Blue, Rita Coolidge, Billie Jo Spears, Ian Matthews, A-Mei, Pegi Young, D'ZRT, Nils Lofgren, who also helped Whitten write the song though he received no album credit for this, Dina Carroll, Joe McElderry, David Sneddon, winner of the BBC's Fame Academy, Geoff Muldaur, Llama Farmers, Alex Parks, Indigo Girls on the Philadelphia soundtrack, and Andy Williams.
Original recording personnel[edit]
Danny Whitten — guitars, lead vocals
Nils Lofgren — guitars, backing vocals
Ry Cooder — slide guitar
Jack Nitzsche — piano, backing vocals
Billy Talbot — bass, backing vocals
Ralph Molina — drums, backing vocals
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. pp. 339–40. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "Rod Stewart & Amy Belle- I Dont Want To Talk About It". Royal Albert Hall, London. 2004. Archived from the original on September 26, 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Tracey Thorn, Bedsit Disco Queen, p.204
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Free" by Deniece Williams UK number-one single (Rod Stewart version)
21 May 1977 Succeeded by
"Lucille" by Kenny Rogers
[show]
v
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Everything but the Girl
Ben Watt
Tracey Thorn
Discography
Studio albums
Eden
Everything but the Girl
Love Not Money
Baby the Stars Shine Bright
Idlewild
The Language of Life
Worldwide
Acoustic
Amplified Heart
Walking Wounded
Temperamental
Compilation albums
Essence & Rare 82-92
Home Movies
The Best of Everything but the Girl
Back to Mine
Like the Deserts Miss the Rain
Adapt or Die: Ten Years of Remixes
The Platinum Collection
The Works a 3 CD Retrospective
Singles
"Night and Day"
"Each and Every One"
"Mine"
"Native Land"
"When All's Well"
"Angel"
"Come On Home"
"Don't Leave Me Behind"
"These Early Days (remix)"
"I Always Was Your Girl"
"I Don't Want to Talk About It"
"Love Is Here Where I Live"
"Driving"
"Take Me"
"Old Friends"
"Twin Cities"
"Rollercoaster"
"Missing"
"Walking Wounded"
"Wrong"
"Single"
"Before Today"
"The Future of the Future (Stay Gold)"
"Five Fathoms"
"Blame"
"Temperamental"
"Lullaby of Clubland"
"Tracey in My Room"
"Corcovado"
Other notable songs
"I Didn't Know I Was Looking for Love"
Video albums
Like the Deserts Miss the Rain
Related articles
Patient
Marine Girls
[show]
v
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Rod Stewart singles
1970s
"It's All Over Now" (1970)
"Reason to Believe"/"Maggie May" (1971)
"Every Picture Tells a Story"/"Reason to Believe" (1971) Spain only
"(I Know) I'm Losing You"/"Mandolin Wind" (1971)
"Handbags and Gladrags" (1972)
"You Wear It Well" (1972)
"Angel" (1972)
"What's Made Milwaukee Famous (Has Made a Loser Out of Me)" (1972)
"Twistin' the Night Away" (1973, 1987)
"Oh! No Not My Baby" (1973)
"Farewell" / "You Send Me" (1973)
"Mine for Me" (1974)
"You Can Make Me Dance, Sing or Anything" (1974) Stewart/Faces
"Sailing" (1975)
"This Old Heart of Mine" (1975)
"Tonight's the Night" (1975)
"The Killing of Georgie" (1976)
"Get Back" (1976)
"The First Cut Is the Deepest" (1977)
"I Don't Want to Talk About It" (1977, 1990)
"You're in My Heart (The Final Acclaim)" (1978)
"Hot Legs" (1978)
"I Was Only Joking" (1978)
"Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?" (1978, 1997)
"Ain't Love a Bitch" (1979)
"Blondes (Have More Fun)" (1979)
1980s
"(If Loving You Is Wrong) I Don't Want to Be Right" (1980)
"Passion" (1980)
"Tonight, I'm Yours (Don't Hurt Me)" (1981)
"Young Turks" (1982)
"How Long?" (1982)
"Baby Jane" (1983)
"That's What Friends Are For" (1983)
"Infatuation" (1984)
"Some Guys Have All the Luck" (1984)
"All Right Now" (1984)
"People Get Ready" (1985, 1991, 1993) Stewart/Beck
"Love Touch" (1986)
"In My Life" (1987)
"Forever Young" (1988)
"My Heart Can't Tell You No" (1988)
"This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)" (1989)Stewart/Isley
"Downtown Train" (1989)
1990s
"It Takes Two" (1990)Stewart/Turner
"Rhythm of My Heart" (1991)
"The Motown Song" (1991)
"Your Song" (1992)
"Ruby Tuesday" (1993)
"Have I Told You Lately" (1993)
"Reason to Believe" (unplugged, 1993)
"All for Love" (1993) Stewart/Adams/Sting
"Leave Virginia Alone" (1995)
"Lady Luck" (1996)
"Ooh La La" (1998)
"Rocks" (1998)
"Cigarettes and Alcohol" (1998)
"Faith of the Heart" (1999)
2000s
"These Foolish Things" (2002)
"They Can't Take That Away from Me" (2003)
"Time After Time" (2003)
"What a Wonderful World" (2004)
"Blue Moon" (2004)
"Baby, It's Cold Outside" (2005)
"I've Got a Crush on You" (2005)
"I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm" (2006)
"Have You Ever Seen the Rain?" (2006)
2010s
"Everybody Hurts" (2010)
"Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!" (2012)
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" (2012)
"She Makes Me Happy" (2013)
"It's Over" (2013)
"Brighton Beach" (2013)
"Everyday" (2015)
"Love Is" (2015)
This 1970s single–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Categories:
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text:
Earth's rotation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For the duration of daylight and night, see Daytime and Night.
An animation of Earth's rotation around the planet's axis
This long-exposure photo of the northern night sky over the Nepali Himalayas shows the apparent paths of the stars as Earth rotates.
Earth's rotation is the rotation of Planet Earth around its own axis. Earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion. As viewed from the north pole star Polaris, Earth turns counter clockwise.
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. This point is distinct from Earth's North Magnetic Pole. The South Pole is the other point where Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface, in Antarctica.
Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds with respect to the stars (see below). Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation. Atomic clocks show that a modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago,[1] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of about 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE.[2]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Empirical tests
2 Periods
2.1 True solar day
2.2 Mean solar day
2.3 Stellar and sidereal day
2.4 Angular speed
3 Changes
3.1 In rotational axis
3.2 In rotational velocity
3.2.1 Tidal interactions
3.2.2 Resonant stabilization
3.2.3 Global events
3.3 Measurement
3.4 Ancient observations
4 Origin
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of the earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470–385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.[3]
A more conventional picture was that supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that the earth rotated but did not suggest that the earth revolved about the sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the sun's central place.
However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about the earth.[4] This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought the earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.[5]
In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata wrote that the spherical earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the fixed stars appear to be going westward."[6][7]
In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.[8] According to al-Biruni, Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020) invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[9][10] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars."[9] Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy's arguments against it.[11] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus.[12]
In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle's view[13] and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan[14] and Nicole Oresme[15] in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of earth's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central sun.[16]
Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws, used Copernicus's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported the earth's rotation in his treatise on the earth's magnetism[17] and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries.[18] Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of the earth about the sun are often called "semi-Copernicans".[19] A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating earth due to the lack of then-observable eastward deflections in falling bodies;[20] such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.
Empirical tests[edit]
The earth's rotation implies that the equator bulges and the poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would occur in the ratio of 1:230, and pointed to the 1673 pendulum measurements by Richer as corroboration of the change in gravity,[21] but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the flattening, thus confirming both Newton and the Copernican position.[22]
In the Earth's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the northern hemisphere (and left in the southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the differing rotation direction of cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Hooke, following a 1679 suggestion from Newton, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were only obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th century, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights.[n 1] A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m (520 ft) departed by 27.4 mm (1.08 in) from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm (1.11 in).
The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of the Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.
Periods [edit]
Starry circles arc around the south celestial pole, seen overhead at ESO's La Silla Observatory.[23]
True solar day[edit]
Main article: Solar time
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two.[n 2] The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about 10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about 20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and 21 seconds, respectively.[24][25][26]
Mean solar day[edit]
Main article: Solar time § Mean solar time
The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds.[27][28][29] Random fluctuations due to core-mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms.[30][31] The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.[32]
The apparent solar time is a measure of the Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.
Stellar and sidereal day[edit]
On a prograde planet like the Earth, the stellar day is shorter than the solar day. At time 1, the Sun and a certain distant star are both overhead. At time 2, the planet has rotated 360° and the distant star is overhead again but the Sun is not (1→2 = one stellar day). It is not until a little later, at time 3, that the Sun is overhead again (1→3 = one solar day).
Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.098 903 691s, 0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days).[33][n 3] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.090 530 832 88s, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days).[33] Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[35]
Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005[36] and 1962–2005.[37]
Recently (1999–2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).
Angular speed[edit]
Plot of latitude vs tangential speed. The dashed line shows that the Kennedy Space Center example. The dot-dash line denotes typical airliner cruise speed.
The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150 ± 0.0000001) ×10−5 radians per SI second (mean solar second).[33] Multiplying by (180°/π radians)×(86,400 seconds/mean solar day) yields 360.9856°/mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun.[n 4] Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of 465.1 m/s (1,526 ft/s), or 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph).[38] Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km/h.[39] This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795,[33] which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h.
The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude.[40] For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59° × 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph; 465.1 m/s) = 1,470.23 km/h (913.56 mph; 408.40 m/s)
Changes[edit]
Main articles: Fluctuations in the length of day and ΔT
Earth's axial tilt is about 23.4°. It oscillates between 22.1° and 24.5° on a 41,000-year cycle and is currently decreasing.
In rotational axis[edit]
The Earth's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to the Earth's crust; this is called polar motion.
Precession is a rotation of the Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.
In rotational velocity[edit]
Tidal interactions[edit]
Over millions of years, the Earth's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to r − 6 {\displaystyle r^{-6}} , where r {\displaystyle r} is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with the Earth.
This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements[41] found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago[42] to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.[43]
Resonant stabilization[edit]
The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying the Earth's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data[41] tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600Myr ago. Some models suggest that the Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian.[42] This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally-driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600Myr ago, citing the resemblance of simulated results and existing paleorotational data.[44]
Deviation of day length from SI based day
Global events[edit]
Additionally, some large-scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the length of a day to shorten by 3 microseconds by affecting the Earth's moment of inertia.[45] Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of the Earth's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of the Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation period.[46]
Measurement[edit]
The primary monitoring of the Earth's rotation is performed with very-long-baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession, and nutation.[47]
Ancient observations[edit]
There are recorded observations of solar and lunar eclipses by Babylonian and Chinese astronomers beginning in the 8th century BCE, as well as from the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere. These observations can be used to determine changes in the Earth's rotation over the last 27 centuries, since the length of the day is a critical parameter in the calculation of the place and time of eclipses. A change in day length of milliseconds per century shows up as a change of hours and thousands of kilometers in eclipse observations. The ancient data is consistent with a shorter day, meaning the Earth was turning faster throughout the past.[48][49]
Origin[edit]
An artist's rendering of the protoplanetary disk.
The Earth's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks, and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet.[50]
However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact.[51] Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.
See also[edit]
Allais effect
Axial precession
Diurnal cycle
Earth's orbit
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Geodesic (in mathematics)
Geodesics in general relativity
Geodesy
Giant-impact hypothesis
History of Earth
History of geodesy, Space techniques
List of important publications in geology
Newcomb's Tables of the Sun
Nychthemeron
Spherical Earth
World Geodetic System
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See Fallexperimente zum Nachweis der Erdrotation (German Wikipedia article).
Jump up ^ When Earth's eccentricity exceeds 0.047 and perihelion is at an appropriate equinox or solstice, only one period with one peak balances another period that has two peaks.[24]
Jump up ^ Aoki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".[34]
Jump up ^ In astronomy, unlike geometry, 360° means returning to the same point in some cyclical time scale, either one mean solar day or one sidereal day for rotation on Earth's axis, or one sidereal year or one mean tropical year or even one mean Julian year containing exactly 365.25 days for revolution around the Sun.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dennis D. McCarthy; Kenneth P. Seidelmann (18 September 2009). Time: From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 232. ISBN 978-3-527-62795-0.
Jump up ^ Stephenson, F. Richard (2003). "Historical eclipses and Earth's rotation". Astronomy & Geophysics. 44 (2). pp. 2.22–2.27. Bibcode:2003A&G....44b..22S. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.44222.x.
Jump up ^ Burch, George Bosworth (1954). "The Counter-Earth". Osiris. 11: 267–294. doi:10.1086/368583. JSTOR 301675.
Jump up ^ Aristotle. Of the Heavens. Book II, Ch 13. 1.
Jump up ^ Ptolemy. Almagest Book I, Chapter 8.
Jump up ^ http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b61_51.pdf
Jump up ^ Kim Plofker (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press. p. 71. ISBN 0-691-12067-6.
Jump up ^ Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam". Scientia/Rivista di Scienza. 108 (67): 762.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, M. J. L., ed. (2 November 2006). Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 413. ISBN 9780521028875.
Jump up ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1 January 1993). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. SUNY Press. p. 135. ISBN 9781438414195.
Jump up ^ Ragep, Sally P. (2007). "Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā". In Thomas Hockey; et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 570–2. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
Jump up ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context, Cambridge University Press, 14 (1–2): 145–163, doi:10.1017/s0269889701000060
Jump up ^ Aquinas, Thomas. Commentaria in libros Aristotelis De caelo et Mundo. Lib II, cap XIV. trans in Grant, Edward, ed. (1974). A Source Book in Medieval Science. Harvard University Press. pages 496–500
Jump up ^ Buridan, John (1942). Quaestiones super libris quattuo De Caelo et mundo. pp. 226–232. in Grant 1974, pp. 500–503
Jump up ^ Oresme, Nicole. Le livre du ciel et du monde. pp. 519–539. in Grant 1974, pp. 503–510
Jump up ^ Copernicus, Nicolas. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. Book I, Chap 5–8.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, William. De Magnete, On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth. pp. 313–347.
Jump up ^ Russell, John L. "Copernican System in Great Britain". In J. Dobrzycki. The Reception of Copernicus' Heliocentric Theory. p. 208.
Jump up ^ J. Dobrzycki 1972, p. 221
Jump up ^ Almagestum novum, chapter nine, cited in Graney, Christopher M. (2012). "126 arguments concerning the motion of the earth. GIOVANNI BATTISTA RICCIOLI in his 1651 ALMAGESTUM NOVUM" (PDF). Journal for the History of Astronomy. volume 43, pages 215–226.
Jump up ^ Newton, Isaac (1846). Newton's Principia. Translated by A. Motte. p. 412.
Jump up ^ Shank, J. B. (2008). The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment. U of Chicago Press. pp. 324, 355.
Jump up ^ "Starry Spin-up". Retrieved 24 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Jean Meeus; J. M. A. Danby (January 1997). Mathematical Astronomy Morsels. Willmann-Bell. pp. 345–346. ISBN 978-0-943396-51-4.
Jump up ^ Equation of time in red and true solar day in blue
Jump up ^ The duration of the true solar day
Jump up ^ http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eoppc/eop/eopc04_05/eopc04.62-now
Jump up ^ Physical basis of leap seconds
Jump up ^ Leap seconds Archived 12 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Prediction of Universal Time and LOD Variations
Jump up ^ R. Hide et al., "Topographic core-mantle coupling and fluctuations in the Earth's rotation" 1993.
Jump up ^ Leap seconds by USNO Archived 12 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d IERS EOP Useful constants
Jump up ^ Aoki, et al., "The new definition of Universal Time", Astronomy and Astrophysics 105 (1982) 359–361.
Jump up ^ Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, ed. P. Kenneth Seidelmann, Mill Valley, Cal., University Science Books, 1992, p.48, ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Jump up ^ IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86,400s … since 1623 Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Graph at end.
Jump up ^ IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005
Jump up ^ Arthur N. Cox, ed., Allen's Astrophysical Quantities p.244.
Jump up ^ Michael E. Bakich, The Cambridge planetary handbook, p.50.
Jump up ^ Butterworth & Palmer. "Speed of the turning of the Earth". Ask an Astrophysicist. NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, George E. (1 February 2000). "Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit". Reviews of Geophysics. 38 (1): 37–59. Bibcode:2000RvGeo..38...37W. doi:10.1029/1999RG900016. ISSN 1944-9208.
^ Jump up to: a b Zahnle, K.; Walker, J. C. (1 January 1987). "A constant daylength during the Precambrian era?". Precambrian Research. 37: 95–105. Bibcode:1987PreR...37...95Z. doi:10.1016/0301-9268(87)90073-8. ISSN 0301-9268. PMID 11542096.
Jump up ^ Scrutton, C. T. (1 January 1978). Brosche, Professor Dr Peter; Sündermann, Professor Dr Jürgen, eds. Periodic Growth Features in Fossil Organisms and the Length of the Day and Month. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 154–196. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67097-8_12. ISBN 9783540090465.
Jump up ^ Bartlett, Benjamin C.; Stevenson, David J. (1 January 2016). "Analysis of a Precambrian resonance-stabilized day length". Geophysical Research Letters: 2016GL068912. arXiv:1502.01421  . Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.5716B. doi:10.1002/2016GL068912. ISSN 1944-8007.
Jump up ^ Sumatran earthquake sped up Earth's rotation, Nature, 30 December 2004.
Jump up ^ Wu, P.; W.R.Peltier (1984). "Pleistocene deglaciation and the earth's rotation: a new analysis". Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 76 (3): 753–792. Bibcode:1984GeoJ...76..753W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1984.tb01920.x.
Jump up ^ Permanent monitoring
Jump up ^ Sid Perkins (6 December 2016). "Ancient eclipses show Earth's rotation is slowing". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aa10469.
Jump up ^ FR Stephenson; LV Morrison; CY Hohonkerk (7 December 2016). "Measurement of the Earth's rotation: 720 BC to AD 2015". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 472 (2196). Bibcode:2016RSPSA.47260404S. doi:10.1098/rspa.2016.0404. PMC 5247521  .
Jump up ^ "Why do planets rotate?". Ask an Astronomer.
Jump up ^ Stevenson, D. J. (1987). "Origin of the moon–The collision hypothesis". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 15 (1): 271–315. Bibcode:1987AREPS..15..271S. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.15.050187.001415.
External links[edit]
USNO Earth Orientation new site, being populated
USNO IERS old site, to be abandoned
IERS Earth Orientation Center: Earth rotation data and interactive analysis
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)
If the Earth's rotation period is less than 24 hours, why don't our clocks fall out of sync with the Sun?
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The Cold Light of Day (2012 film)
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The Cold Light Of Day
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Mabrouk El Mechri
Produced by
Marc D. Evans
Trevor Macy
Kevin Mann
Mark Canton
Written by
Scott Wiper
John Petro
Starring
Henry Cavill
Bruce Willis
Sigourney Weaver
Verónica Echegui
Music by
Lucas Vidal
Cinematography
Remi Adefarasin
Edited by
Valerio Bonelli
Production
company
Intrepid Pictures
Galavis Film
Film Rites
Fria Luz Del Dia, A.I.E.
Distributed by
Aurum Producciones (Spain)
Summit Entertainment (United States)
Release date
April 4, 2012 (2012-04-04) (Spain)
September 7, 2012 (2012-09-07) (United States)
Running time
93 minutes
Country
United States
Spain
Language
English
Budget
$20 million[1]
Box office
$16.9 million[2]
The Cold Light of Day is a 2012 American/Spanish action film directed by Mabrouk El Mechri, starring Henry Cavill, Bruce Willis, and Sigourney Weaver. The film is about Will (Cavill), who finds that his family has been kidnapped by foreign agents who are searching for a briefcase stolen by Will's father (Willis), leading to Will taking matters into his own hands to find them.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
Will Shaw (Henry Cavill) owns a consultancy business in San Francisco. During the summer break, he reluctantly visits his family in Spain for a holiday. He is met there by his father, Martin Shaw (Bruce Willis), who is himself an advisor for the government. That evening, a phone call to Will concerning his company's insolvency puts him in a bad mood and he decides to go fishing the next day. His preoccupation with the phone results in a sailing accident; Will leaps to save his brother's (Rafi Gavron) girlfriend Dara (Emma Hamilton) from being hit by the yacht's boom but she hits her head on a winch. While everyone is fussing over Dara, Will's phone rings again. In frustration, Martin grabs it and throws it into the ocean. Will decides to swim to town to fetch medical supplies and take some time to cool down. When he comes back, he can no longer find his family in the yacht.
Will goes to the police and they lead him to Zahir (Roschdy Zem), who knows the whereabouts of Will's family, and invites him along to be shown the way. Will senses something is amiss, and attempts to escape with the police car. Martin appears, beats the officers, and helps Will escape.
Martin reveals he is a CIA agent, and explains that the people who kidnapped their family are after a briefcase he had taken while carrying out a CIA assignment. Martin calls his CIA team leader, Jean Carrack (Sigourney Weaver) who agrees to meet him in Madrid. At the meeting, Will stays in the car while Martin talks to Carrack, who says she no longer has the briefcase for she handed it over to their superiors. He doesn't believe her and senses something is wrong. As Martin returns to the car, he is shot and killed by a sniper (Joseph Mawle). Will is shocked but when he gets out to check him, Martin's phone starts ringing and the sniper, Gorman, starts shooting at him. Will grabs the phone, leaves the car, and is chased through Madrid by Gorman. Will escapes, leaving his father's gun in a trash bin. During his escape, Will takes a call from the kidnappers, who want to speak to "Tom" and demand the briefcase in exchange for his family. He is given a deadline of 21 hours and a meeting point.
Will arranges a meeting with his father's friend, Diego. He arrives at Diego's office and meets receptionist Lucia Caldera (Verónica Echegui), who was the girl he spoke to on the phone and it transpires that Diego is her uncle. But Diego was killed by Carrack and Gorman. Will and Lucia escape across the rooftops, but Will is shot. Instead of taking Will to a hospital, Lucia takes him to a nightclub, to a friend who has medical experience. Lucia also tells Will that "Tom" is Martin's alias in Spain, and that she is actually Will's half sister, being Martin's daughter by another woman.
As Will arrives at the meeting point, the kidnappers grab him and torture him for his father's whereabouts. The kidnappers are actually members of the Israelis Government lead by Zahir whom Martin stole the briefcase from while Zahir was using the sensitive information as a lure out a spy in their own government. Once they realize that Carrack has the briefcase, they use Will to lure our Carrack. Will briefly meets his family before Zahir tosses Will back out.
Will heads to the nightclub to meet Lucia. Lucia comes up with a plan to lure Carrack out by starting a tab on her credit card. Gorman appears and is subdued by bouncers at the nightclub and tortured for information. He gives nothing away and Will decides to let him think he has escaped and to follow him. This works and they follow him to Carrack, who has the briefcase and in negotiation with someone in an underground car park. But Carrack senses that something's wrong and starts attacking the negotiators and Will. After an extensive car chase through Madrid, the roles are reversed and Carrack chases them, angry at their interference. The cars collide and Lucia is seriously injured. Just as Carrack is about to shoot Will, she is shot by a sniper, and Zahir retrieves the briefcase. It was revealed that Zahir and his team are CIA agents and Carrack, with Gorman, is a traitor. Zahir commends Will and tells him that his father would have been proud of him. Lucia recovers in hospital, surrounded by her half family. Will is offered a job in the CIA; whether he accepts is left unresolved.
Cast[edit]
Henry Cavill as Will Shaw
Sigourney Weaver as Jean Carrack
Bruce Willis as Martin Shaw
Verónica Echegui as Lucia Caldera
Caroline Goodall as Laurie Shaw
Rafi Gavron as Josh Shaw
Óscar Jaenada as Maximo
Lolo Herrero as Reynaldo
Mark Ullod as Vicente
Emma Hamilton as Dara Collins
Joseph Mawle as Gorman
Michael Budd as Esmael
Alex Amaral as Cesar
Jim Piddock as Meckler
Paloma Bloyd as Cristiana
Roschdy Zem as Zahir
Colm Meaney as CIA Agent
Production[edit]
The film was shot in Spain. The coastal tourist locations Teulada-Moraira and Javea are featured in the movie.
The film was released on April 6, 2012 in the United Kingdom and September 7, 2012 in the United States.
Reception[edit]
The film was panned by reviewers and holds a 5% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 2.7/10.[3] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 22 out of 100 from 10 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[4] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "D+" on an A+ to F scale.[5]
The New York Times described the film as a "thoroughly incompetent 'Bourne' movie imitation".[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Amy (September 6, 2012). "'The Possession' to scare off Bradley Cooper on slow weekend". latimes.com. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "'The Cold Light of Day' (2012)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Cold Light of Day (2012)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "The Cold Light of Day Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "CinemaScore". cinemascore.com.
Jump up ^ Holden, Stephen. "The Cold Light of Day (2012)". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
External links[edit]
The Cold Light of Day on IMDb
The Cold Light of Day at Rotten Tomatoes
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Mabrouk El Mechri
Virgil (2005)
JCVD (2008)
The Cold Light of Day (2012)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Cold_Light_of_Day_(2012_film)&oldid=825902037"
Categories:
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