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Greek language
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For the Greek language used during particular eras; see Proto-Greek, Mycenaean Greek, Ancient Greek, Koine Greek, Medieval Greek and Modern Greek.
Greek
Ελληνικά
Pronunciation
[eliniˈka]
Region
Greece, eastern Mediterranean
Native speakers
13 million (2012)[1]
Language family
Indo-European
Hellenic
Greek
Dialects
Ancient dialects
Modern dialects
Writing system
Greek alphabet
Greek Braille
Official status
Official language in
Greece
Cyprus
European Union
Language codes
ISO 639-1
el
ISO 639-2
gre (B)
ell (T)
ISO 639-3
Variously:
ell – Modern Greek
grc – Ancient Greek
cpg – Cappadocian Greek
gmy – Mycenaean Greek
pnt – Pontic
tsd – Tsakonian
yej – Yevanic
Glottolog
gree1276[2]
Linguasphere
56-AAA-a
56-AAA-aa to -am (varieties)
The Greek-speaking world:
regions where Greek is the official language
regions where Greek is the language of a significant minority
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Greek (Modern Greek: ελληνικά [eliniˈka], elliniká, "Greek", ελληνική γλώσσα [eliniˈci ˈɣlosa] ( listen), ellinikí glóssa, "Greek language") is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records.[3] Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history; other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously.[4] The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems.
The Greek language holds an important place in the history of the Western world and Christianity; the canon of ancient Greek literature includes seminal works in the Western canon such as the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science, especially astronomy, mathematics and logic, and Western philosophy, such as the Platonic dialogues and the works of Aristotle, are composed; the New Testament of the Christian Bible was written in Koiné Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, the study of the Greek texts and society of antiquity constitutes the discipline of Classics.
During antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire and develop into Medieval Greek.[5] In its modern form, the Greek language is the official language in two countries, Greece and Cyprus, a recognised minority language in seven other countries, and is one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. The language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora.
Greek roots are often used to coin new words for other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary.
Idealised portrayal of Homer.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Periods
1.2 Diglossia
1.3 Historical unity
2 Geographic distribution
2.1 Official status
3 Characteristics
3.1 Phonology
3.2 Morphology
3.2.1 Nouns and adjectives
3.2.2 Verbs
3.3 Syntax
3.4 Vocabulary
3.5 Greek loanwords in other languages
4 Classification
5 Writing system
5.1 Linear B
5.2 Cypriot syllabary
5.3 Greek alphabet
5.3.1 Diacritics
5.3.2 Punctuation
5.4 Latin alphabet
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
9.1 General background
9.2 Language learning
9.3 Dictionaries
9.4 Literature
History[edit]
Main article: History of Greek
Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC,[6] or possibly earlier.[7] The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC,[8] making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages.
Periods[edit]
Proto-Greek-speaking area according to linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev.
The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:
Proto-Greek: the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age.[9]
Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards.
Ancient Greek: in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the Middle Ages, but remained officially in use in the Byzantine world and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greek migration to western Europe.
Koine Greek: The fusion of Ionian with Attic, the dialect of Athens, began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great and after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. After the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, because the Apostles used this form of the language to spread Christianity. It is also known as Hellenistic Greek, New Testament Greek, and sometimes Biblical Greek because it was the original language of the New Testament and the Old Testament was translated into the same language via the Septuagint.
Distribution of varieties of Greek in Anatolia, 1910. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian Greek in green, with green dots indicating individual Cappadocian Greek villages.[10]
Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek: the continuation of Koine Greek, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Medieval Greek is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine.
Modern Greek (Neo-Hellenic):[11] Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it.
Diglossia[edit]
Main article: Greek language question
In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia: the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek, which was developed in the early 19th century and was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, having incorporated features of Katharevousa and giving birth to Standard Modern Greek, which is used today for all official purposes and in education.[12]
Historical unity[edit]
The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas.
The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.[13] It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English."[14]
Geographic distribution[edit]
Further information: Greeks and Greek diaspora
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
Spread of Greek in the United States.
Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. There are traditional Greek-speaking settlements and regions in the neighbouring countries of Albania, Bulgaria, and Turkey, as well as in several countries in the Black Sea area, such as Ukraine, Russia, Romania, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, and around the Mediterranean Sea, Southern Italy, Syria, Israel, Egypt, Lebanon, Libya and ancient coastal towns along the Levant. The language is also spoken by Greek emigrant communities in many countries in Western Europe, especially the United Kingdom and Germany, Canada, the United States, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, South Africa and others.
Official status[edit]
Greek is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population.[15] It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish).[16] Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages.[17] Furthermore, Greek is officially recognised as a minority language in parts of Italy and official in Dropull and Himara (Albania) and as a minority language all over Albania,[18] as well as in Lebanon, Syria, Armenia, Romania, and Ukraine as a regional or minority language in the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[19] Greeks are also a recognised ethnic minority in Hungary.
Characteristics[edit]
See also: Ancient Greek grammar, Koine Greek grammar, and Modern Greek grammar
The phonology, morphology, syntax and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodisations, relatively arbitrary, especially because at all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it.
Phonology[edit]
See also: Modern Greek phonology
Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details):
replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent.
simplification of the system of vowels and diphthongs: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in a chain shift of vowels towards /i/ (iotacism).
development of the voiceless aspirated plosives /pʰ/ and /tʰ/ to the voiceless fricatives /f/ and /θ/, respectively; the similar development of /kʰ/ to /x/ may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, θ, and χ).
development of the voiced plosives /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ to their voiced fricative counterparts /β/ (later /v/), /ð/, and /ɣ/.
Morphology[edit]
In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding[20] and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive). The verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically-formed future and perfect tenses and the optative mood. Many have been replaced by periphrastic (analytical) forms.
Nouns and adjectives[edit]
Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language).[21] Nouns, articles and adjectives show all the distinctions except for person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun.
Verbs[edit]
The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for:
Ancient Greek
Modern Greek
Person
first, second and third also second person formal
Number singular, dual and plural singular and plural
tense
present, past and future past and non-past (future is expressed by a periphrastic construction)
aspect
imperfective, perfective (traditionally called aorist) and perfect (sometimes also called perfective; see note about terminology) imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction)
mood
indicative, subjunctive, imperative and optative indicative, subjunctive,[22] and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions)
Voice
active, middle, and passive active and medio-passive
Syntax[edit]
Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (instead having a raft of new periphrastic constructions) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO.
Vocabulary[edit]
Greek is a language distinguished by an extensive vocabulary. Most of the vocabulary of Ancient Greek was inherited, but it includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks.[23] Words of non-Indo-European origin can be traced into Greek from as early as Mycenaean times; they include a large number of Greek toponyms. The vast majority of Modern Greek vocabulary is directly inherited from Ancient Greek, but in some cases, words have changed meanings. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language mainly from Latin, Venetian and Turkish. During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected.
Greek loanwords in other languages[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Greek and Latin roots in English.
Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English: mathematics, physics, astronomy, democracy, philosophy, athletics, theatre, rhetoric, baptism, evangelist, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, telephony, isomer, biomechanics, cinematography, etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary like all words ending with –logy ("discourse"). There are many English words of Greek origin.[24]
Classification[edit]
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian,[25] which many scholars suggest may have been a dialect of Greek itself, but it is so poorly attested that it is difficult to conclude anything about it.[26] Independently of the Macedonian question, some scholars have grouped Greek into Graeco-Phrygian, as Greek and the extinct Phrygian share features that are not found in other Indo-European languages.[27] Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found for grouping the living branches of the family.[28] In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian by some linguists. If proven and recognised, the three languages would form a new Balkan sub-branch with other dead European languages.[29]
Writing system[edit]
Greek alphabet
Αα Alpha Νν Nu
Ββ Beta Ξξ Xi
Γγ Gamma Οο Omicron
Δδ Delta Ππ Pi
Εε Epsilon Ρρ Rho
Ζζ Zeta Σσς Sigma
Ηη Eta Ττ Tau
Θθ Theta Υυ Upsilon
Ιι Iota Φφ Phi
Κκ Kappa Χχ Chi
Λλ Lambda Ψψ Psi
Μμ Mu Ωω Omega
History
Archaic local variants
Diacritics
Ligatures
Numerals
ϛ (6)
ϟ (90)
ϡ (900)
Use in other languages
Bactrian
Coptic
Albanian
Related topics
Use as scientific symbols
Book
Category
Commons
v
t
e
See also: Greek Braille
Linear B[edit]
Main article: Linear B
Linear B, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.[30] It is basically a syllabary, which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A, has not been deciphered to this day).[30] The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek, is the earliest known form of Greek.[30]
Cypriot syllabary[edit]
Main article: Cypriot syllabary
Greek inscription in Cypriot syllabic script
Another similar system used to write the Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet.[31]
Greek alphabet[edit]
Main articles: Greek alphabet and Greek orthography
Ancient epichoric variants of the Greek alphabet from Euboea, Ionia, Athens, and Corinth comparing to modern Greek.
Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet, with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill.
The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position:
upper case
Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω
lower case
α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ μ ν ξ ο π ρ σ
ς τ υ φ χ ψ ω
Diacritics[edit]
Main article: Greek diacritics
In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs: three different accent marks (acute, grave, and circumflex), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (rough and smooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography.
After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek.
Punctuation[edit]
In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia (άνω τελεία). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, "whatever") from ότι (óti, "that").[32]
Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.[33]
Latin alphabet[edit]
Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics. The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for Roman Catholic). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning "Catholic Chiot") alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios. Additionally the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.[34]
See also[edit]
Greece portal
Language portal
Modern Greek
Varieties of Modern Greek
Medieval Greek
Ancient Greek
Hellenic languages
List of Greek and Latin roots in English
List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Ancient Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Cappadocian Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Mycenaean Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Pontic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Tsakonian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
(Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box)
Jump up ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Greek". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
Jump up ^ "Greek language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
Jump up ^ 1922-, Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez, (2005). A history of the Greek language : from its origins to the present. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004128354. OCLC 59712402.
Jump up ^ Manuel, Germaine Catherine (1989). A study of the preservation of the classical tradition in the education, language, and literature of the Byzantine Empire. HVD ALEPH.
Jump up ^ Renfrew 2003, p. 35; Georgiev 1981, p. 192.
Jump up ^ Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 437–438; Atkinson & Gray 2006, p. 102.
Jump up ^ "Ancient Tablet Found: Oldest Readable Writing in Europe". National Geographic Society. 30 March 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
Jump up ^ A comprehensive overview in J.T. Hooker's Mycenaean Greece (Hooker 1976, Chapter 2: "Before the Mycenaean Age", pp. 11–33 and passim); for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario, see Colin Renfrew's "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin" (Renfrew 1973, pp. 263–276, especially p. 267) in Bronze Age Migrations by R.A. Crossland and A. Birchall, eds. (1973).
Jump up ^ Dawkins & Halliday 1916.
Jump up ^ Ethnologue
Jump up ^ Peter., Mackridge, (1985). The modern Greek language : a descriptive analysis of standard modern Greek. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198157700. OCLC 11134463.
Jump up ^ Browning 1983.
Jump up ^ Alexiou 1982, pp. 156–192.
Jump up ^ "Greece". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of Cyprus, App. D., Part 1, Art. 3". Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. states that The official languages of the Republic are Greek and Turkish. However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in practice, outside Turkish-dominated Northern Cyprus, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006): Erasure as a Means of Maintaining Diglossia in Cyprus, San Diego Linguistics Papers 2: pp. 25–38, page 27.
Jump up ^ "The EU at a Glance – Languages in the EU". Europa. European Union. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Greek". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No. 148". Council of Europe. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
Jump up ^ Ralli 2001, pp. 164–203.
Jump up ^ The four cases that are found in all stages of Greek are the nominative, genitive, accusative and vocative. The dative/locative of Ancient Greek disappeared in the late Hellenistic period, and the instrumental case of Mycenaean Greek disappeared in the Archaic period.
Jump up ^ There is no particular morphological form that can be identified as 'subjunctive' in the modern language, but the term is sometimes encountered in descriptions even if the most complete modern grammar (Holton et al. 1997) does not use it and calls certain traditionally-'subjunctive' forms 'dependent'. Most Greek linguists advocate abandoning the traditional terminology (Anna Roussou and Tasos Tsangalidis 2009, in Meletes gia tin Elliniki Glossa, Thessaloniki, Anastasia Giannakidou 2009 "Temporal semantics and polarity: The dependency of the subjunctive revisited", Lingua); see Modern Greek grammar for explanation.
Jump up ^ Beekes 2009.
Jump up ^ Scheler 1977.
Jump up ^ Hamp 2013, pp. 8–10, 13.
Jump up ^ Babiniotis 1992, pp. 29–40; Dosuna 2012, pp. 65–78.
Jump up ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Graeco-Phrygian". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
Jump up ^ Renfrew 1990; Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1990, pp. 110–116; Renfrew 2003, pp. 17–48; Gray & Atkinson 2003, pp. 435–439.
Jump up ^ Holm 2008, pp. 628–636.
^ Jump up to: a b c T., Hooker, J. (1980). Linear B : an introduction. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 9780906515693. OCLC 7326206.
Jump up ^ "HarvardKey Login". academic.eb.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2017-08-01.
Jump up ^ Nicolas, Nick (2005). "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation". Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Hugoe),, Matthews, P. H. (Peter. The concise Oxford dictionary of linguistics. Oxford University Press. (Third ed.). [Oxford]. ISBN 9780199675128. OCLC 881847972.
Jump up ^ Androutsopoulos 2009, pp. 221–249.
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Androutsopoulos, Jannis (2009). "'Greeklish': Transliteration Practice and Discourse in a Setting of Computer-Mediated Digraphia". In Georgakopoulou, Alexandra; Silk, Michael. Standard Languages and Language Standards: Greek, Past and Present (PDF). Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 221–249. [permanent dead link]
Atkinson, Quentin D.; Gray, Russel D. (2006). "Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?". In Forster, Peter; Renfrew, Colin. Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 91–109. ISBN 978-1-902937-33-5.
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Jeffries, Ian (2002). Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition. London and New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 978-0-415-23671-3.
Ralli, Angeliki (2001). Μορφολογία [Morphology] (in Greek). Athens: Ekdoseis Pataki.
Renfrew, Colin (1973). "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin". In Crossland, R. A.; Birchall, Ann. Bronze Age Migrations in the Aegean; Archaeological and Linguistic Problems in Greek Prehistory: Proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Aegean Prehistory, Sheffield. London: Gerald Duckworth and Company Limited. pp. 263–276. ISBN 0-7156-0580-1.
Renfrew, Colin (2003). "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area". In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo. Languages in Prehistoric Europe. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17–48. ISBN 978-3-8253-1449-1.
Renfrew, Colin (1990) [1987]. Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3.
Scheler, Manfred (1977). Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary] (in German). Berlin: E. Schmidt. ISBN 978-3-503-01250-3.
Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2013). "A Surviving Treaty: The Lausanne Minority Protection in Greece and Turkey". In Henrard, Kristin. The Interrelation between the Right to Identity of Minorities and their Socio-economic Participation. Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 287–315.
Further reading[edit]
Allen, W. Sidney (1968). Vox Graeca – A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Greek. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20626-X.
Crosby, Henry Lamar; Schaeffer, John Nevin (1928). An Introduction to Greek. Boston and New York: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Dionysius of Thrace. Τέχνη Γραμματική [Art of Grammar] (in Greek). c. 100 BC
Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997). Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10002-X.
Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. London and New York: Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley Longman Limited). ISBN 0-582-30709-0.
Krill, Richard M. (1990). Greek and Latin in English Today. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 0-86516-241-7.
Mallory, James P. (1997). "Greek Language". In Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 240–246.
Newton, Brian (1972). The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08497-0.
Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508345-8.
Smyth, Herbert Weir; Messing, Gordon (1956) [1920]. Greek Grammar. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-36250-0.
External links[edit]
Standard Greek edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pontic Greek edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Greek language
For a list of words relating to Greek language, see the Greek language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Ancient Greek test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Greek language.
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Greek.
General background[edit]
Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education.
The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
Ancient Greek Tutorials, Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley
Language learning[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Greek language
Hellenistic Greek Lessons Greek-Language.com provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek.
Greek dictionary, tutorial and hangman program with texteditor, this shareware program is aimed at learning New Testament Greek.
komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language.
New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament
Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece (page in Greek)
Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)
USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course
Ask any question about the Greek language and a qualified Greek teacher answers you
Dictionaries[edit]
Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print.
The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern)
scanned images from S. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary, 1910
Literature[edit]
Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture
Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books
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text:
Tragic hero
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Tragic hero (disambiguation).
A tragic hero is the protagonist of a tragedy in drama. In his Poetics, Aristotle records the descriptions of the tragic hero to the playwright and strictly defines the place that the tragic hero must play and the kind of man he must be. Aristotle based his observations on previous dramas.[1] Many of the most famous instances of tragic heroes appear in Greek literature, most notably the works of Sophocles and Euripides.
Contents
[hide]
1 Aristotle's tragic hero
2 In other media
3 References
4 Sources
Aristotle's tragic hero[edit]
In Poetics, Aristotle suggests that the hero of a tragedy must evoke a sense of pity or fear within the audience, stating that “the change of fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to adversity."[2] In essence, the focus of the hero should not be the loss of his prosperity. He establishes the concept that pity is an emotion that must be elicited when, through his actions, the character receives undeserved misfortune, while the emotion of fear must be felt by the audience when they contemplate that such misfortune could possibly befall themselves in similar situations. Aristotle explains such change of fortune "should be not from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad.” Such misfortune is visited upon the tragic hero "not through vice or depravity but by some error of judgment." This error, or hamartia, refers to a flaw in the character of the hero, or a mistake made by the character.
An example of a mistake made by a tragic hero can be found in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex. In the story, the character of Oedipus is given a prophecy that he will murder his own father and marry his own mother. Although he goes to great lengths to avoid fulfilling the prophecy, Oedipus learns that the life of a man he took, Laius, was actually that of his own father, and that the woman to which he is married, Jocasta, is actually his own mother.
Creon of Sophocles' Antigone is another notable example of a tragic hero. Polyneices and his brother, Eteocles, were kings, and the former wanted more power, so he left and assembled an army from a neighboring city. They attacked and the two brothers killed each other. Through Creon's law forbidding the burial of Polyneices, Creon dooms his own family. Other examples provided by Aristotle include Thyestes.
Therefore, the Aristotelian hero is characterized as virtuous but not "eminently good," which suggests a noble or important personage who is upstanding and morally inclined while nonetheless subject to human error. Aristotle's tragic heroes are flawed individuals who commit, without evil intent, great wrongs or injuries that ultimately lead to their misfortune, often followed by tragic realization of the true nature of events that led to this destiny.[3] This means the hero still must be – to some degree – morally grounded. The usual irony in Greek tragedy is that the hero is both extraordinarily capable and highly moral (in the Greek honor-culture sense of being duty-bound to moral expectations), and it is these exact, highly-admirable qualities that lead the hero into tragic circumstances. The tragic hero is snared by his or her own greatness: extraordinary competence, a righteous passion for duty, and (often) the arrogance associated with greatness (hubris).
In other media[edit]
The influence of the Aristotelian hero extends past classical Greek literary criticism. Greek theater had a direct and profound influence on Roman theater and formed the basis of Western theater that continues into the modern era, deeply influencing a wide variety of arts throughout the world, in diverse mediums such as literature, music, film, television and even video games. Many iconic characters featured in these genres follow the archetype of the tragic hero. Examples of such characters include Anakin Skywalker from George Lucas' Star Wars films, Okonkwo from Nigerian author Chinua Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart, Arthas Menethil from the video game franchise Warcraft, and Stannis Baratheon from George R. R. Martin's novel series A Song of Ice and Fire and the HBO television series adaptation Game of Thrones. Some film historians regard Michael Corleone of The Godfather a tragic hero, although using traditional literary conventions, the character would more closely fit the role of villain, not tragic hero.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Aristotle, On Poetics, Ingram Bywater
Jump up ^ S.H. Butcher, The Poetic of Aristotle (1902), pp. 45-47
Jump up ^ Charles H. Reeves, The Aristotelian Concept of The Tragic Hero, Vol. 73, No. 2 (1952), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/291812 pp. 172-188
Jump up ^ AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains Archived October 23, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Sources[edit]
Carlson, Marvin. 1993. Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP. ISBN 0-8014-8154-6.
Janko, Richard, trans. 1987. Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets. By Aristotle. Cambridge: Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-033-3.
Pavis, Patrice. 1998. Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis. Trans. Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: U of Toronto P. ISBN 978-0-8020-8163-6.
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text:
Britain & Ireland's Next Top Model (cycle 9)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Britain's Next Top Model (cycle 9)
Cycle 9 contestants
Country of origin
United Kingdom
Ireland
No. of episodes
13
Release
Original network
Sky Living
Original release
20 June (2013-06-20) – 5 September 2013 (2013-09-05)
Additional information
Judges
Elle Macpherson
Tyson Beckford
Dannii Minogue
No. of contestants
14
Winner
Lauren Lambert
Cycle chronology
← Previous
Cycle 8
Next →
Cycle 10
Series summary
The ninth cycle of Britain & Ireland's Next Top Model premiered on 20 June 2013 on Sky Living. Two judges from the previous cycle did not retain their positions. Elle Macpherson continued as the show's head judge along with model Tyson Beckford, but fashion designer Julien Macdonald and Whitney Port decided to leave the series. Australian singer and talent show judge Dannii Minogue joined Macpherson and Beckford. This left the show with a panel of only three judges, the first time since cycle 5.[1][2]
A new format was introduced at judging beginning with this cycle. Guest judges were no longer a deciding factor during eliminations. Additionally, a new elimination process was implemented. At panel, the judges went straight into deliberation without evaluating each contestant individually. Furthermore, there were multiple contestants in danger of elimination each week as opposed to the usual two in seasons past. Only the contestants in danger of elimination received in-depth critique and feedback on ways to improve their performance.
The prizes for this cycle included a modelling contract with Models 1, a fashion spread and cover feature in Company magazine, contracts with Revlon cosmetics and TRESemmé, and an all-expenses paid shopping spree to New York City, courtesy of Destinology.
The winner of the competition was 23-year-old Lauren Lambert from Wallington, Surrey, England.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 Cast
2.1 Contestants
2.2 Judges
3 Episodes
4 Results
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Production[edit]
Cycle 9 auditions began on November 2012. The show saw a record number of auditions held in over 17 cities ranging from Plymouth to Glasgow. Thousands of applicants were narrowed to twenty-eight semi-finalists. Fourteen contestants were selected to take part in the final cast. Filming of the series began on 21 January 2013[1] The first airing on 20 June contained two episodes.
Cast[edit]
Contestants[edit]
(Ages stated are at start of contest)[3]
Contestant
Age
Hometown
Finish
Place
Christina Chalk 19 Dunblane Episode 2 14
Danielle Sandhu 20 Retford Episode 3 13
Jess Patterson 19 Knocklyon Episode 4 12
Abigail Johns 18 London Episode 5 11
Laura Young 19 Malvern Episode 6 10
Emily Garner 18 Chelmsford Episode 7 9
Saffron Williams 19 Batley Episode 8 8
Holly Carpenter 21 Raheny Episode 9 7
Angel Mbonu 18 Middlesex Episode 10 6
Naomi Pelkiewicz 22 Bristol Episode 11 5
Sophie Ellson 19 Bournemouth Episode 12 4
Sarah Kennedy 22 Portnoo Episode 13 3-2
Emma Ward 20 Leeds
Lauren Lambert 23 Wallington 1
Judges[edit]
Elle Macpherson (host)
Tyson Beckford
Dannii Minogue
Episodes[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
UK viewers
(millions)
96
1[4] "Episode 1" 20 June 2013 (2013-06-20) 0.30 (309,000)[a]
The 27 semi-finalists converged in London for casting week, where they met the judges for the first time and had one-on-one interviews with them before facing a cut that saw seven hopefuls leave the competition. The remaining 20 semi-finalists had a natural beauty photo shoot in groups of four. At the end of the episode, the judges chose the final 14 contestants, and the finalists moved into the model home.
Featured photographer: Alex James
97
2 "Episode 2" 20 June 2013 (2013-06-20) 0.34 (348,000)[a]
The contestants arrived at the National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham, and were put through their paces on the catwalk by model Jade Parfitt and designer Ian Stuart before being cast in a bridal runway show later that evening. Angel and Naomi were chosen as the best performers, and found an array of gifts waiting for them back at the house. The models also had a mock cover photo shoot for Company magazine, where they met the magazine's editor Victoria White. At elimination, Emma received picture of the week. Christina, Danielle, Saffron, and Sarah landed in the bottom four, and Christina was eliminated from the competition.
Special guests: Jade Parfitt, Ian Stuart, Victoria White
Featured photographer: Tim James
98
3 "Episode 3" 27 June 2013 (2013-06-27) 0.43 (430,000)[a]
The contestants were taken to the Matthew Curtis salon for makeovers, where Abigail and Saffron refused to cut their hair. They were later taken to a manor house in the countryside, and had a photo shoot on a pommel horse with gymnast Louis Smith. After being treated for a special meal at one of London's top restaurants, the models prepared for their next elimination. At panel, Lauren received picture of the week. Abigail, Danielle, Laura, and Saffron landed in the bottom four, and Danielle was eliminated from the competition.
Special guests: Matthew Curtis, Louis Smith
Featured photographer: Dan Kennedy
99
4 "Episode 4" 4 July 2013 (2013-07-04) 0.36 (367,000)[a]
The remaining contestants were taken to the offices of Models 1, and were divided into two groups of six for a go-see challenge with designers Ben de Lisi and Daniel Lismore. Angel and Sarah were chosen as the best performers. As the winners of the challenge, they were allowed to bring Abigail and Emma with them for a night out. The models were later taken to the beach, where they met model Jourdan Dunn, and found out that they would be posing topless in a denim photo shoot with a male model. At elimination, Naomi received picture of the week. Abigail, Holly, Jess, and Sophie landed in the bottom four, and Jess was eliminated from the Competition.
Special guests: Daniel Lismore, Ben de Lisi, Jourdan Dunn
Featured photographer: Joseph Sinclair
100
5 "Episode 5" 11 July 2013 (2013-07-11) 0.43 (432,000)[a]
The remaining 11 contestants took on a photo shoot challenge with host Elle Macpherson and photographer Nicky Johnston geared towards helping them hone in on their posing skills. Sarah was chosen as the best performer, winning a night out with three friends of her choosing. On set, the models had to pose underwater wearing colorful gowns in a photo shoot for Top Tea. At elimination, Sarah received picture of the week. Abigail, Angel, Emma, and Laura landed in the bottom four, and Abigail was eliminated from the competition.
Special guests: Lauren Maddox
Featured photographer: Nicky Johnston, Zena Holloway
101
6 "Episode 6" 18 July 2013 (2013-07-18) 0.39 (393,000)[a]
Special guests: Louis Mariette
Featured photographer: Catherine Harbour
102
7 "Episode 7" 25 July 2013 (2013-07-25) 0.47 (471,000)[a]
Special guests: Paul de Frades
Featured photographer: Uli Webber
103
8 "Episode 8" 1 August 2013 (2013-08-01) 0.39 (395,000)[a]
Special guests: Hillary Alexander, Anita Kaushik, Annaliese Dayes, Catherine Thomas, Charlotte Holmes, Imogen Leaver, Jade Thompson, Letitia Herod, Chris Brown, Mark Amey
Featured photographer: Alex James
104
9 "Episode 9" 8 August 2013 (2013-08-08) 0.40 (408,000)[a]
Special guests: Natalie Legg, Iggy Azalea
Featured photographer: Seb Winter
105
10 "Episode 10" 15 August 2013 (2013-08-15) 0.30 (306,000)[a]
Special guests: Joanna Roterberg, Annabel Granger
Featured photographer: Joseph Montezinos
106
11 "Episode 11" 22 August 2013 (2013-08-22) 0.31 (317,000)[a]
Special guests: Amanda Reifer, T-Ray Armstrong, Barry 'Bar-Man' Hill, Jamar Harding, Victoria Barker
Featured photographer: Joseph Montezinos
107
12 "Episode 12" 29 August 2013 (2013-08-29) 0.36 (366,000)[a]
Special guests: Kingsley Throne, Kesia Estwick
Featured photographer: Joseph Montezinos
108
13 "Episode 13" 5 September 2013 (2013-09-05) 0.33 (334,000)[a]
The finalists were taken to a luxury residence, where they had a poolside swimwear photo shoot for St. Tropez spray tan under the judges' watchful eyes. They later had a final runway show featuring carnival themed designs by Asheley Martin. At the end of the night the judges deliberated over each finalists' work and progress throughout the competition, and Lauren was crowned as the winner.
Special guests: Asheley Martin, Rodney Powers
Featured photographer: Joseph Montezinos
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Episode viewing figures from BARB[5]
Results[edit]
Order
Episodes
2[a]
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1
Emma Lauren Naomi Sarah Lauren Lauren Angel Lauren Sarah Emma Emma Lauren
2
Naomi Sophie Laura Sophie Sophie Sophie Emma Sophie Naomi Sarah Sarah Emma
Sarah
3
Lauren Sarah Emma Naomi Sarah Sarah Sophie Emma Lauren Lauren Lauren
4
Sophie Holly Lauren Holly Holly Emma Naomi Angel Sophie Sophie Sophie
5
Angel Angel Angel Lauren Angel Saffron Lauren Naomi Emma Naomi
6
Holly Emily Sarah Emily Emma Holly Sarah Sarah Angel
7
Emily Emma Emily Saffron Naomi Angel Holly Holly
8
Jess Naomi Saffron Angel Saffron Naomi Saffron
9
Abigail Jess Sophie Emma Emily Emily
10
Laura Laura Holly Laura Laura
11
Sarah Saffron Abigail Abigail
12
Saffron Abigail Jess
13
Danielle Danielle
14
Christina
The contestant was eliminated
The contestant won the competition
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In episode 1, the pool of 27 semi-finalists was reduced to the final 14 contestants who moved on to the main competition. The first official elimination took place in episode 2.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "First look at Top Model judges: Elle Macpherson brands Dannii Minogue a fashion "powerhouse"". Mirror Online.
Jump up ^ "BINTM Series 9: What To Expect". Sky Living.
Jump up ^ "The Models". Sky Living.
Jump up ^ "BINTM Week 1: The Story So Far...". Sky Living.
Jump up ^ "BARB". BARB. 19 July 2013.
External links[edit]
Official website
[hide]
v
t
e
Britain's Next Top Model
Cycles
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Contestants
Winners
Lucy Ratcliffe
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Lauren McAvoy
Alex Evans
Mecia Simson
Tiffany Pisani
Jade Thompson
Letitia Herod
Lauren Lambert
Chloe Keenan
Olivia Wardell
Other alumni
Abbey Clancy
Jasmia Robinson
Georgina Edewor-Thorley
Rachael Cairns
Sophie Sumner
Jade McSorley
Charlotte Holmes
Susan Loughnane
Juste Juozapaityte
Lisa Madden
Holly Carpenter
Related
America's Next Top Model: British Invasion
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List of countries by total renewable water resources
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of countries by total renewable water resources mostly based on The World Factbook.[1] This entry provides the long-term average water availability for a country in cubic kilometers of precipitation, recharged ground water, and surface inflows from surrounding countries.[1] Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Water resource
2 Renewable Internal Freshwater Resources per capita
3 References
4 Also read
Water resource[edit]
Main article: Water distribution on Earth, Water Resource.
Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes. Swamps have most of the balance with only a small amount in rivers, most notably the Amazon River. The atmosphere contains 0.04% water. In areas with no fresh water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density, overlie saline ground water in lenses or layers. Most of the world's fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of fresh water, such as deserts.
Renewable Internal Freshwater Resources per capita[edit]
According to the Index Mundi’s data Greenland ranked number 1 and Iceland ranked number 2 in renewable internal freshwater resources per capita with 10,662,190.00 cubic meters and 519,264.70 cubic meters, respectively.Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita are calculated using the World Bank's population estimates. [3]
There are some misconception about water resource of Nepal.[4] There is no study that shows Nepal is the second largest country in renewable water resources or fresh water resources or ground water or water for hydro power potentiality.[5]
SN
Country
Total renewable
water resources
(km³)
Date of
Information
1 Brazil 8,233 2011
2 Russia 4,508 2011
3 United States 3,069 2011
4 Canada 2,902 2011
5 China 2,840 2011
6 Colombia 2,132 2011
— European Union 2,057 2011
7 Indonesia 2,019 2011
8 Peru 1,913 2011
9 India 1,911 2011
10 Congo, Democratic Republic of the 1,283 2011
11 Venezuela 1,233 2011
12 Bangladesh 1,227 2011
13 Myanmar 1,168 2011
14 Chile 922 2011
15 Vietnam 884.1 2011
16 Congo, Republic of the 832 2011
17 Argentina 814 2011
18 Papua New Guinea 801 2011
19 Malaysia 622.5 2011
20 Bolivia 580 2011
21 Australia 492 2011
22 Philippines 479 2011
23 Cambodia 476.1 2011
24 Thailand 457.2 2011
25 Mexico 438.6 2011
26 Japan 430 2011
27 Norway 424.4 2011
28 Ecuador 382 2011
29 Paraguay 337 2011
30 Madagascar 336 2011
31 New Zealand 333.5 2011
32 Laos 327 2011
33 Nigeria 950 2011
34 Cameroon 285.5 2011
35 Pakistan 246.8 2011
36 Guyana 241 2011
37 Guinea 232 2011
38 Mozambique 226 2011
39 Romania 217.1 2011
40 Liberia 211.9 2011
41 Turkey 211.6 2011
42 France 211 2011
43 Nepal 210.2 2011
44 Nicaragua 196.6 2011
45 Italy 191.3 2011
46 Sweden 174 2011
47 Iceland 170 2011
48 Gabon 164 2011
49 Serbia 162.2 2011*
50 Sierra Leone 160 2011
51 Germany 154 2011
52 Angola 148 2011
53 Panama 148 2011
54 United Kingdom 147 2011
55 Central African Republic 144.4 2011
56 Ukraine 139.6 2011
57 Ethiopia 139 2011
58 Iran 137 2011
59 Uruguay 122 2011
60 Suriname 122 2011
61 Costa Rica 112.4 2011
62 Spain 111.5 2011
63 Guatemala 111.3 2011
64 Finland 110 2011
65 Zambia 107.5 2011
66 Turkmenistan 105.5 2011
67 Croatia 105.2 2011
68 Hungary 104 2011
69 Mali 100 2011
70 Tanzania 96.27 2011
71 Honduras 95.93 2011
72 Netherlands 91 2011
73 Iraq 89.86 2011
74 Cote d'Ivoire 81.14 2011
75 Austria 78 2011
76 Azerbaijan 77.7 2011
77 Korea, North 77.15 2011
78 Greece 74.25 2011
79 Portugal 69.7 2011
80 Korea, South 68.7 2011
81 Taiwan 67 2011
82 Kazakhstan 66 2011
83 Uganda 65.33 2011
84 Sudan 64.5 2011
85 Poland 63.33 2011
86 Georgia 61.6 2011
87 Belarus 58 2011
88 Egypt 57.3 2011
89 Switzerland 53.5 2011
90 Ghana 53.2 2011
91 Sri Lanka 52.8 2011
92 Ireland 52 2011
93 South Africa 51.4 2011
94 Slovakia 50.1 2011
95 Uzbekistan 48.87 2011
96 Solomon Islands 44.7 2011
97 Albania 43 2011
98 Chad 41.7 2011
99 Senegal 38.8 2011
100 Cuba 38.12 2011
101 Bosnia and Herzegovina 37.5 2011
102 Latvia 35.45 2011
103 Mongolia 34.8 2011
104 Bhutan 34.68 2011
105 Niger 33.65 2011
106 Slovenia 31.87 2011
107 Guinea-Bissau 31 2011
108 Morocco 30.7 2011
109 Kenya 29 2011
110 Fiji 28.55 2011
111 Benin 26.39 2011
112 Equatorial Guinea 26 2011
113 El Salvador 25.23 2011
114 Lithuania 24.9 2011
115 Afghanistan 24.77 2011
116 Kyrgyzstan 23.62 2011
117 Tajikistan 21.91 2011
118 Bulgaria 21.3 2011
119 Dominican Republic 21 2011
120 Zimbabwe 20 2011
121 Belize 18.55 2011
122 Belgium 18.3 2011
123 Namibia 17.72 2011
124 Somalia 17.28 2011
125 Malawi 16.8 2011
126 Syria 14.7 2011
127 Togo 14.7 2011
128 Haiti 14.03 2011
129 Czech Republic 13.15 2011
130 Estonia 12.81 2011
131 Burundi 12.54 2011
132 Burkina Faso 12.5 2011
133 Botswana 12.24 2011
134 Algeria 11.67 2011
135 Moldova 11.65 2011
136 Mauritania 11.4 2011
137 Rwanda 9.5 2011
138 Jamaica 9.4 2011
139 Brunei 8.5 2011
140 Gambia 8 2011
141 Armenia 7.77 2011
142 Macedonia 6.4 2011
143 Eritrea 6.3 2011
144 Denmark 6 2011
145 Tunisia 4.6 2011
146 Lebanon 4.51 2011
147 Swaziland 4.5 2011
148 Trinidad and Tobago 3.84 2011
149 Luxembourg 3.1 2011
150 Lesotho 3.02 2011
151 Mauritius 2.75 2011
152 Saudi Arabia 2.4 2011
153 Yemen 2.1 2011
154 Israel 1.78 2011
155 Oman 1.4 2011
156 Comoros 1.2 2011
157 Jordan 0.94 2011
158 Cyprus 0.78 2011
159 Libya 0.7 2011
160 Singapore 0.6 2011
161 Cape Verde 0.3 2011
162 Djibouti 0.3 2011
163 United Arab Emirates 0.15 2011
164 Bahrain 0.12 2011
165 Barbados 0.08 2011
166 Qatar 0.06 2011
167 Antigua and Barbuda 0.05 2011
168 Malta 0.05 2011
169 Maldives 0.03 2011
170 Bahamas 0.02 2011
171 Kuwait 0.02 2011
172 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.02 2011
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Factbook, The World. "Total Renewable Water Resources". The World Factbook. Archived from the original on 2015-06-12. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
Jump up ^ Peter Gleick; Heather Cooley. "; David Katz (2006)".
Jump up ^ Mundi, Index. "Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita". IndexMundi. Retrieved 2016-11-14.
Jump up ^ Annanote, Index. "Is Nepal the second richest country in water resources?". The Annapurna Post. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
Jump up ^ Shrestha, Rabindra B. "Water Resources Of Nepal: Misconception And Reality". Gorkhapatra Online. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
Also read[edit]
Is Nepal the second richest country in water resources? [1]
Understanding Nepal’s Hydropower Potential [2]
Water Resources Of Nepal: Misconception And Reality[3]
Ministry of Energy (Nepal) Ministry of Energy (Nepal)
WORLD WATER RESOURCES BY COUNTRY [4]
show
v
t
e
Lists of countries by geographical rankings
Area
Total
Exclusive Economic Zone
Forest
Irrigated
Extreme points
Elevation
highest
average
lowest
Latitude
Northernmost
Southernmost
Longitude
Easternmost
Westernmost
Perimeter
Coastline length
Land border length
Number of bordering countries
land-only
land and maritime
maritime-only
List of countries and territories by border/area ratio
Other
Freshwater
resources
withdrawal
Time zones
List of international rankings
List of top international rankings by country
Lists by country
Jump up ^ Annanote, Index. "Is Nepal the second richest country in water resources?". Annanote.com. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
Jump up ^ KC, Arjun Bahadur. "Understanding Nepal's Hydropower Potential". http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2013/others/guestcolumn/apr/guest_columns_09.php. Nepal News. External link in |website= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Shrestha, Rabindra B. "Water Resources Of Nepal: Misconception And Reality". Gorkhapatra Online. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
Jump up ^ FAO, FAO. "WORLD WATER RESOURCES BY COUNTRY". http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4473e/y4473e08.htm. FAO. External link in |website= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_total_renewable_water_resources&oldid=846222618"
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