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Speed limits in the United States
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See also: Speed limits in the United States (rail), Speed limits in the United States by jurisdiction, and Road signs in the United States
Main articles: Speed limit and Speed limits by country
Map of speed limits US states or counties
Speed limits in the United States are set by each state or territory. Highway speed limits can range from an urban low of 25 mph (40 km/h) to a rural high of 85 mph (137 km/h). Speed limits are typically posted in increments of five miles per hour (8 km/h). Some states have lower limits for trucks and at night, and occasionally there are minimum speed limits. Most speed limits are set by state or local statute, although each state allows various subdivisions (counties and municipalities) to set a different, generally lower, limit.
The highest speed limits are generally 70 mph (113 km/h) on the West Coast and the inland eastern states, 75–80 mph (121–129 km/h) in inland western states, along with Arkansas and Louisiana, and 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) on the Eastern Seaboard. Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, and Vermont have a maximum limit of 65 mph (105 km/h), and Hawaii has a maximum limit of 60 mph (97 km/h). The District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a maximum speed limit of 55 mph (89 km/h). Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and American Samoa have speed limits of 45 mph (72 km/h). Two territories in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands have their own speed limits: 40 mph (64 km/h) in Wake Island, and 15 mph (24 km/h) in Midway Atoll.[1][2] Unusual for any state east of the Mississippi River, much of I-95 in Maine north of Bangor allows up to 75 mph (121 km/h), and the same is true for up to 600 miles of freeways in Michigan. Portions of the Idaho, Montana, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming road networks have 80 mph (129 km/h) posted limits. The highest posted speed limit in the entire country can be found on the Texas State Highway 130, and it is 85 mph (137 km/h).
For 13 years (January 1974[3]–April 1987[4][5]), federal law withheld Federal highway trust funds to states that had speed limits above 55 mph (89 km/h).[4] From April 1987 through December 8, 1995, an amended federal law disincentivized speed limits above 65 mph (105 km/h).
A standard sign indicating a speed limit of 80 mph (130 km/h), a night-time speed limit of 65 mph (105 km/h), and a truck speed limit of 55 mph (89 km/h)
Speed limit sign at a school zone with a warning light
Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Speed limits
1.2 Examples of related laws
2 History
2.1 Federal speed controls
3 Minimum speed limits
4 Truck speed limits
5 Night speed limits
6 Political considerations
6.1 Financial concerns
6.2 Environmental concerns
6.3 Definition of speeding
6.3.1 Prima facie
7 Metric speed limits
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Law Review
Overview[edit]
Speed limits[edit]
This table contains the most usual posted daytime speed limits, in miles per hour, on typical roads in each category. The values shown are not necessarily the fastest or slowest. They usually indicate, but not always, statutory speed limits. Some states and territories have lower truck speed limits applicable to heavy trucks. If present, they are usually only on freeways or other high-speed roadways. Washington allows for speeds up to 75 mph (121 km/h), but the highest posted signs are 70 mph (110 km/h). Mississippi allows speeds up to 80 mph (129 km/h) on toll roads, but no such roads exist. Oklahoma removed the maximum speed of 75 from its laws, though no road has been posted higher than 75.
showLegend:
Freeway: Interstate Highway or other state or U.S. Route built to Interstate standards.
Divided rural: State or U.S. route, generally with four or more lanes, not built to Interstate standards, but with a median or other divider separating directions of travel.
Undivided rural: County, State, or U.S. route, generally with two to four lanes, with no separator between directions of travel.
Residential Street/residential: Residential streets, business districts, or School zones.
5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h)
10 miles per hour (16 km/h)
15 miles per hour (24 km/h)
20 miles per hour (32 km/h)
25 miles per hour (40 km/h)
30 miles per hour (48 km/h)
35 miles per hour (56 km/h).
40 miles per hour (64 km/h)
45 miles per hour (72 km/h)
50 miles per hour (80 km/h)
55 miles per hour (89 km/h)
60 miles per hour (97 km/h)
65 miles per hour (105 km/h)
70 miles per hour (110 km/h)
75 miles per hour (121 km/h)
80 miles per hour (130 km/h)
85 miles per hour (137 km/h)
Further information: Speed limits in the United States by jurisdiction
State or territory
Freeway (rural)
Freeway (trucks)
Freeway (urban)
Divided (rural)
Undivided (rural)
Residential
Alabama[6][7] 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 45–65 mph (72–105 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
Alaska 65 mph (105 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 45–65 mph (72–105 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
American Samoa[8] – – 45 mph (72 km/h) 30–45 mph (48–72 km/h) 20 mph (32 km/h)
Arizona[9] 65–75 mph (105–121 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 45–65 mph (72–105 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
Arkansas 70–75 mph (113–121 km/h) 70 mph (113 km/h) 60–65 mph (97–105 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 30 mph (48 km/h)
California 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 50–65 mph (80–105 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h)[10] 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 25–30 mph (40–48 km/h)
Colorado 65–75 mph (105–121 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
Connecticut 65 mph (105 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 50–55 mph (80–89 km/h) 45–50 mph (72–80 km/h) 20–40 mph (32–64 km/h)
Delaware[11] 65 mph (105 km/h) 50–65 mph (80–105 km/h) 45–60[12] mph (72–97 km/h) 35–50 mph (56–80 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
District of Columbia[13] – 55 mph (89 km/h) no rural roads in D.C. 25 mph (40 km/h)
Florida[14] 70 mph (113 km/h) 45–70 mph (72–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 55–60 mph (89–97 km/h) 20–50 mph (32–80 km/h)
Georgia[15] 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 25–45 mph (40–72 km/h)
Guam[16][17][18] no freeways in Guam 45 mph (72 km/h) 35–45 mph (56–72 km/h) 35 mph (56 km/h)
Hawaii 55–60 mph (89–97 km/h) 35–50 mph (56–80 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 45–60 mph (72–97 km/h) 25 mph (40 km/h)
Idaho 70–80 mph (113–129 km/h) 70 mph (113 km/h) 60–65 mph (97–105 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 25–35 mph (40–56 km/h)
Illinois 70 mph (113 km/h) 45–70 mph (72–113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
Indiana 70 mph (113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 50–70 mph (80–113 km/h) 55–60 mph (89–97 km/h) 50–55 mph (80–89 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
Iowa 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 25 mph (40 km/h)
Kansas 75 mph (121 km/h) 60–75 mph (97–121 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
Kentucky[19] 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 25–45 mph (40–72 km/h)
Louisiana[20] 70–75 mph (113–121 km/h) 50–70 mph (80–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 20–45 mph (32–72 km/h)
Maine 70–75 mph (113–121 km/h) 50–65 mph (80–105 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 25 mph (40 km/h)
Maryland 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 40–65 mph (64–105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 50–55 mph (80–89 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
Massachusetts 65 mph (105 km/h) 45–65 mph (72–105 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
Michigan[21] 70–75 mph (113–121 km/h)[22] 65 mph (105 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h)[22] 25 mph (40 km/h)
Midway Atoll[2] – – – 15 mph (24 km/h) –
Minnesota[23][24] 70 mph (113 km/h) 45–60 mph (72–97 km/h) 60–65 mph (97–105 km/h) 55–60 mph (89–97 km/h) 30 mph (48 km/h)
Mississippi 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 25 mph (40 km/h)
Missouri 70 mph (113 km/h) 45–70 mph (72–113 km/h) 60–70 mph (97–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 25–40 mph (40–64 km/h)
Montana 75–80 mph (121–129 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
Nebraska[25] 75 mph (121 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 25 mph (40 km/h)
Nevada 70–80 mph (113–129 km/h)[26][27][28] 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 65–75 mph (105–121 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
New Hampshire 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 50–65 mph (80–105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 35–55 mph (56–89 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
New Jersey[29][30] 65 mph (105 km/h) 50–65 mph (80–105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 30–55 mph (48–89 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
New Mexico[31] 75 mph (121 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 20–55 mph (32–89 km/h)
New York[32] 65 mph (105 km/h) 35–55 mph (56–89 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 35–55 mph (56–89 km/h) 20–45 mph (32–72 km/h)
North Carolina[33][34] 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 50–70 mph (80–113 km/h) 55–60 mph (89–97 km/h)[35] 55 mph (89 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
North Dakota[36][37] 75 mph (121 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) [38] 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 20–55 mph (32–89 km/h)[39]
Northern Mariana Islands[40] – 25 mph (40 km/h) 45 mph (72 km/h) – – –
Ohio[41][42] 70 mph (113 km/h) 50–70 mph (80–113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h)[43][44] 45–70 mph (72–113 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
Oklahoma 70 mph (113 km/h) (75 mph (121 km/h) turnpikes) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 25 mph (40 km/h)
Oregon 65-70 mph
(105-113 km/h)
60–65 mph (97–105 km/h) 50–60 mph (80–97 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
Pennsylvania 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 40–70 mph (64–113 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 40–55 mph (64–89 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
Puerto Rico[45] 60–70 mph (97–113 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 50–55 mph (80–89 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 25–35 mph (40–56 km/h)
Rhode Island[46] 65 mph (105 km/h) 50–55 mph (80–89 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 50 mph (80 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
South Carolina[47] 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 45–55 mph (72–89 km/h) 20–30 mph (32–48 km/h)
South Dakota[48][49] 75–80 mph (121–129 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 20–45 mph (32–72 km/h)
Tennessee 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 35–65 mph (56–105 km/h) 30 mph (48 km/h)
Texas 75–85 mph (121–137 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 75 mph (121 km/h) 55–75 mph (89–121 km/h) 25–30 mph (40–48 km/h)
U.S. Virgin Islands[50] – – 55 mph (89 km/h) 30–45 mph (48–72 km/h) 20–25 mph (32–40 km/h)
Utah[51][52] 75–80 mph (121–129 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h)[53] 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h)[54] 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
Vermont 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 50–55 mph (80–89 km/h)
Virginia[55] 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 55–60 mph (89–97 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
Wake Island[1] – – – 40 mph (64 km/h) –
Washington 70 mph (113 km/h)[a][56] 60 mph (97 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 65–70 mph (105–113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 20–50 mph (32–80 km/h)
West Virginia 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 20–55 mph (32–89 km/h)
Wisconsin[57] 70 mph (113 km/h) 50–70 mph (80–113 km/h) 65 mph (105 km/h) 55 mph (89 km/h) 20–35 mph (32–56 km/h)
Wyoming[58] 75–80 mph (121–129 km/h) 60–75 mph (97–121 km/h) 70 mph (113 km/h) 55–70 mph (89–113 km/h) 30 mph (48 km/h)
showlegend:
Freeway: Interstate Highway or other state- or federally numbered road built to Interstate standards.
Divided: State- or federally numbered road, generally with four or more lanes, not built to Interstate standards, but with a median or other divider separating directions of travel.
Undivided rural: County, State, or U.S. route, generally with two to four lanes, with no separator between directions of travel.
Residential Street/residential: Residential streets, business districts, or School zones.
5 miles per hour (8 km/h)
10 miles per hour (16 km/h)
15 miles per hour (24 km/h)
20 miles per hour (32 km/h)
25 miles per hour (40 km/h)
30 miles per hour (48 km/h)
35 miles per hour (56 km/h)
40 miles per hour (64 km/h)
45 miles per hour (72 km/h)
50 miles per hour (80 km/h)
55 miles per hour (89 km/h)
60 miles per hour (97 km/h)
65 miles per hour (105 km/h)
70 miles per hour (113 km/h)
75 miles per hour (121 km/h)
80 miles per hour (129 km/h)
85 miles per hour (137 km/h)
Examples of related laws[edit]
State
Typical fine
and whether
absolute or prima facie*
Recklessness threshold or enhanced penalty
Ticket dismissal options
Point system
Arizona (Not available or information needed.)

Prima facie (Absolute above 85 mph (137 km/h)) Over 35 mph (56 km/h) in a school zone, over 20 mph (32 km/h) above the posted speed limit, or over 85 mph (137 km/h) regardless of the posted speed limit.[59] Defensive driving school (requires court approval for criminal speeding tickets). Point system leading to fines, potential license suspension, increased insurance rates, and potential jail time (if criminal).
North Carolina $10–$50 plus court costs.[60] Speeding fines in work zones and school zones are $250 plus court costs.

Absolute Over 15 mph (24 km/h) over limit at a travelled speed of greater than 55 mph (89 km/h) or over 80 mph (130 km/h) Prayer for judgment continued (PJC) available depending on the court and subject to their discretion, but not available for charges of exceeding a speed limit by more than 25 mph (40 km/h). Point system may lead to license suspension. Exceeding the speed limit by more than 15 mph (24 km/h) with a speed of greater than 55 mph (89 km/h) or travelling faster than 80 mph (130 km/h) results in a minimum 30-day license suspension.[61]
Pennsylvania $35[62] plus court and other costs. All fines doubled in active work zones.

Absolute Over 30 mph (48 km/h) over limit None Point system leads to mandatory driver education and possible license suspension.
Texas $1–$200[63] plus court fees. Doubled in active school zones when children are present or construction zones when workers are present.[64] Various additional "fees" assessed by the state essentially increase the fine by around $100 on all tickets.

Prima facie[65] None[66] Defensive driving[67] (once per year) or deferred disposition[68] (restrictions vary, but generally at least 4 per year), but only valid if:
Texas resident,
Speed under 25 mph (40 km/h) above limit and under 95 mph (153 km/h), and
Not in construction zone where workers are present or active school zone.
Not a Commercial Driver License (CDL) holder.
Point system is annual surcharge only. No provision for license suspension if surcharges are paid.[69]
Rhode Island
(Not available or information needed)

Prima facie
One dismissal every 3 years for speed 14 mph (23 km/h) or less over limit.[70]
Virginia
Up to $250[71]
School zone: up to $250 additional[72]
Work zone: up to $500[73]
$200 civil penalty in certain towns[74]

Absolute[75]
20 mph (32 km/h) over limit or over 80 mph (130 km/h).[76][77] Point system[78] leading to fines, suspension, and mandatory driver education.[79]
Estimated Miles of Highway and Estimated Daily Vehicle-Miles Traveled by Traffic Volume Group
Based on arterial and (major) collector sample data from the 2000 Highway Performance Monitoring System[80]
History[edit]
One of the first speed limits in what would become the United States (at the time, still a British colony) was set in Boston in 1701 by the board of selectmen (similar to a city council):
Ordered, That no person whatsoever Shall at any time hereafter ride or drive a gallop or other extream pace within any of the Streets, lanes, or alleys in this Town on penalty of forfeiting three Shillings for every such offence, and it may be lawfull for any of the Inhabitants of this Town to make Stop of such horse or Rider untill the name of the offender be known in order to prosecution[81]
Federal speed controls[edit]
In 1973, Congress enacted a national speed limit of 55 mph (89 km/h). Some states, such as Washington, enacted lower speed limits.
Further information: National Maximum Speed Law
In response to the 1973 oil crisis, Congress enacted the National Maximum Speed Law that created the universal 55 miles per hour (89 km/h) speed limit.[citation needed] Whether this reduced gasoline consumption is debated and the impact on safety is unclear; studies and opinions of safety advocates are mixed.
The law was widely disregarded by motorists, even after the national maximum was increased to 65 miles per hour (105 km/h) on certain roads in 1987 and 1988. In 1995, the law was repealed, returning the choice of speed limit to each state.
Upon that repeal, there was effectively no speed limit on Montana's interstates for daytime driving (the nighttime limit was set at 65 mph) from 1995 to 1999, when the state Supreme Court threw out the law as "unconstitutionally vague."[82] The state legislature enacted a 75 mph daytime limit in May 1999.[83]
As of May 15, 2017, 41 states have maximum speed limits of 70 mph or higher. 18 of those states have 75 mph speed limits or higher, while 7 states of that same portion have 80 mph speed limits.
Minimum speed limits[edit]
Sign showing 70 mph (110 km/h) maximum and 40 mph (64 km/h) minimum
In addition to the legally defined maximum speed, minimum speed limits may be applicable. Occasionally, there are default minimum speed limits for certain types of roads, generally freeways.
Comparable to the common basic speed rule, most jurisdictions also have laws prohibiting speeds so low they are dangerous or impede the normal and reasonable flow of traffic.
Truck speed limits[edit]
Some jurisdictions set lower speed limits that are applicable only to large commercial vehicles like heavy trucks and buses. While they are called "truck speed limits", they generally do not apply to light trucks.
A 1987 study said that crash involvement significantly increases when trucks drive much slower than passenger vehicles, suggesting that the difference in speed between passenger vehicles and slower trucks could cause crashes that otherwise may not happen.[84] In a review of available research, the Transportation Research Board said "[no] conclusive evidence could be found to support or reject the use of differential speed limits for passenger cars and heavy trucks" and "a strong case cannot be made on empirical grounds in support of or in opposition to differential speed limits".[85]:11:109 Another study said that two thirds (67%) of truck/passenger car crashes are the fault of the passenger vehicle.[86]
Night speed limits[edit]
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Night speed limit sign in the Key Deer habitat on the Florida Keys has nonreflective backing for day speed limit number so that at night, headlights make only the number on the lower sign visible
The basic speed rule requires drivers adjust speeds to the conditions. This is usually relied upon to regulate proper night speed reductions, if required. Numeric night speed limits, which generally begin 30 minutes after sunset and end 30 minutes before sunrise, are occasionally used where, in theory, safety problems require a speed lower than what is self-selected by drivers.
Examples include:[citation needed]
Some streets in Tucson, Arizona without street lights.
Some Florida roads near Southwest Florida International Airport near Cape Coral/Fort Myers. (Most of these roads are labeled as "Panther Zones" or "Panther X-ing" areas.)
Daniels Parkway Ext., a four-lane divided highway near SW Florida International Airport with a 50 mph (80 km/h) daytime limit, and a night speed limit of 45 miles per hour (72 km/h) is considered by many to be a speed trap.[citation needed] This road joins neighboring SR 82, a two-lane road with a 60 mph (97 km/h) speed limit.
Colorado Highway 13, with a 65 mph (105 km/h) day/55 mph (89 km/h) night speed limit beginning 7.1 miles north of I-70 from north of Rifle to Colorado Highway 64 south of Meeker. Rural Colorado Highway 13 is 55 miles per hour (89 km/h) at night north of Meeker all the way to the Wyoming state line.
Highway 20 in Washington state between Twisp and Pateros has a 45mph speed limit due to high numbers of deer (and other wildlife) activity. Deer carcasses can be seen along the road all throughout summer
Some states create arbitrary night speed limits applicable to entire classes of roads. Until September 2011, Texas had a statutory 65 mph (105 km/h) night speed limit for all roads with a higher limit. Montana has a statutory 65 mph (105 km/h) night speed limit on all federal, state, and secondary roads except for Interstates.[citation needed]
Political considerations[edit]
Financial concerns[edit]
Traffic violations can be a lucrative income source for jurisdictions and insurance companies. For example:
Westlake, TX took in $42,000 per citizen over nine years for its speed traps.[87]
Insurance companies may receive several billions of dollars annually in traffic ticket surcharges.[88]
A study by the Federal Reserve of St. Louis found that traffic ticket writing increases when government revenue decreases.[89]
2008 debates over traffic enforcement in Dallas County, TX involved concerns of lost profits if ticketwriting decreased.[90][91][92]
In Massachusetts, half of the ticket money goes to the police department that writes the speeding ticket, the other half goes to fund the court that convicts the speeder or collects the fine from them.
Thus, an authority that sets and enforces speed limits, such as a state government, regulates and taxes insurance companies, who also gain revenue from speeding enforcement. Furthermore, such an authority often requires "all" drivers to have policies with those same companies, solidifying the association between the state and auto insurers. If a driver cannot be covered under an insurance policy because of high risk, the state will assume that high risk for a greater monetary amount; thus resulting in even more revenue generation for the state.[93]
When a speed limit is used to generate revenue but has no safety justification, it is called a speed trap. The town of New Rome, Ohio was such a speed trap, where speeding tickets raised up to $400,000 per year to fund the police department of a 12-acre village with 60 residents.[94]
Environmental concerns[edit]
Reduced speed limits are sometimes enacted for air quality reasons. The most prominent example includes Texas' environmental speed limits.
Definition of speeding[edit]
Either of the following qualifies a crash as speed-related in accordance with U.S. government rules:[95]
Exceeding speed limits.
Driving too fast for conditions.
Speeds in excess of speed limits account for most speed-related traffic citations; generally, "driving too fast for conditions" tickets are issued only after an incident where the ticket issuer found tangible evidence of unreasonable speed, such as a crash.
A criticism of the "exceeding speed limits" definition of speeding is twofold:
When speed limits are arbitrary, such as when set through political rather than empirical processes, the speed limit's relationship to the maximum safe speed is weakened or intentionally eliminated. Therefore, a crash can be counted as speed-related even if it occurs at a safe speed, simply because the speed was in excess of a politically determined limit.
The effective limit may still be too fast for certain conditions, such as limited visibility or reduced road traction[96] or even low-speed truck rollovers on exit ramps.[97]
Variable speed limits offer some potential to reduce speed-related crashes. However, due to the high cost of implementation, they exist primarily on freeways. Furthermore, most speed-related crashes occur on local and collector roads, which generally have far lower speed limits and prevailing speeds than freeways.[98]
Prima facie[edit]
Most states have absolute speed limits, meaning that a speed in excess of the limit is illegal per se. However, some states have prima facie speed limits.[99] This allows motorists to defend against a speeding charge if it can be proven that the speed was in fact reasonable and prudent.
Speed limits in Texas,[100] Utah,[101] and Rhode Island are prima facie. Some other states have a hybrid system: speed limits may be prima facie up to a certain speed or only on certain roads. For example, speed limits in California up to 55 mph, or 65 mph on highways, are prima facie, and those at or above those speeds are absolute.[102]
A successful prima facie defense is rare. Not only does the burden of proof rest upon the accused, a successful defense may involve expenses well in excess of the cost of a ticket, such as an expert witness. Furthermore, because prima facie defenses must be presented in a court, such a defense is difficult for out-of-town motorists.
Metric speed limits[edit]
Values of metric speed limits in the US were inside circles
Metric speed limits are no longer included in the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), which provides guidelines for speed limit signage [103], and therefore, new installations are not legal in the United States. Prior to 2009, a speed limit could be defined in kilometers per hour (km/h) as well as miles per hour (mph). The 2003 version of the MUTCD stated that "speed limits shown shall be in multiples of 10 km/h or 5 mph."[104] If a speed limit sign indicated km/h, the number was circumscribed and "km/h" was written below. Prior to 2003, metric speed limits were designated using the standard speed limit sign, usually with yellow supplemental "METRIC" and "km/h" plaques above it and below it, respectively.[105][106]
In 1995, the National Highway System Designation Act prohibited use of federal funds to finance new metric signage.
See also[edit]
Driver License Compact
Non-Resident Violator Compact
Solomon curve
Traffic violations reciprocity
Transportation safety in the United States
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Although the maximum posted speed limit in the state is 70 mph (113 km/h), state law allows a maximum posted speed of 75 mph (121 km/h) (for possible raising of speed limits in the future) on rural freeways.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wake Island Code [1]
^ Jump up to: a b Midway Atoll Code [2]
Jump up ^ "Nixon Approves Limit of 55 MPH". The New York Times. January 3, 1974. pp. 1, 24. Retrieved July 22, 2008. (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b Blair, William G. (4 April 1987). "55-m.p.h. Signs Sprout Out West, but New York Region Holds Off". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "H.R.2 – 100th Congress (1987–1988): Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act of 1987". Congress.gov. Library of Congress. 2 April 1987. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Alabama Law Enforcement Agency". Dps.alabama.gov. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Alabama Law Enforcement Agency". Dps.alabama.gov. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ American Samoa Code Section 22.0323 [3], and Frommer's [4]
Jump up ^ Arizona Statutes Chapter 3 Article 6 State Legislature
Jump up ^ "California Highways with 70 MPH Speed Limits". ca.gov. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Subchapter VIII. Speed Restrictions". Delaware State Legislature. May 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Speed limit to jump on Del. 1 near Dover Air Force Base". Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ District of Columbia Municipal Regulations Title 18 – Vehicle and Traffic (March 1997), chapter 22 "Moving Violations" [5] [6]
Jump up ^ "Florida Department of Transportation". state.fl.us. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "HB 674 – Maximus Speed Limots; vehicles having greater than 6 wheels". Georgia House of Representatives. May 21, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Guam Code Annotated Title 16 Chapter 3 Article 3 § 3301" (PDF). Justice.gov.gu. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ Matthew L. Wald (1997-06-06). "Guam Is the Pace-Setter In Driver Seat-Belt Use". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Guam Vacation Guide | Request Free Visitor's Guide". Visitguam.org. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Senate Transportation Committee Approves Speed Limit Increase". Kentucky Transportation Cabinet. February 1, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Louisiana State Legislature". legis.la.gov. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Public Michigan Vehicle code: Speed Restrictions". Michigan Legislature. November 9, 2006. Retrieved April 30, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Michigan House approves 75 mph speed limit hike". Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ 169.14, Minnesota Statute. Revisor.leg.state.mn.us (August 1, 2009).
Jump up ^ HEAT Speed Management Program. Dot.state.mn.us.
Jump up ^ "Home – Nebraska Department of Transportation" (PDF). Nebraskatransportation.org. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Nitzman, Alex (2012-07-16). "Nevada @ AARoads – Interstate 80". AARoads.com. Retrieved 2016-07-26. Contrary to popular belief, the speed limit on Interstate 80 is not 75 mph all the way across Nevada. The speed limit stays at 65 mph from the California line into the Reno-Sparks metro area and eastward all the way to Milepost 23 near the Mustang Ranch.
Jump up ^ Press, Associated. "Nevada implementing 80 mph speed limit on I-80". KSNV. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Nevada freeway speed limit to get bump to 80 mph". Las Vegas Review-Journal. 2017-05-03. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ New Jersey General Assembly. "N.J.S.A. 39:4-98(b)". Statutes of New Jersey. New Jersey.
Jump up ^ "Appendix A Designated 65mph Roadway Segments" (PDF). State of New Jersey & New Jersey Department of Transportation. April 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ New Mexico Statutes Chapter 66 Article 7 part 4 Mexico State Legislature or nmlaws.org
Jump up ^ NY State Vehicle and Traffic (VAT) Law § 1180-a Laws of New York State. Leginfo.state.ny.us.
Jump up ^ "North Carolina General Statutes § 20-141(d)(2). Speed restrictions". North Carolina State Legislature. April 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "NCDOT, Strategic Highway Corridors, Facility Types and Control of Access Definitions". North Carolina Department of Transportation. April 23, 2008. Archived from the original on March 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "NCDOT, Strategic Highway Corridors, Facility Types and Control of Access Definitions: Expressways". North Carolina Department of Transportation. April 23, 2008. Archived from the original on March 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "CHAPTER 39-09: Speed Restrictions" (PDF). Legis.nd.gov. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ "North Dakota Speed Zone Map". Dot.nd.gov. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ [7]
Jump up ^ [8]
Jump up ^ "GHSA". Ghsa.org. Retrieved 2017-01-07.
Jump up ^ "Lawriter – ORC". codes.ohio.gov. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Provance, Jim (September 28, 2013). "Speed limits rising to 70 mph for some state roads Sunday". Toledo Blade. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Speed limit on U.S. 30 bumped to 70 mph". The Lima News. June 25, 2015. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ohio Transportation Map. Ohio Department of Transportation, 2015. US 30, cited in the Lima News as 70 mph from the Indiana line to Mansfield, is not shown as freeway.
Jump up ^ § 5122. Maximum lawful speed limits and penalties., Subchapter IV, Chapter 27, Title 9 of the Laws of Puerto Rico [9]
Jump up ^ "Rhode Island Division Of Motor Vehicles: General Information". State Of Rhode Island, Division Of Motor Vehicles. May 27, 2008.
Jump up ^ "S.C. Code Of Laws Title 56 Chapter 5 Uniform Act Regulating Traffic On Highways." South Carolina State Legislature. May 1, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Maximum posted speed limits". Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. Retrieved January 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "What are the speed limits in South Dakota?". South Dakota Highway Patrol. Archived from the original on June 14, 2009. Retrieved July 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ Section 494. speed limits, Chapter 43, Part II, Title 20 of the Virgin Islands Code [10], and from a NHTSA summary [11]
Jump up ^ Troopers plan to strictly enforce new 80 mph speed limit. ksl.com (January 5, 2009).
Jump up ^ Utah Code 41-6a-601 – Speed regulations. le.utah.gov.
Jump up ^ Tribune, The Salt Lake. "70 mph speed limit now official on Utah's urban interstates". sltrib.com. Retrieved 11 July 2016. The speed limit in Cedar City is 75 mph on I-15 besides bypasses that are nearby
Jump up ^ Utah Code 41-6a-602(3)(a)
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2-870. Virginia Legislative Information System. Law.lis.virginia.gov.
Jump up ^ Washington State Department of Transportation (11 May 2016). "State officials will not raise I-90 speed limit in eastern Washington". wsdot.wa.gov. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Wisconsin Statute 346.57. (PDF).
Jump up ^ Wyoming Statutes. Legisweb.state.wy.us.
Jump up ^ "How to beat criminal speeding in Arizona A.R.S. §28-701.02". The Heath Law Firm. April 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Traffic Offenses For Which Court Appearance May Be Waived" (PDF). Nccourts.org. Retrieved 2017-07-07.
Jump up ^ "§ 20-16". state.nc.us. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Home" (PDF). state.pa.us. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Transportation Code Chapter 542. General Provisions. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Transportation Code Chapter 542. General Provisions. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Transportation Code Chapter 545. Operation and Movement of Vehicles. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Transportation Code Chapter 545. Operation and Movement of Vehicles. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Code of Criminal Procedure Chapter 45. Justice and Municipal Courts. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Code of Criminal Procedure Chapter 45. Justice and Municipal Courts. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Transportation Code Chapter 708. Driver Responsibility Program. Statutes.legis.state.tx.us.
Jump up ^ Revised Statutes – Browse Document
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 18.2–11. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2-873. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2–878.1. Leg1.state.va.us (July 1, 2012).
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2–874.1. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2-878. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2-862. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2-861. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Va. Code § 46.2-492. Leg1.state.va.us.
Jump up ^ Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of Motor Vehicles, "Moving Violations and Point Assessments". Dmv.virginia.gov (May 14, 2007).
Jump up ^ Posted Highway Speed Limits Rise, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation]]
Jump up ^ A Report of the Record Commissioners of the City of Boston containing the Boston Records From 1700 to 1728. 8. Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, City Printers. 1883. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Robbins, Jim (1998-12-28). "Montana's Speed Limit of ?? M.P.H. Is Overturned as Too Vague". New York Times. Retrieved 2017-07-30.
Jump up ^ http://missoulian.com/news/state-and-regional/remember-reasonable-and-prudent-speed-limits-long-controversial-in-montana/article_06be4f06-f083-571d-a359-dd1698b56b77.html
Jump up ^ table V-4. (PDF)
Jump up ^ Managing Speed: Review of Current Practices for Setting and Enforcing Speed Limits. Trb.org.
Jump up ^ The Unsafe Driving Acts of Motorists in the Vicinity of Large Trucks. (PDF).
Jump up ^ Small North Texas town tops list in speeding-ticket revenue | wfaa.com Dallas – Fort Worth. Wfaa.com (March 23, 2010).
Jump up ^ Traffic Tickets Are Big Business. Blog.motorists.org (November 16, 2010).
Jump up ^ St. Louis Fed: WP 2006-048C "Red Ink in the Rearview Mirror: Local Fiscal Conditions and the Issuance of Traffic Tickets". Research.stlouisfed.org.
Jump up ^ Dallas County commissioners propose deal to eliminate traffic units, Dallas Morning News, June 27, 2008
Jump up ^ As motorists’ frustration rises, justices of the peace pull out of automated ticket payment program, Dallas Morning News, July 5, 2008
Jump up ^ Dallas County to scrap central collections for traffic tickets, Dallas Morning News, July 7, 2008
Jump up ^ Stephen Moore on Speed Limits on National Review Online. Nationalreview.com (June 25, 2003).
Jump up ^ Matt Hannafin (April 11, 2008). Highway Robbery: Coping with the Great American Speed Trap. Frommer's (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.). Retrieved September 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ U.S. federal government brochure Archived September 25, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Speed, Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-154 Archived June 13, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Vehicular Stability Systems (VSS) – Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration. Fmcsa.dot.gov.
Jump up ^ [12] Archived May 24, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ State Traffic and Speed Laws. Mit.edu.
Jump up ^ Texas Transportation Code §545.351 and §545.352. Texas Legislature.
Jump up ^ Utah State Legislature.
Jump up ^ "CA Codes (veh:22348-22366)". ca.gov. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
Jump up ^ https://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/htm/2009r1r2/part2/part2a.htm
Jump up ^ FHWA – MUTCD – 2003 Edition Revision 1 Chapter 2B. Mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov.
Jump up ^ MUTCD and metric road signs in the US. Lamar.colostate.edu.
Jump up ^ New York Roads – I-87 – Northway. Alpsroads.net.
Law Review[edit]
R. A. Vinluan (2008). "Indefiniteness of automobile speed regulations as affecting validity". American Law Reports—Annotated, 3rd Series. 6. The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company. p. 1326.
C. C. Marvel (2010). "Meaning of "residence district," "business district," "school area," and the like, in statutes and ordinances regulating speed of motor vehicles". American Law Reports—Annotated, 2nd Series. 50. The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company. p. 343.
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Aquatic feeding mechanisms
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Grouper capture their prey by sucking them into their mouth
Aquatic feeding mechanisms face a special difficulty as compared to feeding on land, because the density of water is about the same as that of the prey, so the prey tends to be pushed away when the mouth is closed. This problem was first identified by Robert McNeill Alexander.[1] As a result, underwater predators, especially bony fish, have evolved a number of specialized feeding mechanisms, such as filter feeding, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion, and pivot feeding.
Most underwater predators combine more than one of these basic principles. For example, a typical generalized predator, such as the cod, combines suction with some amount of protrusion and pivot feeding.
Contents
[hide]
1 Suction feeding
2 Ram feeding
2.1 Lunge feeding
3 Pivot feeding
4 Protrusion
5 Filter and suspension feeding
5.1 Filter feeding
5.2 Suspension feeding
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Suction feeding[edit]
External video
Video of a red bay snook catching prey by suction feeding
Suction feeding is a method of ingesting a prey item in fluids by sucking the prey into the predator's mouth. This is typically accomplished by the predator expanding the volume of its oral cavity and/or throat, resulting in a pressure difference between the inside of the mouth and the outside environment. When the mouth is opened, the pressure difference causes water to flow into the predator's mouth, carrying the prey item in with the fluid flow.[2]
Though suction feeding can be seen across fish species, those with more derived characters show an increase in the suction force as a result of more complex skull linkages that allow greater expansion of the buccal cavity and thereby creating a greater negative pressure. Most commonly this is achieved by increasing the lateral expansion of the skull. In addition, the derived character of upper jaw protrusion is acknowledged to increase the force exerted on the prey to be engulfed.[3] Perhaps the best examples of these derived characters that are explained belong to fishes in the teleostei clade.[4] However, a common misconception of these fishes is that suction feeding is the only or primary method employed.[5] In Micropterus salmoides ram feeding is the primary method for prey capture; however, they can modulate between the two methods or use both as with many teleosts.[6][5] Also, it is commonly thought that fishes belonging to more primitive clades exhibit suction feeding. Although suction may be created upon the mouth opening in such fishes, the criteria for suction feeding includes little or no bodily movement towards their prey.[4]
Ram feeding[edit]
Foraging Manta alfredi ram feeding, swimming against the tidal current with its mouth open and sieving zooplankton from the water [7]
Ram feeding, also known as lunge feeding, is a method of feeding underwater in which the predator moves forward with its mouth open, engulfing the prey along with the water surrounding it. During ram feeding, the prey remains fixed in space, and the predator moves its jaws past the prey to capture it. The motion of the head may induce a bow wave in the fluid which pushes the prey away from the jaws, but this can be avoided by allowing water to flow through the jaw. This can be accomplished by means of an expandable throat, as in snapping turtles and baleen whales,[8] or by allowing water to flow out through the gills, as in sharks and herring. A number of species have evolved narrow snouts, as in gar fish and water snakes .[9]
Herrings often hunt copepods. If they encounter copepods schooling in high concentrations, the herrings switch to ram feeding. They swim with their mouth wide open and their opercula fully expanded. Every several feet, they close and clean their gill rakers for a few milliseconds (filter feeding). The fish all open their mouths and opercula wide at the same time (the red gills are visible in the photo below—click to enlarge). The fish swim in a grid where the distance between them is the same as the jump length of the copepods.
Lunge feeding[edit]
Baleen whales feed on plankton by a technique called lunge feeding. Lunge feeding could be regarded as a kind of inverted suction feeding, during which a whale takes a huge gulp of water, which is then filtered through the baleens.[10] Biomechanically this is a unique and extreme feeding method, for which the animal at first must accelerate to gain enough momentum to fold its elastic throat (buccal cavity) around the volume of water to be swallowed.[11] Subsequently, the water flows back through the baleens keeping back the food particles. The highly elastic and muscular buccal rills are a specialized adaptation to this feeding mode.
Herring ram feeding on a school of copepods
School of adult Indian mackerel ram feeding on macroplankton
Pivot feeding[edit]
Seahorses rely on stealth to ambush small prey such as copepods. They use pivot feeding to catch the copepod, which involves rotating their snout at high speed and then sucking in the copepod.[12][13]
Pivot feeding is a method to transport the mouth towards the prey by an upward turning of the head, which is pivoting on the neck joint. Pipefish such as sea horses and sea dragons are specialized on this feeding mechanism.[14] With prey capture times of down to 5 ms (shrimpfish Centriscus scutatus) this method is used by the fastest feeders in the animal kingdom.
The secret of the speed of pivot feeding is in a locking mechanism, in which the hyoid arch is folded under the head and is aligned with the urohyal which connects to the shoulder girdle. A four-bar linkage at first locks the head in a ventrally bent position by the alignment of two bars. The release of the locking mechanism jets the head up and moves the mouth toward the prey within 5-10 ms. The trigger mechanism of unlocking is debated, but is probably in lateral adduction.
Protrusion[edit]
External video
Video of a slingjaw wrasse catching prey by protruding its jaw
Protrusion is the extension of the mouth or premaxilla towards the prey, via mechanical linkages. Protrusion is known only in modern bony fishes, which possess many forms of coupled linkages in their head.[15] Remarkable examples are the slingjaw wrasse and the sand eel which can protrude their mouth by several centimeters. Another example of protrusion is seen in dragonfly larvae, or nymphs, which have hydraulic lower mandibles, protruding forward to catch prey and bring it to the top jaw.[16]
Filter and suspension feeding[edit]
Krill feeding under high phytoplankton concentration (slowed down by a factor of 12)
This is the selection of food particles from a water flow, for example by the gill rakers of fish, the baleens of whales, or the ostia of sponges.
Filter feeding[edit]
In filter feeding, the water flow is primarily generated by the organism itself, for example by creating a pressure, by active swimming, or by ciliary movements.
Suspension feeding[edit]
In suspension feeding, the water flow is primarily external or if the particles themselves move with respect to the ambient water, such as in sea lilies.
See also[edit]
Cleaner fish
Feeding behaviour of fish
Lepidophagy
List of feeding behaviours
Paedophagy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alexander, R. McN. 1967. Functional design in fishes. London, UK: Hutchinson University Library.
Jump up ^ Lauder, George (1980). "The suction feeding mechanism in sunfish (Lepomis): an experimental analysis" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology: 49–72.
Jump up ^ Holzman, R., Day, S. W., Mehta, R. S., & Wainwright, P. C. (2008). "Jaw protrusion enhances forces exerted on prey by suction feeding fishes". Journal of the Royal Society Interface: 1445–1457. horizontal tab character in |title= at position 24 (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Lauder, George (1982). "Patterns of evolution in the feeding mechanism of actinopterygian fishes". American Zoologist: 275–285.
^ Jump up to: a b Gardiner, J. M., & Motta, P. J. (2012). "Largemouth bass (micropterus salmoides) switch feeding modalities in response to sensory deprivation". Zoology (Jena, Germany): 78–83. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Norton, S. F., & Brainerd, E. L. (1993). "Convergence in the feeding mechanics of ecomorphologically similar species in the centrarchidae and cichlidae". Journal of Experimental Biology. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Jaine, FRA; Couturier, LIE; Weeks, SJ; Townsend, KA; Bennett, MB; Fiora, K; Richardson, AJ (2012). "When Giants Turn Up: Sighting Trends, Environmental Influences and Habitat Use of the Manta Ray Manta alfredi at a Coral Reef". PLOS ONE. 7: e46170. PMC 3463571  . PMID 23056255. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046170.
Jump up ^ Goldbogen, J. A.; Calambokidis, J.; Shadwick, R. E.; Oleson, E. M.; McDonald, M. A.; Hildebrand, J. A. (2006). "Kinematics of foraging dives and lunge-feeding in fin whales". J. Exp. Biol. 209: 1231–1244. doi:10.1242/jeb.02135.
Jump up ^ Van Wassenbergh, S., Brecko, J., Aerts, P., Stouten, I., Vanheusden, G., Camp, A., Van Damme, R., and Herrel, A. (2010). Hydrodynamic constraints on prey-capture performance in forward-striking snakes. J. Roy. Soc. Interface, 7:773-785
Jump up ^ Goldbogen, JA; Calambokidis, J; Shadwick, RE; Oleson, EM; McDonald, MA; Hildebrand, J A (2006). "Kinematics of foraging dives and lunge-feeding in fin whales" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 209: 1231–1244. doi:10.1242/jeb.02135.
Jump up ^ Potvin, J; Goldbogen, JA (2009). "Passive versus active engulfment: verdict from trajectory simulations of lunge-feeding fin whales Balaenoptera physalus". J. R. Soc. Interface. 6 (40): 1005–1025. PMC 2827442  . PMID 19158011. doi:10.1098/rsif.2008.0492.
Jump up ^ Langley, Liz (26 November 2013). "Why Does the Seahorse Have Its Odd Head? Mystery Solved – News Watch". Newswatch.nationalgeographic.com.
Jump up ^ Gemmell, B. J.; Sheng, J.; Buskey, E. J. (2013). "Morphology of seahorse head hydrodynamically aids in capture of evasive prey". Nature Communications. 4: 2840. PMID 24281430. doi:10.1038/ncomms3840.
Jump up ^ de Lussanet, M. H. E.; Muller, M. (2007). "The smaller your mouth, the longer your snout: predicting the snout length of Syngnathus acus, Centriscus scutatus and other pipette feeders". J. R. Soc. Interface. 4: 561–573. doi:10.1098/rsif.2006.0201.
Jump up ^ Muller, M (1996). "A novel classification of planar four-bar linkages and its application to the mechanical analysis of animal systems". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. 351: 689–720. doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0065.
Jump up ^ io9. io9 http://io9.com/how-is-this-dragonflys-prehensile-mouthpart-connected-t-1658069078. Missing or empty |title= (help)
External links[edit]
FishBase is a comprehensive database of bony fishes: /fishbase.org
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Escobar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Escobar (disambiguation).
Look up Escobar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Escobar is a Spanish surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Abelardo Escobar Prieto, Mexican politician
Aida Luz Santos de Escobar, ambassador of El Salvador to Cyprus
Anasol Escobar, Colombian singer
Alcides Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player
Alex Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player
Alexander Escobar (born 1984), Salvadoran footballer
Alexander Escobar Gañán (born 1965), Colombian footballer
Alexandra Escobar (born 1980), Ecuadorian weightlifter
Ana Vilma de Escobar (born 1954), Salvadoran politician
Andrea Escobar (born 1992), Colombian actress
Andrés Escobar (1967–1994), Colombian footballer
Andrés Ramiro Escobar (born 1991), Colombian footballer
Ángel Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player
Antonio Escobar Núñez (born 1976), Spanish musician
Antonio Escobar y Mendoza, 17th-century Spanish ethicist
Arturo Escobar (anthropologist) (born 1952), Colombian-American anthropologist and development scholar
Arturo Escobar y Vega, Mexican politician
Brandon Escobar (born 1990), Honduran sport wrestler
Carlos Escobar Casarin (born 1990), Chilean footballer
Carlos Escobar Ortíz (born 1989), Chilean footballer
César Antonio Díaz Escobar, Chilean footballer
Daniel Escobar (1964–2013), American actor
Daniela Escobar (born 1969), Brazilian actress and television presenter
Darío Escobar (born 1971), Guatemalan artist
Eduardo Escobar (born 1989), Venezuelan baseball player
Elizam Escobar (born 1948), Puerto Rican painter
Enzo Escobar (born 1951), Chilean footballer
Eusebio Escobar (born 1936), Colombian footballer
Fabio Escobar (born 1982), Paruguayan footballer
Francisco Escobar (born 1991), Colombian beauty pageant winner
Gavin Escobar (born 1991), American football player
Henry Escobar (born 1990), Salvadoran footballer
Isabella Escobar (born 1992), Guatemalan tennis player
Jesús Escobar, American historian
José Escobar (baseball) (born in 1960), Venezuelan baseball player
José Escobar Saliente (1908-1994), Spanish comic writer and artist
Juan Carlos Escobar (born 1982), Colombian footballer
Juan Carlos Ortiz Escobar (Cuchilla), Colombian drug dealer
Juan Francisco Escobar (born 1949), Paraguayan football referee
José Luis Escobar Alas (born 1959), Salvadoran bishop
Juan M. Escobar, American judge
Katherine Escobar, Colombian model and actress
Kelvim Escobar (born 1976), Venezuelan baseball player
Luis Escobar (footballer) (born 1984), Colombian footballer
Luis Escobar (polo) (born 1971), American polo player
Luis Escobar (swimmer) (born 1984), Mexican swimmer
Luis Escobar Kirkpatrick (1908-1991), Spanish actor
Luis Antonio Escobar (composer)
Luis Antonio Escobar (footballer)
Manolo Escobar (1931–2013), Spanish singer
Marisol Escobar (1930–2016), Venezuelan-born sculptor
Matías Escobar (born 1982), Argentine footballer
Pablo Escobar (1949 –1993), Colombian drug lord
Pablo Andrés Escobar (born 1987), Colombian footballer
Pablo Daniel Escobar (born 1978), Paraguayan-born Bolivian footballer
Pánfilo Escobar (born 1974), Paraguayan footballer
Patricio Escobar (1843–1912), President of Paraguay
Pedro de Escobar, 16th-century Portuguese composer
Pepe Escobar (born 1954), Brazilian investigative journalist
Pêro Escobar, 15th-century Portuguese explorer
Reynaldo Escobar Pérez, Mexican politician
Rolando Escobar (born 1981), Panamanian footballer
Ruth Escobar (1935–2017), Portuguese-born Brazilian actress, businesswoman, and politician
Sergi Escobar (born 1974), Spanish cyclist
Sílvio Escobar (born 1986), Paraguayan footballer
Sixto Escobar, Puerto Rican boxer
Susana Escobar (born 1987), Mexican swimmer
Ticio Escobar (born 1947), Paraguayan minister of culture
Vicente Escobar (1757–1834), Cuban painter
Walter Escobar (born 1968), Colombian footballer
Yasmani Copello Escobar (born 1987), Cuban-Turkish hurdler
Yunel Escobar (born 1982), Cuban-American baseball player
Sebastián Marroquín, born Juan Pablo Escobar
This page lists people with the surname Escobar. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
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This page was last edited on 5 November 2017, at 20:32.
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Yasmani Copello Escobar

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