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Time signature
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"Common time" redirects here. For the short story, see Common Time. For the album, see Commontime (album).
"Time (music)" redirects here. For other uses, see Half-time (music).
An example of a 3
4 time signature. The time signature indicates that there are three quarter notes (crotchets) per measure (bar).
The time signature (also known as meter signature,[1] metre signature,[2] or measure signature[3]) is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are to be contained in each measure (bar) and which note value is equivalent to one beat.
In a music score, the time signature appears at the beginning, as a time symbol or stacked numerals, such as or 3
4 (read common time and three-four time, respectively), immediately following the key signature or immediately following the clef symbol if the key signature is empty. A mid-score time signature, usually immediately following a barline, indicates a change of meter.
There are various types of time signatures, depending on whether the music follows simple rhythms or involves unusual shifting tempos, including: simple (such as 3
4 or 4
4), compound (e.g., 9
8 or 12
8), complex (e.g., 5
4 or 7
8), mixed (e.g., 5
8 & 3
8 or 6
8 & 3
4), additive (e.g., 3+2+3
8), fractional (e.g., 2 1⁄2
4), and irrational meters (e.g., 3
10 or 5
24).
Contents
[hide]
1 Frequently-used time signatures
1.1 Simple vs. compound
1.1.1 Simple
1.1.2 Compound
1.1.3 Examples
1.2 Duple, triple, etc.
1.3 Beating time signatures
1.4 Characteristics
2 Complex time signatures
3 Mixed meters
4 Additive meters
5 Irrational meters
6 Variants
7 Early music usage
7.1 Mensural time signatures
7.2 Proportions
8 See also
9 References
Frequently-used time signatures[edit]
Basic time signatures: 4
4, also known as common time ( ); 2
2, alla breve, also known as cut time or cut-common time ( ); 2
4; 3
4; and 6
8
Simple vs. compound[edit]
Simple[edit]
Simple time signatures consist of two numerals, one stacked above the other:
The lower numeral indicates the note value that represents one beat (the beat unit).
The upper numeral indicates how many such beats constitute a bar.
For instance, 2
4 means two quarter-note (crotchet) beats per bar, while 3
8 means three eighth-note (quaver) beats per bar. The most common simple time signatures are 2
4, 3
4, and 4
4.
By convention, two special symbols are sometimes used for 4
4 and 2
2:
The symbol is sometimes used for 4
4 time, also called common time or imperfect time. The symbol is derived from a broken circle used in music notation from the 14th through 16th centuries, where a full circle represented what today would be written in 3
2 or 3
4 time, and was called tempus perfectum (perfect time).[4] See Mensural time signatures below.
The symbol is also a carry-over from the notational practice of late-Medieval and Renaissance music, where it signified tempus imperfectum diminutum (diminished imperfect time)—more precisely, a doubling of the speed, or proportio dupla, in duple meter.[5] In modern notation, it is used in place of 2
2 and is called alla breve or, colloquially, cut time or cut common time.
Compound[edit]
In compound meter, subdivisions (which are what the upper number represents in these meters) of the beat are in three equal parts, so that a dotted note (half again longer than a regular note) becomes the beat. The upper numeral of compound time signatures is commonly 3, 6, 9, or 12 (multiples of 3 in each beat). The lower number is most commonly an 8 (an eighth-note or quaver): as in 9
8 or 12
8.
Examples[edit]
In the examples below, bold denotes a stressed beat, while italics denotes a less-stressed beat.
Simple: The meter 3
4 is a simple time signature that represents three quarter notes (crotchets). It is felt as
3
4: one and two and three and ...
Compound: In principle, 6
8 comprises not three groups of two eighth notes (quavers) but two groups of three eighth-note (quaver) subdivisions. It is felt as
6
8: one two three four five six ...
These examples assume, for simplicity, that continuous eighth notes are the prevailing note values. The rhythm of actual music is typically not as regular.
Duple, triple, etc.[edit]
Time signatures indicating two beats per bar (whether in simple or compound meter) are called duple meter, while those with three beats to the bar are triple meter. Terms such as quadruple (4), quintuple (5), and so on, are also occasionally used.
Beating time signatures[edit]
To the ear, a bar may seem like one singular beat. For example, a fast waltz, notated in 3
4 time, may be described as being one in a bar. Correspondingly, at slow tempos, the beat indicated by the time signature could in actual performance be divided into smaller units.
On a formal mathematical level, the time signatures of, e.g., 3
4 and 3
8 are interchangeable. In a sense, all simple triple time signatures, such as 3
8, 3
4, 3
2, etc.—and all compound duple times, such as 6
8, 6
16 and so on, are equivalent. A piece in 3
4 can be easily rewritten in 3
8, simply by halving the length of the notes.
3
4 equals 3
8 time at a different tempo Play (help·info)
Other time signature rewritings are possible: most commonly a simple time signature with triplets translates into a compound meter.
12
8 equals 4
4 time at a different tempo and requires the use of tuplets Play (help·info)
Though formally interchangeable, for a composer or performing musician, by convention, different time signatures often have different connotations. First, a smaller note value in the beat unit implies a more complex notation, which can affect ease of performance. Second, beaming affects the choice of actual beat divisions. It is, for example, more natural to use the quarter note/crotchet as a beat unit in 6
4 or 2
2 than the eight/quaver in 6
8 or 2
4.[citation needed] Third, time signatures are traditionally associated with different music styles—it might seem strange to notate a rock tune in 4
8 or 4
2.
Characteristics[edit]
The table below shows the characteristics of the most frequently-used time signatures.
Simple time signatures
4
4 or (quadruple) Common time: Widely used in most forms of Western popular music. Most common time signature in rock, blues, country, funk, and pop[6]
Simple quadruple drum pattern: divides each of four beats into two Play (help·info)
Simple duple drum pattern (notated as 4
4): divides each of two beats into two Play (help·info)
2
2 or (duple) Alla breve, cut time: Used for marches and fast orchestral music. Frequently occurs in musical theater. The same effect is sometimes obtained by marking a 4
4 meter "in 2"
2
4 (duple) Used for polkas, galops, and marches
Simple duple drum pattern: divides each of two beats into two
3
4 (triple) Used for waltzes, minuets, scherzi, polonaises, mazurkas, country & western ballads, R&B, sometimes used in pop
Simple triple drum pattern: divides each of three beats into two Play (help·info)
3
8 (triple) Also used for the above but usually suggests higher tempo or shorter hypermeter
Compound time signatures
6
8 (duple) Double jigs, polkas, sega, salegy, tarantella, marches, barcarolles, loures, and some rock music
Compound duple drum pattern: divides each of two beats into three Play (help·info)
9
8 (triple) Compound triple time: Used in triple ("slip") jigs, otherwise occurring rarely ("The Ride of the Valkyries", Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony, and the final movement of J.S. Bach's Violin Concerto in A minor (BWV 1041)[7] are familiar examples. Debussy's "Clair de lune" and the opening bars of Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune are also in 9
8)
Compound triple drum pattern: divides each of three beats into three Play (help·info)
12
8 (quadruple) Also common in slower blues (where it is called a shuffle) and doo-wop; also used more recently in rock music. Can also be heard in some jigs like "The Irish Washerwoman". This is also the time signature of the second movement of Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony.
Compound quadruple drum pattern: divides each of four beats into three Play (help·info)
Some video samples are shown below.
Play media
2
4 at a tempo of 60 bpm
Play media
3
4 at a tempo of 60 bpm
Play media
4
4 at a tempo of 60 bpm
Play media
6
8 at tempo of 30 bpm
Play media
9
8 at tempo of 30 bpm
Play media
12
8 at tempo of 30 bpm
Complex time signatures[edit]
See also: List of musical works in unusual time signatures, Quintuple meter, and Septuple meter
19
16 Time Drum Beat
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Signatures that do not fit the usual duple or triple categories are called complex, asymmetric, irregular, unusual, or odd—though these are broad terms, and usually a more specific description is appropriate.[citation needed] The term odd meter, however, sometimes describes time signatures in which the upper number is simply odd rather than even, including 3
4 and 9
8.[8]
The irregular meters (not fitting duple or triple categories) are common in some non-Western music, but rarely appeared in formal written Western music until the 19th century. Early anomalous examples appeared in Spain between 1516 and 1520,[8] but the Delphic Hymns to Apollo (one by Athenaeus is entirely in quintuple meter, the other by Limenius predominantly so), carved on the exterior walls of the Athenian Treasury at Delphi in 128 BC are in the relatively common cretic meter, with five beats to a foot.[9]
The third movement of Frédéric Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 1 (1828) is an early, but by no means the earliest, example of 5
4 time in solo piano music. Anton Reicha's Fugue No. 20 from his Thirty-six Fugues, published in 1803, is also for piano and is in 5
8. The waltz-like second movement of Tchaikovsky's Pathétique Symphony, often described as a "limping waltz",[10] is a notable example of 5
4 time in orchestral music.
Examples from 20th-century classical music include:
Gustav Holst's "Mars, the Bringer of War" and "Neptune, the Mystic" from The Planets (both in 5
4)
Paul Hindemith's "Fuga secunda" in G from Ludus Tonalis (5
8)
the ending of Stravinsky's The Firebird (7
4)
the fugue from Heitor Villa-Lobos's Bachianas Brasileiras No. 9 (11
8)
the themes for the Mission Impossible television series by Lalo Schifrin (in 5
4) and for Room 222 by Jerry Goldsmith (in 7
4)
In the Western popular music tradition, unusual time signatures occur as well, with progressive rock in particular making frequent use of them. The use of shifting meters in The Beatles' "Strawberry Fields Forever" and the use of quintuple meter in their "Within You, Without You" are well-known examples,[11] as is Radiohead's "Paranoid Android" (includes 7
8).[12]
Paul Desmond's jazz composition "Take Five", in 5
4 time, was one of a number of irregular-meter compositions that The Dave Brubeck Quartet played. They played other compositions in 11
4 ("Eleven Four"), 7
4 ("Unsquare Dance"), and 9
8 ("Blue Rondo à la Turk"), expressed as 2+2+2+3
8. This last is an example of a work in a signature that, despite appearing merely compound triple, is actually more complex. Brubeck's title refers to the characteristic aksak meter of the Turkish karşılama dance.[13]
However, such time signatures are only unusual in most Western music. Traditional music of the Balkans uses such meters extensively. Bulgarian dances, for example, include forms with 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 22, 25 and other numbers of beats per measure. These rhythms are notated as additive rhythms based on simple units, usually 2, 3 and 4 beats, though the notation fails to describe the metric "time bending" taking place, or compound meters. See Additive meters below.
Some video samples are shown below.
Play media
5
4 at 60 bpm
Play media
7
4 at 60 bpm
Play media
11
4 at 60 bpm
Mixed meters[edit]
While time signatures usually express a regular pattern of beat stresses continuing through a piece (or at least a section), sometimes composers place a different time signature at the beginning of each bar, resulting in music with an extremely irregular rhythmic feel. In this case, the time signatures are an aid to the performers and not necessarily an indication of meter. The Promenade from Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition (1874) is a good example:
Promenade from Pictures at an Exhibition Play (help·info)
Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (1913) is famous for its "savage" rhythms:
In such cases, a convention that some composers follow (e.g., Olivier Messiaen, in his La Nativité du Seigneur and Quatuor pour la fin du temps) is to simply omit the time signature. Charles Ives's Concord Sonata has measure bars for select passages, but the majority of the work is unbarred.
Some pieces have no time signature, as there is no discernible meter. This is sometimes known as free time. Sometimes one is provided (usually 4
4) so that the performer finds the piece easier to read, and simply has 'free time' written as a direction. Sometimes the word FREE is written downwards on the staff to indicate the piece is in free time. Erik Satie wrote many compositions that are ostensibly in free time but actually follow an unstated and unchanging simple time signature. Later composers used this device more effectively, writing music almost devoid of a discernibly regular pulse.
If two time signatures alternate repeatedly, sometimes the two signatures are placed together at the beginning of the piece or section, as shown below:
Detail of score of Tchaikovsky's String Quartet No. 2 in F major, showing a multiple time signature
Additive meters[edit]
To indicate more complex patterns of stresses, such as additive rhythms, more complex time signatures can be used. Additive meters have a pattern of beats that subdivide into smaller, irregular groups. Such meters are sometimes called imperfect, in contrast to perfect meters, in which the bar is first divided into equal units.[14]
For example, the time signature 3+2+3
8 means that there are 8 quaver beats in the bar, divided as the first of a group of three eighth notes (quavers) that are stressed, then the first of a group of two, then first of a group of three again. The stress pattern is usually counted as
3+2+3
8: one two three one two one two three ...
This kind of time signature is commonly used to notate folk and non-Western types of music. In classical music, Béla Bartók and Olivier Messiaen have used such time signatures in their works. The first movement of Maurice Ravel's Piano Trio in A Minor is written in 8
8, in which the beats are likewise subdivided into 3+2+3 to reflect Basque dance rhythms.
Romanian musicologist Constantin Brăiloiu had a special interest in compound time signatures, developed while studying the traditional music of certain regions in his country. While investigating the origins of such unusual meters, he learned that they were even more characteristic of the traditional music of neighboring peoples (e.g., the Bulgarians). He suggested that such timings can be regarded as compounds of simple two-beat and three-beat meters, where an accent falls on every first beat, even though, for example in Bulgarian music, beat lengths of 1, 2, 3, 4 are used in the metric description. In addition, when focused only on stressed beats, simple time signatures can count as beats in a slower, compound time. However, there are two different-length beats in this resulting compound time, a one half-again longer than the short beat (or conversely, the short beat is 2⁄3 the value of the long). This type of meter is called aksak (the Turkish word for "limping"), impeded, jolting, or shaking, and is described as an irregular bichronic rhythm. A certain amount of confusion for Western musicians is inevitable, since a measure they would likely regard as 7
16, for example, is a three-beat measure in aksak, with one long and two short beats (with subdivisions of 2+2+3, 2+3+2, or 3+2+2).[15]
Folk music may make use of metric time bends, so that the proportions of the performed metric beat time lengths differ from the exact proportions indicated by the metric. Depending on playing style of the same meter, the time bend can vary from non-existent to considerable; in the latter case, some musicologists may want to assign a different meter. For example, the Bulgarian tune "Eleno Mome" is written in one of three forms: (1) 7 = 2+2+1+2, (2) 13 = 4+4+2+3, or (3) 12 = 3+4+2+3, but an actual performance (e.g., Smithsonian Eleno Mome) may be closer to 4+4+2+3. The Macedonian 3+2+2+3+2 meter is even more complicated, with heavier time bends, and use of quadruples on the threes. The metric beat time proportions may vary with the speed that the tune is played. The Swedish Boda Polska (Polska from the parish Boda) has a typical elongated second beat.
In Western classical music, metric time bend is used in the performance of the Viennese Waltz. Most Western music uses metric ratios of 2:1, 3:1, or 4:1 (two-, three- or four-beat time signatures)—in other words, integer ratios that make all beats equal in time length. So, relative to that, 3:2 and 4:3 ratios correspond to very distinctive metric rhythm profiles. Complex accentuation occurs in Western music, but as syncopation rather than as part of the metric accentuation.[citation needed]
Brăiloiu borrowed a term from Turkish medieval music theory: aksak. Such compound time signatures fall under the "aksak rhythm" category that he introduced along with a couple more that should describe the rhythm figures in traditional music.[16] The term Brăiloiu revived had moderate success worldwide, but in Eastern Europe it is still frequently used. However, aksak rhythm figures occur not only in a few European countries, but on all continents, featuring various combinations of the two and three sequences. The longest are in Bulgaria. The shortest aksak rhythm figures follow the five-beat timing, comprising a two and a three (or three and two).
Some video samples are shown below.
Play media
Time signature 3+2+3 at 120 beat divisions per minute
Play media
Rhythm of Dave Brubeck's "Blue Rondo à la Turk" – consists of three measures of 2+2+2+3 followed by one measure of 3+3+3 and the cycle then repeats. Taking the smallest time unit as eighth notes, the arrows on the tempo dial show the tempi for ♪, ♩, ♩. and the measure beat. Starts slow, speeds up to usual tempo
Irrational meters[edit]
Example of an irrational 4
3 time signature: here there are four (4) third notes (3) per measure. A "third note" would be one third of a whole note, and thus is a half-note triplet. The second measure of 4
2 presents the same notes, so the 4
3 time signature serves to indicate the precise speed relationship between the notes in the two measures.
These are time signatures, used for so-called irrational bar lengths,[17] that have a denominator that is not a power of two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.). These are based on beats expressed in terms of fractions of full beats in the prevailing tempo—for example 57
10 or 13
666.[17] For example, where 4
4 implies a bar construction of four quarter-parts of a whole note (i.e., four quarter notes), 4
3 implies a bar construction of four third-parts of it. These signatures are only of utility when juxtaposed with other signatures with varying denominators; a piece written entirely in 4
3, say, could be more legibly written out in 4
4.
The same example written using metric modulation instead of irrational time signatures. Three half notes in the first measure (making up a dotted whole note) are equal in duration to two half notes in the second (making up a whole note).
The same example written using a change in time signature.
Metric modulation is "a somewhat distant analogy".[17] It is arguable whether the use of these signatures makes metric relationships clearer or more obscure to the musician; it is always possible to write a passage using non-irrational signatures by specifying a relationship between some note length in the previous bar and some other in the succeeding one. Sometimes, successive metric relationships between bars are so convoluted that the pure use of irrational signatures would quickly render the notation extremely hard to penetrate. Good examples, written entirely in conventional signatures with the aid of between-bar specified metric relationships, occur a number of times in John Adams' opera Nixon in China (1987), where the sole use of irrational signatures would quickly produce massive numerators and denominators.[citation needed]
Historically, this device has been prefigured wherever composers wrote tuplets. For example, a 2
4 bar of 3 triplet crotchets could arguably be written as a bar of 3
6. Henry Cowell's piano piece Fabric (1920) employs separate divisions of the bar (anything from 1 to 9) for the three contrapuntal parts, using a scheme of shaped noteheads to visually clarify the differences, but the pioneering of these signatures is largely due to Brian Ferneyhough, who says that he finds that "such 'irrational' measures serve as a useful buffer between local changes of event density and actual changes of base tempo".[17] Thomas Adès has also used them extensively—for example in Traced Overhead (1996), the second movement of which contains, among more conventional meters, bars in such signatures as 2
6, 9
14 and 5
24.
A gradual process of diffusion into less rarefied musical circles seems underway.[citation needed] For example, John Pickard's Eden, commissioned for the 2005 finals of the National Brass Band Championships of Great Britain contains bars of 3
10 and 7
12.[18]
Notationally, rather than using Cowell's elaborate series of notehead shapes, the same convention has been invoked as when normal tuplets are written; for example, one beat in 4
5 is written as a normal quarter note, four quarter notes complete the bar, but the whole bar lasts only 4⁄5 of a reference whole note, and a beat 1⁄5 of one (or 4⁄5 of a normal quarter note). This is notated in exactly the same way that one would write if one were writing the first four quarter notes of five quintuplet quarter notes.
This article uses irrational in the music theory sense, not the mathematical sense, where an irrational number is one that cannot be written as a ratio of whole numbers. However, a few pieces from Conlon Nancarrow's Studies for Player Piano use a time signature that is irrational in the mathematical sense. A piece contains a canon with a part augmented in the ratio √42:1 (approximately 6.48:1). Another one has a time signature of π
e, amongst others.[citation needed]
Some video samples are shown below.
These video samples show two time signatures combined to make a polymeter, since 4
3, say, in isolation, is identical to 4
4.
Play media
Polymeter 4
4 and 4
3 played together has three beats of 4
3 to four beats of 4
4
Play media
Polymeter 2
6 and 3
4 played together has six beats of 2
6 to four beats of 3
4
Play media
Polymeter 2
5 and 2
3 played together has five beats of 2
5 to three beats of 2
3. The displayed numbers count the underlying polyrhythm, which is 5:3
Variants[edit]
Some composers have used fractional beats: for example, the time signature 2 1⁄2
4 appears in Carlos Chávez's Piano Sonata No. 3 (1928) IV, m. 1.
Example of Orff's time signatures
Music educator Carl Orff proposed replacing the lower number of the time signature with an actual note image, as shown at right. This system eliminates the need for compound time signatures, which are confusing to beginners. While this notation has not been adopted by music publishers generally (except in Orff's own compositions), it is used extensively in music education textbooks. Similarly, American composers George Crumb and Joseph Schwantner, among others, have used this system in many of their works.
Another possibility is to extend the barline where a time change is to take place above the top instrument's line in a score and to write the time signature there, and there only, saving the ink and effort that would have been spent writing it in each instrument's staff. Henryk Górecki's Beatus Vir is an example of this. Alternatively, music in a large score sometimes has time signatures written as very long, thin numbers covering the whole height of the score rather than replicating it on each staff; this is an aid to the conductor, who can see signature changes more easily.
Early music usage[edit]
Mensural time signatures[edit]
In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period in which mensural notation was used, four basic mensuration signs determined the proportion between the two main units of rhythm. There were no measure or bar lines in music of this period; these signs, the ancestors of modern time signatures, indicate the ratio of duration between different note values. The relation between the breve and the semibreve was called tempus, and the relation between the semibreve and the minim was called prolatio. The breve and the semibreve use roughly the same symbols as our modern double whole note (breve) and whole note (semibreve), but they were not limited to the same proportional values as are in use today. There are complicated rules concerning how a breve is sometimes three and sometimes two semibreves. Unlike modern notation, the duration ratios between these different values was not always 2:1; it could be either 2:1 or 3:1, and that is what, amongst other things, these mensuration signs indicated. A ratio of 3:1 was called complete, perhaps a reference to the Trinity, and a ratio of 2:1 was called incomplete.
A circle used as a mensuration sign indicated tempus perfectum (a circle being a symbol of completeness), while an incomplete circle, resembling a letter C, indicated tempus imperfectum. Assuming the breve is a beat, this corresponds to the modern concepts of triple meter and duple meter, respectively. In either case, a dot in the center indicated prolatio perfecta (compound meter) while the absence of such a dot indicated prolatio imperfecta (simple meter).
A rough equivalence of these signs to modern meters would be:
corresponds to 9
8 meter;
corresponds to 3
4 meter;
corresponds to 6
8 meter;
corresponds to 2
4 meter.
N.B.: in modern compound meters the beat is a dotted note value, such as a dotted quarter, because the ratios of the modern note value hierarchy are always 2:1. Dotted notes were never used in this way in the mensural period; the main beat unit was always a simple (undotted) note value.
Proportions[edit]
Another set of signs in mensural notation specified the metric proportions of one section to another, similar to a metric modulation. A few common signs are shown:[19]
tempus imperfectum diminutum, 1:2 proportion (twice as fast);
tempus perfectum diminutum, 1:2 proportion (twice as fast);
or just proportio tripla, 1:3 proportion (three times as fast, similar to triplets).
Often the ratio was expressed as two numbers, one above the other,[20] looking similar to a modern time signature, though it could have values such as 4
3, which a conventional time signature could not.
Some proportional signs were not used consistently from one place or century to another. In addition, certain composers delighted in creating "puzzle" compositions that were intentionally difficult to decipher.
In particular, when the sign was encountered, the tactus (beat) changed from the usual semibreve to the breve, a circumstance called alla breve. This term has been sustained to the present day, and though now it means the beat is a minim (half note), in contradiction to the literal meaning of the phrase, it still indicates that the beat has changed to a longer note value.
See also[edit]
Schaffel
Tala
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alexander R. Brinkman, Pascal Programming for Music Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990): 443, 450–63, 757, 759, 767. ISBN 0226075079; Mary Elizabeth Clark and David Carr Glover, Piano Theory: Primer Level (Miami: Belwin Mills, 1967): 12; Steven M. Demorest, Building Choral Excellence: Teaching Sight-Singing in the Choral Rehearsal (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003): 66. ISBN 0195165500; William Duckworth, A Creative Approach to Music Fundamentals, eleventh edition (Boston, MA: Schirmer Cengage Learning, 2013): 54, 59, 379. ISBN 0840029993; Edwin Gordon, Tonal and Rhythm Patterns: An Objective Analysis: A Taxonomy of Tonal Patterns and Rhythm Patterns and Seminal Experimental Evidence of Their Difficulty and Growth Rate (Albany: SUNY Press, 1976): 36–37, 54–55, 57. ISBN 0873953541; Demar Irvine, Reinhard G. Pauly, Mark A. Radice, Irvine’s Writing about Music, third edition (Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1999): 209–10. ISBN 1574670492.
Jump up ^ Henry Cowell and David Nicholls, New Musical Resources, third edition (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 63. ISBN 0521496519 (cloth); ISBN 0521499747 (pbk); Cynthia M. Gessele, "Thiéme, Frédéric [Thieme, Friedrich]", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001); James L. Zychowicz, Mahler's Fourth Symphony (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005): 82–83, 107. ISBN 0195181654.
Jump up ^ Edwin Gordon, Rhythm: Contrasting the Implications of Audiation and Notation (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2000): 111. ISBN 1579990983.
Jump up ^ G. Augustus Holmes (1949). The Academic Manual of the Rudiments of Music. London: A. Weekes; Stainer & Bell. p. 17. ISBN 9780852492765.
Jump up ^ Willi Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900–1600, fifth edition, revised and with commentary; The Medieval Academy of America Publication no. 38 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Medieval Academy of America, 1953): 147–48.
Jump up ^ Scott Schroedl, Play Drums Today! A Complete Guide to the Basics: Level One (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2001), p. 42. ISBN 0-634-02185-0.
Jump up ^ See File:Bach BVW 1041 Allegro Assai.png for an excerpt from the violin part of the final movement.
^ Jump up to: a b Tim Emmons, Odd Meter Bass: Playing Odd Time Signatures Made Easy (Van Nuys: Alfred Publishing, 2008): 4. ISBN 978-0-7390-4081-2. "What is an 'odd meter'?...A complete definition would begin with the idea of music organized in repeating rhythmic groups of three, five, seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, fifteen, etc."
Jump up ^ Egert Pöhlmann and Martin L. West, Documents of Ancient Greek Music: The Extant Melodies and Fragments, edited and transcribed with commentary by Egert Pöhlmann and Martin L. West (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001): 70–71, 85. ISBN 0-19-815223-X.
Jump up ^ "Tchaikovsky's Symphony # 6 (Pathetique), Classical Classics, Peter Gutmann". Classical Notes. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997): 48. ISBN 978-0-19-509888-4.
Jump up ^ Radiohead (musical group). OK Computer, vocal score with guitar accompaniment and tablature (Essex, England: IMP International Music Publications; Miami, FL: Warner Bros. Publications; Van Nuys, Calif.: Alfred Music Co., Inc., 1997):[page needed]. ISBN 0-7579-9166-1.
Jump up ^ Manuel, Peter (1988). Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey (rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 131. ISBN 9780195063349.
Jump up ^ Gardner Read, Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1964):[page needed]
Jump up ^ Constantin Brăiloiu, Le rythme Aksak, Revue de Musicologie 33, nos. 99 and 100 (December 1951): 71–108. Citation on pp. 75–76.
Jump up ^ Gheorghe Oprea, Folclorul muzical românesc (Bucharest: Ed. Muzicala, 2002),[page needed] ISBN 973-42-0304-5
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Brian Ferneyhough", The Ensemble Sospeso
Jump up ^ John Pickard: Eden, full score, Kirklees Music, 2005.
Jump up ^ Willi Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900–1600, fifth edition, revised with commentary; The Medieval Academy of America Publication no. 38 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953), p. 148.
Jump up ^ Willi Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900–1600, fifth edition, revised with commentary; The Medieval Academy of America Publication no. 38 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953), p. 147.
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Category:Musical notation
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Time_signature&oldid=828060885"
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values: List of musical works in unusual time signatures

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Bulgarian Folk Music

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text:
The Governor (The Walking Dead)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Governor
The Walking Dead character
The Governor, as portrayed by David Morrissey in the television series (left) and in the comic book series (right).
First appearance
Comic:
"Issue #27"
April 15, 2006
Television:
"Walk with Me" (3.03)
October 28, 2012
Last appearance
Comic:
"Issue #48"
April 2, 2008
"Issue #72"
May 19, 2010
(flashback)
Television:
Too Far Gone (4.08)
December 1, 2013
"What Happened and What's Going On" (5.09)
February 8, 2015
(hallucination)
Created by
Robert Kirkman
Charlie Adlard
Cliff Rathburn
Portrayed by
David Morrissey
Information
Occupation
Leader of Woodbury, Georgia
Family
Comic and Novels:
Ed Blake (father)
Rose Blake (mother)
Bud Blake (uncle)
Nina Blake (sister)
Philip Blake (brother)
In Both Mediums:
Penny Blake (niece in novels, daughter in TV series)
Significant other(s)
Television:
Mrs. Blake
Andrea
Lilly Chambler
The Governor (real name Philip Blake in the TV series, and Brian Blake in the comics and novels) is a fictional character and a primary antagonist from The Walking Dead comic book and television series. On television, he is portrayed by David Morrissey. Created by Robert Kirkman and artists Charlie Adlard and Cliff Rathburn, the character made his comics debut in The Walking Dead #27 on April 2006 and his television debut in season 3. In both series, The Governor is the ruthless, charismatic leader of the town of Woodbury, Georgia who comes into conflict with protagonist Rick Grimes and is responsible for the deaths of several primary characters. The Governor's origins are explored in the novel The Walking Dead: Rise of the Governor, written by Kirkman and Jay Bonansinga.
In the television series, The Governor's disturbing motives are reflected in his authoritarian ways in dealing with threats to his community, primarily by executing most large groups and only accepting lone survivors into his community. His dark nature escalates when he comes into conflict with Rick Grimes and the latter's group, who are occupying the nearby prison. The Governor vows to eliminate the prison group, and in that pursuit, he leaves several key characters dead both in Rick's group and his own. The Governor has a romantic relationship with Andrea, who unsuccessfully seeks to broker a truce between the two groups. In season 4, The Governor attempts to redeem himself upon meeting a new family, to whom he introduces himself as Brian Heriot. However, he commits several brutal acts to ensure the family's survival. This leads to more characters' deaths and forces Rick and his group to abandon the prison.
In 2009, the Governor was ranked as IGN's 86th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time[1] and was ranked #28 on TV Guide's list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time. For his performance as the Governor, Morrissey was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the 39th Saturn Awards.
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearances
1.1 Fictional character biography
1.1.1 Comic book series
1.1.2 Television series
1.2 Personality
1.3 Appearances in the television series
1.3.1 Season 3
1.3.2 Season 4
1.3.3 Season 5
2 Casting and development
3 Reception
4 References
Appearances[edit]
Fictional character biography[edit]
Comic book series[edit]
Aside from simply "The Governor," the character's name appeared to be Philip Blake; however, with the release of the novel The Walking Dead: Rise of the Governor, it was revealed that his actual name was Brian Blake, and Philip was revealed to be his deceased brother.[2]
When the dead began to rise, Brian and Philip gathered a small group, which included Brian's niece Penny, and the group were constantly on the run when unsecured locations were breached; the planned community called the Wiltshire Estates, where Rick's group coincidentally stayed, was one of these. Eventually, Brian's group came upon Woodbury, Georgia, a ravaged town being led by a group of National Guardsmen under Major Gene Gavin, who used fear to assert his authority. After becoming the last of his group, Brian rallied the townspeople against Gavin and the Guardsmen and afterward declared himself "Governor" of the four blocks making up the settlement. Initially appearing to be a fair and strong leader, he became increasingly more ruthless and power-hungry. He kept the zombified Penny tied up in his apartment, feeding her severed body parts of those who displeased him.[3]
The Governor, as depicted in the comic book series.
Following Woodbury's capture and the murder of stranded refugees from Atlanta, The Governor is met by Rick Grimes, when Grimes' band of survivors explores the town.[volume & issue needed] After initially acting hospitable, The Governor turns on the group.[volume & issue needed] Attempting to find the location of Rick's prison refuge in order to collect supplies for Woodbury, The Governor proceeds to cut off Rick's hand, torture Glenn, and rape and torture Michonne.[4] To learn the location of the prison, the Governor allows the survivors to escape the premises with the help of one of his guards, Caesar Martinez.[volume & issue needed] However, Michonne stays behind and finds her way to The Governor's apartment, where she brutally tortures him, severing his right arm, fingernails, penis, and left eye.[volume & issue needed] When Michonne rejoins the group and they ask her if The Governor is still alive, Michonne is uncertain.[5]
The Governor survives with the help of Bob Stookey, a citizen who had medical experience, and is eventually able to find the prison.[volume & issue needed] The Governor uses Rick's murder of Martinez to rally Woodbury's townspeople against the prison's inhabitants.[6] Things do not go according to plan, however, as Rick's group puts up a tenacious defense that forces Woodbury's humiliating retreat.[volume & issue needed] After a failed attempt to gain his way into the prison, by using Tyreese as a hostage and subsequently decapitating Tyreese with Michonne's katana, The Governor crushes the fences with a tank.[volume & issue needed] A bloody massacre ensues, leading to a high death toll and ultimately making the prison less secure and less habitable.[volume & issue needed]
Tensions steadily rise within The Governor's group, as their remaining ammunition is limited, and a handful of Woodbury residents' moral consciences come into play, especially regarding the killing of defenseless or young members of the prison group.[volume & issue needed] Both factors lead to the remnants of The Governor's army turning on him, and to Lilly's killing him, throwing his corpse to the zombies, and making a last-ditch attempt to fortify the prison.[7]
Television series[edit]
Before the outbreak, Philip and Brian Blake were raised by an abusive father. As an adult, Philip worked an office job with a boss he didn't get along with, was married, and had a daughter named Penny. Eighteen months before the outbreak, Philip lost his wife in a car accident. During the early days of the outbreak, Philip and Penny survived and found a community in Woodbury. Penny was bitten, however, and turned into a zombie. Unable to accept her death, Philip locked her up in a private room in his office. When the community was leaderless, they picked Philip to lead and began calling him "The Governor", a nickname which stuck. Determined not to lose the community, he executed any outsider groups he saw as a threat. He allowed some smaller groups to move into Woodbury if he deemed them to be an asset and not a threat to his leadership, but still took precautions and had them monitored by his lieutenants until he deemed them trustworthy. At some point during the first and second season The Governor encounters a dying Merle Dixon, whom The Governor enlisted, along with Caesar Martinez and Milton Mamet, as his lieutenant and advisers. He also tasks Milton, a scientist, with researching a means to reverse the virus in the hopes of saving Penny. The Governor was also known to have had affairs with many of the Woodbury women.
Personality[edit]
The Governor is charming and charismatic, but also murderous, violent, sociopathic, power-hungry, completely sadistic, and horrifically ruthless. He sees himself as the community's only hope for survival, and is thus willing to imprison, abuse and/or kill anyone he sees as a threat to his authority; for him, torture and mass murder are a means to an end. One example of this is when he and his men massacre a group of National Guardsmen, take their supplies. Later, he is proven to be completely cruel, heartless, and aggressive, willingly decapitating Hershel Greene with not even a single shred of remorse or mercy, even when Rick offers to make peace between the two factions, and ordering his men to kill Rick and his survivor group after mercilessly killing a little girl when she was bitten by a walker and dying.
Appearances in the television series[edit]
Season 3[edit]
The Governor first appears in "Walk with Me", season 3, episode 3, having forcibly taken Andrea and Michonne from the woods after Merle discovers them near a downed military helicopter. Woodbury, under The Governor's rule, is a functioning community that even bears some resemblance to the world before the virus struck. The townspeople are unaware that the Governor and his men massacred a platoon of National Guardsmen to get their supplies. In the episode "Killer Within", The Governor befriends Andrea, and he reveals some of his past to her, including his real name. In the episode "Say the Word", it is shown that The Governor has a zombified daughter named Penny, whom he keeps hidden, feeds body parts to, and grooms affectionately while playing the lullaby "Bye, Baby Bunting". The Governor allows Michonne to leave town, but she is unable to convince Andrea to leave with her. The Governor leads Andrea to a gathering for the townsfolk: a sparring match between Merle and Martinez surrounded by chained, toothless walkers. The spectacle shocks Andrea, who describes it as "barbaric", but the Governor insists it is "fun", and it teaches the residents to not be afraid. In the episode "Hounded", the Governor and Andrea begin a sexual relationship.
He sends Merle to find and kill Michonne, and although Merle fails to kill her, he returns with two captives, Glenn Rhee and Maggie Greene. In the episode "When the Dead Come Knocking", the Governor interrogates Maggie and eventually sexually assaults her, and leaves Glenn to be brutalized by Merle. When he threatens to shoot Glenn, Maggie gives The Governor the information about the prison and their group. In the mid-season finale "Made to Suffer", during Rick Grimes' foray into Woodbury to rescue Glenn and Maggie, Michonne kills Penny. Enraged, the Governor attacks Michonne, and in self-defense she stabs him in the hand and the right eye with a glass shard. The Governor calls a town meeting, where he claims the town has been attacked by terrorists brought by Merle, and he brings forth Merle's brother Daryl Dixon in chains. The Governor orders them to fight to the death, and the town calls for their blood as a way to force the two brothers to fight each other.
In the mid-season premiere "The Suicide King", the fight between Merle and Daryl is broken up when the prison group attacks, allowing the brothers to escape. The Governor withdraws to his apartment, and the town is in a state of unrest after the attack. Andrea confronts him about her friends' presence in town, and then goes out to calm and inspire the townspeople. In the episode "Home", The Governor asks Milton Mamet where his loyalties lie, and asks him to keep tabs on Andrea. The Governor and his men then attack the prison; Rick Grimes' group runs for cover, and gunfire erupts on both sides. When a herd of walkers charge through town, the Governor gleefully sprays machine gun fire in the air and then drives off as the survivors struggle with the walkers.
In the episode "I Ain't a Judas", the Governor proceeds to rally Woodbury against the prison survivors, labeling them terrorists and raiders. Andrea wants to leave to negotiate peace with the prison group, but the Governor discourages her, implying that she will not be welcomed back if she leaves. When Milton tells the Governor that Andrea asked him to help her sneak out, the Governor tells him to go with her. The Governor welcomes Tyreese, Sasha, Allen, and Ben to Woodbury, after Rick kicked them out of the prison. Andrea returns to Woodbury and warily resumes her place at the Governor's side. In the episode "Arrow on the Doorpost", encouraged by Andrea, the Governor meets with Rick in a secluded grain silo to offer him peace in exchange for turning over Michonne, giving him two days to think about it. The Governor returns to Woodbury and secretly orders Martinez to set an ambush at the barn, to kill all of Rick's group and bring Michonne to Woodbury so The Governor can torture her. In the episode "Prey", Andrea flees for the prison, and the Governor hunts her down personally, bringing her back to Woodbury and strapping her in the dentist's chair that he meant to use on Michonne. In the episode "This Sorrowful Life", Merle kidnaps Michonne at Rick's suggestion to turn her over to the Governor, but lets her go and instead lures walkers to the Governor's meeting place to ambush the Woodbury army. Then, the Governor maims, shoots, and kills Merle, leaving his body to reanimate as a walker, which Daryl later kills, out of pure anger, remorse, and pain.
In the season finale "Welcome to the Tombs", the Governor brutally beats Milton up after learning that he burned the walkers that the Governor had been corralling; he then orders him to kill Andrea. Milton tries in vain to kill the Governor, but the Governor stabs him and locks him in with Andrea, so that Milton will reanimate and kill Andrea. The Governor then leads his army into the prison to kill Rick's entire group, but Tyreese and Sasha wants nothing to do with it, and stay behind at Woodbury. Rick and the others have set a trap at the prison, expecting the Woodbury army's arrival. Ambushed and outgunned by Maggie and Glenn, the Governor's army flees the prison in terror. The Governor stops the fast-fleeing convoy, and, in response to their protests against returning to the prison, he opens fire and slaughters them all, sparing only Martinez and Shumpert, his two primary henchmen. Only Karen escapes his rampage (by playing dead under a corpse). The Governor, Martinez, and Shumpert are last seen driving off as Rick and Tyreese bring everyone from Woodbury to the prison, and leave Woodbury to be overrun.
Season 4[edit]
"Live Bait" reveals that, just after massacring his own people, the Governor sets up camp with Martinez and Shumpert. Martinez and Shumpert abandon him after he does nothing to protect himself from a walker, believing him to have lost his nerve. The next day the Governor drives back to Woodbury, which is overrun with walkers, and burns down the entire town. After several months alone, intentionally trying to let the walkers kill him, he finally collapses on the street. He looks up to see a young girl, about the same age as Penny, in the window of a nearby apartment building; he pulls himself back to his feet and investigates. He finds the Chambler family residing inside, consisting of sisters Lilly and Tara, their father David, and Lilly's daughter Meghan. Lilly and Tara initially hold the Governor at gunpoint, but they later confiscate his pistol and allow him to stay in an apartment across the hallway. After hearing about how the Governor has survived the last few months, they ask him his name. He tells them that it is "Brian Heriot", a name he saw painted on the side of a barn while staggering aimlessly through the countryside. He runs some errands for the family, and risks his life to get David two oxygen tanks from a walker-infested nursing home. When David dies and reanimates, the Governor saves the rest of the family by bashing in David's head with one of the oxygen tanks. After he buries David, he burns his photo of his wife and Penny. That night, he goes to the Chamblers to say goodbye, but Lilly insists that he stay. He and Lilly become lovers, and he saves Meghan when she falls into a pit of walkers, killing them with his bare hands. Moments later, he encounters Martinez and his group.
In the episode "Dead Weight", Martinez takes in the Governor, accepting his new facade as "Brian", and the girls and lets them join their camp. Among the camp are brothers Pete and Mitch Dolgen, who have a working tank. When it becomes clear that Martinez may not be able to keep them safe, the Governor kills him by throwing him into a pit of walkers. Pete takes command, but the Governor later kills him as well after he displays an inability to kill a group of other survivors to take their belongings. The Governor plans to rally the camp and use the tank in a second attack on the prison.
In the mid-season finale "Too Far Gone", the Governor encounters Michonne and Hershel Greene, and takes them hostage, intending to use them as leverage over Rick. The Governor then rallies the camp to take over the prison. Upon arriving at the prison with his army and tank, the Governor tells Rick that he is going to give their group a chance to leave without anyone getting killed. Rick says that they can co-exist peacefully, but the Governor calls him a liar and beheads Hershel. During the ensuing gunfight, Lilly arrives in time to see him murder Hershel. She is carrying Meghan, who has been bitten by a walker. He dispassionately shoots Meghan to prevent her from becoming a walker before ordering his people to kill everyone in the prison. The Governor uses the tank to roll over the fences and goes into the fight himself, only to be tackled by Rick. The two of them fight, and the Governor eventually pins Rick and brutally beats him before beginning to choke him to death. At that moment, Michonne stabs the Governor and leaves him to die. Lilly then shoots him in the head, killing him.
Season 5[edit]
In the mid-season premiere "What Happened and What's Going On", the Governor appears, along with Beth Greene, Bob Stookey, Martin, and Lizzie and Mika Samuels, during Tyreese's hallucinations after Tyreese is bitten by a walker. While Beth, Bob, and the girls comfort Tyreese, the Governor taunts him about his past actions and inability to do what is "necessary". The Governor, especially, criticizes Tyreese's choices, particularly in forgiving Carol for murdering Karen. The Governor reminds Tyreese that he promised to do what it took to earn his keep, but he failed to adapt. However, Tyreese stands up and confronts him. However The Governor "pushes" Tyreese to the ground while still pressing his point. Tyreese ultimately dies in peace, and the vision of the Governor fades away.
Casting and development[edit]
On television, the character is portrayed by British actor David Morrissey. Glen Mazzara, when asked about the character's direction for season 3 of the show, described The Governor as a narcissist, who sees himself as the future savior of civilization and is willing to resort to the most extreme of measures to achieve his ultimate goal.[8]
Despite making few appearances, The Governor's daughter, Penny, plays a key role in his mentality and actions. He secretly cares for the undead Penny in his apartment, as revealed in the episode "Say the Word", brushing her hair and singing to her, and tells Michonne that she does not need to suffer, implying that he believes Penny is still alive and is "under the grip of a terrible, terrible illness".[9]
The Governor's eye patch in the television series was placed on the opposite side from that of his comic book counterpart.
Reception[edit]
In 2009, the Governor was ranked as IGN's 86th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time[1] and was ranked #28 on TV Guide's list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time. David Morrissey has been well received for his performance as the Governor, and was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the 39th Saturn Awards.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Governor is number 86 IGN. Retrieved 10-05-09.
Jump up ^ The Walking Dead: Rise of the Governor
Jump up ^ The Walking Dead #32 (October 2006)
Jump up ^ Kirkman, Robert (w), Adlard, Charlie (p), Adlard, Charlie (inker, cover), Cliff Rathburn (gray tones, cover colors, back cover) (i), Wooton, Rus (let). "The Best Defense" The Walking Dead v5, 29: [22] (June 2006), 1942 University Avenue, Suite 305, Berkeley, CA 94704: Image Comics
Jump up ^ Kirkman, Robert (w), Adlard, Charlie (p), Adlard, Charlie (inker, cover), Cliff Rathburn (gray tones, cover colors, back cover) (i), Wooton, Rus (let). "This Sorrowful Life" The Walking Dead v6, 33: [22] (December 2006), 1942 University Avenue, Suite 305, Berkeley, CA 94704: Image Comics
Jump up ^ Kirkman, Robert (w), Adlard, Charlie (p), Adlard, Charlie (inker, cover), Cliff Rathburn (gray tones, cover colors, back cover) (i), Wooton, Rus (let). "Made To Suffer" The Walking Dead v8, 43: [26] (October 24, 2007), 1942 University Avenue, Suite 305, Berkeley, CA 94704: Image Comics
Jump up ^ Kirkman, Robert (w), Adlard, Charlie (p), Adlard, Charlie (inker, cover), Cliff Rathburn (gray tones, cover colors) (i), Wooton, Rus (let). "Made To Suffer" The Walking Dead v8, 48: [22] (April 2, 2008), 1942 University Avenue, Suite 305, Berkeley, CA 94704: Image Comics
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Kevin (July 17, 2012). "'The Walking Dead' Season 3's Governor to be 'Sexy?'". Screen Crush.
Jump up ^ Inside Episode 308 The Walking Dead: Made to Suffer The Walking Dead (December 2, 2012)
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