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University of the West Indies
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This article is about the West Indies university in the English-speaking Caribbean. For the University of the French West Indies, see University of the French West Indies and Guiana.
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University of the West Indies
Motto
Oriens Ex Occidente Lux (Latin)
Motto in English
A Light Rising From The West
Type
Regional university Public, Autonomous
Established
1948
Chancellor
Mr. Robert Bermudez
Vice-Chancellor
Sir Hilary Beckles
Academic staff
1,200+
Students
36,000+ (across 4 campuses)
Campus
Mona, Jamaica
Saint Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Cave Hill, Barbados
Debe, Trinidad and Tobago (under construction)
Affiliations
Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU)
Mascot
The Pelican
Website
www.uwi.edu
St Augustine UWI Campus
The University of the West Indies (UWI) is a public university system established to serve the higher education needs of the residents of 18 English-speaking countries and territories in the Caribbean: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and Turks and Caicos Islands. Each of these countries is either a member of the Commonwealth of Nations or a British Overseas Territory. The aim of the university is to help "unlock the potential for economic and cultural growth" in the West Indies, thus allowing for improved regional autonomy.[1] The University was originally instituted as an independent external college of the University of London.[2]
The University consists of three physical campuses at Mona in Jamaica, St. Augustine in Trinidad and Tobago, Cave Hill in Barbados. There is also a virtual, online-based, university through the University's Open Campus. The Open Campus is an amalgamation of the University's previous Office of the Board for Non-Campus Countries & Distance Education (BNNCDE), the School of Continuing Studies (SCS), the UWI Distance Education Centre (UWIDEC), and the Tertiary Level Institutions Unit (TLIU).[3] There are satellite campuses in Mount Hope, Trinidad and Tobago and Montego Bay, Jamaica, and a Centre for Hotel and Tourism Management in Nassau, Bahamas. The other contributing countries are served by the Open Campus[4] which has a physical presence and Heads of Sites in each of the 18 countries. There are International Programmes and partnerships for universities in the USA, Canada, China, Japan, United Kingdom, Brazil and Mexico such as University of Toronto, McGill University, Osaka Gakuin University, China University of Political Science and Law, Shanghai University, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Emory University, University of Massachusetts, the University of Guelph, Yale University, King's College London, St Andrews University, Northeastern University, Stockholm University, University of California, Sophia University, University of Illinois, Saïd Business School and Universidad de Quintana Roo.
The University has produced students who have excelled in a number of disciplines, including the arts and sciences, business, politics, and sports. Notable alumni and faculty include three U.W.I.(Mona) Nobel Laureates, sixty-one Rhodes Scholars, 18 current or former Caribbean Heads of Government, and an Olympic medalist. The university's cricket team previously participated in West Indian domestic cricket, but now participates as part of a Combined Campuses and Colleges team.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Notable faculty and administrators
3 Notable alumni
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
6.1 Campus websites
6.2 Other links
History[edit]
Book shelves UWI Library
The university was founded in 1948, on the recommendation of the Asquith Commission[5] through its sub-committee on the West Indies chaired by Sir James Irvine.[6] The Asquith Commission had been established in 1943 to review the provision of higher education in the British colonies. Initially in a special relationship with the University of London, the then University College of the West Indies (UCWI) was seated at Mona, about five miles from Kingston, Jamaica. The university was based at a camp used by evacuated Gibraltarians during the war.[7]
The University College achieved independent university status in 1962. The St Augustine Campus in Trinidad, formerly the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture (ICTA), was established in 1960, followed by the Cave Hill Campus in Barbados in 1963. Before the establishment of the Open Campus, University Centres, headed by a Resident Tutor, were established in each of the other thirteen contributing territories.
Each of the physical campuses has faculties common to all of the campuses, such as Humanities & Education and Social Sciences. Cave Hill and Mona have the Faculty of Science & Technology while St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago, houses the School of Natural Sciences and the School of Agriculture under the Faculty of Agriculture and Sciences. Cave Hill, Barbados and Mona, Jamaica and St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago has a full Faculty of Law. Both Mona, Jamaica, and St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago, have the Faculty of Medicine. In 2008 Cave Hill accepted the first students at their Faculty of Medicine. Previously, they only accommodated students in the final two years in the medical program at their School of Medicine which was located at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. St. Augustine also has the Faculty of Engineering.
In 1950, HRH Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, the last surviving granddaughter of Queen Victoria, became the first Chancellor of the University College of the West Indies.
Sir William Arthur Lewis was the first Vice-Chancellor under the UWI’s independent Charter. A native of St Lucia, he served as the first West Indian Principal of the UCWI from 1958 to 1960 and as Vice-Chancellor from 1960 to 1963. He was succeeded by Sir Philip Sherlock (a Jamaican and one of the UWI’s founding fathers) who served as Vice-Chancellor from 1963 to 1969. Sir Roy Marshall, a Barbadian, was the next Vice-Chancellor, serving from 1969 to 1974. He was succeeded by Dr. Aston Zachariah Preston, a Jamaican, who died in office on June 24, 1986 having served from 1974. The fifth Vice-Chancellor was Sir Alister McIntyre, who served from 1988 to 1998, followed by alumnus and Professor Emeritus Rex Nettleford who served from 1998 to 2004. The current Vice-Chancellor is Professor Sir Hilary Beckles, who succeeded Professor E. Nigel Harris in May 2015.
Current enrollment across the four campuses is 56,000.
Notable faculty and administrators[edit]
Hilary Beckles: historian, vice-chancellor from May 2015.
Dr. Daniel Coore: Senior Lecturer in Computer Science at UWI Mona Campus[8]
Dr. Elsa Goveia first female professor of UCWI and noted pioneer in West Indian historiography[9][10]
Professor Patrick Hosein: Professor in Computer Science at UWI St Augustine Campus[11]
William Arthur Lewis: Economist, lecturer, author and joint winner of Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics of 1979.
Albert Belville Lockhart: Consultant and Ophthalmologist, Recipient of the Jamaican Order of Merit, co-inventor of Canasol[12]
Sam Mc Daniel:- B.Sc.UWI Mona Jamaica, M.A. (Biostatistics), Harvard University, Ph.D, Harvard University[13]
Manley Elisha West: Professor of Pharmacology, Recipient of the Jamaican Order of Merit, co-inventor of Canasol[12]
Dr. Kim Mallalieu: Senior Lecturer in Computer and Electrical Engineering at UWI ST Augustine[14][15]
Elsa Leo-Rhynie: Principal of the Mona campus.
Evelyn O'Callaghan: Professor of West Indian literature, Dean of the Faculty of Humanities and Education
Professor St. Clair King:Professor Emeritus in Computer and Electrical Engineering at UWI St. Augustine[16]
Orlando Patterson: John Cowles Professor of Sociology at Harvard University[17]
Sir Derek Walcott studied at the University of the West Indies
Notable alumni[edit]
UWI graduates who are, or have been, heads of government:
Kenny Anthony, former prime minister of St. Lucia
Owen Arthur, former prime minister of Barbados
Dean Barrow, prime minister of Belize
Denzil Douglas, former prime minister of St. Kitts & Nevis
Rufus Ewing, premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands
Bruce Golding, former prime minister of Jamaica
Ralph Gonsalves, prime minister of St. Vincent and the Grenadines
David A. Granger, president of Guyana
Andrew Holness, prime minister of Jamaica
Patrick Manning, former prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Keith Mitchell, prime minister of Grenada
Joseph Walcott Parry, former premier of Nevis
P. J. Patterson, former prime minister of Jamaica
Kamla Persad-Bissessar, first female prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Keith Rowley: prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, former prime minister of Barbados
Kennedy A. Simmonds, former prime minister of St. Kitts & Nevis
Orlando Smith, chief minister of the British Virgin Islands
Freundel Stuart, prime minister of Barbados
David Thompson, former prime minister of Barbados
Hubert Minnis, prime minister of The Bahamas
Graduates in other fields:
Sharon Aarons, Australian soil scientist
Faris Al-Rawi, Attorney General of Trinidad and Tobago
Fae Ellington, Jamaican media personality and lecturer
Marlon James, Jamaican-born winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize for Fiction
Dolliver Nelson, member of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
Kris Rampersad, journalist, author, cultural advocate
Patrick Lipton Robinson, judge of the International Court of Justice
Dame Anita Allen, president of the Court of Appeal of The Bahamas
Walter Rodney, Guyanese historian and political activist
Richard Sealy, Barbadian Tourism Minister
Shafimana Ueitele, Namibian lawyer
Burton P. C. Hall, judge of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and former Chief Justice of The Bahamas
Adalbert "Bert" Tucker, Belize River Valley Development Program (BELRIV)[18]
Derek Walcott, Nobel Prize for Literature
Kaye I. Foster-Cheek, Onyx Pharmaceuticals
Professor Ihron Rensburg, Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of Johannesburg
Edwidge Danticat
Olive Senior
See also[edit]
Jamaica portal
University portal
Agence universitaire de la Francophonie
Association of Commonwealth Universities
Caribbean Journal of International Relations & Diplomacy
University of the West Indies Museum
University of Guyana
University of Trinidad and Tobago
University of Technology, Jamaica
University of the Bahamas
University of the French West Indies
University of French Guiana
Savacou, a sculpture on the Mona site
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The University of the West Indies, A Quinquagenary Calendar 1948-1998,Douglas Hall,1998.Jamaica, The Press, University of the West Indies
Jump up ^ https://uwiarchives.wordpress.com/2015/04/22/happy-89th-birthday-to-the-visitor/
Jump up ^ What is the Open Campus, UWI.'
Jump up ^ "The University of the West Indies - Open Campus". Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.bcn.cl/obtienearchivo?id=documentos/10221.1/29331/2/213787.pdf
Jump up ^ Report of the West Indies Committee of the Commission on Higher Education in the Colonies, Presented by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Parliament by Command of His Majesty June 1945. London, His Majesty’s Stationery Office
Jump up ^ Brown, |Suzanne Francis (2006). Mona Past and Present: The History and Heritage of the Mona Campus, University of the West Indies p.10-11. University of the West Indies Press. ISBN 9789766401597.
Jump up ^ http://www.mona.uwi.edu/marcom/newsroom/entry/6333
Jump up ^ Higman, B. W. (1999). General History of the Caribbean. VI: Methodology and historiography of the Caribbean. London, England: UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-103360-5.
Jump up ^ "Dr. Elsa Goveia is dead". Kingston, Jamaica: The Daily Gleaner. 20 March 1980. Retrieved 14 January 2017 – via Newspaperarchive.com.
Jump up ^ https://www.linkedin.com/in/phosein/
^ Jump up to: a b M. E. West and J. Homi. "Cannabis as a medicine". Br. J. Anaesth (1996) 76(1): 167 doi:10.1093/bja/76.1.167-a
Jump up ^ http://www.mona.uwi.edu/mathematics/sam-mc-daniel
Jump up ^ https://sta.uwi.edu/eng/electrical/staff/kim_mallalieu.asp
Jump up ^ http://sta.uwi.edu/news/releases/release.asp?id=562
Jump up ^ https://sta.uwi.edu/eng/electrical/staff/sc_king.asp
Jump up ^ http://scholar.harvard.edu/patterson/home
Jump up ^ http://edition.channel5belize.com/archives/98415
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to University of the West Indies.
Official website
Campus websites[edit]
Cave Hill Campus, Barbados
Cave Hill School of Business
Mona Campus, Jamaica
St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago
Western Jamaica Campus
Eric Williams Medical Sciences Complex, Mount Hope, Trinidad and Tobago
Open Campus
Other links[edit]
Aerial view of Mona Campus
List of Programmes offered through UWI
The Cavite Chorale, One of the singing groups of the University of the West Indies
UWI Student Mailing list
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Coordinates: 18°00′11″N 76°44′40″W / 18.0029784°N 76.744566°W / 18.0029784; -76.744566
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Quasar
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This article is about the astronomical object. For other uses, see Quasar (disambiguation).
"quasi-stellar object" redirects here. It is not to be confused with quasi-star.
Artist's rendering of the accretion disk in ULAS J1120+0641, a very distant quasar powered by a black hole with a mass two billion times that of the Sun.[1] Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser
A quasar (/ˈkweɪzɑːr/) (also quasi-stellar object or QSO) is an active galactic nucleus of very high luminosity. A quasar consists of a supermassive black hole surrounded by an orbiting accretion disk of gas. As gas in the accretion disk falls toward the black hole, energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Quasars emit energy across the electromagnetic spectrum and can be observed at radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths. The most powerful quasars have luminosities exceeding 1041 W, thousands of times greater than the luminosity of a large galaxy such as the Milky Way.[2]
The term "quasar" originated as a contraction of "quasi-stellar radio source", because quasars were first identified as sources of radio-wave emission, and in photographic images at visible wavelengths they resembled point-like stars. High-resolution images of quasars, particularly from the Hubble Space Telescope, have demonstrated that quasars occur in the centers of galaxies, and that some quasar host galaxies are strongly interacting or merging galaxies.[3]
Quasars are found over a very broad range of distances (corresponding to redshifts of roughly 0.1 to 7), and quasar discovery surveys have demonstrated that quasar activity was more common in the distant past. The peak epoch of quasar activity in the Universe corresponds to redshifts around 2, or approximately 10 billion years ago.[4] As of 2011, the most distant known quasar is at redshift z=7.085; light observed from this quasar was emitted when the Universe was only 770 million years old.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Properties
3 Emission generation
4 History of observation
5 Role in celestial reference systems
6 Multiple quasars
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Overview
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Because quasars are distant objects, any light which reaches the Earth is redshifted due to the metric expansion of space.[6] Quasars inhabit the very center of active, young galaxies, and are among the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe, emitting up to a thousand times the energy output of the Milky Way, which contains 200–400 billion stars. This radiation is emitted across the electromagnetic spectrum, almost uniformly, from X-rays to the far-infrared with a peak in the ultraviolet-optical bands, with some quasars also being strong sources of radio emission and of gamma-rays.
Hubble images of quasar 3C 273. At right, a coronagraph is used to block the quasar's light, making it easier to detect the surrounding host galaxy.
Quasar QSO-160913+653228 is so distant its light has taken nine billion years to reach the telescope that took this photo, two thirds of the time that has elapsed since the Big Bang.[7]
In early optical images, quasars appeared as point sources, indistinguishable from stars, except for their peculiar spectra. With infrared telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope, the "host galaxies" surrounding the quasars have been detected in some cases.[8] These galaxies are normally too dim to be seen against the glare of the quasar, except with special techniques. Most quasars, with the exception of 3C 273 whose average apparent magnitude is 12.9, cannot be seen with small telescopes.
The luminosity of some quasars changes rapidly in the optical range and even more rapidly in the X-ray range. Because these changes occur very rapidly they define an upper limit on the volume of a quasar; quasars are not much larger than the Solar System.[9] This implies an extremely high power density.[10] The mechanism of brightness changes probably involves relativistic beaming of astrophysical jets pointed nearly directly toward Earth. The highest redshift quasar known (as of June 2011[update]) is ULAS J1120+0641, with a redshift of 7.085, which corresponds to a comoving distance of approximately 29 billion light-years from Earth (see more discussion of how cosmological distances can be greater than the light-travel time at metric expansion of space).
Quasars are believed to be powered by accretion of material into supermassive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies, making these luminous versions of the general class of objects known as active galaxies. Since light cannot escape the black holes, the escaping energy is actually generated outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material.[11] Central masses of 105 to 109 solar masses have been measured in quasars by using reverberation mapping. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have been shown to contain a similar central black hole in their nuclei, so it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction are active (with enough accretion to power radiation) and so are seen as quasars. The matter accreting onto the black hole is unlikely to fall directly in, but will have some angular momentum around the black hole that will cause the matter to collect into an accretion disc. Quasars may also be ignited or re-ignited when normal galaxies merge and the black hole is infused with a fresh source of matter. In fact, it has been suggested that a quasar could form as the Andromeda Galaxy collides with our own Milky Way galaxy in approximately 3–5 billion years.[11][12][13]
Properties
The Chandra X-ray image is of the quasar PKS 1127-145, a highly luminous source of X-rays and visible light about 10 billion light years from Earth. An enormous X-ray jet extends at least a million light years from the quasar. Image is 60 arcsec on a side. RA 11h 30m 7.10s Dec -14° 49' 27" in Crater. Observation date: May 28, 2000. Instrument: ACIS.
More than 200,000 quasars are known, most from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. All observed quasar spectra have redshifts between 0.056 and 7.085. Applying Hubble's law to these redshifts, it can be shown that they are between 600 million[14] and 28.85 billion light-years away (in terms of comoving distance). Because of the great distances to the farthest quasars and the finite velocity of light, they and their surrounding space appear as they existed in the very early universe.
The power of quasars originates from supermassive black holes that are believed to exist at the core of all galaxies. The Doppler shifts of stars near the cores of galaxies indicate that they are rotating around tremendous masses with very steep gravity gradients, suggesting black holes.
Although quasars appear faint when viewed from Earth, they are visible from extreme distances, being the most luminous objects in the known universe. The brightest quasar in the sky is 3C 273 in the constellation of Virgo. It has an average apparent magnitude of 12.8 (bright enough to be seen through a medium-size amateur telescope), but it has an absolute magnitude of −26.7.[15] From a distance of about 33 light-years, this object would shine in the sky about as brightly as our sun. This quasar's luminosity is, therefore, about 4 trillion (4 × 1012) times that of the Sun, or about 100 times that of the total light of giant galaxies like the Milky Way.[15] This assumes the quasar is radiating energy in all directions, but the active galactic nucleus is believed to be radiating preferentially in the direction of its jet. In a universe containing hundreds of billions of galaxies, most of which had active nuclei billions of years ago but only seen today, it is statistically certain that thousands of energy jets should be pointed toward the Earth, some more directly than others. In many cases it is likely that the brighter the quasar, the more directly its jet is aimed at the Earth.
The hyperluminous quasar APM 08279+5255 was, when discovered in 1998, given an absolute magnitude of −32.2. High resolution imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope and the 10 m Keck Telescope revealed that this system is gravitationally lensed. A study of the gravitational lensing of this system suggests that the light emitted has been magnified by a factor of ~10. It is still substantially more luminous than nearby quasars such as 3C 273.
Quasars were much more common in the early universe than they are today. This discovery by Maarten Schmidt in 1967 was early strong evidence against the Steady State cosmology of Fred Hoyle, and in favor of the Big Bang cosmology. Quasars show the locations where massive black holes are growing rapidly (via accretion). These black holes grow in step with the mass of stars in their host galaxy in a way not understood at present. One idea is that jets, radiation and winds created by the quasars, shut down the formation of new stars in the host galaxy, a process called 'feedback'. The jets that produce strong radio emission in some quasars at the centers of clusters of galaxies are known to have enough power to prevent the hot gas in those clusters from cooling and falling onto the central galaxy.
Quasars' luminosities are variable, with time scales that range from months to hours. This means that quasars generate and emit their energy from a very small region, since each part of the quasar would have to be in contact with other parts on such a time scale as to allow the coordination of the luminosity variations. This would mean that a quasar varying on a time scale of a few weeks cannot be larger than a few light-weeks across. The emission of large amounts of power from a small region requires a power source far more efficient than the nuclear fusion that powers stars. The release of gravitational energy[16] by matter falling towards a massive black hole is the only process known that can produce such high power continuously. Stellar explosions – supernovas and gamma-ray bursts – can do likewise, but only for a few weeks. Black holes were considered too exotic by some astronomers in the 1960s. They also suggested that the redshifts arose from some other (unknown) process, so that the quasars were not really so distant as the Hubble law implied. This "redshift controversy" lasted for many years. Many lines of evidence (optical viewing of host galaxies, finding 'intervening' absorption lines, gravitational lensing) now demonstrate that the quasar redshifts are due to the Hubble expansion, and quasars are in fact as powerful as first thought.[17]
Gravitationally lensed quasar HE 1104-1805.[18]
Play media
Animation shows the alignments between the spin axes of quasars and the large-scale structures that they inhabit.
Quasars have all the properties of other active galaxies such as Seyfert galaxies, but are more powerful: their radiation is partially 'nonthermal' (i.e., not due to black body radiation), and approximately 10 percent are observed to also have jets and lobes like those of radio galaxies that also carry significant (but poorly understood) amounts of energy in the form of particles moving at relativistic speeds. Extremely high energies might be explained by several mechanisms (see Fermi acceleration and Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration). Quasars can be detected over the entire observable electromagnetic spectrum including radio, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray and even gamma rays. Most quasars are brightest in their rest-frame near-ultraviolet wavelength of 121.6 nm Lyman-alpha emission line of hydrogen, but due to the tremendous redshifts of these sources, that peak luminosity has been observed as far to the red as 900.0 nm, in the near infrared. A minority of quasars show strong radio emission, which is generated by jets of matter moving close to the speed of light. When viewed downward, these appear as blazars and often have regions that seem to move away from the center faster than the speed of light (superluminal expansion). This is an optical illusion due to the properties of special relativity.
Quasar redshifts are measured from the strong spectral lines that dominate their visible and ultraviolet spectra. These lines are brighter than the continuous spectrum, so they are called 'emission' lines. They have widths of several percent of the speed of light. These widths are due to Doppler shifts caused by the high speeds of the gas emitting the lines. Fast motions strongly indicate a large mass. Emission lines of hydrogen (mainly of the Lyman series and Balmer series), helium, carbon, magnesium, iron and oxygen are the brightest lines. The atoms emitting these lines range from neutral to highly ionized, leaving it highly charged. This wide range of ionization shows that the gas is highly irradiated by the quasar, not merely hot, and not by stars, which cannot produce such a wide range of ionization.
Iron quasars show strong emission lines resulting from low ionization iron (FeII), such as IRAS 18508-7815.
Emission generation
This view, taken with infrared light, is a false-color image of a quasar-starburst tandem with the most luminous starburst ever seen in such a combination.
Since quasars exhibit properties common to all active galaxies, the emission from quasars can be readily compared to those of smaller active galaxies powered by smaller supermassive black holes. To create a luminosity of 1040 watts (the typical brightness of a quasar), a super-massive black hole would have to consume the material equivalent of 10 stars per year. The brightest known quasars devour 1000 solar masses of material every year. The largest known is estimated to consume matter equivalent to 600 Earths per minute. Quasar luminosities can vary considerably over time, depending on their surroundings. Since it is difficult to fuel quasars for many billions of years, after a quasar finishes accreting the surrounding gas and dust, it becomes an ordinary galaxy.
Spectrum from quasar HE0940-1050 after it has travelled through intergalactic medium.
Quasars also provide some clues as to the end of the Big Bang's reionization. The oldest known quasars (redshift ≥ 6) display a Gunn-Peterson trough and have absorption regions in front of them indicating that the intergalactic medium at that time was neutral gas. More recent quasars show no absorption region but rather their spectra contain a spiky area known as the Lyman-alpha forest; this indicates that the intergalactic medium has undergone reionization into plasma, and that neutral gas exists only in small clouds.
Quasars show evidence of elements heavier than helium, indicating that galaxies underwent a massive phase of star formation, creating population III stars between the time of the Big Bang and the first observed quasars. Light from these stars may have been observed in 2005 using NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope,[19] although this observation remains to be confirmed.
Like all (unobscured) active galaxies, quasars can be strong X-ray sources. Radio-loud quasars can also produce X-rays and gamma rays by inverse Compton scattering of lower-energy photons by the radio-emitting electrons in the jet.[20]
History of observation
Picture shows a cosmic mirage known as the Einstein Cross. Four apparent images are actually from the same quasar.
The first quasars (3C 48 and 3C 273) were discovered in the late 1950s, as radio sources in all-sky radio surveys.[21][22][23][24] They were first noted as radio sources with no corresponding visible object. Using small telescopes and the Lovell Telescope as an interferometer, they were shown to have a very small angular size.[25] Hundreds of these objects were recorded by 1960 and published in the Third Cambridge Catalogue as astronomers scanned the skies for their optical counterparts. In 1963, a definite identification of the radio source 3C 48 with an optical object was published by Allan Sandage and Thomas A. Matthews. Astronomers had detected what appeared to be a faint blue star at the location of the radio source and obtained its spectrum. Containing many unknown broad emission lines, the anomalous spectrum defied interpretation — a claim by John Bolton of a large redshift was not generally accepted.
In 1962 a breakthrough was achieved. Another radio source, 3C 273, was predicted to undergo five occultations by the Moon. Measurements taken by Cyril Hazard and John Bolton during one of the occultations using the Parkes Radio Telescope allowed Maarten Schmidt to optically identify the object and obtain an optical spectrum using the 200-inch Hale Telescope on Mount Palomar. This spectrum revealed the same strange emission lines. Schmidt realized that these were actually spectral lines of hydrogen redshifted at the rate of 15.8 percent. This discovery showed that 3C 273 was receding at a rate of 47,000 km/s.[26] This discovery revolutionized quasar observation and allowed other astronomers to find redshifts from the emission lines from other radio sources. As predicted earlier by Bolton, 3C 48 was found to have a redshift of 37% of the speed of light.
The term "quasar" was coined by Chinese-born U.S. astrophysicist Hong-Yee Chiu in May 1964, in Physics Today, to describe these puzzling objects:
So far, the clumsily long name 'quasi-stellar radio sources' is used to describe these objects. Because the nature of these objects is entirely unknown, it is hard to prepare a short, appropriate nomenclature for them so that their essential properties are obvious from their name. For convenience, the abbreviated form 'quasar' will be used throughout this paper.
Later it was found that not all quasars have strong radio emission; in fact only about 10% are "radio-loud". Hence the name 'QSO' (quasi-stellar object) is used (in addition to "quasar") to refer to these objects, including the 'radio-loud' and the 'radio-quiet' classes. The discovery of the quasar had large implications for the field of astronomy in the 1960s, including drawing physics and astronomy closer together.[27]
One great topic of debate during the 1960s was whether quasars were nearby objects or distant objects as implied by their redshift. It was suggested, for example, that the redshift of quasars was not due to the expansion of space but rather to light escaping a deep gravitational well. However a star of sufficient mass to form such a well would be unstable and in excess of the Hayashi limit.[28] Quasars also show forbidden spectral emission lines which were previously only seen in hot gaseous nebulae of low density, which would be too diffuse to both generate the observed power and fit within a deep gravitational well.[29] There were also serious concerns regarding the idea of cosmologically distant quasars. One strong argument against them was that they implied energies that were far in excess of known energy conversion processes, including nuclear fusion. At this time, there were some suggestions that quasars were made of some hitherto unknown form of stable antimatter and that this might account for their brightness.[citation needed] Others speculated that quasars were a white hole end of a wormhole.[30][31] However, when accretion disc energy-production mechanisms were successfully modeled in the 1970s, the argument that quasars were too luminous became moot and today the cosmological distance of quasars is accepted by almost all researchers.
In 1979 the gravitational lens effect predicted by Einstein's General Theory of Relativity was confirmed observationally for the first time with images of the double quasar 0957+561.[32]
In the 1980s, unified models were developed in which quasars were classified as a particular kind of active galaxy, and a consensus emerged that in many cases it is simply the viewing angle that distinguishes them from other classes, such as blazars and radio galaxies.[33] The huge luminosity of quasars results from the accretion discs of central supermassive black holes, which can convert on the order of 10% of the mass of an object into energy as compared to 0.7% for the p-p chain nuclear fusion process that dominates the energy production in Sun-like stars.
Bright halos around 18 distant quasars.[34]
This mechanism also explains why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it. This means that it is possible that most galaxies, including the Milky Way, have gone through an active stage, appearing as a quasar or some other class of active galaxy that depended on the black hole mass and the accretion rate, and are now quiescent because they lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.
Role in celestial reference systems
The energetic radiation of the quasar makes dark galaxies glow, helping astronomers to understand the obscure early stages of galaxy formation.[35]
Because quasars are extremely distant, bright, and small in apparent size, they are useful reference points in establishing a measurement grid on the sky.[36] The International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) is based on hundreds of extra-galactic radio sources, mostly quasars, distributed around the entire sky. Because they are so distant, they are apparently stationary to our current technology, yet their positions can be measured with the utmost accuracy by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI). The positions of most are known to 0.001 arcsecond or better, which is orders of magnitude more precise than the best optical measurements.
Multiple quasars
A multiple-image quasar is a quasar whose light undergoes gravitational lensing, resulting in double, triple or quadruple images of the same quasar. The first such gravitational lens to be discovered was the double-imaged quasar Q0957+561 (or Twin Quasar) in 1979.[37] A grouping of two or more quasars can result from a chance alignment, physical proximity, actual close physical interaction, or effects of gravity bending the light of a single quasar into two or more images.
As quasars are rare objects, the probability of three or more separate quasars being found near the same location is very low. The first true triple quasar was found in 2007 by observations at the W. M. Keck Observatory Mauna Kea, Hawaii.[38] LBQS 1429-008 (or QQQ J1432−0106) was first observed in 1989 and was found to be a double quasar; itself a rare occurrence. When astronomers discovered the third member, they confirmed that the sources were separate and not the result of gravitational lensing. This triple quasar has a red shift of z = 2.076, which is equivalent to 10.5 billion light years.[39] The components are separated by an estimated 30–50 kpc, which is typical of interacting galaxies.[40] An example of a triple quasar that is formed by lensing is PG1115 +08.[41]
Quasars in interacting galaxies.[42]
In 2013, the second true triplet quasars QQQ J1519+0627 was found with redshift z = 1.51 (approx 9 billion light years) by an international team of astronomers led by Farina of the University of Insubria, the whole system is well accommodated within 25′′ (i.e., 200 kpc in projected distance). The team accessed data from observations collected at the La Silla Observatory with the New Technology Telescope (NTT) of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and at the Calar Alto Observatory with the 3.5m telescope of the Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán (CAHA).[43][44]
The first quadruple quasar was discovered in 2015.[45]
When two quasars are so nearly in the same direction as seen from Earth that they appear to be a single quasar but may be separated by the use of telescopes, they are referred to as a "double quasar", such as the Twin Quasar.[46] These are two different quasars, and not the same quasar that is gravitationally lensed. This configuration is similar to the optical double star. Two quasars, a "quasar pair", may be closely related in time and space, and be gravitationally bound to one another. These may take the form of two quasars in the same galaxy cluster. This configuration is similar to two prominent stars in a star cluster. A "binary quasar", may be closely linked gravitationally and form a pair of interacting galaxies. This configuration is similar to that of a binary star system.
See also
Active galactic nucleus
Seyfert galaxy
References
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Jump up ^ Djorgovski, S. G.; Courbin, F.; Meylan, G.; Sluse, D.; et al. (2007). "Discovery of a Probable Physical Triple Quasar". The Astrophysical Journal. 662 (1): L1–L5. Bibcode:2007ApJ...662L...1D. arXiv:astro-ph/0701155  . doi:10.1086/519162.
Jump up ^ Henry, J. Patrick; Heasley, J. N. (1986-05-08). "High-resolution imaging from Mauna Kea: the triple quasar in 0.3-arc s seeing". Nature. 321 (6066): 139–142. Bibcode:1986Natur.321..139H. doi:10.1038/321139a0.
Jump up ^ "Quasars in interacting galaxies". Retrieved 19 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Extremely rare triple quasar found". phys.org. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
Jump up ^ Farina, E.P; et al. (2013). "Caught in the Act: Discovery of a Physical Quasar Triplet". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 431 (2): 1019–1025. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.431.1019F. arXiv:1302.0849v1  . doi:10.1093/mnras/stt209.
Jump up ^ "Surprise Quasar Quartet Defies Explanation". news.discovery.com. Retrieved 2015-05-17.
Jump up ^ Peacock, John A. (1998). Cosmological physics. Cambridge Astrophysics series. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521422701. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quasars.
3C 273: Variable Star Of The Season
SKY-MAP.ORG SDSS image of quasar 3C 273
Expanding Gallery of Hires Quasar Images
Gallery of Quasar Spectra from SDSS
SDSS Advanced Student Projects: Quasars
Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute
Research Sheds New Light On Quasars (SpaceDaily) July 26, 2006
Audio: Fraser Cain/Pamela L. Gay – Astronomy Cast. Quasars – July 2008
Merrifield, Michael; Copland, Ed. "z~1.3 – An implausibly large structure [in the Universe]". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
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values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwasar
Kwasar – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values: نجم زائف – Arabic

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values: কোয়েজার – Bangla

values: Квазар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kouazar
Kouazar – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasar
Kvasar – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwaseren
Cwaseren – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasar
Kvasar – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasar
Kvasar – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Κβάζαρ – Greek

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazaro
Kvazaro – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: اختروش – Persian

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

values: क्वासर – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuasar
Kuasar – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: קוואזר – Hebrew

values: კვაზარი – Georgian

values: Квазарлар – Kazakh

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaza
Kaza – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values: Квазар – Kyrgyz

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazaras
Kvazaras – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values: क्वेसार – Marathi

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuasar
Kuasar – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasar
Kvasar – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasar
Kvasar – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwazar
Kwazar – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Квазар – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Квазар – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvazar
Kvazar – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasaari
Kvasaari – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasar
Kvasar – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: துடிப்பண்டம் – Tamil

values: Квазар – Tatar

values: เควซาร์ – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuasar
Kuasar – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar
Quasar – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

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