text:
Slave to the Rhythm (album)
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Slave to the Rhythm
Studio album by Grace Jones
Released
28 October 1985
Recorded
1985
Genre
R&B
funk
go-go
Length
43:09 (full version)
37:42 (abridged version)
Label
Island
Producer
Trevor Horn
Grace Jones chronology
Living My Life
(1982)Living My Life1982 Slave to the Rhythm
(1985) Island Life
(1985)Island Life1985
Singles from Slave to the Rhythm
"Slave to the Rhythm"
Released: October 1985
"Jones the Rhythm"
Released: December 1985
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
Allmusic [1]
Slave to the Rhythm is the seventh studio album by Grace Jones, released on 28 October 1985 by Island Records. Subtitled a biography in the liner notes, Slave to the Rhythm is a concept album, produced by ZTT Records founder and producer Trevor Horn, that went on to become one of Jones' most commercially successful albums and spawned her biggest hit, "Slave to the Rhythm".
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Abridged version
2 Artwork
3 Singles
4 Track listing
5 Personnel
6 Charts and certifications
6.1 Weekly charts
6.2 Certifications and sales
7 Release history
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
After finishing sessions at Compass Point for her Living My Life album in late 1982, Jones took a break from recording music and focused on an acting career. Within two years, she made her debut as an actress in the 1984 film Conan the Destroyer, where she played alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger. She later appeared in the James Bond film A View to a Kill as the villain May Day. After finishing filming in late 1984 she returned to the studio to work on a follow-up, ending an almost three-year-long hiatus.
Slave to the Rhythm, both song and album, was written by Bruce Woolley, Simon Darlow, Stephen Lipson and Trevor Horn and was produced by Trevor Horn, who was assisted by Lipson. Unlike most albums that feature a collection of different songs, Slave to the Rhythm was a concept album that featured several, radical interpretations of one title track. The project was originally intended for Frankie Goes to Hollywood as a follow-up to their hit "Relax", but was finally given to Jones.[2] The recording process featured Horn, Lipson and Jones creating a new version of the song every week or so, ballooning the budget for a single song to nearly $385,000 USD. As such, several versions were collected and released as the album proper.
Musically, Slave to the Rhythm ranges from funk to R&B, incorporating go-go beats throughout the album.[3] All eight tracks are interspersed with excerpts from a conversation with Jones about her life, conducted by journalist Paul Morley, hence the a biography subtitle. The album also contains voice-overs from actor Ian McShane reciting passages from Jean-Paul Goude's biography Jungle Fever. Though recording dates of each version of the song are unknown, "Operattack" was created with vocal samples from "Jones the Rhythm"; while "Don't Cry - It's Only the Rhythm" is a variation of the bridge that appears on "Slave to the Rhythm." Also, "The Fashion Show" could potentially be an early version of "Ladies and Gentlemen: Miss Grace Jones". "Ladies and Gentlemen" would be released as a single, under the title of "Slave to the Rhythm".
According to the album's sleeve notes, extensive use of the New England Digital Synclavier was made in its recording.
Slave to the Rhythm is one of the most successful of all Grace Jones' albums in terms of commercial performance. It performed best in German-speaking countries and the Netherlands, where it secured top 10 placings. It also reached number 12 on the UK Albums Chart in November 1985. The album remains the second highest-charting album of Jones' on the US Billboard 200 (after Nightclubbing) and her only entry on the Canadian Albums Chart. In 1986 Billboard magazine reported that the album had sold 150,000 copies in the US and 1 million worldwide.[4][5]
Abridged version[edit]
Portions of the original LP material are absent on several CD reissues. "Jones the Rhythm", "The Fashion Show" and "Ladies and Gentlemen: Miss Grace Jones" are all edited in length (with the latter track matching the 7" single mix); and the interview portions between Morley and Jones are omitted, rendering "The Crossing" a fully instrumental track. "The Frog and the Princess" appears in extended form and is moved further down the running order, after "Slave to the Rhythm". Ian McShane's introduction from the start of the album, "Ladies and gentlemen: Miss Grace Jones", reappears as the intro to the song of the same name. Only the US CD, released in 1987 (Island 422–842 612-2), and the 2015 remastered CD retain the same track listing and running times as the vinyl version.[6]
Artwork[edit]
The album is well-remembered not only for its musical content, but also for its artwork. Designed by Jean-Paul Goude, Jones' partner at that time, the cover picture is a montage of several copies of a single photograph of Jones, that makes her hair look "extended" and her mouth "stretched". The process of its creation is illustrated in the title song's music video.[7] The artwork has its roots in an earlier design of Goude's, the cover of Cristina's 1984 album Sleep It Off.
In 2008, the Slave to the Rhythm cover was included in Jason Draper's book A Brief History of Album Covers, which described it as "glass-shattering", reconfiguring the singer's image "as someone much more approachable and full of humour than previously thought."[8]
Singles[edit]
Only two singles were released from the album. The first, "Slave to the Rhythm", was a major hit and has eventually become Jones' biggest chart success. As previously mentioned, this version of "Slave to the Rhythm" was released on the album Slave to the Rhythm under the name of "Ladies and Gentlemen: Miss Grace Jones". However, due to numerous performances, usage in the music video and the big commercial success, this version is now more often associated with the title "Slave to the Rhythm". The actual album track titled "Slave to the Rhythm", which is rendered on the packaging in capital letters, is entirely different and has been confused for the single version for some greatest hits albums.
"Jones the Rhythm", the second and the last single, was released at the end of the year, but passed unnoticed, overshadowed by the success of the first single and the release of the Island Life compilation. It suffered from lack of promotion, as no music video was produced for it and it has never been performed live.
Track listing[edit]
Original UK/US vinyl & US CD, and 2015 remaster pressings
All tracks written by Trevor Horn, Bruce Woolley, Stephen Lipson and Simon Darlow.
Side one
No.
Title
Length
1. "Jones the Rhythm" 6:26
2. "The Fashion Show" 6:26
3. "The Frog and the Princess" 7:04
4. "Operattack" 2:45
Side two
No.
Title
Length
5. "Slave to the Rhythm" 6:35
6. "The Crossing (oohh the action...)" 4:58
7. "Don't Cry – It's Only the Rhythm" 2:53
8. "Ladies and Gentlemen: Miss Grace Jones" 5:56
Abridged UK CD version
No.
Title
Length
1. "Jones the Rhythm" 5:24
2. "The Fashion Show" 4:05
3. "Operattack" 2:16
4. "Slave to the Rhythm" 6:12
5. "The Frog and the Princess" 7:34
6. "The Crossing (oohh the action...)" 4:51
7. "Don't Cry – It's Only the Rhythm" 2:53
8. "Ladies and Gentlemen: Miss Grace Jones" 4:27
Personnel[edit]
Ambrosian Singers – background vocals, choir, chorus
Guy Barker – trumpet
Pete Beachill – trombone, trumpet
J.J. Belle – guitar, percussion, bass, vocals, hi hat
Dave Bishop – tenor saxophone
Stuart Brook – trumpet
David Gilmour – guitar samples[9]
Glenn Gregory – background vocals
Jean-Paul Goude – design
Trevor Horn – production
Luís Jardim – percussion, bass
Grace Jones – lead vocals
Stephen Lipson – guitar, bass, keyboards, engineering, synclavier, assisting production
Andy Macintosh – tenor saxophone
Gary Maughan – keyboards
John McCarthy – conductor, choir, chorus
Ian McShane – voice-overs
Andra Faye McIntosh – baritone saxophone
Paul Morley – interview
Paul Cooke – jovial interview
Richard Niles – arrangements
Tessa Niles – harp, background vocals
Geoff Perkins – trombone
John Pigneguy – French horn
Andrew Richards – guitar, keyboards, background vocals
Andy Richards – drums, keyboards
Frank Ricotti – percussion, arrangements
Jon Sinclair – keyboards
David Snell – harp, French horn
Stan Sulzmann – alto and tenor saxophone
Jamie Talbot – alto saxophone
John Thirkell – percussion, trumpet
"Shorty" Tim Glover – percussion
Philip Todd – alto saxophone
Wallmen – keyboards
Bruce Woolley – guitar, bass, keyboards, background vocals
William "Ju Ju" House – drums
Charts and certifications[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1985–1986)
Peak
position
Australian Albums (Kent Music Report)[10] 34
Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[11] 7
Canadian Albums (RPM)[12] 75
Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[13] 8
German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[14][15] 10
Italian Albums (FIMI)[16] 15
New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[17] 11
Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[18] 13
Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)[19] 23
Swiss Albums (Swiss Hitparade)[20] 9
UK Albums (OCC)[21] 12
US Billboard 200[22][23] 73
US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums[22][24] 25
Certifications and sales[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
New Zealand (RMNZ)[25]
Platinum 15,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
Release history[edit]
Region
Year
Format(s)
Label
Worldwide 1985 LP, Cassette Island, Manhattan, ZTT
US, Europe 1987 CD Island, Island Masters
Europe 2015 HDCD LMLR, Universal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Scott Bultman. "Slave to the Rhythm - Grace Jones". www.allmusic.com. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
Jump up ^ "Perfect Songs artists/writers Trevor Horn". www.perfectsongs.com. Archived from the original on 2011-11-28. Retrieved 2012-02-12.
Jump up ^ "Go Go History". johnhenry22.tripod.com. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
Jump up ^ Billboard – Google Livros. Google Books. 22 November 1986. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Billboard – Google Livros. Google Books. 13 December 1986. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Scott Bultman. "Grace Jones - Slave To The Rhythm (CD) at Discogs". www.discogs.com. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
Jump up ^ "Grace Jones - Slave To The Rhythm - Video Dailymotion". www.dailymotion.com. Archived from the original on 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
Jump up ^ Draper, Jason (2008). A Brief History of Album Covers. London: Flame Tree Publishing. p. 262.
Jump up ^ "David Gilmour: The Rightful Heir? - Q Magazine, Sep 1990". Q #48. www.pinkfloydfan.net. September 1990. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-07-23.
Jump up ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992 (Illustrated ed.). Sydney: Australian Chart Book. p. 160. ISBN 0-646-11917-6.
Jump up ^ "Discographie Grace Jones" (in German). austriancharts.at. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". RPM. www.collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2012-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Discografie Grace Jones" (in Dutch). www.dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 2009-10-15.
Jump up ^ "Suche nach "grace jones"". www.charts.de (in German). Retrieved 2012-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Liedsuche" (in German). www.charts-surfer.de. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Hit Parade Italia - ALBUM 1986". www.hitparadeitalia.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2012-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Discography Grace Jones". charts.org.nz. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Discography Grace Jones". norwegiancharts.com. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Discography Grace Jones". swedishcharts.com. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "Grace Jones" (in German). hitparade.ch. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
Jump up ^ "The Official Charts Company - Grace Jones Search". The Official Charts Company. 6 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Grace Jones". AllMusic. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
Jump up ^ "Grace Jones Album & Song Chart History". www.billboard.com. Retrieved 2012-04-05.
Jump up ^ "Grace Jones Album & Song Chart History". www.billboard.com. Retrieved 2012-04-05.
Jump up ^ "NZ Top 40 Albums Chart". Recorded Music NZ. Archived from the original on 1 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
External links[edit]
Slave to the Rhythm on Allmusic
Slave to the Rhythm on Discogs
Slave to the Rhythm on Rate Your Music
hide
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Grace Jones
Studio albums
Portfolio (1977)
Fame (1978)
Muse (1979)
Warm Leatherette (1980)
Nightclubbing (1981)
Living My Life (1982)
Slave to the Rhythm (1985)
Inside Story (1986)
Bulletproof Heart (1989)
Hurricane (2008)
Compilations
Island Life (1985)
The Ultimate (1993)
Private Life: The Compass Point Sessions (1998)
20th Century Masters – The Millennium Collection: The Best of Grace Jones (2003)
The Universal Masters Collection (2003)
The Collection (2004)
The Grace Jones Story (2006)
The Ultimate Collection (2006)
Disco (2015)
Singles
"I Need a Man"
"Sorry"
"La Vie en rose"
"Do or Die"
"On Your Knees"
"A Rolling Stone"
"Love Is the Drug"
"Private Life"
"The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game"
"Breakdown"
"Demolition Man"
"I've Seen That Face Before (Libertango)"
"Pull Up to the Bumper"
"Walking in the Rain"
"Nipple to the Bottle"
"The Apple Stretching"
"My Jamaican Guy"
"Cry Now, Laugh Later"
"Living My Life"
"Slave to the Rhythm"
"Jones the Rhythm"
"I'm Not Perfect (But I'm Perfect for You)"
"Party Girl"
"Crush"
"Victor Should Have Been a Jazz Musician"
"Love on Top of Love"
"Amado Mio"
"7 Day Weekend"
"Evilmainya"
"Sex Drive"
"Love Bites"
"Hurricane (Cradle to the Grave)"
"Corporate Cannibal"
"Williams' Blood"
"Love You to Life"
Related
Discography
A One Man Show
albums
songs
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text:
Compromise of 1850
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Before the compromise:
(Gold Rush) California applies to become a free state
Texas claims territory as far as the Rio Grande
New Mexico resists Texas, applies to become a free state
Territorial results of the Compromise:
California is admitted as a free state
Texas trades some territorial claims for debt relief
New Mexico becomes New Mexico Territory with slavery undecided
The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five separate bills passed by the United States Congress in September 1850, which defused a four-year political confrontation between slave and free states on the status of territories acquired during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). The compromise, drafted by Whig Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and brokered by Clay and Democratic Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois, reduced sectional conflict. Controversy arose over the Fugitive Slave provision. The Compromise was greeted with relief, but each side disapproved of some of its specific provisions:
Texas surrendered its claim to New Mexico as well as its claims north of 36°30'. It retained the Texas Panhandle, and the federal government took over the state's public debt.
California was admitted as a free state, with its current boundaries.
The South prevented adoption of the Wilmot Proviso that would have outlawed slavery in the new territories,[1] and the new Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were allowed, under popular sovereignty, to decide whether to allow slavery in their borders. In practice, these lands were generally unsuited to plantation agriculture, and their settlers were uninterested in slavery.
The slave trade, but not slavery altogether, was banned in the District of Columbia.
A more stringent Fugitive Slave Law was enacted.
The Compromise became possible after the sudden death of President Zachary Taylor, who, although a slave owner, wanted to exclude slavery from the Southwest. Whig leader Henry Clay designed a compromise, which failed to pass in early 1850 because of opposition by both pro-slavery southern Democrats, led by John C. Calhoun, and anti-slavery northern Whigs. Upon Clay's instruction, Douglas then divided Clay's bill into several smaller pieces and narrowly won their passage, over the opposition of radicals on both sides.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Various proposals
2.1 Final proposed compromise
3 Division of Whigs
4 Debate and results
5 Implications
6 Issues
6.1 Texas
6.2 New Mexico and Utah Territories
6.3 California
6.4 Fugitive Slave Law
6.5 End of slave trade in District of Columbia
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
Background[edit]
Free states in early 1850
Slave states (without Texas' claims to New Mexico)
Territories (later state borders, Gadsden Purchase)
Missouri Compromise Line 36°30'
Soon after the start of the Mexican War, when the extent of the contested territories was still unclear, the question of whether to allow slavery in those territories polarized the Northern and the Southern United States in the most bitter sectional conflict until then. A state the size of Texas attracted interest from both state residents and pro-slavery and anti-slavery camps on a national scale. Texas claimed land north of the 36°30' demarcation line for slavery, set by the 1820 Missouri Compromise.
The Texas Annexation resolution had required that if any new states were formed out of Texas' lands, those north of the Missouri Compromise line would become free states.[2]
According to historian Mark Stegmaier, "The Fugitive Slave Act, the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, the admission of California as a free state, and even the application of the formula of popular sovereignty to the territories were all less important than the least remembered component of the Compromise of 1850—the statute by which Texas relinquished its claims to much of New Mexico in return for federal assumption of the debts."[3]
Stegmaier also refers to "the principal Southern demand for a division of California at the line of 35° north latitude" and says that "Southern extremists made clear that a congressionally mandated division of California figured uppermost on their agenda."[4]
During the deadlock of four years, the Second Party System broke up, Mormon pioneers settled Utah, the California Gold Rush settled northern California, and New Mexico under a federal military government turned back Texas's attempt to assert control over territory Texas claimed as far west as the Rio Grande. The eventual compromise preserved the Union but only for another decade.
Various proposals[edit]
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Events leading to
the American Civil War
Slavery
Northwest Ordinance
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Battle of Negro Fort
Missouri Compromise
Tariff of 1828
Nat Turner's slave rebellion
Nullification Crisis
The Amistad
Prigg v. Pennsylvania
Texas annexation
Mexican–American War
Wilmot Proviso
Manifest destiny
Underground Railroad
Nashville Convention
Compromise of 1850
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
Uncle Tom's Cabin
Kansas–Nebraska Act
Ostend Manifesto
Bleeding Kansas
Caning of Charles Sumner
Dred Scott v. Sandford
The Impending Crisis of the South
Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
1860 presidential election
Crittenden Compromise
Secession of Southern States
Star of the West
Corwin Amendment
Battle of Fort Sumter
v
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Proposals in 1846 to 1850 on the division of the Southwest included the following:
The Wilmot Proviso banning slavery in any new territory to be acquired from Mexico, not including Texas, which had been annexed the previous year. It passed the House in August 1846 and February 1847 but not the Senate. Later, an effort failed to attach the proviso to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
The Extension of the Missouri Compromise line was proposed by failed amendments to the Wilmot Proviso by William W. Wick and then Stephen Douglas to extend the Missouri Compromise line (36°30' parallel north) west to the Pacific (south of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California) to allow the possibility of slavery in most of present-day New Mexico and Arizona, and Southern California. That line was again proposed by the Nashville Convention of June 1850.
Popular sovereignty, developed by Lewis Cass and Douglas as the position of the Democratic Party, was to let each territory decide itself whether to allow slavery.
William L. Yancey's "Alabama Platform", endorsed by the Alabama and the Georgia legislatures and by Democratic state conventions in Florida and Virginia, called for no restrictions on slavery in the territories by the federal government or territorial governments before statehood, opposition to any candidates supporting either the Wilmot Proviso or popular sovereignty, and federal legislation to overrule Mexican anti-slavery laws.
Two free states were proposed by Zachary Taylor, who served as President from March 1849 to July 1850. As President, he proposed that the entire area become two free states, called California and New Mexico but much larger than the ones today. None of the area would be left as an unorganized or organized territory, which would avoid the question of slavery in the territories.
Changing Texas's borders was proposed by Senator Thomas Hart Benton in December 1849 or January 1850. Texas's western and northern boundaries would be the 102nd meridian west and the 34th parallel north.
Two southern states were proposed by Senator John Bell, with the assent of Texas, in February 1850. New Mexico would get all Texas land north of the 34th parallel north, including today's Texas Panhandle, while the area to the south, including the southeastern part of today's New Mexico, would be divided at the Colorado River of Texas into two Southern states, balancing the admission of California and New Mexico as free states.[5]
The first draft of the compromise of 1850 had Texas's northwestern boundary be a straight, diagonal line from the Rio Grande 20 miles north of El Paso to the Red River (Mississippi watershed) at the 100th meridian west, the southwestern corner of today's Oklahoma.
Final proposed compromise[edit]
"The United States Senate, A.D. 1850" (engraving by Peter F. Rothermel):
Henry Clay takes the floor of the Old Senate Chamber; Vice President Millard Fillmore presides as John C. Calhoun (to the right of the Speaker's chair) and Daniel Webster (seated to the left of Clay) look on.
On January 29, 1850, Whig Senator Henry Clay gave a speech for compromise on the issues dividing the Union. However, Clay's specific proposals for achieving a compromise, including his idea for Texas's boundary, were not adopted in a single bill.[6] Upon Clay's urging, Senator Stephen A. Douglas, Democrat of Illinois, divided Clay's bill into several smaller bills and passed each separately. When he instructed Douglas, Clay was nearly dead and unable to guide the congressional debate any further. The Compromise came to coalesce around a plan dividing Texas at its present-day boundaries, creating territorial governments with "popular sovereignty", without the Wilmot Proviso, for New Mexico and Utah, admitting California as a free state, abolishing the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and enacting a new fugitive slave law.
The Compromise of 1850 was formally proposed by Clay and guided to passage by Douglas over Northern Whig and Southern Democrat opposition. It was enacted September 1850 with the following terms:
California admitted as a free state.
Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory organized with slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty.
Texas dropped its claim to land north of the 32nd parallel north and west of the 103rd meridian west in favor of New Mexico Territory, and north of the 36°30' parallel north and east of the 103rd meridian west which became unorganized territory. Texas's boundaries were set at their present form. Senator James Pearce of Maryland drafted the final proposal[7] in which Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present-day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic's debt.[8][9] El Paso, where Texas had established county government, was left in Texas.
Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia but not slavery itself.
The Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened.
Division of Whigs[edit]
Most Northern Whigs, led by William Henry Seward, who delivered his famous "Higher Law" speech during the controversy, opposed the Compromise as well because it would apply the Wilmot Proviso to the western territories and because of the pressing of ordinary citizens into duty on slave-hunting patrols. That provision was inserted by Democratic Virginia Senator James M. Mason to entice border-state Whigs, who faced the greatest danger of losing slaves as fugitives but were lukewarm on general sectional issues related to the South on Texas's land claims.[10]
Zachary Taylor avoided the issue as the Whig candidate during the 1848 US presidential election but then as President, he attempted to sidestep the entire controversy by pushing to admit California and New Mexico as free states immediately to avoid the entire territorial process and the Wilmot Proviso question. Taylor was one of the few Southerners to support that idea.[11]
Northern Democrats and Southern Whigs supported the Compromise. Southern Whigs, many of whom were from the border states, supported the stronger fugitive slave law.
Debate and results[edit]
An animation showing slave and free states and territories, 1789–1861
On April 17, a "Committee of Thirteen" agreed on the border of Texas as part of Clay's plan. The dimensions were later changed. That same day, during debates on the measures in the Senate, Vice President Fillmore and Senator Benton verbally sparred, with Fillmore charging that the Missourian was "out of order," During the heated debates, Compromise floor leader Henry S. Foote of Mississippi drew a pistol on Benton.
In early June, nine slaveholding Southern states sent delegates to the Nashville Convention to determine their course of action if the compromise passed. While some delegates preached secession, the moderates ruled and proposed a series of compromises, including extending the dividing line designated by the Missouri Compromise of 1820 to the Pacific Coast.
The various bills were initially combined into one "omnibus" bill. Despite Clay's efforts, it failed in a crucial vote on July 31, opposed by southern Democrats and by northern Whigs. He announced on the Senate floor the next day that he intended to pass each individual part of the bill. The 73-year-old Clay, however, was physically exhausted as the effects of tuberculosis, which would eventually kill him, began to take their toll. Clay left the Senate to recuperate in Newport, Rhode Island, and Stephen A. Douglas wrote the separate bills and guided them through the Senate.[12]
The situation had been changed by the sudden death of Taylor and the accession of Vice President Millard Fillmore to the presidency, on July 9, 1850. Fillmore, anxious to find a quick solution to the conflict in Texas over the border with New Mexico, which threatened to become armed conflict between Texas militia and the federal soldiers, reversed the administration's position late in July and threw its support to the compromise measures.[13] The Northern Democrats held together and supported each of the bills and gained enough Whigs or Southern Democrats to pass all of them. They were signed by Fillmore between September 9 and September 20, 1850.
California was admitted as a free state. It passed the House 150–56.[14][15] It passed the Senate 34–18.[16]
The slave trade was abolished (the sale of slaves, not the institution of slavery) in the District of Columbia.
The Territory of Utah was organized under the rule of popular sovereignty. It passed the House 97–85.[17]
The Territory of New Mexico was organized under the rule of popular sovereignty. It passed the House 108–97.[18] It passed the Senate 30–20.[19]
A harsher Fugitive Slave Act was passed by the Senate 27–12,[20] and by the House 109–76.[21]
Texas gave up much of the western land it claimed and received compensation of $10,000,000 to pay off its national debt.
Clay was still given much of the credit for success. It quieted the controversy between Northerners and Southerners over the expansion of slavery and delayed secession and civil war for another decade. Senator Henry S. Foote of Mississippi, who had suggested the creation of the Committee of Thirteen, later said, "Had there been one such man in the Congress of the United States as Henry Clay in 1860–'61 there would, I feel sure, have been no civil war."[22]
Implications[edit]
Map of free and slave states c. 1856
The Compromise proved widely popular politically, and both parties committed themselves in their platforms to the finality of the Compromise on sectional issues. The strongest opposition in the South occurred in the states of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, but Unionists soon prevailed, spearheaded by Georgians Alexander Stephens, Robert Toombs, and Howell Cobb and the creation of the Georgia Platform. The peace was broken only by the divisive Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 introduced by Stephen Douglas, which had the effect of repealing the Missouri Compromise and led directly to the formation of the Republican Party, whose capture of the national government in 1860 led directly to the secession crisis of 1860–1861.
Many historians argue that the Compromise played a major role in postponing the American Civil War for a decade, while the Northwest was growing more wealthy and more populous and was being brought into closer relations with the Northeast.[23] During that decade, the Whig Party had completely broken down, to be replaced with the new Republican Party dominant in the North and the Democrats in the South.[24]
Others argue that the Compromise only made more obvious the pre-existing sectional divisions and laid the groundwork for future conflict. They view the Fugitive Slave Law as helping to polarize the US, as shown in the enormous reaction to Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin. The passage of the Fugitive Slave Law aroused feelings of bitterness in the North. Furthermore, the Compromise of 1850 led to a breakdown in the spirit of compromise in the United States in the antebellum period, directly before the Civil War. The Compromise exemplifies that spirit, but the deaths of influential senators who worked on the compromise, primarily Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, contributed to the feeling of increasing disparity between the North and South.
The delay of hostilities for ten years allowed the free economy of the northern states to continue to industrialize. The southern states, largely based on slave labor and cash crop production, lacked the ability to industrialize heavily.[25] By 1860, the northern states had added many more miles of railroad, steel production, modern factories, and population to the advantages already possessed in 1850. The North was better able to supply, equip, and man its armed forces, which would prove decisive in the later stages of the war.
Issues[edit]
Three major types of issues were addressed by the Compromise of 1850: a variety of boundary issues, the status of territory issues, and the issue of slavery. While capable of analytical distinction, the boundary and territory issues were actually included in the overarching issue of slavery. Pro-slavery and anti-slavery interests were each concerned with both the amount of land on which slavery was permitted and with the number of States in the slave or free camps. Since Texas was a slave state, not only the residents of that state but also both camps on a national scale had an interest in the size of Texas.
The general solution that was adopted by the Compromise of 1850 was to transfer a considerable part of the territory claimed by the state to the federal government; to organize two new territories formally, the Territory of New Mexico and the Territory of Utah, which expressly would be allowed to locally determine whether they would become slave or free territories, to add another free state to the Union (California), to adopt a severe measure to recover slaves who had escaped to a free state or free territory (the Fugitive Slave Law); and to abolish the slave trade in the District of Columbia.
Texas[edit]
Proposals for Texas northwestern boundary
The independent Republic of Texas won the decisive Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836) against Mexico and captured Mexican president Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. He signed the Treaties of Velasco, which recognized the Rio Grande as the boundary of the Republic of Texas. The treaties were then repudiated by the government of Mexico, which insisted that it was sovereign over Texas and promised to reclaim the lost territories. To the extent that there was a de facto recognition, Mexico treated the Nueces River as its northern boundary control. A huge, largely-unsettled area was between the two rivers. Neither Mexico nor the Republic of Texas had the military strength to assert its territorial claim. On December 29, 1845, the Republic of Texas was annexed to the United States and became the 28th state. Texas was staunchly committed to slavery, with its constitution making illegal for the legislature to free slaves. With the annexation, the United States inherited the territorial claims of the former Republic of Texas against Mexico. The territorial claim to the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande and Mexican resistance to it both led to the Mexican–American War. On February 2, 1848, the war was concluded by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Among its provisos was the recognition by Mexico of the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande as part of the United States.
The Republic of Texas had claimed ownership of the eastern half of present-day New Mexico, along with sections of Colorado, Kansas and Wyoming, but Texas had never effectively controlled the area, which was dominated by hostile Indian tribes (see Comancheria). However, the federal government now controlled the area after 1846. The Compromise of 1850 solved the problem by setting the present boundaries of Texas, in return for $10 million in federal bonds paid to the State of Texas.[26]
The state was heavily burdened with debt, which had been contracted during its struggles as the Republic of Texas. The federal government agreed to pay $10 million of bonds in return for the transfer of a large portion of the claimed area of the state to the territory of the federal government and for the relinquishment of various claims of Texas had on the federal government. (The bonds bore interest at the rate of 5%, which interest was collectible by Texas every six months, and the principal was redeemable at the end of fourteen years.)[27]
The Constitution (Article IV, Section 3) does not permit Congress unilaterally to reduce the territory of any state, so the first part of the Compromise of 1850 had to take the form of an offer to the Texas State Legislature, rather than a unilateral enactment. This ratified the bargain and, in due course, the transfer of a large swath of land from the state of Texas to the federal government was accomplished.
Texas was allowed to keep the following portions of the disputed land: south of the 32nd parallel and south of the 36°30' parallel north and east of the 103rd meridian west. The rest of the disputed land was transferred to the Federal Government.
New Mexico and Utah Territories[edit]
New Mexico proposed boundary before Compromise of 1850
The Utah Territory is shown in blue and outlined in black. The boundaries of the provisional State of Deseret are shown with a dotted line.
The first law of the Compromise of 1850 also organized the Territory of New Mexico. The second law, also enacted September 9, 1850, organized the Territory of Utah.
Some of the land had been claimed by the Republic of Texas. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo made no mention of the claims of the Republic of Texas; Mexico simply agreed to a Mexico-U.S. border south of both the "Mexican Cession" and the Republic of Texas claims.[28] Before the Compromise of 1850, the disputed land had been claimed but never controlled by the state of Texas. Of importance in 1850 was land included in present-day eastern New Mexico.
From the Mexican Cession, the New Mexico Territory received most of the present-day state of Arizona, most of the western part of the present-day state of New Mexico, and the southern tip of present-day Nevada (south of the 37th parallel). From Texas, the territory received most of present-day eastern New Mexico, a portion of present-day Colorado (east of the crest of the Rocky Mountains, west of the 103rd meridian, and south of the 38th parallel).
From the Mexican Cession, the Utah Territory received present-day Utah, most of present-day Nevada (everything north of the 37th parallel), a major part of present-day Colorado (everything west of the crest of the Rocky Mountains), and a small part of present-day Wyoming. That included the newly founded colony at Salt Lake, of Brigham Young. From Texas, the Utah Territory received most of present-day eastern New Mexico and some of present-day Colorado that is east of the crest of the Rocky Mountains.
A key provision of each of the laws respectively organizing the Territory of New Mexico and the Territory of Utah was that slavery would be decided by local option, called popular sovereignty. That was an important repudiation of the idea behind the failure to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico.
California[edit]
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. New California is depicted with a northeastern border at the meridian leading north of the Rio Grande headwaters.
California was part the Mexican Cession. After the Mexican War, California was essentially run by military governors. President James K. Polk tried to get Congress to establish a territorial government in California officially, but the increasingly-sectional debates prevented that.[29] The South wanted to extend slave territory to Southern California and to the Pacific Coast, but the North did not.
From late 1848, Americans and foreigners of many different countries rushed into California for the California Gold Rush, exponentially increasing the population. In response to growing demand for a better more representative government, a Constitutional Convention was held in 1849. The delegates unanimously outlawed slavery. They had no interest in extending the Missouri Compromise Line through California and splitting the state; the lightly-populated southern half never had slavery and was heavily Hispanic.[30]
The third statute of the Compromise of 1850 allowed California to be admitted to the Union, undivided, as a free state on September 9, 1850.[31]
Fugitive Slave Law[edit]
The fourth statute of the Compromise of 1850, enacted September 18, 1850, is informally known as the Fugitive Slave Law, or the Fugitive Slave Act. It bolstered the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. The new version of the Fugitive Slave Law required federal judicial officials in all states and federal territories, including in those states and territories in which slavery was prohibited, to assist with the return of escaped slaves to their masters actively in the states and territories permitting slavery. Any federal marshal or other official who did not arrest an alleged runaway slave was liable to a fine of $1000. Law enforcement everywhere in the US had a duty to arrest anyone suspected of being a fugitive slave on no more evidence than a claimant's sworn testimony of ownership. Suspected slaves could neither ask for a jury trial nor testify on their own behalf. In addition, any person aiding a runaway slave by providing food or shelter was to be subject to six months' imprisonment and a $1000 fine. Officers capturing a fugitive slave were entitled to a fee for their work.
In addition to federal officials, the ordinary citizens of free states could be summoned to join a posse and be required to assist in the capture, custody, and/or transportation of the alleged escaped slave.
The law was so rigorously pro-slavery as to prohibit the admission of the testimony of a person accused of being an escaped slave into evidence at the judicial hearing to determine the status of the accused escaped slave. Thus, if a freedman were claimed to be an escaped slave, they could not resist their return to slavery by truthfully telling their own actual history.
The Fugitive Slave Act was essential to meet Southern demands. In terms of public opinion in the North, the critical provision was that ordinary citizens were required to aid slave catchers. Many northerners deeply resented that requirement to help slavery personally. Resentment towards the Act continued to heighten tensions between the North and South, which were inflamed further by abolitionists such as Harriet Beecher Stowe. Her book, Uncle Tom's Cabin, stressed the horrors of recapturing escaped slaves and outraged Southerners.[32]
End of slave trade in District of Columbia[edit]
The fifth law, enacted on September 20, 1850, prohibited the slave trade but allowed slavery itself in the District of Columbia.[33] Southerners in Congress were unanimous in opposing that provision, which was seen as a concession to the abolitionists, but they were outvoted.[34]
See also[edit]
Uncle Tom's Cabin – a reaction against the Fugitive Slave Law
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, which reopened the slavery issue
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Michael Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party (2003) p. 252
Jump up ^ Joint Resolution of Congress, Mar. 1, 1845
Jump up ^ Mark J. Stegmaier (1996). Texas, New Mexico, and the compromise of 1850: boundary dispute & sectional conflict. Kent State University Press.
Jump up ^ Stegmaier, p. 172 and p. 177
Jump up ^ W. J. Spillman (January 1904). "ADJUSTMENT OF THE TEXAS BOUNDARY IN 1850". Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association. 7.
Jump up ^ Remini, Robert. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1993) pp 730–61
Jump up ^ Texas State Historical Association. "COMPROMISE OF 1850". The Handbook of Texas.
Jump up ^ Compromise of 1850 from the Handbook of Texas Online
Jump up ^ Cotton Culture from the Handbook of Texas Online
Jump up ^ John M. Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln's right hand (1996) p. 85
Jump up ^ Elbert B. Smith, President Zachary Taylor: the hero president (2007) p. 238
Jump up ^ Eaton (1957) pp. 192–193. Remini (1991) pp. 756–759
Jump up ^ Michael Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party (1999), pp. 529–530: "only rapid passage of the omnibus bill appeared to offer a timely escape from the crisis."
Jump up ^ "TO PASS S. 169. (P.1772-1)". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ Holman Hamilton, Prologue to Conflict (University of Kentucky Press, 1965), p. 160
Jump up ^ "ON PASSAGE S. 169". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "TO PASS S. 225 (9 STAT. 453, APP. 9/9/1850), AN ACT TO ESTABLISH A TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT FOR UTAH. (P.1776-1)". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "TO PASS S. 307. (P.1764-3)". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "ON PASSAGE OF THE BILL S. 307. (P. 1555-3)". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "ON ORDERING ENGROSSMENT AND 3RD READING OF THE BILL S. 23. (P. 1630-2)". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "TO PASS S. 23. (P.1817-1)". GovTrack.us. 2014-11-08. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ Remini (1991) pp. 761–62
Jump up ^ Robert Remini,The House: A History of the House of Representatives (2006) p. 147
Jump up ^ Holt, Michael F. The Political Crisis of the 1850s (1978).
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Fruits of Merchant Capital (1983).
Jump up ^ Mark J. Stegmaier, Texas, New Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850: Boundary Dispute and Sectional Crisis (1998)
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Holman (1957). "Texas Bonds and Northern Profits: A Study in Compromise, Investment, and Lobby Influence". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Organization of American Historians. 43 (4): 579–94. doi:10.2307/1902274. ISSN 0161-391X. JSTOR 1902274 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ "Handbook of Texas Online: Compromise of 1850". Tshaonline.org. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ California and New Mexico: Message from the President of the United States. By United States. President (1849–1850 : Taylor), United States. War Dept (Ex. Doc 17 page 1) Google eBook
Jump up ^ William Henry Ellison. A self-governing dominion, California, 1849–1860 (1950) online
Jump up ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875". Memory.loc.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ Larry Gara, "The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox," Civil War History, September 1964, vol. 10#3, pp. 229–240
Jump up ^ David L. Lewis, District of Columbia: A Bicentennial History, (W.W. Norton, 1976), 54-56.
Jump up ^ Damani Davis, "Slavery and Emancipation in the Nation'S Capital," Prologue, Spring 2010, vol. 42#1, pp. 52–59
Sources[edit]
Bell, John Frederick. "Poetry's Place in the Crisis and Compromise of 1850." Journal of the Civil War Era 5#3 (2015): 399–421.
Bordewich, Fergus M. America's Great Debate: Henry Clay, Stephen A. Douglas, and the Compromise That Preserved the Union (2012) excerpt and text search
Foster, Herbert D. (1922). "Webster's Seventh of March Speech and the Secession Movement, 1850". American Historical Review. 27 (2): 245–270. doi:10.2307/1836156.
Heidler, David S., and Jeanne T. Heidler. Henry Clay: The Essential American (2010), major scholarly biography; 624 pp.
Hamilton, Holman. Prologue to Conflict: The Crisis and Compromise of 1850 (1964), the standard historical study
Hamilton, Holman (1954). "Democratic Senate Leadership and the Compromise of 1850". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 41 (3): 403–18. doi:10.2307/1897490. ISSN 0161-391X. JSTOR 1897490.
Holman Hamilton. Zachary Taylor, Soldier in the White House (1951).
Holt, Michael F. The Political Crisis of the 1850s (1978).
Holt, Michael F. The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War (2005).
Johannsen, Robert W. Stephen A. Douglas (1973) (ISBN 0195016203)
William Aloysius Keleher (1951). Turmoil in New Mexico. Santa Fe: Rydal Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-0632-6.
Knupfer, Peter B. "Compromise and Statesmanship: Henry Clay's Union." in Knupfer, The Union As It Is: Constitutional Unionism and Sectional Compromise, 1787–1861 (1991), pp. 119–57.
Morrison, Michael A. Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny and the Coming of the Civil War (1997) (ISBN 0807823198)
Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union (1947) v 2, highly detailed narrative
Potter, David M. The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (1977), pp 90–120; Pulitzer Prize
Remini, Robert. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991)
Remini, Robert. At the Edge of the Precipice: Henry Clay and the Compromise That Saved the Union (2010) 184 pages; the Compromise of 1850
Rhodes, James Ford. History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, vol. i. (1896). complegte text online
Rozwenc, Edwin C. ed. The Compromise of 1850. (1957) convenient collection of primary and secondary documents; 102 pp.
Russel, Robert R. (1956). "What Was the Compromise of 1850?". The Journal of Southern History. Southern Historical Association. 22 (3): 292–309. doi:10.2307/2954547. ISSN 0022-4642. JSTOR 2954547 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
Sewell, Richard H. Ballots for Freedom: Antislavery Politics in the United States 1837–1860 New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Stegmaier, Mark J. (1996). Texas, New Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850: Boundary Dispute & Sectional Crisis. Kent State University Press.
Wiltse, Charles M. John C. Calhoun, Sectionalist, 1840–1850 (1951)
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Compromise Measures of 1850.
Compromise of 1850
Compromise of 1850 and related resources from the Library of Congress
Texas Library and Archive Commission Page on 1850 Boundary Act
Smith, William Roy (1911). "Compromise Measures of 1850". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
Map of North America at the time of the Compromise of 1850 at omniatlas.com
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List of Australian mammal emblems
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of Australian mammal emblems.
Area represented
Image
Common name
Binomial nomenclature
Ref.
Australia Red kangaroo (unofficial) Macropus rufus [1]
Australian Capital Territory N/A N/A [2]
New South Wales Platypus Ornithorhynchus anatinus [3]
Northern Territory Red kangaroo Macropus rufus [4]
Queensland Koala Phascolarctos cinereus [5]
South Australia Southern hairy-nosed wombat Lasiorhinus latifrons [6]
Tasmania Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus harrisii [7]
Victoria Leadbeater's possum Gymnobelideus leadbeateri [8]
Western Australia Numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus [9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Guidelines on the Use of the Commonwealth Coat of Arms". Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Archived from the original on 2007-08-28. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Flags and Emblems". Chief Minister's Department (ACT). Retrieved 2011-08-09.
Jump up ^ "Image gallery - Platypus". Parliament of New South Wales. Archived from the original on 2007-09-23. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Official Symbols - Faunal Emblems". Northern Territory Government. Archived from the original on 2007-09-08. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ "The faunal emblem". Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 2007-08-29. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Hairy Nosed Wombat". The Department of Premier and Cabinet - South Australia. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Tasmanian devil to be state’s first animal emblem". The Mercury. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Leadbeater's Possum". Department of Premier and Cabinet - Victoria. Retrieved 2012-01-23.
Jump up ^ "The Animal Emblem of Western Australia". Department of the Premier and Cabinet (WA). Archived from the original on 2007-08-31. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
See also[edit]
List of Australian bird emblems
List of Australian floral emblems
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Australian_mammal_emblems&oldid=781267803"
Categories:
Zoology-related lists
Mammals of Australia
Lists of Australian animals
National emblems
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