text:
Social science
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationshipsbetween individuals in society
This article is about the science of studying social groups. For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see Social studies. For the social-political-economic theory first pioneered by Karl Marx, see Scientific socialism.
It has been suggested that Human science be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2018.
Part of a series on
Science
Formal
[show]
Formal logic
Mathematics
Mathematical statistics
Theoretical computer science
Game theory
Decision theory
Information theory
Systems theory
Control theory
Physical
[show]
Physics
Classical
Modern
Applied
Theoretical
Experimental
Computational
Mechanics
(classical
analytical
continuum
fluid
solid)
Electromagnetism
Thermodynamics
Molecular
Atomic
Nuclear
Particle
Condensed matter
Plasma
Quantum mechanics (introduction)
Quantum field theory
Special relativity
General relativity
String theory
Chemistry
Inorganic
Organic
Analytical
Physical
Acid-base
Supramolecular
Solid-state
Nuclear
Environmental
Sustainable ("green")
Theoretical
Astrochemistry
Biochemistry
Crystallography
Food chemistry
Geochemistry
Materials science
Photochemistry
Radiochemistry
Stereochemistry
Surface science
Earth science
Climatology
Edaphology
Environmental science
Geodesy
Geography (physical)
Geology
Geomorphology
Geophysics
Glaciology
Hydrology
Limnology
Meteorology
Mineralogy
Oceanography
Paleoclimatology
Paleoecology
Palynology
Pedology
Volcanology
Astronomy
Astrophysics
Cosmology
Galactic astronomy
Planetary geology
Planetary science
Stellar astronomy
Life
[show]
Biology
Anatomy
Astrobiology
Biochemistry
Biogeography
Biological engineering
Biomechanics
Biophysics
Biotechnology
Botany
Cell biology
Conservation biology
Cryobiology
Developmental biology
Ecology
Ethology
Evolutionary biology (introduction)
Genetics (introduction)
Immunology
Microbiology
Molecular anthropology
Molecular biology
Nanobiology
Neuroscience
Paleontology
Parasitology
Physiology
Quantum biology
Theoretical biology
Toxicology
Zoology
Social
[hide]
Anthropology
Archaeology
Criminology
Demography
Economics
Geography (human)
History
International relations
Jurisprudence
Linguistics
Pedagogy
Political science
Psychology
Science education
Sociology
Applied
[show]
Engineering
Aerospace
Agricultural
Biological
Biomedical
Chemical
Civil
Computer science / engineering
Electrical
Fire protection
Genetic
Industrial
Mechanical
Military
Mining
Nuclear
Operations research
Robotics
Software
Web
Healthcare
Medicine
Veterinary
Dentistry
Midwifery
Epidemiology
Pharmacy
Nursing
Interdisciplinary
[show]
Applied physics
Artificial intelligence
Bioethics
Bioinformatics
Biomedical engineering
Biostatistics
Cognitive science
Complex systems
Computational linguistics
Cultural studies
Cybernetics
Environmental science
Environmental social science
Environmental studies
Ethnic studies
Evolutionary psychology
Forensics
Forestry
Library science
Mathematical / theoretical biology
Mathematical physics
Military science
Network science
Neural engineering
Science studies
Scientific modelling
Semiotics
Sociobiology
Statistics
Systems science
Urban planning
Web science
Philosophy
History
[show]
Basic research
Citizen science
Fringe science
Protoscience
Pseudoscience
Freedom
Policy
Funding
Method
Sociology
Technoscience
Glossaries of science and engineering
[show]
Aerospace engineering
Archaeology
Architecture
Artificial intelligence
Astronomy
Biology
Botany
Calculus
Chemistry
Civil engineering
Clinical research
Computer science
Ecology
Economics
Electrical and electronics engineering
Engineering
Entomology
Environmental science
Genetics
Geography
Geology
Machine vision
Mechanical engineering
Medicine
Meteoritics
Meteorology
Physics
Probability and statistics
Robotics
Speciation
Structural engineering
Outline
Portal
Category
v
t
e
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. Social science as a whole has many branches, each of which is considered a social science. The social sciences include, but are not limited to: anthropology, archaeology, communication studies, economics, history, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health, and sociology. The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. For a more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the social sciences see: Outline of social science.
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Branches
2.1 Anthropology
2.2 Communication studies
2.3 Economics
2.4 Education
2.5 Geography
2.6 History
2.7 Law
2.8 Linguistics
2.9 Political science
2.10 Psychology
2.11 Sociology
3 Additional fields of study
4 Methodology
4.1 Social research
4.2 Theory
5 Education and degrees
6 See also
6.1 General
6.2 Methods
6.3 Areas
6.4 History
6.5 Lists
6.6 People
6.7 Other
7 Notes and references
8 Bibliography
8.1 20th and 21st centuries sources
8.2 19th century sources
8.3 General sources
8.4 Academic resources
8.5 Opponents and critics
9 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the social sciences
The history of the social sciences begins in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650,[1] which saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific". Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.[2] The social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of interacting entities.[3][4]
The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw "social science" first used as a distinct conceptual field.[5] Social science was influenced by positivism,[2] focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term "science sociale" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier; Comte also referred to the field as social physics.[2][6]
Following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields.[2] One route that was taken was the rise of social research. Large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying "social facts", and Vilfredo Pareto, opening metatheoretical ideas and individual theories. A third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood; this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science. The last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values; the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject.
Around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. The interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behaviour, social and environmental factors affecting it, made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology.[7] Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently.
In the contemporary period, Karl Popper and Talcott Parsons influenced the furtherance of the social sciences.[2] Researchers continue to search for a unified consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories that, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks; for more, see consilience. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future be composed of different zones in the research of, and sometime distinct in approach toward, the field.[2]
The term "social science" may refer either to the specific sciences of society established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all disciplines outside of "noble science" and arts. By the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of five fields: jurisprudence and amendment of the law, education, health, economy and trade, and art.[3]
Around the start of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.[8]
Branches[edit]
For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of social science § Branches of social science.
Social science areas
The following are problem areas and discipline branches within the social sciences.[2]
Anthropology
Area studies
Business studies
Civics
Communication studies
Criminology
Demography
Development studies
Economics
Education
Environmental studies
Gender studies
Geography
History
Industrial relations
Information science
Law
Library science
Linguistics
Media studies
Political science
Psychology
Public administration
Sociology
Social work
Sustainable development
The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous.
Anthropology[edit]
Main articles: Anthropology and Outline of anthropology
Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities, and human biology. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. The natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. The social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences.
The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.[9] Within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields: archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word anthropos (ἄνθρωπος) in Ancient Greek means "human being" or "person". Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences."
The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior".[10] Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of subsistence or production, such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or "horticulturalist" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (ethnos) remaining of great interest within anthropology.
The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.[11] In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.[12]
Communication studies[edit]
Main articles: Communication studies and History of communication studies
Communication studies deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning. The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass media outlets such as television broadcasting. Communication studies also examines how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, and social dimensions of their contexts. Communication is institutionalized under many different names at different universities, including "communication", "communication studies", "speech communication", "rhetorical studies", "communication science", "media studies", "communication arts", "mass communication", "media ecology", and "communication and media science".
Communication studies integrates aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the discipline often overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy, among others. From a humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of Ancient Greece). The field applies to outside disciplines as well, including engineering, architecture, mathematics, and information science.
Economics[edit]
Main articles: Economics and Outline of economics
Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.[13] The word "economics" is from the Ancient Greek οἶκος oikos, "family, household, estate", and νόμος nomos, "custom, law", and hence means "household management" or "management of the state". An economist is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a degree in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by Lionel Robbins in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relation between scarce means having alternative uses". Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no economic problem. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behavior".
Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in Chichicastenango Market, Guatemala.
Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. This paradigm crucially assumes (1) that resources are scarce because they are not sufficient to satisfy all wants, and (2) that "economic value" is willingness to pay as revealed for instance by market (arms' length) transactions. Rival heterodox schools of thought, such as institutional economics, green economics, Marxist economics, and economic sociology, make other grounding assumptions. For example, Marxist economics assumes that economics primarily deals with the investigation of exchange value, of which human labour is the source.
The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.[8][14]
Education[edit]
Main articles: Education and Outline of education
A depiction of world's oldest university, the University of Bologna, in Italy
Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin educare, or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.[15]
The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide far more instruction than does formal schooling (thus Mark Twain's admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). Family members may have a profound educational effect — often more profound than they realize — though family teaching may function very informally.
Geography[edit]
Main articles: Geography and Outline of geography
Map of the Earth
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. This may involve cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, oceans, water and landforms are produced and interact.[16] Physical geography examines phenomena related to the measurement of earth. As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.[17] Other branches of geography include social geography, regional geography, and geomatics.
Geographers attempt to understand the Earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. Historical geography is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography.
Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline, closely related to GISc, that seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. The fields of urban planning, regional science, and planetology are closely related to geography. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as GIS, remote sensing, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning systems (GPS).
History[edit]
Main articles: History and Outline of history
History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through historiographical paradigms or theories.
History has a base in both the social sciences and the humanities. In the United States the National Endowment for the Humanities includes history in its definition of humanities (as it does for applied linguistics).[18] However, the National Research Council classifies history as a social science.[19] The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. The Social Science History Association, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history.[20]
Law[edit]
Main articles: Law and Outline of law
A trial at a criminal court, the Old Bailey in London
The social science of law, jurisprudence, in common parlance, means a rule that (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions.[21] However, many laws are based on norms accepted by a community and thus have an ethical foundation. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules",[22] as an "interpretive concept"[23] to achieve justice, as an "authority"[24] to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction".[25] However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social science and the humanities. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about contract, tort, property law, labour law, company law and many more can have long-lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun law derives from the late Old English lagu, meaning something laid down or fixed[26] and the adjective legal comes from the Latin word lex.[27]
Linguistics[edit]
Main articles: Linguistics and Outline of linguistics
Ferdinand de Saussure, recognized as the father of modern linguistics
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of the structure of words), phonetics (the study of speech sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions.
The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of Noam Chomsky—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like acoustic phonetics and neurolinguistics, draw on the natural sciences. Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Ferdinand Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics.
Political science[edit]
Main articles: Political science, Outline of political science, and Politics
Aristotle asserted that man is a political animal in his Politics.[28]
Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include political economy, political theory and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy, international law, politics, public administration, administrative behaviour, public law, judicial behaviour, and public policy. Political science also studies power in international relations and the theory of great powers and superpowers.
Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the scientific method,[29][page needed] that is, the proliferation of formal-deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis testing. Approaches to the discipline include rational choice, classical political philosophy, interpretivism, structuralism, and behaviouralism, realism, pluralism, and institutionalism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as scholarly articles are used in building and testing theories. Empirical methods include survey research, statistical analysis or econometrics, case studies, experiments, and model building. Herbert Baxter Adams is credited with coining the phrase "political science" while teaching history at Johns Hopkins University.
Psychology[edit]
Main articles: Psychology and Outline of psychology
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was the founder of experimental psychology.
Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. The word psychology comes from the Ancient Greek ψυχή psyche ("soul", "mind") and logy ("study").
Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the mental function and overt behaviour of individuals, while the other disciplines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about the functioning of social groups or situation-specific human behaviour. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of neuropsychology combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced. Many people associate psychology with clinical psychology, which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, psychology has myriad specialties including social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, educational psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, mathematical psychology, neuropsychology, and quantitative analysis of behaviour.
Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application (as is clinical medicine), social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely. In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred: B.Psy. indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, B.Sc. indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentration, whereas a B.A. underlines a majority of social science credits. This is not always necessarily the case however, and in many UK institutions students studying the B.Psy, B.Sc, and B.A. follow the same curriculum as outlined by The British Psychological Society and have the same options of specialism open to them regardless of whether they choose a balance, a heavy science basis, or heavy social science basis to their degree. If they applied to read the B.A. for example, but specialized in heavily science-based modules, then they will still generally be awarded the B.A.
Sociology[edit]
Main articles: Sociology and Outline of sociology
Émile Durkheim is considered one of the founding fathers of sociology.
Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human social action.[30] The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-logy", which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem "soci-", which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general.
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term, Sociology, as a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838.[31][32] Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année Sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates among Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.[33]
Karl Marx rejected Comte's positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a science of society based on historical materialism, becoming recognized as a founding figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained broader meaning. Around the start of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as an amalgam of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian positivism and structural functionalism; Marxist historical materialism and conflict theory; and Weberian antipositivism and verstehen analysis. American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajectory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer association with pragmatism and social psychology. In the 1920s, the Chicago school developed symbolic interactionism. Meanwhile, in the 1930s, the Frankfurt School pioneered the idea of critical theory, an interdisciplinary form of Marxist sociology drawing upon thinkers as diverse as Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche. Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after World War II, influencing literary criticism and the Birmingham School establishment of cultural studies.
Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and a perceived process of enveloping rationalization.[34] The field generally concerns the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. In the terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an understanding of the Social Construction of Reality. Most sociologists work in one or more subfields. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behaviour and deviance; and political sociology studies the interaction between society and state.
Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.[35] Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, collect both quantitative and qualitative data, draw upon empirical techniques, and engage critical theory.[32] Common modern methods include case studies, historical research, interviewing, participant observation, social network analysis, survey research, statistical analysis, and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for purposes beyond the academy. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology.
In the early 1970s, women sociologists began to question sociological paradigms and the invisibility of women in sociological studies, analysis, and courses.[36] In 1969, feminist sociologists challenged the discipline's androcentrism at the American Sociological Association's annual conference.[37] This led to the founding of the organization Sociologists for Women in Society, and, eventually, a new sociology journal, Gender & Society. Today, the sociology of gender is considered to be one of the most prominent sub-fields in the discipline.
New sociological sub-fields continue to appear — such as community studies, computational sociology, environmental sociology, network analysis, actor-network theory, gender studies, and a growing list, many of which are cross-disciplinary in nature.
Additional fields of study[edit]
Additional applied or interdisciplinary fields related to the social sciences include:
Archaeology is the science that studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, biofacts, and landscapes.
Area studies are interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions.
Behavioural science is a term that encompasses all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world.
Computational social science is an umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within the social sciences.
Demography is the statistical study of all human populations.
Development studies a multidisciplinary branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries.
Environmental social science is the broad, transdisciplinary study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment.
Environmental studies integrate social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment.
Gender studies integrates several social and natural sciences to study gender identity, masculinity, femininity, transgender issues, and sexuality.
Information science is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
International studies covers both International relations (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and International education (the comprehensive approach that intentionally prepares people to be active and engaged participants in an interconnected world).
Legal management is a social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of state and legal elements.
Library science is an interdisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy of information.
Management consists of various levels of leadership and administration of an organization in all business and human organizations. It is the effective execution of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives through adequate planning, executing and controlling activities.
Marketing the identification of human needs and wants, defines and measures their magnitude for demand and understanding the process of consumer buying behaviour to formulate products and services, pricing, promotion and distribution to satisfy these needs and wants through exchange processes and building long term relationships.
Political economy is the study of production, buying and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government.
Public administration is one of the main branches of political science, and can be broadly described as the development, implementation and study of branches of government policy. The pursuit of the public good by enhancing civil society and social justice is the ultimate goal of the field. Though public administration has been historically referred to as government management,[38] it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that also operate with a similar, primary dedication to the betterment of humanity.
Methodology[edit]
Social research[edit]
Main article: Social research
The origin of the survey can be traced back at least early as the Domesday Book in 1086,[39][40] while some scholars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the publication of John Graunt's Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality.[41] Social research began most intentionally, however, with the positivist philosophy of science in the 19th century.
In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines that share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and marketing and market research.
Social research methods may be divided into two broad schools:
Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims.
Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality.
Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as 'a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form'.[42] Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models.
These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an integrated whole can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships that are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. A dynamical system modeled as a mathematical formalization has a fixed "rule" that describes the time dependence of a point's position in its ambient space. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a fixed rule that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is deterministic: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.
Social sciences are criticized for neglecting the moral element of human behavior. Economists tend to focus on self-interest. Clinical psychologists—on the effects of early socialization. Anthropologists tend to assume moral relativism. Sociologists often blame the System for immoral behavior. Socio-biologists tend to assume limited choice behavior. All this, critics hold, contrasts with the fact that life is a constant wrestle between people's moral commitments and urges that pull them to violate these commitments.[43]
See also: Scholarly method, Teleology, Philosophy of science, and Philosophy of social science
Theory[edit]
Main article: Social theory
Other social scientists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:
Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines.
Dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the materialism of Feuerbach.
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse; it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.
Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory and class theory, cover work in philosophy that is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or is written by Marxists.
Phronetic social science is a theory and methodology for doing social science focusing on ethics and political power, based on a contemporary interpretation of Aristotelian phronesis.
Post-colonial theory is a reaction to the cultural legacy of colonialism.
Postmodernism refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.
Rational choice theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behaviour.
Social constructionism considers how social phenomena develop in social contexts.
Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts.
Structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm that addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.
Other fringe social scientists delve in alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:
Intellectual critical-ism describes a sentiment of critique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits.
Scientific criticalism is a position critical of science and the scientific method.
Education and degrees[edit]
Most universities offer degrees in social science fields.[44] The Bachelor of Social Science is a degree targeted at the social sciences in particular. It is often more flexible and in-depth than other degrees that include social science subjects.[45]
In the United States, a university may offer a student who studies a social sciences field a Bachelor of Arts degree, particularly if the field is within one of the traditional liberal arts such as history, or a BSc: Bachelor of Science degree such as those given by the London School of Economics, as the social sciences constitute one of the two main branches of science (the other being the natural sciences). In addition, some institutions have degrees for a particular social science, such as the Bachelor of Economics degree, though such specialized degrees are relatively rare in the United States.
See also[edit]
Social sciences portal
General[edit]
Outline of social science
Society
Culture
Structure and agency
Humanities (human science)
Methods[edit]
Historical method
Empiricism
Representation theory
Scientific method
Statistical hypothesis testing
Regression
Correlation
Terminology
Participatory Action Research
Areas[edit]
Political sciences
Natural sciences
Behavioural sciences
Geographic information science
History[edit]
History of science
History of technology
Lists[edit]
Fields of science
Outline of academic disciplines
People[edit]
Aristotle
Plato
Confucius
Augustine
Niccolò Machiavelli
Émile Durkheim
Max Weber
Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
Herbert Spencer
Sir John Lubbock
Alfred Schutz
Adam Smith
David Ricardo
Jean-Baptiste Say
John Maynard Keynes
Robert Lucas
Milton Friedman
Sigmund Freud
Jean Piaget
Noam Chomsky
B.F. Skinner
John Stuart Mill
Thomas Hobbes
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Montesquieu
John Locke
David Hume
Auguste Comte
Steven Pinker
John Rawls
Other[edit]
Behaviour
Ethology and Ethnology
Game theory
Gulbenkian commission
Labelling
Periodic table of human sciences (Tinbergen's four questions)
Social action
Philosophy of social sciences
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Kuper, Adam (1996). The Social Science Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780415108294.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science Encyclopaedia.
^ Jump up to: a b Social sciences, Columbian Cyclopedia. (1897). Buffalo: Garretson, Cox & Company. Page 227.
Jump up ^ Peck, H. T., Peabody, S. H., and Richardson, C. F. (1897). The International Cyclopedia, A Compendium of Human Knowledge. Rev. with large additions. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company.
Jump up ^ William Thompson (1775–1833) (1824). An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed System of Voluntary Equality of Wealth.
Jump up ^ According to Comte, the social physics field was similar to that of natural sciences.
Jump up ^ Vessuri, H. (2002). "Ethical Challenges for the Social Sciences on the Threshold of the 21st Century". Current Sociology. 50: 135–150. doi:10.1177/0011392102050001010.
^ Jump up to: a b Lazear, E. P. (2000). "Economic Imperialism". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 115: 99–146. doi:10.1162/003355300554683.
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, I. (2003). "Anthropology, Sociology, and Other Dubious Disciplines". Current Anthropology. 44 (4): 453–465. doi:10.1086/375868.
Jump up ^ Lowie, Robert (1924). Primitive Religion. Routledge and Sons. ; Tylor, Edward (1920). Primitive Culture. New York:: J. P. Putnam's Sons. Originally published 1871.
Jump up ^ Nanda, Serena and Richard Warms. Culture Counts. Wadsworth. 2008. Chapter One
Jump up ^ Rosaldo, Renato. Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. The Anthropology of Globalization. Wiley-Blackwell. 2007
Jump up ^ economics – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Becker, Gary S. (1976). The Economic Approach to Human Behavior. Links to arrow-page viewable chapter. University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ An overview of education
Jump up ^ "What is geography?". AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and Related Geographical Sciences. Association of American Geographers. Archived from the original on October 6, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
Jump up ^ Hayes-Bohanan, James. "What is Environmental Geography, Anyway?". Retrieved October 9, 2006.
Jump up ^ "About NEH". National Endowment for the Humanities.
Jump up ^ Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change
Jump up ^ See the SSHA website
Jump up ^ Robertson, Geoffrey (2006). Crimes Against Humanity. Penguin. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-14-102463-9.
Jump up ^ Hart, H. L. A. (1961). The Concept of Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-876122-8.
Jump up ^ Dworkin, Ronald (1986). Law's Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51836-5.
Jump up ^ Raz, Joseph (1979). The Authority of Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-956268-7.
Jump up ^ Austin, John (1831). The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined.
Jump up ^ see Etymonline Dictionary
Jump up ^ see Merriam-Webster's Dictionary
Jump up ^ Ebenstein, Alan (2002). Introduction to Political Thinkers. Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403934223
Jump up ^ Witt, Jon (2018). SOC 218. McGraw-Hill. p. 2. ISBN 9781259702723.
Jump up ^ A Dictionary of Sociology, Article: Comte, Auguste
^ Jump up to: a b Witt, Jon (2018). SOC 2018. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9781259702723.
Jump up ^ Gianfranco Poggi (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter 1.
Jump up ^ Habermas, Jürgen, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Modernity's Consciousness of Time, Polity Press (1990), paperback, ISBN 0-7456-0830-2 0-7456-0830-2, p. 2.
Jump up ^ Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, Applebaum, Richard. 2007. Introduction to Sociology. Sixth Edition. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Chapter 1.
Jump up ^ Lorber, Judith (1994). Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300064971.
Jump up ^ Laube, Heather; Hess, Bess B. (2001). "The Founding of SWS". Sociologists for Women in Society. Retrieved February 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dictionary of the Social Sciences - Oxford Reference". doi:10.1093/acref/9780195123715.001.0001. Retrieved 2018-05-03.
Jump up ^ A. H. Halsey (2004), A history of sociology in Britain: science, literature, and society, p. 34
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Duncan Mitchell (1970), A new dictionary of sociology, p. 201
Jump up ^ Willcox, Walter (1938) The Founder of Statistics.
Jump up ^ Eykhoff, Pieter System Identification: Parameter and State Estimation, Wiley & Sons, (1974). ISBN 0-471-24980-7 0-471-24980-7
Jump up ^ Amitai Etzioni. 2017. "The Moral Wrestler: Ignored by Maslow." Society, Volume 54, Issue 6, pp 512–519
Jump up ^ Peterson's (Firm : 2006– ). (2007). Peterson's graduate programs in the humanities, arts, & social sciences, 2007. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: Peterson's.
Jump up ^ A Bachelor of Social Science degree can be earned at the University of Adelaide, University of Waikato (Hamilton, New Zealand), University of Sydney, University of New South Wales, University of Hong Kong, University of Manchester, Lincoln University, New Zealand, National University of Malaysia and University of Queensland.
Bibliography[edit]
20th and 21st centuries sources[edit]
Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Byrne, D. S. (1998). Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16296-3
Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science Encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ed., a limited preview of the 1996 version is available)
Lave, C. A., and March, J. G. (1993). An introduction to models in the social sciences. Lanham, Md: University Press of America.
Perry, John and Erna Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science (12th Edition, 2008), college textbook
Potter, D. (1988). Society and the social sciences: An introduction. London: Routledge [u.a.].
David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton (1968). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences.
Seligman, Edwin R. A. and Alvin Johnson (1934). Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (13 vol.)
Ward, L. F. (1924). Dynamic sociology, or applied social science: As based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences. New York: D. Appleton.
Leavitt, F. M., and Brown, E. (1920). Elementary social science. New York: Macmillan.
Bogardus, E. S. (1913). Introduction to the social sciences: A textbook outline. Los Angeles: Ralston Press.
Small, A. W. (1910). The meaning of social science. Chicago, Ill: The University of Chicago Press.
19th century sources[edit]
Andrews, S. P. (1888). The science of society. Boston, Mass: Sarah E. Holmes.
Denslow, V. B. (1882). Modern thinkers principally upon social science: What they think, and why. Chicago: Belford, Clarke & Co.
Harris, William Torrey (1879). Method of Study in Social Science: A Lecture Delivered Before the St. Louis Social Science Association, March 4, 1879. St. Louis: G.I. Jones and Co, 1879.
Hamilton, R. S. (1873). Present status of social science. A review, historical and critical, of the progress of thought in social philosophy. New York: H. L. Hinton.
Carey, H. C. (1867). Principles of social science. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. [etc.]. Volume I, Volume II, Volume III.
Calvert, G. H. (1856). Introduction to social science: A discourse in three parts. New York: Redfield.
General sources[edit]
Backhouse, Roger E., and Philippe Fontaine, eds. A historiography of the modern social sciences (Cambridge University Press, 2014).
Backhouse, Roger E.; Fontaine, eds., Philippe, eds. (2010). The History of the Social Sciences Since 1945. Cambridge University Press. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link) ; covers the conceptual, institutional, and wider histories of economics, political science, sociology, social anthropology, psychology, and human geography.
Delanty, G. (1997). Social science: Beyond constructivism and realism. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.
Hargittai, E. (2009). Research Confidential: Solutions to Problems Most Social Scientists Pretend They Never Have. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Hunt, E. F.; Colander, D. C. (2008). Social science: An introduction to the study of society. Boston: Peason/Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 9780205524068.
Carey, H. C.; McKean, K. (1883). Manual of social science; Being a condensation of the Principles of social science. Philadelphia: Baird.
Galavotti, M. C. (2003). Observation and experiment in the natural and social sciences. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. 232. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISBN 9781402012518.
Gorton, W. A. (2006). Karl Popper and the social sciences. SUNY series in the philosophy of the social sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Harris, F. R. (1973). Social science and national policy. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. ISBN 9781412834452. distributed by Dutton
Krimerman, L. I. (1969). The nature and scope of social science: A critical anthology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Rule, J. B. (1997). Theory and progress in social science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shionoya, Y. (1997). Schumpeter and the idea of social science: A metatheoretical study. Historical perspectives on modern economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Singleton, Royce, A.; Straits, Bruce C. (1988). "Approaches to Social Research". Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514794-4. Archived from the original on March 3, 2007.
Thomas, D. (1979). Naturalism and social science: a post-empiricist philosophy of social science. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-29660-1.
Trigg, R. (2001). Understanding social science: A philosophical introduction to the social sciences. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers.
Weber, M (1906) [1904]. The Relations of the Rural Community to Other Branches of Social Science, Congress of Arts and Science: Universal Exposition. St. Louis: Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
Academic resources[edit]
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ISSN: 1552–3349 (electronic) ISSN 0002-7162 (paper), SAGE Publications
Efferson, C. and Richerson, P. J. (In press). A prolegomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human behavioral sciences. Philosophy and Biology. Full text
Opponents and critics[edit]
George H. Smith (2014). Intellectuals and Libertarianism: Thomas Sowell and Robert Nisbet
Phil Hutchinson, Rupert Read and Wes Sharrock (2008). There's No Such Thing as a Social Science. ISBN 978-0-7546-4776-8
Sabia, D. R., and Wallulis, J. (1983). Changing social science: Critical theory and other critical perspectives. Albany: State University of New York Press.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutSocial scienceat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Data from Wikidata
Institute for Comparative Research in Human and Social Sciences (ICR) (JAPAN)
Centre for Social Work Research
Family Therapy and Systemic Research Centre
International Conference on Social Sciences
International Social Science Council
Introduction to Hutchinson et al., There's No Such Thing as a Social Science
Intute: Social Sciences (UK)
Social Science Research Society
Social Science Virtual Library
Social Science Virtual Library: Canaktanweb (Turkish)
Social Sciences And Humanities
UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory
The Dialectic of Social Science by Paul A. Baran
American Academy Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences
Social Phenomena by Teng Wang
hide
v
t
e
Social sciences
Primary
Anthropology
archaeology
cultural
linguistics
social
Economics
microeconomics
macroeconomics
Geography
human
integrative
History
cultural
economic
military
political
social
Law
jurisprudence
legal history
legal systems
Political science
international relations
psephology
public administration
public policy
Psychology
abnormal
biological
cognitive
developmental
personality
social
Sociology
criminology
demography
internet
rural
urban
Interdisciplinary
Anthrozoology
Area studies
Business studies
Cognitive science
Communication studies
Community studies
Cultural studies
Development studies
Education
Environmental (social science
studies)
Food studies
Gender studies
Global studies
History of technology
Human ecology
Information science
International studies
Media studies
Philosophy of science
economics
history
psychology
social science
Planning
land use
regional
urban
Political ecology
Political economy
Public health
Regional science
Science and technology studies
Science studies
historical
Social work
Other categorizations
Humanities
Geisteswissenschaft
Human science
Index
Journals
Outline
Wikiversity
show
v
t
e
Positivism
Perspectives
Antihumanism
Empiricism
Rationalism
Scientism
Declinations
Legal positivism
Logical positivism / analytic philosophy
Positivist school
Postpositivism
Sociological positivism
Machian positivism (empiriocriticism)
Rankean historical positivism
Polish positivism
Russian positivism
Principal concepts
Consilience
Demarcation
Evidence
Induction
Justificationism
Pseudoscience
Critique of metaphysics
Unity of science
Verificationism
Antitheses
Antipositivism
Confirmation holism
Critical theory
Falsifiability
Geisteswissenschaft
Hermeneutics
Historicism
Historism
Human science
Humanities
Problem of induction
Reflectivism
Related paradigm shifts
in the history of science
Non-Euclidean geometry (1830s)
Uncertainty principle (1927)
Related topics
Behavioralism
Post-behavioralism
Critical rationalism
Criticism of science
Epistemology
anarchism
idealism
nihilism
pluralism
realism
Holism
Instrumentalism
Modernism
Naturalism in literature
Nomothetic–idiographic distinction
Objectivity in science
Operationalism
Phenomenalism
Philosophy of science
Deductive-nomological model
Ramsey sentence
Sense-data theory
Qualitative research
Relationship between religion and science
Sociology
Social science
Philosophy
Structural functionalism
Structuralism
Structuration theory
show
Positivist-related debate
Method
Methodenstreit (1890s)
Werturteilsstreit (1909–1959)
Positivismusstreit (1960s)
Fourth Great Debate in international relations (1980s)
Science wars (1990s)
Contributions
The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830)
A General View of Positivism (1848)
Critical History of Philosophy (1869)
Idealism and Positivism (1879–1884)
The Analysis of Sensations (1886)
The Logic of Modern Physics (1927)
Language, Truth, and Logic (1936)
The Two Cultures (1959)
The Universe in a Nutshell (2001)
Proponents
Richard Avenarius
A. J. Ayer
Auguste Comte
Eugen Dühring
Émile Durkheim
Ernst Laas
Ernst Mach
Berlin Circle
Vienna Circle
Criticism
Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909)
History and Class Consciousness (1923)
The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934)
The Poverty of Historicism (1936)
World Hypotheses (1942)
Two Dogmas of Empiricism (1951)
Truth and Method (1960)
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962)
Conjectures and Refutations (1963)
One-Dimensional Man (1964)
Knowledge and Human Interests (1968)
The Poverty of Theory (1978)
The Scientific Image (1980)
The Rhetoric of Economics (1986)
Critics
Theodor W. Adorno
Gaston Bachelard
Mario Bunge
Wilhelm Dilthey
Paul Feyerabend
Hans-Georg Gadamer
Thomas Kuhn
György Lukács
Karl Popper
Willard Van Orman Quine
Max Weber
Concepts in contention
Knowledge
Objectivity
Phronesis
Truth
Verstehen
Category
Authority control
BNF: cb133183827 (data)
GND: 4055916-6
LCCN: sh85124003
NARA: 10644841
NDL: 00571866
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_science&oldid=850201424"
Categories:
Social sciences
Academic disciplines
Scientific disciplines
Hidden categories:
Articles with short description
Articles to be merged from June 2018
All articles to be merged
Use mdy dates from December 2014
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2014
CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list
Articles containing German-language text
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Use British English Oxford spelling from August 2016
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Languages
Alemannisch
العربية
Aragonés
Arpetan
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Galego
Gĩkũyũ
ગુજરાતી
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Kalaallisut
ქართული
Kiswahili
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Magyar
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
Malti
मराठी
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Baso Minangkabau
Mirandés
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Novial
Occitan
ଓଡ଼ିଆ
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پښتو
Patois
ភាសាខ្មែរ
Polski
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Română
Русский
Саха тыла
संस्कृतम्
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Volapük
Winaray
吴语
Xitsonga
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
中文
107 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 14 July 2018, at 10:42 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: class style

values: shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: td

value: i

value: small

values:
plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move
presentation

values:
/wiki/Formal_logic
mw-redirect
Formal logic

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.6em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)
mw-redirect
Pedology (soil study)

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none

values:
/wiki/Theoretical_biology
mw-redirect
Theoretical biology

values:
/wiki/Complex_systems
mw-redirect
Complex systems

values: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering

values:
/wiki/Glossary_of_geography
mw-redirect
Glossary of geography

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;display:block;margin-top:0.7em; border-top:1px solid #bbf;padding-top:0.15em;border-bottom:1px solid #bbf;

values:
/wiki/Modern_science
mw-redirect
Modern science

values:
/wiki/Moral_philosophy
mw-redirect
Moral philosophy

values:
/wiki/Experimental_science
mw-redirect
Experimental science

values:
/wiki/Social_improvement
mw-redirect
Social improvement

values:
/wiki/Statistical_survey
mw-redirect
Statistical survey

values:
/wiki/Social_phenomena
mw-redirect
Social phenomena

values:
/wiki/Hard_science
mw-redirect
Hard science

values:
/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy
mw-redirect
Enlightenment philosophy

values:
/wiki/Bioeconomics_(biophysical)
mw-redirect
Bioeconomics (biophysical)

values:
/wiki/Sociology_of_science
mw-redirect
Sociology of science

values:
/wiki/Qualitative_methods
mw-redirect
Qualitative methods

values:
/wiki/Economic_imperialism_(economics)
mw-redirect
Economic imperialism (economics)

values: float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:222px; text-align:left; clear:right;

values:
/wiki/Physical_Anthropology
mw-redirect
Physical Anthropology

values:
/wiki/Modes_of_production
mw-redirect
Modes of production

values:
/wiki/Television_broadcasting
mw-redirect
Television broadcasting

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Positive_(social_sciences)
mw-redirect
Positive (social sciences)

values:
/wiki/Public_choice_theory
mw-redirect
Public choice theory

values:
/wiki/Green_economics
mw-redirect
Green economics

values:
/wiki/Marxist_economics
mw-redirect
Marxist economics

values:
/wiki/List_of_education_topics
mw-redirect
List of education topics

values:
/wiki/Transportation_geography
mw-redirect
Transportation geography

values:
/wiki/Environmental_geography
mw-redirect
Environmental geography

values:
/wiki/Geographic_Information_Science
mw-redirect
Geographic Information Science

values:
/wiki/Geographic_Information_Systems
mw-redirect
Geographic Information Systems

values:
/wiki/Global_positioning_systems
mw-redirect
Global positioning systems

values:
/wiki/Company_law
mw-redirect
Company law

values:
/wiki/Old_English_language
mw-redirect
Old English language

values:
/wiki/Ferdinand_Saussure
mw-redirect
Ferdinand Saussure

values:
/wiki/Power_in_international_relations
mw-redirect
Power in international relations

values:
/wiki/Great_powers
mw-redirect
Great powers

values: This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2014)

values:
/wiki/Rational_choice
mw-redirect
Rational choice

values:
/wiki/Interpretivism_(social_science)
mw-redirect
Interpretivism (social science)

values:
/wiki/Scholarly_article
mw-redirect
Scholarly article

values:
/wiki/Sample_survey
mw-redirect
Sample survey

values:
/wiki/Statistical_analysis
mw-redirect
Statistical analysis

values:
/wiki/Case_studies
mw-redirect
Case studies

values:
/wiki/Wilhelm_Maximilian_Wundt
mw-redirect
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt

values:
/wiki/Mental_illness
mw-redirect
Mental illness

values:
/wiki/Mental_function
mw-redirect
Mental function

values:
/wiki/Social_action
mw-redirect
Social action

values:
/wiki/Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method
mw-redirect
Rules of the Sociological Method

values:
/wiki/Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique
mw-redirect
Année Sociologique

values:
/wiki/Conflict_theory
mw-redirect
Conflict theory

values: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies

values:
/wiki/Social_rule
mw-redirect
Social rule

values:
/wiki/Group_(sociology)
mw-redirect
Group (sociology)

values:
/wiki/Social_institution
mw-redirect
Social institution

values:
/wiki/Social_Construction_of_Reality
mw-redirect
Social Construction of Reality

values:
/wiki/Subfields_of_sociology
mw-redirect
Subfields of sociology

values:
/wiki/Evaluation_research
mw-redirect
Evaluation research

values:
/wiki/Actor-network_theory
mw-redirect
Actor-network theory

values:
/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines
mw-redirect
List of academic disciplines

values: Edit section: Additional fields of study

values:
/wiki/Behavioural_science
mw-redirect
Behavioural science

values:
/wiki/Computational_Social_Science
mw-redirect
Computational Social Science

values:
/wiki/Quantitative_method
mw-redirect
Quantitative method

values:
/wiki/Dynamical_systems
mw-redirect
Dynamical systems

values:
/wiki/Differential_equations
mw-redirect
Differential equations

values:
/wiki/Phronetic_social_science
mw-redirect
Phronetic social science

values:
/wiki/Liberal_arts
mw-redirect
Liberal arts

values:
/wiki/Natural_sciences
mw-redirect
Natural sciences

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Regression_model
mw-redirect
Regression model

values:
/wiki/Participatory_Action_Research
mw-redirect
Participatory Action Research

values:
/wiki/Political_sciences
mw-redirect
Political sciences

values:
/wiki/Fields_of_science
mw-redirect
Fields of science

values:
/wiki/Sir_John_Lubbock
mw-redirect
Sir John Lubbock

values:
/wiki/Alfred_Schutz
mw-redirect
Alfred Schutz

values:
/wiki/B.F._Skinner
mw-redirect
B.F. Skinner

values:
/wiki/Gulbenkian_commission
mw-redirect
Gulbenkian commission

values:
/wiki/Periodic_table_of_human_sciences
mw-redirect
Periodic table of human sciences

values:
/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_sciences
mw-redirect
Philosophy of social sciences

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086/375868

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.neh.gov/about

values:
nofollow
http://www.ssha.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal

values:
nofollow
external free
https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403934223

values: The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity

values:
nofollow
http://socwomen.org/sws-activism/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400906

values:
/wiki/Lincoln_University,_New_Zealand
mw-redirect
Lincoln University, New Zealand

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Edit section: 20th and 21st centuries sources

values:
/wiki/Neil_J._Smelser
mw-redirect
Neil J. Smelser

values:
/wiki/Paul_B._Baltes
mw-redirect
Paul B. Baltes

values: International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list

values:
nofollow
http://ann.sagepub.com/
external text

values: padding-bottom: 0.75em; text-align: center;

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display: inline-block; width: 31px; line-height: 31px; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; margin-left: 4px; width: 182px; vertical-align: middle;

values: border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.75em;

values: metadata plainlinks plainlist mbox-small

values: border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.75em; background:#f9f9f9;

values:
nofollow
http://icrhs.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.uel-ftsrc.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.unesco.org/ngo/issc

values:
nofollow
http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.sobiad.org/english.html

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.vl-site.org/index.html

values:
nofollow
http://www.canaktan.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://xlab.berkeley.edu

values:
nofollow
http://www.humanitiescommission.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society
mw-redirect
Science, technology and society

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible expanded navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values:
/wiki/Sociological_positivism
mw-redirect
Sociological positivism

values:
/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism
mw-redirect
Epistemological nihilism

values: Relationship between religion and science

values:
/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy
mw-redirect
Critical History of Philosophy

values:
/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism
mw-redirect
Idealism and Positivism

values:
/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations
mw-redirect
The Analysis of Sensations

values:
/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations
mw-redirect
Conjectures and Refutations

values:
/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory
mw-redirect
The Poverty of Theory

values:
/wiki/The_Scientific_Image
mw-redirect
The Scientific Image

values:
/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics
mw-redirect
The Rhetoric of Economics

values:
grc-Latn
Ancient Greek-language transliteration

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: navigation navbox Positivism padding:3px

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4055916-6

values: National Archives and Records Administration

values: Category:Articles with short description

values: Category:Articles to be merged from June 2018

values: Category:Use mdy dates from December 2014

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2014

values: Category:Articles containing German-language text

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Category:Use British English Oxford spelling from August 2016

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Social_science
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values: علوم اجتماعية – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frp
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: সামাজিক বিজ্ঞান – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Йәмғиәт фәндәре – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Грамадскія навукі – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Грамадзкія навукі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values: Хуманитарни и социални науки – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bar
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Пĕрлĕх ăслăхĕсем – Chuvash

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Κοινωνικές επιστήμες – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: علوم اجتماعی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fur
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ki
display: none;

values: સમાજશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Հասարակական գիտություններ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: सामाजिक विज्ञान – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: מדעי החברה – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Inooqatigiinnik ilisimatusarneq – Kalaallisut

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kl
display: none;

values: საზოგადოებრივი მეცნიერებები – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values: ສັງຄົມສາດ – Lao

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values: Társadalomtudományok listája – Hungarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Општествени науки – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values: സാമൂഹികശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mt
display: none;

values: सामाजिक शास्त्र – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values: علوم اجتماعی – Mazanderani

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-min
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl
display: none;

values: Нийгмийн шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: လူမှုသိပ္ပံ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl
display: none;

values: सामाजिक विज्ञान – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nov
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: ସାମାଜିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-or
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-om
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਸਮਾਜਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values: ټولنيزې پوهنې – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values: Suoshal sayans – Jamaican Creole English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values: វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រសង្គម – Khmer

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-km
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Общественные науки – Russian

values: Социал үөрэхтэр – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values: समाजविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values: زانستە کۆمەڵایەتییەکان – Central Kurdish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Друштвене науке – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: சமூக அறிவியல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: సాంఘిక శాస్త్రం – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: สังคมศาสตร์ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Илмҳои ҷамъиятӣ – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Суспільні науки – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: معاشرتی علوم – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ts
display: none;

values: סאציאל וויסנשאפט – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Social_science rootpage-Social_science skin-vector action-view