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Avignon Papacy
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Map of the city of Rome, showing an allegorical figure of Rome as a widow in black mourning the Avignon Papacy
The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (then in the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire, now in France) rather than in Rome.[1] The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown, culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by Philip IV of France. Following the further death of Pope Benedict XI, Philip forced a deadlocked conclave to elect the French Clement V, as Pope in 1305.
Clement V declined to move to Rome, remaining in France, and in 1309, he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. The absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy".[2][3] A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon; all were French,[4][5] and they increasingly fell under the influence of the French Crown. On September 13, 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome (arriving on January 17, 1377), ending the Avignon Papacy.
Despite this return, following Gregory's death on March 27, 1378, the breakdown in relations between the cardinals and Gregory's successor, Urban VI, gave rise to the Western Schism. This started a second line of Avignon popes, nowadays regarded as illegitimate and known as antipopes. The second and final Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII, lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France; following five years of siege by the French, he fled to Perpignan on March 11, 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance, after two popes had reigned in opposition to the papacy in Rome.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Avignon popes
2 Background
2.1 Temporal role of the Roman Church
2.2 Centralization of Church administration
2.3 A political Church
3 Papacy in the 14th century
3.1 Curia
3.2 Cooperation
3.3 Submission
3.4 Schism
4 History
5 Effects on the papacy
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Avignon popes[edit]
The Papal palace in Avignon, France
Among the popes who resided in Avignon, subsequent Catholic historiography grants legitimacy to these:
Pope Clement V: 1305–1314 (curia moved to Avignon March 9, 1309)
Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Pope Urban V: 1362–1370 (in Rome 1367-1370; returned to Avignon 1370)
Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378 (left Avignon to return to Rome on September 13, 1376)
The two Avignon-based antipopes were:
Clement VII: 1378–1394
Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)
Benedict XIII was succeeded by three antipopes, who had little or no public following, and were not resident at Avignon:
Clement VIII: 1423–1429 (recognized in the Crown of Aragon; abdicated)
Benedict XIV (Bernard Garnier): 1424–1429 or 1430
Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier): 1430?–1437
The period from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival claimants to the title of pope, is referred to as the "Western Schism" or "the great controversy of the antipopes" by some Roman Catholic scholars and "the second great schism" by many secular and Protestant historians. Parties within the Roman Church were divided in their allegiance among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance finally resolved the controversy in 1417 when the election of Pope Martin V was accepted by all.
Avignon and the small enclave to the east (Comtat Venaissin) remained part of the Papal States until 1791, when, under pressure from French revolutionaries, they were absorbed by the short-lived revolutionary Kingdom of France (1791–92), which, in turn, was abolished in favor of the French First Republic the following year.[7]
Background[edit]
Temporal role of the Roman Church[edit]
The papacy in the Late Middle Ages played a major temporal role in addition to its spiritual role. The conflict between the pope and the Holy Roman Emperor was fundamentally a dispute over which of them was the leader of Christendom in secular matters. In the early 14th century, the papacy was well past the prime of its secular rule – its importance had peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries. The success of the early Crusades added greatly to the prestige of the Popes as secular leaders of Christendom, with monarchs like those of England, France, and even the Holy Roman Emperor merely acting as marshals for the popes and leading "their" armies. One exception was Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was twice excommunicated by the Pope during a Crusade. Frederick II ignored this and was moderately successful in the Holy Land.
This state of affairs culminated in the unbridled declaration of papal supremacy, Unam sanctam, in November 1302. In that papal bull, Pope Boniface VIII decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff." This was directed primarily to King Phillip IV of France who responded by saying, "Your venerable conceitedness may know that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters." In 1303 AD, Pope Boniface VIII followed up with a bull that would excommunicate the king of France and put the interdict over France, and depose the entire clergy of France. Before this was finalized, Italian allies of the King of France broke into the papal residence and beat Pope Boniface VIII. He died shortly thereafter. Nicholas Boccasini was elected as his successor and took the name Pope Benedict XI. He absolved King Phillip IV and his subjects of their actions against Pope Boniface VIII; though the culprits who assaulted Boniface were excommunicated and ordered to appear before a pontifical tribunal. However, Benedict XI died within eight months of being elected to the papacy. After eleven months, Bertrand de Got, a French man and a personal friend of King Phillip IV, was elected as pope and took the name Pope Clement V.
Beginning with Clement V, elected 1305, all popes during the Avignon papacy were French. However, this makes French influence seem greater than it was. Southern France at that time had a culture quite independent from Northern France, where most of the advisers to the King of France were based. The Kingdom of Arles was still independent at that time, formally a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The literature produced by the troubadours in the Languedoc is unique and strongly distinct from that of Royal circles in the north. Even in terms of religion, the South produced its own variety of Christianity, Catharism, which was ultimately declared heretical. The movement was fueled in no small part by the strong sense of independence in the South even though the region had been severely weakened during the Albigensian Crusade a hundred years before. By the time of the Avignon Papacy, the power of the French King in this region was uncontested, although still not legally binding.
A stronger impact was made by the move of the Roman Curia from Rome to Poitiers in France in 1305, and then to Avignon in 1309. Following the impasse during the previous conclave, and to escape from the infighting of the powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes, such as the Colonna and Orsini families, the Roman Church looked for a safer place and found it in Avignon, which was surrounded by the lands of the papal fief of Comtat Venaissin. Formally it was part of Arles, but in reality it was under the influence of the French king. During its time in Avignon, the papacy adopted many features of the Royal court: the life-style of its cardinals was more reminiscent of princes than clerics; more and more French cardinals, often relatives of the ruling pope, took key positions; and the proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with the memory of Pope Boniface VIII still fresh.
Centralization of Church administration[edit]
The coat of arms of Benedict XIII displayed the papal tiara and cross. During this period, papal heraldry varied greatly and the crossed keys had not yet fully developed as a symbol of the papacy.
The temporal role of the Catholic Church increased the pressure upon the papal court to emulate the governmental practices and procedures of secular courts. The Catholic Church successfully reorganised and centralized its administration under Clement V and John XXII. The papacy now directly controlled the appointments of benefices, abandoning the customary election process that traditionally allotted this considerable income. Many other forms of payment brought riches to the Holy See and its cardinals: tithes, a ten-percent tax on church property; annates, the income of the first year after filling a position such as a bishopric; special taxes for crusades that never took place; and many forms of dispensation, from the entering of benefices without basic qualifications like literacy for newly appointed priests to the request of a converted Jew to visit his unconverted parents. Popes such as John XXII, Benedict XII, and Clement VI reportedly spent fortunes on expensive wardrobes, and silver and gold plates were used at banquets.
Overall the public life of leading church members began to resemble the lives of princes rather than members of the clergy. This splendor and corruption at the head of the Church found its way to the lower ranks: when a bishop had to pay up to a year's income for gaining a benefice, he sought ways of raising this money from his new office. This was taken to extremes by the pardoners who sold absolutions for all kinds of sins to the poor. While pardoners were hated but needed to redeem one's soul, the friars who failed to follow the Church's moral commandments by failing their vows of chastity and poverty were despised. This sentiment strengthened movements calling for a return to absolute poverty, relinquishment of all personal and ecclesiastical belongings, and preaching as the Lord and his disciples had.
A political Church[edit]
For the Catholic Church, an institution embedded in the secular structure and its focus on property, this was a dangerous development, and beginning in the early 14th century most of these movements were declared heretical. These included the Fraticelli and Waldensian movements in Italy and the Hussites in Bohemia (inspired by John Wycliffe in England). Furthermore, the display of wealth by the upper ranks of the church, which contrasted with the common expectation of poverty and strict adherence to principles, was used by enemies of the papacy to raise charges against the popes; King Philippe of France employed this strategy, as did Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. In his conflict with the latter, Pope John XXII excommunicated two leading philosophers, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham, who were outspoken critics of the papacy, and who had found refuge with Louis IV in Munich. In response, William charged the pope with seventy errors and seven heresies.
The proceedings against the Knights Templar in the Council of Vienne are representative of this time, reflecting the various powers and their relationships. In 1314 the collegium at Vienne convened to make a ruling concerning the Templars. The council, overall unconvinced about the guilt of the order as a whole, was unlikely to condemn the entire order based on the scarce evidence brought forward. Exerting massive pressure in order to gain part of the substantial funds of the Order, the King managed to get the ruling he wanted, and Pope Clement V ordered by decree the suppression of the order. In the cathedral of Saint Maurice in Vienne, the King of France and his son, the King of Navarre, were sitting next to him when he issued the decree. Under pain of excommunication, no one was allowed to speak at that occasion except when asked by the Pope. The Templars who appeared in Vienne to defend their order were not allowed to present their case — the cardinals of the collegium originally ruled that they should be allowed to raise a defense, but the arrival of the King of France in Vienne put pressure on the collegium, and that decision was revoked.
Papacy in the 14th century[edit]
Curia[edit]
After the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers by Philip IV of France in 1301, Pope Boniface VIII issued the bull Salvator Mundi, retracting all privileges granted to the French king by previous popes, and a few weeks later Ausculta fili with charges against the king, summoning him before a council to Rome. In a bold assertion of papal sovereignty, Boniface declared that "God has placed us over the Kings and Kingdoms."
In response, Philippe wrote "Your venerable conceitedness may know, that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters," and called for a meeting of the Estates General, a council of the lords of France, who had supported his position. The King of France issued charges of sodomy, simony, sorcery, and heresy against the pope and summoned him before the council. The pope's response was the strongest affirmation to date of papal sovereignty. In Unam Sanctam (November 18, 1302), he decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff." He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over France, and to depose the entire clergy of France, when in September 1303, William Nogaret, the strongest critic of the papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him. Nogaret coordinated with the cardinals of the Colonna family, long-standing rivals against whom the pope had even preached a crusade earlier in his papacy. In 1303 French and Italian troops attacked the pope in Anagni, his home town, and arrested him. He was freed three days later by the population of Anagni. However, Boniface VIII, then 68 years of age, was deeply shattered by this attack on his own person and died a few weeks later.
Cooperation[edit]
Clement V in a later engraving
The death of Pope Boniface VIII deprived the papacy of its most able politician who could stand against the secular power of the king of France. After the conciliatory papacy of Benedict XI (1303–04), Pope Clement V (1305–1314) became the next pontiff. He was born in Gascony, in southern France, but was not directly connected to the French court. He owed his election to the French clerics. He decided against moving to Rome and established his court in Avignon. In this situation of dependency on powerful neighbors in France, three principles characterized the politics of Clement V: the suppression of heretic movements (such as the Cathars in southern France); the reorganization of the internal administration of the church; and the preservation of an untainted image of the church as the sole instrument of God's will on earth. The latter was directly challenged by Philippe IV when he demanded a posthumous trial of his former adversary, the late Boniface VIII, for alleged heresy. Phillipe exerted strong influence on the cardinals of the collegium, and compliance with his demand could mean a severe blow to the church's authority. Much of Clement's politics was designed to avoid such a blow, which he finally did (persuading Phillipe to leave the trial to the Council of Vienne, where it lapsed). However, the price was concessions on various fronts; despite strong personal doubts, Clement supported Phillipe's proceedings against the Templars, and he personally ruled to suppress the order.
John XXII
One important issue during the papacy of Pope John XXII (born Jacques Duèze in Cahors, and previously archbishop in Avignon) was his conflict with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who denied the sole authority of the Pope to crown the Emperor. Louis followed the example of Philippe IV, and summoned the nobles of Germany to back his position. Marsilius of Padua justified secular supremacy in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. This conflict with the Emperor, often fought out in expensive wars, drove the papacy even more into the arms of the French king.
Benedict XII
Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jaques Fournier in Pamiers, was previously active in the inquisition against the Cathar movement. In contrast to the rather bloody picture of the Inquisition in general, he was reported to be very careful about the souls of the examined, taking a lot of time in the proceedings. His interest in pacifying southern France was also motivation for mediating between the King of France and the King of England, before the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War.
Submission[edit]
Under Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) the French interests started dominating the papacy. Clement VI had been Archbishop of Rouen and adviser to Philippe IV before, so his links to the French court were much stronger than those of his predecessors. At some point he even financed French war efforts out of his own pockets. He reportedly loved luxurious wardrobe and under his rule the extravagant life style in Avignon reached new heights.
Clement VI was also pope during the Black Death, the epidemic that swept through Europe between 1347–1350 and is believed to have killed about one-third of Europe's population. Also during his reign, in 1348, the Avignon papacy bought the city of Avignon from the Angevins.[8]
Clement VI
Pope Innocent VI (1352–1362), born Etienne Aubert, was less partisan than Clement VI. He was keen on establishing peace between France and England, having worked to this end in papal delegations in 1345 and 1348. His gaunt appearance and austere manners commanded higher respect in the eyes of nobles at both sides of the conflict. However, he was also indecisive and impressionable, already an old man when being elected Pope. In this situation, the King of France managed to influence the papacy, although papal legates played key roles in various attempts to stop the conflict. Most notably in 1353 the Bishop of Porto, Guy de Boulogne, tried to set up a conference. After initial successful talks the effort failed, largely due to the mistrust from English side over Guy's strong ties with the French court. In a letter Innocent VI himself wrote to the Duke of Lancaster: "Although we were born in France and although for that and other reasons we hold the realm of France in special affection, yet in working for peace we have put aside our private prejudices and tried to serve the interests of everyone".
With Pope Urban V (1362–1370), the control by Charles V of France of the papacy became more direct. Urban V himself is described as the most austere of the Avignon popes after Benedict XII and probably the most spiritual of all. However, he was not a strategist and made substantial concessions to the French crown especially in finances, a crucial issue during the war with England. In 1369 Pope Urban V supported the marriage of Philip the Bold of the Duchy of Burgundy and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders, rather than giving dispensation to one of Edward III of England's sons to marry Margaret. This clearly showed the partisanship of the papacy; correspondingly, the respect for the church dropped.
Schism[edit]
Main article: War of the Eight Saints
Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1376 and ended the Avignon Papacy.
The most influential decision in the reign of Pope Gregory XI (1370–1378) was the return to Rome, beginning on 13 September 1376 and ending with his arrival on 17 January 1377.[9][10] Although the Pope was French born and still under strong influence by the French King, the increasing conflict between factions friendly and hostile to the Pope posed a threat to the papal lands and to the allegiance of Rome itself. When the papacy established an embargo against grain exports during a food scarcity 1374 and 1375, Florence organized several cities into a league against the papacy: Milan, Bologna, Perugia, Pisa, Lucca and Genoa. The papal legate, Robert of Geneva, a relative of the House of Savoy, pursued a particularly ruthless policy against the league to re-establish control over these cities. He convinced Pope Gregory to hire Breton mercenaries. To quell an uprising of the inhabitants of Cesena he hired John Hawkwood and had the majority of the people massacred (between 2,500 and 3,500 people were reported dead). Following such events opposition against the papacy strengthened. Florence came in open conflict with the Pope, a conflict called "the war of the eight saints" in reference to the eight Florentine councilors who were chosen to orchestrate the conflict. The entire city of Florence was excommunicated and as reply the export of clerical taxes was stopped. The trade was seriously hampered and both sides had to find a solution. In his decision about returning to Rome, the Pope was also under the influence of Catherine of Siena, later canonized, who preached for a return to Rome.
This resolution was short-lived, however, when, having returned the papal court to Rome, Pope Gregory XI died. A conclave met and elected an Italian pope, Urban VI. Pope Urban alienated the French cardinals, who held a second conclave electing one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took the name Clement VII, to succeed Gregory XI, thus founding a second line of Avignon popes. Clement VII, along with his successors are not regarded as legitimate, and are referred to as antipopes by the Catholic Church. This situation, known as the Western Schism, persisted from 1378 until the ecumenical Council of Constance (1414–1418) resolved the question of papal succession and declared the French conclave of 1378 to be invalid. A new Pope, Pope Martin V, was elected in 1417; other claimants to succeed to the line of the Avignon Popes (though not resident at Avignon) continued until c. 1437.
History[edit]
The period has been called the "Babylonian captivity" of the popes. When and where this term originated is uncertain although it may have sprung from Petrarch, who in a letter to a friend (1340–1353) written during his stay at Avignon, described Avignon of that time as the "Babylon of the west," referring to the worldly practices of the church hierarchy.[11] The nickname is polemical, in referring to the claim by critics that the prosperity of the church at that time was accompanied by a profound compromise of the papacy's spiritual integrity, especially in the alleged subordination of the powers of the Church to the ambitions of the French kings. As noted, the "captivity" of the popes at Avignon lasted about the same amount of time as the exile of the Jews in Babylon, making the analogy convenient and rhetorically potent. The Avignon papacy has been and is often today depicted as being totally dependent on the French kings, and sometimes as even being treacherous to its spiritual role and its heritage in Rome.
Almost a century and a half later, Protestant reformer Martin Luther wrote his treatise On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), but he claimed it had nothing to do with the Western Schism or papacy in Avignon.
Effects on the papacy[edit]
The relationship between the papacy and France changed drastically over the course of the 14th century. Starting with open conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, it turned to cooperation from 1305 to 1342, and finally to a papacy under strong influence by the French throne up to 1378. Such partisanship of the papacy was one of the reasons for the dropping esteem for the institution, which in turn was one of the reasons for the schism from 1378–1417. In the period of the Schism, the power struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of the major powers, with France supporting the Pope in Avignon and England supporting the Pope in Rome. At the end of the century, still in the state of schism, the papacy had lost most of its direct political power, and the nation states of France and England were established as two of the main powers in Europe.
See also[edit]
Anglicanism
Châteauneuf-du-Pape
Gallicanism
Lollardy
Medieval Restorationism
References[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Jump up ^ The Avignon Papacy, P.N.R. Zutshi, The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1300-c. 1415, Vol. VI, Ed. Michael Jones, (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 653.
Jump up ^ Adrian Hastings, Alistair Mason and Hugh S. Pyper, The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought, (Oxford University Press, 2000), 227.
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopaedia entry para 7
Jump up ^ Joseph F. Kelly, The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History, (Liturgical Press, 2009), 104.
Jump up ^ Eamon Duffy, Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes, (Yale University Press, 1997), 165.
Jump up ^ The History of the Council of Constance, page 403, Stephen Whatley, Jacques Lenfant, published by A. Bettesworth, 1730.
Jump up ^ P. M. Jones, Reform and Revolution in France: The Politics of Transition, 1774-1791, (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 13.
Jump up ^ Avignon Papacy, Thomas M. Izbicki, Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, ed. William Kibler, (Routledge, 1995), 89.
Jump up ^ Joëlle Rollo-Koster, Raiding Saint Peter: Empty Sees, Violence, and the Initiation of the Great Western Schism (1378), (Brill, 2008), 182.
Jump up ^ Margaret Harvey, The English in Rome, 1362–1420: Portrait of an Expatriate Community, (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 3.
Jump up ^ "Medieval Sourcebook: Petrarch: Letter Criticizing the Avignon Papacy". Fordham.edu. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-10.
Further reading[edit]
Ladurie, E. le Roi. "Montaillou, Catholics and Cathars in a French Village, 1294–1324", trans. B. Bray, 1978. Also published as "Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error".
Read, P. P., "The Templars", Phoenix Press. Chapter 17, "The Temple Destroyed"
Renouard, Yves. "Avignon Papacy"
Rollo-Koster, Joelle. 2015. Avignon and its papacy, 1309-1417. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Sumption, J., "Trial by Fire", Faber and Faber, 1999.
Tuchman, B., "A Distant Mirror", Papermac, 1978. Chapter 16 "The Papal Schism"
Vale, M., "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In: Holmes, G. (ed.) "The Oxford History of Medieval Europe", Oxford University Press, 1988.
Voltaire, F-M, "Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations et sur les principaux faits de l'histoire depuis Charlemagne jusqu'à Louis XIII." (English: Essay on the manners and spirit of nations and on the principal facts of history from Charlemagne to Louis XIII) Vol I, T XI, Chap LXV; edited by René Pomeau (1990) in 2 Volumes (Garnier frères, Paris) OCLC 70306666
Zutschi, P.N.R., The Avignon Papacy. In: Jones, M. (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History. Volume VI c.1300-c.1415, pp. 653–673, 2000, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Ashley Johnson
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the actress. For the ice hockey player, see Ashley Johnston. For the South African rugby player, see Ashley Johnson (rugby union).
Ashley Johnson
Johnson at WonderCon 2014
Born
Ashley Suzanne Johnson
(1983-08-09) August 9, 1983 (age 35)
Camarillo, California, U.S.
Occupation
Actress, voice actress, singer
Years active
1990–present
Ashley Suzanne Johnson (born August 9, 1983)[1] is an American actress, voice actress and singer. She is best known for her roles as Chrissie Seaver in Growing Pains, Ellie in The Last of Us, Annie Warbucks in Annie: A Royal Adventure!, Alex Marshall in What Women Want, Terra in Teen Titans and its spin-off Teen Titans Go!, Gwen Tennyson in the Ben 10 franchise and Gretchen Priscilla Grundler in Disney's Recess. She currently stars in the NBC drama Blindspot as FBI forensic specialist Patterson, and is a recurring cast member of Geek and Sundry's show Critical Role.
In 2013 and 2014 she won BAFTA Awards for her performances as Ellie in The Last of Us and The Last of Us: Left Behind.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Video games
4.4 Web series
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
Johnson was born in Camarillo, California, the youngest daughter of Nancy Spruiell Johnson, an independent film producer, and Clifford Johnson, the captain of an exploration ship. Her father died in July 2000 from Hepatitis C and cancer.[2] She is of Norwegian,[3] Swedish, Danish, Irish, Scottish, and Native American descent. When she was nine days old, her father got a new job and the family moved to Franklin, Michigan. Johnson graduated from high school at 15.[citation needed]
Career[edit]
Johnson's career began at age six, when she played the role of Chrissy Seaver on the sitcom Growing Pains from 1990 to 1992. The character's age was accelerated from a toddler between seasons for plotting purposes. By the time she was 12, Johnson had been in the casts of eight TV series. She later reprised her role as Chrissy in The Growing Pains Movie and Growing Pains: Return of the Seavers. In the one season series Phenom (1993–94), she played the mischievous younger sister of a rising teenage tennis star. Johnson appeared in the 1994 sitcom All-American Girl, which also lasted for only one season. She played DJ's overbearing girlfriend Lisa in the 1995 Roseanne episode "The Blaming of the Shrew", and played Alex Marshal, the daughter of Mel Gibson's character, in the 2000 comedy What Women Want. In 2008, she became a regular on the drama Dirt as Sharlee Cates. In 2009, Johnson appeared in "Omega", the season one finale of Joss Whedon's Dollhouse.[citation needed]
In 2012, she appeared in The Avengers (also directed by Whedon) as a waitress who is saved by Captain America (Chris Evans). She was intended to appear in future Captain America films as his newest love interest (given that a brief scene in the film was implied), but that plan was shelved and instead, actress Emily VanCamp took over as Sharon Carter for the next two films. Although her role was minor, the Blu-ray edition of The Avengers contains some deleted scenes that expand her role in the movie and further her interactions with Captain America.[4][5]
As a voice actress, she played Sean on the cartoon movie The First Snow of Winter in the US version in 1998, Gretchen Grundler on the Walt Disney TV animated series Recess, Terra in the Teen Titans animated series during the show's second and fifth season, Jinmay on Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! and Gwen Tennyson on Ben 10: Alien Force and in future variations of the Ben 10 franchise. Four of her roles have love interests who are voiced by Greg Cipes (Chiro in Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!, Kevin in Ben 10, Beast Boy in Teen Titans, and Michelangelo in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles).
She co-starred in the PlayStation exclusive The Last of Us as the character Ellie, which was released to critical acclaim and commercial success.[6] She subsequently won a video game BAFTA for Best Performer and a VGX Award for Best Voice Actress for her role in the game. On March 12, 2015, Johnson won another BAFTA for Best Performer for the same role in the game's downloadable content, The Last of Us: Left Behind.[7]
Johnson appears in several Geek & Sundry shows, including playing occult specialist Morgan on the web series Spooked on Hulu, playing Alhambra and Dead of Winter on the board gaming web series TableTop,[8][9] and playing Pike Trickfoot/Yasha in the Geek and Sundry series Critical Role.[10]
As of 2015, she plays FBI forensic specialist Patterson in the NBC drama series Blindspot.[11] In 2015, Ashley Johnson was the voice actress of a main character in Minecraft: Storymode by TellTale and Mojang, Petra the Warrior.
Personal life[edit]
Johnson studied violin and piano at the International School of Music; she also plays guitar and cello. When not acting or studying music, Johnson co-runs the photography company Infinity Pictures with her friend, production assistant Mila Shah.[12]
Johnson's older brother Chris worked on the television show The District. Her older sister Haylie Johnson is best known for her role as Haylie on Kids Incorporated. Haylie is married to Jonny Lang.[13]
Johnson has been in a relationship since 2012 with Brian Wayne Foster, an American writer, poet and singer.[14][15]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Source
1990 Lionheart Nicole Gaultier
1995 Nine Months Shannon Dwyer
1998 Dancer, Texas Pop. 81 Josie Hemphill
1999 Marionette
1999 Anywhere but Here Sarah
2000 The Indescribable Nth Doris Short film; voice role
2000 What Women Want Alex Marshall
2001 Recess: School's Out Gretchen Grundler Voice role
2001 Rustin Lee Wolford
2003 The Failures Lilly Kyle
2004 Killer Diller Angie
2004 King of the Corner Elena Spivak
2005 Nearing Grace Merna Ash
2006 The Pity Card Gretel Short film
2006 Fast Food Nation Amber
2006 Grad Night Student
2007 The Brothers Solomon Patricia
2008 Pie'n Burger Holly Short film
2008 Otis Riley Lawson
2008 Columbus Day Alana
2009 Spread Eva
2009 Punching the Clown Tracy
2010 Alleged Rose Williams
2011 The Help Mary Beth Caldwell
2012 The Avengers Waitress Beth
2012 Much Ado About Nothing Margaret
2015 Paradox Sophie
2015 When Marnie Was There Additional voices[16] Voice role
English version
2016 Punching Henry Danielle
2018 Weight Liza
2018 Juvenilles Ms. Taylor
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Source
1990–1992 Growing Pains Christine Ellen "Chrissie" Seaver 47 episodes
1993 Men Don't Tell Cindy Movie
1993 In the Shadows, Someone's Watching Blind Girl Movie
1993 The Town Santa Forgot Granddaughter (voice) Movie
1993 Timmy's Special Delivery: A Precious Moments Christmas Additional Voices (voice)
1993–1994 Phenom Mary Margaret Doolan 22 episodes
1994 All-American Girl Casey Emmerson 12 episodes
1995 Roseanne Lisa Episode: "The Blaming of the Shrew"
1995 Annie: A Royal Adventure! Annie Warbucks Movie
1995–96 Maybe This Time Gracie Wallace 18 episodes
1995 Mina and the Count Mina (voice) Episode: "Interlude with a Vampire"
1996–1998 Jumanji Peter Shepherd (voice) 40 episodes
1997 Moloney Katherine 'Kate' Moloney 3 episodes
1997 Wings Rebecca Episode: "Ms. Write"
1997–2001 Recess Gretchen Grundler (voice) 129 episodes
1998 Kelly Kelly Maureen Kelly 7 episodes
1998 ER Dana Ellis 2 episodes
1999 Partners Janie Movie
2000 The Growing Pains Movie Chrissy Seaver Movie
2001 Recess Christmas: Miracle on Third Street Gretchen Grundler (voice) Video
2002 Lloyd in Space Violet (voice) 5 episodes
2002 Roswell Eileen Burrows 2 episodes
2002 Ally McBeal Serena Feldman Episode: "Heart and Soul"
2002 Providence Daphne Wallace 3 episodes
2002 Touched by an Angel Natalie Episode: "Bring on the Rain"
2002 The Guardian Betsy Fortunato Episode: "Sacrifice"
2003 Kidz History: The Revolutionary War Colonist Video
2003 Recess: All Growed Down Gretchen (voice) Video
2003 Recess: Taking the Fifth Grade Gretchen (voice) Video
2003 Married to the Kellys Shari Episode: "Lewis May Have a Girlfriend"
2004 Growing Pains: Return of the Seavers Chrissy Seaver
2004 Married to the Kellys Shari Episode: "Chris and Mary Fight"
2004–2006 Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! Jinmay (voice) 12 episodes
2004–2006 Teen Titans Terra (voice) 7 episodes
2004–2010 King of the Hill Emily / Jamie 7 episodes
2005 The X's Kimla Episode: "License to Slumber"
2006 Lilo & Stitch: The Series Gretchen Grundler (voice) Episode: "Lax: Experiment #285"
2007 Monk Susie the Maid Episode: "Mr. Monk Is at Your Service"
2007 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Dreama Little Episode: "Ending Happy"
2007 Heartland Rebecca Colton Episode: "Mother & Child Reunion"
2008 Dirt Sharlee Cates 4 episodes
2008 The Middleman Eleanor Draper Episode: "The Ectoplasmic Panhellenic Investigation"
2008 Raising the Bar Elise Denton Episode: "Hang Time"
2008 The Mentalist Clara Tennant Episode: "Seeing Red"
2008–10 Ben 10: Alien Force Gwen Tennyson,
Carol Smith, Cicely, Girl, Mother, Mr. Smoothy Employee
45 episodes
2009 Dollhouse Wendy, Caroline, Hayden Leeds 2 episodes
2009 Cold Case Grace Stearns in 1966 Episode: "The Crossing"
2010 Funny or Die Presents... Girlfriend Episode: "1.1"
2010 Lie to Me Valerie Episode: "Beat the Devil"
2010–2018 Drunk History Elizabeth Hamilton, Elizabeth Cherry, Sara Northrup Episodes: "Drunk History Vol. 1: Featuring Michael Cera"; "Shit Shows"; "Dangerous Minds"
2010 Christmas Cupid Jenny Movie
2010–2012 Ben 10: Ultimate Alien Gwen Tennyson,
Diamondhead (Gwen), Clockwork (Gwen), Humungousaur (Gwen), Upchuck (Gwen), Rath (Gwen), Sunny, Mrs. Rozum, Pierce's Girlfriend, Teen Girl, Fan
52 episodes
2011 In Plain Sight Sarah Collins, Sarah Peterschwim Episode: "Something A-mish"
2011–2013 Pound Puppies Toyoshiko, Gina, Amelia, Giblet (voice) 4 episodes
2011–2012 The Killing Amber Ahmed 7 episodes
2012 Private Practice Kelly Episode: "The Time Has Come"
2012 Drop Dead Diva Veronica Kramer Episode: "Road Trip"
2012–2014 Ben 10: Omniverse Gwen Tennyson,
Future Gwen, Gwen 10, XLR8 (Gwen), Wildvine (Gwen), Margie, Student 2, Woman
21 episodes
2013–2016 Teen Titans Go! Terra (voice) 4 episodes
2013 Masters of Sex Flora Banks Episode: "Fallout"
2014 Garfunkel & Oates Jane Episode: "Speechless"
2015 Stalker Stephanie Episode: "My Hero"
2015 Naruto Shippuden Shiseru (voice) Episodes: 290-295 ("Power Saga")
English version [17]
2015–2017 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Renet (voice) 6 episodes
2015–present Blindspot Patterson Series Regular
2016; 2019 Infinity Train Tulip, Steward (voice) [18]
Video games[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2005 Teen Titans Terra
2008 Ben 10: Alien Force Gwen Tennyson
2009 FusionFall Gwen Tennyson
2009 Ben 10 Alien Force: Vilgax Attacks Gwen Tennyson
2010 Ben 10 Alien Force: The Rise of Hex Gwen Tennyson
2010 Ben 10 Ultimate Alien: Cosmic Destruction Gwen Tennyson
2011 Cartoon Network: Punch Time Explosion Gwen Tennyson
2013 The Last of Us Ellie VGX Award for Best Voice Actress
2013 BAFTA Games Award for Best Performer (for The Last of Us)
2014 BAFTA Games Award for Best Performer (for The Last of Us: Left Behind downloadable content)[19]
2014 Infamous First Light Jenny
2015 Tales from the Borderlands Gortys
2015 Skylanders: SuperChargers Gadfly Glades Collector [20]
2015 Marvel Heroes Spider-Gwen [21]
2015 Lego Dimensions Terra (voice) Uncredited
2015–2017 Minecraft: Story Mode Petra
2016 Lego Marvel's Avengers Beth the Waitress [22]
2016 The Witness [23]
2018 The Last of Us Part II Ellie
2018 Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire Narrator / Pike Trickfoot / Ydwin (voice) [24][25]
Web series[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2013–2015 Tabletop Herself Season 1 Ep. 17, Season 3 Ep. 8
2014 Spooked Morgan 4 episodes
2015–present Critical Role Pike Trickfoot (campaign 1), Yasha (campaign 2) RPG web series, cast member[26]
2016 Force Grey: Giant Hunters Dagny Halvor RPG web series, cast member[27]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Behind The Voice Actors – Ashley Johnson". Behind The Voice Actors.
Jump up ^ Jonny Lang: Finding Peace in Amazing Grace
Jump up ^ Cf. among others the death announcement for Ingvald Taft in Nordisk Tidende 26 December 1957, in which one of his grandsons, Clifford Johnson, was mentioned, as well as Nordisk Tidende 11 December 1941 (marriage of Clifford's parents Reuben Johnson and Evelyn Taft) and Nordisk Tidende 5 January 1950 (which among others tells that Ingvald Taft originally came from Arendal, Norway, while his late wife (Victoria Kristensen), came from Vanse outside Farsund, Norway). See also Victoria's christening in Vest-Agder county, Vanse in Vanse, Parish register (official) no. A 12 (1879-1903), Born and baptised 1887, Page 84, no. 20, cf. Victoria's petition for naturalization of 22 September 1922, Ancestry.com. New York, State and Federal Naturalization Records, 1794-1940.
Jump up ^ "The Avengers deleted scene sees Captain America as a man out of time". flickeringmyth.com. August 30, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Former 'Growing Pains' child star has small-but-important 'Avengers' role". movies.yahoo.com. May 4, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hussain, Tamoor (June 5, 2013). "The Last of Us review round-up: 'Easily Naughty Dog's finest moment'". Computer and Video Games. Future plc. Archived from the original on June 8, 2013. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Harradence, Michael (March 13, 2015). "The Last of Us voice actress Ashley Johnson's BAFTA speech in full". PSU.com. Retrieved March 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ "TableTop: Alhambra".
Jump up ^ "TableTop: Dead of Winter".
Jump up ^ Salud, April (May 22, 2015). "Critical Role: Episode 11 – The Temple Showdown". Geek & Sundry. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Petski, Denise (March 10, 2015). "Rachel DiPillo To Star In NBC Pilot 'Cuckoo'; Ashley Johnson Joins 'Blindspot'". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Dransfeldt, Jeffrey (July 2, 2008). "Local actress has far outgrown her 'Growing Pains' start". Ventura County Star. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jonny Lang: No looking back for blues guitarist
Jump up ^ "Brianwfoster". Instagram. October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ashley Johnson Puts Up A Valentine Picture On Instagram; A Perfect Dating Affair With Boyfriend After All?". Liverampup.com. 2017.
Jump up ^ When Marnie Was There (film). 2015.
Jump up ^ ""Naruto Shippuden Set 23": The Allure of Power". ToonZone.com. 2016-01-19.
Jump up ^ "Infinity Train - Minisode - Cartoon Network". Retrieved 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "2015 Games Performer – BAFTA Awards". BAFTA. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Vicarious Visions. Skylanders: SuperChargers. Activision. Scene: Closing credits, 7:13 in, Voice Actors.
Jump up ^ @MarvelHeroes (October 13, 2015). "You know who really get the roles she voices? @MarvelHeroes' voice of Spider-Gwen, @TheVulcanSalute" (Tweet). Retrieved June 28, 2017 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "Four Reasons Lego Marvel's Avengers Might Be The Best Lego Game Yet". Game Informer.
Jump up ^ Blow, Jonathan (January 14, 2016). "Meet the Voice Actors of The Witness". PlayStation Blog. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Obsidian #Deadfire on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved 2018-06-11.
Jump up ^ Sawyer, Josh (2018-05-08), Pillars of Eternity II: Deadfire, Ashley Johnson, Laura Bailey, Liam O'Brien, retrieved 2018-06-11
Jump up ^ Knox, Kelly (January 16, 2018). "Your First Look at the Official Art for the Second Critical Role Campaign". Geek & Sundry. Retrieved January 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ https://geekandsundry.com/check-out-matt-mercers-new-dd-show-force-grey-giant-hunters/
External links[edit]
Ashley Johnson on IMDb
Ashley Johnson on Twitter
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb15005772v (data)
ISNI: 0000 0001 1459 1516
LCCN: no2004086247
VIAF: 166209497
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ashley_Johnson&oldid=855388142"
Categories:
1983 births
20th-century American actresses
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Buddhism in Southeast Asia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The 9th century Borobudur Buddhist stupa in Central Java
Buddhism in Southeast Asia includes a variety of traditions of Buddhism including two main traditions: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Theravāda Buddhism. Historically, Mahāyāna Buddhism had a prominent position in this region, but in modern times most countries follow the Theravāda tradition.
Southeast Asian countries with a Theravāda Buddhist majority are Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar.[1]
Vietnam continues to have a Mahāyāna majority due to Chinese influence.[2] Indonesia was Mahāyāna Buddhist since the time of the Sailendra and Srivijaya empires,[3] but now Mahāyāna Buddhism in Indonesia is now largely practiced by the Chinese diaspora, as in Singapore and Malaysia. Mahāyāna Buddhism is the predominant religion of most Chinese communities in Singapore. In Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, it remains a strong minority.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early traditions and origins
1.2 Srivijaya, Java and the Khmer Empire
1.3 Early spread of Theravada Buddhism
1.4 Political power and resistance
2 Theravada traditions
3 Mahāyāna traditions
4 Buddhism by country
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Footnotes
6.2 General references
7 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of Buddhism § Southeast Asia
Further information: Indianised kingdom, Srivijaya, Khmer Empire, and Buddhism in Vietnam
Early traditions and origins[edit]
Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair and becomes an ascetic. Borobudur bas-relief, 9th century.
Buddhism reached Southeast Asia both directly over sea from India and indirectly from Central Asia and China in a process that spanned most of the first millennium CE.[4]
In the third century B.C., there was disagreement among Ceylonese monks about the differences in practices between some councils of Bhikkhu monks and Vajjian Monks. The Bhikkhu monks affirmed Theravada traditions and rejected some of the practices of the Vajjian monks. It is thought that this sparked the split between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.[5]
Theravada Buddhism was formed and developed by Ceylon Bhikkhus during a period spanning from the third century B.C. to fifth century A.D. Ceylonese influence, however, did not reach Southeast Asia until the eleventh century A.D.[5] Theravada Buddhism developed in Southern India and then traveled through Sri Lanka, Burma, and into Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Beyond.[4]
In the twelfth Mahayana Buddhism developed in Northern India and traveled through Tibet, China and into Vietnam, Indonesia and beyond.[4]
Buddhism is thought to have entered Southeast Asia from trade with India, China and Sri Lanka during the 1st, 2nd and 3rd centuries. One of the earliest accounts of Buddhism in Southeast Asia was of a Theravada Buddhist mission sent by the Indian emperor Ashoka to modern-day Burma in 250 BCE. The mission was received by the Mon kingdom and many people were converted to Buddhism. Via this early encounter with Buddhism, as well as others due to the continuous regional trade between Southeast Asia, China and South Asia, Buddhism spread throughout Southeast Asia. After the initial arrival in modern-day Burma, Buddhism spread throughout mainland Southeast Asia and into the islands of modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia. There are two primary forms of Buddhism found in Southeast Asia, Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada Buddhism spread from India to Sri Lanka then into the region as outlined above, and primarily took hold in the modern states of Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and southern Vietnam. Mahayana Buddhism is thought to have spread from both China and India during the first and second century into Southeast Asia. Mahayana took root primarily in maritime Southeast Asia, although there was also a strong influence in Vietnam, in part due to their connection with China.
Srivijaya, Java and the Khmer Empire[edit]
Srivijayan Art
A 9th century Srivijayan art bronze Avalokiteshvara of Bidor in Perak, Malaysia.
A bronze Maitreya statue from Komering, South Sumatra, Indonesia, 9th century Srivijayan art.
The bronze torso of Padmapani, 8th century Srivijayan art, Chaiya, Southern Thailand, demonstrate the Central Java art influence.
During the 5th to 13th centuries, The Southeast Asian empires were influenced directly from India, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahāyāna tradition. The Srivijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their art expressed the rich Mahāyāna pantheon of bodhisattvas.
Srivijaya, a maritime empire centred at Palembang on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Yijing also testified to the importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advised future Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two in Palembang.[6] Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India, before being destabilised by the Islamic expansion from the 13th century.
Between 8th to 11th century, Medang Mataram kingdom flourished in Central Java ruled by Sailendra dynasty, which also the ruling family of Srivijaya. The reign of King Panangkaran (r. 760—780) saw the rise of Buddhist Mahayana influence in central Java, as the Sailendran kings became the ardent patron of Buddhism. Numerous Buddhist temples and monuments were erected in the region. Notable example includes Kalasan, Manjusrigrha, Plaosan, and the grand stone mandala Borobudur, completed during the reign of Samaratungga (r. 819–838) in early 9th century. The period marked the apogee of Buddhist civilization in Indonesia.[7]
Cambodian statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. Sandstone, 7th century CE
From the 9th to the 13th centuries, the Mahāyāna Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the Southeast Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighbouring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organisation able to support around one million urban dwellers.
Early spread of Theravada Buddhism[edit]
There are many factors that contributed to the early spread of Theravada Buddhism throughout Southeast Asia. The main three ways in which the religion was transported into the region is through systems of trade, marriage, and missionary work.[8] Buddhism has always been a missionary religion and Theravada Buddhism was able to spread due to the work and travel of missionaries. The Mon people are an ethnic group from Burma (Myanmar) that contributed to the success of Theravada Buddhism within Indochina.[9] Buddhism was likely introduced to the Mon people during the rule of Ashoka Maurya, the leader of the Mauryan Dynasty (268-232 BCE) in India.[10] Ashoka ruled his kingdom in accordance with Buddhist law and throughout his reign he dispatched court ambassadors and missionaries to bring the teachings of the Buddha to the east and Macedonia, as well to parts of Southeast Asia. India had trading routes that ran through Cambodia, allowing for the spread of these ideologies to easily occur.[10] The Mons are one of the earliest ethnic groups from Southeast Asia and as the region shifted and grew, new inhabitants to Burma adopted the Mon people’s culture, script, and religion.
The middle of the 11th century saw a decline of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. From the 11th to 13th century the Khmer Empire dominated the Southeast Asian peninsula.[9] Hindu was the primary religion of the Khmer Empire, with a smaller portion of people also adhering to Mahayana Buddhism. During the Khmer Rule, Theravada Buddhism was only found in parts of Malaysia, northwest Thailand, and lower Burma. Theravada Buddhism experienced a revival under the rule of Anawrahta Minsaw (1014-1077 AD).[11] Anawrahta was the ruler of the Pagan Empire in Burma and is considered to be the founder of the modern Burmese nation. Anawrahta embraced and revived the Mon people’s form of Theravada Buddhism through his building of schools and monasteries that taught and supported Theravada ideologies.[10] The success of Theravada Buddhism in Burma under the rule of Anawrahta allowed for the later growth of Buddhism in neighboring Southeast Asian countries, such as Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. The influences of the Mon people as well as the Pagan Empire are still felt today throughout the region. Currently, the Southeast Asian countries with the highest amounts of practicing Theravada Buddhists are Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.
Political power and resistance[edit]
Vietnamese Buddhist monk Quảng Đức self-immolation in 1963, protesting the persecution of Buddhists by the South Vietnamese government.
Buddhism has long been characterized by some scholars as an other-worldly religion, that is not rooted in economic and political activity. That is in part due to the influence of German sociologist, Max Weber, who was a prominent scholar of religion that has had a significant impact on the way Southeast Asian Buddhism is studied. Many contemporary scholars of Buddhism in Southeast Buddhism are starting to move away from the Weberian school of thought and identifying the role Buddhism has played in economic, political and every-day life in the region. Buddhism has also played a role in the consolidation of power and political resistance to throughout history, dating back to as early as the 10th and 11th century. Buddhist resistance has been a part of many significant historical moments, from the resistance to colonization and colonial powers, the creation of nation-states and the consolidation of political power within kingdoms and states.
Some of the earliest accounts of religious conflict that trace back to the 11th century took place in modern-day Burma. There was tension between Buddhist kings looking to create a more uniform religion and different sects of Buddhist worship. In particular, there was resistance from the cult of Nat worship, a religious practice that predates Buddhism in Burma. Buddhist kings of the time attempted to unify the different sects of Buddhism by the elimination of heretical movements. This was done so in order to maintain their power over their people and in an effort to purify the faith.
During the Nguyen dynasty of Vietnam in the 19th and 20th century, there was a strain between Confucian rulers and practitioners of Buddhism monks during the early unification of the empire. The rulers had a fear of potential rebellions emerging from monastic sites in the countryside and heavily criticized the spiritual practices of Buddhist sects, including a belief in invulnerability based on merit. After an attempt to de-legitimize Buddhist faith in the eyes of Vietnamese people through this criticism of their practices, they declared a war on Buddhism to squash any resistance to the consolidation of their empire
During the late 19th century and early 20th century, there were Buddhist resistance movements in the kingdom of Siam. These resistance movements were led by holy men or phu mi bun who had great power due to a high accumulation of merit. Some of these men claimed to have powers of invulnerability to enemy bullets and shared their powers through bathing others in holy water. An early phu mi bun rebellion was led by a former Buddhist monk, Phaya Phap, who resisted increased taxes in the province of Chiang Mai and proclaimed he would be the new, ideal Buddhist king of the region. These movements were not associated with mainstream Buddhism of the time, but many of the leaders had been ordained monks and utilized some Buddhist symbolism and philosophies.
Buddhist resistance also played a role in anti-colonialism movements. During the British colonization of Burma in the 19th century, there was intense Buddhist militarization and resistance against the colonial occupiers in an effort to restore the ideal Buddhist monarchy. There have also been more recent Buddhist resistance movements in Southeast Asia. After the communist takeover of Laos in 1975, some Buddhist monks feared that Buddhism was threatened by the Pathet Lao government. Many monks fled from Laos to Thailand and helped fund resistance movements from across the border. Monks who stayed in Laos supported resistance fighters with food and medical supplies. Another act of Buddhist resistance took place in Saigon in 1963 when a Mahayana Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức, self-emulated in the middle of a busy intersection. This self-emulation was an act of protest of the South Vietnamese Diem’s pro-catholic regime that persecuted Buddhists.
Theravada traditions[edit]
The shaving ceremony of Theravada Buddhist monk to prepares ordain into Sangha Buddhist priesthood.
Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia is rooted in Ceylonese Buddhism that traveled from Sri Lanka to Burma and later to lower Thailand.[12]
The Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha are the three fundamental aspects of Theravada Buddhist thought. The Buddha is a teacher of gods and men. Unique to Theravada Buddhism is the view that the Buddha is not a god to be worshiped, but rather a teacher to be followed. The Dhamma consists of the teachings of the Buddha. It is path made through the words and deeds of the Buddha that is to be followed. The path leads the follower from the Realm of Desire, to the Realm of Form, the Formless Realm with the ultimate destination being Nirvana. The Sangha (gathering) refers to the two types of followers of the Buddha: lay and monastic. The monastic followers adhere to the Bhikkhu-way. The Bhikku lead a very disciplined life modeled after the Buddha, going from pabbajja or novice ordination (samanera) to upasampada or higher ordination (Bhikkhu).[12]
Mahāyāna traditions[edit]
Vietnamese Buddhist nun.
Mahāyāna Buddhism in SE Asia is rooted in Buddhist traditions that traveled from Northern India through Tibet and China and eventually made their way to Vietnam, Indonesia and other parts of southeast Asia.[4]
Mahāyāna Buddhism consists of a large variety of different sūtras. A defining feature of Mahāyāna Buddhism is its inclusiveness of a wide range of doctrines. The Mahāyāna tradition includes the doctrine of the three bodies of the Buddha (trikāya). The first is the body of transformation (nirmānakāya), the second is the body of bliss/enjoyment (sambhogakāya), and the third is the body of law/essence (dharmakāya). Each body makes sense of a different function of the Buddha.[13] Another common theme in the Mahāyāna tradition of Buddhism, is the path of the bodhisattva. Stories are told about prior lives of the Buddha as a bodhisttva. These stories teach the qualities that are desirable to a good Mahāyāna Buddhist. Bodhisttvas are self-less as they care not only for their own salvation, liberation, and happiness, but also for the salvation, liberation, and happiness of others. A bodhisttva will make it almost all of the way to Nirvana, but go back in order to help others go farther. The bodhisttva is contrasted with the pratyekabuddha who is only self-enlightened and not fully enlightened like the bodhisttva. The pratyekabuddha is seen as selfish as they only seek their own enlightenment and do not try to help others.[13]
Buddhism by country[edit]
Buddhist temple of Wat Arun in Bangkok, Thailand. Currently Buddhism is the major faith in Thailand and neighboring Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos
Currently, there are approximately 190-205 million Buddhists in Southeast Asia, making it the second largest religion in the region, after Islam. Approximately 35 to 38% of the global Buddhist population resides in Southeast Asia. The following is a list of Southeast Asian countries from most to least adherents of Buddhism as a percent of the population.
Thailand has the largest number of Buddhists with approximately 95% of its population of 67 million adhering to Buddhism, placing it at around 63.75 million.[14][15]
Myanmar has around 59 million Buddhists, with 89% of its 66 million citizens practicing Theravada Buddhism.[16][17] Around 1% of the population, mainly the Chinese, practice Mahayana Buddhism alongside Taoism, but are strongly influenced by Theravada Buddhism.
Vietnam may have a large number of Buddhists, but the Communist government under-reports the religious adherence of its citizens. It has around 44 million Buddhists, around half its population.[18][19] The majority of Vietnamese people practice Mahayana Buddhism due to the large amount of Chinese influence.[20]
Cambodia has 95% of its total population adheres to Theravada Buddhism, placing its Buddhist population at around 14 million[21] which mark as one of the world's highiest Buddhist nations by percentage. By the end of 2017, there are 4,872 Buddhist temples (Wat) accommodating 69,199 Buddhist monks [22]that play the important role to maintain the existence of Buddhism and preserve Buddhist culture in Cambodia.
Malaysia has about 20% of its citizens, mainly ethnic Chinese, with significant numbers of ethnic Thais, Khmers, Sinhalese and migrant workers, practising Buddhism. The Chinese mainly practice Mahayana Buddhism, but due to the efforts of Sinhalese monks, Theravada also enjoys a significant following.[23][24]
Communist Laos has around 5 million Buddhists, who form roughly 70% of its population.[25][26]
Indonesia has around 4.75 million Buddhists (2% of its population), mainly amongst its Chinese population. Most Indonesian Buddhists adhere to Theravada Buddhism, mainly of the Thai tradition.[27]
Singapore have around 2 million Buddhists, forming around 33% of their populations respectively.[28] Singapore has the most vibrant Buddhist scene with all three major traditions having large followings. Mahayana Buddhism has the largest presence amongst the Chinese, while many immigrants from countries such as Myanmar, Thailand and Sri Lanka practice Theravada Buddhism.[29]
Philippines have around less than 0.1% of the total population.[30]
Brunei, which has the smallest population in Southeast Asia, has around 13%[31] of its citizens and a significant migrant worker population adhering to Buddhism, at around 65,000.[32]
Thai Buddhist monks on pilgrimage
Novice monks in Myanmar
Buddhist monks in Indonesia
See also[edit]
Southeast Asia portal
Buddhism portal
Buddhism in Asia
Buddhism in East Asia
Buddhism by country
Jainism in Southeast Asia
Hinduism in Southeast Asia
Islam in Southeast Asia
References[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Kitiarsa, Pattana (2009-03-01). "Beyond the Weberian Trails: An Essay on the Anthropology of Southeast Asian Buddhism". Religion Compass. 3 (2): 200–224. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00135.x. ISSN 1749-8171.
Jump up ^ CPAmedia: Buddhist Temples of Vietnam Archived 8 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Singapore Philatelic Museum website: Southward Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism - Southeast Asia Archived 19 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tai Thu, Nguyen (2008). The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Washington DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. pp. 2–9. ISBN 1-56518-098-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Lester, Robert, C (1973). Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia. United States: Ann Arbor Paperbacks. pp. 1–162. ISBN 0-472-06184-4.
Jump up ^ Jerry Bently, 'Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 72.
Jump up ^ ̣ "The Extraordinary Cultural Heritage of Central Java".
Jump up ^ Kitiarsa, Pattana (2009). Beyond the Weberian Trails: An Essay on the Anthropology of Southeast Asian Buddhism. Religion Compass. p. 205.
^ Jump up to: a b Guillon, Emmanuel (1999). The Mons: A Civilization of Southeast Asia. Bangkok: Siam Society under Royal Patronage. p. 113. ISBN 9748298442.
^ Jump up to: a b c Keown, Damien (2013). Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 80.
Jump up ^ Maraldo, John (1976). Buddhism in the Modern World. New York: Macmillan.
^ Jump up to: a b Lester, Robert C. (1973). Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia. USA: Ann Arbor Paperback. pp. 1–130. ISBN 0-472-06184-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Olson, Carl (2005). The Different Paths of Buddhism. Rutgers University Press. pp. 149–181. ISBN 0-8135-3561-1.
Jump up ^ "The CIA World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
Jump up ^ state.gov - Thailand
Jump up ^ "Crisis in Myanmar Over Buddhist-Muslim Clash". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook: Burma". CIA. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "state.gov – Vietnam 2012 (included over 50% Mahayana + 1.2% Theravada + 3% Hoa Hao Buddhism and other new Vietnamese sects of Buddhism)". state.gov. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71363.htm
Jump up ^ Vietnam Tourism - Over 70 percent of the population of Vietnam are either Buddhist or strongly influenced by Buddhist practices. Archived 9 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine., mtholyoke.edu Buddhist Crisis 1963 - in a population that is 70 to 80 percent Buddhist
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook: Cambodia". CIA. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ 26th annual Buddhist monk summit of Cambodia in Chaktomuk conference hall, Phnom Penh, December, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Religious Adherents, 2010 - Malaysia". World Christian Database. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ state.gov (19.8% Buddhist + 1.3% Taoism/Confucianism/Chinese Folk Religion
Jump up ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Religious Adherents, 2010 – Laos". World Christian Database. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Religious Adherents, 2010 – Indonesia (0.8% Buddhist + 0.9% Chinese Folk Religion/Confucianism)". World Christian Database. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Singapore Department of Statistics (12 January 2011). "Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "www.state.gov". state.gov. 15 September 2006. Retrieved 20 November 2011. , "CIA Factbook – Singapore". Cia.gov. Retrieved 20 November 2011. , "Religious Adherents, 2010 – Singapore (14.8% Buddhist + 39.1% Chinese Folk Religion = 53.9% in total)". World Christian Database. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/philippines/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook: Brunei". CIA. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Religious Adherents, 2010 – Brunei (9.7% Buddhist + 5.2% Chinese Folk Religion + 1.9% Confucianist)". World Christian Database. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
General references[edit]
Ancient History Encyclopedia. 2014. "Buddhism". Retrieved October 9, 2016.
Baird, Ian G. 2012. "Lao Buddhist Monks' Involvement in Political and Military Resistance to the Lao People's Democratic Republic Government since 1975". The Journal of Asian Studies. 71 (3): 655–677.
Buswell, R. 2004. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York: Macmillan Reference, USA.
Ileto, R. 1993. "Religion and Anti-Colonial Movements". The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 197–248.
Reat, N. 1994. Buddhism: A History. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press.
Tarling, N., & Cambridge University Press. 1992. The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kitiarsa, Pattana. 2009. "Beyond the Weberian Trails: An Essay on the Anthropology of Southeast Asian Buddhism". Religion Compass3(2): 200-224.
Keyes, Charles. 2014. Finding Their Voice: Northeastern Villagers and the Thai State. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books
"The burning monk, 1963". rarehistoricalphotos.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12.
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