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Front-wheel drive
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A classic front-wheel-drive car, the 1934 Citroën Traction Avant
Front-wheel drive (FWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature a transverse engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive and four-wheel drive vehicles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Front-wheel-drive arrangements
2 History
2.1 Prior to 1900
2.2 Société Parisienne - Victoria Combination
2.3 1900 – 1920
2.4 1920 – 1930
2.5 1930 – 1945
2.6 1945 – 1960
2.7 1960 – 1975
2.7.1 Giacosa innovation
2.8 1975 – 1990
2.9 1990 – present
3 Records
4 See also
5 References
Front-wheel-drive arrangements[edit]
Most FWD layouts are front-engined. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare. Historically they fall into three categories:
Front-engine transversely mounted/ Front-wheel drive
Front-engine longitudinally mounted/ Front-wheel drive
Front Mid-engine/ Front-wheel drive
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Prior to 1900[edit]
Experiments with front-wheel-drive cars date to the early days of the automobile. According to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the world's first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, with only one copy ever made. In 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts.
Société Parisienne - Victoria Combination[edit]
1898-1901 Victoria Combination
1898-1901 Victoria Combination
In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination. It was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower (1.30 or 1.86 kW) De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower (2.6 kW) Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering.[1][2][3][4] The name Victoria Combination described the lightweight, two-seater trailer commonly known as a Victoria, combined with the rear axle and drive mechanism from a motor tricycle that was placed in front to achieve front wheel drive.[2][3][4] It also known as the Eureka.
By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall and second(last) in the class.[5] In October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h (16 mph).[3][4] In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres (150 mi) non-stop at 29 km/h (18 mph).[1]
When production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs (circa $600) each.[3][4]
1900 – 1920[edit]
J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car, the first prototype of which he built in 1904.[6] He promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup[7] and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, but due to lack of sales this venture failed.
1920 – 1930[edit]
1925 Miller 122 Indianapolis 500 front-wheel-drive racer
The next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28, 1925. Harry Arminius Miller of Menomonie, Wisconsin designed the Miller 122 front-wheel-drive racecar that was entered in the 1925 Indianapolis 500, which was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Saturday, May 30, 1925.[8]
However, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton (200 cars in 1929), and the Cord L-29 of 1929. Neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a front-wheel-drive commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928, but it was not a success either.[9]
1930 – 1945[edit]
Front-wheel-drive MF layout with engine behind the transmission in the 1930s. Renault widely used this configuration into the 1980s.
The first successful consumer application came in 1929. The BSA (Birmingham Small Arms Company) produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available. In 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes. Other German car producers followed: Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France. The Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, running "backwards," (save for the Cord, which drove the transmission from the front of the engine). The basic front-wheel-drive layout provides sharp turning, and better weight distribution creates "positive handling characteristics" due to its low polar inertia and relatively favourable weight distribution.[10] (The heaviest component is near the centre of the car, making the main component of its moment of inertia relatively low). Another result of this design is a lengthened chassis.
1945 – 1960[edit]
The 1959 Mini with a transverse engine
Front-wheel-drive FF layout as pioneered in the Mini is today the most common in mass market passenger cars
Front-wheel drive continued with the 1948 Citroën 2CV, where the air-cooled lightweight aluminium flat twin engine was mounted ahead of the front wheels, but used Hooke type universal joint driveshaft joints, and 1955 Citroën DS, featuring the mid-engine layout. Panhard of France, DKW of Germany and Saab of Sweden offered exclusively front-wheel-drive cars, starting with the 1948 Saab 92.
In 1946, Lloyd Cars, the English car company, had produced the front-wheel-drive roadster, Lloyd 650. The two-stroke, two-cylinder motor was mounted transversely in the front and connected to the front wheels through four-speed synchronised gearbox. The high price and lacklustre performance had doomed its production. Only 600 units were produced from 1946 to 1950.
In 1954, Alfa-Romeo had experimented with its first front-wheel-drive compact car named "33" (not related or referred to sports car similarly named "33"). It had the same transverse-mounted, forward-motor layout as the modern front-wheel-drive automobiles. It even resembled the smaller version of its popular Alfa Romeo Giulia. However, due to the financial difficulties in post-war Italy, the 33 never saw the production. Had Alfa-Romeo succeed in producing 33, it would precede the Mini as the first "modern" European front-wheel-drive compact car.
In 1955, one of the first Japanese manufacturers to utilize front-wheel drive with a transversely installed engine was the Suzuki Suzulight, which was a small "city" car, called a kei car in Japanese.
In 1959 Austin Mini was launched by the British Motor Corporation, designed by Alec Issigonis as a response to the first 'oil crisis', the 1956 Suez Crisis, and the boom in bubble cars that followed. It was the first production front-wheel-drive car with a watercooled inline four-cylinder engine mounted transversely. This allowed eighty percent of the floor plan for the use of passengers and luggage. The majority of modern cars use this configuration. Its progressive rate rubber sprung independent suspension, low centre of gravity, and wheel at each corner with radial tyres, gave a massive increase in grip and handling over all but the most expensive cars on the market. It used GKN designed Constant-velocity joint drive shaft universal joints.
1960 – 1975[edit]
1960's Renault 4 rolling chassis with gearbox ahead of engine
Front-wheel-drive FF layout as used by Audi and Subaru
The transversely mounted engine combined with front-wheel drive was popularized by the 1959 Mini; there the transmission was built into the sump of the engine, and drive was transferred to it via a set of primary gears. Another variant transmission concept was used by Simca in the 1960s keeping the engine and transmission in line, but transverse mounted and with unequal length driveshafts. This has proven itself to be the model on which almost all modern FWD vehicles are now based. Peugeot and Renault on their jointly developed small car engine of the 1970s where the 4-cylinder block was canted over to reduce the overall height of the engine with the transmission underneath (PSA X engine). The tendency of this layout to generate unwanted transmission "whine" has seen it fall out of favour. Also, clutch changes required engine removal.
The 1965 Triumph 1300 was designed around a longitudinal engine with the transmission underneath. Audi has also used a longitudinally mounted engine overhung over the front wheels since the 1970s. Audi is one of the few manufacturers which still uses this particular configuration. It allows the use of equal-length half shafts and the easy addition of all-wheel drive, but has the disadvantage that it makes it difficult to achieve 50/50 weight distribution (although they remedy this in four-wheel-drive models by mounting the gearbox at the rear of the transaxle.) The Subaru 1000 appeared in 1966 utilizing front-wheel drive mated to a flat-4 engine, with the driveshafts of equal length extending from the transmission, which addressed some of the issues of the powertrain being somewhat complex and unbalanced in the engine compartment - the Alfa Romeo Alfasud (and its replacement, the 1983 Alfa 33) also used the same layout.
Honda also introduced several small front wheel drive vehiches, with the N360 and N600, the Z360 and Z600 in 1967, the Honda 1300 in 1969, followed by the Honda Civic in 1972 and the Honda Accord in 1976.
Also in the 1970s and 1980s, the Douvrin engines used in the larger Renaults (20, 21, 25 and 30) used this longitudinal "forward" layout. The first generation Saab 900, launched in 1978, also used a longitudinal engine with a transmission underneath with helical gears. The 1966 Oldsmobile Toronado was the first U.S. front-wheel-drive car since the Cord 810. It used a longitudinal engine placement for its V8, coupled with an unusual "split" transmission, which turned the engine power 180 degrees. Power then went to a differential mounted to the transmission case, from which half-shafts took it to the wheels. The driveline was set fairly at centre-point of the wheels for better weight distribution, though this raised the engine, requiring lowered intake systems.
Giacosa innovation[edit]
“
Little known outside of Italy, the Primula is today primarily known for innovating the modern economy-car layout.
– Hemmings Motor News,[11]
”
“
This Active Tourer MPV wants to be more stable than a BMW M3, and using the Dante Giacosa-pattern front-wheel-drive layout compacts the mechanicals and saves space for people in the reduced overall length of what will surely become a production 1-series tall-sedan crossover.
– Robert Cumberford, Automobile Magazine, March, 2013[12]
”
Front-wheel drive layout had been highly impacted by the success of small, inexpensive cars, especially the British Mini. As engineered by Alec Issigonis, the compact arrangement located the transmission and engine sharing a single oil sump — despite disparate lubricating requirements — and had the engine's radiator mounted to the side of the engine, away from the flow of fresh air and drawing heated rather than cool air over the engine. The layout often required the engine be removed to service the clutch.[13]
As engineered by Dante Giacosa, the Fiat 128 featured a transverse-mounted engine with unequal length drive shafts and an innovative clutch release mechanism — an arrangement which Fiat had strategically tested on a previous production model, the Primula, from its less market-critical subsidiary, Autobianchi.
Ready for production in 1964, the Primula featured a gear train offset from the differential and final drive with unequal length drive shafts. The layout enabled the engine and gearbox to be located side by side without sharing lubricating fluid while orienting the cooling fan toward fresh air flow. By using the Primula as a test-bed, Fiat was able to sufficiently resolve the layout's disadvantages, including uneven side-to-side power transmission, uneven tire wear and potential torque steer, the tendency for the power of the engine alone to steer the car under heavy acceleration.
After the 128, Fiat further demonstrated the layout's flexibility, re-configurating the 128 drive-train as a mid-engined layout for the Fiat X1/9. The compact, efficient Giacosa layout — a transversely-mounted engine with transmission mounted beside the engine driving the front wheels through an offset final-drive and unequal-length driveshafts, combined with MacPherson struts and an independently located radiator — subsequently became common with competitors[14] and arguably an industry standard.[15]
1975 – 1990[edit]
The Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard drove a mass changeover of cars in the U.S. to front-wheel drive. The change began in 1978, with the introduction of the first American-built transverse-engined cars, the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni (based on the European designed Simca Horizon),[16] followed by the 1980 Chevrolet Citation and numerous other vehicles. Meanwhile, European car makers, that had moved to front-wheel drive decades before, began to homogenize their engine arrangement only in this decade, leaving Audi (and Volkswagen) alone with the Audi front drive-longitudinal engine layout. Years before this was the most common layout in Europe, with examples like Citroen DS, Renault 12, Renault 5, Renault 25 (a Chrysler LH ancestor) Alfa Romeo 33, Volkswagen Passat, etc. This transition can be exemplified in the Renault 21 that was offered with disparate engine configurations. The 1.7-litre version featured an 'east-west' (transversely) mounted engine, but Renault had no gearbox suitable for a more powerful transverse engine: accordingly, faster versions featured longitudinally mounted (north south) engines.
By reducing drivetrain weight and space needs, vehicles could be made smaller and more efficient without sacrificing acceleration. Integrating the powertrain with a transverse as opposed to a longitudinal layout, along with unibody construction and the use of constant velocity jointed drive axles, along with front wheel drive has evolved into the modern-day mass market automobile. Some suggest that the introduction of the modern Volkswagen Golf in 1974, from a traditional U.S. competitor, and the introduction of the 1973 Honda Civic, and the 1976 Honda Accord served as a wake-up call for the "Big Three" (only Chrysler already produced front-wheel-drive vehicles in their operations outside North America). Ford's 1976 Ford Fiesta was its first front-wheel-drive car in Europe, GM was even later with the 1979 Vauxhall Astra/Opel Kadett. Captive imports were the US car makers initial response to the increased demand for economy cars. The popularity of front-wheel drive began to gain momentum, with the 1981 Ford Escort, the 1982 Nissan Sentra, and the 1983 Toyota Corolla. Front-wheel drive became the norm for mid-sized cars starting with the 1982 Chevrolet Celebrity, 1982 Toyota Camry, 1983 Dodge 600, 1985 Nissan Maxima, 1986 Honda Legend, and the 1986 Ford Taurus. By the mid-1980s, most formerly rear-wheel-drive Japanese models were front-wheel drive, and by the mid-1990s, most American brands only sold a handful of rear-wheel-drive models.
1990 – present[edit]
The Chevrolet Cobalt, a front-wheel-drive car made from 2004 to 2010
The vast majority of front-wheel-drive vehicles today use a transversely mounted engine with "end-on" mounted transmission, driving the front wheels via driveshafts linked via constant velocity (CV) joints, and a flexibly located electronically controlled cooling fan. This configuration was pioneered by Dante Giacosa in the 1964 Autobianchi Primula and popularized with the Fiat 128.[17] Fiat promoted in its advertising that mechanical features consumed only 20% of the vehicle's volume and that Enzo Ferrari drove a 128 as his personal vehicle.[14] The 1959 Mini, while a pioneering transverse front-wheel-drive vehicle[citation needed], used a substantially different arrangement with the transmission in the sump, and the cooling fan drawing hot air from its side-facing location.
Volvo Cars has switched its entire lineup after the 900 series to front-wheel drive. Swedish engineers at the company have said that transversely mounted engines allow for more crumple zone area in a head-on collision. American auto manufacturers are now shifting larger models (such as the Chrysler 300 and most of the Cadillac lineup) back to rear-wheel drive.[18][19] There were relatively few rear-wheel-drive cars marketed in North America by the early 1990s; Chrysler's car line-up was entirely front-wheel drive by 1990. GM followed suit in 1996 where its B-body line was phased out, where its sports cars (Camaro, Firebird, Corvette) were the only RWDs marketed; by the early 2000s, the Chevrolet Corvette and Cadillac Catera were the only RWD cars offered by General Motors until the introduction of the Sigma platform. After the phaseout of the Ford Panther platform (except for the Mustang), Ford automobiles (including the Transit Connect van) manufactured for the 2012 model year to present are front wheel drive; its D3 platform (based on a Volvo platform) has optional all wheel drive.
Records[edit]
The Nissan GT-R LM Nismo race car holds the record for being the most-powerful front-wheel-drive car, with its combustion engine outputs approximately 500 hp (370 kW; 510 PS) while the flywheel system is intended to have an additional output of approximately 750 hp (560 kW; 760 PS). This accounts for a total of 1,250 hp (930 kW; 1,270 PS).
However, the 1970 Oldsmobile Toronado remains the most-powerful street-legal front-wheel drive production car till today, with W-34 option producing 400 hp (298 kW).
The Cadillac Eldorado, with front-wheel drive introduced in 1967, holds the record for the largest engine in a front-wheel-drive production vehicle, at 8.2 L (500 in³), starting with the 1970 model, lasting until the 1976 model year.[citation needed]
A production Dodge Neon SRT-4 from RaceDeck Racing broke the land speed record for its class at Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on August 16, 2006. Driven by Jorgen Moller Jr., the record was set at 221 mph average speed for both runs on the five mile course.
See also[edit]
Automobile layout
Rear-wheel drive
Four-wheel drive
FF layout
Category:Front-wheel-drive sports cars
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Georgano, G.N (Nick) (1973). The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars, 1885 to the present day. London: Ebury Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Grace's Guide to Industrial History. Profile of La Societe Parisienne
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bonhams Auctioneers, Profile description of Parisienne at Wikimedia Commons
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bonhams Auctioneers - Profile of La Société Parisienne - Victoria Combination
Jump up ^ Unique Cars and Parts. Voiturette Racing - Before The Formula One
Jump up ^ "Front Wheel Drive Used in 1908." Popular Science, November 1930, p. 52 bottom of page, photo
Jump up ^ "J. Walter Christie". Featured drivers. VanderbiltCupRaces.com. 2011. Retrieved 2011-07-24.
Jump up ^ Day, Kenneth (1989). "Part II: Racing history". In Iles, Robert. Alvis:the story of the red triangle (2nd ed.). Somerset, England: Haynes Publishing Group. pp. 113–63. ISBN 0-85429-667-0.
Jump up ^ The Front Drive - Why Not? Popular Mechanics, January 1930, pp. 10-13
Jump up ^ "Cord front-drive car is here", The New York Times. April 12, 1936. p. XX7.
Jump up ^ "European Car of the Year 1965: BMC Scores a Win". Hemmings Motor News, August 2011.
Jump up ^ "By Design: BMW Concept Active Tourer". Automobile Magazine, Robert Cumberford, February 2013 Issue.
Jump up ^ "Dante Giacosa". Fiat500USA.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Collectible Classic: 1971-1979 Fiat 128". Automobile Magazine, August 2012.
Jump up ^ "1969-1984 FIAT 128 Saloon". Classic and Performance Car. Archived from the original on 2014-04-08. It’s the recipe for technical orthodoxy that has since been adopted by the entire industry.
Jump up ^ Bryan T. Nicalek. "The Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon". Allpar.
Jump up ^ Brick by Brick: The Biography of the Man Who Really Made the Mini, Martyn Nutland, p. 237. Authorhouse, Bloomington, IN, 2012. ISBN 9781477203170.
Jump up ^ "The Chrysler-Dodge LX Cars: Charger, Challenger, 300, 300C, and Magnum". Allpar.
Jump up ^ Sherman, Don (1998). "Cadillac goes to RWD - rear-wheel drive". Automotive Industries (extracted in LookSmart).
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Berkeley Software Distribution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"BSD" redirects here. For the Windows error message abbreviated "BSOD" or "BSoD", see Blue Screen of Death. For other uses, see BSD (disambiguation).
BSD
Developer
Computer Systems Research Group, University of California, Berkeley
Written in
C
OS family
Unix
Working state
Superseded by derivatives (see below)
Source model
Historically closed source, gradual transition to free software from 1991 on.
Initial release
1977; 41 years ago (1977)
Latest release
4.4-Lite2 / 1995; 23 years ago (1995)
Available in
English
Platforms
PDP-11, VAX, Intel 80386
Kernel type
Monolithic
Userland
BSD
Default user interface
Command-line interface
License
BSD licenses
Official website
www.bsd.org
Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) was a Unix operating system derivative developed and distributed by the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) of the University of California, Berkeley, from 1977 to 1995. Today, the term "BSD" is often used non-specifically to refer to any of the BSD descendants which form a branch of the family of Unix-like operating systems. Operating systems derived from the original Berkeley source code, such as FreeBSD and OpenBSD, are actively maintained.
BSD was initially called Berkeley Unix because it shared the same source code with AT&T Research Unix. In the 1980s, BSD was widely adopted by workstation vendors in the form of proprietary Unix variants such as DEC ULTRIX and Sun Microsystems SunOS, due to its permissive licensing, and its familiarity to many technology company founders and engineers.
Although these proprietary BSD derivatives were largely superseded by the UNIX System V Release 4 and OSF/1 systems in the 1990s, later BSD releases provided the basis for several ongoing open source projects including FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, DragonFly BSD, Darwin, and TrueOS. These, in turn, have been incorporated into proprietary operating systems such as Microsoft Windows[1] and Apple's macOS and iOS.[2]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Relationship to Research Unix
1.2 Relationship to System V
2 Technology
2.1 Berkeley sockets
2.2 Binary compatibility
2.3 Standards adherence
3 Significant BSD descendants
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Berkeley Software Distribution
Simplified evolution of Unix systems. Not shown are Junos, PlayStation 3 system software and other proprietary forks.
The earliest distributions of Unix from Bell Labs in the 1970s included the source code to the operating system, allowing researchers at universities to modify and extend Unix. The operating system arrived at Berkeley in 1974, at the request of computer science professor Bob Fabry who had been on the program committee for the Symposium on Operating Systems Principles where Unix was first presented. A PDP-11/45 was bought to run the system, but for budgetary reasons, this machine was shared with the mathematics and statistics groups at Berkeley, who used RSTS, so that Unix only ran on the machine eight hours per day (sometimes during the day, sometimes during the night). A larger PDP-11/70 was installed at Berkeley the following year, using money from the Ingres database project.[3]
Also in 1975, Ken Thompson took a sabbatical from Bell Labs and came to Berkeley as a visiting professor. He helped to install Version 6 Unix and started working on a Pascal implementation for the system. Graduate students Chuck Haley and Bill Joy improved Thompson's Pascal and implemented an improved text editor, ex.[3] Other universities became interested in the software at Berkeley, and so in 1977 Joy started compiling the first Berkeley Software Distribution (1BSD), which was released on March 9, 1978.[4] 1BSD was an add-on to Version 6 Unix rather than a complete operating system in its own right. Some thirty copies were sent out.[3]
The Second Berkeley Software Distribution (2BSD), released in May 1979,[5] included updated versions of the 1BSD software as well as two new programs by Joy that persist on Unix systems to this day: the vi text editor (a visual version of ex) and the C shell. Some 75 copies of 2BSD were sent out by Bill Joy.[3]
The VAX-11/780, a typical minicomputer used for early BSD timesharing systems
A VAX computer was installed at Berkeley in 1978, but the port of Unix to the VAX architecture, UNIX/32V, did not take advantage of the VAX's virtual memory capabilities. The kernel of 32V was largely rewritten by Berkeley students to include a virtual memory implementation, and a complete operating system including the new kernel, ports of the 2BSD utilities to the VAX, and the utilities from 32V was released as 3BSD at the end of 1979. 3BSD was also alternatively called Virtual VAX/UNIX or VMUNIX (for Virtual Memory Unix), and BSD kernel images were normally called /vmunix until 4.4BSD.
"4.3 BSD UNIX" from the University of Wisconsin circa 1987. System startup and login.
After 4.3BSD was released in June 1986, it was determined that BSD would move away from the aging VAX platform. The Power 6/32 platform (codenamed "Tahoe") developed by Computer Consoles Inc. seemed promising at the time, but was abandoned by its developers shortly thereafter. Nonetheless, the 4.3BSD-Tahoe port (June 1988) proved valuable, as it led to a separation of machine-dependent and machine-independent code in BSD which would improve the system's future portability.
Apart from portability, the CSRG worked on an implementation of the OSI network protocol stack, improvements to the kernel virtual memory system and (with Van Jacobson of LBL) new TCP/IP algorithms to accommodate the growth of the Internet.[6]
Until then, all versions of BSD incorporated proprietary AT&T Unix code and were, therefore, subject to an AT&T software license. Source code licenses had become very expensive and several outside parties had expressed interest in a separate release of the networking code, which had been developed entirely outside AT&T and would not be subject to the licensing requirement. This led to Networking Release 1 (Net/1), which was made available to non-licensees of AT&T code and was freely redistributable under the terms of the BSD license. It was released in June 1989.
After Net/1, BSD developer Keith Bostic proposed that more non-AT&T sections of the BSD system be released under the same license as Net/1. To this end, he started a project to reimplement most of the standard Unix utilities without using the AT&T code. Within eighteen months, all of the AT&T utilities had been replaced, and it was determined that only a few AT&T files remained in the kernel. These files were removed, and the result was the June 1991 release of Networking Release 2 (Net/2), a nearly complete operating system that was freely distributable.
Net/2 was the basis for two separate ports of BSD to the Intel 80386 architecture: the free 386BSD by William Jolitz and the proprietary BSD/386 (later renamed BSD/OS) by Berkeley Software Design (BSDi). 386BSD itself was short-lived, but became the initial code base of the NetBSD and FreeBSD projects that were started shortly thereafter.
BSDi soon found itself in legal trouble with AT&T's Unix System Laboratories (USL) subsidiary, then the owners of the System V copyright and the Unix trademark. The USL v. BSDi lawsuit was filed in 1992 and led to an injunction on the distribution of Net/2 until the validity of USL's copyright claims on the source could be determined. The lawsuit slowed development of the free-software descendants of BSD for nearly two years while their legal status was in question, and as a result systems based on the Linux kernel, which did not have such legal ambiguity, gained greater support. The lawsuit was settled in January 1994, largely in Berkeley's favor. Of the 18,000 files in the Berkeley distribution, only three had to be removed and 70 modified to show USL copyright notices. A further condition of the settlement was that USL would not file further lawsuits against users and distributors of the Berkeley-owned code in the upcoming 4.4BSD release.[7]
The final release from Berkeley was 1995's 4.4BSD-Lite Release 2, after which the CSRG was dissolved and development of BSD at Berkeley ceased. Since then, several variants based directly or indirectly on 4.4BSD-Lite (such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD and DragonFly BSD) have been maintained.
In addition, the permissive nature of the BSD license has allowed many other operating systems, both free and proprietary, to incorporate BSD code. For example, Microsoft Windows has used BSD-derived code in its implementation of TCP/IP[8] and bundles recompiled versions of BSD's command-line networking tools since Windows 2000.[9] Also Darwin, the system on which Apple's macOS is built, is a derivative of 4.4BSD-Lite2 and FreeBSD. Various commercial Unix operating systems, such as Solaris, also contain varying amounts of BSD code.
Relationship to Research Unix[edit]
Starting with the 8th Edition, versions of Research Unix at Bell Labs had a close relationship to BSD. This began when 4.1cBSD for the VAX was used as the basis for Research Unix 8th Edition. This continued in subsequent versions, such as the 9th Edition, which incorporated source code and improvements from 4.3BSD. The result was that these later versions of Research Unix were closer to BSD than they were to System V. In a Usenet posting from 2000, Dennis Ritchie described this relationship between BSD and Research Unix:[10]
Research Unix 8th Edition started from (I think) BSD 4.1c, but with enormous amounts scooped out and replaced by our own stuff. This continued with 9th and 10th. The ordinary user command-set was, I guess, a bit more BSD-flavored than SysVish, but it was pretty eclectic.
Relationship to System V[edit]
Eric S. Raymond summarizes the longstanding relationship between System V and BSD, stating, "The divide was roughly between longhairs and shorthairs; programmers and technical people tended to line up with Berkeley and BSD, more business-oriented types with AT&T and System V."[11]
In 1989, David A. Curry wrote about the differences between BSD and System V. He characterized System V as being often regarded as the "standard Unix." However, he described BSD as more popular among university and government computer centers, due to its advanced features and performance:[12]
Most university and government computer centers that use UNIX use Berkeley UNIX, rather than System V. There are several reasons for this, but perhaps the two most significant are that Berkeley UNIX provides networking capabilities that until recently (Release 3.0) were completely unavailable in System V, and that Berkeley UNIX is much more suited to a research environment, which requires a faster file system, better virtual memory handling, and a larger variety of programming languages.
Technology[edit]
Berkeley sockets[edit]
4.3 BSD from the University of Wisconsin. Displaying the man page for Franz Lisp
Tape for SunOS 4.1.1, a 4.3BSD derivative
Sony NEWS workstation running the BSD-based NEWS-OS operating system
Berkeley's Unix was the first Unix to include libraries supporting the Internet Protocol stacks: Berkeley sockets. A Unix implementation of IP's predecessor, the ARPAnet's NCP, with FTP and Telnet clients, had been produced at U. Illinois in 1975, and was available at Berkeley.[13][14] However, the memory scarcity on the PDP-11 forced a complicated design and performance problems.[15]
By integrating sockets with the Unix operating system's file descriptors, it became almost as easy to read and write data across a network as it was to access a disk. The AT&T laboratory eventually released their own STREAMS library, which incorporated much of the same functionality in a software stack with a different architecture, but the wide distribution of the existing sockets library reduced the impact of the new API. Early versions of BSD were used to form Sun Microsystems' SunOS, founding the first wave of popular Unix workstations.
Binary compatibility[edit]
BSD operating systems can run much native software of several other operating systems on the same architecture, using a binary compatibility layer. Much simpler and faster than emulation, this allows, for instance, applications intended for Linux to be run at effectively full speed. This makes BSDs not only suitable for server environments, but also for workstation ones, given the increasing availability of commercial or closed-source software for Linux only. This also allows administrators to migrate legacy commercial applications, which may have only supported commercial Unix variants, to a more modern operating system, retaining the functionality of such applications until they can be replaced by a better alternative.
Standards adherence[edit]
Current BSD operating system variants support many of the common IEEE, ANSI, ISO, and POSIX standards, while retaining most of the traditional BSD behavior. Like AT&T Unix, the BSD kernel is monolithic, meaning that device drivers in the kernel run in privileged mode, as part of the core of the operating system.
Significant BSD descendants[edit]
See also: Comparison of BSD operating systems
Several operating systems are based on BSD, including FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, and DragonFly BSD. Both NetBSD and FreeBSD were created in 1993. They were initially derived from 386BSD (also known as "Jolix"), and merged the 4.4BSD-Lite source code in 1994. OpenBSD was forked from NetBSD in 1995, and DragonFly BSD was forked from FreeBSD in 2003.
BSD was also used as the basis for several proprietary versions of Unix, such as Sun's SunOS, Sequent's Dynix, NeXT's NeXTSTEP, DEC's Ultrix and OSF/1 AXP (now Tru64 UNIX). NeXTSTEP later became the foundation for Apple Inc.'s macOS.
See also[edit]
Free software portal
BSD Daemon
BSD licenses
Comparison of BSD operating systems
List of BSD operating systems
Unix wars
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Actually, Windows DOES use some BSD code". Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Apple Kernel Programming Guide: BSD Overview". Retrieved 24 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Salus, Peter H. (2005). "Chapter 7. BSD and the CSRG". The Daemon, the Gnu and the Penguin. Groklaw.
Jump up ^ Salus (1994), p. 142
Jump up ^ Toomey, Warren. "Details of the PUPS archives". tuhs.org. The Unix Heritage Society. Retrieved October 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ M.K. McKusick, M.J. Karels, Keith Sklower, Kevin Fall, Marc Teitelbaum and Keith Bostic (1989). Current Research by The Computer Systems Research Group of Berkeley. Proc. European Unix Users Group.
Jump up ^ Eric S. Raymond. "The Art of Unix Programming: Origins and History of Unix, 1969–1995". Retrieved 2014-07-18.
Jump up ^ http://www.kuro5hin.org/?op=displaystory;sid=2001/6/19/05641/7357
Jump up ^ "BSD Code in Windows". everything2.com. March 20, 2001. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
Jump up ^ Dennis Ritchie (October 26, 2000). "alt.folklore.computers: BSD (Dennis Ritchie)". Retrieved July 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ Raymond, Eric S. The Art of Unix Programming. 2003. p. 38
Jump up ^ Curry, David. Using C on the UNIX System: A Guide to System Programming. 1989. pp. 2–3
Jump up ^ G. L. Chesson (1976). The network Unix system. Proc. 5th ACM Symp. on Operating Systems Principles.
Jump up ^ RFC 681.
Jump up ^ Quarterman, John S.; Silberschatz, Abraham; Peterson, James L. (December 1985). "4.2BSD and 4.3BSD as examples of the Unix system". Computing Surveys. 17 (4): 379–418. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.117.9743  . doi:10.1145/6041.6043.
Bibliography[edit]
Marshall K. McKusick, Keith Bostic, Michael J. Karels, John S. Quartermain, The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System (Addison Wesley, 1996; ISBN 978-0-201-54979-9)
Marshall K. McKusick, George V. Neville-Neil, The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD Operating System (Addison Wesley, August 2, 2004; ISBN 978-0-201-70245-3)
Samuel J. Leffler, Marshall K. McKusick, Michael J. Karels, John S. Quarterman, The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System (Addison Wesley, November 1989; ISBN 978-0-201-06196-3)
McKusick, Marshall Kirk (1999). "Twenty Years of Berkeley Unix – From AT&T-Owned to Freely Redistributable". In DiBona, Chris; Ockman, Sam; Stone, Mark. Open Sources: Voices from the Revolution. O'Reilly. ISBN 978-1-56592-582-3.
Peter H. Salus, The Daemon, the GNU & The Penguin (Reed Media Services, September 1, 2008; ISBN 978-0-9790342-3-7)
Peter H. Salus, A Quarter Century of UNIX (Addison Wesley, June 1, 1994; ISBN 978-0-201-54777-1)
Peter H. Salus, Casting the Net (Addison-Wesley, March 1995; ISBN 978-0-201-87674-1)
External links[edit]
Berkeley Software Distribution at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
A timeline of BSD and Research UNIX
UNIX History – History of UNIX and BSD using diagrams
The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System
The Unix Tree: Source code and manuals for old versions of Unix
EuroBSDCon, an annual event in Europe in September, October or November, founded in 2001
BSDCan, a conference in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, held annually in May since 2004, in June since 2015
AsiaBSDCon, a conference in Tokyo, held annually in March of each year, since 2007
mdoc.su — short manual page URLs for FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD, a web-service written in nginx
BXR.SU — Super User's BSD Cross Reference, a userland and kernel source code search engine based on OpenGrok and nginx
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Boost Software License

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values: Comparison of free and open-source software licenses

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UEFI Secure Boot

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values: Category:Free software operating systems

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values: توزيعة برمجيات بيركلي – Arabic

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Asturian
ast
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values:
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Azerbaijani

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values: বার্কলে সফটওয়্যার ডিস্ট্রিবিউশন – Bangla

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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Belarusian

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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

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values:
https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Bulgarian
bg
bg
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Bosnian

values:
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values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Catalan
ca
ca
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
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values:
https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Chuvash
cv
cv
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
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values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Czech
cs
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values:
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values:
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values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Estonian
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values:
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Spanish

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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Esperanto
eo
eo
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values: بی‌اس‌دی – Persian

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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Galician

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values:
https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Korean
ko
ko
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display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Croatian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
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values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Iloko
ilo
ilo
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Indonesian

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Icelandic
is
is
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values:
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Italian

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values:
https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Hebrew
he
he
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values:
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values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Latvian
lv
lv
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Limburgish

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interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Hungarian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_Unix
BSD Unix – Macedonian
mk
mk
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: ബെർക്കീലി സോഫ്‌റ്റ്‌വെയർ വിതരണം – Malayalam

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
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interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Norwegian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
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values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Portuguese

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Romanian
ro
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values:
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values:
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Russian
ru
ru
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Sardinian
sc
sc
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Simple English

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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Slovenian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Serbian
sr
sr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Finnish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Swedish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: பெர்க்லி மென்பொருள் பரவல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
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values: เบิร์กลีย์ซอฟต์แวร์ดิสทริบิวชัน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
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values: Berkeley Software Distribution – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: بی ایس ڈی – Urdu

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
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values:
https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Yiddish
yi
yi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Cantonese
zh-yue
zh-yue
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
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values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD
BSD – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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