text:
The New Colossus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The New Colossus
Emma Lazarus's manuscript
Created
1883
Location
Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, New York City, New York, U.S.[1]
Author(s)
Emma Lazarus
Purpose
Sonnet was engraved on a bronze plaque and mounted inside the monument in 1903
"The New Colossus" is a sonnet that American poet Emma Lazarus (1849–1887) wrote in 1883 to raise money for the construction of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.[2] In 1903, the poem was engraved on a bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal's lower level.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the poem
2 Contents
3 Influence
4 References
5 External links
History of the poem[edit]
The Statue of Liberty in New York City
This poem was written as a donation to an auction of art and literary works[3] conducted by the "Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty" to raise money for the pedestal's construction.[4] Lazarus's contribution was solicited by fundraiser William Maxwell Evarts. Initially she refused but writer Constance Cary Harrison convinced her that the statue would be of great significance to immigrants sailing into the harbor.[5]
"The New Colossus" was the first entry read at the exhibit's opening on November 2, 1883, and remained associated with the exhibit through a published catalog until the exhibit closed after the pedestal was fully funded in August 1885,[6][7] but was forgotten and played no role at the opening of the statue in 1886. It was, however, published in Joseph Pulitzer's New York World as well as The New York Times during this time period.[8] In 1901, Lazarus's friend Georgina Schuyler began an effort to memorialize Lazarus and her poem, which succeeded in 1903 when a plaque bearing the text of the poem was put on the inner wall of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.[4]
The line "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" is missing a comma, and reads "Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp!" on the plaque hanging inside the Statue of Liberty[9] since its unveiling in 1903.
The original manuscript is held by the American Jewish Historical Society.[10]
Contents[edit]
The Colossus of Rhodes, as depicted in an artist's impression of 1880
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,
With conquering limbs astride from land to land;
Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand
A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame
Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name
MOTHER OF EXILES. From her beacon-hand
Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command
The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame.

"Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she
With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"
The poem is a Petrarchan sonnet.
The title of the poem and the first two lines refer to the Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, sometimes described as standing astride the harbor.
The "sea-washed, sunset gates" are the mouths of the Hudson and East Rivers, to the west of Brooklyn. The "imprisoned lightning" refers to the electric light in the torch, then a novelty.
The "air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame" refers to New York Harbor between New York City and Brooklyn, which were consolidated into one unit in 1898, 15 years after the poem was written.
The "huddled masses" are the many immigrants coming to the United States (many of them through Ellis Island at the port of New York).
Influence[edit]
Bronze plaque inside the Statue of Liberty
Paul Auster wrote that "Bartholdi's gigantic effigy was originally intended as a monument to the principles of international republicanism, but 'The New Colossus' reinvented the statue's purpose, turning Liberty into a welcoming mother, a symbol of hope to the outcasts and downtrodden of the world."[11]
John T. Cunningham wrote that "The Statue of Liberty was not conceived and sculpted as a symbol of immigration, but it quickly became so as immigrant ships passed under the torch and the shining face, heading toward Ellis Island. However, it was [Lazarus's poem] that permanently stamped on Miss Liberty the role of unofficial greeter of incoming immigrants."[12]
The poem has entered the political realm. It was quoted in John F. Kennedy's book A Nation of Immigrants (1958)[13] as well as a 2010 political speech by President Obama advocating immigration policy reform.[14] On August 2nd, 2017, the poem and its importance to the Statue of Liberty's symbolism and thus the effect on American immigration policy, was debated in a White House briefing.
Classical composer David Ludwig has set the poem to music, which was performed at the worship service of President Obama's 2013 inauguration ceremony.[15]
Author and scholar Julia Gordon-Bramer theorizes that Sylvia Plath's poem, "Lady Lazarus," is about the Statue of Liberty and Jewish immigrant poet Emma Lazarus in her book, Fixed Stars Govern a Life: Decoding Sylvia Plath, volume one (2014, Stephen F. Austin State University Press).
Parts of the poem also appear in popular culture. The Broadway musical Miss Liberty, with music and lyrics by Irving Berlin, an immigrant himself, used the final stanza beginning "Give me your tired, your poor" as the basis for a song.[16][13] It was also read in the 1941 film Hold Back the Dawn as well as being recited by the heroine in Alfred Hitchcock's wartime film Saboteur.[13] Harpist and singer Joanna Newsom indirectly references the poem in her 2015 song "Sapokanikan," in contrast to the forbidding colossus of Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Ozymandias."[17] The poem is read aloud in the eponymous episode entitled 'New Colossus' in the 2016 Netflix web series The OA.[18]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty National Monument". US: National Park Service. 2007-12-31. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
Jump up ^ Lazarus, Emma, The New Colossus, Liberty State Park
Jump up ^ Sutherland, Cara A (2003), The Statue of Liberty: The Museum of the City of New York, Barnes & Noble, p. 77, ISBN 0-7607-3890-4, auction of art and literary work ; Mark Twain also contributed.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, Bette Roth (1997), Emma Lazarus in Her World: Life and Letters, The Jewish Publication Society, p. 3, ISBN 0-8276-0618-4, …fell into obscurity. At the unveiling of the statue […] both Emma and her sonnet were absent […] Georgina Schuyler set in motion a successful attempt to memorialize her friend by placing the poem, inscribed on a bronze tablet, inside the pedestal… .
Jump up ^ Felder, Deborah G; Rosen, Diana L (2003), Fifty Jewish Women Who Changed the World, Citadel, p. 45, ISBN 0-8065-2443-X, …William Maxwell Evert [sic; presumably a misspelling of "William Maxwell Evarts] asked […] Lazarus[…] to compose original works […] who […] refused […] until […] Constance Cary Harrison[…] suggested that she consider what the statue would mean to the thousand of immigrants who would see it as they sailed into New York… .
Jump up ^ "Image-Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty Catalogue".
Jump up ^ "The Statue of Liberty - Engineering, Construction, and Crossing the Atlantic".
Jump up ^ "National Park Service-Statue of Liberty-Emma Lazarus".
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Gary (2006-12-08). "Misprint is spied in Lazarus poem at Liberty island". The New York Sun. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Sam (2011), "How a Sonnet Made a Statue the ‘Mother of Exiles’", New York Times, retrieved 2013-11-21
Jump up ^ Auster, Paul (2005), "NYC = USA", Collected Prose: Autobiographical Writings, True Stories, Critical Essays, Prefaces, and Collaborations with Artists, Picador, p. 508, ISBN 0-312-42468-X .
Jump up ^ Cunningham, John T (2003), Ellis Island: Immigration's Shining Center, Arcadia Publishing, pp. 46–48, ISBN 0-7385-2428-X .
^ Jump up to: a b c McGill, Meredith L. (2008). The Traffic in Poems: Nineteenth-century Poetry and Transatlantic Exchange. Rutgers University Press. p. 118.
Jump up ^ Jackson, David (July 1, 2010). "Obama edits Emma Lazarus poem on Statue of Liberty". The Oval. USA Today. Retrieved July 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Curtis Part of Inauguration Day Ceremonies". Retrieved March 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Esther Schor, Emma Lazarus, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group - 2008, page 255
Jump up ^ Hicks, Michael (2015-11-08). ""'The text will not yield': Fleeting Tesserae in Joanna Newsom’s Sapokanikan"". Medium. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
Jump up ^ "The OA Recap: Yearning to Breathe Free". Vulture. Retrieved 2017-08-17.
See Also Walt Kelly, The Pogo Papers, 1953, p. 152, for reference to right-wing (McCarran act) policy & the Goldman quote.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The New Colossus
Lazarus, Emma, "The new Colossus", A Century of Immigration, 1820–1924 (handwritten) (sonnet), Library of Congress . The latter page says "Courtesy of the American Jewish Historical Society, New York and Newton Centre, Massachusetts". The poem itself, having been published in 1883 or at the very latest 1903 is in the public domain
———, Schor, Esther, ed., The New Colossus (interactive ed.), Nextbook Press .
Manuscript notebook from the Emma Lazarus collection at the American Jewish Historical Society. Includes an undated manuscript version of "The New Colossus."
Cavitch, Max (2008). "Emma Lazarus and the Golem of Liberty." In The Traffic in Poems: Nineteenth-Century Poetry and Transatlantic Exchange. Ed. Meredith L. McGill. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. 97-122.
Marom, Daniel (2000). "Who is the 'Mother of Exiles'? An Inquiry into Jewish Aspects of Emma Lazarus's 'The New Colossus'". Prooftexts. 20 (3): 231–61. doi:10.1353/ptx.2000.0020.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_New_Colossus&oldid=802427352"
Categories:
1883 poems
American poems
Sonnets
Statue of Liberty
Jewish American literature
Works about immigration to the United States
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikisource
Languages
Deutsch
فارسی
Français
Italiano
Norsk
Polski
Português
Русский
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 September 2017, at 02:57.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/William_Maxwell_Evarts
mw-redirect
William Maxwell Evarts

values:
/wiki/President_Obama
mw-redirect
President Obama

values: Julia Gordon-Bramer (page does not exist)

values:
nofollow
http://www.nps.gov/stli/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nysun.com/article/44816

values:
nofollow
http://nextbookpress.com/new-colossus/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://access.cjh.org/367948

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1353%2Fptx.2000.0020

values: Category:Works about immigration to the United States

values:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/The_New_Colossus
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: غول جدید – Persian

values: Новый Колосс – Russian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_New_Colossus rootpage-The_New_Colossus vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Smilodon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 29 October 2018.
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For the extinct genus of archosaurian reptile originally named Smilodon, see Zanclodon.
An extinct genus of saber-toothed cat
Smilodon
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene to Early Holocene, 2.5–0.01 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
↓
S. fatalis skeleton at National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Tetrapodomorpha
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: †Machairodontinae
Tribe: †Smilodontini
Genus: †Smilodon
Lund, 1842
Species
S. populator Lund, 1842 (type)
S. fatalis Leidy, 1869
S. gracilis Cope, 1880
Synonyms
Genus synonymy[show]
Munifelis Muñis, 1845
Trucifelis Leidy, 1868
Smilodontopsis Brown, 1908
Prosmilodon Rusconi, 1929
Smilodontidion Kraglievich, 1948
Species synonymy[show]
S. populator:
Munifelis bonaerensis Muñis, 1845
Smilodon blainvillii Desmarest, 1860
Machaerodus bonaerensis Burmeister, 1867
Machaerodus necator Gervais, 1878
Smilodon ensenadensis Ameghino, 1888
Machaerodus ensenadensis Ameghino, 1889
Smilodon crucians Ameghino, 1904
Smilodon bonaerensis Ameghino, 1907
Smilodon neogaeus ensenadensis Boule & Thévenin, 1920
Smilodon (Prosmilodon) ensenadensis Rusconi, 1929
Smilodon neogaeus de Paula Couto, 1940
Smilodon necator de Paula Couto, 1940
Smilodon (Prosmilodon) ensenadensis ferox Kraglievich, 1947
Smilodon (Prosmilodon) ensenadensis minor Kraglievich, 1948
Smilodontidion riggii Kraglievich, 1948
Machaerodus neogaeus Pictet, 1953
Felis smilodon Desmarest, 1953
Smilodon populator populator de Paula Couto, 1955
S. fatalis:
Felis (Trucifelis) fatalis Leidy, 1868
Trucifelis fatalis Leidy, 1869
Machaerodus fatalis Lydekker, 1884
Drepanodon floridanus Leidy, 1889
Machaerodus floridanus Leidy, 1889
Uncia mercerii Cope, 1895
Smilodon floridanus Adams, 1896
Machaerodus (Smilodon) mercerii Cope, 1899
Smilodon californicus Bovard, 1907
Smilodontopsis troglodytes Brown, 1908
Smilodontopsis conardi Brown, 1908
Smilodontopsis mercerii Brown, 1908
Smilodon nebraskensis Matthew, 1918
Machaerodus mercerii Matthew, 1918
Smilodon (Trucifelis) californicus Merriam & Stock, 1932
Smilodon (Trucifelis) fatalis Merriam & Stock, 1932
Smilodon (Trucifelis) nebraskensis Merriam & Stock, 1932
Smilodon (Trucifelis) californicus brevipes Merriam & Stock, 1932
Smilodon trinitensis Slaughter, 1960
S. gracilis:
Machaerodus (Smilodon) gracilis Cope, 1899
Smilodon (Smilodontopsis) gracilis Merriam & Stock, 1932
Megantereon gracilis Broom & Schepers 1946
Ischyrosmilus gracilis Churcher, 1984
Smilodontopsis gracilis Berta, 1995
Smilodon is a genus of the extinct machairodont subfamily of the felids. It is one of the most famous prehistoric mammals, and the best known saber-toothed cat. Although commonly known as the saber-toothed tiger, it was not closely related to the tiger or other modern cats. Smilodon lived in the Americas during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago). The genus was named in 1842, based on fossils from Brazil. Three species are recognized today: S. gracilis, S. fatalis, and S. populator. The two latter species were probably descended from S. gracilis, which itself probably evolved from Megantereon. The largest collection of Smilodon fossils has been obtained from the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California.
Overall, Smilodon was more robustly built than any extant cat, with particularly well-developed forelimbs and exceptionally long upper canine teeth. Its jaw had a bigger gape than that of modern cats, and its upper canines were slender and fragile, being adapted for precision killing. S. gracilis was the smallest species at 55 to 100 kg (120 to 220 lb) in weight. S. fatalis had a weight of 160 to 280 kg (350 to 620 lb) and height of 100 cm (39 in). Both of these species are mainly known from North America, but remains from South America have also been attributed to them. S. populator from South America was the largest species, at 220 to 400 kg (490 to 880 lb) in weight and 120 cm (47 in) in height, and was among the largest known felids. The coat pattern of Smilodon is unknown, but it has been artistically restored with plain or spotted patterns.
In North America, Smilodon hunted large herbivores such as bison and camels, and it remained successful even when encountering new prey species in South America. Smilodon is thought to have killed its prey by holding it still with its forelimbs and biting it, but it is unclear in what manner the bite itself was delivered. Scientists debate whether Smilodon had a social or a solitary lifestyle; analysis of modern predator behavior as well as of Smilodon's fossil remains could be construed to lend support to either view. Smilodon probably lived in closed habitats such as forests and bush, which would have provided cover for ambushing prey. Smilodon died out at the same time that most North and South American megafauna disappeared, about 10,000 years ago. Its reliance on large animals has been proposed as the cause of its extinction, along with climate change and competition with other species, but the exact cause is unknown.
Contents
1 Taxonomy
1.1 Evolution
2 Description
3 Paleobiology
3.1 Predatory behavior
3.2 Natural traps
3.3 Social life
3.4 Development
3.5 Paleopathology
4 Distribution and habitat
5 Extinction
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
Taxonomy
S. populator skull and syntype canine from Lund's collection, Zoological Museum, Copenhagen
During the 1830s, Danish naturalist Peter Wilhelm Lund and his assistants collected fossils in the calcareous caves near the small town of Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Among the thousands of fossils found, he recognized a few isolated cheek teeth as belonging to a hyena, which he named Hyaena neogaea in 1839. After more material was found (including canine teeth and foot bones), Lund concluded the fossils instead belonged to a distinct genus of felid, though transitional to the hyenas. He stated it would have matched the largest modern predators in size, and was more robust than any modern cat. Lund originally wanted to name the new genus Hyaenodon, but realizing this had recently become preoccupied by another prehistoric predator, he instead named it Smilodon populator in 1842. He explained the Ancient Greek meaning of Smilodon as σμίλη (smilē), a scalpel or two-edged knife, and οδόντος (odontús), tooth. This has also been translated as "tooth shaped like double-edged knife". He explained the species name populator as "the destroyer", which has also been translated as "he who brings devastation". By 1846, Lund had acquired nearly every part of the skeleton (from different individuals), and more specimens were found in neighboring countries by other collectors in the following years.[1][2] Though some later authors used Lund's original species name neogaea instead of populator, it is now considered an invalid nomen nudum ("naked name"), as it was not accompanied with a proper description and no type specimens were designated.[3] Some South American specimens have been referred to other genera, subgenera, species, and subspecies, such as Smilodontidion riggii, Smilodon (Prosmilodon) ensenadensis, and S. bonaeriensis, but these are now thought to be junior synonyms of S. populator.[4]
1869 lithograph of the holotype molar and maxilla fragment of S. fatalis
Fossils of Smilodon were discovered in North America from the second half of the 19th century onwards.[1] In 1869, American paleontologist Joseph Leidy described a maxilla fragment with a molar, which had been discovered in a petroleum bed in Hardin County, Texas. He referred the specimen to the genus Felis (which was then used for most cats, extant as well as extinct) but found it distinct enough to be part of its own subgenus, as F. (Trucifelis) fatalis.[5] The species name means "fate" or "destiny", but it is thought Leidy intended it to mean "fatal".[6] In an 1880 article about extinct American cats, American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope pointed out that the F. fatalis molar was identical to that of Smilodon, and he proposed the new combination S. fatalis.[7] Most North American finds were scanty until excavations began in the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, where hundreds of individuals of S. fatalis have been found since 1875.[1] S. fatalis has junior synonyms such as S. mercerii, S. floridanus, and S. californicus.[4] American paleontologist Annalisa Berta considered the holotype of S. fatalis too incomplete to be an adequate type specimen, and the species has at times been proposed to be a junior synonym of S. populator.[3] Swedish paleontologists Björn Kurtén and Lars Werdelin supported the distinctness of the two species in 1990.[8]
In his 1880 article about extinct cats, Cope also named a third species of Smilodon, S. gracilis. The species was based on a partial canine, which had been obtained in a cave near the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania. Cope found the canine to be distinct from that of the other Smilodon species due to its smaller size and more compressed base.[7] Its specific name refers to the species' lighter build.[9] This species is known from fewer and less complete remains than the other members of the genus.[10] S. gracilis has at times been considered part of genera such as Megantereon and Ischyrosmilus.[11] S. populator, S. fatalis and S. gracilis are currently considered the only valid species of Smilodon, and features used to define most of their junior synonyms have been dismissed as variation between individuals of the same species (intraspecific variation).[4][3] One of the most famous of prehistoric mammals, Smilodon has often been featured in popular media and is the state fossil of California.[1]
Evolution
S. populator skeleton, Museo de La Plata, Buenos Aires
Long the most completely known saber-toothed cat, Smilodon is still one of the best-known members of the group, to the point where the two concepts have been confused. The term "saber-tooth" refers to an ecomorph consisting of various groups of extinct predatory synapsids (mammals and close relatives), which convergently evolved extremely long maxillary canines, as well as adaptations to the skull and skeleton related to their use. This includes members of Gorgonopsia, Thylacosmilidae, Machaeroidinae, Nimravidae, Barbourofelidae, and Machairodontinae.[1][12] Within the family Felidae (true cats), members of the subfamily Machairodontinae are referred to as saber-toothed cats, and this group is itself divided into three tribes: Metailurini (false saber-tooths); Homotherini (scimitar-toothed cats); and Smilodontini (dirk-toothed cats), to which Smilodon belongs.[4] Members of Smilodontini are defined by their long slender canines with fine to no serrations, whereas Homotherini are typified by shorter, broad, and more flattened canines, with coarser serrations.[13] Members of Metailurini were less specialized and had shorter, less flattened canines, and are not recognized as members of Machairodontinae by some researchers.[4]
Isolated S. populator canine tooth; the tip points to the right
The earliest felids are known from the Oligocene of Europe, such as Proailurus, and the earliest one with saber-tooth features is the Miocene genus Pseudaelurus.[4] The skull and mandible morphology of the earliest saber-toothed cats was similar to that of the modern clouded leopards (Neofelis). The lineage further adapted to the precision killing of large animals by developing elongated canine teeth and wider gapes, in the process sacrificing high bite force.[14] As their canines became longer, the bodies of the cats became more robust for immobilizing prey.[13] In derived smilodontins and homotherins, the lumbar region of the spine and the tail became shortened, as did the hind limbs.[4] Based on mitochondrial DNA sequences extracted from fossils, the lineages of Homotherium and Smilodon are estimated to have diverged about 18 Ma ago.[15] The earliest species of Smilodon is S. gracilis, which existed from 2.5 million to 500,000 years ago (early Blancan to Irvingtonian ages) and was the successor in North America of Megantereon, from which it probably evolved. Megantereon itself had entered North America from Eurasia during the Pliocene, along with Homotherium. S. gracilis reached the northern regions of South America in the Early Pleistocene as part of the Great American Interchange.[16][13] The younger Smilodon species are probably derived from S. gracilis.[17] S. fatalis existed 1.6 million–10,000 years ago (late Irvingtonian to Rancholabrean ages), and replaced S. gracilis in North America.[8] S. populator existed 1 million–10,000 years ago (Ensenadan to Lujanian ages); it occurred in the eastern parts of South America.[18]
Despite the colloquial name "saber-toothed tiger", Smilodon is not closely related to the modern tiger (which belongs in the subfamily Pantherinae), or any other extant felid.[19] A 1992 ancient DNA analysis suggested that Smilodon should be grouped with modern cats (subfamilies Felinae and Pantherinae).[20] A 2005 study found that Smilodon belonged to a separate lineage.[21] A study published in 2006 confirmed this, showing that the Machairodontinae diverged early from the ancestors of modern cats and were not closely related to any living species.[22] The following cladogram based on fossils and DNA analysis shows the placement of Smilodon among extinct and extant felids, after Rincón and colleagues, 2011:[16]
S. populator statue in Tierpark Berlin, Erich Oehme, 1964
Felidae
Proailurus
Pseudaelurus
Panthera (tigers, lions, jaguars, and leopards)
Caracal
Leopardus (ocelot and relatives)
Felis (domestic cats and relatives)
Herpailurus (jaguarundi)
Miracinonyx (American cheetah)
Puma (cougar)
Dinofelis
Nimravides
Machairodus
Homotherium
Xenosmilus
Paramachairodus
Megantereon
Smilodon gracilis
Smilodon populator
Smilodon fatalis
Description
S. populator (green), S. fatalis (purple), and S. gracilis (orange) shown to scale
Smilodon was around the size of modern big cats, but was more robustly built. It had a reduced lumbar region, high scapula, short tail, and broad limbs with relatively short feet.[23][24] Smilodon is most famous for its relatively long canine teeth, which are the longest found in the saber-toothed cats, at about 28 cm (11 in) long in the largest species, S. populator.[23] The canines were slender and had fine serrations on the front and back side.[25] The skull was robustly proportioned and the muzzle was short and broad. The cheek bones (zygomata) were deep and widely arched, the sagittal crest was prominent, and the frontal region was slightly convex. The mandible had a flange on each side of the front. The upper incisors were large, sharp, and slanted forwards. There was a diastema (gap) between the incisors and molars of the mandible. The lower incisors were broad, recurved, and placed in a straight line across. The p3 premolar tooth of the mandible was present in most early specimens, but lost in later specimens; it was only present in 6% of the La Brea sample.[3] There is some dispute over whether Smilodon was sexually dimorphic. Some studies of S. fatalis fossils have found little difference between the sexes.[26][27] Conversely, a 2012 study found that, while fossils of S. fatalis show less variation in size among individuals than modern Panthera, they do appear to show the same difference between the sexes in some traits.[28]
S. populator restored with plain coat, Charles R. Knight, 1903
S. gracilis was the smallest species, estimated at 55 to 100 kg (120 to 220 lb) in weight, about the size of a jaguar. It was similar to its predecessor Megantereon of the same size, but its dentition and skull were more advanced, approaching S. fatalis.[29][4] S. fatalis was intermediate in size between S. gracilis and S. populator.[23] It ranged from 160 to 280 kg (350 to 620 lb).[29] and reached a shoulder height of 100 cm (39 in) and body length of 175 cm (69 in).[30] It was similar to a lion in dimensions, but was more robust and muscular, and therefore had a larger body mass. Its skull was also similar to that of Megantereon, though more massive and with larger canines.[4] S. populator was among the largest known felids, with a body mass range of 220 to 400 kg (490 to 880 lb),[29] and one estimate suggesting up to 470 kg (1,040 lb).[31] It stood at a shoulder height of 120 cm (47 in).[23] Compared to S. fatalis, S. populator was more robust and had a more elongated and narrow skull with a straighter upper profile, higher positioned nasal bones, a more vertical occiput, more massive metapodials and slightly longer forelimbs relative to hindlimbs.[4][8] Large tracks from Argentina (for which the ichnotaxon name Smilodonichium has been proposed) have been attributed to S. populator, and measure 17.6 cm (6.9 in) by 19.2 cm (7.6 in).[32] This is larger than tracks of the Bengal tiger, to which the footprints have been compared.[33]
S. fatalis restored with spotted coat
Traditionally, saber-toothed cats have been artistically restored with external features similar to those of extant felids, by artists such as Charles R. Knight in collaboration with various paleontologists in the early 20th century.[34] In 1969, paleontologist G. J. Miller instead proposed that Smilodon would have looked very different from a typical cat and similar to a bulldog, with a lower lip line (to allow its mouth to open wide without tearing the facial tissues), a more retracted nose and lower-placed ears.[35] Paleoartist Mauricio Antón and coauthors disputed this in 1998 and maintained that the facial features of Smilodon were overall not very different from those of other cats. Antón noted that modern animals like the hippopotamus are able to achieve a wide gap without tearing tissue by the moderate folding of the orbicularis oris muscle, and such a muscle configuration exists in modern large felids.[36] Antón stated that extant phylogenetic bracketing (where the features of the closest extant relatives of a fossil taxon are used as reference) is the most reliable way of restoring the life-appearance of prehistoric animals, and the cat-like Smilodon restorations by Knight are therefore still accurate.[34]
Smilodon and other saber-toothed cats have been reconstructed with both plain-colored coats and with spotted patterns (which appears to be the ancestral condition for feliforms), both of which are considered possible.[34] Studies of modern cat species have found that species that live in the open tend to have uniform coats while those that live in more vegetated habitats have more markings, with some exceptions.[37] Some coat features, such as the manes of male lions or the stripes of the tiger, are too unusual to predict from fossils.[34]
Paleobiology
Predatory behavior
S. fatalis fighting dire wolves over a Columbian mammoth carcass in the La Brea Tar Pits, Robert Bruce Horsfall, 1913
An apex predator, Smilodon primarily hunted large mammals. Isotopes preserved in the bones of S. fatalis in the La Brea Tar Pits reveal that ruminants like bison (Bison antiquus, which was much larger than the modern American bison) and camels (Camelops) were most commonly taken by the cats there.[38] In addition, isotopes preserved in the tooth enamel of S. gracilis specimens from Florida show that this species fed on the peccary Platygonus and the llama-like Hemiauchenia.[39] In rare cases, Smilodon may have also targeted glyptodonts, based on a Glyptotherium skull that bears elliptical puncture marks[40] consistent with the size and diameter of its canine teeth.[41] This was a juvenile glyptodont with an incompletely developed cephalic shield (head armor).[40] Isotopic studies of dire wolf (Canis dirus) and American lion (Panthera leo atrox) bones show an overlap with S. fatalis in prey, which suggests that they were competitors.[38] The availability of prey in the Rancho La Brea area was likely comparable to modern East Africa.[42] As Smilodon migrated to South America, its diet changed; bison were absent, the horses and proboscideans were different, and native ungulates such as toxodonts and litopterns were completely unfamiliar, yet S. populator thrived as well there as its relatives in North America.[13] The differences between the North and South American species may be due to the difference in prey between the two continents.[8] Smilodon probably avoided eating bone and would have left enough food for scavengers.[43] Smilodon itself may have scavenged dire wolf kills.[44] It has been suggested that Smilodon was a pure scavenger that used its canines for display to assert dominance over carcasses, but this theory is not supported today as no modern terrestrial mammals are pure scavengers.[45]
The brain of Smilodon had sulcal patterns similar to modern cats, which suggests an increased complexity of the regions that control the sense of hearing, sight, and coordination of the limbs. Felid saber-tooths in general had relatively small eyes that were not as forward-facing as those of modern cats, which have good binocular vision to help them move in trees.[45] Smilodon was likely an ambush predator that concealed itself in dense vegetation, as its limb proportions were similar to modern forest dwelling cats,[46] and its short tail would not have helped it balance while running.[47] Unlike its ancestor Megantereon, which was at least partially scansorial and therefore able to climb trees, Smilodon was probably completely terrestrial due to its greater weight and lack of climbing adaptations.[48] The heel bone of Smilodon was fairly long, which suggests it was a good jumper.[23] Its well-developed flexor and extensor muscles in its forearms probably enabled it to pull down, and securely hold down, large prey. Analysis of the cross-sections of S. fatalis humeri indicated that they were strengthened by cortical thickening to such an extent that they would have been able to sustain greater loading than those of extant big cats, or of the extinct American lion. The thickening of S. fatalis femurs was within the range of extant felids.[49] Its canines were fragile and could not have bitten into bone; due to the risk of breaking, these cats had to subdue and restrain their prey with their powerful forelimbs before they could use their canine teeth, and likely used quick slashing or stabbing bites rather than the slow, suffocating bites typically used by modern cats.[49] On rare occasions, as evidenced by fossils, Smilodon was willing to risk biting into bone with its canines. This may have been focused more towards competition such as other Smilodon or potential threats such as other carnivores than on prey.[48]
Maximum gape (A) and reconstructions of neck bite in prey of different sizes (B, C)
Debate continues as to how Smilodon killed its prey. Traditionally, the most popular theory is that the cat delivered a deep stabbing bite or open-jawed stabbing thrust to the throat, generally cutting through the jugular vein and/or the trachea and thus killing the prey very quickly.[49][50] Another hypothesis suggests that Smilodon targeted the belly of its prey. This is disputed, as the curvature of their prey's belly would likely have prevented the cat from getting a good bite or stab.[51] In regard to how Smilodon delivered its bite, the "canine shear-bite" hypothesis has been favored, where flexion of the neck and rotation of the skull assisted in biting the prey, but this may be mechanically impossible. The mandibular flanges may have helped resist bending forces when the mandible was pulled against the hide of a prey.[52] The protruding incisors were arranged in an arch, and were used to hold the prey still and stabilize it while the canine bite was delivered. The contact surface between the canine crown and the gum was enlarged, which helped stabilize the tooth and helped the cat sense when the tooth had penetrated to its maximum extent. Since saber-toothed cats generally had a relatively large infraorbital foramen (opening) in the skull, which housed nerves associated with the whiskers, it has been suggested the improved senses would have helped the cats' precision when biting outside their field of vision, and thereby prevent breakage of the canines. The blade-like carnassial teeth were used to cut skin to access the meat, and the reduced molars suggest that they were less adapted for crushing bones than modern cats.[45] As the food of modern cats enters the mouth through the side while cutting with the carnassials, not the front incisors between the canines, the animals do not need to gape widely, so the canines of Smilodon would likewise not have been a hindrance when feeding.[36]
La Brea S. fatalis skull cast with jaws at maximum gape
Despite being more powerfully built than other large cats, Smilodon had a weaker bite. Modern big cats have more pronounced zygomatic arches, while these were smaller in Smilodon, which restricted the thickness and therefore power of the temporalis muscles and thus reduced Smilodon's bite force. Analysis of its narrow jaws indicates that it could produce a bite only a third as strong as that of a lion (the bite force quotient measured for the lion is 112).[53][54] There seems to be a general rule that the saber-toothed cats with the largest canines had proportionally weaker bites. Analyses of canine bending strength (the ability of the canine teeth to resist bending forces without breaking) and bite forces indicate that the saber-toothed cats' teeth were stronger relative to the bite force than those of modern big cats.[55] In addition, Smilodon's gape could have reached almost 120 degrees,[56] while that of the modern lion reaches 65 degrees.[57] This made the gape wide enough to allow Smilodon to grasp large prey despite the long canines.[36] A 2018 study compared the killing behaviour of Smilodon fatalis and Homotherium serum, and found that the former had a strong skull with little trabecular bone for a stabbing canine-shear bite, whereas the latter had more trabecular bone and used a clamp and hold style more similar to lions. The two would therefore have held distinct ecological niches.[58]
Natural traps
Mounted skeletons of S. fatalis and a dire wolf near mired Paramylodon
Many Smilodon specimens have been excavated from asphalt seeps that acted as natural carnivore traps. Animals were accidentally trapped in the seeps and became bait for predators that came to scavenge, but these were then trapped themselves. The best-known of such traps are at La Brea in Los Angeles, which have produced over 166,000 Smilodon fatalis specimens[59] that form the largest collection in the world. The sediments of the pits there were accumulated 40,000 to 10,000 years ago, in the Late Pleistocene. Though the trapped animals were buried quickly, predators often managed to remove limb bones from them, but they were themselves often trapped and then scavenged by other predators; 90% of the excavated bones belonged to predators.[60]
The Talara Tar Seeps in Peru represent a similar scenario, and have also produced fossils of Smilodon. Unlike in La Brea, many of the bones were broken or show signs of weathering. This may have been because the layers were shallower, so the thrashing of trapped animals damaged the bones of previously trapped animals. Many of the carnivores at Talara were juveniles, possibly indicating that inexperienced and less fit animals had a greater chance of being trapped. Though Lund thought accumulations of Smilodon and herbivore fossils in the Lagoa Santa Caves were due to the cats using the caves as dens, these are probably the result of animals dying on the surface, and water currents subsequently dragging their bones to the floor of the cave, but some individuals may also have died after becoming lost in the caves.[60]
Social life
S. fatalis pair approaching a group of Paramylodon, one mired, at the La Brea Tar Pits, Charles R. Knight, 1921
Scientists debate whether Smilodon was social. One study of African predators found that social predators like lions and spotted hyenas respond more to the distress calls of prey than solitary species. Since S. fatalis fossils are common at the La Brea Tar Pits, and were likely attracted by the distress calls of stuck prey, this could mean that this species was social as well.[61] One critical study claims that the study neglects other factors, such as body mass (heavier animals are more likely to get stuck than lighter ones), intelligence (some social animals, like the American lion, may have avoided the tar because they were better able to recognize the hazard), lack of visual and olfactory lures, the type of audio lure, and the length of the distress calls (the actual distress calls of the trapped prey animals would have lasted longer than the calls used in the study). The author of that study ponders what predators would have responded if the recordings were played in India, where the otherwise solitary tigers are known to aggregate around a single carcass.[62] The authors of the original study responded that though effects of the calls in the tar pits and the playback experiments would not be identical, this would not be enough to overturn their conclusions. In addition, they stated that weight and intelligence would not likely affect the results as lighter carnivores are far more numerous than heavy herbivores and the social (and seemingly intelligent) dire wolf is also found in the pits.[63]
Lion pride attacking an African buffalo in Tanzania; Smilodon may also have hunted in groups
Another argument for sociality is based on the healed injuries in several Smilodon fossils, which would suggest that the animals needed others to provide it food.[64] This argument has been questioned, as cats can recover quickly from even severe bone damage and an injured Smilodon could survive if it had access to water.[65] The brain of Smilodon was relatively small compared to other cat species. Some researchers have argued that Smilodon's brain would have been too small for it to have been a social animal.[66] An analysis of brain size in living big cats found no correlation between brain size and sociality.[67] Another argument against Smilodon being social is that being an ambush hunter in closed habitat would likely have made group-living unnecessary, as in most modern cats.[65] Yet it has also been proposed that being the largest predator in an environment comparable to the savanna of Africa, Smilodon may have had a social structure similar to modern lions, which possibly live in groups primarily to defend optimal territory from other lions (lions are the only social big cats today).[45]
Whether Smilodon was sexually dimorphic has implications for its reproductive behavior. Based on their conclusions that Smilodon fatalis had no sexual dimorphism, Van Valkenburgh and Sacco suggested in 2002 that, if the cats were social, they would likely have lived in monogamous pairs (along with offspring) with no intense competition among males for females.[26] Likewise, Meachen-Samuels and Binder (2010) concluded that aggression between males was less pronounced in S. fatalis than in the American lion.[27] Christiansen and Harris (2012) found that, as S. fatalis did exhibit some sexual dimorphism, there would have been evolutionary selection for competition between males.[28] The structure of the hyoid bones suggest that Smilodon communicated by roaring, like modern big cats.[68] The ability to roar may have implications for the social life of Smilodon.[69]
Development
Undersides of S. fatalis skulls, showing canine replacement, George C. Page Museum
Smilodon started developing its adult saber-teeth when the animal turned one-and-a-half years of age, shortly after the completion of the eruption of the cat's baby teeth. Both baby and adult canines would be present side by side in the mouth for an 11-month period, and the muscles used in making the powerful bite were developed at about one-and-a-half years old as well, eight months earlier than in a modern lion. After Smilodon turned around 20 months of age, the infant teeth were shed while the adult canines grew at an average growth rate of 7 mm (0.3 in) per month during a 12-month period. They reached their full size at around 3 years of age, later than for modern species of big cat. Juvenile and adolescent Smilodon specimens are extremely rare at Rancho La Brea, where the study was performed, indicating that they remained hidden or at denning sites during hunts, and depended on parental care while their canines were developing.[70][71][72]
A 2017 study indicates that juveniles were born with a robust build similar to the adults. Comparison of the bones of juvenile S. fatalis specimens from La Brea with those of the contemporaneous American lion revealed that the two cats shared a similar growth curve. Felid forelimb development during ontogeny (changes during growth) has remained tightly constrained. The curve is similar to that for modern cats such as tigers and cougars, but shifts more towards the robust direction of the axes than is seen in modern felids.[73]
Paleopathology
Several Smilodon fossils show signs of ankylosing spondylitis, hyperostosis and trauma;[74] some also had arthritis, which gave them fused vertebrae. One study of 1,000 Smilodon skulls found that 30% of them had eroded parietal bones, which is where the largest jaw muscles attach. They also showed signs of microfractures, and the weakening and thinning of bones possibly caused by mechanical stress from the constant need to make stabbing motions with the canines.[75] Bony growths where the deltoid muscle inserted in the humerus is a common pathology for a La Brea specimen, which was probably due to repeated strain when Smilodon attempted to pull down prey with its forelimbs. Sternum injuries are also common, probably due to collision with prey. Some bones also show evidence of having been bitten by other Smilodon, with one skull showing an unhealed wound from a canine, seemingly fatal, and a scapula from the same site that had been pierced by a canine.[45] The frequency of trauma in S. fatalis specimens was 4.3%, compared to 2.8% in the dire wolf, which implies the ambush predatory behavior of the former led to greater risk of injury than the pursuit predatory behavior of the latter. Smilodon remains exhibit relatively more shoulder and lumbar vertebrae injuries.[76]
Distribution and habitat
S. fatalis in climbing posture, Cleveland Museum of Natural History
Smilodon lived during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago), and was perhaps the most recent of the saber-toothed cats.[23] Smilodon probably lived in a closed habitat such as forest or bush.[77] Fossils of the genus have been found throughout the Americas.[3] In North America, the varied habitat supported other saber-toothed cats in addition to Smilodon, such as Homotherium and Xenosmilus; the habitat here varied from subtropical forests and savannah in the south, to treeless mammoth steppes in the north. Smilodon inhabited the temperate latitudes of North America, where the mosaic vegetation of woods, shrubs, and grasses in the southwest supported large herbivores such as horses, bison, antelope, deer, camels, mammoths, mastodons, and ground sloths. Other large carnivores included dire wolves, short-faced bear (Arctodus simus) and the American lion.[13][60][78] Due to competition from larger carnivores in North America, S. fatalis was perhaps not able to attain the same size as S. populator. The similar sizes of S. fatalis and the American lion suggests niche overlap and direct competition between these species, and they appear to have fed on similarly sized prey.[79]
S. gracilis entered South America during the early to middle Pleistocene, where it probably gave rise to S. populator, which lived in the eastern part of the continent. S. fatalis also entered western South America in the late Pleistocene, and the two species were thought to be divided by the Andes mountains.[8][16][23] However, in 2018, a skull of S. fatalis found in Uruguay east of the Andes was reported, which puts the idea that the two species were allopatric (geographically separated) into question.[80] The American interchange resulted in a mix of native and invasive species sharing the prairies and woodlands in South America; North American herbivores included proboscideans, horses, camelids and deer, South American herbivores included toxodonts, litopterns, ground sloths, and glyptodonts. Native metatherian predators (including the saber-toothed thylacosmilids) had gone extinct by the Pliocene, and were replaced by North American carnivores such as canids, bears, and large cats.[13]
S. populator was very successful, while Homotherium never became widespread in South America. The extinction of the thylacosmilids has been attributed to competition with Smilodon, but this is probably incorrect, as they seem to have disappeared before the arrival of the large cats. The phorusrhacid "terror birds" may have dominated the large predator niche in South America until Smilodon arrived.[13] S. populator may have been able to reach larger size than S. fatalis due to a lack of competition in Pleistocene South America; S. populator arrived after the extinction of Arctotherium angustidens, one of the largest carnivores ever, and could therefore assume the niche of mega-carnivore.[79] S. populator preferred large prey from open habitats such as grassland and plains, based on evidence gathered from isotope ratios that determined the animal's diet. In this way, the South American Smilodon species was probably similar to the modern lion. S. populator probably competed with the canid Protocyon there, but not with the jaguar, which fed primarily on smaller prey.[81][82]
Extinction
1880 skeletal diagram of S. populator
Along with most of the Pleistocene megafauna, Smilodon became extinct 10,000 years ago in the Quaternary extinction event. Its extinction has been linked to the decline and extinction of large herbivores, which were replaced by smaller and more agile ones like deer. Hence, Smilodon could have been too specialized at hunting large prey and may have been unable to adapt.[49] A 2012 study of Smilodon tooth wear found no evidence that they were limited by food resources.[83] Other explanations include climate change and competition with humans[83] (who entered the Americas around the time Smilodon disappeared), or a combination of several factors, all of which apply to the general Pleistocene extinction event, rather than specifically to the extinction of the saber-toothed cats.[84]
Some early writers theorized that the last saber-toothed cats, Smilodon and Homotherium, became extinct through competition with the faster and more generalized felids that replaced them. It was even proposed that the saber-toothed predators were inferior to modern cats, as the ever-growing canines were thought to inhibit their owners from feeding properly. Yet fast felids, such as the American lion and the American cheetah, also became extinct during the Late Pleistocene. The fact that saber-teeth evolved many times in unrelated lineages also attests to the success of this feature.[84]
The latest Smilodon fatalis specimen recovered from the Rancho La Brea tar pits has been dated to 13,025 years ago.[85] The latest Smilodon populator remains found in the cave of Cueva del Medio, near the town of Soria, northeast Última Esperanza Province, Magallanes Region in southern-most Chile, and have been dated 10,935–11,209 years ago.[86]
See also
Extinct and endangered species portal
Paleontology portal
List of largest carnivorans
List of largest prehistoric carnivorans
Megafauna
Quaternary extinction event
References
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Antón 2013, pp. 3–26.
Jump up ^ Lund, P. W. (1842). Blik paa Brasiliens Dyreverden för sidste Jordomvæltning (in Danish). Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Naturvidenskabelige og Matematiske Afhandlinger. pp. 54–57.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Berta, A. (1985). "The status of Smilodon in North and South America" (PDF). Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. 370: 1–15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Antón 2013, pp. 108–154.
Jump up ^ Leidy, J. (1869). "The extinct mammalian fauna of Dakota and Nebraska: Including an account of some allied forms from other localities, together with a synopsis of the mammalian remains of North America". Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 7: 366–367. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.20910.
Jump up ^ Hulbert, R. C. (2013-04-23). "Smilodon fatalis Leidy, 1868". Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2013-05-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Cope, E. D. (December 1880). "On the extinct cats of America". The American Naturalist. 14 (12): 833–858. doi:10.1086/272672. JSTOR 2449549.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kurtén, B.; Werdelin, L. (1990). "Relationships between North and South American Smilodon". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 10 (2): 158–169. doi:10.1080/02724634.1990.10011804. JSTOR 4523312.
Jump up ^ Kurten, B.; Anderson, E. (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North America. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 186–188. ISBN 978-0-231-03733-4.
Jump up ^ Berta, A. (1987). "The sabercat Smilodon gracilis from Florida and a discussion of its relationships (Mammalia, Felidae, Smilodontini)". Bulletin of the Florida State Museum. 31: 1–63.
Jump up ^ Churcher, C. S. (1984). The status of Smilodontopsis (Brown, 1908) and Ischyrosmilus (Merriam, 1918): a taxonomic review of two genera of sabretooth cats (Felidae, Machairodontinae). Royal Ontario Museum Life Sciences Contributions. 140. Royal Ontario Museum,. pp. 14–34. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.52222. ISBN 978-0-88854-305-9.
Jump up ^ Meehan, T.; Martin, L. D. J. (2003). "Extinction and re-evolution of similar adaptive types (ecomorphs) in Cenozoic North American ungulates and carnivores reflect van der Hammen's cycles". Die Naturwissenschaften. 90 (3): 131–135. Bibcode:2003NW.....90..131M. doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0392-1 (inactive 2017-07-29). PMID 12649755.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Antón 2013, pp. 65–76.
Jump up ^ Christiansen, P. (2008). "Evolution of skull and mandible shape in cats (Carnivora: Felidae)". PLoS ONE. 3 (7): e2807. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2807C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002807. PMC 2475670. PMID 18665225.
Jump up ^ Paijmans, J. L. A.; Barnett, R.; Gilbert, M. T. P.; Zepeda-Mendoza, M. L.; Reumer, J. W. F.; de Vos, J.; Zazula, G.; Nagel, D.; Baryshnikov, G. F.; Leonard, J. A.; Rohland, N.; Westbury, M. V.; Barlow, A.; Hofreiter, M. (2017-10-19). "Evolutionary History of Saber-Toothed Cats Based on Ancient Mitogenomics". Current Biology. 27 (21): 3330–3336.e5. Bibcode:1996CBio....6.1213A. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.033. PMID 29056454.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rincón, A.; Prevosti, F.; Parra, G. (2011). "New saber-toothed cat records (Felidae: Machairodontinae) for the Pleistocene of Venezuela, and the Great American Biotic Interchange". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 31 (2): 468–478. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.550366. JSTOR 25835839.
Jump up ^ Ascanio, D.; Rincón, R. (2006). "A first record of the Pleistocene saber-toothed cat Smilodon populator Lund, 1842 (Carnivora: Felidae: Machairodontinae) from Venezuela". Asociación Paleontologica Argentina. 43 (2): 499–501. ISSN 1851-8044.
Jump up ^ de Castro, Mariela Cordeiro; Langer, Max Cardoso (2008). "New postcranial remains of Smilodon populator Lund, 1842 from South-Central Brazil" (PDF). Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia. 11 (3): 199–206. doi:10.4072/rbp.2008.3.06.
Jump up ^ "What Is a Sabertooth?". University of California Museum of Paleontology. December 2005. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
Jump up ^ Janczewski, D. N.; Yuhki, N.; Gilbert, D. A.; Jefferson, G. T.; O'Brien, S. J. (1992). "Molecular phylogenetic inference from saber-toothed cat fossils of Rancho La Brea". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 89 (20): 9769–9773. Bibcode:1992PNAS...89.9769J. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.20.9769. PMC 50214. PMID 1409696.
Jump up ^ Barnett, R.; Barnes, I.; Phillips, M. J.; Martin, L. D.; Harington, C. R.; Leonard, J. A.; Cooper, A. (2005). "Evolution of the extinct sabretooths and the American cheetah-like cat". Current Biology. 15 (15): R589–R590. Bibcode:1996CBio....6.1213A. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.07.052. PMID 16085477.
Jump up ^ van den Hoek Ostende, L. W.; Morlo, M.; Nagel, D. (2006). "Majestic killers: the sabre-toothed cats (Fossils explained 52)". Geology Today. 22 (4): 150–157. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2451.2006.00572.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Turner, A.; Antón, M. (1997). The Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives: An Illustrated Guide to Their Evolution and Natural History. Columbia University Press. pp. 57–58, 67–68. ISBN 978-0-231-10229-2. OCLC 34283113.
Jump up ^ "What Is a Sabertooth?". University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 2013-04-08.
Jump up ^ Slater, G. J.; Valkenburgh, B. V. (2008). "Long in the tooth: evolution of sabertooth cat cranial shape". Paleobiology. 34 (3): 403–419. doi:10.1666/07061.1. ISSN 0094-8373.
^ Jump up to: a b Van Valkenburgh, B.; Sacco, T. (2002). "Sexual dimorphism, social behavior and intrasexual competition in large Pleistocene carnivorans". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 22 (1): 164–169. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0164:sdsbai]2.0.co;2. JSTOR 4524203.
^ Jump up to: a b Meachen-Samuels, J.; Binder, W. (2010). "Sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic growth in the American lion and sabertoothed cat from Rancho La Brea". Journal of Zoology. 280 (3): 271–279. Bibcode:2010JZoo..281..263G. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00659.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Christiansen, Per; Harris, John M. (2012). "Variation in Craniomandibular Morphology and Sexual Dimorphism in Pantherines and the Sabercat Smilodon fatalis". PLoS ONE. 7 (10): e48352. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748352C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048352. PMC 3482211. PMID 23110232.
^ Jump up to: a b c Christiansen, Per; Harris, John M. (2005). "Body size of Smilodon (Mammalia: Felidae)". Journal of Morphology. 266 (3): 369–84. doi:10.1002/jmor.10384. PMID 16235255.
Jump up ^ "Saber-Toothed Cat, Smilodon fatalis". San Diego Zoo Global. January 2009. Retrieved 2013-05-07.
Jump up ^ Sorkin, B. (2008). "A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial mammalian predators". Lethaia. 41 (4): 333–347. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2007.00091.x.
Jump up ^ "Hallazgo inédito en Miramar: huellas fosilizadas de un gran tigre dientes de sable". 0223.com.ar (in Spanish). 0223. May 26, 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Perkins, Sid (June 10, 2016). "First fossil footprints of saber-toothed cats are bigger than Bengal tiger paws". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aag0602.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Antón 2013, pp. 157–176.
Jump up ^ Miller, G. J. (1969). "A new hypothesis to explain the method of food ingestion used by Smilodon californicus Bovard". Tebiwa. 12: 9–19.
^ Jump up to: a b c Antón, M.; García-Perea, R.; Turner, A. (1998). "Reconstructed facial appearance of the sabretoothed felid Smilodon". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 124 (4): 369–386. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1998.tb00582.x.
Jump up ^ Allen, W. L.; Cuthill, I. C.; Scott-Samuel, N. E.; Baddeley, R. (2010). "Why the leopard got its spots: relating pattern development to ecology in felids". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 278 (1710): 1373–1380. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.1734. PMC 3061134. PMID 20961899.
^ Jump up to: a b Coltrain, J. B.; Harris, J. M.; Cerling, T. E.; Ehleringer, J. R.; Dearing, M.-D.; Ward, J.; Allen, J. (2004). "Rancho La Brea stable isotope biogeochemistry and its implications for the palaeoecology of late Pleistocene, coastal southern California" (PDF). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 205 (3–4): 199–219. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.12.008. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ Fennec, R. S. (2005). "Growth rate and duration of growth in the adult canine of S. gracilis and inferences on diet through stable isotope analysis". Feranec Bull FLMNH. 45 (4): 369–377.
^ Jump up to: a b Gillette, D. D.; Ray, C. E. (1981). "Glyptodonts of North America". Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology (40): 28–34. doi:10.5479/si.00810266.40.1.
Jump up ^ Antón 2013, pp. 203–204.
Jump up ^ Vanvalkenburgh, B.; Hertel, F. (1993). "Tough times at la brea: tooth breakage in large carnivores of the late Pleistocene". Science. 261 (5120): 456–459. Bibcode:1993Sci...261..456V. doi:10.1126/science.261.5120.456. PMID 17770024.
Jump up ^ Van Valkenburgh, B.; Teaford, M. F.; Walker, A. (1990). "Molar microwear and diet in large carnivores: inferences concerning diet in the sabretooth cat, Smilodon fatalis". Journal of Zoology. 222 (2): 319–340. Bibcode:2010JZoo..281..263G. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb05680.x.
Jump up ^ Van Valkenburgh, B. (1991). "Iterative evolution of hypercarnivory in canids (Mammalia: Carnivora): evolutionary interactions among sympatric predators". Paleobiology. 17 (4): 340–362. JSTOR 2400749.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Antón 2013, pp. 176–216.
Jump up ^ Gonyea, W. J. (1976). "Behavioral implications of saber-toothed felid morphology". Paleobiology. 2 (4): 332–342. JSTOR 2400172.
Jump up ^ "What Is a Sabertooth?". Berkely.edu. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Anton, Mauricio (2013). Sabertooth.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Meachen-Samuels, J. A.; Van Valkenburgh, B. (2010). "Radiographs reveal exceptional forelimb strength in the sabertooth cat, Smilodon fatalis". PLoS ONE. 5 (7): e11412. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511412M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011412. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2896400. PMID 20625398.
Jump up ^ McHenry, C. R.; Wroe, S.; Clausen, P. D.; Moreno, K.; Cunningham, E. (2007). "Supermodeled sabercat, predatory behavior in Smilodon fatalis revealed by high-resolution 3D computer simulation". PNAS. 104 (41): 16010–16015. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10416010M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706086104. PMC 2042153. PMID 17911253.
Jump up ^ Anyonge, W. (1996). "Microwear on canines and killing behavior in large carnivores: saber function in Smilodon fatalis" (PDF). Journal of Mammalogy. 77 (4): 1059–1067. Bibcode:2007JMamm..88..275L. doi:10.2307/1382786. JSTOR 1382786.
Jump up ^ Macchiarelli, R.; Brown, J. G. (2014). "Jaw function in Smilodon fatalis: a reevaluation of the canine shear-bite and a proposal for a new forelimb-powered class 1 lever model". PLoS ONE. 9 (10): e107456. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j7456B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107456. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4182664. PMID 25272032.
Jump up ^ Hecht, J. (1 October 2007). "Sabre-tooth cat had a surprisingly delicate bite". New Scientist.
Jump up ^ Wroe, S.; McHenry2, C.; Thomason, J. (2004). "Bite club: comparative bite force in big biting mammals and the prediction of predatory behaviour in fossil taxa" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-08-25.
Jump up ^ Christiansen, P. (2007). "Comparative bite forces and canine bending strength in feline and sabretooth felids: implications for predatory ecology". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 151 (2): 423–437. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00321.x.
Jump up ^ Andersson, K.; Norman, D.; Werdelin, L. (2011). "Sabretoothed carnivores and the killing of large prey". PLoS ONE. 6 (10): e24971. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...624971A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024971. PMC 3198467. PMID 22039403.
Jump up ^ Martin, L. D. (1980). "Functional morphology and the evolution of cats". Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences. 8: 141–154.
Jump up ^ Figueirido, B.; Lautenschlager, S.; Pérez-Ramos, A.; Van Valkenburgh, B. (2018). "Distinct Predatory Behaviors in Scimitar- and Dirk-Toothed Sabertooth Cats". Current Biology. 28 (20): 3260–3266.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.08.012. PMID 30293717.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Christopher A.; Quinn, James P. (September 15, 2015). John M. Harris, ed. "The Addition of Smilodon fatalis (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) to the Biota of the Late Pleistocene Carpinteria Asphalt Deposits in California, with Ontogenetic and Ecologic Implications for the Species" (PDF). Science Series 42. Contributions in Science (A special volume entitled La Brea and Beyond: the Paleontology of Asphalt-Preserved Biotas in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County's excavations at Rancho La Brea). Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County: 91–95.
^ Jump up to: a b c Antón 2013, pp. 30–33.
Jump up ^ Carbone, C.; Maddox, T.; Funston, P. J.; Mills, M. G. L.; Grether, G. F.; Van Valkenburgh, B. (2009). "Parallels between playbacks and Pleistocene tar seeps suggest sociality in an extinct sabretooth cat, Smilodon". Biology Letters. 5 (1): 81–85. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0526. PMC 2657756. PMID 18957359.
Jump up ^ Kiffner, C. (2009). "Coincidence or evidence: was the sabretooth cat Smilodon social?". Biology Letters. 5 (4): 561–562. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0008. PMC 2781900. PMID 19443504.
Jump up ^ Van Valkenburgh, B.; Maddox, T.; Funston, P. J.; Mills, M. G. L.; Grether, G. F.; Carbone, C. (2009). "Sociality in Rancho La Brea Smilodon: arguments favour 'evidence' over 'coincidence'". Biology Letters. 5 (4): 563–564. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0261. PMC 2781931.
Jump up ^ Heald, F. (1989). "Injuries and diseases in Smilodon californicus". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Supplement). 9: 24A.
^ Jump up to: a b McCall, S.; Naples, V.; Martin, L. (2003). "Assessing behavior in extinct animals: was Smilodon social?" (PDF). Brain, Behavior and Evolution. 61 (3): 159–164. doi:10.1159/000069752. PMID 12697957.
Jump up ^ Radinsky, L. B. (1975). "Evolution of the felid brain". Brain, Behavior and Evolution. 11 (3–4): 214–254. doi:10.1159/000123636. PMID 1181005.
Jump up ^ Yamaguchi, N.; Kitchener, A. C.; Gilissen, E.; MacDonald, D. W. (2009). "Brain size of the lion (Panthera leo) and the tiger (P. tigris): implications for intrageneric phylogeny, intraspecific differences and the effects of captivity". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 98 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2009.01249.x.
Jump up ^ Hearld, F.; Shaw, C. (1991). "Sabertooth Cats". In Seidensticker, J.; Lumpkin, S. The Great Cats. Rodale Pr. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-875137-90-9.
Jump up ^ Pickrell, J. (2018). "Saber-Toothed Cats May Have Roared Like Lions". Scientific American. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dagger-like canines of saber-toothed cats took years to grow". ScienceDaily. 2015-07-01. Archived from the original on 2015-07-02. Retrieved 2015-07-02.
Jump up ^ Mihlbachler, M. C.; Wysocki, M. A.; Feranec, R. S.; Tseng, Z. J.; Bjornsson, C. S. (2015-07-01). "Using a novel absolute ontogenetic age determination technique to calculate the timing of tooth eruption in the saber-toothed cat, Smilodon fatalis". PLoS ONE. 10 (7): e0129847. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1029847W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129847. PMC 4489498. PMID 26132165.
Jump up ^ Feranec, R. C. (2004). "Isotopic evidence of saber-tooth development, growth rate, and diet from the adult canine of Smilodon fatalis from Rancho La Brea". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 206 (3–4): 303–310. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.01.009.
Jump up ^ Long, K.; Prothero, D.; Madan, M.; Syverson, V. J. P.; Smith, T. (2017). "Did saber-tooth kittens grow up musclebound? A study of postnatal limb bone allometry in felids from the Pleistocene of Rancho La Brea". PLOS ONE. 12 (9): e0183175. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1283175L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183175. PMC 5617143. PMID 28953899.
Jump up ^ Bjorkengren, A. G.; Sartoris, D. J.; Shermis, S.; Resnick, D. (1987). "Patterns of paravertebral ossification in the prehistoric saber-toothed cat". American Journal of Roentgenology. 148 (4): 779–782. doi:10.2214/ajr.148.4.779. PMID 3103404.
Jump up ^ Duckler, G. L. (1997). "Parietal depressions in skulls of the extinct saber-toothed felid Smilodon fatalis: evidence of mechanical strain". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 17 (3): 600–609. doi:10.1080/02724634.1997.10011006.
Jump up ^ Brown, C.; Balisi, M.; Shaw, C. A.; Van Valkenburgh, B. (2017). "Skeletal trauma reflects hunting behaviour in extinct sabre-tooth cats and dire wolves". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 1 (5): 0131. doi:10.1038/s41559-017-0131. PMID 28812696.
Jump up ^ Meloro, C.; Elton, S.; Louys, J.; Bishop, L. C.; Ditchfield, P. (2013). "Cats in the forest: predicting habitat adaptations from humerus morphometry in extant and fossil Felidae (Carnivora)". Paleobiology. 39 (3): 323–344. doi:10.1666/12001.
Jump up ^ DeSantis, L.R.G.; Schubert, B.W.; Schmitt-Linville, E.; Ungar, P.; Donohue, S.; Haupt, R.J. (September 15, 2015). John M. Harris, ed. "Dental microwear textures of carnivorans from the La Brea Tar Pits, California and potential extinction implications" (PDF). Science Series 42. Contributions in Science (A special volume entitled La Brea and Beyond: the Paleontology of Asphalt-Preserved Biotas in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County's excavations at Rancho La Brea). Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County: 37–52.
^ Jump up to: a b Sherani, S. (2016). A new specimen-dependent method of estimating felid body mass (No. e2327v2). PeerJ Preprints.
Jump up ^ Manzuetti, A.; Perea, D.; Ubilla, M.; Rinderknecht, A. (2018). "First record of Smilodon fatalis Leidy, 1868 (Felidae, Machairodontinae) in the extra-Andean region of South America (late Pleistocene, Sopas Formation), Uruguay: Taxonomic and paleobiogeographic implications". Quaternary Science Reviews. 180: 57–62. Bibcode:2018QSRv..180....1M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.11.024.
Jump up ^ Bocherens, H.; Cotte, M.; Bonini, R.; Scian, D.; Straccia, P.; Soibelzon, L.; Prevosti, F. J. (2016-04-24). "Paleobiology of sabretooth cat Smilodon population in the Pampean Region (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina) around the Last Glacial Maximum: Insights from carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in bone collagen". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 449: 463–474. Bibcode:2016PPP...449..463B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.02.017.
Jump up ^ Hays, B. (2016-03-21). "Saber-toothed cats were the lions of prehistoric South America". UPI Science News. UPI. Retrieved 2016-04-19.
^ Jump up to: a b DeSantis, L. R. G.; Schubert, B. W.; Scott, J. R.; Ungar, P. S. (2012). "Implications of diet for the extinction of saber-toothed cats and American lions". PLoS ONE. 7 (12): e52453. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...752453D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052453. PMC 3530457. PMID 23300674.
^ Jump up to: a b Antón 2013, pp. 217–230.
Jump up ^ O'Keefe, F.R.; Fet, E.V.; Harris, J.M. (2009). "Compilation, calibration, and synthesis of faunal and floral radiocarbon dates, Rancho La Brea, California". Contributions to Science. 518: 1–16.
Jump up ^ Prieto, Alfredo; Labarca, Rafael; Sierpe, Víctor (2010). "New evidence of the sabertooth cat Smilodon (Carnivora: Machairodontinae) in the late Pleistocene of southern Chilean Patagonia". Revista Chilena de Historia Natural. 83 (2). doi:10.4067/S0716-078X2010000200010.
Bibliography
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Smilodon (category)
Wikispecies has information related to Smilodon
Antón, M. (2013). Sabertooth (1st ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-01042-1. OCLC 857070029.
hide
v
t
e
Machairodonts
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Synapsida
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Felidae
Homotherini
Amphimachairodus
Lokotunjailurus
Homotherium
Nimravides
Xenosmilus
Metailurini
Adelphailurus
Dinofelis
Pontosmilus
Stenailurus
Metailurus
Yoshi
Smilodontini
Megantereon
Paramachairodus
Rhizosmilodon
Smilodon
Promegantereon
Machairodontini
Hemimachairodus
Miomachairodus
Machairodus
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q188717
Wikispecies: Smilodon
EoL: 4443389
Fossilworks: 41079
GBIF: 3240061
iNaturalist: 317779
NCBI: 13265
Authority control
LCCN: sh85123647
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smilodon&oldid=866344273"
Categories:
Smilodon
Smilodontini
Prehistoric mammal genera
Pleistocene carnivorans
Pleistocene mammals of North America
Pleistocene mammals of South America
Pleistocene first appearances
Pleistocene genus extinctions
Holocene extinctions
Fossil taxa described in 1842
Taxa named by Peter Wilhelm Lund
Hidden categories:
CS1 Danish-language sources (da)
Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017
CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
Articles with short description
Featured articles
Articles with 'species' microformats
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikispecies
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Български
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Føroyskt
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
IsiZulu
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
Қазақша
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Occitan
پښتو
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
中文
47 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 29 October 2018, at 19:51 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: This is a featured article. Click here for more information.

attrs: href title

attrs: class id

value: i

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class src alt title

values: Changes must be reviewed before being displayed on this page.

attrs: id class src style alt

attrs: class href

attrs: id style class

values: flaggedrevs_short flaggedrevs_stable_synced plainlinks noprint nomobile

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: class style

values: shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux

value: p

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,170,114); left:36.892307692308px; width:18.818461538462px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,169,138); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(166,223,197); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(221,150,81); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(63,174,173); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,88,60); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,78,150); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.126830769231px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,187,231); left:151.86769230769px; width:19.055384615385px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(111,200,107); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,161,99); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,221,45); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;

values: position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px

values: margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100; position:absolute; left:219.15384615385px; font-size:50% position:relative; left:-0.42em

values: margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:13px;

values: text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;

values: min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)

values:
/wiki/Type_(zoology)
mw-redirect
Type (zoology)

values: font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;

values: text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; line-height: inherit; display: none;

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border: none; padding: 0;
NavFrame1

values:
NavFrame collapsed
border: none; padding: 0;
NavFrame2

values: text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%

values:
/wiki/Canine_teeth
mw-redirect
Canine teeth

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Zoological_Museum,_Copenhagen
mw-redirect
Zoological Museum, Copenhagen

values:
/wiki/Collected_fossils
mw-redirect
Collected fossils

values:
/wiki/New_combination
mw-redirect
New combination

values:
/wiki/State_fossil
mw-redirect
State fossil

values:
/wiki/Museo_de_La_Plata
mw-redirect
Museo de La Plata

values:
/wiki/Convergently_evolved
mw-redirect
Convergently evolved

values: Lydekker - Leopard (white background).JPG

values: Felis caracal - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(White Background).jpg

values: Felis pardalis - 1834 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(White Background).jpg

values:
/wiki/Domestic_cats
mw-redirect
Domestic cats

values: Felis chaus - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(White Background).jpg

values: Felis concolor - 1818-1842 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam -(white background).jpg

values: Smilodon fatalis Knight (white background).jpg

values:
/wiki/Lumbar_region
mw-redirect
Lumbar region

values:
/wiki/Frontal_region
mw-redirect
Frontal region

values:
/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic
mw-redirect
Sexually dimorphic

values:
/wiki/Extant_phylogenetic_bracketing
mw-redirect
Extant phylogenetic bracketing

values:
/wiki/Dire_wolves
mw-redirect
Dire wolves

values:
/wiki/Cortical_thickening
mw-redirect
Cortical thickening

values:
/wiki/Vertebrate_trachea
mw-redirect
Vertebrate trachea

values:
/wiki/Temporalis_muscle
mw-redirect
Temporalis muscle

values:
/wiki/Trabecular_bone
mw-redirect
Trabecular bone

values:
/wiki/Asphalt_seeps
mw-redirect
Asphalt seeps

values:
/wiki/Social_animal
mw-redirect
Social animal

values:
/wiki/Distress_call
mw-redirect
Distress call

values:
/wiki/Monogamous_pairing_in_animals
mw-redirect
Monogamous pairing in animals

values:
/wiki/Roar_(utterance)
mw-redirect
Roar (utterance)

values:
/wiki/George_C._Page_Museum
mw-redirect
George C. Page Museum

values:
/wiki/Mammoth_steppes
mw-redirect
Mammoth steppes

values:
/wiki/Andes_mountains
mw-redirect
Andes mountains

values:
/wiki/Arctotherium_angustidens
mw-redirect
Arctotherium angustidens

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/List_of_largest_carnivorans
mw-redirect
List of largest carnivorans

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.20910

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F272672

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2449549

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/4523312

values:
nofollow
external text
http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00095816/00001/1j

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.52222

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12649755

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18665225

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.09.033

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29056454

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/25835839

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1851-8044

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.4072%2Frbp.2008.3.06

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.89.20.9769

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1409696

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2005.07.052

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16085477

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/34283113

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1666%2F07061.1

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8373

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/4524203

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23110232

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.10384

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16235255

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aag0602

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2010.1734

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20961899

values: Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.5479%2Fsi.00810266.40.1

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17770024

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2400749

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2400172

values:
/wiki/Mauricio_Anton
mw-redirect
Mauricio Anton

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20625398

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0706086104

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17911253

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F1382786

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/1382786

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25272032

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22039403

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.08.012

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30293717

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2008.0526

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18957359

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.0008

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19443504

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.0261

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1159%2F000069752

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12697957

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1159%2F000123636

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1181005

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26132165

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28953899

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2214%2Fajr.148.4.779

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3103404

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-017-0131

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28812696

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1666%2F12001

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23300674

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/857070029

values:
*_Kingdom:_Animalia
*_Phylum:_Chordata
*_Clade:_Synapsida
*_Class:_Mammalia
*_Order:_Carnivora
*_Family:_Felidae

values:
/wiki/File:Smilodon_fatalis.jpg
image
Smilodon fatalis

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: navigation navbox Machairodonts padding:3px

values:
Taxon_identifiers
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: left;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://eol.org/pages/4443389/overview

values: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.gbif.org/species/3240061

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/317779

values: National Center for Biotechnology Information

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Category:Pleistocene mammals of North America

values: Category:Pleistocene mammals of South America

values: Category:Taxa named by Peter Wilhelm Lund

values: Category:CS1 Danish-language sources (da)

values: Category:Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017

values: Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)

values: Category:Articles with short description

values: Category:Articles with 'species' microformats

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Smilodon
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: سميلودون – Arabic

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Саблезъби тигри – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: چاقودندان – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fo
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Zulu
zu
zu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zu
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: טיגריס שנחרבי – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: Смилодондар – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: സ്മൈലോഡോൺ – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: Сэлмэн соёот бар – Mongolian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values: سمایلوډون – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Смилодоны – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Смилодон – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: สไมโลดอน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Смілодон – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilodon
Smilodon – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Smilodon rootpage-Smilodon skin-vector action-view