text:
American Music Awards of 2017
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45th Annual American Music Awards
Date
November 19, 2017
Location
Microsoft Theater
Los Angeles, California
Country
United States
Hosted by
Tracee Ellis Ross
Most awards
Bruno Mars (7)
Most nominations
Bruno Mars (8)
Website
American Music Awards
Television/radio coverage
Network
ABC
Runtime
180 minutes
Viewership
9.15 million
Produced by
Dick Clark Productions
← 2016
American Music Awards
The 45th Annual American Music Awards took place on November 19, 2017, at the Microsoft Theater in Los Angeles, California.[1] It was broadcast on ABC and was hosted by Tracee Ellis Ross.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Performers
2 Presenters
3 Winners and nominees
4 Special awards
5 References
Performers[edit]
Artist(s)
Song(s)
Ref.
Kelly Clarkson
Pink "Everybody Hurts" [4]
Demi Lovato "Sorry Not Sorry" [5]
Nick Jonas "Find You" [6]
Hailee Steinfeld
Alesso
Florida Georgia Line
Watt "Let Me Go" [7]
Shawn Mendes "There's Nothing Holdin' Me Back" [6]
Selena Gomez
Marshmello "Wolves" [8]
Christina Aguilera
(Whitney Houston and The Bodyguard tribute) "I Will Always Love You"
"I Have Nothing"
"Run to You"
"I'm Every Woman" [9]
Lady Gaga "The Cure" [6]
Macklemore
Skylar Grey "Glorious" [10]
Portugal. The Man "Feel It Still" [7]
Zedd
Alessia Cara "Stay" [7]
Imagine Dragons
Khalid "Young Dumb & Broke"
"Thunder" [11]
Pink "Beautiful Trauma" [12]
Niall Horan "Slow Hands" [11]
Kelly Clarkson "Miss Independent"
"Love So Soft" [5]
BTS "DNA" [13]
Diana Ross "I'm Coming Out"
"Take Me Higher"
"Ease On Down the Road"
"The Best Years Of My Life"
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough" [5]
Presenters[edit]
Ansel Elgort
Billy Eichner
Caleb McLaughlin
Camila Mendes
Chadwick Boseman
The Chainsmokers
Chris Hardwick
Chrissy Metz
Ciara
Daymond John
DJ Khaled
G-Eazy
Gaten Matarazzo
Heidi Klum
Jared Leto
Jenna Dewan-Tatum
Jesse Tyler Ferguson
Julia Michaels
Justin Hartley
Kat Graham
Kathryn Hahn
Kevin O'Leary
KJ Apa
Laura Marano
Lea Michele
Lili Reinhart
Lilly Singh
Madelaine Petsch
Mark Cuban
Martin Garrix
Patrick Schwarzenegger
Sabrina Carpenter
Sadie Sink
Viola Davis
Yara Shahidi
Winners and nominees[edit]
Artist of the Year
New Artist of the Year
Bruno Mars
The Chainsmokers
Drake
Kendrick Lamar
Ed Sheeran
Niall Horan
James Arthur
Julia Michaels
Post Malone
Rae Sremmurd
Collaboration of the Year
Tour of the Year
"Despacito" – Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber
"Closer" – The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey
"I'm the One" – DJ Khaled featuring Justin Bieber, Quavo, Chance the Rapper and Lil Wayne
"Don't Wanna Know" – Maroon 5 featuring Kendrick Lamar
"Starboy" – The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk
A Head Full of Dreams Tour – Coldplay
The Garth Brooks World Tour with Trisha Yearwood – Garth Brooks
The Joshua Tree Tour 2017 – U2
Favorite Male Artist – Pop/Rock
Favorite Female Artist – Pop/Rock
Bruno Mars
Drake
Ed Sheeran
Lady Gaga
Alessia Cara
Rihanna
Favorite Duo or Group – Pop/Rock
Favorite Album – Pop/Rock
Imagine Dragons
The Chainsmokers
Coldplay
24K Magic – Bruno Mars
More Life – Drake
Starboy – The Weeknd
Favorite Song – Pop/Rock
Favorite Male Artist – Country
"Despacito" – Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber
"Closer" – The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey
"Shape of You" – Ed Sheeran
Keith Urban
Sam Hunt
Thomas Rhett
Favorite Female Artist – Country
Favorite Duo or Group – Country
Carrie Underwood
Miranda Lambert
Maren Morris
Little Big Town
Florida Georgia Line
Old Dominion
Favorite Album – Country
Favorite Song – Country
Ripcord – Keith Urban
They Don't Know – Jason Aldean
From A Room: Volume 1 – Chris Stapleton
"Blue Ain't Your Color" – Keith Urban
"Body Like a Back Road" – Sam Hunt
"Dirt On My Boots" – Jon Pardi
Favorite Artist – Rap/Hip-Hop
Favorite Album – Rap/Hip-Hop
Drake
Kendrick Lamar
Migos
DAMN. – Kendrick Lamar
More Life – Drake
Culture – Migos
Favorite Song – Rap/Hip-Hop
Favorite Male Artist – Soul/R&B
"I'm the One" – DJ Khaled featuring Justin Bieber, Quavo, Chance the Rapper and Lil Wayne
"HUMBLE." – Kendrick Lamar
"Black Beatles" – Rae Sremmurd featuring Gucci Mane
Bruno Mars
Childish Gambino
The Weeknd
Favorite Female Artist – Soul/R&B
Favorite Album – Soul/R&B
Beyoncé
Kehlani
Rihanna
24K Magic – Bruno Mars
"Awaken, My Love!" – Childish Gambino
Starboy – The Weeknd
Favorite Song – Soul/R&B
Favorite Artist – Alternative Rock
"That's What I Like" – Bruno Mars
"Location" – Khalid
"Starboy" – The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk
Linkin Park
Imagine Dragons
Twenty One Pilots
Favorite Artist – Adult Contemporary
Favorite Artist – Latin
Shawn Mendes
Bruno Mars
Ed Sheeran
Shakira
Daddy Yankee
Luis Fonsi
Favorite Artist – Contemporary Inspirational
Favorite Artist – Electronic Dance Music
Lauren Daigle
MercyMe
Chris Tomlin
The Chainsmokers
Calvin Harris
DJ Snake
Video of the Year
Top Soundtrack
"That's What I Like" – Bruno Mars
"Despacito" – Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee
"Shape of You" – Ed Sheeran
Moana
Guardians of the Galaxy, Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Vol. 2
Trolls
Special awards[edit]
Lifetime Achievement
""Diana Ross""[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Iasimone, Ashley (October 12, 2017). "Here Is the Full List of 2017 AMAs Nominations". billboard. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Thorbecke, Catherine (November 14, 2017). "Tracee Ellis Ross to host the 2017 American Music Awards". ABC News. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lynch, Joe (November 20, 2017). "The 10 Best Moments at the 2017 AMAs". billboard. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Stubblebine, Allison (November 16, 2017). "Kelly Clarkson & P!nk To Team Up For Exciting Performance for 2017 AMAs Opener". billboard. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Armstrong, Megan (November 6, 2017). "Demi Lovato & Kelly Clarkson Announced As 2017 American Music Awards Performers". billboard. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nolfi, Joey (November 14, 2017). "Lady Gaga, Shawn Mendes, Nick Jonas to perform at the AMAs". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Billboard staff (November 13, 2017). "2017 AMAs: Alessia Cara, Zedd, Hailee Steinfeld & More Added to Performer Lineup". billboard. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Gil (October 26, 2017). "Selena Gomez to Debut 'Wolves' at 2017 American Music Awards". billboard. Retrieved October 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Megan (October 30, 2017). "Christina Aguilera Will Honor Whitney Houston & 'The Bodyguard' at 2017 AMAs". billboard. Retrieved October 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lamarre, Carl (November 19, 2017). "Macklemore & Skylar Grey Deliver 'Glorious' Performance at the 2017 AMAs". billboard. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Weatherby, Taylor (November 10, 2017). "Niall Horan, Imagine Dragons & Khalid Added to AMAs Performer Lineup". billboard. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Petit, Stephanie (November 9, 2017). "Pink Added to Star-Studded List of Performers at 2017 American Music Awards". People. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kelley, Caitlin (November 3, 2017). "K-Pop Superstars BTS to Perform for First Time on an American Awards Show at 2017 AMAs". billboard. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rolli, Bryan (October 18, 2017). "Diana Ross to Receive American Music Award of Lifetime Achievement at 2017 AMAs". billboard. Retrieved October 31, 2017.
[hide]
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American Music Awards
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Collaboration of the Year
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Band/Duo/Group
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Other
Award of Merit
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Special Achievement Award
Icon
Top Soundtrack
Tour of the Year
Video of the Year
Discontinued awards
Honorary Award
Adult Contemporary Album
Adult Contemporary New Artist
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text:
List of Chrysler transmissions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Chrysler produces a number of automobile transmissions in-house.
Contents
1 Semi-automatic
2 Automatic
2.1 Model number conventions
3 Manual
4 Non-Chrysler Transmissions used on Chrysler vehicles
4.1 Automatic
4.2 Manual
4.3 Dual clutch
4.4 Continuously variable
5 See also
6 References
Semi-automatic[edit]
1941–1942 M4 Vacamatic — 4-speed (2-range manual control with automatic 2-speed shift vacuum operated) with clutch and fluid coupling (Fluid Drive); also known as Simplimatic, Powermatic
1946–1953 M5/M6 Presto-Matic — 4-speed (2 gear manual with electric overdrive) with clutch and fluid coupling (Fluid Drive) or torque converter (Fluid Torque Drive); also known as Tip-Toe Shift, Gyro-Matic, Fluid-Matic, Gyro-Torque
1953–1954 Hy-Drive — 3-speed manual transmission behind a torque converter
Automatic[edit]
1954–1961 PowerFlite — 2-speed automatic
1956–2007 TorqueFlite
1956–1961 A488 — 3-speed automatic
1962–1994 A727 (36RH/37RH) — 3-speed automatic
1960–2002 A904 (30RH) — 3-speed automatic
A998/A999 (31RH/32RH) — 3-speed automatic
1988–2004 A500 (40RH/42RH/40RE/42RE/44RE) — 4-speed automatic
1992–2003 A518 (46RH/46RE) — 4-speed automatic
1994–2003 A618 (47RH/47RE) — 4-speed heavy-duty automatic
2003–2007 A818 (48RE) — 4-speed heavy-duty automatic
1978–1983 A404 — 3-speed front-wheel drive transaxle
1981–2001 A413 (31TH)
1981–1987 A470
1987–2000 A670
1989–present Ultradrive
1989–2010 A604 (40TE/41TE) — 4-speed transverse front-wheel drive automatic
1991–2004 A604 (41AE) — 4-speed transverse all-wheel drive automatic
1993–2004 A606 (42LE) — 4-speed longitudinal front-wheel drive automatic
2003–2012 42RLE — 4-speed longitudinal rear-wheel drive automatic
2007–present 40TES/41TES — 4-speed transverse front-wheel drive automatic
2007–present 62TE — 6-speed transverse front-wheel drive automatic
2007–present 62TEA — 6-speed transverse all-wheel drive automatic
1999–present RFE — longitudinal rear-wheel drive
1999–2003 45RFE — 4-speed (5 gear) automatic
2001–2011 545RFE — 5-speed (6 gear) automatic
2012–2017 65RFE — 6-speed automatic
2012–present 66RFE — 6-speed heavy-duty automatic
2007–present 68RFE — 6-speed heavy-duty automatic
Model number conventions[edit]
Newer Chrysler automatic transmissions follow standard model number conventions. Below are the available values and some example transmission models:
Speeds
Torque Rating
Drive/Orientation
Control System
Values
4, 5, 6 0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 (R)ear, (L)ongitudinal, (T)ransverse (E)lectronic, (F)ull (E)lectronic, (H)ydraulic
31TH
3 1 T H
41TE
4 1 T E
42LE
4 2 L E
42RLE
4 2 R, L E
545RFE
5,4 5 R FE
68RFE
6 8 R FE
Manual[edit]
1960–1972 Chrysler A903 — 3-speed manual for 6-cyl and low power V8s. 1st gear, no synchromesh[1]
1961–1971 Chrysler A745 — 3-speed manual for V8s
1964–1974 Chrysler A833 — 4-speed manual manufactured by New Process Gear[2]
1970–1981 Chrysler A230 — 3-speed manual, all-synchromesh
1973–1974 Chrysler A250 — 3-speed manual, 1st gear no synchromesh[3]
1975–1978 Chrysler A390 — 3-speed manual, all-synchromesh[4]
1976–1980 Chrysler A833 — 4-speed manual overdrive (NPG)[5]
1981–1986 Chrysler A460 — 4-speed manual transaxle
1983–1984 Chrysler A465 — 5-speed manual transaxle
1984–1990 Chrysler A525 — 5-speed manual transaxle
1987–1989 Chrysler A520 — 5-speed manual transaxle
1987–1989 Chrysler A555 — 5-speed manual transaxle, Chrysler-built (NPG) with Getrag-sourced gearset
1990–1994 Chrysler A523 — 5-speed manual transaxle
1990–1994 Chrysler A543 — 5-speed manual transaxle
1990–1993 Chrysler A568 — 5-speed manual transaxle, Chrysler-built (NPG) with Getrag-sourced gearset
1995–2005 New Venture Gear T350 (also known as A578 and F5MC1) — 5-speed manual transaxle for the Dodge and Plymouth Neon and various GM subcompacts
2001–2007 New Venture Gear T850 — 5-speed manual transaxle
2005–present Chrysler NSG370 transmission — 6-speed longitudinal manual
1962–1993 New Process Gear NP435 — 4-speed longitudinal manual
1987–1991 New Process Gear NP535 (also known as New Venture Gear NV2500) — 5-speed longitudinal manual
New Venture Gear NV1500 — 5-speed longitudinal manual
1994–2004 New Venture Gear NV3500 — 5-speed longitudinal manual
2000–2004 New Venture Gear NV3550
1992–2005 New Venture Gear NV4500 — 5-speed longitudinal manual
1999–2005 New Venture Gear NV5600 — 6-speed longitudinal manual
Non-Chrysler Transmissions used on Chrysler vehicles[edit]
Automatic[edit]
Aisin-Warner AW4 — 4-speed longitudinal
1987–2001 Jeep Cherokee
1987–1992 Jeep Comanche
1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee (with 6-cylinder engine)
Aisin AS66RC — 6-speed longitudinal with PTO capability
2014–present Ram Chassis Cab 3500/4500/5500 (6.4L V8)
Aisin AS68RC — 6-speed longitudinal with PTO capability
2007–2012 Dodge Ram Chassis Cab 3500/4500/5500
Aisin AS69RC — 6-speed longitudinal with PTO capability
2013–present Ram Chassis Cab 3500/4500/5500 (6.7L diesel)
Aisin AW6F25 (AW60T) — 6-speed transaxle
2017–present Jeep Compass
Mercedes-Benz 5G-Tronic (also known as Chrysler NAG1) — 5-speed longitudinal
W5A330
2003–2007 Chrysler Crossfire
W5A580 (also built by Chrysler at Indiana Transmission II plant)
2005–2008 Dodge Magnum
2005–2014 Chrysler 300
2006–2016 Dodge Charger
2008–2014 Dodge Challenger
2011–2013 Dodge Durango
2006–2010 Jeep Commander
2005–2013 Jeep Grand Cherokee
2011–present Jeep Wrangler (JK)
Powertech 6F24 — 6-speed transverse front-wheel drive
2012–2016 Dodge Dart
2014–2016 Jeep Compass
2014–2017 Jeep Patriot
ZF 8HP (also branded as TorqueFlite 8 by Chrysler) — 8-speed longitudinal
8HP45 (replaced by 845RE)
2011–2013 Chrysler 300 V6
2011–2013 Dodge Charger (LD) V6
2013 Ram 1500 (3.6L V6)
845RE (Chrysler-built version of 8HP45)
2013–present Chrysler 300 V6
2013–present Dodge Charger (LD) V6
2014–present Dodge Durango V6
2015–present Dodge Challenger V6
2014–present Ram 1500 (3.6L V6)
2014–2016 Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2) (3.6L V6)
850RE (Chrysler-built version of 8HP50)
2017–present Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2) (3.6L V6)
2018–present Jeep Wrangler (JL)
8HP70
2013–present Ram 1500 (5.7L V8, 3.0L V6 diesel)
2014–present Dodge Durango V8
2015–present Dodge Charger (5.7L & 6.4L V8)
2015–present Dodge Challenger (5.7L & 6.4L V8)
2014–present Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2) (5.7L & 6.4L V8, 3.0L V6 diesel)
2015–present Chrysler 300 V8
8HP90
2015–present Dodge Challenger (6.2L V8 s/c)
2015–present Dodge Charger (LX) (6.2L V8 s/c)
8HP95
2018–present Jeep Grand Cherokee (WK2) (6.2L V8 s/c)
ZF 9HP — 9-speed transverse
9HP48
2015–2017 Chrysler 200 (3.6L V6)
2017–present Jeep Compass
948TE (Chrysler-built version of 9HP48)
2014–present Jeep Cherokee (KL)
2014–present Jeep Renegade
2015–2017 Chrysler 200 (2.4L)
2015–present Ram ProMaster City
2017–present Chrysler Pacifica
Manual[edit]
Aisin AX5 — 5-speed longitudinal
1984–2000 Jeep Cherokee
1986–1992 Jeep Comanche
1987–2002 Jeep Wrangler
Aisin AX15 — 5-speed longitudinal
1989–1999 Jeep Cherokee
1989–1992 Jeep Comanche
1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee
1989–1999 Jeep Wrangler
Aisin BG6 — 6-speed transaxle
2007–2010 Chrysler Sebring (diesel engine)
2006–2011 Dodge Caliber (diesel engine)
2007–2010 Dodge Avenger (diesel engine)
2008–2010 Dodge Journey (diesel engine)
2006–2016 Jeep Compass (diesel engine)
2006–2017 Jeep Patriot (diesel engine)
Aisin D478 — 6-speed longitudinal
2018–present Jeep Wrangler (JL)
Borg-Warner T-10 — 4-speed longitudinal
1963 Dodge and Plymouth V8, except Hemi
Borg-Warner T-56 (also known as Tremec T-56) — 6-speed longitudinal
2004–2006 Dodge Ram SRT10
1992–2002 Dodge Viper RT/10
1996–2002 Dodge Viper GTS
2003–2007 Dodge Viper SRT-10
Fiat C510 — 5-speed transaxle
2014–present Jeep Renegade (1.6L E.torQ)
Fiat C635 — 6-speed transaxle
2011–present Dodge Journey/Fiat Freemont (2.0L MultiJet)
2012–2016 Dodge Dart (1.4L turbo)
2014–present Jeep Renegade (1.4L turbo, 1.6L-2.0L MultiJet)
2017–present Jeep Compass
Getrag 238 — 6-speed longitudinal
2005–2008 Dodge Ram
2005–2009 Dodge Dakota
Getrag 288 — 5-speed transaxle
2003–2008 Chrysler PT Cruiser GT
Getrag DMT6 — 6-speed transaxle
2008–2009 Dodge Caliber SRT4
Magna Driveline T355 — 5-speed transaxle
2006–2011 Dodge Caliber
2008–2010 Dodge Journey
2006–2016 Jeep Compass
2006–2017 Jeep Patriot
Mercedes-Benz G56 — 6-speed longitudinal
2005–present Dodge Ram 2500/3500/4500/5500
Mitsubishi F5 — 5-speed transaxle
F5M22
1989–1994 Plymouth Laser (1.8L - 2.0L n/a)
F5M33
1991–1996 Dodge Stealth (3.0L V6 n/a)
1989–1994 Plymouth Laser (2.0L turbo)
F5M42
2000–2006 Dodge Stratus (2.4L - 2.7L)
F5M51
2000–2006 Chrysler Sebring (3.0L V6)
2001–2006 Dodge Stratus (3.0L V6)
Peugeot BA10/5 - 5-speed longitudinal[6]
1987-mid-1989 YJ Wrangler, XJ Cherokee and MJ Commanche
Tremec TR-6060 — 6-speed longitudinal
2008–2010 Dodge Viper SRT-10
2009–present Dodge Challenger
2012–present SRT and Dodge Viper
Volkswagen 020 — 4-speed transaxle adopted as Chrysler A412
1978–1982 Dodge Omni 1.7L
1978–1982 Plymouth Horizon 1.7L
Dual clutch[edit]
Fiat C635 DDCT
2012–2016 Dodge Dart (1.4L turbo)
2014–present Jeep Renegade
Fiat C725 DDCT
2016–present Jeep Renegade (China)
2017–present Jeep Compass (China)
Getrag MPS6 (6DCT450)
2009–2010 Chrysler Sebring (diesel engine)
2009–2010 Dodge Avenger (diesel engine)
2009–2010 Dodge Journey (diesel engine)
Continuously variable[edit]
Jatco JF011E
2007-2012 Dodge Caliber
2006–2016 Jeep Compass
2006–2017 Jeep Patriot
See also[edit]
List of AMC Transmission Applications (for list of transmission used in AMC vehicles before Chrysler buyout)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Haynes Auto Repair Manual. Somerset, England: Haynes Publishing Group. 1977. p. 74. ISBN 1 85010 211 2.
Jump up ^ Standard Catalog of Chrysler. Iola, WI: Krause Publications. 2012. pp. 433–483. ISBN 978-1-4402-3236-7.
Jump up ^ Haynes Auto Repair Manual. Somerset, England: Haynes Publishing Group. 1977. p. 74. ISBN 1 85010 211 2.
Jump up ^ Haynes Auto Repair Manual. Somerset, England: Haynes Publishing Group. 1977. p. 74. ISBN 1 85010 211 2.
Jump up ^ Standard Catalog of Chrysler. Iola, WI: Krause Publications. 2012. pp. 433–483. ISBN 978-1-4402-3236-7.
Jump up ^ http://www.novak-adapt.com/knowledge/transmissions/manual/ba10-5
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Nuclear reaction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In this symbolic representing of a nuclear reaction, lithium-6 (6
3Li
) and deuterium (2
1H
) react to form the highly excited intermediate nucleus 8
4Be
which then decays immediately into two alpha particles of helium-4 (4
2He
). Protons are symbolically represented by red spheres, and neutrons by blue spheres.
Nuclear physics
Nucleus · Nucleons (p, n) · Nuclear matter · Nuclear force · Nuclear structure · Nuclear reaction
Models of the nucleus[show]
Liquid drop · Nuclear shell model · Interacting boson model · Ab initio
Nuclides' classification[show]
Isotopes – equal Z
Isobars – equal A
Isotones – equal N
Isodiaphers – equal N − Z
Isomers – equal all the above
Mirror nuclei – Z ↔ N
Stable · Magic · Even/odd · Halo
Nuclear stability[show]
Binding energy · p–n ratio · Drip line · Island of stability · Valley of stability
Radioactive decay[show]
Alpha α · Beta β (2β, β+) · K/L capture · Isomeric (Gamma γ · Internal conversion) · Spontaneous fission · Cluster decay · Neutron emission · Proton emission
Decay energy · Decay chain · Decay product · Radiogenic nuclide
Nuclear fission[show]
Spontaneous · Products (pair breaking) · Photofission
Capturing processes[show]
electron · neutron (s · r) · proton (p · rp)
High energy processes[show]
Spallation (by cosmic ray) · Photodisintegration
Nucleosynthesis and
nuclear astrophysics[show]
Nuclear fusion
Processes: Stellar · Big Bang · Supernova
Nuclides: Primordial · Cosmogenic · Artificial
High energy nuclear physics[show]
Quark–gluon plasma · RHIC · LHC
Scientists[show]
Alvarez · Becquerel · Bethe · A.Bohr · N.Bohr · Chadwick · Cockcroft · Ir.Curie · Fr.Curie · Pi.Curie · Skłodowska-Curie · Davisson · Fermi · Hahn · Jensen · Lawrence · Mayer · Meitner · Oliphant · Oppenheimer · Proca · Purcell · Rabi · Rutherford · Soddy · Strassmann · Szilárd · Teller · Thomson · Walton · Wigner
v
t
e
In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is semantically considered to be the process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a subatomic particle (such as a proton, neutron, or high energy electron) from outside the atom, collide to produce one or more nuclides that are different from the nuclide(s) that began the process. Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. If a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle and they then separate without changing the nature of any nuclide, the process is simply referred to as a type of nuclear scattering, rather than a nuclear reaction.
In principle, a reaction can involve more than two particles colliding, but because the probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is much less than for two nuclei, such an event is exceptionally rare (see triple alpha process for an example very close to a three-body nuclear reaction). "Nuclear reaction" is a term implying an induced change in a nuclide, and thus it does not apply to any type of radioactive decay (which by definition is a spontaneous process).[citation needed]
Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between cosmic rays and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on demand. Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the nuclear chain reactions in fissionable materials that produce induced nuclear fission, and the various nuclear fusion reactions of light elements that power the energy production of the Sun and stars.
Nuclear reactions may be shown in a form similar to chemical equations, for which invariant mass must balance for each side of the equation, and in which transformations of particles must follow certain conservation laws, such as conservation of charge and baryon number (total atomic mass number). An example of this notation follows:
6
3Li
+ 2
1H
→ 4
2He
+ ?.
To balance the equation above for mass, charge and mass number, the second nucleus to the right must have atomic number 2 and mass number 4; it is therefore also helium-4. The complete equation therefore reads:
6
3Li
+ 2
1H
→ 4
2He
+ 4
2He
.
or more simply:
6
3Li
+ 2
1H
→ 2 4
2He
.
Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in many situations a compact notation is used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form A(b,c)D is equivalent to A + b producing c + D. Common light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p for proton, n for neutron, d for deuteron, α representing an alpha particle or helium-4, β for beta particle or electron, γ for gamma photon, etc. The reaction above would be written as Li-6(d,α)α.[1][2]
Contents
1 History
2 Energy conservation
3 Q-value and energy balance
4 Reaction rates
5 Neutrons vs. ions
6 Notable types
6.1 Direct reactions
6.1.1 Inelastic scattering
6.1.2 Transfer reactions
6.1.3 Reactions with neutrons
6.2 Compound nuclear reactions
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
History[edit]
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at the University of Manchester, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen 14N + α → 16O + p. This was the first observation of an induced nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932 at Cambridge University, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split the nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom", although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements, in 1938 by the German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.[3]
Energy conservation[edit]
Kinetic energy may be released during the course of a reaction (exothermic reaction) or kinetic energy may have to be supplied for the reaction to take place (endothermic reaction). This can be calculated by reference to a table of very accurate particle rest masses,[4] as follows: according to the reference tables, the 6
3Li
nucleus has a standard atomic weight of 6.015 atomic mass units (abbreviated u), the deuterium has 2.014 u, and the helium-4 nucleus has 4.0026 u. Thus:
the sum of the rest mass of the individual nuclei = 6.015 + 2.014 = 8.029 u;
the total rest mass on the two helium-nuclei = 2 × 4.0026 = 8.0052 u;
missing rest mass = 8.029 – 8.0052 = 0.0238 atomic mass units.
In a nuclear reaction, the total (relativistic) energy is conserved. The "missing" rest mass must therefore reappear as kinetic energy released in the reaction; its source is the nuclear binding energy. Using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc², the amount of energy released can be determined. We first need the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit:
1 u c² = (1.66054 × 10−27 kg) × (2.99792 × 108 m/s)²
= 1.49242 × 10−10 kg (m/s)² = 1.49242 × 10−10 J (joule) × (1 MeV / 1.60218 × 10−13 J)
= 931.49 MeV,
so 1 u c² = 931.49 MeV.
Hence, the energy released is 0.0238 × 931 MeV = 22.2 MeV.
Expressed differently: the mass is reduced by 0.3%, corresponding to 0.3% of 90 PJ/kg is 270 TJ/kg.
This is a large amount of energy for a nuclear reaction; the amount is so high because the binding energy per nucleon of the helium-4 nucleus is unusually high, because the He-4 nucleus is "doubly magic". (The He-4 nucleus is unusually stable and tightly bound for the same reason that the helium atom is inert: each pair of protons and neutrons in He-4 occupies a filled 1s nuclear orbital in the same way that the pair of electrons in the helium atom occupy a filled 1s electron orbital). Consequently, alpha particles appear frequently on the right hand side of nuclear reactions.
The energy released in a nuclear reaction can appear mainly in one of three ways:
kinetic energy of the product particles (fraction of the kinetic energy of the charged nuclear reaction products can be directly converted into electrostatic energy);[5]
emission of very high energy photons, called gamma rays;
some energy may remain in the nucleus, as a metastable energy level.
When the product nucleus is metastable, this is indicated by placing an asterisk ("*") next to its atomic number. This energy is eventually released through nuclear decay.
A small amount of energy may also emerge in the form of X-rays. Generally, the product nucleus has a different atomic number, and thus the configuration of its electron shells is wrong. As the electrons rearrange themselves and drop to lower energy levels, internal transition X-rays (X-rays with precisely defined emission lines) may be emitted.
Q-value and energy balance[edit]
In writing down the reaction equation, in a way analogous to a chemical equation, one may in addition give the reaction energy on the right side:
Target nucleus + projectile → Final nucleus + ejectile + Q.
For the particular case discussed above, the reaction energy has already been calculated as Q = 22.2 MeV. Hence:
6
3Li
+ 2
1H
→ 2 4
2He
+ 22.2 MeV.
The reaction energy (the "Q-value") is positive for exothermal reactions and negative for endothermal reactions, opposite to the similar expression in chemistry. On the one hand, it is the difference between the sums of kinetic energies on the final side and on the initial side. But on the other hand, it is also the difference between the nuclear rest masses on the initial side and on the final side (in this way, we have calculated the Q-value above).
Reaction rates[edit]
If the reaction equation is balanced, that does not mean that the reaction really occurs. The rate at which reactions occur depends on the particle energy, the particle flux and the reaction cross section. An example of a large repository of reaction rates is the REACLIB database, as maintained by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics.
Neutrons vs. ions[edit]
In the initial collision which begins the reaction, the particles must approach closely enough so that the short range strong force can affect them. As most common nuclear particles are positively charged, this means they must overcome considerable electrostatic repulsion before the reaction can begin. Even if the target nucleus is part of a neutral atom, the other particle must penetrate well beyond the electron cloud and closely approach the nucleus, which is positively charged. Thus, such particles must be first accelerated to high energy, for example by:
particle accelerators;
nuclear decay (alpha particles are the main type of interest here, since beta and gamma rays are rarely involved in nuclear reactions);
very high temperatures, on the order of millions of degrees, producing thermonuclear reactions;
cosmic rays.
Also, since the force of repulsion is proportional to the product of the two charges, reactions between heavy nuclei are rarer, and require higher initiating energy, than those between a heavy and light nucleus; while reactions between two light nuclei are the most common ones.
Neutrons, on the other hand, have no electric charge to cause repulsion, and are able to initiate a nuclear reaction at very low energies. In fact, at extremely low particle energies (corresponding, say, to thermal equilibrium at room temperature), the neutron's de Broglie wavelength is greatly increased, possibly greatly increasing its capture cross section, at energies close to resonances of the nuclei involved. Thus low-energy neutrons may be even more reactive than high energy neutrons.
Notable types[edit]
While the number of possible nuclear reactions is immense, there are several types which are more common, or otherwise notable. Some examples include:
Fusion reactions — two light nuclei join to form a heavier one, with additional particles (usually protons or neutrons) emitted subsequently.
Spallation — a nucleus is hit by a particle with sufficient energy and momentum to knock out several small fragments or smash it into many fragments.
Induced gamma emission belongs to a class in which only photons were involved in creating and destroying states of nuclear excitation.
Alpha decay — Though driven by the same underlying forces as spontaneous fission, α decay is usually considered to be separate from the latter. The often-quoted idea that "nuclear reactions" are confined to induced processes is incorrect. "Radioactive decays" are a subgroup of "nuclear reactions" that are spontaneous rather than induced. For example, so-called "hot alpha particles" with unusually high energies may actually be produced in induced ternary fission, which is an induced nuclear reaction (contrasting with spontaneous fission). Such alphas occur from spontaneous ternary fission as well.
Fission reactions — a very heavy nucleus, after absorbing additional light particles (usually neutrons), splits into two or sometimes three pieces. This is an induced nuclear reaction. Spontaneous fission, which occurs without assistance of a neutron, is usually not considered a nuclear reaction. At most, it is not an induced nuclear reaction.
Direct reactions[edit]
An intermediate energy projectile transfers energy or picks up or loses nucleons to the nucleus in a single quick (10−21 second) event. Energy and momentum transfer are relatively small. These are particularly useful in experimental nuclear physics, because the reaction mechanisms are often simple enough to calculate with sufficient accuracy to probe the structure of the target nucleus.
Inelastic scattering[edit]
Main article: Inelastic scattering
Only energy and momentum are transferred.
(p,p') tests differences between nuclear states.
(α,α') measures nuclear surface shapes and sizes. Since α particles that hit the nucleus react more violently, elastic and shallow inelastic α scattering are sensitive to the shapes and sizes of the targets, like light scattered from a small black object.
(e,e') is useful for probing the interior structure. Since electrons interact less strongly than do protons and neutrons, they reach to the centers of the targets and their wave functions are less distorted by passing through the nucleus.
Transfer reactions[edit]
Usually at moderately low energy, one or more nucleons are transferred between the projectile and target. These are useful in studying outer shell structure of nuclei.
(α,n) and (α,p) reactions. Some of the earliest nuclear reactions studied involved an alpha particle produced by alpha decay, knocking a nucleon from a target nucleus.
(d,n) and (d,p) reactions. A deuteron beam impinges on a target; the target nuclei absorb either the neutron or proton from the deuteron. The deuteron is so loosely bound that this is almost the same as proton or neutron capture. A compound nucleus may be formed, leading to additional neutrons being emitted more slowly. (d,n) reactions are used to generate energetic neutrons.
The strangeness exchange reaction (K, π) has been used to study hypernuclei.
The reaction 14N(α,p)17O performed by Rutherford in 1917 (reported 1919), is generally regarded as the first nuclear transmutation experiment.
Reactions with neutrons[edit]
→ T
→ 7Li
→ 14C
(n,α) 6Li + n → T + α 10B + n → 7Li + α 17O + n → 14C + α 21Ne + n → 18O + α 37Ar + n → 34S + α
(n,p) 3He + n → T + p 7Be + n → 7Li + p 14N + n → 14C + p 22Na + n → 22Ne + p
Reactions with neutrons are important in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. While the best-known neutron reactions are neutron scattering, neutron capture, and nuclear fission, for some light nuclei (especially odd-odd nuclei) the most probable reaction with a thermal neutron is a transfer reaction:
Some reactions are only possible with fast neutrons:
(n,2n) reactions produce small amounts of protactinium-231 and uranium-232 in the thorium cycle which is otherwise relatively free of highly radioactive actinide products.
9Be + n → 2α + 2n can contribute some additional neutrons in the beryllium neutron reflector of a nuclear weapon.
7Li + n → T + α + n unexpectedly contributed additional yield in Castle Bravo, Castle Romeo, and Castle Yankee, the three highest-yield nuclear tests conducted by the U.S.
Compound nuclear reactions[edit]
Either a low-energy projectile is absorbed or a higher energy particle transfers energy to the nucleus, leaving it with too much energy to be fully bound together. On a time scale of about 10−19 seconds, particles, usually neutrons, are "boiled" off. That is, it remains together until enough energy happens to be concentrated in one neutron to escape the mutual attraction. Charged particles rarely boil off because of the coulomb barrier. The excited quasi-bound nucleus is called a compound nucleus.
Low energy (e, e' xn), (γ, xn) (the xn indicating one or more neutrons), where the gamma or virtual gamma energy is near the giant dipole resonance. These increase the need for radiation shielding around electron accelerators.
Further information: Spallation § Nuclear spallation
See also[edit]
Acoplanarity
Atomic mass
Atomic nucleus
Atomic number
CNO cycle
Nuclear chain reaction
Oppenheimer–Phillips process
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Astrophysics Spectator: Hydrogen Fusion Rates in Stars
Jump up ^ Tilley, R. J. D. (2004). Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials. John Wiley and Sons. p. 495. ISBN 0-470-85275-5.
Jump up ^ Cockcroft and Walton split lithium with high energy protons April 1932. Archived 2012-09-02 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ a table of atomic masses
Jump up ^ Shinn, E.; Et., al. (2013). "Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors". Complexity. Bibcode:2013Cmplx..18c..24S. doi:10.1002/cplx.21427.
Sources[edit]
Schmitz, Taylor (1973). Nuclear Physics. Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-016983-X.
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