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Pledge of Allegiance (United States)
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This article is about the U.S. oath of allegiance. For the general topic of oaths of allegiance, see Oath of allegiance. For other uses, see Pledge of Allegiance (disambiguation).
Pledge of Allegiance
(Bellamy versions)
(changes are bolded and underlined)
1892 (first version) [1]
"I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1892 to 1923
"I pledge allegiance to my Flag and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1923 to 1954 [1]
"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
1954 (current version)
4 U.S.C. §4 [2]
"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."
The Pledge of Allegiance is an oath of allegiance to the United States, addressed to both the flag and the Republic. It was composed by Rear Admiral George Balch in 1887, and revised by Francis Bellamy in 1892. In 1942 it was formally adopted by Congress.[3][4][5][6] Congress gave it the name The Pledge of Allegiance in 1945. In 1954 the words "under God" were added.[7]
Though many countries have oaths of allegiances for specific purposes, the US remains one of the few to use such an oath in childhood education.
Contents
[hide]
1 Recital
2 Origins
2.1 Balch and Bellamy pledges
2.2 Bellamy's account
3 Changes
3.1 Addition of "under God"
4 Salute
5 Music
6 Controversy
6.1 Legal challenges
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Recital
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly-scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students cannot be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so.[8] A number of states state flag pledges of allegiance to be recited after this.[9]
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag—"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."[10]—should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.[2]
Origins
Balch and Bellamy pledges
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855–1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist,[11][12] and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850–1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag![3]
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school.[3][13] Balch's pledge, which predates Bellamy's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge.[14] Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[15] The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance" was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children's magazine The Youth's Companion as part of the National Public-School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools.[16] According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: 'Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain.'"[17]
Bellamy's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.[1][18]
Students reciting a pledge on Flag Day in 1899
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity[16] but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.[19]
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World's Fair), Illinois.[20]
Bellamy's account
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story ... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools."[15] James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse,"[15] so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892-93).[15]
As the World's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land ... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions."[15] Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but [he] also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States."[15] The publication's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools."[15] Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity."[15]
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation."[15] Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison."[15] He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag," seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[15] After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word 'allegiance'. ... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that 'pledge' was a better school word than 'vow' or 'swear'; and that the first person singular should be used, and that 'my' flag was preferable to 'the.'"[15] Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic," choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands."[15] Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible."[15]
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity"), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and … [that] equality was a dubious word."[15] Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. they involved the spirit of equality and fraternity."[15]
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words 'to my flag' were changed to 'to the flag of the United States of America' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools."[15] Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition."[15]
Changes
A plaque in Lansing, MI, dated 1918, listing the Balch Pledge, which was used parallel to the Bellamy Pledge until the National Flag Conference in 1923.
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance" as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:[14]
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
—  Balch Pledge of Allegiance
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915's "Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution" and 1916's annual "National Report," the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge" with Bellamy's version under the heading "New Pledge."[21][22] However, the "Old Pledge" continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag" to be changed to "the Flag of the United States," so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America" were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:[23]
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
—  1942 Pledge of Allegiance
Addition of "under God"
"Under God" redirects here. For the book, see Under God (book).
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God" to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea.[24][25] He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948,[24] he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God" added. He said that the words came from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God", all the reporters' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom." Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.[24]
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance.[26] In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God" after the words "one nation." Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.[27]
In 1952, Holger Christian Langmack suggested in a letter to President Truman adding "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance. Langmack was a Danish philosopher and educator who came to the US in 1911. He was one of the originators of the National Prayer Breakfast and a religious leader in Washington, D.C. Truman met with Langmack and with several others to discuss the addition.[citation needed] At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D-Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God" to the Pledge in 1953.[citation needed]
Rev. Dr. George MacPherson Docherty (left) and President Eisenhower (second from left) on the morning of February 7, 1954, at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln's pew, the church's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom." He argued that the nation's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life." He cited Lincoln's words "under God" as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.[citation needed]
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R-Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[28] Eisenhower said:[29]
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
—  Dwight D. Eisenhower
The phrase "under God" was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.[28]
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.[27]
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God" into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push-back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.[30]
Salute
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.[3]
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand-over-the-heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942.[31] Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301(b)(1)of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.[32]
Music
Musical setting by Irving Caesar
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag" was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God" was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[33]
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.[34][35]
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants". A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.[36]
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).[37]
Controversy
Main article: Criticism of the Pledge of Allegiance
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case—Jehovah's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry—could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:[38]
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
—  Robert H. Jackson, West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.[39]
First graders of Japanese ancestry pledging allegiance to the American flag (1942, photo by Dorothea Lange).
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance.[40][39] Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, cannot really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making.[41] Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting this phrase violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.[42]
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God" meant "God willing", so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.[43][44]
Legal challenges
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag.[45] They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.[46][47]
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God" an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school-sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an Order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God."[48]
A 2005 Bill, H.R. 2389, to prohibit the Supreme Court's and most federal courts from considering any legal challenges to the government's requiring or promoting of the Pledge of Allegiance, died in the Senate after having passed in the House. This action is viewed[by whom?] in general as court stripping by Congress of the constitutional power of the Judiciary. Even if a similar bill is enacted, its practical effect may not be clear:[opinion] proponents of the bill have said that it is a valid exercise of Congress's power to regulate the jurisdiction of the federal courts under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, but opponents say Congress does not have the authority to prevent the Supreme Court from hearing claims based on the Bill of Rights, since amendments postdate the original text of the Constitution and may thus implicitly limit the scope of Article III, Section 2. Judges and legal analysts have said that if Congress can remove from the judicial branch the ability to determine if legislation is constitutional, the US separation of powers would be disturbed, or rendered non-functional.[49]
Mark J. Pelavin, former Associate Director of the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, said of court stripping in regard to the Pledge of Allegiance that:[50][51]
Today's House adoption of the so-called "Pledge Protection Act" is a shameful effort to strip our federal courts of their ability to uphold the rights of all Americans. By removing the jurisdiction of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, from cases involving the Pledge, this legislation sets a dangerous precedent: threatening religious liberty, compromising the vital system of checks and balances upon which our government was founded, and granting Congress the authority to strip the courts' jurisdiction on any issue it wishes. Today, the issue was the Pledge of Allegiance, but tomorrow it could be reproductive rights, civil rights, or any other fundamental concern.
—  Mark J. Pelavin, Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.[52] As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic" by a teacher.[53]
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13-year-old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.[54]
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District.[55][56] In a 2–1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature" and did not constitute an establishment of religion.[55] Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state-directed, teacher-led daily recitation in public schools of the amended 'under God' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution."[57]
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary.[58][59] A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.[60][61]
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts.[62] In May 2014, Massachusetts' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God" represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.[63]
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "… the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who don't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message."[64] The case against the Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God"in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second-class citizens."In a twenty-one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under [the association members'] reasoning, the very constitution under which [the members] seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which [association members] do not and cannot advance here."[64] Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples"that do not allow it.[65][66] He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words 'under God' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words 'In God We Trust' from every coin in the land, than the words 'so help me God' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787.”
See also
Australian citizenship affirmation, a similar concept
Ceremonial deism
Flag Salute
Loyalty oaths in the United States
Youth's Companion Building, where the Pledge of Allegiance was written and published
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Jump up ^ "U.S. Copyright Office, Copyright search for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag"".
Jump up ^ West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette , 319 U.S. 624, 642 (U.S. Supreme Court 1943).
^ Jump up to: a b Holloman ex rel. Holloman v. Harland , 370 F.3d 1252 (11th Cir. 2004).
Jump up ^ Lane v. Owens; 03-B-1544, United States District Court, District of Colorado
Jump up ^ Olander, Herbert T. (December 1941). "Children's Knowledge of the Flag Salute". The Journal of Educational Research. 35 (4): 300–305. JSTOR 27528245.
Jump up ^ "Court upholds 'under God' in Pledge of Allegiance". Associated Press. 2010-03-11. Archived from the original on 2010-03-16. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Nunberg (2004-06-20). "I Might Have Guessed Parson Weems Would Figure In There Somewhere". Language Log. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
Jump up ^ Geoffrey Nunberg (2004-06-20). ""(Next) Under God," Phrasal Idiom". Language Log. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
Jump up ^ Jehovah's Witnesses-Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, 1993, pp. 196-197.
Jump up ^ "Flag Salute Cases". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
Jump up ^ Minersville School District v. Gobitis, 310 U.S. 586, 60 S. Ct. 1010, 84 L. Ed. 1375 (1940)
Jump up ^ Kravets, David (September 16, 2005), "Federal judge rules Pledge of Allegiance is unconstitutional", The Chicago Defender, archived from the original on 2006-01-11, retrieved 2008-03-31
Jump up ^ "Retired Federal Judges Urge Congress Not to Pass "Court-Stripping" Measure that Would Deny Rights in". Brennancenter.org. 2005-12-08. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Who We Are: Mark J. Pelavin, Senior Advisor to the President". Union for Reform Judaism. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Court-stripping and Legislating Against the First Amendment (12 July 2006)". Jewsonfirst.org. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
Jump up ^ Frazier v. Alexandre , 434 F.Supp.2d 1350 (S.D. Fla. May 31, 2006).
Jump up ^ "Frazier v. Alexandre, No. 05-81142 (S.D. Fla. May 31, 2006)". National School Boards Association. March 15, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-03-15.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Jenna (February 24, 2010). "Pledge of Allegiance dispute results in Md. teacher having to apologize". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-02-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Chea, Terence (March 12, 2010). "Fed. appeals court upholds 'under God' in pledge". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2010-03-15. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Jump up ^ Newdow vs. Rio Linda Union School District (9th Cir. March 12, 2010). Text
Jump up ^ "Pledge of Allegiance's God reference now upheld by court". LA Times. March 12, 2010. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
Jump up ^ Freedom from Religion Foundation v. Hanover School District (1st Cir. Nov 12, 2010). Text
Jump up ^ Lavoie, Denise (November 15, 2010). "Court OKs NH law allowing 'God' pledge in schools". The Boston Globe. Boston, MA: Christopher M. Mayer. Retrieved 2010-11-16. The constitutionality of a New Hampshire law...
Jump up ^ Egelko, Bob (June 15, 2011). "High court spurns atheist's 'under God' challenge". San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco, CA: Hearst Corporation. A Sacramento atheist's challenge to the addition of "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance...
Jump up ^ Supreme Court of the United States (June 13, 2011). "Freedom From Religion Foundation, Petitioner v. United States, et al". Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
Jump up ^ "'Under God' part of Pledge of Allegiance under review in Massachusetts". CNN.com. 2013-09-04. Retrieved 2013-10-23.
Jump up ^ "Massachusetts court rules 'under God' in pledge does not discriminate against atheists". The Washington Post. 2014-05-09. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Under God' is not discriminatory and will stay in pledge, judge says". NJ.com. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Salvador Rizzo. "Hearing 'Under God' in Pledge of Allegiance does not violate rights of atheist students, NJ judge rules". NorthJersey.com. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Judge Refuses To Kick God Out Of Public Schools". Forbes. 7 February 2015. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
Further reading
Martin, Leisa A. (May–June 2008). "Examining the Pledge of Allegiance". Social Studies. 99 (3): 127–131. doi:10.3200/tsss.99.3.127-131.
John W. Baer (2007). The Pledge of Allegiance: A Revised History and Analysis, 1892–2007 (Free State Press, Inc.) ISBN 978-0-9650620-2-2 Excerpt, Chapter Eight: "Under God" and Other Questions About the Pledge.
Richard J. Ellis (2005). To the Flag: The Unlikely History of the Pledge of Allegiance (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press) ISBN 0-7006-1372-2
Marc Leepson (2005). Flag: An American Biography (Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press) ISBN 0-312-32308-5
Kevin M. Kruse (2015). One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America, Basic Books, ISBN 0465049494.
External links
Find more aboutPledge of Allegiance (United States)at Wikipedia's sister projects
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4 U.S.C. § 4
Docherty's Sermon Manuscript, Feb. 7, 1954[dead link]
Minister Reprises "Under God" Sermon
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Finances of the British royal family
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The British royal family is financed by the hereditary revenues of the Crown.[1] The British Parliament uses a percentage of the Crown Estate, a part of the Crown's hereditary revenues belonging to the sovereign that is placed at the disposal of the House of Commons, to meet the costs of the sovereign's official expenditures.[1][2] This includes the costs of the upkeep of the various royal residences, staffing, travel and state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment.[3] Other sources of income include revenues from the Duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall, a parliamentary annuity, and income from private investments. The Keeper of the Privy Purse is Head of the Privy Purse and Treasurer's Office and has overall responsibility for the management of the sovereign's financial affairs.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Income
1.1 Civil List
1.2 Sovereign Grant
1.3 Duchy of Lancaster
1.4 Duchy of Cornwall
1.5 Parliamentary annuities
1.6 Taxation
2 Assets
2.1 Private wealth of the Queen
2.2 Crown Estate
2.3 Assets held in trust
3 References
Income[edit]
Civil List[edit]
Main article: Civil list
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted from 1760 until 2012. The Civil List was paid from public funds and was intended to support the exercise of the monarch's duties as head of state of the United Kingdom. In modern times, the Government's profits from the Crown Estate always significantly exceeded the Civil List.[3] Under the Civil List arrangements the royal family faced criticism for the lack of transparency surrounding Royal finances.[5] The National Audit Office was not entitled to audit the Royal Household.[6]
The Queen received an annual £7.9 million a year from the Civil List between 2001 and 2012. The total income of the Royal Household from the Treasury was always significantly larger than the Civil List because it included additional income such as Grants-in-Aid from the Treasury and revenues from the Duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster.[7] The total Royal Household income for the financial years 2011-12 and 2012-13 was £30 million per annum, followed by a 14% cut in the following year.[8] However, the Treasury provided an additional £1 million to pay for Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012.[9]
Royal expenditure differs from income due to the use of a Reserve Fund, which can be added to or drawn from. The official reported annual expenditure of the Head of State was £41.5 million for the 2008-09 financial year. This figure did not include the cost of security provided by the police and the Army and some other expenses.[10]
Sovereign Grant[edit]
Main article: Sovereign Grant Act 2011
Under the Sovereign Grant Act 2011, the system of funding the Royal Household by a mixture of Civil List payments and Grants-in-Aid was replaced. From 1 April 2012 a single annual Sovereign Grant has been paid by the Treasury. The level of funding for the Royal Household is now linked to the Government's revenue from The Crown Estate.
The Sovereign Grant Annual Report states that the Sovereign Grant was £31 million for 2012-13, £36.1 million for 2013-14[11] and £37.9 million for 2014-15. The amount of the Sovereign Grant is 15% of the income account net surplus of the Crown Estate for the financial year that began two years previously. The arrangements will be reviewed by 2016 (subsection 7(5) of the Act).[12] Step 4 of subsection 6(1), and subsection 6(4), of the Act provide a mechanism to prevent the amount of the Sovereign Grant increasing beyond what is necessary because of the growth in Crown Estate revenue.[13] Under the Sovereign Grant the National Audit Office is able to audit the Royal Household.
On November 18, 2016 a plan was announced to increase the Sovereign Grant from 15% to 25% to renovate and repair Buckingham Palace. The percentage is set to revert to 15% when the project is finished in 2027.[14]
Duchy of Lancaster[edit]
Main article: Duchy of Lancaster
The Duchy of Lancaster is the private estate of the British Sovereign (now Queen Elizabeth II) consisting of land holdings and other assets.[15] As it is held in perpetual trust for future generations of Sovereigns,[16] the Sovereign is not entitled to the estate's capital.[17] The revenue profits of the Duchy are presented to the Sovereign each year and form part of the Privy Purse, providing income for both the official and private expenses of the monarch.[18] In the financial year ending 31 March 2015, the Duchy was valued at £472 million, providing £16 million in income.[19]
In 2017, the Paradise Papers revealed that the Duchy held investments in two offshore financial centres, the Cayman Islands and Bermuda. Both are British Overseas Territories of which Queen Elizabeth II is monarch, and nominally appoints governors. Britain handles foreign policy for both islands to a large extent, but Bermuda has been self-governing since 1620. The Duchy's investments included First Quench Retailing off-licences and rent-to-own retailer BrightHouse.[20] Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn posited whether the Queen should apologize, saying anyone with money offshore for tax avoidance should "not just apologise for it, [but] recognise what it does to our society". A spokesman for the Duchy said that all of their investments are audited and legitimate and that the Queen voluntarily pays taxes on income she receives from Duchy investments.[21]
Duchy of Cornwall[edit]
Main article: Duchy of Cornwall
The Duchy of Cornwall is a Crown entity holding land and other assets to produce an income for the monarch's eldest child. The Duke of Cornwall (Charles, Prince of Wales) receives revenue towards charitable work and official activities, supported by The Queen's Grant-in-aid funding to provide assistance with official travel and property. These financial arrangements also cover the official expenditure of some members of his immediate family. The Duchess of Cornwall, The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry all have their official expenses paid from Duchy income, assisted by grants-in aid from The Queen.[22] For the fiscal year 2011-12 the Duchy was valued at £728 million with an annual profit of £18.3 million paid to the Prince.[23]
Parliamentary annuities[edit]
The Duke of Edinburgh receives a parliamentary annuity of £359,000 per year from the Treasury.[24][25] In the past some other members of the British royal family also received funding in the form of parliamentary annuities. The Civil List Act 1952 provided for an allowance to Princess Margaret as well as allowances to the queen's younger children among others.[26][27] The Civil List Act 1972 added further members of the royal family to the annuity list.[who?][28] By 2002 there were eight recipients of parliamentary annuities (all children or cousins of the Queen)[who?] receiving a combined total of £1.5 million annually. Between 1993 and 2012 the Queen voluntarily refunded the cost of these annuities to the Treasury.[27] The Sovereign Grant Act 2011 abolished all of these other than that received by the Duke of Edinburgh.[29] Subsequently the living costs of the members of the royal family who carry out official duties, including the Princess Royal, the Duke of York, and the Earl and Countess of Wessex, have mainly been met through the Queen’s income from the Duchy of Lancaster.[30]
Taxation[edit]
The Crown has a legal tax-exempt status because certain acts of parliament do not apply to it. Crown bodies such as The Duchy of Lancaster are not subject to legislation concerning income tax, capital gains tax or inheritance tax. Furthermore, the Sovereign has no legal liability to pay such taxes. The Duchy of Cornwall has a Crown exemption and the Prince of Wales is not legally liable to pay income tax on Duchy revenues.
A "Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation" was published on 5 February 1993 and amended in 1996, 2009 and 2013. It is intended that the arrangements in the memorandum will be followed by the next monarch. The memorandum describes the arrangements by which The Queen and The Prince of Wales make voluntary payments to the HM Revenue and Customs in lieu of tax to compensate for their tax exemption. The details of the payments are private. The Queen voluntarily pays a sum equivalent to income tax on her private income and income from the Privy Purse (which includes the Duchy of Lancaster) that is not used for official purposes. The Sovereign Grant is exempted. A sum equivalent to capital gains tax is voluntarily paid on any gains from the disposal of private assets made after 5 April 1993. Many of the Sovereign's assets were acquired earlier than this date but payment is only made on the gains made afterwards. Arrangements also exist for a sum in lieu of inheritance tax to be voluntarily paid on some of the Queen's private assets. Property passing from monarch to monarch is exempted, as is property passing from the consort of a former monarch to the current monarch.[31]
The Prince of Wales voluntarily pays a sum equivalent to income tax on that part of his income from the Duchy of Cornwall that is in excess of what is needed to meet official expenditure.[29] From 1969 he made voluntary tax payments of 50% of the profits, but this reduced to 25% in 1981 when he married Lady Diana Spencer.[32] These arrangements were replaced by the memorandum in 1993. The income of the Prince of Wales from sources other than the Duchy of Cornwall is subject to tax in the normal way.
Assets[edit]
Private wealth of the Queen[edit]
The Queen has a private income from her personal investment portfolio,[30] though her personal wealth and income are not known.[33] Jock Colville, a former private secretary to the Queen (when she was Princess Elizabeth) and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth at £2 million in 1971 (the equivalent of about £26 million today[34]).[35] An official statement from Buckingham Palace in 1993 called estimates of £100 million "grossly overstated".[36] In 2002, she inherited her mother's estate, thought to have been worth £70 million[37] (the equivalent of about £105 million today).[34]
Forbes magazine estimated the Queen's net worth at around $500 million (about £325 million) in 2011,[38] while an analysis by the Bloomberg Billionaires Index put it at $425 million (about £275 million) in 2015.[39] In 2012 the Sunday Times estimated the Queen's wealth as being £310 million ($504 million), and that year the Queen received a Guinness World Record as Wealthiest Queen.[40] The Sunday Times Rich List 2015 estimated her wealth at £340 million, making her the 302nd richest person in the United Kingdom; that was the first year she was not among the Sunday Times Rich List's top 300 most wealthy since the list began in 1989.[41] She was number one on the list when it began in 1989.[41]
Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are privately owned by the Queen.[42]
Crown Estate[edit]
Main article: Crown Estate
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, producing £211 million for the Treasury in the financial year 2007–8.[7] and with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011.[43] The Crown Estate is not the private property of the Monarch. It cannot be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity,[44] nor do any revenues, or debts, from the estate accrue to her. Instead the Crown Estate is owned by the Crown, a corporation representing the legal embodiment of the State. It is held in trust and governed by Act of Parliament, to which it makes an annual report.[43] Revenue from the Crown Estate is thought to be due to double in real terms between 2010 and 2020 with additional lease revenues deriving from the development of offshore wind farms within Britain's Renewable Energy Zone,[45] the rights of which were granted to the Crown Estate by the Energy Act 2004.
Assets held in trust[edit]
A number of State possessions are held in trust by the Sovereign.
The Royal Collection is the art collection of the British royal family. It is one of the largest and most important art collections in the world, containing over 7,000 paintings, 40,000 watercolours and drawings, about 150,000 old master prints, historical photographs, tapestries, furniture, ceramics, books, gold and silver plate, arms and armour, jewellery and other works of art. The collection includes the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London (including the crown, orb and sceptre).[46] It is physically dispersed between thirteen Royal residences and former residences across Britain. Although the collection belongs to the sovereign, it is not the personal property of Elizabeth II as a private individual. Instead the collection is held in trust by the Queen for her successors and the nation.[47] The Treasury refers to these assets as "vested in the sovereign and cannot be alienated".[48] Income is generated by the collection from public admissions and other sources. This income is received by the Royal Collection Trust, the collection's management charity, and not by the Queen.[29]
The occupied royal palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle are held in trust by the sovereign.[42] The Royal Household is expected to use the Sovereign Grant to maintain the palaces. In May 2009 the Queen requested an extra £4 million annually from the government to carry out a backlog of repairs to Buckingham Palace.[49] In 2010, the Royal Household requested an additional grant from the Department for Culture, Media and Sport but were refused on the basis that the scheme was "aimed at schools, hospitals, councils and housing associations for heating programmes which benefit low-income families".[50] Over a third of the Royal estate was in disrepair by 2012-13 according to a report by the Public Accounts Committee. The cost of restoration was estimated to be £50 million, but the Reserve Fund was at a historic low of £1m.[51] The Monarch is also responsible for using the Sovereign Grant to pay the wages of 431 of the approximately 1200 Royal Household staff,[52] amounting to £18.2 million in 2014-15.[30] In 2013, the Guardian newspaper reported that Buckingham Palace was using zero-hour contract for its summer staff[53] and in 2015 it was reported that at least four senior officials had been made redundant to reduce costs.[54]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Sovereign's gracious message to the House of Commons re: The Sovereign Grant Bill" (PDF). Buckingham Palace. 29 June 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sovereign Grant Bill – Further background information provided to Members of Parliament in advance of the Bill's Second Reading Debate on 14 July 2011" (PDF). Her Majesty's Treasury. July 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-29. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Royal Finances: The Civil List, Official web site of the British Monarchy, retrieved 18 June 2010
Jump up ^ The Privy Purse and Treasurer's Office, accessed 13 June 2010
Jump up ^ "Royals 'cost the taxpayer £37.4m'". BBC News. 28 June 2006.
Jump up ^ Verkaik, Robert (28 June 2002). "First look at royal finances fails to satisfy MPs". The Independent. London.
^ Jump up to: a b Royal Finances: Head of State Expenditure, Official web site of the British Monarchy, archived from the original on 14 May 2010, retrieved 18 June 2010
Jump up ^ "Spending Review: Royal family to face 14% cuts". BBC News. 20 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Verkaik, Robert (21 October 2010). "Royal 'cuts' could make Charles the richest king in British history". The Independent. London.
Jump up ^ "Cost of Royal Family rises £1.5m". BBC News. 29 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Sovereign Grant Annual Report 2012-13". The Official Website of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Royal funding changes become law". BBC News. 18 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Determination of the amount of Sovereign Grant". www.legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Davies, Caroline (2016-11-18). "Buckingham Palace to undergo 'essential' £370m refurbishment". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-01-19.
Jump up ^ "Duchy of Lancaster - FAQs". Duchy of Lancaster. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Privy Purse and Duchy of Lancaster". Royal Household. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Annual Report 2013" (PDF). Duchy of Lancaster. 31 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Royal Finances: Privy Purse and Duchy of Lancaster, Official web site of the British Monarchy, retrieved 18 June 2010
Jump up ^ "Duchy of Lancaster - Management and Finance". Duchy of Lancaster. Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Osborne, Hilary (5 November 2017). "Revealed: Queen's private estate invested millions of pounds offshore". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 November 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Paradise Papers: Queen should apologise, suggests Corbyn". BBC. 6 November 2017. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Who pays for The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry?". The Prince of Wales and The Duchess of Cornwall Website. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Annual Report and Accounts Year Ended 31st March 2012" (PDF). Duchy Of Cornwall. 1 June 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
Jump up ^ The amount was set by the Civil List (Increase of Financial Provision) Order 1990. It was initially set at £40,000 in the Civil List Act 1952, raised to £65,000 by the Civil List Act 1972, and raised to £165,000 by the Civil List (Increase of Financial Provision) Order 1984.
Jump up ^ "What Is The True Cost Of The Monarchy?". Royal Central. 17 February 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Civil List Act 1952: Chapter 37". legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Verkaik, Robert (30 May 2002). "Royal aides want to see abolition of Civil List". The Independent. London. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Further provision for members of the Royal Family". www.legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation" (PDF). HM Government. 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rayner, Gordon (21 Jun 2015). "Queen's finances are safe from cuts for two years". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Goldsmith, Vivien (12 February 1993). "The Queen's Finances: Ordinary tax allowances for royals". The Independent. London.
Jump up ^ Philip Hall, 1992, Royal Fortune, Tax, Money and the Monarchy, page xxii, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-1098-9
Jump up ^ "Royal overspend prompts call to open palace doors". BBC News. 28 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
Jump up ^ The Times, 9 July 1971; Pimlott, p. 401.
Jump up ^ Lord Chamberlain Lord Airlie quoted in Hoey, p. 225 and Pimlott, p. 561
Jump up ^ "Queen inherits Queen Mother's estate". 17 May 2002. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Luisa. "Just How Rich Are Queen Elizabeth And Her Family?". Forbs,com. Forbs. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Tom. "Queen Elizabeth II Isn't as Rich as You Think". bloomberg.com. bloomberg. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Wealthiest Queen". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Helen Nianias (26 April 2015). "The Queen drops off the top end of the Sunday Times Rich List for the first time since its inception". The Independent. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b The Royal Residences: Overview, Royal Household, archived from the original on 1 May 2011, retrieved 9 December 2009
^ Jump up to: a b About Us, Crown Estate, 6 July 2011, archived from the original on 1 September 2011, retrieved 1 September 2011
Jump up ^ FAQs, Crown Estate, archived from the original on 3 September 2011, retrieved 1 September 2011
Jump up ^ Martin Delgado and Christopher Leake (24 October 2010). "Queen's £38m a year offshore windfarm windfall - because she owns the seabed". London: Mail Online. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Royal Special: Sovereign wealth". The Independent. London. 31 May 2002.
Jump up ^ "The Royal Collection". The Royal Household. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ What is the Royal Collection?, The Royal Collection, retrieved 12 November 2008
Jump up ^ Pierce, Andrew (30 May 2009). "Queen must open palace more in return for extra funds". The Daily Telegraph. UK. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Queen asked for heating grant from Government". The Daily Telegraph. London. 24 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Younger, Rachel (28 January 2014). "Royal Estate Overspend Leaves £50m Repair Bill". Sky News. London. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Richard (30 May 2015). "Royal Family faces major financial review as costs soar by a third in three years". Daily Express. London. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Simon Neville, Matthew Taylor and Phillip Inman. "Buckingham Palace uses zero-hours contracts for summer staff | Money". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-09-07.
Jump up ^ Sabur, Rozina (23 May 2015). "Buckingham Palace 'axes at least four' of the Queen's senior officials". The telegraph. London. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
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Yeoman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Yeoman (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A Yeoman Warder at the Tower of London in England
A yeoman /ˈjoʊmən/ was a member of a social class in late medieval to early modern England. In early recorded uses, a yeoman was an attendant in a noble household; hence titles such as "Yeoman of the Chamber", "Yeoman of the Crown", "Yeoman Usher", "King's Yeoman", Yeomen Warders, Yeomen of the Guard. The later sense of yeoman as "a commoner who cultivates his own land" is recorded from the 15th century; in military context, yeoman was the rank of the third order of "fighting men", below knights and squires, but above knaves. A specialized meaning in naval terminology, "petty officer in charge of supplies", arose in the 1660s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 United States
3.1 U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard
4 Other references
4.1 In popular culture
4.2 Other
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term is first recorded c. 1300. Its etymology is unclear. It may be a contraction of Old English iunge man, meaning "young man" (compare knave, meaning "boy"), but there are alternative suggestions, such as derivations from an unattested *geaman (a hypothetical cognate of Old Frisian gaman, from gea- "province") meaning "villager; rustic". The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale appears in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, written between 1387 and 1400.
History[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Feudal titles
and status
Lord Paramount
Lord of the manor
Mesne lord
Esquire
Gentleman
Franklin
Yeoman
Freeman
Villein
Bordar
Cottar
Serf
Vagabond
Slave
v
t
e
During the late 14th to 18th centuries, yeomen were farmers who owned land (freehold, leasehold or copyhold). Their wealth and the size of their landholding varied. Sir Anthony Richard Wagner, Garter Principal King of Arms, wrote that "a Yeoman would not normally have less than 100 acres" (40 hectares) "and in social status is one step down from the Landed gentry, but above, say, a husbandman".[1] Often it was hard to distinguish minor landed gentry from the wealthier yeomen, and wealthier husbandmen from the poorer yeomen.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (edited by H.W. & F.G. Fowler, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1972 reprint, p. 1516) states that a yeoman was "a person qualified by possessing free land of 40/- (shillings) annual [feudal] value, and who can serve on juries and vote for a Knight of the Shire. He is sometimes described as a small landowner, a farmer of the middle classes".
The term had a military sense as in the Yeomanry Cavalry of the late 18th century and Imperial Yeomanry of the late 1890s. The 'yeoman archer' was unique to England and Wales (in particular, the south Wales areas of Monmouthshire with the famed archers of Gwent; and Glamorgan, Crickhowell, and Abergavenny; and South West England with the Royal Forest of Dean, Kingswood Royal Forest near Bristol, and the New Forest). Though Kentish Weald and Cheshire archers were noted for their skills, it appears that the bulk of the 'yeomanry' was from the English and Welsh Marches (border regions).
The original Yeomen of the Guard (originally archers) chartered in 1485 were most likely of Brittonic descent, including Welshmen and Bretons. They were established by King Henry VII, himself a Briton who was exiled in Brittany during the Wars of the Roses. He recruited his forces mostly from Wales and the West Midlands of England on his journey to victory at Bosworth Field.
Yeomen were often constables of their parish, and sometimes chief constables of the district, shire or hundred. Many yeomen held the positions of bailiffs for the High Sheriff or for the shire or hundred. Other civic duties would include churchwarden, bridge warden, and other warden duties. It was also common for a yeoman to be an overseer for his parish. Yeomen, whether working for a lord, king, shire, knight, district or parish served in localised or municipal police forces raised by or led by the landed gentry.
Some of these roles, in particular those of constable and bailiff were carried down through families. Yeomen often filled ranging, roaming, surveying, and policing roles. In Chaucer's Friar's Tale, a yeoman who is a bailiff of the forest who tricks the Summoner turns out to be the devil ready to grant wishes already made.
The earlier class of franklins (freemen or French or Norman freeholders) were similar to yeomen: wealthy peasant landowners, freeholders or village officials. They were typically village leaders (aldermen), constables or mayors. Franklin militias were similar to later yeomanries. Yeomen took over those roles in the 14th century as many of them became leaders, constables, sheriffs, justices of the peace, mayors and significant leaders of their country districts.[2] It was too much[clarification needed], for even ‘valets’ known as ‘yeoman archers’ were forbidden to be returned to parliament, indicating[clarification needed] they even held power at a level never before held by the upper class of commoners. In districts remoter from landed gentry and burgesses, yeomen held more official power: this is attested in statutes of the reign of Henry VIII indicating yeomen along with knights and squires as leaders for certain purposes.
The yeoman also comprised a military class or status (usually known as in the third order of the fighting class, between squire and page). By contrast, in contemporary feudal continental Europe, the divide between commoners and gentry was far wider: though a middle class existed, it was less esteemed than the yeoman of England of that time.
United States[edit]
Main article: Plain Folk of the Old South
Coat of arms of Wisconsin during the Civil War, with yeoman on the right
In the United States, yeomen were identified in the 18th and 19th centuries as non-slaveholding, small landowning, family farmers. In Southern areas where land was poor, like East Tennessee,[3] the landowning yeomen were typically subsistence farmers, but some managed to grow some crops for market. Whether they engaged in subsistence or commercial agriculture, they controlled far more modest landholdings than those of the planters, typically in the range of 50–200 acres. In the North, practically all the farms were operated by yeoman farmers as family farms.
Thomas Jefferson was a leading advocate of the yeomen, arguing that the independent farmers formed the basis of republican values.[4] Indeed, Jeffersonian Democracy as a political force was largely built around the yeomen.[5] After the Civil War, organizations of farmers, especially the Grange, formed to organize and enhance the status of the yeoman farmers.[6]
U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard[edit]
Main article: Yeoman (United States Navy)
In the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard, the enlisted rating of yeoman describes an enlisted service member who performs administrative and clerical work ashore and embarked aboard vessels at sea. They deal with protocol, naval instructions, enlisted evaluations, commissioned officer fitness reports, naval messages, visitors, telephone calls and mail (both conventional and electronic). They organize files and operate office equipment and order and distribute office supplies. They write and type business and social letters, notices, directives, forms and reports.
Other references[edit]
This article contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (October 2017)
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In popular culture[edit]
In William Caxton's printing of The Canterbury Tales, there is a woodcut engraving of the knight's yeoman.
In William Shakespeare's Hamlet, Prince Hamlet states his under-appreciated ability to write elegantly in a particular situation had done him "yeoman's service".
In the oldest stories of Robin Hood, such as A Gest of Robyn Hode, Robin Hood is a yeoman, although later retellings make him a knight. According to Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, Robin Hood's Band of Merry Men is composed largely of yeomen.
In Thomas Malory's tale of Arthurian legend Le Morte d'Arthur, Sir Gawain states that he was made a yeoman at Yule.
The Yeomen of the Guard (1888) is a Savoy Opera by Gilbert and Sullivan.
In The Magician's Nephew by C.S.Lewis, part of the Narnia cycle (1955), the magician Uncle Andrew complained about Jadis' behavior and mentioned a cousin Edward who frequented pawn shops and was in the yeomanry.
The Dr. Seuss book The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins includes a "Yeoman of the Bowmen", a master archer who shoots a hat off the title character's head.
In Elizabeth Moon's The Deed of Paksenarrion fantasy novels, the followers of St. Gird (many of whom are farmers) call themselves the "Yeomen of Gird".
In Hunter S. Thompson's The Rum Diary, one of the two characters Thompson had based on himself was named Yeoman.[7]
In the American TV series The Love Boat (1977–1987), former actor Fred Grandy's character, Burl "Gopher" Smith, is introduced at the start of each episode as "Your Yeoman Purser".
In Star Trek, following U.S. Navy usage, as a role in the TV series held by mainly female (although sometimes male) enlisted personnel in assistance to higher-ranking officers. Notably, Yeoman Janice Rand. The same is true in the Mass Effect video game series, with Yeoman Kelly Chambers (female Cerberus crewman in Mass Effect 2) and Yeoman Copeland (male Alliance Ensign in Mass Effect 3).
Other[edit]
In falconry, the bird for the yeoman is the goshawk, a forest bird.
In computer and information technologies, Yeoman is an open-source web scaffolding tool announced at Google I/O in 2012 by Paul Irish.[8][9]
See also[edit]
Yeomanry (military)
Social history of England
Franklin (class)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Wagner, Sir Anthony R., English Genealogy, Oxford University Press, 1960, pp. 125–130.
Jump up ^ Cerasano, S. P.; Hirschfeld, Heather Anne (2006-10-01). Medieval and Renaissance Drama in England. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 159. ISBN 9780838641194.
Jump up ^ The difficulty yeoman farmers faced in this region was notorious enough that it inspired the lyrics "Corn don't grow at all on Rocky Top; dirt's too rocky by far" in Rocky Top, now one of Tennessee's state songs.
Jump up ^ Samuel C. Hyde Jr., "Plain Folk Yeomanry in the Antebellum South", in John Boles, Jr., ed., Companion to the American South, (2004) pp 139–155
Jump up ^ Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890 (1983)
Jump up ^ Thomas A. Woods, Knights of the Plow: Oliver H. Kelley and the Origins of the Grange in Republican Ideology (2002)
Jump up ^ DeSaulnier, Jordan. "Johnny Depp Talks 'The Rum Diary'". iamrogue.com. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Osmani, Addy. "Improved Developer Tooling and Yeoman". Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Web's Scaffolding Tool for Modern Webapps". Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Allen, Robert C. Enclosure and the Yeoman (1992) Oxford U. Press 376p.
Broad, John. "The Fate of the Midland Yeoman: Tenants, Copyholders, and Freeholders as Farmers in North Buckinghamshire, 1620–1800", Continuity & Change 1999 14(3): 325–347.
Campbell, Mildred. The English Yeoman
Genovese, Eugene D. "Yeomen Farmers in a Slaveholders' Democracy", Agricultural History Vol. 49, No. 2 (April 1975), pp. 331–342 in JSTOR, antebellum U.S.
Hallas, Christine S. "Yeomen and Peasants? Landownership Patterns in the North Yorkshire Pennines c. 1770–1900", Rural History 1998 9(2): 157–176.
External links[edit]
Look up yeoman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article yeoman.
Yeomen of the Guard
Official Yeomen of the Guard
Yeoman Board Game
Knight's Yeoman
The Yeoman Warders
Worcester Yeomanry Cavalry
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yeoman&oldid=815664439"
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