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Mitosis
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Not to be confused with Meiosis, Miosis, Myiasis, Myositis, or Myosotis.
Mitosis in an animal cell (phases ordered counter-clockwise).
Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.
Onion (Allium) cells in different phases of the cell cycle enlarged 800 diameters.
a. non-dividing cells
b. nuclei preparing for division (spireme-stage)
c. dividing cells showing mitotic figures
e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division
In cell biology, mitosis (/maɪˈtoʊsɪs/) is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often accompanied or followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.[1] Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.
The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell.[2] The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.[3] Producing three or more daughter cells instead of normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis (direct cell triplication / multiplication).[4] Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations.[5]
Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission. Mitosis varies between organisms.[6] For example, animal cells undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas fungi undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.[7] Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Phases
2.1 Overview
2.2 Interphase
2.3 Mitosis
2.3.1 Preprophase (plant cells)
2.3.2 Prophase
2.3.3 Prometaphase
2.3.4 Metaphase
2.3.5 Anaphase
2.3.6 Telophase
2.4 Cytokinesis
3 Function
4 Variations
4.1 Forms of mitosis
4.2 Errors and other variations
5 Related cell processes
5.1 Cell rounding
5.2 Mitotic recombination
6 Evolution
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Discovery[edit]
Numerous descriptions of cell division were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy.[8] In 1835, the German botanist Hugo von Mohl, described cell division in the green alga Cladophora glomerata, stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell division.[9][10][11] In 1838, Schleiden affirmed that the formation of new cells in their interior was a general law for cell multiplication in plants, a view later rejected in favour of Mohl model, due to contributions of Robert Remak and others.[12]
In animal cells, cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875.[13][14]
Bütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as "mitosis".[8] In 1873, the German zoologist Otto Bütschli published data from observations on nematodes. A few years later, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations.[15][16][17]
The term "mitosis", coined by Walther Flemming in 1882,[18] is derived from the Greek word μίτος (mitos, "warp thread").[19][20] There are some alternative names for the process,[21] e.g., "karyokinesis" (nuclear division), a term introduced by Schleicher in 1878,[22][23] or "equational division", proposed by Weismann in 1887.[24] However, the term "mitosis" is also used in a broad sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together.[25] Presently, "equational division" is more commonly used to refer to meiosis I.
Phases[edit]
Main article: Cell cycle
Overview[edit]
Play media
Time-lapse video of mitosis in a Drosophila melanogaster embryo
The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the S phase of interphase.[26] Chromosome duplication results in two identical sister chromatids bound together by cohesin proteins at the centromere.
When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart.[27] Sister chromatids at this point are called daughter chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei.
During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis.
Diagram of the mitotic phases
Interphase[edit]
Main article: Interphase
The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is divided into three phases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap). During all three parts of interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle.[26] All these phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins. The phases follow one another in strict order and there are "checkpoints" that give the cell cues to proceed from one phase to another. Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G0 phase to stop dividing. This can occur when cells become overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons. Some G0 cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle.
Mitosis[edit]
Preprophase (plant cells)[edit]
Main article: Preprophase
In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down.[28] The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase.[29]:58–67
Prophase[edit]
Main article: Prophase
During prophase, which occurs after G2 interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope. In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin and thread-like. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two chromatids are joined at the centromere.
Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does not resume until late anaphase to early G1 phase.[30][31][32] The nucleolus also disappears during early prophase.[33]
Condensing chromosomes. Interphase nucleus (left), condensing chromosomes (middle) and condensed chromosomes (right).
Close to the nucleus of animal cells are structures called centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a loose collection of proteins. The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which is duplicated by the cell before a new round of mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes. The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus. Motor proteins then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite sides of the cell. Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus, since they are absent from plants,[28] and are not absolutely required for animal cell mitosis.[34]
Prometaphase[edit]
Main article: Prometaphase
At the beginning of prometaphase in animal cells, phosphorylation of nuclear lamins causes the nuclear envelope to disintegrate into small membrane vesicles. As this happens, microtubules invade the nuclear space. This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in some multicellular organisms. Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus, or the microtubules penetrate the intact nuclear envelope.[35][36]
In late prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules begin to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores.[37] A kinetochore is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase.[37][38] A number of polar microtubules find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle.[39] Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor.[40] When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to "crawl" up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids.[40]
Metaphase[edit]
A cell in late metaphase. All chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the metaphase plate.
Main article: Metaphase
After the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase, the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the cell. The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally located between the two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the cell).[39] To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes at the end of mitosis, the metaphase checkpoint guarantees that kinetochores are properly attached to the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate.[41] If the cell successfully passes through the metaphase checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase.
Anaphase[edit]
Main article: Anaphase
During anaphase A, the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes.[42] Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. During anaphase B, polar microtubules push against each other, causing the cell to elongate.[43] In late anaphase, chromosomes also reach their overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus.[44] In most animal cells, anaphase A precedes anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of events.[42]
Telophase[edit]
Main article: Telophase
Telophase (from the Greek word τελος meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to "relax" or decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes. Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism.
Cytokinesis[edit]
Cilliate undergoing cytokinesis, with the cleavage furrow being clearly visible
Main article: Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei.[45] In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell.[46] In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis.[29]:64–7, 328–9 Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.
There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi, slime molds, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon is found in various other organisms. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.[47]
Function[edit]
Mitosis "function" or significance relies on the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.
Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances:
Development and growth
The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis. This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell, i.e., zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body.
Cell replacement
In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being replaced. In like manner, red blood cells have short lifespan (only about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis.
Regeneration
Some organisms can regenerate body parts. The production of new cells in such instances is achieved by mitosis. For example, starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis.
Asexual reproduction
Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction. For example, the hydra reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called a bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new individual. The same division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation in plants.
Variations[edit]
Forms of mitosis[edit]
The mitosis process in the cells of eukaryotic organisms follow a similar pattern, but with variations in three main details. "Closed" and "open" mitosis can be distinguished on the basis of nuclear envelope remaining intact or breaking down. An intermediate form with partial degradation of the nuclear envelope is called a "semiopen" mitosis. With respesct to the symmetry of the spindle apparatus during metaphase, an approximately axially symmetric (centered) shape is called as "orthomitosis", distinguisehd from the eccentric spindles of "pleuromitosis", in which mitotic apparatus has a bilateral symmetry. Finally, a third criterion is the location of the central spindle in case of closed pleuromitosis: "extranuclear" (spindle located in the cytoplasm) or "intranuclear" (in the nucleus).[6]
closed
intranuclear
pleuromitosis
closed
extranuclear
pleuromitosis
closed
orthomitosis
semiopen
pleuromitosis
semiopen
orthomitosis
open
orthomitosis
Nuclear division takes place only in cells of organisms of the eukaryotic domain, as bacteria and archaea have no nucleus. Within each of the eukaryotic supergroups, mitosis of the open form can be found, as well as closed mitosis, except for Excavata, which show exclusively closed mitosis.[48] Following, the occurrence of the forms of mitosis in eukaryotes:[6][49]
Closed intranuclear pleuromitosis is typical of Foraminifera, some Prasinomonadida, some Kinetoplastida, the Oxymonadida, the Haplosporidia, many fungi (chytrids, oomycetes, zygomycetes, ascomycetes), and some Radiolaria (Spumellaria and Acantharia); it seems to be the most primitive type.
Closed extranuclear pleuromitosis occurs in Trichomonadida and Dinoflagellata.
Closed orthomitosis is found among diatoms, ciliates, some Microsporidia, unicellular yeasts and some multicellular fungi.
Semiopen pleuromitosis is typical of most Apicomplexa.
Semiopen orthomitosis occurs with different variants in some amoebae (Lobosa) and some green flagellates (e.g., Raphidophyta or Volvox).
Open orthomitosis is typical in mammals and other Metazoa, and in land plants; but it also occurs in some protists.
Errors and other variations[edit]
An abnormal (tripolar) mitosis (12 o'clock position) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach (H&E stain)
Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during early embryonic development in humans.[50] Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition associated with cancer.[51][52] Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements.[4]
In nondisjunction, sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase.[53] One daughter cell receives both sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other cell receives none. As a result, the former cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a condition known as trisomy, and the latter will have only one copy, a condition known as monosomy. On occasion, when cells experience nondisjunction, they fail to complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell, resulting in binucleated cells.[54]
Anaphase lag occurs when the movement of one chromatid is impeded during anaphase.[53] This may be caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly attach to the chromosome. The lagging chromatid is excluded from both nuclei and is lost. Therefore, one of the daughter cells will be monosomic for that chromosome.
Endoreduplication (or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide. This results in polyploid cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly, polytene chromosomes.[53][55] Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of development.[55] Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis. Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus.[47][56] The cells then re-enter G1 and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again.[56] This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis. Platelet-producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during cell differentiation.[57][58]
Amitosis in ciliates and in animal placental tissues results in a random distribution of parental alleles.
Karyokinesis without cytokinesis originates multinucleated cells called coenocytes.
Related cell processes[edit]
Cell rounding[edit]
Cell shape changes through mitosis for a typical animal cell cultured on a flat surface. The cell undergoes mitotic cell rounding during spindle assembly and then divides via cytokinesis. The actomyosin cortex is depicted in red, DNA/chromosomes purple, microtubules green, and membrane and retraction fibers in black. Rounding also occurs in live tissue, as described in the text.
Main article: Mitotic cell rounding
In animal tissue, most cells round up to a near-spherical shape during mitosis.[59][60][61] In epithelia and epidermis, an efficient rounding process is correlated with proper mitotic spindle alignment and subsequent correct positioning of daughter cells.[60][61][62][63] Moreover, researchers have found that if rounding is heavily suppressed it may result in spindle defects, primarily pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture chromosomes.[64] Therefore, mitotic cell rounding is thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate mitosis.[63][65]
Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of F-actin and myosin (actomyosin) into a contractile homogeneous cell cortex that 1) rigidifies the cell periphery[65][66][67] and 2) facilitates generation of intracellular hydrostatic pressure (up to 10 fold higher than interphase).[68][69][70] The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement, such as would be important in a tissue scenario, where outward forces must be produced to round up against surrounding cells and/or the extracellular matrix. Generation of pressure is dependent on formin-mediated F-actin nucleation[70] and Rho kinase (ROCK)-mediated myosin II contraction,[66][68][70] both of which are governed upstream by signaling pathways RhoA and ECT2[66][67] through the activity of Cdk1.[70] Due to its importance in mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an area of active research.
Mitotic recombination[edit]
Mitotic cells irradiated with X-rays in the G1 phase of the cell cycle repair recombinogenic DNA damages primarily by recombination between homologous chromosomes.[71] Mitotic cells irradiated in the G2 phase repair such damages preferentially by sister-chromatid recombination.[71] Mutations in genes encoding enzymes employed in recombination cause cells to have increased sensitivity to being killed by a variety of DNA damaging agents.[72] These findings suggest that mitotic recombination is an adaptation for repairing DNA damages including those that are potentially lethal.
Evolution[edit]
Some types of cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
There are prokaryotic homologs of all the key molecules of eukaryotic mitosis (e.g., actins, tubulins). Being a universal eukaryotic property, mitosis probably arose at the base of the eukaryotic tree. As mitosis is less complex than meiosis, meiosis presumably arose after mitosis.[73]
While in bacterial cell division, after duplication of DNA, two circular chromosomes are attached to a special region of the cell membrane, eukaryotic mitosis is usually characterized by the presence of many linear chromosomes, whose kinetochores attaches to the microtubules of the spindle. In relation to the forms of mitosis, closed intranuclear pleuromitosis seems to be the most primitive type, as it is the more similar to bacterial division.[6]
Gallery[edit]
Mitotic cells can be visualized microscopically by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes.
Early prophase: Polar microtubules, shown as green strands, have established a matrix around the currently intact nucleus, with the condensing chromosomes in blue. The red nodules are the centromeres.
Early prometaphase: The nuclear membrane has just disassembled, allowing the microtubules to quickly interact with the kinetochores, which assemble on the centromeres of the condensing chromosomes.
Metaphase: The centrosomes have moved to the poles of the cell and have established the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes have congressed at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Kinetochore microtubules pull the two sets of chromosomes apart, and lengthening polar microtubules push the halves of the dividing cell further apart, while chromosomes are condensed maximally.
Telophase: Reversal of prophase and prometaphase events and thus completing the cell cycle.
See also[edit]
Aneuploidy
Binary fission
Chromosome abnormality
Cytoskeleton
Meiosis
Mitogen
Mitosis Promoting Factor
Mitotic bookmarking
Motor protein
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Jump up ^ B. Boettcher, Y. Barral: The cell biology of open and closed mitosis. In: Nucleus (Austin, Tex.). Band 4, Nummer 3, 2013 May-Jun, S. 160–165, doi:10.4161/nucl.24676, PMID 23644379, PMC 3720745.
Jump up ^ R. Desalle, B. Schierwater: Key Transitions in Animal Evolution. CRC Press, 2010, p. 12, link.
Jump up ^ Mantikou E, Wong KM, Repping S, Mastenbroek S (December 2012). "Molecular origin of mitotic aneuploidies in preimplantation embryos". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1822 (12): 1921–30. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2012.06.013. PMID 22771499.
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^ Jump up to: a b Meyer EJ, Ikmi A, Gibson MC (March 2011). "Interkinetic nuclear migration is a broadly conserved feature of cell division in pseudostratified epithelia". Current Biology. 21 (6): 485–91. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.02.002. PMID 21376598.
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Further reading[edit]
Morgan DL (2007). The cell cycle: principles of control. London: Published by New Science Press in association with Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-9539181-2-2.
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "Mitosis". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science. Retrieved 2006-01-22.
Campbell N, Reece J (December 2001). "The Cell Cycle". Biology (6th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings/Addison-Wesley. pp. 217–224. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
Cooper G (2000). "The Events of M Phase". The Cell: A Molecular Approach (2nd ed.). Sinaeur Associates, Inc. Retrieved 2006-01-22.
Freeman S (2002). "Cell Division". Biological Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 155–174. ISBN 0-13-081923-9.
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky L, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000). "Overview of the Cell Cycle and Its Control". Molecular Cell Biology (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. Retrieved 2006-01-22.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mitosis.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Overview of Cell Biology/Mitosis
A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
Khan Academy, lecture
Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells
General K-12 classroom resources for Mitosis
The Cell-Cycle Ontology
WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell Lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree and all of the cell divisions of the nematode C. elegans
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text:
Sons of Anarchy (season 2)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Sons of Anarchy (season 2)
Season 2 DVD cover
Starring
Charlie Hunnam
Katey Sagal
Mark Boone Junior
Kim Coates
Tommy Flanagan
Ryan Hurst
Johnny Lewis
William Lucking
Theo Rossi
Maggie Siff
Ron Perlman
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
13
Release
Original network
FX
Original release
September 8 (2009-09-08) – December 1, 2009 (2009-12-01)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 1
Next →
Season 3
List of Sons of Anarchy episodes
The second season of the American television drama series Sons of Anarchy created by Kurt Sutter, about the lives of a close-knit outlaw motorcycle club operating in Charming, a fictional town in California's Central Valley. The show centers on protagonist Jackson "Jax" Teller (Charlie Hunnam), the vice president of the club, who begins questioning the club and himself.
The second season of Sons of Anarchy premiered on September 8, 2009, on cable network FX and concluded on December 1.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Main cast
2.2 Special guest cast
2.3 Recurring cast
2.4 Guest stars
3 Production
4 Reception
5 Episodes
6 Home media release
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
White separatists called the League of American Nationalists (LOAN) arrive in Charming.[1] LOAN's leader Ethan Zobelle and Zobelle's enforcer, A.J. Weston, seek to drive the Sons of Anarchy from Charming. To send a message to SAMCRO, Zobelle orchestrates to have Gemma kidnapped and gang raped by Weston and two others. Due to the improper handling of an internal problem, the rift between Clay and Jax continues to widen as Jax challenges most of Clay's decisions and comes to a head when a lone car bomb nearly kills another member of SAMCRO. The second season sees SAMCRO battling LOAN for control of Charming, Jax and Clay veering further apart in their individual visions for the club, and evading the ever-present threat of the ATF.
Cast and characters[edit]
Charlie Hunnam
Katey Sagal
Mark Boone Junior
Kim Coates
Tommy Flanagan
Ryan Hurst
Johnny Lewis
Theo Rossi
Maggie Siff
Ron Perlman
Main article: List of Sons of Anarchy characters
Sons of Anarchy is the story of the Teller-Morrow family of Charming, California, as well as the other members of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, Redwood Original (SAMCRO), their families, various Charming townspeople, allied and rival gangs, associates, and law agencies that undermine or support SAMCRO's legal and illegal enterprises. Introduced into this season was white separatist called the League of American Nationalists (LOAN). LOAN arrive in Charming. LOAN's leader Ethan Zobelle and Zobelle's enforcer, A.J. Weston, seek to drive the Sons of Anarchy out of Charming.
Main cast[edit]
Charlie Hunnam as Jackson "Jax" Teller
Katey Sagal as Gemma Teller Morrow
Mark Boone Junior as Robert "Bobby Elvis" Munson
Kim Coates as Alex "Tig" Trager
Tommy Flanagan as Filip "Chibs" Telford
Ryan Hurst as Harry "Opie" Winston
Johnny Lewis as Kip "Half Sack" Epps
William Lucking as Piermont "Piney" Winston
Theo Rossi as Juan-Carlos "Juice" Ortiz
Maggie Siff as Tara Knowles
Ron Perlman as Clarence "Clay" Morrow
Special guest cast[edit]
Adam Arkin as Ethan Zobelle
Ally Walker as Agent June Stahl
Tom Everett Scott as Rosen
Recurring cast[edit]
Dayton Callie as Wayne Unser
Henry Rollins as A.J. Weston
Taylor Sheridan as Deputy Chief David Hale
Winter Ave Zoli as Lyla Winston
Callard Harris as Edmond Hayes
Jamie McShane as Cameron Hayes
Sarah Jones as Polly Zobelle
Julie Ariola as Mary Winston
Mitch Pileggi as Ernest Darby
McNally Sagal as Margaret Murphy
Marcos de la Cruz as Estevez
Kristen Renton as Ima Tite
Kurt Sutter as "Big" Otto Delaney
Emilio Rivera as Marcus Alvarez
Tory Kittles as Laroy Wayne
Bellina Logan as Fiona Larkin
Michael Marisi Ornstein as Chuck Marstein
Patrick St. Esprit as Elliott Oswald
Dendrie Taylor as Luann Delaney
Titus Welliver as Jimmy O'Phelan
Kenneth Choi as Henry Lin
Jeff Kober as Jacob Hale, Jr.
Glenn Plummer as Sheriff Vic Trammel
Jamie McShane as Cameron Hayes
Guest stars[edit]
Tom Arnold as Georgie Caruso
Cleo King as Neeta
Olivia Burnette as Homeless Woman
Kenny Johnson as Herman Kozik
Production[edit]
Although Sons of Anarchy is set in Northern California's Central Valley, it is filmed primarily at Occidental Studios Stage 5A in North Hollywood. Main sets located there include the clubhouse, St. Thomas Hospital and Jax's house. The production rooms at the studio used by the writing staff also double as the Charming police station.
External scenes are often filmed nearby in Sun Valley and Tujunga.[2] Interior and exterior scenes set in Northern Ireland during season 3 were also filmed at Occidental Studios and surrounding areas. A second unit shot footage in Northern Ireland used in the third season.[3]
Reception[edit]
The second season received critical acclaim. This season of Sons of Anarchy also saw a substantial increase in positive reviews in comparison with the first season. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has a rating of 100%, based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7/10. [4] On Metacritic the second season has a score of 86 out of 100, based on reviews 6 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[5]
IGN gave the second season an 8.4/10.0 rating, giving praise to Henry Rollins character, AJ Weston, saying, "A decidedly stronger second season sees the gang unravel and knit back together."[6]
Writing for Chicago Tribune, Maureen Ryan called the second season "engrossing". She elaborated that "the pacing is better [and] the plotting is tighter" and commended Sagal and Perlman for their performances.[7] Variety’s Stuart Levine called the new season "compelling" and complimented the acting skill of Perlman, Sagal, Hunnam, and Siff.[8] James Poniewozik of TIME called Sagal's performance "devastatingly powerful" and named the series on his list of Top 10 Shows of 2009.[9]
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Sons of Anarchy episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)
14
1 "Albification" Guy Ferland Kurt Sutter September 8, 2009 (2009-09-08) 2WAB01 4.29[10]
With the club divided in the wake of Donna's death, Clay sets up a new gun deal with the Real IRA. Meanwhile, a white supremacist group takes root in Charming and threatens more than just SAMCRO's control over Charming.
15
2 "Small Tears" Stephen Kay Jack LoGiudice September 15, 2009 (2009-09-15) 2WAB02 3.71[11]
Following a traumatic event, Gemma finds herself unable to tell either Clay or Jax about it. Meanwhile, a rival porn producer, Georgie Caruso (Tom Arnold), moves to put Luanne out of business, and Clay takes exception to Jax's hasty decision-making.
16
3 "Fix" Gwyneth Horder-Payton Dave Erickson September 22, 2009 (2009-09-22) 2WAB03 3.49[12]
Ethan Zobelle (Adam Arkin) cooks up a "temporary problem" for Hale to solve as a way to undermine SAMCRO, Gemma's secret is undermining her relationship with Clay, and Jax's involvement in Luanne's porn business is getting to Tara. Meanwhile, Clay tells Bobby, who needs a job, to do the bookkeeping at CaraCara, Luanne's porn studio.
17
4 "Eureka" Guy Ferland Kurt Sutter & Brett Conrad September 29, 2009 (2009-09-29) 2WAB04 3.76[12]
Tensions between Jax and Clay escalate when they disagree over strategy for rescuing Tig, after he's captured by bounty hunters on a gun running mission. Back in Charming, Gemma is rattled by a graphic reminder of her attack, and she sets out to do something about it.
18
5 "Smite" Terrence O'Hara Chris Collins October 6, 2009 (2009-10-06) 2WAB05 3.66[13]
Charming and its small-town appeal become vulnerable to The League, which finds new ways to provoke SOA members. Tara's compassionate efforts to help a distraught Gemma don't go unpunished.
19
6 "Falx Cerebri" Billy Gierhart Regina Corrado October 13, 2009 (2009-10-13) 2WAB06 3.31[14]
Incited by Zobelle, Clay sets a course for retaliation, forcing Jax to turn to an unlikely source to save the club from destruction. Gemma shows Tara how an old lady handles her anger.
20
7 "Gilead" Gwyneth Horder-Payton Kurt Sutter & Chris Collins October 20, 2009 (2009-10-20) 2WAB07 3.70[15]
With nearly every SAMCRO member behind bars, the club must make new alliances in prison to survive. ATF Agent June Stahl uses this imprisonment to test Clay and Jax's relationship.
21
8 "Potlatch" Paul Maibaum Kurt Sutter & Misha Green October 27, 2009 (2009-10-27) 2WAB08 3.39[16]
Zobelle's business dealings with SAMCRO's rivals exacerbate divisions within the club, which are already strained by the Jax-Clay split. Complicating matters further, Georgie Caruso's thugs attack Luanne's studio. Meanwhile, Clay comes to an agreement with Elliott Oswald (Patrick St. Esprit), and Chibs' estranged wife, Fiona, shows up at his hospital bedside.
22
9 "Fa Guan" Stephen Kay Brett Conrad & Liz Sagal November 3, 2009 (2009-11-03) 2WAB09 3.52[17]
When SAMCRO's adult film business becomes a hindrance to the club, Clay seizes the opportunity to revive the gun running cartel. As Jax and Clay continue to clash over club activities, their relationship reaches a new level of antagonism.
23
10 "Balm" Paris Barclay Dave Erickson & Stevie Long November 10, 2009 (2009-11-10) 2WAB10 3.38[18]
Agent Stahl takes notice of the handsome profits SAMCRO is reaping. Meanwhile, the Jax-Clay standoff forces Gemma to make a difficult decision.
24
11 "Service" Phil Abraham Story by: Brady Dahl & Cori Uchida
Teleplay by: Kurt Sutter & Jack LoGiudice November 17, 2009 (2009-11-17) 2WAB11 3.48[19]
Chibs contemplates making a secret deal in order to protect his wife and daughter. Deep in emotional turmoil, Opie seeks both revenge and reconciliation.
25
12 "The Culling" Gwyneth Horder-Payton Kurt Sutter & Dave Erickson November 24, 2009 (2009-11-24) 2WAB12 3.44[20]
The entire SAMCRO family goes on lockdown inside the clubhouse, as Jax and Clay prepare to battle the League. A.J. Weston learns the truth about Ethan Zobelle's business dealings in Charming. Applying what she has learned from Gemma, Tara ensures her position at St. Thomas Hospital.
26
13 "Na Trioblóidí" Kurt Sutter Kurt Sutter December 1, 2009 (2009-12-01) 2WAB13 4.33[21]
As SAMCRO attempts to rid Charming of Ethan Zobelle and the League permanently, familiar faces present new challenges.
Home media release[edit]
The second season was released on DVD and Blu-ray in region 1 on August 31, 2010.[22]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Danny (September 8, 2009). "Sons of Anarchy: Albification (season premiere)". TVSquad.com. Retrieved September 16, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Sons of Anarchy Filming Locations". Internet Movie Database.
Jump up ^ "First pictures Sons of Anarchy". Chicago Tribune. June 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ https://www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/sons_of_anarchy/s02
Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/tv/sons-of-anarchy/season-2
Jump up ^ http://ie.ign.com/articles/2009/12/10/sons-of-anarchy-season-2-review
Jump up ^ "'Sons of Anarchy' revs up the pace in its compelling new season". Chicago Tribune. September 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Levine, Stuart (September 4, 2009). "Sons of Anarchy Season 2". Variety.
Jump up ^ "The Top 10 Everything of 2009". TIME. December 8, 2009.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (September 9, 2009). "Sons of Anarchy revs up huge ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Berman, Marc (January 30, 2010). "Sons of Anarchy Ratings". Mediaweek. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010. Retrieved July 2, 2015. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Seidman, Robert (September 30, 2009). "Sons of Anarchy staying strong for FX with 3.76 million on September 29". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cable Ratings for the Week Ending October 11, 2009". TV Aholics. October 14, 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cable Ratings for the Week Ending October 18, 2009". TV Aholics. October 21, 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (October 27, 2009). "Cable ratings: Football, Baseball Monk, White Collar, Jeff Dunham, and Sons of Anarchy top weekly cable chart". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (October 28, 2009). "Cable Ratings: Ouch! Sons of Anarchy loses to The Forgotten". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (November 4, 2009). "Cable Ratings: Sons of Anarchy averages 3.5 million and a 1.8 adults 18-49 rating". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (November 11, 2009). "Sons of Anarchy rides to 3.38 million viewers and wins night on cable with adults 18-49". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (November 18, 2009). "Tuesday cable: Sons of Anarchy beats The Forgotten and ties The Jay Leno Show with adults 18-49". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cable TV Ratings for the Week Ending November 29, 2009" (PDF). TV Aholics. December 15, 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (December 2, 2009). "Sons of Anarchy Renewed for a third season". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Lambert, David (May 28, 2010). "Sons of Anarchy - Fox's Full Press Release for Season 2 on DVD and Blu-ray!". TV Shows on DVD. Archived from the original on August 29, 2013. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
External links[edit]
Sons of Anarchy at FXNetworks.com
Sons of Anarchy on IMDb
Sons of Anarchy at TV.com
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Sons of Anarchy
Created by: Kurt Sutter
Episodes
"Pilot"
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Characters
Clay Morrow
Jax Teller
Gemma Teller Morrow
Tara Knowles
Opie Winston
Bobby Munson
Tig Trager
Chibs Telford
Piney Winston
Juice Ortiz
Half-Sack Epps
Happy
Wayne Unser
David Hale
June Stahl
Josh Kohn
Ernest Darby
Marcus Álvarez
Ethan Zobelle
Universe
Sons of Anarchy MC
Charming, CA
List of gangs
Mayans MC
Music
"This Life"
Songs of Anarchy
Songs of Anarchy Volume 2
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sons_of_Anarchy_(season_2)&oldid=851342946"
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2009 American television seasons
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