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Geopolitical zones of Nigeria
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The six geopolitical zones of Nigeria is a major division in modern Nigeria, created during the regime of president General Sani Abacha. Nigerian economic, political and educational resources are often shared across the zones.[1][2][3][4][5]:98
Contents
1 Reason for the Zones
2 Agitations for Constitutional Recognition
3 Zones
4 Map of Nigerian Geopolitical Zones
5 References
Reason for the Zones[edit]
The six zones was not entirely carved out based on geopolitical location, but rather states with similar cultures, ethnic groups, and common history were classified in the same zone.[6]:98 Nigeria is made up of approximately 400 ethnic groups and 450 languages. There was a need for the government to merge similar groups for effective allocation of resources.
Agitations for Constitutional Recognition[edit]
Many groups and individuals in Nigeria including the Afenifere Renewal Movement through its National Publicity Secretary, Mr. Yinka Odumakin, Ohaneze Ndigbo, its late Secretary General, Chief Ralph Uwechue and Ijaw National Congress through its National President, Mr. Joshua Benameisigha have canvassed that the current six zonal divisions be recognized in Nigeria's constitution and be strengthened to function as federating units in the new structure for Nigeria.[7]
According to Chief Nengi James, a Niger Delta activist, "for all sections of the country to become one entity, the geopolitical zones must be recognized in the constitution." These groups are pushing for devolution of powers so that the geopolitical zones become autonomous and manage the resources within their territories in a Federal Nigeria.[7]
Zones[edit]
North Central (loosely known as Middle Belt):
Benue
Kogi
Kwara
Nasarawa
Niger
Plateau
Federal Capital Territory
North East:
Adamawa
Bauchi
Borno
Gombe
Taraba
Yobe
North West:
Jigawa
Kaduna
Kano
Katsina
Kebbi
Sokoto
Zamfara
South East:
Abia
Anambra
Ebonyi
Enugu
Imo
South South:
Akwa Ibom
Cross River
Bayelsa
Rivers
Delta
Edo
South West:
Ekiti
Lagos
Ogun
Ondo
Osun
Oyo
Map of Nigerian Geopolitical Zones[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (March 2018)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-12-27. Retrieved 2015-07-27. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ siteadmin (17 July 2014). "Is The Niger Delta Region The 'Epicentre Of Electoral Fraud' In Nigeria?-AFRICA CHECK - Sahara Reporters".
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-08-29. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2014-08-29. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "Nigeria MDG Acceleration Framework: A commitment to Improved Maternal Health" (PDF). Federal Republic of Nigeria and UNDP. www.undp.org. August 2013.
Jump up ^ Eze, Titus Chinweuba.,1* Okpala, Cyril Sunday,2 Ogbodo, Joseph Charles; et al. (2014). "Patterns of Inequality in Human Development Across Nigeria's Six Geopolitical Zones". Department of Economics, Caritas University, Amorji-Nike, Emene, Enugu State. Nigeria; Department of Economics, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria; Department of Economics, Enugu State University of science & Technology, Enugu, Nigeria. iiste.org. 4 (8). ISSN 2225-0565. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b "Constitution: Six geopolitical zones divide North, South". punchng.com. Archived from the original on 2014-12-27.
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Binomial nomenclature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Latin name" redirects here. For personal names in the Roman Empire, see Roman naming conventions.
Binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system") also called binominal nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called a binomial name (which may be shortened to just "binomial"), a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name; more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs; the second part – the specific name or specific epithet – identifies the species within the genus. For example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. Tyrannosaurus rex is probably the most widely known binomial.[1] The formal introduction of this system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus, effectively beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753.[2] But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici (English, Illustrated exposition of plants) many names of genera that were later adopted by Linnaeus.[3]
The application of binomial nomenclature is now governed by various internationally agreed codes of rules, of which the two most important are the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are some differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules.
In modern usage, the first letter of the first part of the name, the genus, is always capitalized in writing, while that of the second part is not, even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text (or underlined in handwriting). Thus the binomial name of the annual phlox (named after botanist Thomas Drummond) is now written as Phlox drummondii.
In scientific works, the "authority" for a binomial name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned, and the date of publication may be specified.
In zoology
"Patella vulgata Linnaeus, 1758". The name "Linnaeus" tells the reader who it was that first published a description and name for this species of limpet; 1758 is the date of the publication in which the original description can be found (in this case the 10th edition of the book Systema Naturae).
"Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)". The original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica; the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, although nomenclatorial catalogs usually include such information.
In botany
"Amaranthus retroflexus L." – "L." is the standard abbreviation used in botany for "Linnaeus".
"Hyacinthoides italica (L.) Rothm. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica; Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides; the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 History
3 Value
4 Problems
5 Relationship to classification and taxonomy
6 Derivation of binomial names
7 Codes
7.1 Differences in handling personal names
8 Writing binomial names
8.1 Authority
9 Other ranks
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Origin[edit]
The name is composed of two word-forming elements: "bi", a Latin prefix for two, and "-nomial", relating to a term or terms. The word "binomium" was used in Medieval Latin to mean a two-term expression in mathematics.[4]
History[edit]
See also: Biological classification: Early systems
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial nomenclature
Prior to the adoption of the modern binomial system of naming species, a scientific name consisted of a generic name combined with a specific name that was from one to several words long. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature.[5] These names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description; however these two goals were eventually found to be incompatible.[6] In a simple genus, containing only two species, it was easy to tell them apart with a one-word genus and a one-word specific name; but as more species were discovered the names necessarily became longer and unwieldy, for instance Plantago foliis ovato-lanceolatus pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti ("Plantain with pubescent ovate-lanceolate leaves, a cylindric spike and a terete scape"), which we know today as Plantago media.
Such "polynomial names" may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerard's herbal (as amended by Johnson) describes various kinds of spiderwort: "The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort; the second, Phalangium non ramosum, Unbranched Spiderwort. The other ... is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia".[7] The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels.
The Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words.[8] The adoption by biologists of a system of strictly binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné, more commonly known by his Latinized name Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began consistently using a one-word "trivial name" together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature.[9] This trivial name is what is now known as a specific epithet (ICN) or specific name (ICZN).[9] The Bauhins' genus names were retained in many of these, but the descriptive part was reduced to a single word.
Linnaeus's trivial names introduced an important new idea, namely that the function of a name could simply be to give a species a unique label. This meant that the name no longer need be descriptive; for example both parts could be derived from the names of people. Thus Gerard's phalangium ephemerum virginianum became Tradescantia virginiana, where the genus name honoured John Tradescant the Younger,[note 1] an English botanist and gardener.[10] A bird in the parrot family was named Psittacus alexandri, meaning "Alexander's parrot", after Alexander the Great whose armies introduced eastern parakeets to Greece.[11] Linnaeus' trivial names were much easier to remember and use than the parallel polynomial names and eventually replaced them.[2]
Value[edit]
The value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use, and the uniqueness and stability of names it generally favors:
Economy. Compared to the polynomial system which it replaced, a binomial name is shorter and easier to remember.[2] It corresponds to the widespread system of family name plus given name(s) used to name people in many cultures.[8]
Widespread use. The binomial system of nomenclature is governed by international codes and is used by biologists worldwide.[12] A few binomials have also entered common speech, such as Homo sapiens, E. coli, and Tyrannosaurus rex.
Uniqueness. Provided that taxonomists agree as to the limits of a species, it can have only one name that is correct under the appropriate nomenclature code, generally the earliest published if two or more names are accidentally assigned to a species.[13] However, establishing that two names actually refer to the same species and then determining which has priority can be difficult, particularly if the species was named by biologists from different countries. Therefore, a species may have more than one regularly used name; all but one of these names are "synonyms".[14]
Stability. Although stability is far from absolute, the procedures associated with establishing binomial names, such as the principle of priority, tend to favor stability.[15] For example, when species are transferred between genera (as not uncommonly happens as a result of new knowledge), if possible the second part of the binomial is kept the same. Thus there is disagreement among botanists as to whether the genera Chionodoxa and Scilla are sufficiently different for them to be kept separate. Those who keep them separate give the plant commonly grown in gardens in Europe the name Chionodoxa siehei; those who do not give it the name Scilla siehei.[16] The siehei element is constant. Similarly if what were previously thought to be two distinct species are demoted to a lower rank, such as subspecies, where possible the second part of the binomial name is retained as the third part of the new name. Thus the Tenerife robin may be treated as a different species from the European robin, in which case its name is Erithacus superbus, or as only a subspecies, in which case its name is Erithacus rubecula superbus.[17] The superbus element of the name is constant.
Problems[edit]
Binomial nomenclature for species has the effect that when a species is moved from one genus to another, sometimes the specific name or epithet must be changed as well. This may happen because the specific name is already used in the new genus, or to agree in gender with the new genus. Some biologists have argued for the combination of the genus name and specific epithet into a single unambiguous name, or for the use of uninomials (as used in nomenclature of ranks above species).[18]
Because binomials are unique only within a kingdom, it is possible for two or more species to share the same binomial if they occur in different kingdoms. At least five instances of such binomial duplication occur.[19]
Relationship to classification and taxonomy[edit]
Nomenclature (including binomial nomenclature) is not the same as classification, although the two are related. Classification is the ordering of items into groups based on similarities or differences; in biological classification, species are one of the kinds of item to be classified.[20] In principle, the names given to species could be completely independent of their classification. This is not the case for binomial names, since the first part of a binomial is the name of the genus into which the species is placed. Above the rank of genus, binomial nomenclature and classification are partly independent; for example, a species retains its binomial name if it is moved from one family to another or from one order to another, unless it better fits a different genus in the same or different family, or it is split from its old genus and placed in a newly created genus. The independence is only partial since the names of families and other higher taxa are usually based on genera.[citation needed]
Taxonomy includes both nomenclature and classification. Its first stages (sometimes called "alpha taxonomy") are concerned with finding, describing and naming species of living or fossil organisms.[21] Binomial nomenclature is thus an important part of taxonomy as it is the system by which species are named. Taxonomists are also concerned with classification, including its principles, procedures and rules.[22]
Derivation of binomial names[edit]
See also: List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
A complete binomial name is always treated grammatically as if it were a phrase in the Latin language (hence the common use of the term "Latin name" for a binomial name). However, the two parts of a binomial name can each be derived from a number of sources, of which Latin is only one. These include:
Latin, either classical or medieval. Thus, both parts of the binomial name Homo sapiens are Latin words, meaning "wise" (sapiens) "human/man" (Homo).
Classical Greek. The genus Rhododendron was named by Linnaeus from the Greek word ῥοδόδενδρον, itself derived from rhodon, "rose", and dendron, "tree".[23][24] Greek words are often converted to a Latinized form. Thus coca (the plant from which cocaine is obtained) has the name Erythroxylum coca. Erythroxylum is derived from the Greek words erythros, red, and xylon, wood.[25] The Greek neuter ending -ον (-on) is often converted to the Latin neuter ending -um.[note 2]
Other languages. The second part of the name Erythroxylum coca is derived from kuka, the name of the plant in Aymara and Quechua.[26][27] Since many dinosaur fossils were found in Mongolia, their names often use Mongolian words, e.g. Tarchia from tarkhi, meaning "brain", or Saichania meaning "beautiful one".
Names of people (often naturalists or biologists). The name Magnolia campbellii commemorates two people: Pierre Magnol, a French botanist, and Archibald Campbell, a doctor in British India.[28]
Names of places. The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, is widespread in the United States.[29]
Other sources. Some binominal names have been constructed from anagrams or other re-orderings of existing names. Thus the name of the genus Muilla is derived by reversing the name Allium.[30] Names may also be derived from jokes or puns. For example, Ratcliffe described a number of species of Rhinoceros beetle, including Cyclocephala nodanotherwon.[31]
The first part of the name, which identifies the genus, must be a word which can be treated as a Latin singular noun in the nominative case. It must be unique within each kingdom, but can be repeated between kingdoms. Thus Huia recurvata is an extinct species of plant, found as fossils in Yunnan, China,[32] whereas Huia masonii is a species of frog found in Java, Indonesia.[33]
The second part of the name, which identifies the species within the genus, is also treated grammatically as a Latin word. It can have one of a number of forms.
The second part of a binomial may be an adjective. The adjective must agree with the genus name in gender. Latin has three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, shown by varying endings to nouns and adjectives. The house sparrow has the binomial name Passer domesticus. Here domesticus ("domestic") simply means "associated with the house". The sacred bamboo is Nandina domestica[34] rather than Nandina domesticus, since Nandina is feminine whereas Passer is masculine. The tropical fruit langsat is a product of the plant Lansium parasiticum, since Lansium is neuter. Some common endings for Latin adjectives in the three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) are -us, -a, -um (as in the previous example of domesticus); -is, -is, -e (e.g. tristis, meaning "sad"); and -or, -or, -us (e.g. minor, meaning "smaller"). For further information, see Latin declension: Adjectives.
The second part of a binomial may be a noun in the nominative case. An example is the binomial name of the lion, which is Panthera leo. Grammatically the noun is said to be in apposition to the genus name and the two nouns do not have to agree in gender; in this case, Panthera is feminine and leo is masculine.
The second part of a binomial may be a noun in the genitive (possessive) case. The genitive case is constructed in a number of ways in Latin, depending on the declension of the noun. Common endings for masculine and neuter nouns are -ii or -i in the singular and -orum in the plural, and for feminine nouns -ae in the singular and -arum in the plural. The noun may be part of a person's name, often the surname, as in the Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii, the shrub Magnolia hodgsonii, or the olive-backed pipit Anthus hodgsoni. The meaning is "of the person named", so that Magnolia hodgsonii means "Hodgson's magnolia". The -ii or -i endings show that in each case Hodgson was a man (not the same one); had Hodgson been a woman, hodgsonae would have been used. The person commemorated in the binomial name is not usually (if ever) the person who created the name; for example Anthus hodgsoni was named by Charles Wallace Richmond, in honour of Hodgson. Rather than a person, the noun may be related to a place, as with Latimeria chalumnae, meaning "of the Chalumna River". Another use of genitive nouns is in, for example, the name of the bacterium Escherichia coli, where coli means "of the colon". This formation is common in parasites, as in Xenos vesparum, where vesparum means "of the wasps", since Xenos vesparum is a parasite of wasps.
Whereas the first part of a binomial name must be unique within a kingdom, the second part is quite commonly used in two or more genera (as is shown by examples of hodgsonii above). The full binomial name must be unique within a kingdom.
Codes[edit]
From the early 19th century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became nomenclature codes. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) governs the naming of animals,[35] the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) that of plants (including cyanobacteria), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) that of bacteria (including Archaea). Virus names are governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), a taxonomic code, which determines taxa as well as names. These codes differ in certain ways, e.g.:
"Binomial nomenclature" is the correct term for botany,[36] although it is also used by zoologists.[37] Since 1953, "binominal nomenclature" is the technically correct term in zoology. A binominal name is also called a binomen (plural binomina).[38]
Both codes consider the first part of the two-part name for a species to be the "generic name". In the zoological code (ICZN), the second part of the name is a "specific name". In the botanical code (ICN), it is a "specific epithet". Together, these two parts are referred to as a "species name" or "binomen" in the zoological code; or "species name", "binomial", or "binary combination" in the botanical code. "Species name" is the only term common to the two codes.
The ICN, the plant Code, does not allow the two parts of a binomial name to be the same (such a name is called a tautonym), whereas the ICZN, the animal Code, does. Thus the American bison has the binomial Bison bison; a name of this kind would not be allowed for a plant.
The starting points, the time from which these codes are in effect (retroactively), vary from group to group. In botany the starting point will often be in 1753 (the year Carl Linnaeus first published Species Plantarum). In zoology the starting point is 1758 (1 January 1758 is considered the date of the publication of Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, 10th Edition, and also Clerck's Aranei Svecici). Bacteriology started anew, with a starting point on 1 January 1980.[39]
Summary of terminology for the names of species in the ICZN and ICN
Code
Full name
First part
Second part
ICZN species name, binomen, binominal name generic name, genus name specific name
ICN species name, binary combination, binomial (name) generic name specific epithet
Unifying the different codes into a single code, the "BioCode", has been suggested, although implementation is not in sight. (There is also a code in development for a different system of classification which does not use ranks, but instead names clades. This is called the PhyloCode.)
Differences in handling personal names[edit]
As noted above, there are some differences between the codes in the way in which binomials can be formed; for example the ICZN allows both parts to be the same, while the ICN does not. Another difference is in the way in which personal names are used in forming specific names or epithets. The ICN sets out precise rules by which a personal name is to be converted to a specific epithet. In particular, names ending in a consonant (but not "er") are treated as first being converted into Latin by adding "-ius" (for a man) or "-ia" (for a woman), and then being made genitive (i.e. meaning "of that person or persons"). This produces specific epithets like lecardii for Lecard (male), wilsoniae for Wilson (female), and brauniarum for the Braun sisters.[40] By contrast the ICZN does not require the intermediate creation of a Latin form of a personal name, allowing the genitive ending to added directly to the personal name.[41] This explains the difference between the names of the plant Magnolia hodgsonii and the bird Anthus hodgsoni. Furthermore, the ICN requires names not published in the form required by the code to be corrected to conform to it,[42] whereas the ICZN is more protective of the form used by the original author.[43]
Writing binomial names[edit]
By tradition, the binomial names of species are usually typeset in italics; for example, Homo sapiens.[44] Generally, the binomial should be printed in a font style different from that used in the normal text; for example, "Several more Homo sapiens fossils were discovered." When handwritten, a binomial name should be underlined; for example, Homo sapiens.[45]
The first part of the binomial, the genus name, is always written with an initial capital letter. In current usage, the second part is never written with an initial capital.[46][47] Older sources, particularly botanical works published before the 1950s, use a different convention. If the second part of the name is derived from a proper noun, e.g. the name of a person or place, a capital letter was used. Thus the modern form Berberis darwinii was written as Berberis Darwinii. A capital was also used when the name is formed by two nouns in apposition, e.g. Panthera Leo or Centaurea Cyanus.[48][note 3]
When used with a common name, the scientific name often follows in parentheses, although this varies with publication.[49] For example, "The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is decreasing in Europe."
The binomial name should generally be written in full. The exception to this is when several species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the same paper or report, or the same species is mentioned repeatedly; in which case the genus is written in full when it is first used, but may then be abbreviated to an initial (and a period/full stop).[50] For example, a list of members of the genus Canis might be written as "Canis lupus, C. aureus, C. simensis". In rare cases, this abbreviated form has spread to more general use; for example, the bacterium Escherichia coli is often referred to as just E. coli, and Tyrannosaurus rex is perhaps even better known simply as T. rex, these two both often appearing in this form in popular writing even where the full genus name has not already been given.
The abbreviation "sp." is used when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified. The abbreviation "spp." (plural) indicates "several species". These abbreviations are not italicised (or underlined).[51] For example: "Canis sp." means "an unspecified species of the genus Canis", while "Canis spp." means "two or more species of the genus Canis". (The abbreviations "sp." and "spp." can easily be confused with the abbreviations "ssp." (zoology) or "subsp." (botany), plurals "sspp." or "subspp.", referring to one or more subspecies. See trinomen (zoology) and infraspecific name.)
The abbreviation "cf." (i.e. confer in Latin) is used to compare individuals/taxa with known/described species. Conventions for use of the "cf." qualifier vary.[52] In paleontology, it is typically used when the identification is not confirmed.[53] For example, "Corvus cf. nasicus" was used to indicate "a fossil bird similar to the Cuban crow but not certainly identified as this species".[54] In molecular systematics papers, "cf." may be used to indicate one or more undescribed species assumed related to a described species. For example, in a paper describing the phylogeny of small benthic freshwater fish called darters, five undescribed putative species (Ozark, Sheltowee, Wildcat, Ihiyo, and Mamequit darters), notable for brightly colored nuptial males with distinctive color patterns,[55] were referred to as "Etheostoma cf. spectabile" because they had been viewed as related to, but distinct from, Etheostoma spectabile (orangethroat darter).[56] This view was supported in varying degrees by DNA analysis. The somewhat informal use of taxa names with qualifying abbreviations is referred to as open nomenclature and it is not subject to strict usage codes.
In some contexts the dagger symbol ("†") may be used before or after the binomial name to indicate that the species is extinct.
Authority[edit]
Main articles: Author citation (zoology) and Author citation (botany)
In scholarly texts, at least the first or main use of the binomial name is usually followed by the "authority" – a way of designating the scientist(s) who first published the name. The authority is written in slightly different ways in zoology and botany. For names governed by the ICZN the surname is usually written in full together with the date (normally only the year) of publication. The ICZN recommends that the "original author and date of a name should be cited at least once in each work dealing with the taxon denoted by that name."[57] For names governed by the ICN the name is generally reduced to a standard abbreviation and the date omitted. The International Plant Names Index maintains an approved list of botanical author abbreviations. Historically, abbreviations were used in zoology too.
When the original name is changed, e.g. the species is moved to a different genus, both Codes use parentheses around the original authority; the ICN also requires the person who made the change to be given. Some examples:
(Plant) Amaranthus retroflexus L. – "L." is the standard abbreviation for "Linnaeus"; the absence of parentheses shows that this is his original name.
(Plant) Hyacinthoides italica (L.) Rothm. – Linnaeus first named the Italian bluebell Scilla italica; Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides.
(Animal) Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) – the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica; unlike the ICN, the ICZN does not require the name of the person who changed the genus to be given.
Other ranks[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Biological nomenclature, Trinomial nomenclature, and Infraspecific name (botany)
Binomial nomenclature, as described here, is a system for naming species. Implicitly it includes a system for naming genera, since the first part of the name of the species is a genus name. In a classification system based on ranks there are also ways of naming ranks above the level of genus and below the level of species. Ranks above genus (e.g., family, order, class) receive one-part names, which are conventionally not written in italics. Thus the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, belongs to the family Passeridae. Family names are normally based on genus names, although the endings used differ between zoology and botany.
Ranks below species receive three-part names, conventionally written in italics like the names of species. There are significant differences between the ICZN and the ICN. In zoology, the only rank below species is subspecies and the name is written simply as three parts (a trinomen). Thus one of the subspecies of the olive-backed pipit is Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii. In botany, there are many ranks below species and although the name itself is written in three parts, a "connecting term" (not part of the name) is needed to show the rank. Thus the American black elder is Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis; the white-flowered form of the ivy-leaved cyclamen is Cyclamen hederifolium f. albiflorum.
See also[edit]
Animals portal
Biology portal
Evolutionary biology portal
Plants portal
Science portal
Glossary of scientific naming
Botanical name
Hybrid name (botany)
List of botanists by author abbreviation
List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
List of zoologists by author abbreviation
Scientific terminology
Species description
Undescribed taxon
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some sources say that both John Tradescant the Younger and his father, John Tradescant the Elder, were intended by Linnaeus.
Jump up ^ The ending "-on" may derive from the neuter Greek ending -ον, as in Rhodoxylon floridum, or the masculine Greek ending -ων, as in Rhodochiton atrosanguineus.
Jump up ^ The modern notation was resisted by some, partly because writing names like Centaurea cyanus can suggest that cyanus is an adjective which should agree with Centaurea, i.e. that the name should be Centaurea cyana, whereas Cyanus is derived from the Greek name for the cornflower. See Gilbert-Carter, H. (1955), Glossary of the British Flora (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, OCLC 559413416 , p. xix.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Busby III, Arthur; et al. (1997). A Guide to Rocks and Fossils. p. 103. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Knapp, Sandra, What's in a name? A history of taxonomy : Linnaeus and the birth of modern taxonomy, Natural History Museum, London, retrieved 17 June 2011
Jump up ^ Bauhin, Gaspard. "Pinax theatri botanici". Kyoto University Library. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
Jump up ^ See entry "binôme" in le Trésor de la langue française informatisé.
Jump up ^ Reddy, S.M. (2007), University botany: Angiosperms, plant embryology and plant physiology, New Age International, p. 34, ISBN 978-81-224-1547-6
Jump up ^ Blunt, Wilfrid (2004), Linnaeus: the compleat naturalist, Frances Lincoln ltd, p. 266, ISBN 978-0-7112-2362-2
Jump up ^ John Gerard & Thomas Johnson (1636). The Herball, or, Generall Historie of Plantes /gathered by John Gerarde of London, Master in Chirurgerie; very much enlarged and amended by Thomas Johnson, Citizen and Apothecarye of London. Adam Islip, Joice Norton and Richard Whitakers and the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, A.T. & Smith, H.A. (1972), Plant Names Simplified : Their Pronunciation Derivation & Meaning, Buckenhill, Herefordshire: Landsmans Bookshop, ISBN 978-0-900513-04-6 , p. v
^ Jump up to: a b Polaszek, Andrew (2009), Systema naturae 250: the Linnaean ark, CRC Press, p. 189, ISBN 978-1-4200-9501-2
Jump up ^ Hyam & Pankhurst 1995, p. 502
Jump up ^ Jobling, James A. (2010), Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names, London: Christopher Helm, ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4
Jump up ^ Van Dyke, Fred (2008), "Contemporary Issues of the Species Concept", Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications, Springer, p. 86, ISBN 978-1-4020-6890-4, retrieved 20 June 2011
Jump up ^ Peter J. Russell; Stephen L. Wolfe; Paul E. Hertz & Cecie Starr (2007), "Species Concepts and Speciation", The Linnaean System of Taxonomy, Volume 2, Cengage Learning, p. 493, ISBN 978-0-495-01033-3
Jump up ^ "General Principles of Taxonomy", Competition Science Vision, Pratiyogita Darpan Group, 10 (114): 764–767, 2007, retrieved 20 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Joan C. Stevenson (1991), Dictionary of concepts in physical anthropology, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 53, ISBN 978-0-313-24756-9
Jump up ^ Dashwood, Melanie & Mathew, Brian (2005), Hyacinthaceae – little blue bulbs (RHS Plant Trials and Awards, Bulletin Number 11), Royal Horticultural Society, archived from the original on 20 February 2011, retrieved 19 February 2011
Jump up ^ Bergmann, H. H. & Schottler, B. (2001), "Tenerife robin Erithacus (rubecula) superbus – a species of its own?", Dutch Birding, 23: 140–146
Jump up ^ Cantino, P. D.; Bryant, H. D.; de Queiroz, K.; Donoghue, M. J.; Eriksson, T.; Hillis, D. M.; Lee, M. S. Y. (1999). "Species names in phylogenetic nomenclature" (PDF). Systematic Biology. 48 (4): 790–807. doi:10.1080/106351599260012.
Jump up ^ "Category:Species-level hemihomonyms – Wikispecies". species.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Simpson, Michael G. (2006), Plant Systematics, London: Elsevier Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-644460-5 , p. 552
Jump up ^ Fortey, Richard (2008), Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum, London: Harper Perennial, ISBN 978-0-00-720989-7
Jump up ^ Davis, Peter H. & Heywood, Vernon H. (1965), Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd , p. 8
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "rhododendron". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ ῥοδόδενδρον, ῥόδον, δένδρον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
Jump up ^ Hyam & Pankhurst 1995, p. 182
Jump up ^ Radio San Gabriel, "Instituto Radiofonico de Promoción Aymara" (IRPA) 1993, Republicado por Instituto de las Lenguas y Literaturas Andinas-Amazónicas (ILLLA-A) 2011, Transcripción del Vocabulario de la Lengua Aymara, P. Ludovico Bertonio 1612 (Spanish-Aymara-Aymara-Spanish dictionary)
Jump up ^ Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary)
Jump up ^ Hyam & Pankhurst 1995, p. 303
Jump up ^ Childs, James E.; Paddock, Christopher D. (2003), "The ascendancy of Amblyomma americanum as a vector of pathogens affecting humans in the United States", Annual Review of Entomology, 48 (1): 307–337, doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.48.091801.112728, PMID 12414740
Jump up ^ Hyam & Pankhurst 1995, p. 329
Jump up ^ Isaak, Mark, Curiosities of Biological Nomenclature: Puns, archived from the original on 17 June 2011, retrieved 17 June 2011
Jump up ^ Geng, Bao-Yin (1985), "Huia recurvata – A New Plant from Lower Devonian of Southeastern Yunnan China", Acta Botanica Sinica (in Chinese and English), 27 (4): 419–426, retrieved 7 February 2011
Jump up ^ Iskandar, D. & Mumpuni, D. (2004), IUCN Red List of Threatened Species : Huia masonii, retrieved 19 June 2011
Jump up ^ Hyam & Pankhurst 1995, p. 334
Jump up ^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 1999
Jump up ^ McNeill et al. 2011, Article 23
Jump up ^ Schmidt, Diane (2003), Guide to reference and information sources in the zoological sciences, Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, ISBN 978-1-56308-977-0 , p. 4
Jump up ^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 1999, Chap. 2, Article 5
Jump up ^ Sneath, P.H.A. (2003), A short history of the Bacteriological Code, International Union of Microbiological Societies, archived from the original on 24 May 2012, retrieved 20 June 2013
Jump up ^ McNeill et al. 2011, Recommendation 60C
Jump up ^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 1999, Chap. 7, Article 3.1.2
Jump up ^ McNeill et al. 2011, Article 60.12
Jump up ^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 1999, Chap. 7, Article 32.3
Jump up ^ "How to Write Scientific Names of Organisms" (PDF), Competition Science Vision, Assumption University Journal, retrieved 20 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Hugh T.W. Tan & Tan Kai-xin, Understanding and Learning Scientific Names of Species, Successful Learning, Center for Development of Teaching and Learning, National University of Singapore, retrieved 20 June 2011
Jump up ^ Silyn-Roberts, Heather (2000), Writing for Science and Engineering: Papers, Presentations and Reports, Oxford; Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-7506-4636-9 , p. 198
Jump up ^ McNeill et al. 2011, Recommendation 60F
Jump up ^ Johnson & Smith 1972, p. 23
Jump up ^ Writing Guide, Macquarie University, retrieved 20 June 2011
Jump up ^ "Linnaean Nomenclature of Plants, Animals, & Bacteria", Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003, p. 22a – 23a, ISBN 978-0-87779-809-5
Jump up ^ Matthew A. Jenks, Plant Nomenclature, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, archived from the original on 11 December 2012, retrieved 20 June 2011
Jump up ^ Chris Clowes, Taxonomy – A Primer, peripatus.gen.nz, archived from the original on 7 August 2011, retrieved 20 June 2011
Jump up ^ Bengtson, P. (1988). "Open nomenclature" (PDF). Palaeontology. 31 (1): 223–227. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Orihuela, J. (2013). "Fossil Cuban crow Corvus cf. nasicus from a late Quaternary cave deposit in northern Matanzas, Cuba". Journal of Caribbean Ornithology. 26: 12–16. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Page, L. M.; Burr, B. M. (1991). Peterson field guide to freshwater fishes: North America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. plate 52. ISBN 978-0-547-24206-4.
Jump up ^ Near, T. J.; Bossu, C. M.; Bradburd, G. S.; Carlson, R. L.; Harrington, R. C.; Hollingsworth, P. R.; Keck, B. P.; Etnier, D. A. (2011). "Phylogeny and temporal diversification of darters (Percidae: Etheostomatinae)". Systematic Biology. 60 (5): 565–595. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syr052. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
Jump up ^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 1999, Recommendation 51a.
Bibliography[edit]
Hyam, R. & Pankhurst, R.J. (1995), Plants and their names : a concise dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-866189-4
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1999), International Code of Zoological Nomenclature online (4th ed.), The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, ISBN 978-0-85301-006-7, retrieved 20 June 2011
McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012), International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011, Regnum Vegetabile 154, A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG, ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6
External links[edit]
Curiosities of Biological Nomenclature
NCBI Taxonomy Database
Crinan, Alexander, ed. (2007), Plant Names : A Guide for Horticulturists, Nurserymen, Gardeners and Students (PDF), Horticultural Taxonomy Group, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, retrieved 4 June 2013
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Martin de Porres
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"St. Martin de Porres" and "Saint Martin de Porres" redirect here. For other uses, see St. Martin de Porres (disambiguation).
Saint Martin de Porres, O.P.
Portrait of St. Martin de Porres, c. 17th century, Monastery of Rosa of Santa Maria in Lima. This portrait was painted during his lifetime or very soon after his death, hence it is probably the most true to his appearance.
Martin of Charity
Saint of the Broom
Born
(1579-12-09)December 9, 1579
Lima, Viceroyalty of Peru
Died
November 3, 1639(1639-11-03) (aged 59)
Lima, Viceroyalty of Peru (modern-day Peru)
Venerated in
Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Communion
Beatified
1837 by Pope Gregory XVI
Canonized
May 6, 1962, by Pope John XXIII
Major shrine
Church of Santo Domingo, Lima, Peru
Feast
November 3
Attributes
a dog, a cat, a bird, and a mouse eating together from a same dish; broom, crucifix, rosary, a heart
Patronage
Diocese of Biloxi, Vietnam, Mississippi, black people, hair stylists, innkeepers, lottery, lottery winners, mixed-race people, Peru, poor people, public education, public health, public schools, race relations, social justice, state schools, television, Mexico, Peruvian Naval Aviators
Martin de Porres Velázquez, O.P. (December 9, 1579 – November 3, 1639), was a lay brother of the Dominican Order who was beatified in 1837 by Pope Gregory XVI and canonized in 1962 by Pope John XXIII. He is the patron saint of mixed-race people, barbers, innkeepers, public health workers, and all those seeking racial harmony.
He was noted for work on behalf of the poor, establishing an orphanage and a children's hospital. He maintained an austere lifestyle, which included fasting and abstaining from meat. Among the many miracles attributed to him were those of levitation, bilocation, miraculous knowledge, instantaneous cures, and an ability to communicate with animals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Death and commemoration
3 Iconography
4 Legacy
5 In popular culture
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Early life[edit]
Juan Martin de Porres Velázquez was born in the city of Lima, in the Viceroyalty of Peru, on December 9, 1579. He was the illegitimate son of a Spanish nobleman, Don Juan de Porres, and Ana Velázquez, a freed slave from Panama, of African or possibly part Native American descent.[1][2] He had a sister named Juana, born two years later in 1581. After the birth of his sister, the father abandoned the family.[3] Ana Velázquez supported her children by taking in laundry.[4] He grew up in poverty and, when his mother could not support him, Martin was confided to a primary school for two years, and then placed with a barber/surgeon to learn the medical arts.[2] He spent hours of the night in prayer, a practice which increased as he grew older.
By law in Peru, descendants of Africans and Native Americans were barred from becoming full members of religious orders. The only route open to Martin was to ask the Dominicans of Holy Rosary Priory in Lima to accept him as a donado, a volunteer who performed menial tasks in the monastery in return for the privilege of wearing the habit and living with the religious community.[5] At the age of 15 he asked for admission to the Dominican Convent of the Rosary in Lima and was received first as a servant boy, and as his duties grew he was promoted to almoner.
Martin continued to practice his old trades of barbering and healing and was said to have performed many miraculous cures. He also took on kitchen work, laundry, and cleaning. After eight years at Holy Rosary, the prior Juan de Lorenzana, decided to turn a blind eye to the law and permit Martin to take his vows as a member of the Third Order of Saint Dominic. Holy Rosary was home to 300 men, not all of whom accepted the decision of De Lorenzana: one of the novices called Martin a "mulatto dog", while one of the priests mocked him for being illegitimate and descended from slaves.[5]
When Martin was 24, he was allowed to profess religious vows as a Dominican lay brother in 1603. He is said to have several times refused this elevation in status, which may have come about due to his father's intervention, and he never became a priest.[1] It is said that when his convent was in debt, he implored them: "I am only a poor mulatto, sell me." Martin was deeply attached to the Blessed Sacrament, and he was praying in front of it one night when the step of the altar he was kneeling on caught fire. Throughout all the confusion and chaos that followed, he remained where he was, unaware of what was happening around him.[6]
A mid-twentieth century stained glass representation of Martin de Porres in St Pancras Church, Ipswich with a broom, rosary, parrot and monkey
When Martin was 34, after he had been given the religious habit of a lay brother, he was assigned to the infirmary, where he was placed in charge and would remain in service until his death at the age of 59. He was known for his care of the sick.[2] His superiors saw in him the virtues necessary to exercise unfailing patience in this difficult role. It was not long before miracles were attributed to him. Martin also cared for the sick outside his convent, often bringing them healing with only a simple glass of water. He ministered without distinction to Spanish nobles and to slaves recently brought from Africa.[1] One day an aged beggar, covered with ulcers and almost naked, stretched out his hand, and Martin took him to his own bed. One of his brethren reproved him. Martin replied: "Compassion, my dear Brother, is preferable to cleanliness."
When an epidemic struck Lima, there were in this single Convent of the Rosary 60 friars who were sick, many of them novices in a distant and locked section of the convent, separated from the professed. Martin is said to have passed through the locked doors to care for them, a phenomenon which was reported in the residence more than once. The professed, too, saw him suddenly beside them without the doors having been opened. Martin continued to transport the sick to the convent until the provincial superior, alarmed by the contagion threatening the friars, forbade him to continue to do so. His sister, who lived in the country, offered her house to lodge those whom the residence of the religious could not hold. One day he found on the street a poor Indian, bleeding to death from a dagger wound, and took him to his own room until he could transport him to his sister's hospice. The prior, when he heard of this, reprimanded him for disobedience. He was extremely edified, however, by his reply: "Forgive my error, and please instruct me, for I did not know that the precept of obedience took precedence over that of charity."[7] The prior gave him liberty thereafter to follow his inspirations in the exercise of mercy.
Martin did not eat meat. He begged for alms to procure necessities the convent could not provide.[7] In normal times, Martin succeeded with his alms to feed 160 poor persons every day, and distributed a remarkable sum of money every week to the indigent. Side by side with his daily work in the kitchen, laundry and infirmary, Martin's life is said to have reflected extraordinary gifts: ecstasies that lifted him into the air, light filling the room where he prayed, bilocation, miraculous knowledge, instantaneous cures and a remarkable rapport with animals.[3] He founded a residence for orphans and abandoned children in the city of Lima.[3]
Death and commemoration[edit]
San Martin de Porres Catholic Church in Laredo, Texas
St. Martin de Porres Catholic Church in Jensen Beach, Florida
St. Martin de Porres Catholic Church in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Martin was a friend of both St. Juan Macías, a fellow Dominican lay brother, and St. Rose of Lima, a lay Dominican. By the time he died, on November 3, 1639, he had won the affection and respect of many of his fellow Dominicans as well as a host of people outside the priory.[5] Word of his miracles had made him known as a saint throughout the region. As his body was displayed to allow the people of the city to pay their respects, each person snipped a tiny piece of his habit to keep as a relic. It is said that three habits were taken from the body. His body was then interred in the grounds of the monastery.
After De Porres died, the miracles and graces received when he was invoked multiplied in such profusion that his body was exhumed after 25 years and said to be found intact, and exhaling a fine fragrance. Letters to Rome pleaded for his beatification; the decree affirming the heroism of his virtues was issued in 1763 by Pope Clement XIII.
Pope Gregory XVI beatified Martin de Porres on October 29, 1837, and nearly 125 years later, Pope John XXIII canonized him in Rome on May 6, 1962.[8] He is the patron saint of people of mixed race, and of innkeepers, barbers, public health workers and more, with a feast day on November 3.
Martin is also commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Church of England on November 3.
He is recognised as Papa Candelo in the Afro-Caribbean-Catholic syncretist religion of Santería, which is practised in places where African diaspora culture thrives such as Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, the United States, and his native Peru.
Iconography[edit]
Martin de Porres is often depicted as a young mulatto friar wearing the old habit of the Dominican lay brother, a black scapular and capuce, along with a broom, since he considered all work to be sacred no matter how menial. He is sometimes shown with a dog, a cat and a mouse eating in peace from the same dish.
Legacy[edit]
Martin's sometimes defiant attachment to the ideal of social justice achieved deep resonance in a church attempting to carry forward that ideal in today's modern world.[1]
Today, Martin is commemorated by, among other things, a school building that houses the medical, nursing, and rehabilitation science schools of the Dominican University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines. A programme of work is also named after him at the Las Casas Institute at Blackfriars Hall, University of Oxford.[9] He is also the titular saint of the parish of St. Martin de Porres in Poughkeepsie, NY,[10] St. Martin de Porres Marianist elementary school in Uniondale, NY, and St. Martin de Porres Catholic elementary school in Scarborough, ON, Canada. A number of Catholic churches are named after him.
In popular culture[edit]
In the 1980 novel A Confederacy of Dunces, Ignatius Reilly contemplates praying to Martin for aid in bringing social justice to the black workers at the New Orleans factory where he works. In music, the first track of jazz pianist Mary Lou Williams's album Black Christ of the Andes is titled "St. Martin De Porres."[11]
There are several Spanish and Mexican works regarding his life in cinema and television, starring Cuban actor Rene Muñoz, the most of them referring to his mulatto origin, his miracles and his life of humility. The most known movies are Fray Escoba (Friar Broom) (1963)[12] and Un mulato llamado Martin (A mulatto called Martin) (1975).[13]
In the Moone Boy episode "Godfellas", the character Martin Moon is shown to be named by his grandfather after San Martin De Porres. Humorously, his grandfather is unable to actually remember any of San Martin's accomplishments, and simply refers to him as "One of the black ones" when asked about him.
See also[edit]
Saints portal
Christianity portal
Peru portal
Saint Martin de Porres (sculpture) by Father Thomas McGlynn
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Martin Porres", Encyclopedia of World Biography
^ Jump up to: a b c "St. Martin de Porres, the first black saint in the Americas", African American Registry.
^ Jump up to: a b c Foley OFM, Leonard, "St. Martin de Porres", Saint of the Day, Lives, Lessons, and Feast, (revised by Pat McCloskey OFM), Franciscan Media ISBN 978-0-86716-887-7
Jump up ^ Fullerton MLIS, Anne, "Who was St. Martin de Porres?", St. martin de Porres School, Oakland, CA Archived October 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Craughwell, Thomas J., "Patron Saints for Modern Challenges"
Jump up ^ Biography in The Saint Martin De Porres Prayer Book, pp. 147-152.
^ Jump up to: a b Granger O.P., Fr. Arthur M., Vie du Bienheureux Martin de Porrès, Dominican Press: St. Hyacinthe, 1941.
Jump up ^ Dorcy, Jean Marie. "St. Martin de Porres", St. Dominic's Family, Tan Books and Publishers, 1983
Jump up ^ Las Casas Institute Archived 2013-07-09 at the Wayback Machine. at Blackfriars Hall website
Jump up ^ St. Martin de Porres Parish Archived 2013-03-12 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Smithsonian Folkways
Jump up ^ Fray Escoba on IMDb
Jump up ^ Un mulato llamado Martín on IMDb
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Martin de Porres.
St. Martin de Porres website and image
Saint of the Day, November 3: Martin de Porres
Order of Preachers: Southern Dominican Province of St. Martin de Porres
St. Martin de Porres Shrine & Institute • Memphis, Tennessee
St. Martin De Porres, First Black Saint Of The Americas, Celebrated Nov. 3
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 89221600
LCCN: n50080634
ISNI: 0000 0001 0830 8104
GND: 118578294
SUDOC: 096992743
BNF: cb121918734 (data)
NKC: mzk2005278361
IATH: w6vq3g2n
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_de_Porres&oldid=806837177"
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Ship's wheel
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Iconic image of a helmsman at a ship's wheel: the Gloucester Fisherman's Memorial.
Diagram of the steering gear of an 18th to 19th century sailing ship[1]:151
Helm of TS Golden Bear
Diagram of the operation of a tiller using a ship's wheel and tiller ropes.
A ship's wheel or boat's wheel is a device used aboard a water vessel to change that vessel's course. Together with the rest of the steering mechanism, it forms part of the helm. It is connected to a mechanical, electric servo, or hydraulic system which alters the vertical angle of the vessel's rudder relative to its hull. In some modern ships the wheel is replaced with a simple toggle that remotely controls an electro-mechanical or electro-hydraulic drive for the rudder, with a rudder position indicator presenting feedback to the helmsman.
Prior to the invention of the ship's wheel the helmsman relied on a tiller— a horizontal bar fitted directly to the top of the rudder post— or a whipstaff— a vertical stick acting on the arm of the ship's tiller.
A typical ship's wheel is composed of eight cylindrical wooden spokes (though sometimes as few as six or as many as ten) shaped like balusters and all joined at a central wooden hub or nave (sometimes covered with a brass nave plate) which housed the axle. The square hole at the centre of the hub through which the axle ran is called the drive square and was often lined with a brass plate (and therefore called a brass boss, though this term was used more often to refer to a brass hub and nave plate) which was frequently etched with the name of the wheel's manufacturer. The outer rim is composed of sections each made up of stacks of three felloes, the facing felloe, the middle felloe, and the after felloe. Because each group of three felloes at one time made up a quarter of the distance around the rim, the entire outer wooden wheel was sometimes called the quadrant. Each spoke ran through the middle felloe creating a series of handles beyond the wheel's rim. One of these handles/ spokes was frequently provided with extra grooves at its tip which could be felt by a helmsman steering in the dark and used by him to determine the exact position of the rudder—this was the king spoke and when it pointed straight upward the rudder was believed to be dead straight to the hull. The completed ship's wheel and associated axle and pedestal(s) might even be taller than the person using it. The wood used in construction of this type of wheel was most often either teak or mahogany, both of which are very durable tropical hardwoods capable of surviving the effects of salt water spray and regular use without significant decomposition.
The steering gear of earlier ships's wheels sometimes consisted of a double wheel where each wheel was connected to the other with a wooden spindle that ran through a barrel or drum. The spindle was held up by two pedestals that rested on a wooden platform, often no more than a grate. A tiller rope or tiller chain (sometimes called a steering rope or steering chain) ran around the barrel in five or six loops and then down through two tiller rope/ chain slots at the top of the platform before connecting to two sheaves just below deck (one on either side of the ship's wheel) and thence out to a pair of pulleys before coming back together at the tiller and connecting to the ship's rudder. Movement of the wheels (which were connected and moved in unison) caused the tiller rope to wind in one of two directions and angled the tiller left or right. In a typical and intuitive arrangement, a forward-facing helmsman turning the wheel counterclockwise would cause the tiller to angle to starboard and therefore the rudder to swing to port causing the vessel to also turn to port (see animation).[1]:p.152 On many vessels the helmsman stood facing the rear of the ship with the ship's wheel before him and the rest of the ship behind him— this still meant that the direction of travel of the wheel at its apex corresponded to the direction of turn of the ship. Having two wheels connected by an axle allowed two people to take the helm in severe weather when one person alone might not have had enough strength to control the ship's movements.
Britannia Yacht Club's Commodore Boardroom features a ship's wheel table
USS LST-325 ship's wheel and engine order telegraph
U.S. Navy personnel aboard the USS Constitution, by the ship's wheel
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b zu Mondfeld, Wolfram (2005) [1977]. Historic Ship Models. New York: Sterling Publishing Company. ISBN 1-4027-2186-2. OCLC 60525064. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Steering wheels (ship part).
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Parts of a sailing ship
Aftercastle
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Ship's wheel
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This page was last edited on 8 October 2017, at 11:40.
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