text:
Glass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the material. For other uses, see Glass (disambiguation).
A jar made of soda-lime glass. Although transparent in thin sections, the glass is greenish-blue in thick sections from impurities. Bubbles remained trapped in the glass as it cooled from a liquid, through the glass transition, becoming a non-crystalline solid.
The joining of two tubes made of lead glass during glass welding
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives.
Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their primary use as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and eyeglasses.
Scientifically, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative than traditional glass.
Contents
1 Silicate glass
1.1 Ingredients
2 Physical properties
2.1 Optical properties
2.2 Other properties
2.2.1 Corrosion
2.2.2 Strength
3 Contemporary production
3.1 Color
4 History of silicate glass
4.1 Chronology of advances in architectural glass
5 Other types
5.1 Fiberglass
5.2 Network glasses
5.3 Amorphous metals
5.4 Electrolytes
5.5 Aqueous solutions
5.6 Molecular liquids
5.7 Polymers
5.8 Colloidal glasses
5.9 Glass-ceramics
6 Structure
6.1 Formation from a supercooled liquid
6.2 Behavior of antique glass
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Silicate glass
Ingredients
Silica (SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass.[1] In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites.[2]
Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure silica. It has excellent resistance to thermal shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with.[3] Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass-transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (CaO, calcium oxide, generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass.[4] Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.[5][6]
Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more "brilliant" because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[7] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths.[8]
The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses and their ingredients, properties, and applications:
Fused quartz,[9] also called fused-silica glass,[10] vitreous-silica glass: silica (SiO2) in vitreous, or glass, form (i.e., its molecules are disordered and random, without crystalline structure). It has very low thermal expansion, is very hard, and resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C). It is also the most resistant against weathering (caused in other glasses by alkali ions leaching out of the glass, while staining it). Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.[11]
Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass:[12] silica + sodium oxide (Na2O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al2O3).[13][14] Is transparent,[15] easily formed and most suitable for window glass (see flat glass).[16] It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat[15] (500–600 °C).[11] It is used for windows, some low-temperature incandescent light bulbs, and tableware.[17] Container glass is a soda-lime glass that is a slight variation on flat glass, which uses more alumina and calcium, and less sodium and magnesium, which are more water-soluble. This makes it less susceptible to water erosion.
Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica + boron trioxide (B2O3) + soda (Na2O) + alumina (Al2O3).[18] Stands heat expansion much better than window glass.[10] Used for chemical glassware, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex, Duran) have as main constituents silica and boron trioxide. They have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25×10−6/°C[19] as compared to about 9×10−6/°C for a typical soda-lime glass[20]), making them more dimensionally stable. The lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) also makes them less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cookware.
Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass,[11] lead glass:[21] silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K2O) + soda (Na2O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina. Because of its high density (resulting in a high electron density), it has a high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant[22] (called "crystal", though of course it is a glass and not a crystal). It also has a high elasticity, making glassware "ring". It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very well.[11] This kind of glass is also more fragile than other glasses[23] and is easier to cut.[22]
Aluminosilicate glass: silica + alumina + lime + magnesia[24] + barium oxide (BaO)[11] + boric oxide (B2O3).[24] Extensively used for fiberglass,[24] used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.) and for halogen bulb glass.[11] Aluminosilicate glasses are also resistant to weathering and water erosion.[25]
Germanium-oxide glass: alumina + germanium dioxide (GeO2). Extremely clear glass, used for fiber-optic waveguides in communication networks.[26] Light loses only 5% of its intensity through 1 km of glass fiber.[11]
Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or 'cullet' ready for recycled glass. The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[4] Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.[27]
Moldavite, a natural glass formed by meteorite impact, from Besednice, Bohemia
Tube fulgurites
Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production
Trinitite, a glass made by the Trinity nuclear-weapon test
Lead glass a glass made by adding lead oxide to glass
A borosilicate glass guitar slide
Physical properties
See also: List of physical properties of glass
Optical properties
Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not generally transmit visible light.[28] The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light-absorbing—i.e., colored.[29]
Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics,[30] without scattering it (due to the absence of grain boundaries).[31] It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows.[32] Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5.[33] This may be modified by adding low-density materials[34] such as boron, which lowers the index of refraction (see crown glass),[35] or increased (to as much as 1.8) with high-density materials such as (classically) lead oxide (see flint glass and lead glass), or in modern uses, less toxic oxides of zirconium, titanium, or barium. These high-index glasses (inaccurately known as "crystal" when used in glass vessels) cause more chromatic dispersion of light, and are prized for their diamond-like optical properties.
According to Fresnel equations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 4% per surface (at normal incidence in air),[36] and the transmissivity of one element (two surfaces) is about 90%.[37] Glass with high germanium oxide content also finds application in optoelectronics[38]—e.g., for light-transmitting optical fibers.[39]
Simple optical device: the magnifying glass
Strand of optical glass fiber
Other properties
In the process of manufacture, silicate glass can be poured, formed, extruded and molded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes.[40] The finished product is brittle[41] and will fracture, unless laminated or specially treated,[42] but is extremely durable under most conditions.[43] It erodes very slowly[44] and can mostly withstand the action of water.[45] It is mostly resistant to chemical attack,[46] does not react with foods, and is an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals.[47] Glass is also a fairly inert substance.[48]
Corrosion
Main article: Corrosion § Corrosion of glasses
Although glass is generally corrosion-resistant[49] and more corrosion resistant than other materials, it still can be corroded.[43] The materials that make up a particular glass composition has an effect on how quickly the glass corrodes.[46] A glass containing a high proportion of alkalis[50] or alkali earths is less corrosion-resistant than other kinds of glasses.[51]
Glass flakes have applications as anti-corrosive coating.[52]
Strength
Main article: Strength of glass
Glass typically has a tensile strength of 7 megapascals (1,000 psi),[53] however theoretically it can have a strength of 17 gigapascals (2,500,000 psi) due to glass's strong chemical bonds. Several factors such as imperfections like scratches and bubbles[54] and the glass's chemical composition impact the tensile strength of glass.[55] Several processes such as toughening can increase the strength of glass.[56]
Contemporary production
Main articles: Glass production, Float glass, Flat glass, Glassblowing, and Glazier
Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.[4] After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.[57] Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods.[58] This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.
Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability.[59] Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields[60]), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).[citation needed]
Impurities give the glass its color
Transparent and opaque examples
Glass can be blown into an infinite number of shapes
Color
Main article: Glass coloring and color marking
Some of the many color possibilities of glass
Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses).[61] Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt%[62] produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.[63] A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere.[64] Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. Art glass and studio glass pieces are colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and "cook" times. Most colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market, although there are some glassmakers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.
History of silicate glass
Main article: History of glass
See also: Architectural glass, Stained glass, Glass art, Art glass, and Studio glass
Bohemian flashed and engraved ruby glass (19th-century)
Wine goblet, mid-19th century. Qajar dynasty. Brooklyn Museum.
Roman cage cup from the 4th century CE
Studio glass. Multiple colors within a single object increase the difficulty of production, as glasses of different colors have different chemical and physical properties when molten.
Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, was used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.[65] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[66]
Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE.[67] In ancient China, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal work. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance.[68] Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire[69] in domestic, funerary,[70] and industrial contexts.[71] Examples of Roman glass have been found outside of the former Roman Empire in China,[72] the Baltics, the Middle East and India.[73]
Glass was used extensively during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites.[74] Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, windows,[75] beads,[76] and was also used in jewelry.[77] From the 10th-century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint Denis. By the 14th-century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (1203–1248)[78] and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral.[79] Stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th century.[80] With the Renaissance, and a change in architectural style, the use of large stained glass windows became less prevalent.[81] The use of domestic stained glass increased[82] until most substantial houses had glass windows. These were initially small panes leaded together, but with the changes in technology, glass could be manufactured relatively cheaply in increasingly larger sheets. This led to larger window panes, and, in the 20th-century, to much larger windows in ordinary domestic and commercial buildings.
In the 20th century, new types of glass such as laminated glass, reinforced glass and glass bricks[83] increased the use of glass as a building material and resulted in new applications of glass.[84] Multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass.[85] Similarly, laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens.[86] Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the Middle Ages.[87] The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers[88] as well as having other application in medicine and science.[89] Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy collectors.[90]
From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style.[91] The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass,[92] with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using luster techniques. Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. From about 1960 onwards, there have been an increasing number of small studios hand-producing glass artworks, and glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors working in glass, and their works as part fine arts.
In the 21st century, scientists observe the properties of ancient stained glass windows, in which suspended nanoparticles prevent UV light from causing chemical reactions that change image colors, are developing photographic techniques that use similar stained glass to capture true color images of Mars for the 2019 ESA Mars Rover mission.[93]
Chronology of advances in architectural glass
1226: "Broad Sheet" first produced in Sussex.[94]
1330: "Crown glass" for art work and vessels first produced in Rouen, France.[95] "Broad Sheet" also produced. Both were also supplied for export.
1500s: A method of making mirrors out of plate glass was developed by Venetian glassmakers on the island of Murano, who covered the back of the glass with a mercury-tin amalgam, obtaining near-perfect and undistorted reflection.
1620s: "Blown plate" first produced in London.[96] Used for mirrors and coach plates.[97]
1678: "Crown glass" first produced in London.[98] This process dominated until the 19th century.
1843: An early form of "float glass" invented by Henry Bessemer, pouring glass onto liquid tin. Expensive and not a commercial success.
1874: Tempered glass is developed by Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie (1830–1901) of Paris, France by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of oil or grease.
1888: Machine-rolled glass introduced, allowing patterns.[99]
1898: Wired-cast glass first commercially produced by Pilkington[100] for use where safety or security was an issue.[101]
1959: Float glass launched in UK. Invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington.[102][103]
Mouth-blown window-glass in Sweden Kosta Glasbruk, (1742) with a pontil mark from the glassblower's pipe
A building in Canterbury, England, which displays its long history in different building styles and glazing of every century from the 16th to the 20th included.
Windows in the choir of the Basilica of Saint Denis, one of the earliest uses of extensive areas of glass. (early 13th-century architecture with restored glass of the 19th century)
"Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall". (late 16th century)
Windows at Österreichische Postsparkasse, Vienna, (early 20th century)
Westin Bonaventure Hotel, Los Angeles, show the extensive use of glass as a building material in the 20th–21st centuries
Other types
New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[104] Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.[104][105]
To make glass from materials with poor glass forming tendencies, novel techniques are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers. Examples of these techniques include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream), splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils) and roller quenching (pouring the melt through rollers).
Some glass fibers
Fiberglass
Main article: Fiberglass
See also: Glass wool and Fiber-reinforced plastic
Fiberglass (also called glass-reinforced-plastic[106][107]) is a composite material made up of glass fibers (also called fiberglass[108] or glass friller[109]) embedded in a plastic resin.[110][111] It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibers. These fibers are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin.[112]
Fiberglass filaments are made through a pultrusion process in which the raw materials (sand, limestone, kaolin clay, fluorspar, colemanite, dolomite and other minerals) are melted in a large furnace into a liquid which is extruded through very small orifices (5–25 micrometres in diameter if the glass is E-glass and 9 micrometers if the glass is S-glass).[113]
Fiberglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant.[114][115] Fiberglass is also a good insulator,[116] allowing it to be used to insulate buildings.[117] Most fiberglasses are not alkali resistant.[118] Fiberglass also has the property of becoming stronger as the glass ages.[119]
Network glasses
A CD-RW (CD). Chalcogenide glass form the basis of rewritable CD and DVD solid-state memory technology.[120]
Some types of glass that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fiber optics and other specialized technical applications.[121] These include fluoride glass, aluminate and aluminosilicate glass, phosphate glass, borate glass, and chalcogenide glass.
There are three classes of components for oxide glass: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers.[122] The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition.[123] The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby.[124] Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.[125]
The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lowering the melting temperature.[123]
The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glass types contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance.[126] Corrosion resistance of glass can be increased by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface[127] by reaction with sulfur or fluorine compounds.[128] Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass,[129] and to its electrical resistance; glass manufactured for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps ...) have to take this in account.
Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glass. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ω⋅cm, DC at 250 °C). For more details, see lead glass.[130]
Addition of fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the electrons in the lattice, lowering the polarizability of the material. Such silicon dioxide-fluoride is used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. High levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile SiF2O and such glass is then thermally unstable. Stable layers were achieved with dielectric constant down to about 3.5–3.7.[131]
Amorphous metals
Main article: Amorphous metal
Samples of amorphous metal, with millimeter scale
In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.[132][133][134]
In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase", to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt.[135][136]
Electrolytes
Electrolytes or molten salts are mixtures of different ions. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. The best-studied example is Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4. Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells.[137]
Aqueous solutions
Some aqueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state,[138][139] for instance LiCl:RH2O (a solution of lithium chloride salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4<R<8.[140] An aqueous solution containing sugar has a glassy state and can be used as a surfactant.[141]
Molecular liquids
A molecular liquid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. Many molecular liquids can be supercooled into a glass; some are excellent glass formers that normally do not crystallize.
An example of this is sugar glass.[142]
Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes that can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.[143] In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica.[144]
Polymers
Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms.[145]
Colloidal glasses
Concentrated colloidal suspensions may exhibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle concentration or density.[146][147][148]
In cell biology, there is recent evidence suggesting that the cytoplasm behaves like a colloidal glass approaching the liquid-glass transition.[149][150] During periods of low metabolic activity, as in dormancy, the cytoplasm vitrifies and prohibits the movement to larger cytoplasmic particles while allowing the diffusion of smaller ones throughout the cell.[149]
Glass-ceramics
A high-strength glass-ceramic cooktop with negligible thermal expansion.
Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime.[151][152]
The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C.[151][152]
Structure
Main article: Structure of liquids and glasses
As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids. Due to chemical bonding characteristics, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra.[153]
The amorphous structure of glassy silica (SiO2) in two dimensions. No long-range order is present, although there is local ordering with respect to the tetrahedral arrangement of oxygen (O) atoms around the silicon (Si) atoms.
Formation from a supercooled liquid
Main article: Glass transition
In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching,[154][155][156][157][158] although the term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. For melt quenching, if the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.[159] Generally, a glass exists in a structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.[160]
Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition[161][162] where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.[155] Nonetheless, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.[157][158]
Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled liquid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid.[161][163] The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials). Laboratory measurements of room temperature glass flow do show a motion consistent with a material viscosity on the order of 1017–1018 Pa s.[164]
Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature.[165] A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time scales.
Unsolved problem in physics :
What is the nature of the transition between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy phase? "The deepest and most interesting unsolved problem in solid state theory is probably the theory of the nature of glass and the glass transition." —P.W. Anderson[166]
(more unsolved problems in physics )
Behavior of antique glass
The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.[167] This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window.[168] Occasionally, such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.[169]
Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.
Several other points can be considered that contradict the "cathedral glass flow" theory:
Writing in the American Journal of Physics, the materials engineer Edgar D. Zanotto states "... the predicted relaxation time for GeO2 at room temperature is 1032 years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer."[170] (1032 years is many times longer than the estimated age of the universe.)
If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more—but this is not observed. Similarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should have lost their edge; this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a different viscosity from window glass).[161]
If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then the effect should be noticeable in antique telescopes. Any slight deformation in the antique telescopic lenses would lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed.[161]
Gallery
Ear stud, ca. 1390–1353 B.C.E., 48.66.30, Brooklyn Museum. The shafts of these brightly colored studs were inserted through a hole in the earlobe to display the studs' circular heads.
Phoenician glass necklace 5th–6th century BC
Roman glass amphoriskoi 1st–2nd century AD
Blue head flask (Roman, AD 300–500, cast glass)
Lombardic glass drinking horn 6th–7th century AD
Two cups cobalt blue glass with gilt floral decoration from India, Mughal, circa 1700–1775
Base for a water pipe, India, Mughal, circa 1700–1775
Venetian goblet made in Italy in the early 19th century.
Bracelets with peacocks, Delhi, enameled silver inlaid with gemstones and glass, 19th century
Jug, 1876, James Powell & Sons
Siphon bottle for seltzer water, 1922
New Martinsville Glass Hostmaster Tea Cup, cobalt blue, 1930
Perfume set from Soviet Union, ca. 1965
Murano millefiori glass vase
Window glass
Detail from a glass chandelier
Glass chandelier
The Rotunda, or main entrance, of the Victoria and Albert Museum now sports a 30 ft high, blown glass chandelier by Dale Chihuly
Daoguang period Peking glass vase. The color is named "Imperial Yellow" after the flag of the Qing Dynasty.
The use of glass dials in this "mystery watch" creates the illusion the hands move without movement
Testing flatness with an optical flat. The smooth surface of glass is used for measurements much smaller than the wavelength of the light by creating a pattern of light and dark fringes.
Uranium glass cake stand fluorescing in ultraviolet light
Modern glass can be chiselled and bonded into monumental sculptural forms
See also
Book: Glass
Caneworking
Fabrication and testing of optical components
Fire glass
Knitted glass
Glass recycling
Kimberley points
Murrine
Optical lens design
Prince Rupert's Drop
Superglass
Tektite
Vitrified sand
Toughened glass
Low-iron glass
Mirror
Stained glass
Lead glass
Glassy carbon
References
Jump up ^ Lewis, Peter Rhys (9 June 2016). Forensic Polymer Engineering: Why Polymer Products Fail in Service. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-08-100728-0. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Klein, Hermann Joseph (1 January 1881). Land, sea and sky; or, Wonders of life and nature, tr. from the Germ. [Die Erde und ihr organisches Leben] of H.J. Klein and dr. Thomé, by J. Minshull. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Glass – Chemistry Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c B. H. W. S. de Jong, "Glass"; in "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"; 5th edition, vol. A12, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1989, ISBN 978-3-527-20112-9, pp. 365–432.
Jump up ^ "Borosilicate Glass vs. Soda Lime Glass? - Rayotek News". rayotek.com. Archived from the original on 23 April 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Gordon L. (22 September 2005). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice (Second ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3775-8. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Glass Ingredients – What is Glass Made Of?". www.historyofglass.com. Archived from the original on 23 April 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Pfaender, Heinz G. (1996). Schott guide to glass. Springer. pp. 135, 186. ISBN 978-0-412-62060-7. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Chawla, Sohan L. (1 January 1993). Materials Selection for Corrosion Control. ASM International. ISBN 978-1-61503-728-5. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Ashby, Michael F.; Johnson, Kara (19 December 2013). Materials and Design: The Art and Science of Material Selection in Product Design. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-098282-3. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Mining the sea sand Archived 29 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Seafriends.org.nz (1994-02-08). Retrieved 2012-05-15.
Jump up ^ Punmia, Dr B. C.; Jain, Ashok Kumar; Jain, Arun Kr (1 May 2003). Basic Civil Engineering. Firewall Media. ISBN 978-81-7008-403-7. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Nema, Sandeep; Ludwig, John D. (26 August 2010). Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms – Parenteral Medications, Third Edition: Volume 3: Regulations, Validation and the Future. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-8648-5. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Khatib, Jamal (2016). Sustainability of Construction Materials. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-08-100391-6. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Jr, Robert H. Hill; Finster, David C. (21 April 2016). Laboratory Safety for Chemistry Students. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781119243380. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Spence, William P.; Kultermann, Eva (19 January 2016). Construction Materials, Methods and Techniques. Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781305086272. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. (2006). Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071946. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Worrell, Ernst; Reuter, Markus (2014). Handbook of Recycling: State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists. Newnes. ISBN 978-0-12-396506-6. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Corning, Inc. Pyrex data sheet Archived 13 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. (PDF). Retrieved 2012-05-15.
Jump up ^ AR-GLAS Archived 12 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Schott, N.A., Inc data sheet
Jump up ^ Ericsson, Anne-Marie (1996). The Brilliance of Swedish Glass, 1918–1939: An Alliance of Art and Industry. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07005-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Schwartz, Mel (2002). Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes (Second ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 9781420017168. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Shelby, J. E. (2017). Introduction to Glass Science and Technology. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-639-3. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Askeland, Donald R.; Fulay, Pradeep P. (23 April 2008). Essentials of Materials Science & Engineering. Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-24446-5. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Bradford, S. (2012). Corrosion Control. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4684-8845-6.
Jump up ^ Jiang, Xin; Lousteau, Joris; Richards, Billy; Jha, Animesh (2009-09-01). "Investigation on germanium oxide-based glasses for infrared optical fibre development". Optical Materials. 31 (11): 1701–1706. Bibcode:2009OptMa..31.1701J. doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2009.04.011.
Jump up ^ Mukherjee, Swapna (2013-10-09). The Science of Clays: Applications in Industry, Engineering, and Environment. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-6683-9.
Jump up ^ Barsoum, Michel W. (2003). Fundamentals of ceramics (2 ed.). Bristol: IOP. ISBN 0-7503-0902-4.
Jump up ^ Donald R. Uhlmann; Norbert J. Kreidl, eds. (1991). Optical properties of glass. Westerville, OH: American Ceramic Society. ISBN 0-944904-35-1.
Jump up ^ Lyle, D. P. (2008-04-04). Howdunit Forensics. Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 1-58297-474-8.
Jump up ^ Khatib, Jamal (2016-08-12). Sustainability of Construction Materials. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 9780081003916.
Jump up ^ Ramakrishna, A. (2014-03-03). Goyal's I I T FOUNDATION COURSE CHEMISTRY: For Class- 7. Goyal Brothers Prakashan.
Jump up ^ Apodaca, Anthony A.; Gritz, Larry; Barzel, Ronen (2000). Advanced RenderMan: Creating CGI for Motion Pictures. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-55860-618-0.
Jump up ^ White, Mary Anne (2011-06-28). Physical Properties of Materials, Second Edition. CRC Press. ISBN 9781439895320.
Jump up ^ Grattan, L. S.; Meggitt, B. T. (2013-03-14). Optical Fiber Sensor Technology: Advanced Applications – Bragg Gratings and Distributed Sensors. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781475760798.
Jump up ^ Terzis, Anestis (2016-03-09). Handbook of Camera Monitor Systems: The Automotive Mirror-Replacement Technology based on ISO 16505. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-29611-1.
Jump up ^ Khatib, Jamal (2016-08-12). Sustainability of Construction Materials. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-08-100391-6.
Jump up ^ Kasap, Safa; Ruda, Harry; Boucher, Yann (2009-06-11). Cambridge Illustrated Handbook of Optoelectronics and Photonics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139643726.
Jump up ^ Jelínková, Helena (2013-09-30). Lasers for Medical Applications: Diagnostics, Therapy and Surgery. Elsevier. ISBN 9780857097545.
Jump up ^ Mattox, D. M. (2014-09-19). Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-08-094658-0.
Jump up ^ Zarzycki, Jerzy (1991-07-25). Glasses and the Vitreous State. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35582-7.
Jump up ^ Tilstone, William J.; Savage, Kathleen A.; Clark, Leigh A. (2006). Forensic Science: An Encyclopedia of History, Methods, and Techniques. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071946.
^ Jump up to: a b Simmons, H. Leslie (2011-11-16). Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118067055.
Jump up ^ Oxley, John (1994-01-01). Stained glass in South Africa. William Waterman Publications. ISBN 978-1-874959-09-0.
Jump up ^ Ward-Harvey, K. (2009). Fundamental Building Materials. Universal-Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59942-954-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Gardner, Irvine Clifton; Hahner, Clarence H. (1949). Research and Development in Applied Optics and Optical Glass at the National Bureau of Standards: A Review and Bibliography. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Jump up ^ Dudeja, Puja; Gupta, Rajul K.; Minhas, Amarjeet Singh (2016-09-28). Food Safety in the 21st Century: Public Health Perspective. Academic Press. ISBN 9780128018460.
Jump up ^ Aulton, Michael E.; Taylor, Kevin (2013). Aulton's Pharmaceutics: The Design and Manufacture of Medicines. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 9780702042904.
Jump up ^ Bengisu, M. (2013-06-29). Engineering Ceramics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-662-04350-9.
Jump up ^ Batchelor, Andrew W.; Loh, Nee Lam; Chandrasekaran, Margam (2011-03-24). Materials Degradation and Its Control by Surface Engineering. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-908978-14-1.
Jump up ^ Chawla, Sohan L. (1993). Materials Selection for Corrosion Control. ASM International. ISBN 9781615037285.
Jump up ^ Technomic (1998-01-16). SPI/CI International Conference and Exposition 1998. CRC Press. ISBN 9781566766425.
Jump up ^ Kasunic, Keith J. (2015-03-02). Optomechanical Systems Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118809907.
Jump up ^ Lehman, Richard (24 November 2017). "The Mechanical Properties of Glass" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
Jump up ^ The Glass Industry. Ashlee Publishing Company, Incorporated. 1923.
Jump up ^ "Glass Strength". www.pilkington.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "PFG Glass". Pfg.co.za. Archived from the original on 6 November 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Office, U. s Government Printing (October 2011). Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40,: Protection of Environment, Part 60 (Sections 60.1-end), Revised As of July 1, 2011. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160889073.
Jump up ^ Richling, Jeffrey (2017-01-17). Scratching the Surface – An Introduction to Photonics – Part 1 Optics, Thin Films, Lasers and Crystals. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-312-65170-8.
Jump up ^ "windshields how they are made". autoglassguru. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
Jump up ^ Vogel, Werner (1994). Glass Chemistry (2 ed.). Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K. ISBN 3-540-57572-3.
Jump up ^ Thomas P. Seward, ed. (2005). High temperature glass melt property database for process modeling. Westerville, Ohio: American Ceramic Society. ISBN 1-57498-225-7.
Jump up ^ David M Issitt. Substances Used in the Making of Coloured Glass 1st.glassman.com.
Jump up ^ Shelby, James E. (2007-10-31). Introduction to Glass Science and Technology. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9781847551160.
Jump up ^ "Glass Online: The History of Glass". Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
Jump up ^ True glazing over a ceramic body was not used until many centuries after the production of the first glass.
Jump up ^ Gowlett, J.A.J. (1997). High Definition Archaeology: Threads Through the Past. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18429-0. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Douglas, R. W. (1972). A history of glassmaking. Henley-on-Thames: G T Foulis & Co Ltd. ISBN 0-85429-117-2.
Jump up ^ Whitehouse, David; Glass, Corning Museum of (1 January 2003). Roman Glass in the Corning Museum of Glass. Hudson Hills. ISBN 978-0-87290-155-1. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ The Art Journal. Virtue and Company. 1888.
Jump up ^ The Glass Industry. Ashlee Publishing Company. 1920.
Jump up ^ Dien, Albert E. (1 January 2007). Six Dynasties Civilization. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07404-2. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Silberman, Neil Asher; Bauer, Alexander A. (1 January 2012). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973578-5. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Stachurski, Zbigniew H. (2015-01-30). Fundamentals of Amorphous Solids: Structure and Properties. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-68219-5.
Jump up ^ Walford, Edward; Apperson, George Latimer (1887). The Antiquary: A Magazine Devoted to the Study of the Past. E. Stock.
Jump up ^ Keller, Daniel; Price, Jennifer; Jackson, Caroline (2014-05-30). Neighbours and Successors of Rome: Traditions of Glass Production and use in Europe and the Middle East in the Later 1st Millennium AD. Oxbow Books. ISBN 9781782973980.
Jump up ^ Churchill, Lady Randolph Spencer (1900). The Anglo-Saxon Review. John Lane.
Jump up ^ Rene Hughe, Byzantine and Medieval Art, Paul Hamlyn, (1963)
Jump up ^ John Harvey, English Cathedrals, Batsford, (1961)
Jump up ^ Packard, Robert T.; Korab, Balthazar; Hunt, William Dudley (1980). Encyclopedia of American architecture. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780070480100.
Jump up ^ Tutag, Nola Huse; Hamilton, Lucy (1987). Discovering Stained Glass in Detroit. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814318754. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Brown, Sarah; O'Connor, David (1991). Glass-painters. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9780802069177.
Jump up ^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc. 1983. ISBN 9780852294000.
Jump up ^ Freiman, Stephen (2007-06-29). Global Roadmap for Ceramic and Glass Technology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470104910.
Jump up ^ Gelfand, Lisa; Duncan, Chris (2011-11-18). Sustainable Renovation: Strategies for Commercial Building Systems and Envelope. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118102176.
Jump up ^ Lim, Henry W.; Honigsmann, Herbert; Hawk, John L. M. (2007-02-01). Photodermatology. CRC Press. ISBN 9781420019964.
Jump up ^ Bach, Hans; Neuroth, Norbert (2012-12-06). The Properties of Optical Glass. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783642577697.
Jump up ^ McLean, Ian S. (June 25, 2008). Electronic Imaging in Astronomy: Detectors and Instrumentation. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783540765820 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Meyers, Morton A. (2011). Happy Accidents: Serendipity in Major Medical Breakthroughs in the Twentieth Century. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN 9781611451627.
Jump up ^ Enteria, Napoleon; Akbarzadeh, Aliakbar (2013-12-10). Solar Energy Sciences and Engineering Applications. CRC Press. ISBN 9780203762059.
Jump up ^ Miller, Judith (2006). Decorative Arts. DK Publishing. ISBN 9780756623494.
Jump up ^ Cresswell, Lesley (2004). Graphic with Materials Technology. Heinemann. ISBN 9780435757687.
Jump up ^ Zolfagharifard, Ellie (15 October 2013). "How medieval stained-glass is creating the ultimate SPACE camera: Nanoparticles used in church windows will help scientists see Mars' true colours under extreme UV light". Daily Mail. London. Archived from the original on 28 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Ginn, Peter; Goodman, Ruth (2013-10-21). Tudor Monastery Farm: Life in rural England 500 years ago. Random House. ISBN 9781448141722.
Jump up ^ Bridgwood, Barry; Lennie, Lindsay (2013-09-13). History, Performance and Conservation. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781134078998.
Jump up ^ Ginn, Peter; Goodman, Ruth (2013-10-21). Tudor Monastery Farm: Life in rural England 500 years ago. Random House. ISBN 9781448141722.
Jump up ^ Silliman, Benjamin; Goodrich, Charles Rush (1854). The World of Science, Art, and Industry: Illustrated from Examples in the New-York Exhibition, 1853-54. G.P. Putnam.
Jump up ^ Mooney, Barbara Burlison (2008). Prodigy Houses of Virginia: Architecture and the Native Elite. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 9780813926735.
Jump up ^ Forsyth, Michael (2013-02-05). Materials and Skills for Historic Building Conservation. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118658666.
Jump up ^ Practical Building Conservation: Glass and glazing. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2011. ISBN 9780754645573.
Jump up ^ McNeill, John; Pomeranz, Kenneth (2015-04-30). The Cambridge World History: Volume 7, Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750–Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316298121.
Jump up ^ History of Glass Manufacture: London Crown Glass co.
Jump up ^ Notes on Science and Technology in Britain. The Office. April 1967.
^ Jump up to: a b "Glass melting, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory". Depts.washington.edu. Archived from the original on 5 May 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Fluegel, Alexander. "Glass melting in the laboratory". Glassproperties.com. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Woodhouse, Philip (16 December 2013). Sea Kayaking: A Guide for Sea Canoeists. BalboaPress. ISBN 978-1-4525-0849-8. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Burrill, Daniel; Zurschmeide, Jeffery (2012-01-01). How to Fabricate Automotive Fiberglass & Carbon Fiber Parts. CarTech Inc. ISBN 978-1-934709-98-6.
Jump up ^ Bradt, R. C.; Tressler, R. E. (2013-11-11). Fractography of Glass. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4899-1325-8.
Jump up ^ Bryce, Douglas M. (1997-01-01). Plastic Injection Molding: Material Selection and Product Design Fundamentals. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. ISBN 978-0-87263-488-6.
Jump up ^ Kamen, Gary (1 January 2001). Foundations of Exercise Science. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-683-04498-0. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ The Complete Guide to Auto Body Repair. MotorBooks International. ISBN 978-1-61059-206-2. Archived from the original on 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Properties of Matter Reading Selection: Perfect Teamwork". www.propertiesofmatter.si.edu. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Bhatnagar, Ashok (2016-04-19). Lightweight Ballistic Composites: Military and Law-Enforcement Applications. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 978-0-08-100425-8.
Jump up ^ Certain Steel Grating from China, Invs. 701-TA-465 and 731-TA-1161 (Preliminary). DIANE Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4578-1677-2. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fiberglass and Composite Material Design Guide". www.performancecomposites.com. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Jain, Ravi; Lee, Luke (2012-01-02). Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Infrastructure Applications: Focusing on Innovation, Technology Implementation and Sustainability. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-2356-6.
Jump up ^ Kaviany, Massoud (2002). Principles of Heat Transfer. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-43463-4.
Jump up ^ Kogel, Jessica Elzea (2006-01-01). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses. SME. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8.
Jump up ^ Canning, Captain Wayne (2017-08-15). Fiberglass Boat Restoration: The Project Planning Guide. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1-944824-27-3.
Jump up ^ Greer, A. Lindsay; Mathur, N (2005). "Materials science: Changing Face of the Chameleon". Nature. 437 (7063): 1246–1247. Bibcode:2005Natur.437.1246G. doi:10.1038/4371246a. PMID 16251941.
Jump up ^ Rivera, V. A. G.; Manzani, Danilo (2017-04-25). Technological Advances in Tellurite Glasses: Properties, Processing, and Applications. Springer. ISBN 9783319530383.
Jump up ^ Karmakar, Basudeb; Rademann, Klaus; Stepanov, Andrey (2016-01-19). Glass Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Properties and Applications. William Andrew. ISBN 9780323393126.
^ Jump up to: a b Stolten, Detlef; Emonts, Bernd (2012-10-22). Fuel Cell Science and Engineering: Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9783527650262.
Jump up ^ Bernhard, Kienzler; Marcus, Altmaier; Christiane, Bube; Volker, Metz (2012-09-28). Radionuclide Source Term for HLW Glass, Spent Nuclear Fuel, and Compacted Hulls and End Pieces (CSD-C Waste). KIT Scientific Publishing. ISBN 9783866449077.
Jump up ^ Zhu, Yuntian. "MSE200 Lecture 19 (CH. 11.6, 11.8) Ceramics" (PDF). Retrieved October 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bourhis, Eric Le (2007). Glass: Mechanics and Technology. Wiley-VCH. p. 74. ISBN 3-527-31549-7. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Baldwin, Charles; Evele, Holger; Pershinsky, Renee (2010-07-08). Advances in Porcelain Enamel Technology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470640890.
Jump up ^ Day, D. E. (2013-10-22). Glass Surfaces: Proceedings of the Fourth Rolla Ceramic Materials Conference on Glass Surfaces, St. Louis, Missouri, USA, 15–19 June, 1975. Elsevier. ISBN 9781483165226.
Jump up ^ Electri-onics. Lake Publishing Corporation. 1985.
Jump up ^ Shackelford, James F.; Doremus, Robert H. (2008). Ceramic and Glass Materials: Structure, Properties and Processing. Springer. p. 158. ISBN 0-387-73361-2. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Doering, Robert; Nishi, Yoshio (2007). Handbook of semiconductor manufacturing technology. CRC Press. pp. 12–3. ISBN 1-57444-675-4. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Klement, Jr., W.; Willens, R. H.; Duwez, Pol (1960). "Non-crystalline Structure in Solidified Gold-Silicon Alloys". Nature. 187 (4740): 869. Bibcode:1960Natur.187..869K. doi:10.1038/187869b0.
Jump up ^ Liebermann, H.; Graham, C. (1976). "Production of Amorphous Alloy Ribbons and Effects of Apparatus Parameters on Ribbon Dimensions". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics. 12 (6): 921. Bibcode:1976ITM....12..921L. doi:10.1109/TMAG.1976.1059201.
Jump up ^ Ponnambalam, V.; Poon, S. Joseph; Shiflet, Gary J. (2004). "Fe-based bulk metallic glasses with diameter thickness larger than one centimeter". Journal of Materials Research. 19 (5): 1320. Bibcode:2004JMatR..19.1320P. doi:10.1557/JMR.2004.0176.
Jump up ^ "Metallurgy Division Publications". NIST Interagency Report 7127. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Mendelev, M. I.; Schmalian, J.; Wang, C. Z.; Morris, J. R.; K. M. Ho (2006). "Interface Mobility and the Liquid-Glass Transition in a One-Component System". Physical Review B. 74 (10). Bibcode:2006PhRvB..74j4206M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.74.104206.
Jump up ^ "Lithium-Ion Pioneer Introduces New Battery That's Three Times Better". Fortune. Archived from the original on 9 April 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Gruverman, Irwin J. (2013-03-09). Mössbauer Effect Methodology: Volume 6 Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Mössbauer Effect Methodology New York City, January 25, 1970. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4684-3159-9.
Jump up ^ Levine, Harry; Slade, Louise (2013-11-21). Water Relationships in Foods: Advances in the 1980s and Trends for the 1990s. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781489906649.
Jump up ^ J., Dupuy,; J., Jal,; B., Prével,; A., Aouizerat-Elarby,; P., Chieux,; J., Dianoux, A.; J., Legrand, (1992). "Vibrational dynamics and structural relaxation in aqueous electrolyte solutions in the liquid, undercooled liquid and glassy states". Archived from the original on 11 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Ogawa, Shigesaburo; Osanai, Shuichi. "Glass Behavior of Aqueous solution of Sugar Based Surfactants" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Hartel, Richard W.; Hartel, AnnaKate (2014-03-28). Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4614-9383-9.
Jump up ^ McMillan, P. F. (2004). "Polyamorphic Transformations in Liquids and Glasses". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 14 (10): 1506–1512. doi:10.1039/b401308p.
Jump up ^ Carbon dioxide glass created in the lab Archived 1 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine.. NewScientist. 15 June 2006.
Jump up ^ Understanding polymer glasses Archived 25 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Pusey, P. N.; Megen, W. van (1987). "Observation of a glass transition in suspensions of spherical colloidal particles". Physical Review Letters. 59 (18): 2083–2086. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59.2083P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.2083. PMID 10035413.
Jump up ^ Megen, W. Van; Underwood, S. (1993). "Dynamic-light-scattering study of glasses of hard colloidal spheres". Physical Review E. 47: 248. Bibcode:1993PhRvE..47..248V. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.47.248.
Jump up ^ Löwen, H. (1996). A. K. Arora; B. V. R. Tata, eds. "Dynamics of charged colloidal suspensions across the freezing and glass transition" (PDF). Ordering and Phase Transitions in Charged Colloids. VCH Series of Textbooks on "Complex Fluids and Fluid Microstructures". New York: 207–234. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Parry, Bradley R.; Surovtsev, Ivan V.; Cabeen, Matthew T.; O’Hern, Corey S.; Dufresne, Eric R.; Jacobs-Wagner, Christine (2014). "The Bacterial Cytoplasm Has Glass-like Properties and Is Fluidized by Metabolic Activity". Cell. 156 (1): 183–194. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.11.028. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 3956598  . PMID 24361104.
Jump up ^ Munguira, Ignacio (9 February 2016). "Glasslike Membrane Protein Diffusion in a Crowded Membrane". ACS Nano. 10: 2584–2590. doi:10.1021/acsnano.5b07595. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Kingery, W.D.; Uhlmann, H.K. Bowen, D.R. (1976). Introduction to ceramics (2 ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-47860-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Richerson, David W. (1992). Modern ceramic engineering : properties, processing and use in design (2 ed.). New York, NY: Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8634-3.
Jump up ^ Salmon, P. S. (2002). "Order within disorder". Nature Materials. 1 (2): 87–8. doi:10.1038/nmat737. PMID 12618817.
Jump up ^ ASTM definition of glass from 1945; also: DIN 1259, Glas – Begriffe für Glasarten und Glasgruppen, September 1986
^ Jump up to: a b Zallen, R. (1983). The Physics of Amorphous Solids. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-01968-2.
Jump up ^ Cusack, N. E. (1987). The physics of structurally disordered matter: an introduction. Adam Hilger in association with the University of Sussex press. ISBN 0-85274-829-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Elliot, S. R. (1984). Physics of Amorphous Materials. Longman group ltd.
^ Jump up to: a b Scholze, Horst (1991). Glass – Nature, Structure, and Properties. Springer. ISBN 0-387-97396-6.
Jump up ^ Phillips, J.C. (1979). "Topology of covalent non-crystalline solids I: Short-range order in chalcogenide alloys". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. 34 (2): 153. Bibcode:1979JNCS...34..153P. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(79)90033-4.
Jump up ^ Folmer, J. C. W.; Franzen, Stefan (2003). "Study of polymer glasses by modulated differential scanning calorimetry in the undergraduate physical chemistry laboratory". Journal of Chemical Education. 80 (7): 813. Bibcode:2003JChEd..80..813F. doi:10.1021/ed080p813.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gibbs, Philip. "Is glass liquid or solid?". Archived from the original on 29 March 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Loy, Jim. "Glass Is A Liquid?". Archived from the original on 14 March 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
Jump up ^ "Philip Gibbs" Glass Worldwide, (May/June 2007), pp. 14–18
Jump up ^ Vannoni, M.; Sordini, A.; Molesini, G. (2011). "Relaxation time and viscosity of fused silica glass at room temperature". Eur. Phys. J. E. 34: 9–14. doi:10.1140/epje/i2011-11092-9.
Jump up ^ Neumann, Florin. "Glass: Liquid or Solid – Science vs. an Urban Legend". Archived from the original on 9 April 2007. Retrieved 8 April 2007.
Jump up ^ Anderson, P. W. (1995). "Through the Glass Lightly". Science. 267 (5204): 1615. doi:10.1126/science.267.5204.1615-e.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Chang (29 July 2008). "The Nature of Glass Remains Anything but Clear". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 April 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
Jump up ^ "Dr Karl's Homework: Glass Flows". Australia: ABC. 26 January 2000. Archived from the original on 19 September 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Halem, H. "Does Glass Flow". Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Zanotto, Edgar Dutra (1998). "Do Cathedral Glasses Flow?". American Journal of Physics. 66 (5): 392–396. Bibcode:1998AmJPh..66..392Z. doi:10.1119/1.19026.
External links
Find more aboutGlassat Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from Wikimedia Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
"Glass". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). 1911.
The Story of Glass Making in Canada from The Canadian Museum of Civilization.
"How Your Glass Ware Is Made" by George W. Waltz, February 1951, Popular Science.
All About Glass from the Corning Museum of Glass: a collection of articles, multimedia, and virtual books all about glass, including the Glass Dictionary.
Glass Encyclopedia from 20th Century Glass: a comprehensive guide to all types of antique and collectible glass, with information, pictures and references.
National Glass Association the largest trade association representing the flat (architectural), auto glass, and window & door industries
show
v
t
e
Glass science topics
Basics
Glass
Glass transition
Supercooling
Formulation
AgInSbTe
Bioglass
Borophosphosilicate glass
Borosilicate glass
Ceramic glaze
Chalcogenide glass
Cobalt glass
Cranberry glass
Crown glass
Flint glass
Fluorosilicate glass
Fused quartz
GeSbTe
Gold ruby glass
Lead glass
Milk glass
Phosphosilicate glass
Photochromic lens glass
Silicate glass
Soda–lime glass
Sodium hexametaphosphate
Soluble glass
Tellurite glass
Thoriated glass
Ultra low expansion glass
Uranium glass
Vitreous enamel
Wood's glass
ZBLAN
Glass-ceramics
Bioactive glass
CorningWare
Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
Macor
Zerodur
Preparation
Annealing
Chemical vapor deposition
Glass batch calculation
Glass forming
Glass melting
Glass modeling
Ion implantation
Liquidus temperature
Sol-gel technique
Viscosity
Vitrification
Optics
Achromat
Dispersion
Gradient-index optics
Hydrogen darkening
Optical amplifier
Optical fiber
Optical lens design
Photochromic lens
Photosensitive glass
Refraction
Transparent materials
Surface
modification
Anti-reflective coating
Chemically strengthened glass
Corrosion
Dealkalization
DNA microarray
Hydrogen darkening
Insulated glazing
Porous glass
Self-cleaning glass
Sol-gel technique
Tempered glass
Diverse
topics
Glass-coated wire
Safety glass
Glass databases
Glass electrode
Glass fiber reinforced concrete
Glass ionomer cement
Glass microspheres
Glass-reinforced plastic
Glass-to-metal seal
Porous glass
Prince Rupert's drops
Radioactive waste vitrification
Windshield
Glass fiber
show
v
t
e
Glass production techniques
Commercial techniques
Float glass process
Fritted glass
Blowing and pressing (containers)
Extrusion / Drawing (fibers, glasswool)
Drawing (optical fibers)
Precision glass moulding
Overflow downdraw method
Pressing
Casting
Cutting
Flame polishing
Chemical polishing
Diamond turning
Rolling
Artistic and historic techniques
Beadmaking
Blowing
Blown plate
Broad sheet
Caneworking
Cased glass
Crown glass
Cylinder blown sheet
Engraving
Etching
Enamelled glass
Flashed glass
Forest glass
Fourcault process
Fusing
Glass mosaic
Lampworking
Machine drawn cylinder sheet
Millefiori
Polished plate
Rippled glass
Satsuma Kiriko cut glass
Slumping
Stained glass fusing
Stained glass production
Natural processes
Radiative processes
Opal formation
Sea glass
Shock metamorphic glasses/Impactite
Vitrified sand
Volcanic glasses
See also
Glossary of glass art terms
Glass recycling
show
v
t
e
Glass makers and brands
Contemporary
companies
Anchor Hocking
Arc International
Ardagh Group
Armashield
Asahi
Aurora Glass Foundry
Aventas group
Baccarat
Berengo Studio
Blenko Glass Company
Bodum
Bormioli Rocco
Borosil
Caithness Glass
Cox & Barnard
Corning
Dartington Crystal
Daum
Edinburgh Crystal
Fanavid
Fenton Art Glass Company
Firozabad glass industry
Flabeg
Franz Mayer
Fuyao
Glava
Glaverbel
Guardian Industries
Hadeland
Hardman & Co.
Heaton, Butler and Bayne
Holmegaard Glassworks
Holophane
Hoya
Kingdom of Crystal
Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works
Kosta Glasbruk
Libbey-Owens-Ford
Liuli Gongfang
Iittala
Luoyang
Johns Manville
Mats Jonasson Målerås
Moser Glass
Mosser Glass
Nippon Sheet Glass
Ohara
Orrefors
Osram
Owens Corning
Owens-Illinois
Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano
Phu Phong
Pilkington
PPG Industries
Preciosa
Riedel
Rona
Royal Leerdam Crystal
Saint-Gobain
Saint-Louis
Schott
Sterlite Optical Technologies
Steuben
Swarovski
Tyrone Crystal
Val Saint Lambert
Verrerie of Brehat
Waterford
Watts & Co.
World Kitchen
Xinyi Glass
Zwiesel
Historic
companies
Bakewell Glass
Belmont Glass Company
Boston and Sandwich Glass Company
Brockway Glass
Carr Lowrey Glass Company
Cambridge Glass
Chance Brothers
Clayton and Bell
Dugan Glass Company
Duncan & Miller
Dunbar Glass
Fostoria Glass Company
General Glass Industries
Gus Crystal
Alexander Gibbs
Grönvik glasbruk
Hartford City Glass Company
Hazel-Atlas
Heisey
Hemingray Glass Company
J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company
Indiana Glass Company
Knox Glass Bottle Company
Lavers, Barraud and Westlake
Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs
Millersburg Glass Company
Morris & Co.
Nachtmann
Northwood Glass Company
Novelty Glass Company
Old Dominion Glass Company
James Powell and Sons
Ravenhead Glass
The Root Glass Company
Seneca Glass Company
Shrigley and Hunt
Sneath Glass Company
Venini & C.
Ward and Hughes
Westmoreland Glass Company
Wheaton Industries
Whitall Tatum Company
White Glass Company
Worshipful Company
Glassmakers
John Adams
Richard M. Atwater
Frederick Carder
Irving Wightman Colburn
Henry Crimmel
Friedrich
Henry Clay Fry
A. H. Heisey
Edward D. Libbey
Dante Marioni
Antonio Neri
Michael Joseph Owens
Alastair Pilkington
Flavio Poli
Salviati
Otto Schott
Henry William Stiegel
S. Donald Stookey
Lino Tagliapietra
W. E. S. Turner
Tomasz Urbanowicz
Paolo Venini
John M. Whitall
Trademarks
and brands
Activ
Bohemian glass
Bomex
Duran
Endural
Burmese glass
Chevron bead
Corelle
CorningWare
Cranberry glass
Cristallo
Dragontrail
Favrile
Fire-King
Forest glass
Gorilla Glass
Macor
Millefiori
Murano glass
Opaline glass
Peking glass
Pyrex
Rona
Ravenhead Glass
Satsuma Kiriko cut glass
Tiffany glass
Visions
Vitrite
Vitrolite
Vycor
Waterford Crystal
Wood's glass
Zerodur
Related
articles
List of defunct glassmaking companies
Authority control
BNE: XX530608
BNF: cb119383603 (data)
GND: 4021142-3
LCCN: sh85055102
NDL: 00562246
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&oldid=856799609"
Categories:
Glass
Dielectrics
Packaging materials
Sculpture materials
Building
Windows
Tableware
Hidden categories:
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
Webarchive template wayback links
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Wikipedia semi-protected pages
Use dmy dates from September 2011
Use American English from February 2015
All Wikipedia articles written in American English
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017
Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference
Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
العربية
Aragonés
ܐܪܡܝܐ
Asturianu
Avañe'ẽ
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Чӑвашла
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Emiliàn e rumagnòl
Español
Esperanto
Estremeñu
Euskara
فارسی
Føroyskt
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
Хальмг
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Ирон
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Кыргызча
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Malti
मराठी
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Napulitano
Нохчийн
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
پښتو
Patois
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русиньскый
Русский
Саха тыла
Sardu
Scots
Shqip
Sicilianu
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
文言
Winaray
吴语
ייִדיש
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
113 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 27 August 2018, at 16:18 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: This article is semi-protected until March 4, 2019.

attrs: class id

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Glass (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: p

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Soda-lime_glass
mw-redirect
Soda-lime glass

values:
/wiki/Art_objects
mw-redirect
Art objects

values:
/wiki/Bowl_(vessel)
mw-redirect
Bowl (vessel)

values:
/wiki/Paperweight_collecting
mw-redirect
Paperweight collecting

values:
/wiki/Glass_bottles
mw-redirect
Glass bottles

values:
/wiki/Acrylic_glass
mw-redirect
Acrylic glass

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Lime_(mineral)
mw-redirect
Lime (mineral)

values:
/wiki/Thorium_oxide
mw-redirect
Thorium oxide

values:
/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion
mw-redirect
Coefficient of thermal expansion

values:
/wiki/Crack_propagation
mw-redirect
Crack propagation

values:
/wiki/Bohemia_proper
mw-redirect
Bohemia proper

values:
/wiki/Guitar_slide
mw-redirect
Guitar slide

values:
/wiki/Refraction_index
mw-redirect
Refraction index

values:
/wiki/Tensile_strength
mw-redirect
Tensile strength

values:
/wiki/Toughened_glass
mw-redirect
Toughened glass

values:
/wiki/Glass_batch
mw-redirect
Glass batch

values:
/wiki/Template:Glass_forming
mw-redirect
Template:Glass forming

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Bronze_age_collapse
mw-redirect
Bronze age collapse

values:
/wiki/Transparent_materials
mw-redirect
Transparent materials

values:
/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Denis
mw-redirect
Basilica of Saint Denis

values:
/wiki/Blown_plate
mw-redirect
Blown plate

values:
/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)
mw-redirect
Homogeneous (chemistry)

values:
/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_plastic
mw-redirect
Fiber-reinforced plastic

values:
/wiki/Kaolin_clay
mw-redirect
Kaolin clay

values:
/wiki/Fiber_optics
mw-redirect
Fiber optics

values:
/wiki/Electrical_conductivity
mw-redirect
Electrical conductivity

values:
/wiki/Loss_tangent
mw-redirect
Loss tangent

values:
/wiki/Electrical_resistance
mw-redirect
Electrical resistance

values:
/wiki/Glass_solder
mw-redirect
Glass solder

values:
/wiki/Dielectric_constant
mw-redirect
Dielectric constant

values:
/wiki/Permeability_(fluid)
mw-redirect
Permeability (fluid)

values:
/wiki/Chemical_bonding
mw-redirect
Chemical bonding

values:
/wiki/Metastability_in_molecules
mw-redirect
Metastability in molecules

values:
/wiki/Thermodynamic_variable
mw-redirect
Thermodynamic variable

values:
/wiki/Viscosity_of_amorphous_materials
mw-redirect
Viscosity of amorphous materials

values:
/wiki/Supercooled_liquid
mw-redirect
Supercooled liquid

values:
/wiki/Freezing_point
mw-redirect
Freezing point

values: Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)

values:
/wiki/Translation_(physics)
mw-redirect
Translation (physics)

values: float:right; width:30%; margin:0em 1em 1em 1em; background:#eee; border:#ccc solid

values:
/wiki/Relaxation_time
mw-redirect
Relaxation time

values:
/wiki/1_E19_s_and_more
mw-redirect
1 E19 s and more

values: Fabrication and testing of optical components

values:
/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_Drop
mw-redirect
Prince Rupert's Drop

values: -moz-column-width: 18em; -webkit-column-width: 18em; column-width: 18em;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.quartz.com/pxprop.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.optmat.2009.04.011

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.pfg.co.za/about%20glass.htm

values:
nofollow
http://glassproperties.com/melting/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/4371246a

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16251941

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/187869b0

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109/TMAG.1976.1059201

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1557/JMR.2004.0176

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.74.104206

values:
nofollow
external text
https://core.ac.uk/display/75180985

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039/b401308p

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.2083

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10035413

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.47.248

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.11.028

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24361104

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b07595

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038/nmat737

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12618817

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021/ed080p813

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.jimloy.com/physics/glass.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1140/epje/i2011-11092-9

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1119/1.19026

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: padding-bottom: 0.75em; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; width: 31px; line-height: 31px; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; margin-left: 4px; width: 182px; vertical-align: middle;

values: border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.75em;

values: metadata plainlinks plainlist mbox-small

values: border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.75em; background:#f9f9f9;

values: Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.glass.org

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Template talk:Glass production techniques

values:
/wiki/Glass_(fiber)#Fiber_formation
mw-redirect
Glass (fiber)

values:
/wiki/Stained_glass_fusing
mw-redirect
Stained glass fusing

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
/wiki/Asahi_Glass_Co.
mw-redirect
Asahi Glass Co.

values:
/wiki/World_Kitchen
mw-redirect
World Kitchen

values: Worshipful Company of Glaziers and Painters of Glass

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4021142-3

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

values: Category:Use dmy dates from September 2011

values: Category:Use American English from February 2015

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Glass
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-als
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidre
Vidre – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values: ܙܓܘܓܝܬܐ – Aramaic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arc
display: none;

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidru
Vidru – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itavera
Itavera – Guarani
gn
gn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Шкло – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklo
Staklo – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwer
Gwer – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidre
Vidre – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Кантăк – Chuvash

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklo
Sklo – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwydr
Gwydr – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaas
Klaas – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Γυαλί – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eml
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidrio
Vidrio – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitro
Vitro – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidriu
Vidriu – Extremaduran
ext
ext
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ext
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beira
Beira – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fo
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verre
Verre – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloine
Gloine – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidro
Vidro – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xal
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: कांच – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklo
Staklo – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitro
Vitro – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca
Kaca – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitro
Vitro – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-os
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gler
Gler – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetro
Vetro – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: זכוכית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: Әйнек – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kioo
Kioo – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam
Cam – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Айнек – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrum
Vitrum – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stikls
Stikls – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiklas
Stiklas – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veddro
Veddro – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lij
display: none;

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaas
Glaas – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cveg
Üveg – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca
Kaca – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: खा (वस्तु) – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrito
Vrito – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nap
display: none;

values: Ангали – Chechen

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veire
Veire – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shisha
Shisha – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaas
Glaas – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidro
Vidro – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Скло – Rusyn

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-rue
display: none;

values: Стекло – Russian

values: Өстүөкүлэ – Sakha

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sah
display: none;

values:
https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidru
Bidru – Sardinian
sc
sc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gless
Gless – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitru
Vitru – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-scn
display: none;

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass
Glass – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sklo
Sklo – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steklo
Steklo – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Стакло – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staklo
Staklo – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaca
Kaca – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasi
Lasi – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas
Glas – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: கண்ணாடி – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Пыяла – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: గాజు (పదార్ధం) – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam
Cam – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: ئەينەك – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaming
Salaming – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Glass rootpage-Glass skin-vector action-view