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Machine gun
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A .50 caliber M2 machine gun: John Browning's design has been one of the longest serving and most successful machine gun designs
Top: IMI Negev (light machine gun). Bottom: FN MAG (general purpose machine gun).
Czechoslovak 7.62 mm Universal Machine gun Model 1959.
A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm designed to fire bullets in rapid succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of 300 rounds per minute or higher. Not all fully automatic firearms are machine guns. Submachine guns, rifles, assault rifles, shotguns, pistols or cannons may be capable of fully automatic fire, but are not designed for sustained fire. As a class of military rapid-fire guns, machine guns are fully automatic weapons designed to be used as support weapons and generally used when attached to a mount- or fired from the ground on a bipod or tripod. Many (but not all) machine guns also use belt feeding and open bolt operation, features not normally found on rifles.
By U.S. federal law, a "machine gun" is a legal term for any weapon able to fire more than one shot per function of the trigger regardless of caliber, the receiver of any such weapon, any weapon convertible to such a state using normal tools, or any component or part that will modify an existing firearm such that it functions as a "machine gun" such as a drop-in auto sear.[1] Civilian possession of such weapons is not prohibited by any Federal law and not illegal in many states, but they must be registered as Title II weapons under the National Firearms Act and have a tax stamp paid. The Hughes Amendment to the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 banned new production of firearms classified as machine guns for most civilian applications, however, so only "grandfathered" weapons produced before this date are legally transferable.[undue weight? – discuss]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview of modern machine guns
2 Operation
3 Design
4 History
4.1 Early rapid-firing weapons
4.2 Maxim and World War I
4.3 Interwar era and World War II
4.4 Cold War
4.5 Future
5 Human interface
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Overview of modern machine guns[edit]
A vehicle with a Sumitomo M2 heavy machine gun mounted at the rear
Unlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to fire for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays the term is restricted to relatively heavy weapons, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition lasts. Machine guns are normally used against personnel, aircraft and light vehicles, or to provide suppressive fire, either directly or indirectly. They are commonly mounted on fast attack vehicles such as technicals to provide heavy mobile firepower, armored vehicles such as tanks for engaging targets too small to justify use of the primary weaponry or too fast to effectively engage with it, and on aircraft as defensive armament or for strafing ground targets, though on fighter aircraft true machine guns have mostly been supplanted by large-caliber rotary guns.
Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours; other automatic weapons overheat after less than a minute of use. Because they become very hot, practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts. They also usually have either a barrel cooling system, slow-heating heavyweight barrel, or removable barrels which allow a hot barrel to be replaced.
Although subdivided into "light", "medium", "heavy" or "general-purpose", even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than standard infantry arms. Medium and heavy machine guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle; when carried on foot, the machine gun and associated equipment (tripod, ammunition, spare barrels) require additional crew members.
Light machine guns are designed to provide mobile fire support to a squad and are typically air-cooled weapons fitted with a box magazine or drum and a bipod; they may use full-size rifle rounds, but modern examples often use intermediate rounds. Medium machine guns use full-sized rifle rounds and are designed to be used from fixed positions mounted on a tripod. Heavy machine gun is a term originating in World War I to describe heavyweight medium machine guns and persisted into World War II with Japanese Hotchkiss M1914 clones; today, however, it is used to refer to automatic weapons with a caliber of at least .50 in (12.7 mm)[2] but less than 20 mm. A general-purpose machine gun is usually a lightweight medium machine gun which can either be used with a bipod and drum in the light machine gun role or a tripod and belt feed in the medium machine gun role.
Machine guns usually have simple iron sights, though the use of optics is becoming more common. A common aiming system for direct fire is to alternate solid ("ball") rounds and tracer ammunition rounds (usually one tracer round for every four ball rounds), so shooters can see the trajectory and "walk" the fire into the target, and direct the fire of other soldiers.
DShK in heavy role
Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2 .50 caliber machine gun, are accurate enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a long-distance shot at 7,382 ft (2,250 m) with a .50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight.[3] This led to the introduction of .50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, such as the Barrett M82.
Other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used, whether the cartridge is fired from a closed bolt or an open bolt, and whether the action used is locked or is some form of blowback.
Fully automatic firearms using pistol-calibre ammunition are called machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size; those using shotgun cartridges are almost always referred to as automatic shotguns. The term personal defense weapon (PDW) is sometimes applied to weapons firing dedicated armor-piercing rounds which would otherwise be regarded as machine pistols or SMGs, but it is not particularly strongly defined and has historically been used to describe a range of weapons from ordinary SMGs to compact assault rifles. Selective fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles.
Assault rifles are a compromise between the size and weight of a pistol-calibre submachine gun and a full size battle rifle, firing intermediate cartridges and allowing semi-automatic and burst or full-automatic fire options (selective fire), sometimes with both of the latter present.
Operation[edit]
direct impingement
gas piston
Many machine guns are of the locked breech type, and follow this cycle:
Pulling (manually or electrically) the bolt assembly/bolt carrier rearward by way of the cocking lever to the point bolt carrier engages a sear and stays at rear position until trigger is activated making bolt carrier move forward
Loading fresh round into chamber and locking bolt
Firing round by way of a firing pin or striker (except for aircraft medium calibre using electric ignition primers) hitting the primer that ignites the powder when bolt reaches locked position.
Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward
Loading the next round into the firing chamber. Usually the recoil spring (also known as main spring) tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, belt or box.
Cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear.
The operation is basically the same for all locked breech automatic firearms, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. There are also multi-chambered formats, such as revolver cannon, and some automatic weapons, including many submachine guns, the Schwarzlose machine gun etc., that do not lock at all but instead use simple blowback or some type of delayed blowback.
Design[edit]
Most modern machine guns use gas-operated reloading, which taps off some of the propellant gas from the fired cartridge, using its mechanical pressure to unlock the bolt and cycle the action. The Russian PK machine gun is an example. Another efficient and widely used format is the recoil actuated type, which uses the guns recoil energy for the same purpose. Machine guns such as the M2 Browning and MG42, are of this second kind. A cam, lever or actuator absorbs part of the energy of the recoil to operate the gun mechanism.
An externally actuated weapon uses an external power source, such as an electric motor or even a hand crank to move its mechanism through the firing sequence. Most modern weapons of this type are called Gatling guns or chain guns in reference to their driving mechanism. Gatling guns have several barrels each with an associated action on a rotating carousel and a system of cams that load, cock, and fire each mechanism progressively as it rotates through the sequence; essentially each barrel is a separate bolt-action rifle using a common feed source. The continuous nature of the rotary action allows for an incredibly high cyclic rate of fire, often several thousand rounds per minute. Rotary guns are less prone to jamming than a gun operated by gas or recoil, as the external power source will eject misfired rounds with no further trouble, but this is not possible in the rare cases of self-powered rotary guns. Rotary guns are generally used with large rounds, 20mm in diameter or more, offering benefits of reliability and firepower, though the weight and size of the power source and driving mechanism makes them impractical for use outside of a vehicle or aircraft mount.
Revolver cannons, such as the Mauser MK 213, were developed in World War II by the Germans to provide high-caliber cannons with a reasonable rate of fire and reliability. A recoil-operated carriage holds a revolving chamber with typically five chambers. As each round is fired, electrically, the carriage moves back rotating the chamber which also ejects the spent case, indexes the next live round to be fired with the barrel and loads the next round into the chamber. The action is very similar to that of the revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name.
Firing a machine gun for prolonged periods produces large amounts of heat. In a worst-case scenario this may cause a cartridge to overheat and detonate even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and keep firing until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or jammed (this is known as cook-off, distinct from runaway fire where the sear fails to disengage when the trigger is released). To prevent this, some kind of cooling system is required. Early machine guns were often water-cooled; while very effective, the water also added considerable weight to an already bulky design. Air-cooled machine guns often feature quick-change barrels, often carried by a crew member, passive cooling fins, or in some designs systems of forced-air cooling such as that employed by the Lewis Gun. Advances in metallurgy and use of special composites in barrel liners allow for greater heat absorption and dissipation during firing. The higher the rate of fire, the more often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool. To minimize this, most air-cooled guns are fired only in short bursts or at a reduced rate of fire. Some designs – such as the many variants of the MG42 – are capable of rates of fire in excess of 1,200 rounds per minute.
In weapons where the round seats and fires at the same time, mechanical timing is essential for operator safety, to prevent the round from firing before it is seated properly. Machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical sears. When a sear is in place, it effectively stops the bolt at some point in its range of motion. Some sears stop the bolt when it is locked to the rear. Other sears stop the firing pin from going forward after the round is locked into the chamber. Almost all machine guns have a "safety" sear,[citation needed] which simply keeps the trigger from engaging.
History[edit]
Collection of old machine guns in the Međimurje County Museum (Čakovec, Croatia). From rear to front: Austro-Hungarian Schwarzlose M7/12, British Lewis, German MG 08.
The first successful machine-gun designs were developed in the mid-19th century. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly mechanical loading,[4] first appeared in the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons were still powered by hand; however, this changed with Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also experimented with electric-motor-powered models; this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well.
While technical use of the term "machine gun" has varied, the modern definition used by the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute of America is "a fully automatic firearm that loads, fires and ejects continuously when the trigger is held to the rear until the ammunition is exhausted or pressure on the trigger is released."[4] This definition excludes most early manually operated repeating arms such as volley guns and the Gatling gun.
Early rapid-firing weapons[edit]
Detail of an 8-chambered matchlock revolver (Germany c. 1580)
The first known ancestors of multi-shot weapons were medieval organ guns, while the first to have the ability to fire multiple shots from a single barrel without a full manual reload were revolvers made in Europe in the late 1500s. One is a shoulder-gun-length weapon made in Nuremberg, Germany, circa 1580. Another is a revolving arquebus, produced by Hans Stopler of Nuremberg in 1597.[5]
True repeating long arms were difficult to manufacture prior to the development of the unitary firearm cartridge; nevertheless, lever-action repeating rifles such as the Kalthoff repeater and Cookson repeater were made in small quantities in the 17th century.
Replica Puckle Gun from Bucklers Hard Maritime Museum.
Another early revolving gun was created by James Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called "The Puckle Gun" on May 15, 1718. It was a design for a manually operated 1.25 in. (32 mm) caliber, flintlock cannon with a revolver cylinder able to fire 6-11 rounds before reloading by swapping out the cylinder, intended for use on ships.[6] It was one of the earliest weapons to be referred to as a machine gun, being called such in 1722,[7] though its operation does not match the modern usage of the term. According to Puckle, it was able to fire round bullets at Christians and square bullets at Turks.[6] However, it was a commercial failure and was not adopted or produced in any meaningful quantity.
In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton offered the Continental Congress a "new improved gun", which was capable of firing up to twenty shots in five seconds; unlike older repeaters using complex lever-action mechanisms, it used a simpler system of superposed loads, and was loaded with a single large paper cartridge. Congress requested that Belton modify 100 flintlock muskets to fire eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the order when Belton's price proved too high.[8][9]
In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapid-firing weapons appeared which offered multi-shot fire, mostly volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and double barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun, though the Nock gun used the otherwise-undesirable "chain fire" phenomenon (where multiple chambers are ignited at once) to propagate a spark from a single flintlock mechanism to multiple barrels. Pepperbox pistols also did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple manually operated barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared cylinder and linked advancing the cylinder to cocking the hammer. However, these were still manually operated.
A detachment of French infantry with 2 Saint-Etienne Model 1907 machine guns (c.1914)
In 1854 a British patent for a mechanically operated machine gun was filed by Henry Clarke. This weapon used multiple barrels arranged side by side, fed by a revolving cylinder that was in turn fed by hoppers. The gun could be fired by percussion or electricity, according to the author. Unlike other mechanically operated machine guns of the era, this weapon didn't use any form of self-contained cartridge, with firing being carried out by separate percussion caps.[10] In the same year, water cooling was proposed for machine guns by Henry Bessemer, though he would later abandon this design.[11]
In America, a patent for a machine gun type weapon was filed by John Andrus Reynolds in 1855.[12] Another early American patent for a manually operated machine gun was filed by C. E. Barnes in 1856.[13]
The Agar Gun, otherwise known as a "coffee-mill gun" because of its resemblance to a coffee mill, was invented by Wilson Agar at the beginning of the US Civil War. The weapon featured mechanized loading using a hand crank linked to a hopper above the weapon. The weapon featured a single barrel and fired through the turning of the same crank; it operated using paper cartridges fitted with percussion caps and inserted into metal tubes which acted as chambers; it was therefore functionally similar to a revolver. The weapon was demonstrated to President Lincoln in 1861. He was so impressed with the weapon that he purchased 10 on the spot for $1,500 apiece. The Union Army eventually purchased a total of 54 of the weapons. However, due to antiquated views of the Ordnance Department the weapons, like its more famous counterpart the Gatling Gun, saw only limited use.
The Gatling gun, patented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling, was the first to offer controlled, sequential fire with mechanical loading. The design's key features were machine loading of prepared cartridges and a hand-operated crank for sequential high-speed firing. It first saw very limited action in the American Civil War; it was subsequently improved and used in the Franco-Prussian war and North-West Rebellion. Many were sold to other armies in the late 19th century and continued to be used into the early 20th century, until they were gradually supplanted by Maxim guns. Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of contemporary artillery pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for cannon firing grapeshot or canister shot.[14] The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position, which increased the vulnerability of their crews.[14] Sustained firing of gunpowder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke, making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century.[15] Gatling guns were targeted by artillery they could not reach, and their crews were targeted by snipers they could not see.[14] The Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires, since against poorly equipped indigenous armies it did not face such threats.[14]
A model of a typical entrenched German machine gunner in World War I. He is operating an MG 08, wearing a Stahlhelm and cuirass to protect him from shell fragments, and protected by rows of barbed wire and sandbags.
In 1870 a Lt. D. H. Friberg of the Swedish army patented a fully automatic recoil-operated firearm action and may have produced firing prototypes of a derived design around 1882: this was the forerunner to the 1907 Kjellman machine gun, though, due to rapid residue buildup from the use of black powder, Friberg's design was not a practical weapon.[16]
Maxim and World War I[edit]
The first practical self-powered machine gun was invented in 1884 by Sir Hiram Maxim. The Maxim machine gun used the recoil power of the previously fired bullet to reload rather than being hand-powered, enabling a much higher rate of fire than was possible using earlier designs such as the Nordenfelt and Gatling weapons. Maxim also introduced the use of water cooling, via a water jacket around the barrel, to reduce overheating. Maxim's gun was widely adopted, and derivative designs were used on all sides during the First World War. The design required fewer crew and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and Gatling guns. First World War combat experience demonstrated the military importance of the machine gun. The United States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in 1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns per regiment by 1919.[17]
British Vickers machine gun in action near Ovillers during the Battle of the Somme in 1916. The crew are wearing gas masks.
Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons, which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such as the Hotchkiss machine gun. Submachine guns (e.g., the German MP 18) as well as lighter machine guns (the first light machine gun deployed in any significant number being the Madsen machine gun, with the Chauchat and Lewis gun soon following) saw their first major use in World War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine guns. The biggest single cause of casualties in World War I was actually artillery, but combined with wire entanglements, machine guns earned a fearsome reputation.
Another fundamental development occurring before and during the war was the incorporation by gun designers of machine gun auto-loading mechanisms into handguns, giving rise to semi-automatic pistols such as the Borchardt (1890s), automatic machine pistols and later submachine guns (such as the Beretta 1918).
Machine guns were mounted in aircraft for the first time in World War I. Immediately this raised a problem. The most effective position for guns in a single-seater fighter was clearly, for the purpose of aiming, directly in front of the pilot; but this placement would obviously result in bullets striking the moving propeller. Early solutions, aside from simply hoping that luck was on the pilot's side with an unsychronized forward-firing gun, involved either aircraft with pusher props like the Vickers F.B.5, Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and Airco DH.2, wing mounts like that of the Nieuport 10 and Nieuport 11 which avoided the propeller entirely, or armored propeller blades such as those mounted on the Morane-Saulnier L which would allow the propeller to deflect unsynchronized gunfire. By mid 1915, the introduction of a reliable gun synchronizer by the Imperial German Flying Corps made it possible to fire a closed-bolt machine gun forward through a spinning propeller by timing the firing of the gun to miss the blades. The Allies had no equivalent system until 1916 and their aircraft suffered badly as a result, a period known as the Fokker Scourge, after the Fokker Eindecker, the first German plane to incorporate the new technology.
Interwar era and World War II[edit]
As better materials became available following the First World War, light machine guns became more readily portable; designs such as the Bren light machine gun replaced bulky predecessors like the Lewis gun in the squad support weapon role, while the modern division between medium machine guns like the M1919 Browning machine gun and heavy machine guns like the Browning M2 became clearer. New designs largely abandoned water jacket cooling systems as both undesirable, due to a greater emphasis on mobile tactics and unnecessary, thanks to the alternative and superior technique of preventing overheating by swapping barrels.
MG 42 with retracted bipod
The interwar years also produced the first widely used and successful general-purpose machine gun, the German MG34. While this machine gun was equally able in the light and medium roles, it proved difficult to manufacture in quantity, and experts on industrial metalworking were called in to redesign the weapon for modern tooling, creating the MG42. This weapon was simpler, cheaper to produce, fired faster, and replaced the MG34 in every application except vehicle mounts, since the MG42's barrel changing system could not be operated when it was mounted.
Submachine guns evolved during the war, going from complex and finely made weapons like the Thompson submachine gun to weapons designed for mass-production and easy replacement like the Sten gun. On the Eastern Front, entire Soviet divisions were equipped with nothing but the PPSh-41 submachine gun. Experience in close-range city combat led to the German military desiring a weapon representing a compromise between the high fire volume of the SMG and the accuracy of a full-size rifle; after a false start with the FG 42, this led to the development of the MP44 select-fire assault rifle, the first weapon to be called such.
Cold War[edit]
A U.S. Navy 7.62 mm GAU-17/A Minigun, an externally powered weapon.
Experience with the MG42 led to the US issuing a requirement to replace the aging Browning Automatic Rifle with a similar weapon, which would also replace the M1919; simply using the MG42 itself was not possible, as the design brief required a weapon which could be fired from the hip or shoulder like the BAR. The resulting design, the M60 machine gun, was issued to troops during the Vietnam War.
As it became clear that a high-volume-of-fire weapon would be needed for fast-moving jet aircraft to reliably hit their opponents, Gatling's work with electrically powered weapons was recalled and the 20 mm M61 Vulcan designed; a miniaturized 7.62 mm version initially known as the "mini-Vulcan" and quickly shortened to "minigun" was soon in production for use on helicopters, where the volume of fire could compensate for the instability of the helicopter as a firing platform.
Future[edit]
Conventional machine gun development has been slowed by the fact that existing machine gun designs are adequate for most purposes, although significant developments are taking place with regard to caseless ammunition, anti-armor and anti-missile weapons.[citation needed]
Human interface[edit]
Further information: Ground mount
Closeup of M2 – This machine gun is part of a complex armament subsystem; it is aimed and fired from the aircraft rather than directly
The most common interface on machine guns is a pistol grip and trigger. On earlier manual machine guns, the most common type was a hand crank. On externally powered machine guns, such as miniguns, an electronic button or trigger on a joystick is commonly used. Light machine guns often have a butt stock attached, while vehicle and tripod mounted machine guns usually have spade grips. In the late 20th century, scopes and other complex optics became more common as opposed to the more basic iron sights.
Loading systems in early manual machine guns were often from a hopper of loose (un-linked) cartridges. Manual-operated volley guns usually had to be reloaded manually all at once (each barrel reloaded by hand, or with a set of cartridges affixed to a plate that was inserted into the weapon). With hoppers, the rounds could often be added while the weapon was firing. This gradually changed to belt-fed types. Belts were either held in the open by the person, or in a bag or box. Some modern vehicle machine guns used linkless feed systems however.
Modern machine guns are commonly mounted in one of four ways. The first is a bipod – often these are integrated with the weapon. This is common on light machine guns and some medium machine guns. Another is a tripod, where the person holding it does not form a 'leg' of support. Medium and heavy machine guns usually use tripods. On ships, vehicles and aircraft machine guns are usually mounted on a pintle mount – basically a steel post that is connected to the frame or body. Tripod and pintle mounts are usually used with spade grips. The last major mounting type is one that is disconnected from humans, as part of an armament system, such as a tank coaxial or part of aircraft's armament. These are usually electrically fired and have complex sighting systems, for example the US Helicopter Armament Subsystems.
See also[edit]
Assault rifle
Autocannon
Breda (machine gun)
Chain gun
Firearm action
Gatling gun
General-purpose machine gun
Heavy machine gun
Light machine gun
List of firearms
List of machine guns
List of multiple barrel machine guns
Medium machine gun
Minigun
Mitrailleuse
Personal defense weapon
Revolver cannon
Squad automatic weapon
Submachine gun
References[edit]
Jump up ^ In United States law, a Machine Gun is defined (in part) by The National Firearms Act of 1934, 26 U.S.C. § 5845(b) as "... any weapon which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger."
Jump up ^ ""Machine Guns and Machine Gun Gunnery," US Marine Corps" (PDF). Marines.mil. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Henderson, Charles. Marine Sniper Berkley Caliber. (2005) ISBN 0-425-10355-2.
^ Jump up to: a b "SAAMI.org terminology glossary". Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute.
Jump up ^ Roger Pauly (2004). Firearms: The Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32796-3.
^ Jump up to: a b original patent claim reproduced in: Francis Bannerman Sons Bannerman Military Goods Catalogue #28 (1954) p.103
Jump up ^ "The Armoury of His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry" (PDF). University of Huddersfield.
Jump up ^ Harold L. Peterson (2000). Arms and Armor in Colonial America, 1526–1783. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 217–18. ISBN 0-486-41244-X.
Jump up ^ United States Continental Congress (1907). Journals of the Continental Congress. USGPO. , pp. 324, 361
Jump up ^ office, Great Britain Patent; Woodcroft, Bennet (23 December 2017). "Abridgments of the Specifications Relating to Fire-arms and Other Weapons, Ammunition, and Accoutrements: A.D. 1588-1858]-Pt. II. A.D. 1858-1866". Printed by George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, pub. at the Great seal patent office. Retrieved 23 December 2017 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Mechanic's Magazine". R. A. Brooman. 23 December 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2017 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "Improvement in fire-arms". Google.com. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "HyperWar: The Machine Gun (Vol. /Part )". Ibiblio.org. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Emmott, N.W. "The Devil's Watering Pot" United States Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p. 70
Jump up ^ Emmott, N.W. "The Devil's Watering Pot" United States Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p. 72
Jump up ^ "HyperWar: The Machine Gun (Vol. I/Part III)". Ibiblio.org. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Ayres, Leonard P. (1919). The War with Germany (Second ed.). Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. p. 65.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Machine guns.
Discover Military Machine Guns
From Gatling to Browning September 1945 article Popular Science
How Stuff Works – Article on the operation of Machine Guns, animated diagrams are included.
The REME Museum of Technology – machine guns
U.S. Patent 15,315 – A patent for an early automatic cannon
Vickers machine gun site
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George C. Homans
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
George Casper Homans
Born
(1910-08-11)August 11, 1910
Boston, Massachusetts
Died
May 29, 1989(1989-05-29) (aged 78)
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Citizenship
United States
Alma mater
Harvard University, Cambridge University (Masters)
Known for
His famous works The Human Group, Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, and the Exchange Theory
Scientific career
Fields
English, Psychology, Philosophy, Sociology, Social behavior
Influences
Robert K. Merton, Talcott Parsons, Lawrence J. Henderson, Vilfredo Pareto, B.F. Skinner, Bernard DeVoto, Émile Durkheim, Elton Mayo
Influenced
Richard M. Emerson, Peter Blau, James Samuel Coleman, Edward Laumann, Linda D. Molm, Karen S. Cook, Edward J. Lawler
George Casper Homans (August 11, 1910 – May 29, 1989) was an American Sociologist, founder of behavioral sociology and the Social Exchange Theory.
Homans is best known for his research in social behavior and his works including The Human Group, Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, his Exchange Theory and the many different propositions he made to better explain social behavior.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Ancestry
1.2 Personal Life
1.3 Education and Becoming a Sociologist
1.4 Teaching
2 Theoretical Agenda and General Argument
3 The Human Group
4 The Exchange Theory
4.1 Albert Chavannes and the Exchange Theory
5 Social Behavior
5.1 The Success Proposition
5.2 The Stimulus Proposition
5.3 The Value Proposition
5.4 The Deprivation-Satiation Proposition
5.5 The Aggression-Approval Propositions
5.6 The Rationality Proposition
6 Legacy
7 Quotes by Homans
8 Cited Works by Homans
9 Related Works or Commentaries
10 References
Biography[edit]
Ancestry[edit]
George C. Homans was born in Boston on August 11, 1910, son of Robert and Abigail (Adams) Homans, he was the great-great grandson of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States, and great-great-great grandson of John Adams, the second President of the United States. "At George's birth, his mother wrote to her Uncle Henry: 'His head is a mass of lumps which will make him look very distinguished when, as a bald old gentleman, he sits upon the bench dispensing justice.' "[1] Through this letter she also explains how Homans received his name: "He is to be named George Caspar for my brother, as the Homans family did not consider that I was the sort of person to produce a good doctor, and so reserved the name [John] for my brother-in-law Jack's benefit..."(Homans 1984:1). The Homanses came from a lineage of distinguished doctors that began when the first John Homans came to the country from Ramsgate, Kent, England in the 18th century. His son, Dr. John Homans, who graduated from Harvard, was the first to become a doctor and begin the reputation of the John Homanses (Homans 1984:1-2). However, "George's father was a lawyer, but George was the first member of the family to eschew the law".[1]
Personal Life[edit]
From his autobiography (Homans 1984), it is learned that Homans entered Harvard College in 1928 with an area of concentration in English and American literature. After graduating in 1932, Homans wanted to pursue a career as a newspaperman with a "job beginning in the fall with William Allen White of the Emporia, Kansas,Gazette," but because of the Depression the newspaper could no longer offer him the job, leaving Homans unemployed (Homans 1962:3). "In 1941, he married Nancy Cooper who remained his lifelong compatible partner".[1] Homans served in the Naval Reserve during World War II; for "four years and a half on active duty, more than two were spent in command of small ships engaged in antisubmarine warfare and the escort of convoy operations" (Homans 1962:50). Although he served for the duration of the war, he later expressed in his autobiography "impatience with the constraints of the naval hierarchy and his disdain for staff desk officers, especially those in bureaucratic branches such as the Supply Corps".[1]
Education and Becoming a Sociologist[edit]
While Homans was at Harvard College, "perhaps the most direct influence on George as an undergraduate was his English tutor Bernard ("Benny") de Voto".[1] "George ... was attracted to de Voto's stories about the plains and the prairies, but more, to the actuality of the lives of people and the American character as expressed in midwestern writing. In many ways, too, George adopted the mannerisms of de Voto, the outwardly boisterous tones (but not for either the boosterist mentality) and the scorn of intellectualist rhetoric"[1] that is seen in his book of poetry The Witch Hazel (1988). By living in an environment where people are highly conscious of social relations, Homans became interested in sociology. Homans describes his entrance to sociology as "a matter of chance; or rather, I got into sociology because I had nothing better to do" (Homans 1962:3). An important influence on Homans's perspective was Lawrence Joseph Henderson, a biochemist and sociologist who believed that all sciences should be based on a unified set of theoretical and methodological principles. Homans, with no job and nothing to do, attended Henderson's seminar at Harvard one day and was immediately taken by his lecture. As a result, Homans joined a discussion group at Harvard called the Pareto Circle, which was led by Henderson and inspired by the work of Vilfredo Pareto. Henderson often discussed Vilfredo Pareto in his lectures. Pareto was a sociologist who was concerned with economic distribution. Pareto's theories and Henderson's lectures influenced Homans's first book, An Introduction to Pareto,[2] co-authored with fellow Circle member Charles P. Curtis. From 1934 to 1939 Homans was a Junior Fellow of the newly formed Society of Fellows at Harvard, undertaking a variety of studies in various areas, including sociology, psychology, and history. For his Junior Fellowship project Homans undertook an anthropological study of rural England, later published as English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century (1941) (see Homans 1984: 167). Homans was taken into the graduate program at Harvard; Pitirim Sorokin, who founded Harvard's sociology department in 1930, was credited with bringing Homans and Robert Merton into the program.[3]
Teaching[edit]
In 1939 Homans became a Harvard faculty member, a lifelong affiliation in which he taught both sociology and medieval history "as well as studied poetry and small groups."[4] This teaching brought him in contact with new works in industrial sociology and exposed him to works of functional anthropologists. He was an instructor of sociology until 1941 when he left to serve the U.S. Navy to support the war effort. After four years away, he came back to Boston and continued his teaching as an associate professor from 1946 to 1953, and a full professor of sociology after 1953. He was also a visiting professor at the University of Manchester in 1953, at Cambridge University from 1955 to 1956, and at the University of Kent in 1967.[5] By virtue of his theoretical writings (discussed below), he was elected 54th president of the American Sociological Association in 1964. He retired from teaching in 1980.[6]
He died of a heart ailment on May 29, 1989, in Cambridge, Massachusetts; at his death, he left behind his wife, Nancy, and three children as well as four grandchildren.[6]
Theoretical Agenda and General Argument[edit]
As a theorist, Homans's overall intellectual ambition was to create a more unified social science on a firm theoretical basis. His approach to theory developed in two phases, usually interpreted by commentators as inductive and deductive. Although this is a bit of an oversimplification, it provides a framework for outlining his theoretical contributions.
In its mature (1974) form, Homans's theory rests upon two metatheoretical claims: (1) the basic principles of social science must be true of individuals as members of the human species, not as members of particular groups or cultures; and (2) any other generalizations or facts about human social life will be derivable from these principles (and suitable initial conditions). He argued that large-scale structures can be understood if we understand elementary social behavior.[7] Another way to grasp his argument is to interpret it as striving to explain spontaneous social order, a point developed in detail by Fararo (2001). Homans's approach is an example of methodological individualism in social science, also favored by some more recent influential social theorists, particularly those who have adopted some form of rational choice theory (e.g., James S. Coleman) that enables greater deductive fertility in theorizing—albeit often with a cost in terms of some loss of realism.
The Human Group[edit]
Homans was impressed by Henderson's notion of a conceptual scheme. A conceptual scheme consists of a classification of variables (or concepts) that need to be taken into account when studying a set of phenomena.[5] It also consists of a sketch of the given conditions within which the phenomena are to be analyzed. It also must contain a statement that the variables are related to one another—and following Pareto, that relationship is usually seen as one of mutual dependence.[5] Homans was very interested in Henderson's conceptual scheme as a way of classifying phenomena and applied it to his own study of small groups. Henderson's teachings were included in Homans's work The Human Group (1950). This book's ultimate goal was to move from a study of the social system as it is exemplified in single groups toward a study of the system as it is exemplified in many groups, including groups changing in time.[5] Homans said, “If we wanted to establish the reality of a social system as a complex of mutually dependent elements, why not begin by studying a system small enough so that we could, so to speak, see all the way around it, small enough so that all the relevant observations could be made in detail and at first hand?” He fulfilled this study throughout The Human Group. This book allowed him to make certain generalizations, including the idea that the more frequently people interact with one another, when no one individually initiates interactions more than others, the greater is their liking for one another and their feeling of ease in one another's presence. Although this wasn't Homans's greatest piece of work,[citation needed] it allowed him to become more familiar with this type of methodology and led him to explain elementary social behavior.
In this work, Homans also proposes that social reality should be described at three levels: social events, customs, and analytical hypotheses that describe the processes by which customs arise and are maintained or changed. Hypotheses are formulated in terms of relationships among variables such as frequency of interaction, similarity of activities, intensity of sentiment, and conformity to norms. Using notable sociological and anthropological field studies as the grounding for such general ideas, the book makes a persuasive case for treating groups as social systems that can be analyzed in terms of a verbal analogue of the mathematical method of studying equilibrium and stability of systems. In his theoretical analyses of these groups, he begins to use ideas that later loomed large in his work, e.g., reinforcement and exchange. Along the way, he treats important general phenomena such as social control, authority, reciprocity, and ritual.
The Exchange Theory[edit]
The Exchange Theory is the "perspective that individuals seek to maximize their own private gratificiations. It assumes that these rewards can only be found in social interactions and thus people seek rewards in their interactions with each other".[8] Homans's Exchange Theory propositions are based on B.F. Skinner's behaviorism. Homans took B.F. Skinner's propositions about pigeon behavior and applied it to human interactions.[7] The heart of Homans's Exchange Theory lies in propositions based on economic and psychological principles. According to Homans, they are psychological for two reasons: first, because they are usually tested on people who call themselves psychologists and second, because of the level at which they deal with the individual in society. Homans says that "they are propositions about the behavior of individual human beings, rather than propositions about groups or societies." He believed that a sociology built on his principles would be able to explain all social behavior. Homans went to say, "An incidental advantage of an exchange theory is that it might bring sociology closer to economics" (Homans 1958:598). But he regretted that his theory was labeled "Exchange Theory" because he saw this theory of social behavior as a behavioral psychology applied to specific situations.[7] Homans looked to Émile Durkheim's work for guidance as well, but often disagreed in the end with particular components of Durkheim's theories. For example, Durkheim believed that although individuals are clearly the component parts of society, society is more than the individuals who constitute it.[9] He believed that society could be studied without reducing it to individuals and their motivations.[9] Homans, through his Exchange Theory, believed that individual beings and behavior are relevant to understanding society.
Albert Chavannes and the Exchange Theory[edit]
Although George Homans contributed greatly to the Exchange Theory and his work on it is greatly admired, he was not the first person to study this theory. "From 1883 to 1885 Albert Chavannes published in The Sociologist a series of papers titled 'Studies in Sociology' which treated 'The Law of Exchange' and three other social laws."[10] Chavannes' work on the theory was similar to what Homans did; however, he focused more on empirical sociology, and he did not contribute to it in the same way as Homans (Knox 1963: 341). So, although Homans may have not have been the first to work on this theory, his contributions make the Exchange Theory what it is today.
Social Behavior[edit]
Homans's next major work was Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. He wrote this book in 1961 and revised it in 1974. This was based on the principles of behavioral psychology, and helped explain the "sub-institutional," or elementary, forms of social behavior in small groups.[5] This explanation of social behavior first appeared in an article Homans published titled "Social Behaviour as Exchange" in 1958. He believed his Exchange Theory is derived from both behavioral psychology and elementary economics.[7] Homans had come to the view that theory should be expressed as a deductive system, in this respect falling under the influence of the logical empiricist philosophers of that period. Substantively, he argued that a satisfactory explanation in the social sciences is based upon "propositions"—principles—about individual behavior that are drawn from the behavioral psychology of the time. Homans didn't believe that new propositions are needed to explain social behavior. The laws of individual behavior developed by Skinner in his study of pigeons explain social behavior as long as we take into account the complications of mutual reinforcement.[7]
"Social Behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods, but also non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them." (Homans 1958:606). Social behavior as exchange means that a plurality of individuals, each postulated to behave according to the stated behavioral principles, form a system of interaction. Social approval is the basic reward that people can give to one another. In much greater detail, he developed this approach in his book Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms (1961, revised 1974). Homans gives an example of this type of social behavior below:
"Suppose that two men are doing paperwork jobs in an office. According to the office rules, each should do his job by himself, or, if he needs help, he should consult the supervisor. One of the men, whom we shall call Person, is not skillful at the work and would get it done better and faster if he got help from time to time. In spite of the rules he is reluctant to go to the supervisor, for to confess his incompetence might hurt his chances for promotion. Instead he seeks out the other man, whom we shall call Other for short, and asks him for help. Other is more experienced at the work than is Person; he can do his work well and quickly and be left with time to spare, and he has reason to suppose that the supervisor will not go out of his way to look for a breach of rules. Other gives Person help and in return Person gives Other thanks and expressions of approval. The two men have exchanged help and approval." (Homans, 1961:31-32)[7]
Focusing on this situation, and basing his ideas on Skinner's findings, Homans developed several propositions.
The Success Proposition[edit]
"For all actions taken by persons, the more often a particular action of a person is rewarded, the more likely the person is to perform that action." (Homans, 1974:16)[7]
In terms of his "Person-Other" example, this proposition means that a person is more likely to ask others for advice if past advice has been useful. Also, the more often a person received useful advice in the past, the more often they will request more advice and be willing to give advice. The success proposition involves three stages: (1) a person's action, (2) a rewarded result, and (3) a repetition of the original action.[7]
The Stimulus Proposition[edit]
"If in the past the occurrence of a particular stimulus, or set of stimuli, has been the occasion on which a person's action has been rewarded, then the more similar the present stimuli are to the past ones, the more likely the person is to perform the action, or some similar action." (Homans, 1974:23) [7]
Again, one may look at Homans's example: If in the past, the Person and Other found the giving and getting of advice rewarding, they are likely to engage in similar actions and in similar situations in the future. Homans's example: "A fisherman who has cast his line into a dark pool and has caught a fish becomes more apt to fish in dark pools again" (1974:23). Homans was interested in the process of generalization, or the tendency to extend behavior to similar circumstances;[7] but he was also concerned with the process of discrimination. For example, Person and Other may only give useful advice in the same room as in the past because they think that particular situation brought the most success.
The Value Proposition[edit]
"The more valuable to a person is the result of his action, the more likely he is to perform the action." (Homans, 1974:25) [7]
If the rewards each offers to the other are considered valuable, the actors are more likely to perform the desired behaviors than they are if the rewards are not valuable. Homans introduced the concepts of rewards and punishments. Rewards are actions with positive values and punishments are actions with negative values. Rewards can either be materialistic (money) or altruistic (helping others) He found punishment to be an inefficient means of getting people to change their behavior, because people may react in undesirable ways to punishment.[7]
The Deprivation-Satiation Proposition[edit]
"The more often in the recent past a person has received a particular reward, the less valuable any further unit of that reward becomes for him." (Homans, 1974:29)[7]
In the office, Person and Other may reward each other so often for giving and getting advice that the rewards cease to be valuable to them. Time is important—people are less likely to become satiated if particular rewards are stretched over a long period of time. Homans then defined cost and profit. Cost of any behavior is defined as the rewards lost in forgoing alternative lines of action. Profit in social exchange is seen as the greater number of rewards gained over costs incurred.[7]
The Aggression-Approval Propositions[edit]
"Proposition A: When a person's action does not receive the rewards as expected, or receives punishment he did not expect, he will be angry. He becomes more likely to perform aggressive havior [sic], and the results of such behavior become more valuable to him." (Homans, 1974:37)
If Person does not get the advice they expected and Other does not receive the praise they anticipated, both are likely to be angry.
"Proposition B: When a person's action receives the reward they expected, especially a greater reward than they expected, or does not receive punishment he expected, he will be pleased. He becomes more likely to perform approving behavior, and the results of such behavior become more valuable to him." (Homans, 1974:39)
When Person gets the advice they expect, and Other gets the praise they expect, both are more likely to get or give advice. Proposition A on aggression-approval refers to negative emotions, whereas Proposition B deals with more positive emotions.[7]
The Rationality Proposition[edit]
"In choosing between alternative actions, a person will choose that one for which, as perceived by him at the time, the value, V, of the result, multiplied by the probability, p, of getting the result, is the greater." (Homans, 1974:43)
When earlier propositions rely on behaviorism, the rationality proposition demonstrates the influence of rational choice theory on Homans's approach. In economic terms, actors who act in accord with the rationality proposition are maximizing their utilities.[7] People examine and make calculations about alternative actions open to them. They compare the amount of rewards associated with each course of action and calculate the likelihood that they will receive the rewards. In other words, there is a relationship between the value of the reward and the likelihood of the attainment. The rationality proposition tells us that people will perform an action depending of their perception of the probability of success.[7] Durkheim agreed with Homans's understanding of rationality. He believed that rationalism is an aspect of individualism.[11] Durkheim said that all development of individualism has the effect of opening moral consciousness to new ideas and rendering it more demanding.[11] Homans worked off of Durkheim's thoughts throughout the development of certain propositions.
Legacy[edit]
George C. Homans left to the sociological world many works on social theory, and is best known for his Exchange Theory and his works on social behavior. The impact he had on his students and colleagues and people he came in contact with is described by Charles Tilly in "George Caspar Homans and the Rest of Us": "His students inherited distrust of theory for its own sake and theories about theories. Even when they disagreed, his students and readers came away stimulated and refreshed. George was a vivifier, a life-giver" (Tilly, 1990:264). Also, Homans's election as president of the American Sociological Association in 1964 allowed him to have a greater impact on sociology. As Tilly also noted: "His differences made a difference to us, his colleagues, his friends, and successors. George was not, it is true, above rejoicing in his own talents, and thereby shaming or intimidating those about him" (Tilly, 1990:266).
Quotes by Homans[edit]
"Sociology is the profession of studying and teaching about what happens when at least two persons are in a position to influence one another" (Homans, 1962:103)
"Given the chance, I have always deserted anything that might have contemporary practical importance or that might lead to reforms. I have deserted the twentieth century for the thirteenth, social pathology for primitive kinship, industrial sociology for the study of small groups. It may have been mere escapism... My nerves may have been too weak for the modern world. What never failed to interest me was not sociology as an agent of change or as a means of understanding my immediate environment but sociology as a generalizing science. What were the best possibilities for establishing generalizations? What were the main intellectual issues? By what handle shall we lay hold on it? "[12]
"As far as what good my work does people, I’m sorry to say that it does much more by way of alerting people to what may go wrong than it does in telling them what they can do about it."[12]
"When you’re talking about reforming an industrial system, you have to talk about something that can be operated across the board. With much attention, very skilled people, small groups, reform always can be successful in some sense. But then people jump from this to something that’s going to operate across the board and reform the whole industrial system. They forget the Homans principle that no society, no governmental system, or no industrial system can work successfully if it depends on extraordinary abilities on the part of the people who run it. It has to be operable by ordinary damn fools like me."[12]
"In human terms, it is hopeless. All of us believe in determinism at times—that is, experimentally believe in it. At other times, we believe we’re free. Our behavior is completely, but it doesn’t make damn bit of difference to me because I can’t predict it. I can’t show how the behavior of different men, behavior of exemplifying the same general propositions, combines over time to produce particular results. The trouble is that the past behavior that affects—determines if you will—present behavior is linked together in complex chains, creating the illusion of freedom."[12]
Cited Works by Homans[edit]
English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century (1941)
The Human Group (1950)
"Social Behavior as Exchange." American Journal of Sociology 63:597-606. (1958)
Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms (1961, rev. ed. 1974)
"The Nature of Social Science" (1967)
Coming to My Senses: The Autobiography of a Sociologist (1984)
Certainties and Doubts (1987)
Sentiments & Activities: Essays in Social Science (1962)
Related Works or Commentaries[edit]
Fararo, Thomas J. (2001). Social Action Systems: Foundation and Synthesis in Sociological Theory. Greenwich, CT: Praeger.
Turner, Jonathan H. (1998). "George C. Homans' Behavioristic Approach." Ch. 20. The Structure of Sociological Theory. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Treviño, A. Javier. (2009). 'George C. Homans, the human group and elementary social behaviour', the encyclopaedia of informal education. www.infed.org/thinkers/george_homans.htm].
Treviño, A. Javier. (2006) George C. Homans: History, Theory, and Method. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
Ritzer, George. (2008) Sociological Theory. Ch. 12. "The Exchange Theory of George Homans" New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Farganis, James. (2008). Readings in Social Theory: The Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism Chp. 2. "Emile Durkheim: Anomie and Social Integration." New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Bellah, Robert N.(1973) "Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society." Introduction. Chicago:The University of Chicago Press.
Bloksberg, Leonard M. French, David G. Mogulof, Melvin B. Stern, Walter F. (1964). "Homans' Theory of the Human Group: Applications to Problems of Administration, Policy, and Staff Training in Group Service Agencies." Journal of Jewish Communal Service: National Conference of Jewish Communal Service. 379-395.
References[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: George C. Homans
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Bell, Daniel (1992). "George C. Homans (11 August 1910-29 May 1989)". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. American Philosophical Society. 136 (4): 586–593.
Jump up ^ Homans, George Caspar, and Charles P. Curtis, Jr. 1934. An Introduction to Pareto, His Sociology. New York: Knopf.
Jump up ^ Sica, Alan (2005). Social Thought From the Enlightenment to the Present, Pennsylvania State University, 514.
Jump up ^ Tilly, Charles (1990). "George Caspar Homans and the Rest of Us", Springer, 261-268.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Treviño, A. Javier (2009).
^ Jump up to: a b "George Homans, 78, Sociologist And Harvard Professor Emeritus." The New York Times. The New York Times, 30 May 1989. Web. 20 Oct. 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q George Ritzer (2008).
Jump up ^ Abercrombie, Nicholas; Hill, Stephen; Turner, Bryan (2006). Dictionary of Sociology: The Penguin Reference. New York: The Penguin Group. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0141013756.
^ Jump up to: a b James Farganis (2008)
Jump up ^ Knox, John B. (1963). "The Concept of Exchange in Sociological Theory: 1884 and 1961", Social Forces, Oxford University Press, 341-346.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Bellah (1973).
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Conversation...with George C. Homans". Organizational dynamics. 4 (2). 1975.
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