text:
Thirteen Colonies
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Thirteen Colonies
Part of British America (1607–1776)
as
Colonies of England (1607–1707)
Colonies of Great Britain (1707–1776)
1607-1776
Flag of Great Britain (1707–1776)
The thirteen colonies (shown in red) in 1775.
Capital Administered from London, England
Languages
English
German
Dutch
Indigenous languages
Religion
Puritanism
Anglicanism
Other Protestantism
Judaism
Roman Catholicism
Native American religion
Government Colonial constitutional monarchy
Monarch
• 1607–1625 James I & VI (first)
• 1760–1776 George III (last)
History
• Roanoke Colony 1585
• Virginia Colony 1607
• New England 1620
• King Charles II charter for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 1663
• Rupert's Land 1670
• Treaty of Utrecht (1713) 1713
• 13th colony formed 1732
• Independence declared 1776
• Treaty of Paris 1783
Population
• 1625[1] est. 1,980
• 1775[1] est. 2,400,000
Currency
Pound sterling
Colonial money
Bills of credit
Commodity money
Preceded by Succeeded by
Pre-colonial North America
New Netherland
United States
Today part of United States
Part of a series on the
History of the
United States
Timeline[hide]
Prehistory
Pre-colonial
Colonial period
1776–1789
1789–1849
1849–1865
1865–1918
1918–1945
1945–1964
1964–1980
1980–1991
1991–2008
2008–present
By ethnicity[show]
African American
Asian American
Chinese American
Filipino American
Japanese American
Jewish American
Mexican American
Polish American
By topic[show]
Antisemitism
Civil Rights
1896–1954
1955–1968
Civil War
Culture
Demographics
Diplomacy
Economics
Historiography
Labor
Medicine
Military
Socialism
Southern
By state
Frontier (Old West)
Technology and industry
Territory
LGBT
Women
United States portal
v
t
e
The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems, and were dominated by Protestant English-speakers. They were part of Britain's possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida.
In the 18th century, the British government operated its colonies under a policy of mercantilism, in which the central government administered its possessions for the economic benefit of the mother country. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a high degree of self-governance and active local elections, and resisted London's demands for more control. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with one another instead of dealing directly with Britain. These inter-colonial activities cultivated a sense of shared American identity and led to calls for protection of the colonists' "Rights as Englishmen", especially the principle of "no taxation without representation". Grievances with the British government led to the American Revolution, in which the colonies collaborated in forming a Continental Congress which declared independence in 1776 and fought the American Revolutionary War (1775–83) with the aid of France, the Dutch Republic, and Spain.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 The Thirteen Colonies
1.1 New England colonies
1.2 Middle colonies
1.3 Southern colonies
2 History
2.1 17th century
2.1.1 Southern colonies
2.1.2 New England
2.1.3 Middle Colonies
2.2 Early 18th century
2.3 French and Indian War
2.4 Growing dissent
2.5 American Revolution
3 Population
3.1 Slaves
3.2 Religion
3.3 Education
4 Government
4.1 Forms of government
4.2 British role
4.3 Self-government
4.4 Economic policy
5 Other British colonies
6 Historiography
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Further reading
9.1 Government
9.2 Primary sources
9.3 Online primary sources
10 External links
The Thirteen Colonies
The first permanently settled English colony on the North American continent was the Colony and Dominion of Virginia, established 1607. The number 13 was complete with the establishment of the Province of Georgia in 1732, although the term "Thirteen Colonies" became current only in the context of the American Revolution.[3]
New England colonies
Main article: New England colonies
Province of New Hampshire, established in the 1620s, chartered as crown colony in 1679
Province of Massachusetts Bay, a crown colony established 1692
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, established 1636, chartered as crown colony in 1663
Connecticut Colony, established 1636, chartered as crown colony in 1662
Middle colonies
Main article: Middle Colonies
Province of New York, proprietary colony 1664–1685, crown colony from 1686
Province of New Jersey, proprietary colony from 1664, crown colony from 1702
Province of Pennsylvania, a proprietary colony established 1681
Delaware Colony (before 1776, the Lower Counties on Delaware), a proprietary colony established 1664
Southern colonies
Main article: Southern Colonies
Province of Maryland, a proprietary colony established 1632
Colony and Dominion of Virginia, a crown colony established 1607
Province of Carolina, a proprietary colony established 1663
Divided into the Province of North Carolina and Province of South Carolina in 1712, each became a crown colony in 1729
Province of Georgia, a crown colony established 1732
History
Main article: History of the Thirteen Colonies
See also: Colonial history of the United States, British colonization of the Americas, and Timeline of Colonial America
17th century
The 1606 grants by James I to the London and Plymouth companies. The overlapping area (yellow) was granted to both companies on the stipulation that neither found a settlement within 100 miles (160 km) of each other. The location of the Jamestown Settlement is shown by "J".
Southern colonies
The first successful English colony was Jamestown, established May 14, 1607 near Chesapeake Bay. The business venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia Company, a joint stock company looking for gold. Its first years were extremely difficult, with very high death rates from disease and starvation, wars with local Indians, and little gold. The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop.[4][5]
In 1632, King Charles I granted the charter for Province of Maryland to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore. Calvert's father had been a prominent Catholic official who encouraged Catholic immigration to the English colonies. The charter offered no guidelines on religion, although it was assumed that Catholics would not be molested in the new colony.[6]
The Province of Carolina was the first attempted English settlement south of Virginia. It was a private venture, financed by a group of English Lords Proprietors who obtained a Royal Charter to the Carolinas in 1663, hoping that a new colony in the south would become profitable like Jamestown. Carolina was not settled until 1670, and even then the first attempt failed because there was no incentive for emigration to that area. Eventually, however, the Lords combined their remaining capital and financed a settlement mission to the area led by Sir John Colleton. The expedition located fertile and defensible ground at what became Charleston, originally Charles Town for Charles II of England.[7]
New England
The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritan separatists who felt that they needed to physically distance themselves from the corrupt Church of England. After initially moving to the Netherlands, they decided to re-establish themselves in America. The initial Pilgrim settlers sailed to North America in 1620 on the Mayflower. Upon their arrival, they drew up the Mayflower Compact, by which they bound themselves together as a united community, thus establishing the small Plymouth Colony. William Bradford was their main leader. After its founding, other settlers traveled from England to join the colony.[8]
The non-separatist Puritans constituted a much larger group than the Pilgrims, and they established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, pure church in the New World. By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply. The Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies together spawned other Puritan colonies in New England, including the New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut colonies. During the 17th century, the New Haven and Saybrook colonies were absorbed by Connecticut.[9]
Providence Plantation was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams on land provided by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. Williams was a Puritan who preached religious tolerance, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony over theological disagreements, and he and other settlers founded Providence Plantation based on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule "in civil things" and "liberty of conscience" in religious matters.[4][10] In 1637, a second group including Anne Hutchinson established a second settlement on Aquidneck Island, also known as Rhode Island.
Other colonists settled to the north, mingling with adventurers and profit-oriented settlers to establish more religiously diverse colonies in New Hampshire and Maine. These small settlements were absorbed by Massachusetts when it made significant land claims in the 1640s and 1650s, but New Hampshire was eventually given a separate charter in 1679. Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until achieving statehood in 1820.
In 1686, King James II of England consolidated the New England colonies into Dominion of New England. In 1688, the colonies of New York, West Jersey, and East Jersey were added to the dominion. The dominion was disestablished in 1689, after the Glorious Revolution, and the former colonies were re-established.
Middle Colonies
After the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch colony of New Netherland was taken over by the British and renamed New York. However, large numbers of Dutch remained in the colony, dominating the rural areas between New York City and Albany. Meanwhile, Yankees from New England started moving in, as did immigrants from Germany. New York City attracted a large polyglot population, including a large black slave population.[11] In 1674, the proprietary colonies of East Jersey and West Jersey were created from lands formerly part of New York.[12]
Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 as a proprietary colony of Quaker William Penn. The main population elements included Quaker population based in Philadelphia, a Scotch Irish population on the Western frontier, and numerous German colonies in between.[13] Philadelphia became the largest city in the colonies with its central location, excellent port, and a population of about 30,000.[14]
Early 18th century
In 1702, East and West Jersey were combined to form the Province of New Jersey.
Due to their remoteness from each other, the northern and southern sections of the Carolina colony operated more or less independently until 1691, when Philip Ludwell was appointed governor of the entire province. From that time until 1708, the northern and southern settlements remained under one government. However, during this period, the two halves of the province began increasingly to be known as North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1712, Carolina was divided into two colonies: the Province of South Carolina and the Province of North Carolina.
In the 1730s, James Oglethorpe, a Member of Parliament, proposed that the area south of the Carolinas be colonized with the "worthy poor" of England, to provide an alternative to the overcrowded debtors' prisons. Oglethorpe and other English philanthropists secured a royal charter as the Trustees of the colony of Georgia on June 9, 1732.[15]
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was the American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years' War. Previous colonial wars in North America had started in Europe and then spread to the colonies, but the French and Indian War is notable for having started in North America and spread to Europe. One of the primary causes of the war was increasing competition between Britain and France, especially in the Great Lakes and Ohio valley.[16]
The French and Indian War took on a new significance for the British North American colonists when William Pitt the Elder decided that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America in order to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a "world war". During the war, the position of the British colonies as part of the British Empire was made truly apparent, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in the lives of Americans.
The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways. It caused men to travel across the continent who might otherwise have never left their own colony, fighting alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds who were nonetheless still "American". Throughout the course of the war, British officers trained American ones for battle, most notably George Washington, which benefitted the American cause during the Revolution. Also, colonial legislatures and officials had to cooperate intensively, for the first time, in pursuit of the continent-wide military effort.[16] The relations between the British military establishment and the colonists were not always positive, setting the stage for later distrust and dislike of British troops.
Territorial changes following the French and Indian War: land held by the British before 1763 is shown in red, land gained by Britain in 1763 is shown in pink.
In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France formally ceded to Britain the eastern part of its vast North American empire, having secretly given to Spain the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River the previous year. Before the war, Britain held the thirteen American colonies, most of present-day Nova Scotia, and most of the Hudson Bay watershed. Following the war, Britain gained all French territory east of the Mississippi River, including Quebec, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio River valley. Britain also gained Spanish Florida, from which it formed the colonies of East and West Florida. In removing a major foreign threat to the thirteen colonies, the war also largely removed the colonists' need of colonial protection.
The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe. The colonists' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, disunity was beginning to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself. This was a successful wartime strategy but, after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other. The British elite, the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers. The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own. This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution.[16]
Growing dissent
The British sought to maintain peaceful relations with those Indian tribes that had allied with the French, to keep them separated from the American frontiersmen. To this end, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, as this was designated an Indian Reserve.[17] Some groups of settlers disregarded the proclamation, continuing to move west and establish farms.[18] The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but the fact angered the colonists that it had been promulgated without their prior consultation.[19]
Join, or Die by Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule.
Americans insisted on the principle of "no taxation without representation" beginning with the intense protests over the Stamp Act of 1765, representation being understood in the context of Parliament directly levying the duty or excise tax, and thus by-passing the colonial legislatures, which had levied taxes on the colonies in the monarch's stead prior to 1763.[20] They argued that the colonies had no representation in the British Parliament, so it was a violation of their rights as Englishmen for taxes to be imposed upon them. The other British colonies that had assemblies largely agreed with those in the Thirteen Colonies, but they were thoroughly controlled by the British Empire and the Royal Navy, so protests were hopeless.[21]
Parliament rejected the colonial protests and asserted its authority by passing new taxes. Trouble escalated over the tea tax, as Americans in each colony boycotted the tea, and those in Boston dumped the tea in the harbor during the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Tensions escalated in 1774 as Parliament passed the laws known as the Intolerable Acts, which greatly restricted self-government in the colony of Massachusetts, among other things.
American Revolution
Map of the Thirteen Colonies in 1775
In response, the colonies formed extralegal bodies of elected representatives, generally known as Provincial Congresses. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise.[22] Later in 1774, twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. During the Second Continental Congress, the thirteenth colony (Georgia) sent delegates, as well. By spring 1775, all royal officials had been expelled from all thirteen colonies. The Continental Congress became a national government. It raised an army to fight the British and named George Washington its commander, made treaties, declared independence, and recommended that the colonies write constitutions and become states.[23] In 1776, the Thirteen Colonies declared their independence from Britain. With the help of France and Spain, the Thirteen Colonies defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Britain recognized the independence of Thirteen Colonies, which became known as the United States.
Population
Population of the American colonies[24]
Year
Population
1625
1,980
1641
50,000
1688
200,000
1702
270,000
1715
435,000
1749
1,000,000
1754
1,500,000
1765
2,200,000
1775
2,400,000
The colonial population rose to a quarter of a million during the 17th century, and to nearly 2.5 million on the eve of the American revolution. Perkins (1988) notes the importance of good health for the growth of the colonies: "Fewer deaths among the young meant that a higher proportion of the population reached reproductive age, and that fact alone helps to explain why the colonies grew so rapidly."[25] There were, of course, many other reasons for the population growth besides good health, such as the Great Migration.
By 1776, about 85% of the white population's ancestry originated in the British Isles (English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh), 9% of German origin, 4% Dutch and 2% Huguenot French and other minorities. Over 90% were farmers, with several small cities that were also seaports linking the colonial economy to the larger British Empire. These populations continued to grow at a rapid rate during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily because of high birth rates and relatively low death rates. Immigration was a minor factor from 1774 to 1830.[26]
Slaves
Main article: Slavery in the colonial United States
Slavery was legal and practiced in many of the Thirteen Colonies. In most places, it involved house servants or farm workers. It was of economic importance in the export-oriented tobacco plantations of Virginia and Maryland and on the rice and indigo plantations of South Carolina.[27] About 287,000 slaves were imported into the Thirteen Colonies over a period of 160 years, or 2% of the estimated 12 million taken from Africa to the Americas via the Atlantic slave trade. The great majority went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. By the mid-18th century, life expectancy was much higher in the American colonies.[28]
Slaves imported into Colonial America[29]
1620–1700
1701–1760
1761–1770
1771–1780
total
21,000 189,000 63,000 15,000 287,000
The numbers grew rapidly through a very high birth rate and low mortality rate, reaching nearly four million by the 1860 census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that in England.
Religion
Protestantism was the predominant religion in the Thirteen Colonies. There were also Catholics, Jews and deists. A large fraction had no religious connection. The Anglican Church or Church of England was officially established in most of the South; It was disestablished at the time of the American Revolution. As the Puritan movement became the Congregational denomination, it was the established religion in Massachusetts and Connecticut until well into the 19th century. [30] In practice this meant that tax revenues were allocated to church expenses. The Anglican parishes in the South were under the control of local vestries, and had public functions, such as repair of the roads and relief of the poor.[31]
The colonies were religiously diverse, with Protestant denominations brought by British, German, Dutch, and other immigrants. The Reformed tradition was the foundation for Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Continental Reformed denominations. The Dutch Reformed Church was strong among Dutch Americans in New York and New Jersey, while Lutheranism was prevalent among German immigrants. Germans also brought diverse forms of Anabaptism, especially the Mennonite variety. Baptist preacher Roger Williams founded Providence Plantations which became Rhode Island. Jews Were clustered in a few port cities. The Baltimore family founded Maryland and brought in fellow Catholics from England.[32] Presbyterians were chiefly immigrants from Scotland and Ulster, and favored the back country and frontier districts.[33]
Quakers were well established in Pennsylvania, where they controlled the governorship and for many years the legislature.[34] Quakers were also numerous in Rhode Island. Baptists and Methodists were growing rapidly during the First Great Awakening of the 1740s.[35] In Virginia the Baptists they posed a challenge to the landed elites.[36] Many of the denominations sponsored missions to the local Indians. In contrast a Catholic candidate, the number of conversions was relatively small.[37]
Education
Higher education was available for young men in the North, and most students were aspiring Protestant ministers. The oldest colleges were Harvard College, College of New Jersey (Princeton), Yale College, and College of Rhode Island (Brown). Others were King's College (Columbia), the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania), and Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. South of Philadelphia, there was only the College of William and Mary which trained the secular elite in Virginia, especially aspiring lawyers.
Most New England towns sponsored public schools for boys, but public schooling was rare elsewhere. Girls were educated at home or by small local private schools, and they had no access to college. Aspiring physicians and lawyers typically learned as apprentices to an established practitioner, although some young men went to medical schools in Scotland.[38]
Government
Main article: Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies
Forms of government
The three forms of colonial government in 1776 were provincial (royal colony), proprietary, and charter. These governments were all subordinate to the King of England, with no explicit relationship with the British Parliament. Beginning late in the 17th century, the administration of all British colonies was overseen by the Board of Trade in London.
The provincial colony was governed by commissions created at pleasure of the king. A governor and (in some provinces) his council were appointed by the crown. The governor was invested with general executive powers and authorized to call a locally elected assembly. The governor's council would sit as an upper house when the assembly was in session, in addition to its role in advising the governor. Assemblies were made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters (landowners) of the province. The governor had the power of absolute veto and could prorogue (i.e., delay) and dissolve the assembly. The assembly's role was to make all local laws and ordinances, ensuring that they were not inconsistent with the laws of England. In practice, this did not always occur, since many of the provincial assemblies sought to expand their powers and limit those of the governor and crown. Laws could be examined by the British Privy Council or Board of Trade, which also held veto power of legislation. New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and eventually Massachusetts were crown colonies.
Proprietary colonies were governed much as royal colonies except that lord proprietors, rather than the king, appointed the governor. They were set up after the Restoration of 1660 and typically enjoyed greater civil and religious liberty. Pennsylvania (which included Delaware), New Jersey, and Maryland were proprietary colonies.[39]
Charter governments were political corporations created by letters patent, giving the grantees control of the land and the powers of legislative government. The charters provided a fundamental constitution and divided powers among legislative, executive, and judicial functions, with those powers being vested in officials. Massachusetts, Providence Plantation, Rhode Island, Warwick, and Connecticut were charter colonies. The Massachusetts charter was revoked in 1684 and was replaced by a provincial charter that was issued in 1691.[40]
British role
After 1680, the royal government in London took an increasing interest in the affairs of the colonies, which were growing rapidly in population and wealth. In 1680, only Virginia was a royal colony; by 1720, half were under the control of royal governors. These governors were appointees closely tied to the government in London.
Historians before the 1880s emphasized American nationalism. However, scholarship after that time was heavily influenced by the "Imperial school" led by Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles McLean Andrews, and Lawrence H. Gipson. This viewpoint dominated colonial historiography into the 1940s, and they emphasized and often praised the attention that London gave to all the colonies. In this view, there was never a threat (before the 1770s) that any colony would revolt or seek independence.[41]
Self-government
British settlers did not come to the American colonies with the intention of creating a democratic system; yet they quickly created a broad electorate without a land-owning aristocracy, along with a pattern of free elections which put a strong emphasis on voter participation. The colonies offered a much freer degree of suffrage than England or indeed any other country. Any property owner could vote for members of the lower house of the legislature, and they could even vote for the governor in Connecticut and Rhode Island.[42] Voters were required to hold an "interest" in society; as the South Carolina legislature said in 1716, "it is necessary and reasonable, that none but such persons will have an interest in the Province should be capable to elect members of the Commons House of Assembly".[43] The main legal criterion for having an "interest" was ownership of real estate property, which was uncommon in Britain, where 19 out of 20 men were controlled politically by their landlords. (Women, children, indentured servants, and slaves were subsumed under the interest of the family head.) London insisted on this requirement for the colonies, telling governors to exclude from the ballot men who were not freeholders—that is, those who did not own land. Nevertheless, land was so widely owned that 50% to 80% of the men were eligible to vote.[44]
The colonial political culture emphasized deference, so that local notables were the men who ran and were chosen. But sometimes they competed with each other and had to appeal to the common man for votes. There were no political parties, and would-be legislators formed ad-hoc coalitions of their families, friends, and neighbors. Outside of Puritan New England, election day brought in all the men from the countryside to the county seat to make merry, politick, shake hands with the grandees, meet old friends, and hear the speeches—all the while toasting, eating, treating, tippling, and gambling. They voted by shouting their choice to the clerk, as supporters cheered or booed. Candidate George Washington spent £39 for treats for his supporters. The candidates knew that they had to "swill the planters with bumbo" (rum). Elections were carnivals where all men were equal for one day and traditional restraints were relaxed.[45]
The actual rate of voting ranged from 20% to 40% of all adult white males. The rates were higher in Pennsylvania and New York, where long-standing factions based on ethnic and religious groups mobilized supporters at a higher rate. New York and Rhode Island developed long-lasting two-faction systems that held together for years at the colony level, but they did not reach into local affairs. The factions were based on the personalities of a few leaders and an array of family connections, and they had little basis in policy or ideology. Elsewhere the political scene was in a constant whirl, based on personality rather than long-lived factions or serious disputes on issues.[42]
The colonies were independent of one other long before 1774; indeed, all the colonies began as separate and unique settlements or plantations. Further, efforts had failed to form a colonial union through the Albany Congress of 1754 led by Benjamin Franklin. The thirteen all had well-established systems of self-government and elections based on the Rights of Englishmen which they were determined to protect from imperial interference.[46]
Economic policy
The British Empire at the time operated under the mercantile system, where all trade was concentrated inside the Empire, and trade with other empires was forbidden. The goal was to enrich Britain—its merchants and its government. Whether the policy was good for the colonists was not an issue in London, but Americans became increasingly restive with mercantilist policies.[47]
Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling—which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch.[48] The tactic used by mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country.[49]
Britain implemented mercantilism by trying to block American trade with the French, Spanish, or Dutch empires using the Navigation Acts, which Americans avoided as often as they could. The royal officials responded to smuggling with open-ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance). In 1761, Boston lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "Then and there the child Independence was born."[50]
However, the colonists took pains to argue that they did not oppose British regulation of their external trade; they only opposed legislation which affected them internally.
Other British colonies
Main article: British America
British colonies in North America, c. 1750.
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia
Thirteen Colonies
Bermuda
Bahamas
British Honduras (was Spanish c. 1750: became British in 1798)
Jamaica
British Leeward Islands and Barbados
Besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war (although Spain reacquired Florida before the war was over). There was a certain degree of sympathy with the Patriot cause in several of the other colonies, but their geographical isolation and the dominance of British naval power precluded any effective participation.[51] The British crown had only recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec and Florida.[52]
At the time of the war Britain had seven other colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America: Newfoundland, Rupert's Land (the area around the Hudson Bay), Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, East Florida, West Florida, and the Province of Quebec. There were other colonies in the Americas as well, largely in the British West Indies. These colonies remained loyal to the crown.[53]
Newfoundland stayed loyal to Britain without question. It was exempt from the Navigation Acts and shared none of the grievances of the continental colonies. It was tightly bound to Britain and controlled by the Royal Navy and had no assembly that could voice grievances.
Nova Scotia had a large Yankee element that had recently arrived from New England, and shared the sentiments of the Americans about demanding the rights of the British men. The royal government in Halifax reluctantly allowed the Yankees of Nova Scotia a kind of "neutrality." In any case, the island-like geography and the presence of the major British naval base at Halifax made the thought of armed resistance impossible.[54]
Quebec was inhabited by French Catholic settlers who came under British control in the previous decade. The Quebec Act of 1774 gave them formal cultural autonomy within the empire, and many priests feared the intense Protestantism in New England. The American grievances over taxation had little relevance, and there was no assembly nor elections of any kind that could have mobilized any grievances. Even so, the Americans offered membership in the new nation and sent a military expedition that failed to capture Canada in 1775. Most Canadians remained neutral but some joined the American cause.[55]
In the West Indies the elected assemblies of Jamaica, Grenada, and Barbados formally declared their sympathies for the American cause and called for mediation, but the others were quite loyal. Britain carefully avoided antagonizing the rich owners of sugar plantations (many of whom lived in London); in turn the planters' greater dependence on slavery made them recognize the need for British military protection from possible slave revolts. The possibilities for overt action were sharply limited by the overwhelming power of Royal Navy in the islands. During the war there was some opportunistic trading with American ships.[56]
In Bermuda and the Bahamas local leaders were angry at the food shortages caused by British blockade of American ports. There was increasing sympathy for the American cause, including smuggling, and both colonies were considered "passive allies" of the United States throughout the war. When an American naval squadron arrived in the Bahamas to seize gunpowder, the colony gave no resistance at all.[57]
East Florida and West Florida were territories transferred from Spain to Britain after the French and Indian War by treaty. The few British colonists there needed protection from attacks by Indians and Spanish privateers. After 1775, East Florida became a major base for the British war effort in the South, especially in the invasions of Georgia and South Carolina.[58] However, Spain seized Pensacola in West Florida in 1781, then recovered both territories in the Treaty of Paris that ended the war in 1783. Spain ultimately transferred the Florida provinces to the United States in 1819.[59]
Historiography
Further information: Historiography of the British Empire
The first British empire centered on the 13 American colonies, which attracted large numbers of settlers from Britain. The "Imperial School" in the 1900s–1930s period took a favorable view of the benefits of empire, emphasizing its successful economic integration.[60] The Imperial School included such historians as Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles M. Andrews, and Lawrence Gipson.[61]
The shock of Britain's defeat in 1783 caused a radical revision of their policies on colonialism, thereby producing what historians call the end of the First British Empire; of course, Britain still owned Canada and some islands in the West Indies.[62] Ashley Jackson writes:
The first British Empire was largely destroyed by the loss of the American colonies, followed by a "swing to the east" and the foundation of a second British Empire based on commercial and territorial expansion in South Asia.[63]
Much of the historiography concerns the reasons why the Americans rebelled in the 1770s and successfully broke away. Since the 1960s, the mainstream of historiography emphasizes the growth of American consciousness and nationalism, and its Republican value system in opposition to the aristocratic viewpoint of British leaders.[64]
In the analysis of the coming of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches.[65]
The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context, including revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to integrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire.[66][67]
The "New social history" approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages.
The ideological approach centers on Republicanism in the United States.[68] Republicanism dictated that there would be no royalty or aristocracy or national church. It did permit continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood, approved of, and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adapted the British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choice for courts.[69][70]
See also
British Empire portal
United States portal
North America portal
Atlantic history
British America
British colonization of the Americas
Colonial American military history
Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies
Colonial history of the United States
Colonial South and the Chesapeake
Credit in the Thirteen Colonies
Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies
History of the United States (1776–89)
State cessions, post–Revolutionary War resolution of conflicting colonial land claims between the 13 former colonies
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b U.S. Bureau of the Census, A century of population growth from the first census of the United States to the twelfth, 1790–1900 (1909) p. 9.
Jump up ^ Richard Middleton and Anne Lombard, Colonial America: A History to 1763 (4th ed. 2011),
Jump up ^ The number 13 is mentioned as early as 1720 by Abel Boyer, The Political State of Great Britain vol. 19, p. 376: "so in this Country we have Thirteen Colonies at least severally govern'd by their repective Commanders in Chief, according to their peculiar Laws and Constitutions." This includes Carolina as a single colony, and does not include Georgia, but instead counts Nova Scotia and Newfoundland as British colonies. Early use of the term "thirteen colonies" in this context date to the American Revolution, for example John Roebuck, An Enquiry, Whether the Guilt of the Present Civil War in America, Ought to be Imputed to Great Britain Or America, p. 21: "though the colonies be thus absolutely subject to the parliament of England, the individuals of which the colony consist, may enjoy security, and freedom; there is not a single inhabitant, of the thirteen colonies, now in arms, but who may be conscious of the truth of this assertion". The critical review, or annals of literature vol. 48 (1779), p. 136: "during the last war, no part of his majesty's dominions contained a greater proportion of faithful subjects than the Thirteen Colonies. This being the case he [the writer] asks, how can it happen, that a people so lately loyal, should so suddenly become universally disloyal, and firmly attached to republican government".
^ Jump up to: a b Alan Taylor, American Colonies,, 2001.
Jump up ^ Ronald L. Heinemann, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007, 2008.
Jump up ^ Sparks, Jared (1846). The Library of American Biography: George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown. pp. 16–.
Jump up ^ Robert M. Weir, Colonial South Carolina: A History (1983).
Jump up ^ Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War Paperback (2007).
Jump up ^ Francis J. Bremer, The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards (1995).
Jump up ^ Benjamin Woods Labaree, Colonial Massachusetts: a history (1979)
Jump up ^ Michael G. Kammen, Colonial New York: A History (1974).
Jump up ^ John E. Pomfret, Colonial New Jersey: A History (1973).
Jump up ^ Joseph E. Illick, Colonial Pennsylvania: a history (1976).
Jump up ^ Russell F. Weigley, ed., Philadelphia: a 300 year history (1982). excerpt
Jump up ^ Colonial charters, grants and related documents
^ Jump up to: a b c Fred Anderson, The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (2006)
Jump up ^ Colin G. Calloway, The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (2006), pp 92–98
Jump up ^ W. J. Rorabaugh, Donald T. Critchlow, Paula C. Baker (2004). "America's promise: a concise history of the United States". Rowman & Littlefield. p.92. ISBN 0-7425-1189-8
Jump up ^ Woody Holton, "The Ohio Indians and the coming of the American revolution in Virginia", Journal of Southern History, (1994) 60#3 pp. 453–78
Jump up ^ J. R. Pole, Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic (London; Melbourne: Macmillan, 1966), 31, https://www.questia.com/read/89805613.
Jump up ^ Donald William Meinig. The Shaping of America: Atlantic America, 1492–1800 (1986), p. 315; Greene and Pole, eds. '"A Companion to the American Revolution (2004), ch. 63
Jump up ^ T.H. Breen, American Insurgents, American Patriots: The Revolution of the People (2010) pp 81–82
Jump up ^ Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (Oxford History of the United States) (2007)
Jump up ^ Note: the population figures are estimates by historians; they do not include the Indian tribes outside the jurisdiction of the colonies. They do include Indians living under colonial control, as well as slaves and indentured servants. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A century of population growth from the first census of the United States to the twelfth, 1790–1900 (1909) p. 9
Jump up ^ Edwin J. Perkins (1988). The Economy of Colonial America. Columbia UP. p. 7.
Jump up ^ Smith, Daniel Scott (1972). "The Demographic History of Colonial New England". The Journal of Economic History. 32 (1): 165–83. JSTOR 2117183. PMID 11632252. doi:10.1017/S0022050700075458.
Jump up ^ Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial America, 1619–1776 (2013) excerpt and text search
Jump up ^ Paul Finkelman (2006). Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895. Oxford UP. pp. 2:156.
Jump up ^ Source: Miller and Smith, eds. Dictionary of American Slavery (1988) p . 678
Jump up ^ Stephen Foster, The Long Argument: English Puritanism and the Shaping of New England Culture, 1570-1700; (1996).
Jump up ^ Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the cope of heaven: Religion, society, and politics in Colonial America (2003).
Jump up ^ Sister M. Rita, "Catholicism in colonial Maryland," Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 51#1 (1940) pp. 65-83 Online
Jump up ^ Bryan F. Le Beau, Jonathan Dickinson and the Formative Years of American Presbyterianism (2015).
Jump up ^ Gary B. Nash, Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1681-1726 (1993).
Jump up ^ Thomas S. Kidd, and Barry Hankins, Baptists in America: A History (2015) ch 1.
Jump up ^ Rhys Isaac, "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 to 1775." William and Mary Quarterly (1974): 346-368. online
Jump up ^ Laura M. Stevens, The poor Indians: British missionaries, Native Americans, and colonial sensibility (2010).
Jump up ^ Wayne J. Urban and Jennings L. Wagoner Jr., American Education: A History (5th ed. 2013) pp 11-54.
Jump up ^ John Andrew Doyle, English Colonies in America: Volume IV The Middle Colonies (1907) online
Jump up ^ Louise Phelps Kellogg, The American colonial charter (1904) online
Jump up ^ Max Savelle, "The Imperial School of American Colonial Historians". Indiana Magazine of History (1949): 123-134 in JSTOR also online
^ Jump up to: a b Robert J. Dinkin, Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689–1776 (1977)
Jump up ^ Thomas Cooper and David James McCord, eds. The Statutes at Large of South Carolina: Acts, 1685–1716 (1837) p 688
Jump up ^ Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote (2000) pp 5–8
Jump up ^ Daniel Vickers, A Companion to Colonial America (2006) p. 300
Jump up ^ Greene and Pole, eds. (2004), p. 665
Jump up ^ Max Savelle, Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind (2005) pp. 204–211
Jump up ^ George Otto Trevelyan, The American revolution: Volume 1 (1899) p. 128 online
Jump up ^ William R. Nester, The Great Frontier War: Britain, France, and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607–1755 (Praeger, 2000) p, 54.
Jump up ^ Stephens, Unreasonable Searches and Seizures (2006) p. 306
Jump up ^ Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds. '"A Companion to the American Revolution (2004) ch. 63
Jump up ^ Lawrence Gipson, The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 volumes, 1936–1970), highly detailed discussion of every British colony in the New World in the 1750s and 1760s
Jump up ^ Lawrence Gipson, The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 volumes, 1936–1970)
Jump up ^ Meinig pp. 313–14; Greene and Pole (2004) ch. 61
Jump up ^ Meinig pp 314–15; Greene and Pole (2004) ch 61
Jump up ^ Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean (2000) ch 6
Jump up ^ Meinig pp 315–16; Greene and Pole (2004) ch 63
Jump up ^ Meinig p 316
Jump up ^ P. J. Marshall, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (2001)
Jump up ^ Robert L. Middlekauff, "The American Continental Colonies in the Empire", in Robin Winks, ed., The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966) pp 23-45.
Jump up ^ William G. Shade, "Lawrence Henry Gipson's Empire: The Critics". Pennsylvania History (1969): 49-69 online.
Jump up ^ Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire 2008
Jump up ^ Ashley Jackson (2013). The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP. p. 72.
Jump up ^ Ian Tyrrell, "Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire", Journal of American History, (1999) 86#3 pp:. 1015-1044 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Winks, Historiography 5:95
Jump up ^ Francis D. Cogliano, "Revisiting the American Revolution", History Compass (2010) 8#8 pp 951-963.
Jump up ^ Eliga H. Gould, Peter S. Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World (2005)
Jump up ^ David Kennedy; Lizabeth Cohen (2015). American Pageant. Cengage Learning. p. 156.
Jump up ^ Ellen Holmes Pearson. "Revising Custom, Embracing Choice: Early American Legal Scholars and the Republicanization of the Common Law", in Gould and Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World (2005) pp 93-113
Jump up ^ Anton-Hermann Chroust, Rise of the Legal Profession in America (1965) vol 2.
Further reading
Adams, James Truslow (1922). The Founding of New England. Atlantic Monthly Press; full text online.
Adams, James Truslow. Revolutionary New England, 1691–1776 (1923)
Andrews, Charles M. The Colonial Period of American History (4 vol. 1934–38), the standard political overview to 1700
Carr, J. Revell (2008). Seeds of Discontent: The Deep Roots of the American Revolution, 1650-1750. Walker Books.
Chitwood, Oliver. A history of colonial America (1961), older textbook
Cooke, Jacob Ernest et al., ed. Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies. (3 vol. 1993); 2397 pp.; comprehensive coverage; compares British, French, Spanish & Dutch colonies
Elliott, John (2006). Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830. Yale University Press.
Foster, Stephen, ed. British North America in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (2014) DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199206124.001.0001 online
Gipson, Lawrence. The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 volumes, 1936–1970), Pulitzer Prize; highly detailed discussion of every British colony in the New World
Greene, Evarts Boutelle et al., American Population before the Federal Census of 1790, 1993, ISBN 0-8063-1377-3
Greene, Evarts Boutell (1905). Provincial America, 1690–1740. Harper & brothers; full text online.
Hawke, David F.; The Colonial Experience; 1966, ISBN 0-02-351830-8. older textbook
Hawke, David F. Everyday Life in Early America (1989) excerpt and text search
Middlekauf, Robert (2005). The Glorious Cause: the American Revolution, 1763-1789. Oxford University Press.
Middleton, Richard, and Anne Lombard. Colonial America: A History to 1763 (4th ed. 2011), the newest textbook excerpt and text search
Richter, Daniel (2011). Before the Revolution : America's ancient pasts. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press.
Taylor, Alan. American colonies (2002), 526 pages; recent survey by leading scholar
Taylor, Alan. American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750-1804 (2016) recent survey by leading scholar
Vickers, Daniel, ed. A Companion to Colonial America. (Blackwell, 2003) 576 pp.; topical essays by experts excerpt
Government
Andrews, Charles M.Colonial Self-Government, 1652–1689 (1904) full text online
Dinkin, Robert J. Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689–1776 (1977)
Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution (1943)
Osgood, Herbert L. The American colonies in the seventeenth century, (3 vol 1904-07)' vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online
Osgood, Herbert L. The American colonies in the eighteenth century (4 vols, 1924–25)
Primary sources
Kavenagh, W. Keith, ed. Foundations of Colonial America: a Documentary History (6 vol. 1974)
Sarson, Steven, and Jack P. Greene, eds. The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783 (8 vol, 2010); primary sources
Online primary sources
840+ volumes of colonial records; useful for advanced scholarship
External links
Media related to Thirteen Colonies at Wikimedia Commons
[show]
v
t
e
The Thirteen Colonies of Colonial America
New England Colonies
Middle Colonies
Chesapeake Colonies
Southern Colonies
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts Bay
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
South Carolina
Virginia
Early English colonial entities
Carolina
East Jersey
New England
New Haven
Plymouth
West Jersey
[show]
v
t
e
Territorial expansion of the United States
Thirteen Colonies (1776)
Treaty of Paris (1783)
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Red River Cession (1818)
Adams–Onís Treaty (1819)
Texas Annexation (1845)
Oregon Treaty (1846)
Mexican Cession (1848)
Gadsden Purchase (1853)
Guano Islands Act (1856)
Alaska Purchase (1867)
Annexation of Hawaii (1898)
Treaty of Paris (1898)
Tripartite Convention (1899)
Treaty of Cession of Tutuila (1900)
Treaty of Cession of Manuʻa (1904)
Treaty of the Danish West Indies (1917)
Concept: Manifest destiny
[show]
v
t
e
History of the United States
Timeline
Prehistory
Pre-Columbian
Colonial
1776–89
1789–1849
1849–65
1865–1918
1918–45
1945–64
1964–80
1980–91
1991–2008
2008–present
Topics
American Century
Cities
Constitution
Demographic
Diplomatic
Economic
Education
Immigration
Medical
Merchant Marine
Military
Musical
Religious
Slavery
Southern
By state
Technological and industrial
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Voting rights
Women
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
United States articles
History
By event
Timeline of U.S. history
Pre-Columbian era
Colonial era
Thirteen Colonies
military history
Continental Congress
American Revolution
War
American frontier
Drafting and ratification of Constitution
Federalist Era
War of 1812
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Mexican–American War
Civil War
Reconstruction Era
Indian Wars
Gilded Age
Progressive Era
African-American Civil Rights Movement 1865–1895 / 1896–1954
Spanish–American War
Imperialism
World War I
Roaring Twenties
Great Depression
World War II
home front
Nazism in the United States
American Century
Cold War
Korean War
Space Race
Civil Rights Movement
Feminist Movement
Vietnam War
Post-Cold War (1991–2008)
Collapse of the Soviet Union
War on Terror
War in Afghanistan
Iraq War
Recent events (2008–present)
By topic
Outline of U.S. history
Demographic
Discoveries
Economic
debt ceiling
Inventions
before 1890
1890–1945
1946–91
after 1991
Military
Postal
Technological and industrial
Geography
Territory
states
territories
counties
cities, towns, and villages
Earthquakes
Extreme points
Islands
Mountains
peaks
ranges
Appalachian
Rocky
National Park Service
National Parks
Regions
East Coast
West Coast
Great Plains
Gulf
Mid-Atlantic
Midwestern
New England
Pacific
Central
Eastern
Northern
Northeastern
Northwestern
Southern
Southeastern
Southwestern
Western
Rivers
Colorado
Columbia
Mississippi
Missouri
Ohio
Rio Grande
Time
Water supply and sanitation
Politics
Federal
Executive
President
Executive Office
Cabinet / Executive departments
Civil service
Independent agencies
Law enforcement
Public policy
Legislature
Congress
Senate
Vice President
President pro tempore
House of Representatives
Speaker
Judiciary
Federal judiciary
Supreme Court
Courts of appeals
District courts
Law
Constitution
federalism
preemption
separation of powers
Bill of Rights
civil liberties
Code of Federal Regulations
Federal Reporter
United States Code
United States Reports
Intelligence
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Federal Bureau of Investigation
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
National Reconnaissance Office
National Security Agency
Office of the Director of National Intelligence
Uniformed
Armed Forces
Army
Marine Corps
Navy
Air Force
Coast Guard
National Guard
NOAA Corps
Public Health Service Corps
Political
divisions
List of states and territories of the United States
States
Territories
Federal district
Native American autonomous administrative divisions
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Associated states
Local government in the United States
Federal enclave
Elections
Electoral College
Foreign relations
Foreign policy
Vetos in the UN Security Council
Ideologies
Anti-Americanism
Exceptionalism
Nationalism
Parties
Democratic
Republican
Third parties
51st state
political status of Puerto Rico
District of Columbia statehood movement
Red states and blue states
Purple America
Scandals
State governments
governor
state legislature
state court
Uncle Sam
Economy
By sector
Agriculture
Banking
Wall Street
Communications
Energy
Insurance
Manufacturing in the United States
Mining
Tourism
Trade
Transportation
Companies
by state
Dollar (currency)
Exports
Federal budget
Federal Reserve System
Financial position
Labor unions
Public debt
Social welfare programs
Taxation
Unemployment
Society
Culture
Americana
Architecture
Cinema
Cuisine
Dance
Demography
Education
Family structure
Fashion
Flag
Folklore
Languages
American English
Indigenous languages
ASL
Black American Sign Language
HSL
Plains Sign Talk
Arabic
Chinese
French
German
Italian
Russian
Spanish
Literature
Media
Journalism
Newspapers
Radio
Television
Music
Names
People
Philosophy
Public holidays
Religion
Sexuality
Sports
Theater
Visual art
Social class
Affluence
American Dream
Educational attainment
Homelessness
Home-ownership
Household income
Income inequality
Middle class
Personal income
Poverty
Professional and working class conflict
Standard of living
Wealth
Issues
Ages of consent
Capital punishment
Crime
Incarceration
Criticism of government
Discrimination
Affirmative action
Intersex rights
Islamophobia
LGBT rights
Racism
Same-sex marriage
Drug policy
Energy policy
Environmental movement
Gun politics
Health care
Health insurance
Health care reform
Abortion
Hunger
Obesity
Smoking
Human rights
Immigration
illegal
International rankings
National security
Mass surveillance
Terrorism
Separation of church and state
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirteen_Colonies&oldid=802413698"
Categories:
Former countries in North America
States and territories established in 1607
States and territories disestablished in 1783
Thirteen Colonies-related lists
Colonial United States (British)
1776 disestablishments in the United States
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Colonial settlements in North America
Former regions and territories of the United States
Former political entities in North America
Former colonies in North America
Thirteen Colonies
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia semi-protected pages
Former country articles requiring maintenance
Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikisource
Languages
Alemannisch
Ænglisc
العربية
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
Bân-lâm-gú
भोजपुरी
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Bahasa Melayu
Mirandés
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Patois
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 September 2017, at 01:01.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href title

values: This article is semi-protected until October 3, 2017.

attrs: class id

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: td

attrs: colspan class style

values: text-align:center; line-height:1.2em; font-size:135%; font-weight:bold;

value: tr

value: small

attrs: colspan style

values: width:50px; border:0; vertical-align:middle; font-size:30%; line-height:105%;

value: b

values: vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:115%; border:0;

values: width:50px; border:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right; line-height:105%; font-size:30%;

values: width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:transparent;

values: vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #aaa; padding:0.2em 0em 0.2em 0em;

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display:table; width:100%; display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;

values: text-align:center; font-size:95%; padding:0.6em 0em 0.6em 0em;

values: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

values:
/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht_(1713)
mw-redirect
Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

values: United States Declaration of Independence

values:
/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population
mw-redirect
List of countries by population

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Pre-colonial_North_America
mw-redirect
Pre-colonial North America

values: border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;

values: width:100%; background: transparent; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;

values: border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;

values: width:92%; background:transparent; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;

values: width:95%; background: transparent; text-align:center; margin:0 auto;

values: margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:65%; font-weight:normal;

values: background: none; font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;

values: Greater coat of arms of the United States

values: padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;

values: History of the United States (1789–1849)

values: History of the United States (1865–1918)

values: History of the United States (1991–2008)

values: History of the United States (2008–present)

values: History of the Jews in the United States

values: History of the Poles in the United States

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values: History of antisemitism in the United States

values: African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954)

values:
/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement
mw-redirect
Civil Rights Movement

values: Demographic history of the United States

values: History of medicine in the United States

values: History of the socialist movement in the United States

values: History of the United States by state (page does not exist)

values: Technological and industrial history of the United States

values: Territorial evolution of the United States

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;

values: Template talk:History of the United States

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Colony_and_Dominion_of_Virginia
mw-redirect
Colony and Dominion of Virginia

values:
/wiki/New_England_colonies
mw-redirect
New England colonies

values:
/wiki/James_I_of_England
mw-redirect
James I of England

values:
/wiki/London_Virginia_Company
mw-redirect
London Virginia Company

values:
/wiki/Charles_I_(England)
mw-redirect
Charles I (England)

values:
/wiki/Lords_Proprietors
mw-redirect
Lords Proprietors

values:
/wiki/Royal_Charter
mw-redirect
Royal Charter

values:
/wiki/John_Colleton
mw-redirect
John Colleton

values:
/wiki/Pilgrim_Fathers
mw-redirect
Pilgrim Fathers

values:
/wiki/William_Bradford_(1590-1657)
mw-redirect
William Bradford (1590-1657)

values:
/wiki/Providence_Plantation
mw-redirect
Providence Plantation

values:
/wiki/Roger_Williams_(theologian)
mw-redirect
Roger Williams (theologian)

values:
/wiki/Separation_of_Church_and_State
mw-redirect
Separation of Church and State

values:
/wiki/British_Prime_Minister
mw-redirect
British Prime Minister

values:
/wiki/Stamp_Act_of_1765
mw-redirect
Stamp Act of 1765

values: text-align:center; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:8px; margin-right:0;

values: Puritan migration to New England (1620–40)

values:
/wiki/German_American
mw-redirect
German American

values:
/wiki/Dutch_American
mw-redirect
Dutch American

values: History of immigration to the United States

values:
/wiki/Reformed_tradition
mw-redirect
Reformed tradition

values:
/wiki/Continental_Reformed
mw-redirect
Continental Reformed

values:
/wiki/Princeton_College
mw-redirect
Princeton College

values:
/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary
mw-redirect
College of William and Mary

values: Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies

values:
/wiki/Royal_colony
mw-redirect
Royal colony

values:
/wiki/English_Restoration
mw-redirect
English Restoration

values:
/wiki/James_Otis,_Jr.
mw-redirect
James Otis, Jr.

values:
/wiki/City_of_Halifax
mw-redirect
City of Halifax

values:
/wiki/Quebec_Act_of_1774
mw-redirect
Quebec Act of 1774

values:
/wiki/Charles_M._Andrews
mw-redirect
Charles M. Andrews

values:
/wiki/Lawrence_Gipson
mw-redirect
Lawrence Gipson

values:
/wiki/New_social_history
mw-redirect
New social history

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
nofollow
external free
https://www.questia.com/read/89805613

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2117183

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11632252

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/44209361

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/27787750

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2568604

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060912510/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.amazon.com/dp/0631221417/
external text

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
navbox-image
2
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Histories of cities in the United States

values: History of the United States Constitution

values: Timeline of United States diplomatic history

values: History of education in the United States

values: History of the United States Merchant Marine

values: History of religion in the United States

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

values: African-American Civil Rights Movement (1865–95)

values: Military history of the United States during World War II

values: United States home front during World War II

values: Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (1946–91)

values: Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)

values: Postage stamps and postal history of the United States

values: Lists of populated places in the United States

values: List of earthquakes in the United States

values: List of mountain peaks of the United States

values: List of areas in the United States National Park System

values: Water supply and sanitation in the United States

values:
/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President
mw-redirect
Executive Office of the President

values: United States federal executive departments

values: Independent agencies of the United States government

values: Federal law enforcement in the United States

values: President pro tempore of the United States Senate

values: Speaker of the United States House of Representatives

values: Separation of powers under the United States Constitution

values: United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps

values: Political divisions of the United States

values: List of states and territories of the United States

values: List of vetos exercised by the US government in the UN Security Council

values: Political ideologies in the United States

values: List of federal political scandals in the United States

values: List of companies of the United States by state

values: Educational attainment in the United States

values: Professional and working class conflict in the United States

values: Criticism of the United States government

values: Federal drug policy of the United States

values: Environmental movement in the United States

values:
/wiki/Smoking_in_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Smoking in the United States

values: Illegal immigration to the United States

values: International rankings of the United States

values: Separation of church and state in the United States

values:
/wiki/Book:United_States
mw-redirect
Book:United States

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:Former countries in North America

values: Category:States and territories established in 1607

values: Category:States and territories disestablished in 1783

values: Category:Colonial United States (British)

values: Category:1776 disestablishments in the United States

values: Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas

values: Category:Colonial settlements in North America

values: Category:Former regions and territories of the United States

values: Category:Former political entities in North America

values: Category:Former colonies in North America

values: Category:Former country articles requiring maintenance

values: Category:Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: المستعمرات الثلاث عشرة – Arabic

values: Cha̍p-saⁿ Si̍t-bîn-tē – Chinese (Min Nan)

values: तेरह उपनिवेश – Bhojpuri

values: Тринадесет колонии – Bulgarian

values: Δεκατρείς Αποικίες – Greek

values: مستعمرات سیزده‌گانه – Persian

values: Տասներեք գաղութներ – Armenian

values: तेरह उपनिवेश – Hindi

values: שלוש עשרה המושבות – Hebrew

values: ცამეტი კოლონია – Georgian

values: Dei tretten koloniane – Norwegian Nynorsk

values: Toertiin Kalani – Jamaican Creole English

values: Тринадцать колоний – Russian

values: විජිත දහතුන – Sinhala

values: Тринаест колонија – Serbian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values: பதின்மூன்று குடியேற்றங்கள் – Tamil

values: สิบสามอาณานิคม – Thai

values: Тринадцять колоній – Ukrainian

values: تیرہ کالونیاں – Urdu

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Thirteen_Colonies rootpage-Thirteen_Colonies skin-vector action-view


text:
Specific absorption rate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Specific absorption rate (SAR) is a measure of the rate at which energy is absorbed by the human body when exposed to a radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field. It can also refer to absorption of other forms of energy by tissue, including ultrasound.[1] It is defined as the power absorbed per mass of tissue and has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg).[2][3]
SAR is usually averaged either over the whole body, or over a small sample volume (typically 1 g or 10 g of tissue). The value cited is then the maximum level measured in the body part studied over the stated volume or mass.
Contents
[hide]
1 Calculation
1.1 Mobile phone SAR testing
1.2 MRI scanner SAR testing
2 Criticism
2.1 FCC advice
2.2 MSBE (minimum SAR with biological effect)
3 FCC regulations
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Calculation[edit]
SAR for electromagnetic energy can be calculated from the electric field within the tissue as:
SAR = 1 V ∫ sample σ ( r ) | E ( r ) | 2 ρ ( r ) d r {\displaystyle {\text{SAR}}={\frac {1}{V}}\int _{\textrm {sample}}{\frac {\sigma (\mathbf {r} )|\mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )|^{2}}{\rho (\mathbf {r} )}}d\mathbf {r} }
where
σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is the sample electrical conductivity
E {\displaystyle E} is the RMS electric field
ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the sample density
V {\displaystyle V} is the volume of the sample
SAR measures exposure to fields between 100 kHz and 10 GHz (known as radio waves).[4] It is commonly used to measure power absorbed from mobile phones and during MRI scans. The value will depend heavily on the geometry of the part of the body that is exposed to the RF energy, and on the exact location and geometry of the RF source. Thus tests must be made with each specific source, such as a mobile phone model, and at the intended position of use.
Mobile phone SAR testing[edit]
See also: Mobile phone radiation and health
When measuring the SAR due to a mobile phone the phone is placed against a representation of a human head (a "SAR Phantom") in a talk position. The SAR value is then measured at the location that has the highest absorption rate in the entire head, which in the case of a mobile phone is often as close to the phone's antenna as possible. Measurements are made for different positions on both sides of the head and at different frequencies representing the frequency bands at which the device can transmit. Depending on the size and capabilities of the phone, additional testing may also be required to represent usage of the device while placed close to the user's body and/or extremities. Various governments have defined maximum SAR levels for RF energy emitted by mobile devices:
United States: the FCC requires that phones sold have a SAR level at or below 1.6 watts per kilogram (W/kg) taken over the volume containing a mass of 1 gram of tissue that is absorbing the most signal.
European Union: CENELEC specify SAR limits within the EU, following IEC standards. For mobile phones, and other such hand-held devices, the SAR limit is 2 W/kg averaged over the 10 g of tissue absorbing the most signal (IEC 62209-1).
India: switched from the EU limits to the US limits for mobile handsets in 2012. Unlike the US, India will not rely solely on SAR measurements provided by manufacturers; random compliance tests are done by a government-run Telecommunication Engineering Center (TEC) SAR Laboratory on handsets and 10% of towers. All handsets must have a hands free mode.[5]
SAR values are heavily dependent on the size of the averaging volume. Without information about the averaging volume used, comparisons between different measurements cannot be made. Thus, the European 10-gram ratings should be compared among themselves, and the American 1-gram ratings should only be compared among themselves. To check SAR on your mobile phone, review the documentation provided with the phone, dial *#07# (only works on some models) or visit the manufacturer's website.
MRI scanner SAR testing[edit]
For Magnetic Resonance Imaging the limits (described in IEC 60601-2-33) are slightly more complicated:
Whole body SAR
Partial body SAR
Head SAR
Local SAR (a)
Body Region →
whole body exposed body part head head trunk extremities
Operating Mode ↓
(W/kg) (W/kg) (W/kg) (W/kg) (W/kg) (W/kg)
Normal
2 2–10 (b) 3.2 10 (c) 10 2
1st Level Controlled
4 4–10 (b) 3.2 20 (c) 20 40
2nd Level Controlled
>4 >(4–10) (b) >3.2 >20 (c) >20 >40
Short duration SAR
The SAR limit over any 10 s period shall not exceed two times the stated values
Note: Averaging time of 6 minutes.
(a) Local SAR is determined over the mass of 10 g.
(b) The limit scales dynamically with the ratio "exposed patient mass / patient mass":
NORMAL OPERATING MODE: Partial body SAR = 10 W/kg – (8 W/kg * exposed patient mass / patient mass)
FIRST LEVEL CONTROLLED OPERATING MODE: Partial body SAR = 10 W/kg – (6 W/kg * exposed patient mass / patient mass)
(c) In cases where the orbit is in the field of a small local RF transmit coil, care should be taken to ensure that the temperature rise is limited to 1 °C.
Criticism[edit]
SAR limits set by law do not consider that the human body is particularly sensitive to the power peaks or frequencies responsible for the microwave hearing effect.[6][7] Frey reports that the microwave hearing effect occurs with average power density exposures of 400 μw/cm2, well below SAR limits (as set by government regulations).[6]
Notes:
In comparison to the short term, relatively intensive exposures described above, for long term environmental exposure of the general public there is a limit of 0.08 W/kg averaged over the whole body.[4] A whole-body average SAR of 0.4 W/kg has been chosen as the restriction that provides adequate protection for occupational exposure. An additional safety factor of 5 is introduced for exposure of the public, giving an average whole-body SAR limit of 0.08 W/kg.
FCC advice[edit]
The FCC Guide, "Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) For Cell Phones: What It Means For You," after detailing the limitations of SAR values, offers the following "bottom line" editorial:
"ALL cell phones must meet the FCC’s RF exposure standard, which is set at a level well below that at which laboratory testing indicates, and medical and biological experts generally agree, adverse health effects could occur. For users who are concerned with the adequacy of this standard or who otherwise wish to further reduce their exposure, the most effective means to reduce exposure are to hold the cell phone away from the head or body and to use a speakerphone or hands-free accessory. These measures will generally have much more impact on RF energy absorption than the small difference in SAR between individual cell phones, which, in any event, is an unreliable comparison of RF exposure to consumers, given the variables of individual use." [8]
MSBE (minimum SAR with biological effect)[edit]
In order to find out possible advantages and the interaction mechanisms of Electromagnetic fields (EMF), the minimum SAR (or intensity) that could have biological effect (MSBE) would be much more valuable in comparison to studying high intensity fields. Such studies can possibly shed light on thresholds of non-ionizing radiation effects and cell capabilities (e.g., oxidative response). In addition, it is more likely to reduce the complexity of the EMF interaction targets in cell cultures by lowering the exposure power, which at least reduces the overall rise in temperature. This parameter might differ regarding the case under study and depends on the physical and biological conditions of the exposed target.[9]
FCC regulations[edit]
The FCC regulations for SAR are contained in 47 C.F.R. 1.1307(b), 1.1310, 2.1091, 2.1093 and also discussed in OET Bulletin No. 56, "Questions and Answers About the Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields."[10]
See also[edit]
Dielectric heating
Electromagnetic radiation and health
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sun, J; Hynynen, K (2013-08-12) [September 1998]. "Focusing of therapeutic ultrasound through a human skull: a numerical study". J Acoust Soc Am. 104 (3 Pt 1): 1705–15. Bibcode:1998ASAJ..104.1705S. doi:10.1121/1.424383. PMID 9745750.
Jump up ^ Jin, Jianming (1998). Electromagnetic Analysis and Design in Magnetic Resonance Imaging. CRC Press. pp. §5.3.3 pp. 226ff. ISBN 978-0-8493-9693-9.
Jump up ^ Kshetrimayum, Rakhesh Singh (March–April 2008). "Mobile Phones: Bad for your Health?". IEEE Potentials. 27 (2): 18–20. doi:10.1109/MPOT.2008.919701. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
^ Jump up to: a b "ICNIRP Guidelines For Limiting Exposure To The Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic And Electromagnetic Fields (Up To 300 GHz)" (PDF). International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 1998. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
Jump up ^ "Stringent Mobile Radiation Standards Come into Force from tomorrow New Mobile Handsets to comply with SAR Value of 1.6W/KG - Penalty, Random Checks Introduced for Enforcement". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2013-12-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Frey, Allan H (1962). "Human auditory system response to modulated electromagnetic energy". Journal of Applied Physiology. 17 (4): 689–692. PMID 13895081.
Jump up ^ Frey, Allan H (1998). "Headaches from cellular telephones: are they real and what are the implications?". Environmental Health Perspectives. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 106 (3): 101–103. doi:10.1289/ehp.98106101. PMC 1533043  . PMID 9441959.
Jump up ^ "Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) For Cell Phones: What It Means For You". Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved 2013-12-22.
Jump up ^ Sefidbakht, Yahya; Moosavi-Movahedi, Ali Akbar; Hosseinkhani, Saman; Khodagholi, Fariba; Torkzadeh-Mahani, Masoud; Foolad, Forough; Faraji-Dana, Reza (April 2014). "Effects of 940 MHz EMF on Bioluminescence and Oxidative Response of Stable Luciferase Producing HEK Cells". Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. 13 (7): 1082. doi:10.1039/C3PP50451D. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
Jump up ^ OET Radio Frequency Safety, https://transition.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/background.html. Accessed 17 August 2015}
External links[edit]
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) for Cellular Telephones at the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
"Evaluating Compliance with FCC Guidelines for Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field" (Supplement C to OET Bulletin 65), June 2001; a detailed technical document about measuring SAR
Electromagnetic fields and public health at the World Health Organization (WHO)
"An Update on SAR Standards and the Basic Requirements for SAR Assessment" at ETS-Lindgren website, April 2005
Example of a detailed SAR report from the FCC web site (for an Apple iPod Touch 4th generation); hosted at 3rd party website
Manufacturers' SAR official websites
Apple
Motorola
Nokia
Samsung
Sony
[1]
FCC Regulations
OET Bulletin No. 56, "Questions and Answers About the Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields."
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Specific_absorption_rate&oldid=833668032"
Categories:
Radiobiology
Biophysics
Rates
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Date format
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
فارسی
Français
Italiano
Nederlands
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Polski
Português
Русский
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Türkçe
Українська
16 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 1 April 2018, at 21:35.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: sup

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Body_tissue
mw-redirect
Body tissue

values: vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:32.119ex; height:6.843ex;

values: {\text{SAR}}={\frac  {1}{V}}\int _{{\textrm  {sample}}}{\frac  {\sigma ({\mathbf  {r}})|{\mathbf  {E}}({\mathbf  {r}})|^{2}}{\rho ({\mathbf  {r}})}}d{\mathbf  {r}}

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;

values:
/wiki/Electrical_conductivity
mw-redirect
Electrical conductivity

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.787ex; height:2.176ex;

values:
/wiki/Mobile_phones
mw-redirect
Mobile phones

values: Edit section: MSBE (minimum SAR with biological effect)

values:
/wiki/J_Acoust_Soc_Am
mw-redirect
J Acoust Soc Am

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1121%2F1.424383

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9745750

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109%2FMPOT.2008.919701

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13895081

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.98106101

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9441959

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039%2FC3PP50451D

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
https://www.apple.com/legal/rfexposure/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.samsung.com/sar/sarMain.do

values:
nofollow
external autonumber
http://www.huawei.com

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Specific_absorption_rate
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: معدل الامتصاص النوعي – Arabic

values: SAR – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: Ειδικός ρυθμός απορρόφησης – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: آهنگ ثابت جذب – Persian

values: Tasso d'assorbimento specifico – Italian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Spesifikk absorpsjonsrate – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values: Swoiste tempo pochłaniania energii – Polish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Teste de absorção de energia – Portuguese

values: Удельный коэффициент поглощения электромагнитной энергии – Russian

values: Specifična konstanta apsorpcije – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values: Specifična konstanta apsorpcije – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Питомий коефіцієнт поглинання електромагнітної енергії – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Specific_absorption_rate rootpage-Specific_absorption_rate skin-vector action-view