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Mughal painting
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Babur Receives a Courtier by Farrukh Beg c. 1580-85. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, painted and mounted within borders of a Rawżat aṣ-ṣafāʾ page. Freer Sackler Gallery S1986.230
17th-century Mughal painting
Painting by Ustad Mansur (fl. 1590-1624), who came to prominence during the reign of Jahangir
Mughal paintings are a particular style of South Asian painting, generally confined to miniatures either as book illustrations or as single works to be kept in albums, which emerged from Persian miniature painting (itself largely of Chinese origin), with Indian Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist influences, and developed largely in the court of the Mughal Empire of the 16th to 18th centuries.
Mughal paintings later spread to other Indian courts, both Muslim and Hindu, and later Sikh. The mingling of foreign Persian and indigenous Indian elements was a continuation of the patronisation of other aspects of foreign culture as initiated by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate, and the introduction of it into the subcontinent by various Central Asian Turkic dynasties, such as the Ghaznavids.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Development
2.1 Humayun (1530–40 and 1555–56)
2.2 Akbar (1556-1605)
2.3 Jahangir (1605–25)
2.4 Shah Jahan (1628–59)
3 Later paintings
4 Artists
5 Mughal style today
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Origins[edit]
This art of painting developed as a blending of Persian and Indian ideas. There was already a Muslim tradition of miniature painting under the Turko-Afghan Sultanate of Delhi which the Mughals overthrew, and like the Mughals, and the very earliest of Central Asian invaders into the subcontinent, patronized foreign culture. Although the first surviving manuscripts are from Mandu in the years either side of 1500, there were very likely earlier ones which are either lost, or perhaps now attributed to southern Persia, as later manuscripts can be hard to distinguish from these by style alone, and some remain the subject of debate among specialists.[1] By the time of the Mughal invasion, the tradition had abandoned the high viewpoint typical of the Persian style, and adopted a more realistic style for animals and plants.[2]
No miniatures survive from the reign of the founder of the dynasty, Babur, nor does he mention commissioning any in his diaries, the Baburnama. Copies of this were illustrated by his descendents, Akbar in particular, with many portraits of the many new animals Babur encountered when he invaded India, which are carefully described.[3] However some surviving un-illustrated manuscripts may have been commissioned by him, and he comments on the style of some famous past Persian masters. Some older illustrated manuscripts have his seal on them; the Mughals came from a long line stretching back to Timur and were fully assimilated into Persianate culture, and expected to patronize literature and the arts.
Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Persian miniatures. Animals and plants were also more realistically shown. Although many classic works of Persian literature continued to be illustrated, as well as Indian works, the taste of the Mughal emperors for writing memoirs or diaries, begun by Babur, provided some of the most lavishly decorated texts, such as the Padshahnama genre of official histories. Subjects are rich in variety and include portraits, events and scenes from court life, wild life and hunting scenes, and illustrations of battles. The Persian tradition of richly decorated borders framing the central image was continued.
The style of the Mughal school developed within the royal atelier. Knowledge was primarily transmitted through familial and apprenticeship relationships, and the system of joint manuscript production which brought multiple artists together for single works.[4]
Development[edit]
Humayun (1530–40 and 1555–56)[edit]
Princes of the House of Timur, attributed to Abd as-Samad, c. 1550–55.
The Parrot addresses Khojasta, a scene from the Tutinama. Reign of Akbar.
Emperor Jahangir weighs Prince Khurram by Manohar Das, 1610-15. British Museum
The Emperor Shah Jahan standing on a globe, c. 1618-19 to 1629. Opaque Watercolor, ink and gold on paper. Freer Sackler Gallery F1939.49a
When the second Mughal emperor, Humayun was in exile in Tabriz in the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp I of Persia, he was exposed to Persian miniature painting, and commissioned at least one work there, an unusually large painting of Princes of the House of Timur, now in the British Museum. When Humayun returned to India, he brought with him two accomplished Persian artists Abd al-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali. His usurping brother Kamran Mirza had maintained a workshop in Kabul, which Humayan perhaps took over into his own. Humayan's major known commission was a Khamsa of Nizami with 36 illuminated pages, in which the different styles of the various artists are mostly still apparent.[5] Apart from the London painting, he also commissioned at least two miniatures showing himself with family members,[6] a type of subject that was rare in Persia but was to be common among the Mughals.[7]
Mughal painting developed and flourished during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Akbar (1556-1605)[edit]
During the reign of Humayun's son Akbar (r. 1556-1605), the imperial court, apart from being the centre of administrative authority to manage and rule the vast Mughal empire, also emerged as a centre of cultural excellence. Akbar inherited and expanded his father's library and atelier of court painters, and paid close personal attention to its output. He had studied painting in his youth under Abd as-Samad, though it is not clear how far these studies went.[8]
Between 1560 and 1566 the Tutinama ("Tales of a Parrot"), now in the Cleveland Museum of Art was illustrated, showing "the stylistic components of the imperial Mughal style at a formative stage".[9] Among other manuscripts, between 1562 and 1577 the atelier worked on an illustrated manuscript of the Hamzanama consisting of 1,400 canvas folios. Sa'di's masterpiece The Gulistan was produced at Fatehpur Sikri in 1582, a Darab Nama around 1585; the Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or. 12208) followed in the 1590s and Jami's Baharistan around 1595 in Lahore. As Mughal-derived painting spread to Hindu courts the texts illustrated included the Hindu epics including the Ramayana and the Mahabharata; themes with animal fables; individual portraits; and paintings on scores of different themes. Mughal style during this period continued to refine itself with elements of realism and naturalism coming to the fore. Between the years of 1570 to 1585 Akbar hired over a one hundred painters to practice Mughal style painting.[10]
Jahangir (1605–25)[edit]
Jahangir had an artistic inclination and during his reign Mughal painting developed further. Brushwork became finer and the colors lighter. Jahangir was also deeply influenced by European painting. During his reign he came into direct contact with the English Crown and was sent gifts of oil paintings, which included portraits of the King and Queen. He encouraged his royal atelier to take up the single point perspective favoured by European artists, unlike the flattened multi-layered style used in traditional miniatures. He particularly encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life, individual portraits, and studies of birds, flowers and animals. The Jahangirnama, written during his lifetime, which is an autobiographical account of Jahangir's reign, has several paintings, including some unusual subjects such as the union of a saint with a tigress, and fights between spiders.[citation needed]
Shah Jahan (1628–59)[edit]
During the reign of Shah Jahan (1628–58), Mughal paintings continued to develop, but they gradually became cold and rigid. Themes including musical parties; lovers, sometimes in intimate positions, on terraces and gardens; and ascetics gathered around a fire, abound in the Mughal paintings of this period.[11][citation needed]
Later paintings[edit]
Aurangzeb (1658-1707) did not actively encourage Mughal paintings, but as this art form had gathered momentum and had a number of patrons, Mughal paintings continued to survive, but the decline had set in. Some sources however note that a few of the best Mughal paintings were made for Aurangzeb, speculating that they believed that he was about to close the workshops and thus exceeded themselves in his behalf.[12] There was a brief revival during the reign of Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' (1719–48), but by the time of Shah Alam II (1759–1806), the art of Mughal painting had lost its glory. By that time, other schools of Indian painting had developed, including, in the royal courts of the Rajput kingdoms of Rajputana, Rajput painting and in the cities ruled by the British East India Company, the Company style under Western influence. Late Mughal style often shows increased use of perspective and recession under Western influence.
Artists[edit]
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A durbar scene with the newly crowned Emperor Aurangzeb in his golden throne. Though he did not encourage Mughal painting, some of the best work was done during in his reign.
The Persian master artists Abd al-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who had accompanied Humayun to India in the 16th century, were in charge of the imperial atelier during the formative stages of Mughal painting. Many artists worked on large commissions, the majority of them apparently Hindu, to judge by the names recorded. Mughal painting flourished during the late 16th and early 17th centuries with spectacular works of art by master artists such as Basawan, Lal, Daswanth,[13] and Miskin. Another influence on the evolution of style during Akbar's reign was Kesu Das, who understood and developed "European techniques of rendering space and volume".[14]
Govardhan was a noted painter during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
The sub-imperial school of Mughal painting included artists such as Mushfiq, Kamal, and Fazl.
During the first half of the 18th century, many Mughal-trained artists left the imperial workshop to work at Rajput courts. These include artists such as Bhawanidas and his son Dalchand.
Mughal painting generally involved a group of artists, one to decide the composition, the second to actually paint, and the third to focus on portraiture, executing individual faces.[15]
Mughal style today[edit]
Mughal-style miniature paintings are still being created today by a small number of artists in Lahore concentrated mainly in the National College of Arts. Although many of these miniatures are skillful copies of the originals, some artists have produced contemporary works using classic methods with, at times, remarkable artistic effect.
The skills needed to produce these modern versions of Mughal miniatures are still passed on from generation to generation, although many artisans also employ dozens of workers, often painting under trying working conditions, to produce works sold under the signature of their modern masters.
Gallery[edit]
Portrait of Akbar
Portrait of Bahadur Shah
A noble lady, Mughal dynasty, India. 17th century. Color and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art F1907.219
A Mughal prince and ladies in a garden
Nur Jahan
Shah Jahan on a terrace holding a pendant set with his portrait
Daud Khan Karrani receives a Kaftan of honor from Munim Khan
A Mughal tournament
Victory of Ali Quli Khan on the river Gomti-Akbarnama, 1561
Mir Sayyid Ali's depiction of a young scholar in the Mughal Empire, reading and writing a commentary on the Quran, 1559.
The scribe and painter of the Khamsa of Nizami manuscript for Akbar
Battle scene from the Hamzanama of Akbar, 1570
The Submission of the rebel brothers Ali Quli and Bahadur Khan. Akbarnama, 1561[16]
Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I pursuing another elephant across a collapsing bridge of boats (right), 1561
Pir Muhammad Drowns While Crossing the Narbada-Akbarnama, 1562
Akbar receiving his sons at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbarnama, 1573
Lion at rest Met
A young woman playing a Veena to a parakeet, a symbol of her absent lover. 18th-century painting in the provincial Mughal style of Bengal
Female performer with a tanpura, 18th century. Color and gold on paper. Freer Gallery of Art F1907.195
Ascetic Seated on Leopard's Skin, late 18th century
Mughal Ganjifa Playing Cards, Early 19th century, with miniature paintings - courtesy of the Wovensouls collection
See also[edit]
Persian miniature
Ottoman miniature
Indian painting
Tanjore painting
Rajput painting
Madhubani painting
Mushfiq, a sub-imperial Mughal painter
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Titley, 161-166
Jump up ^ Titley, 161
Jump up ^ Titley, 187
Jump up ^ Sarafan, Greg (6 November 2011). "Artistic Stylistic Transmission in the Royal Mughal Atelier". Sensible Reason.
Jump up ^ Grove
Jump up ^ Grove
Jump up ^ Beach, 58
Jump up ^ Beach, 49
Jump up ^ Grove
Jump up ^ Eastman
Jump up ^ Britannica
Jump up ^ Commentary by Stuart Cary Welch
Jump up ^ Diamind, Maurice. "Mughal Painting Under Akbar the Great" Metropolitan Museum of Art
Jump up ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 380. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
Jump up ^ Britannica
Jump up ^ Basawan & Chitra (c.1590-95). "The Submission of the rebel brothers Ali Quli and Bahadur Khan-Akbarnama". Akbarnama. Check date values in: |date= (help)
References[edit]
Beach, Milo Cleveland, Early Mughal painting, Harvard University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-674-22185-0, ISBN 978-0-674-22185-7
Eastman, Alvan C. "Mughal painting." College Art Association . 3.2 (1993): 36. Web. 30 Sep. 2013.
"Grove", Oxford Art Online, "Indian sub., §VI, 4(i): Mughal ptg styles, 16th–19th centuries", restricted access.
"Mughal Painting." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Academic Online Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013.Web. 30 Sep 2013.
Titley, Norah M., Persian Miniature Painting, and its Influence on the Art of Turkey and India, 1983, University of Texas Press, 0292764847
Sarafan, Greg, "Artistic Stylistic Transmission in the Royal Mughal Atelier", Sensible Reason, LLC, 2007, SensibleReason.com
Further reading[edit]
Kossak, Steven. (1997). Indian court painting, 16th-19th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870997831
Painting for the Mughal Emperor (The Art of the Book 1560-1660) by Susan Stronge (ISBN 0-8109-6596-8)
Fiction in Mughal Miniature Painting by Prof. P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet
Painting the Mughal Experience by Som Prakash Verma, 2005 (ISBN 0-19-566756-5)
Chitra, Die Tradition der Miniaturmalerei in Rajasthan by K.D. Christof & Renate Haass, 1999 (ISBN 978-3-89754-231-0)
Welch, Stuart Cary; et al. (1987). The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870994999.
Welch, Stuart Cary (1985). India: art and culture, 1300-1900. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780944142134.
Artistic Stylistic Transmission in the Royal Mughal Atelier by Greg Sarafan, Esq., 2007
External links[edit]
Indian Court Painting, 16th-19th Century from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
National Museum, Delhi - Mughal paintings
San Diego Museum of Art
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2017 SEC Championship Game
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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2017 SEC Championship Game
Georgia Bulldogs Auburn Tigers
(11–1) (10–2)
28 7
Head coach:
Kirby Smart Head coach:
Gus Malzahn
AP Coaches CFP
6 6 6
AP Coaches CFP
4 4 2
1
2
3
4
Total
Georgia 0 10 3 15 28
Auburn 7 0 0 0 7
Date
December 2, 2017
Season
2017
Stadium
Mercedes-Benz Stadium
Location
Atlanta, Georgia
MVP
Roquan Smith[1]
Favorite
Georgia by 1.5[2]
Referee
John McDaid
Attendance
76,534
United States TV coverage
Network
CBS, Westwood One, SEC Radio
Announcers
Brad Nessler, Gary Danielson and Allie LaForce (CBS)
Ryan Radtke, Derek Rackley and Olivia Harlan (Westwood One)
Dave Neal, David Archer and David Crane (SEC Radio)
SEC Championship Game
< 2016 2018 >
2017 SEC football standings
v
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Conf
Overall
Team
W
L
W
L
East Division
No. 3 Georgia xy$^ 7 – 1 12 – 1
South Carolina 5 – 3 8 – 4
Kentucky 4 – 4 7 – 5
Missouri 4 – 4 7 – 5
Florida 3 – 5 4 – 7
Vanderbilt 1 – 7 5 – 7
Tennessee 0 – 8 4 – 8
West Division
No. 7 Auburn xy 7 – 1 10 – 3
No. 4 Alabama x 7 – 1 11 – 1
No. 16 LSU 6 – 2 9 – 3
No. 24 Mississippi State 4 – 4 8 – 4
Texas A&M 4 – 4 7 – 5
Ole Miss * 3 – 5 6 – 6
Arkansas 1 – 7 4 – 8
Championship: Georgia 28, Auburn 7
$ – Conference champion
x – Division champion/co-champions
y – Championship game participant
* – Ineligible for post-season play due to self-imposed ban
As of December 18, 2017; Rankings from AP Poll
The 2017 SEC Championship Game was played on December 2, 2017 at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia, and determined the 2017 football champion of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). This was the first SEC Conference football championship at the Mercedes-Benz Stadium. The game featured the Eastern Division Champion, SEC Champion Georgia Bulldogs against the Western Division Champion, the 2017 Auburn Tigers football team, in a rematch of the their rivalry game, which was won by Auburn by a score of 40-17, on November 11, 2017. This game marked the first time that any permanent cross division rivals faced off in the SEC Championship Game. This was also the first SEC Championship Game with new SEC on CBS announcer Brad Nessler replacing Verne Lundquist, who retired in 2016. The game was televised nationally by CBS.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 2016 season
2 Teams
3 Game summary
3.1 Scoring summary
3.2 Statistics
4 See Also
5 References
2016 season[edit]
In the 2016 SEC Championship Game, the western division champion Alabama defeated the eastern division champion Florida 54–16 in a rematch of the 2015 SEC Championship Game. It was the last SEC title game to be held at the Georgia Dome, which was demolished shortly before the 2017 title game, following the opening of Mercedes-Benz Stadium.
Teams[edit]
Auburn
The Auburn Tigers clinched the SEC Western Divison and a spot in the SEC Championship Game after defeating rival Alabama in the final game of the regular season. The Tigers got off to a slow start, allowing 11 sacks in a 14–6 loss at ACC foe and #3 ranked Clemson. However, the Tigers rebounded by winning 4 straight games, all blowouts, and were ranked #10 going into a game at LSU, in which Auburn was heavily favored. Auburn built a 20–0 lead in the first half, only to see it slip away in the second half as the Auburn Tigers fell to LSU 27–23. The Tigers then defeated conference foes Arkansas and Texas A&M in blowouts before facing AP ranked #2 Georgia on November 11, by which point the Tigers had climbed back up to #10 in the AP Poll. The Tigers dominated the Bulldogs 40–17, and moved up to #6 in the polls as a result. After a tune-up game against Louisiana–Monroe, the #6 Tigers faced #1 ranked Alabama, with the winner going to the SEC Championship. It was the Tigers who prevailed 26–14, setting up a rematch against Georgia.
Georgia
The Bulldogs clinched the SEC Eastern Division after beating rival South Carolina on November 4. It was the earliest a spot in the SEC Championship Game had been clinched since 2009. The Bulldogs had a great regular season, going 11–1. In the second game of the year, the Bulldogs defeated Notre Dame 20–19 on a late field goal. Later in September, they defeated #17 ranked Mississippi State 31–3, solidifying themselves as title contenders. After victories over lesser conference foes, the Bulldogs had a chance to clinch the SEC East with a victory over Florida. They dominated the Gators 42–7. After a win over South Carolina, the Bulldogs were ranked #1 in the CFP poll and #2 in the AP Poll. However, that week they were defeated handily by Auburn for their first loss of the year. The Bulldogs bounced back and defeated Kentucky and rival Georgia Tech to set up a rematch with Auburn.
Game summary[edit]
Georgia and Auburn met in the SEC Championship Game, the first ever in the Mercedes-Benz Stadium, for a rematch of the regular-season contest. Auburn scored an early touchdown on their first drive of the game, going 75 yards on 10 plays. The Auburn defense forced Georgia to punt on their first drive after 7 plays. Both teams would go three-and-out on their next drives. Early into the second quarter, Auburn drove into the red zone before Jarrett Stidham fumbled the ball as he was sacked by Davin Bellamy. Roquan Smith recovered the fumble, and Georgia subsequently scored their first touchdown of the game on a 7 play, 83-yard drive. Auburn was forced to go three-and-out afterwards, and Georgia responded with a 27-yard field goal to take their first lead of the game. Neither team would score for the remainder of the first half.
Georgia received the ball at the beginning of the first half, but they were forced to punt after 5 plays. Auburn would once again march into the red zone, but this time, Daniel Carlson's 31-yard field goal attempt was blocked by DaQuan Hawkins-Muckle and recovered by Dominick Sanders. Both teams traded punts on their next drives. Late into the third quarter, Georgia extended their lead to 13-7 with a 35-yard field goal. On Auburn's next drive, Lorenzo Carter forced Kerryon Johnson to fumble the ball, and Roquan Smith again recovered the fumble. Georgia would subsequently score a touchdown on a 4-play, 39-yard drive, capped off by a successful 2-point conversion to put Georgia up 21-7. After the Georgia defense forced Auburn to go three-and-out on their next drive, D'Andre Swift would score on a 64-yard touchdown run to put Georgia up 28-7, the final score of the game.
Scoring summary[edit]
[hide]Scoring summary
Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score
Plays
Yards
TOP
UGA
AUB
1 9:54 10 75 5:06 AUB Nate Craig-Myers 6-yard touchdown reception from Jarrett Stidham, Daniel Carlson kick good 0 7
2 10:14 7 83 2:50 UGA Isaac Nauta 2-yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 7 7
2 4:59 8 58 3:34 UGA 27-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 10 7
3 1:26 7 62 3:22 UGA 35-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 13 7
4 13:06 4 39 1:43 UGA Terry Godwin 7-yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm, 2-point Jake Fromm pass complete to Terry Godwin 21 7
4 10:34 3 75 1:38 UGA D'Andre Swift 64-yard touchdown run, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 28 7
"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
28
7
Statistics[edit]
Statistics
UGA
AUB
First Downs 20 18
Total offense 421 259
Rushing yards–TD 238–1 114–0
Passing yards–TD 183–2 145–1
Passing: Comp–Att–Int 16–22–0 16–32–0
Fumbles: Number–Lost 1–0 2–2
Penalties: Number–Yards 7–91 5–39
Punts: Average Yardage 44.0 40.7
Punt returns-Yards: 1-3 2-14
Kickoff returns-Yards: 0-0 1-20
Sacks: Number–Yards 3-24 2-13
Field Goals: Good–Att 2–2 0–0
Points off turnovers 14 0
Time of Possession 33:02 26:58
See Also[edit]
Deep South's Oldest Rivalry
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Online Athens
Jump up ^ http://www.vegasinsider.com/college-football/odds/las-vegas/
Jump up ^ Kalland, Robbie. "2017 SEC Schedule find out who your team plays and when". CBS Sports.com. Retrieved September 14, 2016.
[show]
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Commercial Revolution
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The Commercial Revolution was a period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from approximately the late 13th century until the early 18th century. It was succeeded in the mid-18th century by the Industrial Revolution. Beginning with the Crusades, Europeans rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare in Europe. This development created a new desire for trade, and trade expanded in the second half of the Middle Ages. Newly forming European states, through voyages of discovery, were looking for alternative trade routes in the 15th and 16th centuries, which allowed the European powers to build vast, new international trade networks. Nations also sought and found new sources of wealth. The Commercial Revolution is marked by an increase in general commerce, and in the growth of financial services such as banking, insurance, and investing.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins of the term
2 Time frame
3 Factors of Commercial Revolution
3.1 Geopolitical factors
3.2 Monetary factors
3.3 Technological factors
3.4 Important people
4 Key Features
4.1 Inflation
4.2 Banks
4.3 Managing risk
4.3.1 Joint stock companies and stock exchanges
4.3.2 Insurance companies
4.4 Economic theory
4.4.1 Mercantilism
5 Colonialism
5.1 Trade monopolies
5.2 Triangular trade
6 Law
7 Effects
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
Origins of the term[edit]
The term itself was coined in the middle of the 20th century, by economic historian Roberto Sabatino Lopez,[1] to shift focus away from the English Industrial Revolution.[2] In his best-known book, The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages (1971, with numerous reprints), Lopez argued that the key contribution of the medieval period to European history was the creation of a commercial economy, centered at first in the Italo-Byzantine eastern Mediterranean, but eventually extending to the Italian city-states and over the rest of Europe.
Time frame[edit]
The Commercial Revolution ran from approximately the late 13th century through the 18th century,[3] with Walt Whitman Rostow saying the beginning is "arbitrarily" 1488, the year the first European sailed around the Cape of Good Hope.[4] Most historians, including scholars such as Angeliki Laiou, Robert S. Lopez, Irving W. Raymond, and Peter Spufford indicate that there was a commercial revolution of the 12th-13th centuries, or that it began at this point, rather than later.[5][6][7][8]
Factors of Commercial Revolution[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Renaissance of the 12th century.
For more details on this topic, see Age of Discovery.
Portuguese discoveries and explorations from 1415 to 1543: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean (in blue); territories of the Portuguese Empire under the rule of King John III (1521–1557) (in green).
The Commercial Revolution began in the late 12th century and lasted throughout the 13th century. The deterioration of the climate that brought about the end of the medieval warm period (or medieval weather anomaly) caused an economic decline at the beginning of the 14th century (see Great Famine). However, demographic expansion continued until the arrival of the Black Death epidemic in 1347, when ca. 50% of the European population was killed by the plague. The economic effects of a labor shortage actually caused wages to rise, while agricultural yields were once again able to support a diminished population. By the beginning of the 15th century, the economic expansion associated with the Commercial Revolution in earlier centuries returned in full force, aided by improvements in navigation and cartography.
Geopolitical, monetary, and technological factors drove the Age of Discovery. During this period (1450-17th century), the European economic center shifted from the Islamic Mediterranean to Western Europe (Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and to some extent England). This shift was caused by the successful circumnavigation of Africa, which opened up sea-trade with the east: after Portugal's Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed in Calicut, India in May 1498, a new path of eastern trade was possible ending the monopoly of the Ottoman Turks and their European allies, the Italian city-states.[9] The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade.[9] Following this, Portugal became the controlling state for trade between east and west, followed later by the Dutch city of Antwerp. Direct maritime trade between Europe and China started in the 16th century, after the Portuguese established the settlement of Goa, India in December 1510, and thereafter that of Macau in southern China in 1557. Since the English came late to the transatlantic trade,[10] their commercial revolution was later as well.
Geopolitical factors[edit]
In 1453, the Ottoman Turks took over Constantinople, which cut off (or significantly increased the cost of) overland trade routes to the Far East,[11] so alternative routes had to be found. English laws were changed to benefit the navy, but had commercial implications in terms of farming. These laws also contributed to the demise of the Hanseatic League, which traded in northern Europe.[12] Because of the Reconquista, the Spanish had a warrior culture ready to conquer still more people and places, so Spain was perfectly positioned to develop their vast overseas empire.[13] Rivalry between the European powers produced intense competition for the creation of colonial empires, and fueled the rush to sail out of Europe.[14]
Monetary factors[edit]
The need for silver coinage also affected the desire for expanded exploration as silver and gold were spent for trade to the Middle and Far East. The Europeans had a constant deficit in that silver and gold coin only went one way: out of Europe, spent on the very type of trade that they were now cut off from by the Ottomans.
Another issue was that European mines were exhausted of silver ore and gold. What ore remained was too deep to recover, as water would fill the mine, and technology was not sufficiently advanced enough to successfully remove the water to get to the ore or gold.[15]
A second argument is that trade during the youth of the Commercial Revolution blossomed not due to explorations for bullion (gold and silver coinings) but due to a new found faith in gold coinage. Italian city-states such as Genoa and Florence (where the first gold coins began to be minted in 1252) and kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Sicily routinely received gold through such trading partners as Tunisia and Senegal.[16] A new, stable and universally accepted coinage that was both compatible with traditional European coinage systems and serviced the increased demand for currency to facilitate trade made it even more lucrative to carry out trade with the rest of the world.
Technological factors[edit]
In 1570 (May 20) Gilles Coppens de Diest at Antwerp published 53 maps created by Abraham Ortelius under the title Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, considered the "first modern atlas". Latin editions, besides Dutch, French and German editions appeared before the end of 1572; the atlas continued to be in demand till about 1612. This is the world map from this atlas.
From the 16th to 18th centuries, Europeans made remarkable maritime innovations. These innovations enabled them to expand overseas and set up colonies, most notably during the 16th and 17th centuries. They developed new sail arrangements for ships, skeleton-based shipbuilding,[17] the Western “galea” (at the end of the 11th century), sophisticated navigational instruments, and detailed charts and maps. After Isaac Newton published the Principia, navigation was transformed, because sailors could predict the motion of the moon and other celestial objects using Newton's theories of motion.[18] Starting in 1670, the entire world was measured using essentially modern latitude instruments. In 1676, the British Parliament declared that navigation was the greatest scientific problem of the age and in 1714 offered a substantial financial prize for the solution to finding longitude. This spurred the development of the marine chronometer, the lunar distance method and the invention of the octant after 1730.[19] By the late 18th century, navigators replaced their prior instruments with octants and sextants.
Important people[edit]
Significant contributors to European exploration include Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, who was the first of the Europeans to venture out into the Atlantic Ocean, in 1420. Others are Bartolomeu Dias, who first rounded the Cape of Good Hope; Vasco da Gama, who sailed directly to India from Portugal; Ferdinand Magellan, the first to circumnavigate the Earth; Christopher Columbus, who significantly encountered the Americas; Jacques Cartier, who sailed for France, looking for the Northwest Passage;[20] and others.
Key Features[edit]
The economy of the Roman Empire had been based on money, but after the Empire's fall, money became scarce; power and wealth became strictly land based, and local fiefs were self-sufficient. Because trade was dangerous and expensive, there were not many traders, and not much trade. The scarcity of money did not help;[21] however, the European economic system had begun to change in the 14th century, partially as a result of the Black Death, and the Crusades.[22]
Banks, stock exchanges, and insurance became ways to manage the risk involved in the renewed trade. New laws came into being.[clarification needed] Travel became safer as nations developed. Economic theories[clarification needed] began to develop in light of all of the new trading activity. The increase in the availability of money led to the emergence of a new economic system, and new problems to go with it.[clarification needed] The Commercial Revolution is also marked by the formalization of pre-existing, informal methods of dealing with trade and commerce.
Inflation[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Price revolution.
Potosí (Bolivia) silver 8 reales, Carlos III, 1768
Spanish gold doubloon stamped as minted in 1798
Spain legally amassed approximately 180 tons of gold and 8200 tons of silver through its endeavors in the New World, and another unknown amount through smuggling,[23] spending this money to finance wars and the arts. The spent silver, suddenly being spread throughout a previously cash starved Europe, caused widespread inflation.[24] The inflation was worsened by a growing population but a static production level, low employee salaries and a rising cost of living. This problem, combined with underpopulation (caused by the Black Death), affected the system of agriculture. The landholding aristocracy suffered under the inflation, since they depended on paying small, fixed wages to peasant tenants that were becoming able to demand higher wages.[25] The aristocracy made failed attempts to counteract this situation by creating short-term leases of their lands to allow periodic revaluation of rent. The manorial system (manor system of lord and peasant tenant) eventually vanished, and the landholding aristocrats were forced to sell pieces of their land in order to maintain their style of living.[26] Such sales attracted the rich bourgeois (from the French word referring to this dominant class, emerging with commerce), who wanted to buy land and thereby increase their social status. Former "common lands" were fenced by the landed bourgeois, a process known as "enclosure" which increased the efficiency of raising livestock (mainly sheep's wool for the textile industry). This "enclosure" forced the peasants out of rural areas and into the cities, resulting in urbanization and eventually the industrial revolution.
On the other hand, the increase in the availability of silver coin allowed for commerce to expand in numerous ways. Inflation was not all bad.[27]
Banks[edit]
For more details on this topic, see History of banking.
The Moneylender and his Wife (1514)
Oil on panel, 71 x 68 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris
Various legal and religious developments in the late Middle Ages allowed for development of the modern banking system at the beginning of the 16th century. Interest was allowed to be charged, and profits generated from holding other people's money.
Banks in the Italian Peninsula had great difficulty operating at the end of the 14th century, for lack of silver and gold coin.[28] Nevertheless, by the later 16th century, enough bullion was available that many more people could keep a small amount hoarded and used as capital.[29]
In response to this extra available money, northern European banking interests came along; among them was the Fugger family. The Fuggers were originally mine owners, but soon became involved in banking, charging interest, and other financial activities. They dealt with everyone, from small-time individuals, to the highest nobility. Their banks even loaned to the emperors and kings, eventually going bankrupt when their clients defaulted.[30] This family, and other individuals, used Italian methods which outpaced the Hanseatic League's ability to keep up with the changes occurring in northern Europe.[31]
Antwerp had one of the first money exchanges in Europe, a Bourse, where people could change currency. After the Siege of Antwerp (1584-1585), the majority of business transactions were moved to Amsterdam. The Bank of Amsterdam, following the example of a private Stockholm corporation, began issuing paper money to lessen the difficulty of trade, replacing metal (coin and bullion) in exchanges. In 1609 the Amsterdamsche Wisselbank (Amsterdam Exchange Bank) was founded which made Amsterdam the financial center of the world until the Industrial Revolution. In a notable example of crossover between stock companies and banks, the Bank of England, which opened in 1694, was a joint-stock company.[32]
Banking offices were usually located near centers of trade, and in the late 17th century, the largest centers for commerce were the ports of Amsterdam, London, and Hamburg. Individuals could participate in the lucrative East India trade by purchasing bills of credit from these banks, but the price they received for commodities was dependent on the ships returning (which often did not happen on time) and on the cargo they carried (which often was not according to plan). The commodities market was very volatile for this reason, and also because of the many wars that led to cargo seizures and loss of ships.
Managing risk[edit]
Trade in this period was a risky business: war, weather, and other uncertainties often kept merchants from making a profit, and frequently an entire cargo would disappear all together. To mitigate this risk, the wealthy got together to share the risk through stock: people would own shares of a venture, so that if there was a loss, it would not be an all consuming loss costing the individual investor everything in one transaction.[33]
Other ways of dealing with the risk and expense associated with all of the new trade activity include insurance and joint stock companies which were created as formal institutions. People had been informally sharing risk for hundreds of years, but the formal ways they were now sharing risk was new.[34]
Even though the ruling classes would not often directly assist in trade endeavors, and individuals were unequal to the task,[35] rulers such as Henry VIII of England established a permanent Royal Navy, with the intention of reducing piracy, and protecting English shipping.[36]
Joint stock companies and stock exchanges[edit]
Plan of the London Royal Exchange in 1760
Stock exchanges were developed as the volume of stock transactions increased. The London Royal Exchange established in 1565 first developed as a securities market, though by 1801 it had become a stock exchange.[34]
Historian Fernand Braudel suggests that in Cairo in the 11th-century Muslim and Jewish merchants had already set up every form of trade association and had knowledge of every method of credit and payment, disproving the belief that these were invented later by Italians. In 12th century France the courratiers de change were concerned with managing and regulating the debts of agricultural communities on behalf of the banks. Because these men also traded with debts, they could be called the first brokers. In late 13th century Bruges commodity traders gathered inside the house of a man called Van der Beurse, and in 1309 they became the "Bruges Beurse", institutionalizing what had been, until then, an informal meeting. The idea quickly spread around Flanders and neighboring counties and "Beurzen" soon opened in Ghent and Amsterdam.[37]
"In the middle of the 13th century Venetian bankers began to trade in government securities. In 1351 the Venetian government outlawed spreading rumors intended to lower the price of government funds."[37] Bankers in Pisa, Verona, Genoa and Florence also began trading in government securities during the 14th century. This practice was only possible, because these independent city states were not ruled by a duke but a council of influential citizens. The Dutch later started joint stock companies, which let shareholders invest in business ventures and get a share of their profits - or losses. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company issued the first shares on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. It was the first company to issue stocks and bonds.[38]
The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (or Amsterdam Beurs) is also said to have been the first stock exchange to introduce continuous trade in the early 17th century. The Dutch "pioneered short selling, option trading, debt-equity swaps, merchant banking, unit trusts and other speculative instruments, much as we know them."[39]
Insurance companies[edit]
A sample insurance contract. Documents such as this helped traders survive losses.
Insurance companies were another way to mitigate risk. Insurance in one form or another has been around as far back as there are records. What differed about insurance going into the 16th and 17th centuries was that these informal mechanisms became formalized.
Lloyd's of London came into being in 1688 in English coffee shops that catered to sailors, traders, and others involved in trade. Interestingly, Lloyd's coffeehouse published a newspaper, which gave news from various parts of the world, and helped the underwriters of the insurance at the coffeehouse to determine the risk.[40] This innovation was one of many that allowed for the categorization of risk. Another innovation was the use of ship catalogs and classifications.
Other forms of insurance began to appear as well. After the Great Fire of London, Nicholas Barbon began to sell fire insurance in 1667.[41]
Laws were changed to deal with insurance issues, such as l'Ordonnance de la Marine (by Colbert in 1681).[42]
Economic theory[edit]
For more details on this topic, see History of Economic Thought.
As the economy grew through the Commercial Revolution, so did attempts to understand and influence it. Economic theory as a separate subject of its own came into being as the stresses of the new global order brought about two opposing theories of how a nation accumulates wealth: mercantilistic and free-trade policies. Mercantilism inflamed the growing hostilities between the increasingly centralized European powers as the accumulation of precious metals by governments was seen as important to the prestige and power of a modern nation. This involvement in accumulating gold and silver (among other things) became important in the development of the nation-state. Governments' involvement in trade affected the nobility of western European nations, because increased wealth by non-nobles threatened the nobility's place in society.
Mercantilism[edit]
Main article: Mercantilism
Mercantilism is an economic policy that emphasizes the goal of each nation was to gain as much money as possible by whatever means. The belief was that the richer the nation the more powerful it was. The idea behind it was an outgrowth of the guild system, as guilds were monopolistic enterprises: they regulated trade within towns by controlling the creation of goods, regulated themselves through their system of apprenticeship, kept outside traders from selling goods in the town, and forced outsiders to pay tolls and other types of payments for the privilege of doing business in that town.[21] Laws were passed to enforce this concept, such as the English Navigation Acts, and edicts issued by French Minister of Finance Jean-Baptiste Colbert.
Proponents of mercantilism included Thomas Mun, Philipp von Hörnigk, and others.
An early critic of mercantilism was Nicholas Barbon.
Colonialism[edit]
Mercantilism was a significant driver of Colonialism, as, according to the theory, the colony existed for the benefit of the mother country. This assumption meant that colonies were prohibited from engaging in their own independent commerce, and therefore competing with the mother country. Colonies were established to provide customers, raw materials, and investment opportunities. Other important goals of colonialism were European political considerations, and religious fervor.[21] The administration of the colonies established by the Europeans mirrored in some part the mother country. Spain's encomienda system of forced labor in Latin America and the Philippines was an extension of the Spanish feudal system, with the granting of territory as part of a royal extension of power. After the Spanish acquisition of the Philippines, the pace of exchange between China and the West accelerated dramatically. Manila galleons brought in far more silver to China than the Silk Road. The Qing government attempted to limit contact with the outside world to a minimum.[43] The Qing only allowed trade through the port of Canton,[44] what is now Guangzhou. Severe red-tape and licensed monopolies were set up to restrict the flow of trade, resulting in high retail prices for imported goods and limited demand. Spain began to sell opium, along with New World products such as tobacco and maize, to the Chinese in order to prevent a trade deficit.
The English, for their part, used the British East India Company as an agent of the crown, which was expected to govern and protect the people and commerce of the colony.[21] The English also developed a commercial empire in North America, India, and Australia, creating colonies, with the intention of making a profit.[45]
As a result of high demand for tea, silk, and porcelain in Britain and the low demand for British commodities in China, Britain had a large trade deficit with China and had to pay for these goods with silver. Britain began illegally exporting opium to China from British India in the 18th century to counter its deficit. The opium trade took off rapidly, and the flow of silver began to reverse. The Yongzheng Emperor prohibited the sale and smoking of opium in 1729 because of the large number of addicts.
The French followed the English to the New World, and settled Quebec in 1608. They did not populate North America as much as the English did, as they did not allow the Huguenots to travel to the New World. In addition, the heavy governmental regulations placed on trade in France discouraged settlement.
The Portuguese Empire was created through commerce bases in South America, Africa, India, and across southeast Asia.
Trade monopolies[edit]
Governments became involved in trade directly through the granting of royal trade monopolies. For example, Walter Raleigh had been granted a trade monopoly by Queen Elizabeth, for the export of broadcloth and wine.[46] Ironically, competition between colonial powers led to their granting of trade monopolies to the East India Companies.
Triangular trade[edit]
A triangular trade occurred in this period: between Africa, North America, and England; and it worked in the following way: Slaves came from Africa, and went to the Americas; raw materials came from the Americas and went to Europe; from there, finished goods came from Europe and were sold back to the Americas at a much higher price.
Because of the massive die-off of the indigenous people, the Atlantic Slave Trade was established to import the labor required for the extraction of resources (such as gold and silver) and farming.
Law[edit]
Laws began to change to deal with commerce, both internationally, and locally within individual countries.
In France, for example, the Ordinance of Marine of Louis XIV was published under the auspices of Colbert in 1691, and was the first complete code of maritime and commercial law; and "when we consider the originality and extent of the design and the ability with which it is executed, we shall not hesitate to admit that it deserves to be ranked among the noblest works that legislative genius and learning have ever accomplished." [47]
In England, the Navigation Acts were among the British effort to regulate trade.
Effects[edit]
The Commercial Revolution, coupled with other changes in the Early Modern Period, had dramatic effects on the globe. Christopher Columbus and the conquistadors, through their travels, were indirectly responsible for the massive depopulation of South America. They were directly responsible for destroying the civilizations of the Inca, Aztec, and Maya in their quest to build the Spanish Empire. Other Europeans similarly affected the peoples of North America as well.
An equally important consequence of the Commercial Revolution was the Columbian Exchange. Plants and animals moved throughout the world due to human movements. For example, Yellow fever, previously unknown in North and South America, was imported through water that ships took on in Africa.[48] Cocoa (chocolate), coffee, maize, cassava, and potatoes moved from one hemisphere to the other.
For more than 2000 years, the Mediterranean Sea had been the focus of European trade with other parts of the world. After 1492, this focus shifted to the Atlantic Ocean by routes south around the Cape of Good Hope, and by trans-Atlantic trade.
Another important change was the increase in population. Better food and more wealth allowed for larger families. The migration of peoples from Europe to the Americas allowed for European populations to increase as well. Population growth provided the expanding labor force needed for industrialization.
Another important outcome of Europe's commercial revolution was a foundation of wealth needed for the industrial revolution.[49] Economic prosperity financed new forms of cultural expression during this period.
See also[edit]
List of largest European cities in history
Mississippi Company
Proto-globalization
Putting-out system
South Sea Company
Treaty of Tordesillas
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert Lopez (1976). The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages. [New York]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 56–147.
Jump up ^ Ejvind Damsgaard Hansen (2001). European Economic History. [Copenhagen]: Copenhagen Business School Press. p. 47. ISBN 87-630-0017-2.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, David Kevin (2004). The basics of economics. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-313-32520-5.
Jump up ^ Whitman Rostow, Walt (1975). How it all began : origins of the modern economy. London: Methuen. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-416-55930-9.
Jump up ^ Spufford, Peter. Money and its Use in Medieval Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-521-37590-0.
Jump up ^ Lopez, Robert (1955). Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World. Columbia University Press. pp. 9, 50, 69, passim. ISBN 978-0-231-12356-3.
Jump up ^ Kathryn Reyerson (1999). "Commerce and Communications" in David Abulafia ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 5. [Cambridge, UK]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 50–1.
Jump up ^ Angeliki Laiou (1997). "Byzantium and the Commercial Revolution" in G. Arnaldi ed., Europa medievale e mondo bizantino. [Rome, Italy]: Istituto Storico per il Medioevo, Studi Storici 40. pp. 239–53.
^ Jump up to: a b Gama, Vasco da. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press.
Jump up ^ Fisk, John (1900). Old Virginia and Her Neighbours. Houton, Mifflin, and Company. p. 14.
Jump up ^ Rankin, Rebecca B., Cleveland Rodgers (1948). "Chapter 1". New York: the World's Capital City, Its Development and Contributions to Progress. Harper. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Cunningham, William (1892). The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times. University Press. p. 26.
Jump up ^ Weatherford, J. McIver (1988). Indian givers: how the Indians of the Americas transformed the world. New York: Fawcett Columbine. p. 231. ISBN 0-449-90496-2.
Jump up ^ Diamond, Jared M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
Jump up ^ Cowen, Richard. "Exploiting the Earth". Retrieved 2007-10-17.
Jump up ^ Lopez, Robert S. (1956). "Back to Gold, 1252". The Economic History Review. 9 (2): 219–240. doi:10.2307/2591743.
Jump up ^ Marcus Rautman (2006). Daily life in the Byzantine Empire. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-313-32437-9.
Jump up ^ The Family Magazine. Redfield & Lindsay. 1838. p. 436.
Jump up ^ Haven, Kendall F. (2006). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time. Littleton, Colo: Libraries Unlimited. p. 69. ISBN 1-59158-264-4.
Jump up ^ Pope, Joseph (1890). Jacques Cartier, his life and voyages. Printed by A.S. Woodburn. p. 49.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Webster, Hutton (1919). Medieval and Modern History. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Archibald (January 1988). Nomads and Crusaders: AD 1000-1368. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20652-7.
Jump up ^ Walton, Timothy R. (1994). The Spanish Treasure Fleets. Pineapple Press (FL). p. 85. ISBN 1-56164-049-2.
Jump up ^ Tracy, James D. (1994). Handbook of European History 1400-1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 655. ISBN 90-04-09762-7.
Jump up ^ Cunningham, William (1892). The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times. University Press. p. 15.
Jump up ^ Danbom, David B. (2006). Born in the Country: A History of Rural America (Revisiting Rural America). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-8018-8459-4.
Jump up ^ Weatherford, J. McIver (1988). Indian givers: how the Indians of the Americas transformed the world. New York: Fawcett Columbine. p. 15. ISBN 0-449-90496-2.
Jump up ^ Spufford, Peter (1993). Money and its Use in Medieval Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 349. ISBN 0-521-37590-8.
Jump up ^ Cunningham, William (1892). The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times. University Press. p. 14.
Jump up ^ Brechin, Gray A. (1999). Imperial San Francisco: urban power, earthly ruin. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22902-9.
Jump up ^ Cunningham, William (1892). The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times. University Press. p. 24.
Jump up ^ Keyser, Henry (1850). The law relating to transactions on the stock exchange. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Day, Clive (1914). A History of Commerce. Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 144.
^ Jump up to: a b Michie, R. C. (1999). The London Stock Exchange: a history. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 0-19-829508-1.
Jump up ^ Fisk, John (1900). Old Virginia and Her Neighbours. Houton, Mifflin, and Company. p. 182.
Jump up ^ Lindsay, William S. (1872). History of Merchant Shipping and ancient commerce. London: Sampson Low, Marston, Low, and Searle. p. 89.
^ Jump up to: a b Shane Darrisaw, H. Common Sense Ain't Common: A guide for positioning yourself to take full advantage of your credit and financial opportunities!. AuthorHouse. p. 86. ISBN 1-4343-7559-5.
Jump up ^ Chambers, Clem. "Who needs stock exchanges?". Mondo Visione. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Sayle, Murray (5 April 2001). "LRB · Murray Sayle: Japan goes Dutch". London Review of Books XXIII.7. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Martin, Frederick (1876). The History of Lloyd's and of Marine Insurance in Great Britain. MacMillan and Company, London. pp. 65–80.
Jump up ^ "London Fire Brigade – History, key dates (Our history)". Archived from the original on 2008-06-18. Retrieved 2007-10-27.
Jump up ^ Smits, Jan (2006). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law (Elgar Original Reference). Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 315. ISBN 1-84542-013-6.
Jump up ^ R. Auslin, Michael. Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-674-02227-0.
Jump up ^ Liu, Yong (2007). The Dutch East India Company's tea trade with China, 1757-178. Leiden ; Boston: Brill. p. 91. ISBN 90-04-15599-6.
Jump up ^ Fisk, John (1900). Old Virginia and Her Neighbours. Houton, Mifflin, and Company. p. 183.
Jump up ^ Markham, Jerry W. (2001). A financial history of the United States. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. p. 22. ISBN 0-7656-0730-1.
Jump up ^ Elliott, Charles Burke (1907). The law of insurance: a treatise on the law of insurance, including fire, life, accident, marine, casualty, title, credit and guarantee insurance in every form. Bobbs-Merrill. p. 3.
Jump up ^ Bergman, Leslie. "History of colonization in South America". Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa. Retrieved 25 October 2009. Stellenbosch, South Africa's Department of Modern Foreign Languages's Historical Background article South America says: "Yellow fever was an uninvited "guest" brought to the Americas on the slave ships from West Africa. Yellow fever is caused by a virus spread by the bite of a species of mosquito native to West Africa, the aedes aegypti. This mosquito was accidentally carried across the Atlantic in water barrels on the slave ships. Yellow fever struck communities from New York to Rio de Janeiro, but aedes aegypti flourished in tropical zones. The mosquito, and with it yellow fever, spread rapidly throughout the Amazon River valley. The disease was so lethal to Europeans, who had little immunity to it, that mass settlement of the Amazon region was not possible until present times."
Jump up ^ W.W. Rostow. (1975). How it all began: origins of the modern economy. London: Methuen. p. 225. ISBN 0-416-55930-1.
References[edit]
Gibbins, Henry de Beltgens (1891). The History of Commerce in Europe. MacMillan and Company London New York.
Lopez, Robert. The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages. pp. 56–147.
Marshall, Michael (1999). "From Mercantilism to 'The Wealth of Nations'" (PDF). The World & I. 5 (Special Edition).
"Money Management and Imperial Power" (PDF). p. 6. Retrieved 2007-10-12.
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