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United States district court
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This article is about district courts of the U.S. federal judicial system. For district courts of various U.S. states' judicial systems, see Courts of the United States § Courts by state of the United States.
See also: List of United States district and territorial courts
Map of the boundaries of the United States courts of appeals (by color) and United States District Courts. All District Courts lie within the boundary of a single jurisdiction, usually in a state (heavier lines); some states have more than one District Court (lighter lines denote those jurisdictions)
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The United States district courts are the general trial courts of the United States federal court system. Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the district court, which is a court of law, equity, and admiralty. There is a United States bankruptcy court associated with each United States district court. Each federal judicial district has at least one courthouse, and many districts have more than one. The formal name of a district court is "the United States District Court for" the name of the district—for example, the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri.
In contrast to the Supreme Court, which was established by Article III of the Constitution, the district courts were established by Congress.[note 1] There is no constitutional requirement that district courts exist at all. Indeed, after the ratification of the Constitution, some opponents of a strong federal judiciary urged that, outside jurisdictions under direct federal control like Washington, D.C. and the territories, the federal court system be limited to the Supreme Court, which would hear appeals from state courts. This view did not prevail, however, and the first Congress created the district court system that is still in place today.
There is at least one judicial district for each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. District courts in three insular areas—the United States Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands—exercise the same jurisdiction as Article III U.S. district courts.[1][2][3] Despite their name, these courts are technically not "District Courts of the United States". Judges on these Article IV territorial courts do not enjoy the protections of Article Three of the Constitution, and serve terms of ten years rather than for life.
There are 89 districts in the 50 states, with a total of 94 districts including territories.[4]
Contents
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1 Other federal trial courts
2 United States district judges
3 Jurisdiction
4 Attorneys
5 Appeals
6 Largest and busiest district courts
7 Extinct district courts
7.1 Subdivided district courts
7.2 Other abolished district courts
8 See also
9 Notes
9.1 Footnotes
9.2 Citations
10 External links
Other federal trial courts[edit]
There are other federal trial courts that have nationwide jurisdiction over certain types of cases, but the district court also has concurrent jurisdiction over many of those cases, and the district court is the only one with jurisdiction over civilian criminal cases. The United States Court of International Trade addresses cases involving international trade and customs issues. The United States Court of Federal Claims has exclusive jurisdiction over most claims for money damages against the United States, including disputes over federal contracts, unlawful takings of private property by the federal government, and suits for injury on federal property or by a federal employee. The United States Tax Court has jurisdiction over contested pre-assessment determinations of taxes.
United States district judges[edit]
Main article: United States federal judge
A judge of a United States district court is officially titled a "United States District Judge". Other federal judges, including circuit judges and Supreme Court Justices, can also sit in a district court upon assignment by the chief judge of the circuit or by the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of judges in each district court (and the structure of the judicial system generally) is set by Congress in the United States Code. The President appoints the federal judges for terms of good behavior (subject to the advice and consent of the Senate), so the nominees often share at least some of his or her convictions. In states represented by a senator of the President's party, the senator (or the more senior of them if both senators are of the president's party) has substantial input into the nominating process, and through a tradition known as senatorial courtesy can exercise an unofficial veto over a nominee unacceptable to the senator.
With the exception of the territorial courts (Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands), federal district judges are Article III judges appointed for life, and can be removed involuntarily only when they violate the standard of "good behavior". The sole method of involuntary removal of a judge is through impeachment by the United States House of Representatives followed by a trial in the United States Senate and a conviction by a two-thirds vote. Otherwise, a judge, even if convicted of a felony criminal offense by a jury, is entitled to hold office until retirement or death. In the history of the United States, only twelve judges have been impeached by the House, and only seven have been removed following conviction in the Senate. (For a table that includes the twelve impeached judges, see Impeachment in the United States.)
A judge who has reached the age of 65 (or has become disabled) may retire or elect to go on senior status and keep working. Such senior judges are not counted in the quota of active judges for the district and do only whatever work they are assigned by the chief judge of the district, but they keep their offices (called "chambers") and staff, and many of them work full-time. A federal judge is addressed in writing as "The Honorable John/Jane Doe" or "Hon. John/Jane Doe" and in speech as "Judge" or "Judge Doe" or, when presiding in court, "Your Honor".
District judges usually concentrate on managing their court's overall caseload, supervising trials, and writing opinions in response to important motions like the motion for summary judgment. Since the 1960s, routine tasks like resolving discovery disputes can, in the district judge's discretion, be referred to magistrate judges. Magistrate judges can also be requested to prepare reports and recommendations on contested matters for the district judge's consideration or, with the consent of all parties, to assume complete jurisdiction over a case including conducting the trial.
Federal magistrate judges are appointed by each district court pursuant to statute. They are appointed for an eight-year term and may be reappointed for additional eight-year terms. A magistrate judge may be removed "for incompetency, misconduct, neglect of duty, or physical or mental disability".[5] A magistrate judgeship may be a stepping stone to a district judgeship nomination.
As of 2010, there were 678 authorized district court judgeships.[6] A study put forth by Brennan Center for Justice at New York University of Law found that under the Obama administration and especially in the year 2009 there have been a "uniquely high" number of vacancies in Federal Court, averaging 60 or more from the years 2009 to 2013. The Obama administration has blamed Senate Republicans for opposing (and therefore, not confirming) presidential nominations, while the Republicans say Obama has been slow to nominate.[7]
Jurisdiction[edit]
Civil procedure
in the United States
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
Doctrines of civil procedure
Jurisdiction · Venue
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Unlike some state courts, the power of federal courts to hear cases and controversies is strictly limited. Federal courts may not decide every case that happens to come before them. In order for a district court to entertain a lawsuit, Congress must first grant the court subject matter jurisdiction over the type of dispute in question.
The district courts exercise original jurisdiction over—that is, they are empowered to conduct trials in—the following types of cases:
Civil actions arising under the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States;[8]
Certain civil actions between citizens of different states;[9]
Civil actions within the admiralty or maritime jurisdiction of the United States;[10]
Criminal prosecutions brought by the United States;[11]
Civil actions in which the United States is a party;[12] and
Many other types of cases and controversies[13]
For most of these cases, the jurisdiction of the federal district courts is concurrent with that of the state courts. In other words, a plaintiff can choose to bring these cases in either a federal district court or a state court. Congress has established a procedure whereby a party, typically the defendant, can "remove" a case from state court to federal court, provided that the federal court also has original jurisdiction over the matter (meaning that the case could have been filed in federal court initially).[14] If the party that initially filed the case in state court believes that removal was improper, that party can ask the district court to "remand" the case to the state court system. For certain matters, such as patent and copyright infringement disputes and prosecutions for federal crimes, the jurisdiction of the district courts is exclusive of that of the state courts, meaning that only federal courts can hear those cases.[note 2]
In addition to their original jurisdiction, the district courts have appellate jurisdiction over a very limited class of judgments, orders, and decrees.[15]
Attorneys[edit]
United States District Court Attorney Admissions Reciprocity Map
In order to represent a party in a case in a district court, a person must be an attorney at law and generally must be admitted to the bar of that particular court. The United States usually does not have a separate bar examination for federal practice (except with respect to patent practice before the United States Patent and Trademark Office). Admission to the bar of a district court is generally available to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in the state where the district court sits.[note 3]
56 districts (around 60% of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40% of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. For example, the district courts in New York City (Southern District of New York and Eastern District of New York) extend admission to attorneys admitted to the bar in Connecticut or Vermont and to the district court in that state, but otherwise require attorneys to be admitted to the New York bar. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar.[16]
The attorney generally submits an application with a fee and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the district. A "sponsor" admitted to the court's bar is often required. Several district courts require attorneys seeking admission to their bars to take an additional bar examination on federal law, including the following: the Southern District of Ohio,[17] the Northern District of Florida,[18] and the District of Puerto Rico.[19]
Pro hac vice admission is also available in most federal district courts on a case-by-case basis. Most district courts require pro hac vice attorneys to associate with an attorney admitted to practice before the court.[16]
Appeals[edit]
Generally, a final ruling by a district court in either a civil or a criminal case can be appealed to the United States court of appeals in the federal judicial circuit in which the district court is located, except that some district court rulings involving patents and certain other specialized matters must be appealed instead to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, and in a very few cases the appeal may be taken directly to the United States Supreme Court.
Largest and busiest district courts[edit]
United States Court House in downtown Los Angeles, California, one of several sites used by the Central District of California.
The Central District of California is the largest federal district by population;[20] it includes all five counties that make up the Greater Los Angeles Area. By contrast, New York City and the surrounding metropolitan area are divided between the Southern District of New York (which includes Manhattan, The Bronx and Westchester County) and the Eastern District of New York (which includes Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, Nassau County and Suffolk County). New York suburbs in Connecticut and New Jersey are covered by the District of Connecticut and District of New Jersey, respectively.
The Southern District of New York and the Central District of California are the largest federal districts by number of judges, with 28 and 27, respectively.[21]
In 2007, the busiest district courts in terms of criminal federal felony filings were the District of New Mexico, Western District of Texas, Southern District of Texas, and the District of Arizona. These four districts all share the border with Mexico.[22] A crackdown on illegal immigration resulted in 75 percent of the criminal cases filed in the 94 district courts in 2007 being filed in these four districts and the other district that borders Mexico, the Southern District of California.[23] The busiest patent litigation court is the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, with the most patent lawsuits filed there nearly every year.[24]
Extinct district courts[edit]
Subdivided district courts[edit]
Main article: Former United States district courts
Most extinct district courts have disappeared by being divided into smaller districts. The following courts were subdivided out of existence: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin.
Other abolished district courts[edit]
On rare occasions, an extinct district court was extinguished by merging it with other district courts. In every case except one, this has restored a district court that had been subdivided:
Between 1794 and 1797, the United States District Court for the District of North Carolina was divided into the United States District Courts for the Districts of Edenton, New Bern, and Wilmington.
Between 1801 and 1802, the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey was divided into the United States District Courts for the Districts of East Jersey and West Jersey.
When California was admitted as a state in 1850, it was initially divided into two districts, the Northern and the Southern.[25] The Southern District of California was abolished on July 27, 1866, and the State made to constitute one district, the statute providing that the Judge of the Northern District exercise the powers of the United States District Court for the District of California, and that all records of the Southern District Court be delivered to the Clerk of the Northern District Court.[25] Twenty years later, on August 5, 1886, Congress re-created the Southern District of California.[25]
Between 1911 and 1961, the United States District Court for the District of South Carolina was divided into the United States District Courts for the Eastern and Western District of South Carolina.
The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Illinois was eliminated and a new United States District Court for the Central District of Illinois was created in its place on October 2, 1978.
There are a few additional extinct district courts that fall into neither of the above two patterns.
From 1801 to 1802, the District of Columbia and pieces of Maryland and Virginia formed the United States District Court for the District of Potomac, which was the first United States district court to cross state lines. During the same period, the United States District Court for the District of Norfolk was carved out of another piece of Virginia. The United States District Courts for the Districts of Maryland and Virginia remained during this brief period.
From 1801 to 1802, and again from 1802 to 1872, the state of North Carolina was subdivided into the United States District Courts for the Districts of Albemarle, Cape Fear, and Pamptico. These courts were extinguished when the state was reorganized into the United States District Courts for the Eastern and Western Districts of North Carolina.
United States District Court for the District of Orleans. This court was renamed the United States District Court for the District of Louisiana when the Territory of Orleans became the State of Louisiana.
United States District Court for the Canal Zone. This court was abolished, effective March 31, 1982, as part of the process of returning the Canal Zone to Panama. Cases then pending in the Canal Zone court were transferred to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana in New Orleans.
United States Court for China. This court functioned as a district court between 1906 and 1943. It had jurisdiction over American citizens in China.
See also[edit]
Courts of the United States
Federal tribunals in the United States
United States Marshals Service
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Article III of the Constitution provides that the "judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in . . . such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish."
Jump up ^ In some situations, federal law provides both for the exclusive jurisdiction of federal courts and for the immunity of the defendant from the power of those courts. One example of this is patent-infringement claims against a state government: only the federal courts may hear patent cases, but the states have sovereign immunity from such suits under the Eleventh Amendment. Although a state may choose to waive its immunity in such a case and allow it to proceed to trial, if it does not do so, the plaintiff has no recourse. This doctrine was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States in Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank, 527 U.S. 627 (1999).
Jump up ^ Nearly all district courts have a Local Rule 11.1 or 83.1 that describes the appropriate state judicial institution which admits attorneys to practice (either the state bar association or an office or committee of the state supreme court).
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ United States District Courts
Jump up ^ United States District Court for the Northern Mariana Islands
Jump up ^ 48 U.S.C. § 1424 (District Court of Guam; local courts; jurisdiction)
Jump up ^ U. S. Courts | Frequently Asked Questions
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 631
Jump up ^ Federal Judgeships, United States Courts.
Jump up ^ http://www.jdjournal.com/2013/07/08/study-exposes-obamas-federal-district-vacancies-as-uniquely-high/ June, Daniel "Study Exposes Obama's Federal District Vacancies as 'Uniquely High'"
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1331
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1332
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1333
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3231
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1345 (United States as plaintiff); 28 U.S.C. § 1346 (United States as defendant)
Jump up ^ Title 28, United States Code, Chapter 85.
Jump up ^ "28 USC 1441".
Jump up ^ See, e.g., 28 U.S.C. § 158(a)(1) (U.S. district courts are authorized to hear appeals from final judgments, orders, and decrees of U.S. bankruptcy judges).
^ Jump up to: a b "Survey of Admission Rules in Federal District Courts" (PDF). U.S. District Court for the District of Maryland. 2015. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ Local Rule 83.3, Local Rules of the Southern District of Ohio.
Jump up ^ Local Rule 11.1, Local Rules of the Northern District of Florida,
Jump up ^ Local Rule 83.1, Local Rules of the District of Puerto Rico.
Jump up ^ Our District - USAO-CDCA
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 133
Jump up ^ Border Crackdown Jams US Federal Courts (May 7, 2007).
Jump up ^ Goldman, Russell (July 23, 2008). "What's Clogging the Courts? Ask America's Busiest Judge". ABC News.
Jump up ^ Lex Machina, 2016 Third Quarter Trends, https://lexmachina.com/2016-third-quarter-litigation-trends/
^ Jump up to: a b c Willoughby Rodman, History of the Bench and Bar of Southern California (1909), p. 46.
External links[edit]
United States District Courts Official Website
United States District Courts by State
Federal Court Concepts, Georgia Tech
Links to researching court records and also National Archives: Records of District Courts of the United States (Record Group 21) 1685-1993.
Territorial Courts at Federal Judicial Center
United States District Courts at Federal Judicial Center
United States District Court Civil Case Filings
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Electric charge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Electric charge
Electric field of a positive and a negative point charge
Common symbols
Q
SI unit
coulomb
Other units
elementary charge
faraday
ampere-hour
In SI base units
C = A s
Extensive?
yes
Conserved?
yes
Dimension
T I
Part of a series of articles about
Electromagnetism
Electricity
Magnetism
Electrostatics[hide]
Electric charge
Static electricity
Electric field
Conductor
Insulator
Triboelectricity
Electrostatic discharge
Induction
Coulomb's law
Gauss's law
Electric flux / potential energy
Electric dipole moment
Polarization density
Magnetostatics[show]
Ampère's law
Magnetic field
Magnetization
Magnetic flux
Biot–Savart law
Magnetic dipole moment
Gauss's law for magnetism
Electrodynamics[show]
Lorentz force law
Electromagnetic induction
Faraday's law
Lenz's law
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Magnetic potential
Maxwell's equations
Electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic pulse
Electromagnetic radiation
Maxwell tensor
Poynting vector
Liénard–Wiechert potential
Jefimenko's equations
Eddy current
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Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field
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Electric current
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Alternating current
Electromotive force
Capacitance
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Impedance
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Covariant formulation[show]
Electromagnetic tensor
(stress–energy tensor)
Four-current
Electromagnetic four-potential
Scientists[show]
Ampère
Coulomb
Faraday
Gauss
Heaviside
Henry
Hertz
Lorentz
Maxwell
Tesla
Volta
Weber
Ørsted
v
t
e
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges; positive and negative (commonly carried by protons and electrons respectively). Like charges repel and unlike attract. An object with an absence of net charge is referred to as neutral. Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of quantum effects.
Electric charge is a conserved property; the net charge of an isolated system, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot change. Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the nuclei of atoms. If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge is quantized; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, e, about 6981160200000000000♠1.602×10−19 coulombs,[1] which is the smallest charge which can exist free (particles called quarks have smaller charges, multiples of 1/3e, but they are only found in combination, and always combine to form particles with integer charge). The proton has a charge of +e, and the electron has a charge of −e.
Electric charges create an electric field, if they are moving they also generate a magnetic field. The combination of the electric and magnetic field is called the electromagnetic field, and its interaction with charges is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces in physics. The study of charged particles, and how their interactions are mediated by photons, is called quantum electrodynamics.
The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). In electrical engineering, it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah); in physics and chemistry, it is common to use the elementary charge (e as a unit). Chemistry also uses the Faraday constant as the charge on a mole of electrons. The symbol Q often denotes charge.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Units
3 History
4 The role of charge in electrostatics
5 The role of charge in static electricity
5.1 Electrification by friction
6 The role of charge in electric current
7 Conservation of electric charge
8 Relativistic invariance
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Overview[edit]
Diagram showing field lines and equipotentials around an electron, a negatively charged particle. In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons (which are positively charged), resulting in a net zero overall charge
Charge is the fundamental property of forms of matter that exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Electric charge is a characteristic property of many subatomic particles. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge e; we say that electric charge is quantized. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge. Robert Millikan's oil drop experiment demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. It has been discovered that one type of particle, quarks, have fractional charges of either −1/3 or +2/3, but it is believed they always occur in multiples of integral charge; free-standing quarks have never been observed.
By convention, the charge of an electron is negative, −e, while that of a proton is positive, +e. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. Coulomb's law quantifies the electrostatic force between two particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The charge of an antiparticle equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign.
The electric charge of a macroscopic object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that make it up. This charge is often small, because matter is made of atoms, and atoms typically have equal numbers of protons and electrons, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral.
An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion). Monatomic ions are formed from single atoms, while polyatomic ions are formed from two or more atoms that have been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge.
Electric field induced by a positive electric charge (left) and a field induced by a negative electric charge (right).
During formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions usually combine to form structures composed of neutral ionic compounds electrically bound to neutral atoms. Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral.
Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements, can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity. This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk. In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of conservation of charge always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.
Even when an object's net charge is zero, charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or bound polar molecules). In such cases the object is said to be polarized. The charge due to polarization is known as bound charge, while charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called free charge. The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is known as electric current.
Units[edit]
The SI derived unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb (symbol: C). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere for one second.[2] This unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948.[2] In modern practice, the phrase "amount of charge" is used instead of "quantity of charge".[3] The amount of charge in 1 electron (elementary charge) is approximately 6981160000000000000♠1.6×10−19 C, and 1 coulomb corresponds to the amount of charge for about 7018624000000000000♠6.24×1018 electrons. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer, or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer.
After finding the quantized character of charge, in 1891 George Stoney proposed the unit 'electron' for this fundamental unit of electrical charge. This was before the discovery of the particle by J. J. Thomson in 1897. The unit is today treated as nameless, referred to as elementary charge, fundamental unit of charge, or simply as e. A measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge e, even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a real quantity. In some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of a charge; for example in the charging of a capacitor, or in the fractional quantum Hall effect.
The unit faraday is sometimes used in electrochemistry. One faraday of charge is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of electrons,[4] i.e. 96485.33289(59) C.
In systems of units other than SI such as cgs, electric charge is expressed as combination of only three fundamental quantities (length, mass, and time), and not four, as in SI, where electric charge is a combination of length, mass, time, and electric current.[5][6]
History[edit]
See also: History of electromagnetic theory and Electricity § History
Coulomb's torsion balance
From ancient times, persons were familiar with four types of phenomena that today would all be explained using the concept of electric charge: (a) lightning, (b) the torpedo fish (or electric ray), (c) St Elmo's Fire, and (d) that amber rubbed with fur would attract small, light objects.[7] The first account of the amber effect is often attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus, who lived from c. 624 – c. 546 BC, but there are doubts about whether Thales left any writings;[8] his account about amber is known from an account from early 200s.[9] This account can be taken as evidence that knowledge the phenomenon was known since at least c. 600 BC, but Thales explained this phenomenon as evidence for inanimate objects having a soul.[9] In other words, there was no indication of any conception of electric charge. More generally, the ancient Greeks did not understand the connections among these four kinds of phenomena. The Greeks observed that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair. They also found that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get an electric spark to jump,[citation needed] but there is also a claim that no mention of electric sparks appeared until late 17th century.[10] This property derives from the triboelectric effect. In late 1100s, the substance jet, a compacted form of coal, was noted to have an amber effect,[11] and in the middle of the 1500s, Girolamo Fracastoro, discovered that diamond also showed this effect.[12] Some efforts were made by Fracastoro and others, especially Gerolamo Cardano to develop explanations for this phenomenon.[13]
In contrast to astronomy, mechanics, and optics, which had been studied quantitatively since antiquity, the start of ongoing qualitative and quantitative research into electrical phenomena can marked with the publication of De Magnete by the English scientist William Gilbert in 1600.[14] In this book, there was a small section where Gilbert returned to the amber effect (as he called it) in addressing many of the earlier theories[13], and coined the New Latin word electrica (from ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron), the Greek word for amber). The Latin word was translated into English as electrics.[15] Gilbert is also credited with the term electrical, while the term electricity came later, first attributed to Sir Thomas Browne in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica from 1646.[16] (For more linguistic details see Etymology of electricity.) Gilbert was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented what was probably the first electrostatic generator. Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; Stephen Gray, who in 1729 classified materials as conductors and insulators. In 1733 Charles François de Cisternay du Fay, inspired by Gray's work, made a series of experiments (reported in Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences), showing that more or less all substances could be 'electrified' by rubbing, except for metals and fluids[17] and proposed that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, which he expressed in terms of a two-fluid theory.[18] When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that the glass was charged with vitreous electricity, and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with resinous electricity. Another important two-fluid theory from this time was proposed by Jean-Antoine Nollet (1745).[19] In 1839, Michael Faraday showed that the apparent division between static electricity, current electricity, and bioelectricity was incorrect, and all were a consequence of the behavior of a single kind of electricity appearing in opposite polarities. It is arbitrary which polarity is called positive and which is called negative. Positive charge can be defined as the charge left on a glass rod after being rubbed with silk.[20]
One of the foremost experts on electricity in the 18th century was Benjamin Franklin, who argued in favour of a one-fluid theory of electricity. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter; for example, he believed that it was the glass in a Leyden jar that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained too little of the fluid it was negatively charged, and when it had an excess it was positively charged. For a reason that was not recorded, he identified the term positive with vitreous electricity and negative with resinous electricity. William Watson independently arrived at the same explanation at about the same time (1746).
It is now known that the Franklin–Watson model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge.[21] On the other hand, just knowing the charge is not a complete description of the situation. Matter is composed of several kinds of electrically charged particles, and these particles have many properties, not just charge.
The role of charge in electrostatics[edit]
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, section title was created in a guess about the intention of this paragraph, maybe this material needs two or more sections. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
All bodies are electrified, but may appear not electrified because of the relatively similar charge of neighboring objects in the environment. An object further electrified + or – creates an equivalent or opposite charge by default in neighboring objects, until those charges can equalize. The effects of attraction can be observed in high-voltage experiments, while lower voltage effects are merely weaker and therefore less obvious. Coulomb's law has a corollary for acceleration in a gravitational field. See also Casimir effect.
The role of charge in static electricity[edit]
Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects.
Electrification by friction[edit]
Further information: Triboelectric effect
This section contains close paraphrasing of an external source, https://archive.org/details/ATreatiseOnElectricityMagnetism-Volume1. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Ideas in this article should be expressed in an original manner. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
When a piece of glass and a piece of resin—neither of which exhibit any electrical properties—are rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties. When separated, they attract each other.
A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena:
The two pieces of glass repel each other.
Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.
The two pieces of resin repel each other.
This attraction and repulsion is an electrical phenomenon, and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be electrified, or electrically charged. Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by friction. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts.
If a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be vitreously electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be resinously electrified. All electrified bodies are either vitreously or resinously electrified.
An established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous electrification as positive, and resinous electrification as negative. The exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention—just as it is a matter of convention in mathematical diagram to reckon positive distances towards the right hand.
No force, either of attraction or of repulsion, can be observed between an electrified body and a body not electrified.[22]
The role of charge in electric current[edit]
Electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object, which produces no net loss or gain of electric charge. The most common charge carriers are the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the conventional current without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations.
At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an electric current, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron holes that act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (ions or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an electrolytic solution or a plasma.
Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers; i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners.
Flavour in
particle physics
Flavour quantum numbers
Isospin: I or I3
Charm: C
Strangeness: S
Topness: T
Bottomness: B′
Related quantum numbers
Baryon number: B
Lepton number: L
Weak isospin: T or T3
Electric charge: Q
X-charge: X
Combinations
Hypercharge: Y
Y = (B + S + C + B′ + T)
Y = 2 (Q − I3)
Weak hypercharge: YW
YW = 2 (Q − T3)
X + 2YW = 5 (B − L)
Flavour mixing
CKM matrix
PMNS matrix
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Conservation of electric charge[edit]
Main article: Charge conservation
The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current continuity equation. More generally, the rate of change in charge density ρ within a volume of integration V is equal to the area integral over the current density J through the closed surface S = ∂V, which is in turn equal to the net current I:
− d d t ∫ V ρ d V = {\displaystyle -{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\rho \,\mathrm {d} V=} ∂ V {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \partial V} J ⋅ d S = ∫ J d S cos  θ = I . {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\int J\mathrm {d} S\cos \theta =I.}
Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result:
I = − d Q d t . {\displaystyle I=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} Q}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
The charge transferred between times t i {\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {i} }} and t f {\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {f} }} is obtained by integrating both sides:
Q = ∫ t i t f I d t {\displaystyle Q=\int _{t_{\mathrm {i} }}^{t_{\mathrm {f} }}I\,\mathrm {d} t}
where I is the net outward current through a closed surface and Q is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface.
Relativistic invariance[edit]
Aside from the properties described in articles about electromagnetism, charge is a relativistic invariant. This means that any particle that has charge Q, no matter how fast it goes, always has charge Q. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds) is the same as two deuterium nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus).[23][24][25]
See also[edit]
SI electromagnetism units
Color charge
Partial charge
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "CODATA Value: elementary charge". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. US National Institute of Standards and Technology. June 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-22. 2014 CODATA recommended values
^ Jump up to: a b "CIPM, 1946: Resolution 2". BIPM.
Jump up ^ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-14 , p. 150
Jump up ^ Gambhir, RS; Banerjee, D; Durgapal, MC (1993). Foundations of Physics, Vol. 2. New Dehli: Wiley Eastern Limited. p. 51. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
Jump up ^ Carron, Neal J. (21 May 2015). "Babel of units: The evolution of units systems in classical electromagnetism" (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Purcell, Edward M.; David J. Morin (2013). Electricity and Magnetism (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 766. ISBN 9781107014022.
Jump up ^ Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954). The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 1.
Jump up ^ O'Grady, Patricia F. (2002). Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy. Ashgate. p. 8. ISBN 1351895370.
^ Jump up to: a b Lives of the Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, Book 1, §24
Jump up ^ Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". American Journal of Physics. 21 (5): 348. Bibcode:1953AmJPh..21..343R. doi:10.1119/1.1933449.
Jump up ^ Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". American Journal of Physics. 21 (5): 351. Bibcode:1953AmJPh..21..343R. doi:10.1119/1.1933449.
Jump up ^ Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". American Journal of Physics. 21 (5): 353. Bibcode:1953AmJPh..21..343R. doi:10.1119/1.1933449.
^ Jump up to: a b Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". American Journal of Physics. 21 (5): 356. Bibcode:1953AmJPh..21..343R. doi:10.1119/1.1933449.
Jump up ^ Roche, J.J. (1998). The mathematics of measurement. London: The Athlone Press. p. 62. ISBN 0387915818.
Jump up ^ Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954). The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 6–7.
Heilbron, J.L. (1979). Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics. University of California Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-520-03478-5.
Jump up ^ Brother Potamian; Walsh, J.J. (1909). Makers of electricity. New York: Fordham University Press. p. 70.
Jump up ^ Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954). The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 40.
Jump up ^ Two Kinds of Electrical Fluid: Vitreous and Resinous – 1733. Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (1698–1739) Archived 2009-05-26 at the Wayback Machine.. sparkmuseum.com
Jump up ^ Heilbron, J.L. (1979). Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics. University of California Press. pp. 280–289. ISBN 978-0-520-03478-5.
Jump up ^ Roald K. Wangsness (1986) Electromagnetic Fields (2nd Ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-81186-6.
Jump up ^ Denker, John (2007). "One Kind of Charge". www.av8n.com/physics. Archived from the original on 2016-02-05.
Jump up ^ James Clerk Maxwell (1891) A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, pp. 32–33, Dover Publications
Jump up ^ Jefimenko, O.D. (1999). "Relativistic invariance of electric charge" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A. 54 (10–11): 637–644. Bibcode:1999ZNatA..54..637J. doi:10.1515/zna-1999-10-1113. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "How can we prove charge invariance under Lorentz Transformation?". physics.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
Jump up ^ Singal, A.K. (1992). "On the charge invariance and relativistic electric fields from a steady conduction current". Physics Letters A. 162 (2): 91–95. Bibcode:1992PhLA..162...91S. doi:10.1016/0375-9601(92)90982-R. ISSN 0375-9601.
External links[edit]
How fast does a charge decay?
History of the electrical units.
Authority control
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