text:
Accommodation reflex
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The accommodation reflex (or accommodation-convergence reflex) is a reflex action of the eye, in response to focusing on a near object, then looking at distant object (and vice versa), comprising coordinated changes in vergence, lens shape and pupil size (accommodation). It is dependent on cranial nerve II (afferent limb of reflex), superior centers (interneuron) and cranial nerve III (efferent limb of reflex). The change in the shape of the lens is controlled by the ciliary muscles inside the eye. Changes in contraction of the ciliary muscles alter the focal distance of the eye, causing nearer or farther images to come into focus on the retina; this process is known as accommodation.[1] The reflex, controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system, involves three responses; pupil accommodation, lens accommodation, and convergence.
Light from a single point of a distant object and light from a single point of a near object being brought to a focus.
A near object (for example, a computer screen) appears large in the field of vision, and the eye receives light from wide angles. When moving focus from a distant to a near object, the eyes converge. The ciliary muscle contracts making the lens more convex, shortening its focal length. The pupil constricts in order to prevent diverging light rays from hitting the periphery of the retina and resulting in a blurred image.
Contents
[hide]
1 Pathway
2 Pupil and lens accommodation
3 Convergence
4 Focus on near objects
5 Focus on distant objects
6 Neural circuit
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Pathway[edit]
Information from the light on each retina is taken to the occipital lobe via the optic nerve and optic radiation (after a synapse in the lateral geniculate body of the posterior thalamus), where it is interpreted as vision. The peristriate area 19 interprets accommodation, and sends signals via the Edinger-Westphal nucleus and the 3rd cranial nerve to the ciliary muscle, the medial rectus muscle and (via parasympathetic fibres) the sphincter pupillae muscle.[2][3]
Pupil and lens accommodation[edit]
During accommodation, the pupil constricts to increase the depth of focus of the eye by blocking the light scattered by the periphery of the cornea. The lens then increases its curvature to become more biconvex, thus increasing refractive power. The ciliary muscles are responsible for the lens accommodation response.[4]
Convergence[edit]
Convergence is the ability of the eye to simultaneously demonstrate inward movement of both eyes toward each other. This is helpful in effort to make focus on near objects clearer. Three reactions occur simultaneously; the eyes adduct, the ciliary muscles contract, and the pupils become smaller.[5][page needed] This action involves the contraction of the medial rectus muscles of the two eyes and relaxation of the lateral rectus muscles. The medial rectus attaches to the medial aspect of the eye and its contraction adducts the eye. The medial rectus is innervated by motor neurons in the oculomotor nucleus and nerve.[4]
Focus on near objects[edit]
The refractive index of the eye’s lens system allows the eye to produce sharply focused images. For example, geometrical optics show that as a distant object is brought closer to the eye, the focus of the object becomes blurrier in the plane behind the retina; however, as a result of the increase in the refractive power of the eye, this image becomes clear. The refractive power mainly resides in the cornea, but the overall refractive power is achieved by the actual lens changing its shape.[6][unreliable medical source?]
In order to fixate on a near object, the ciliary muscle contracts around the lens to decrease its size. The suspensory ligaments relax and the radial tension around the lens is released. This causes the lens to form a more spherical shape achieving a higher level of refractive power.[6][unreliable medical source?]
Focus on distant objects[edit]
When the eye focuses on distant objects, the lens holds itself in a flattened shape due to traction from the suspensory ligaments. Ligaments pull the edges of the elastic lens capsule towards the surrounding ciliary body and by opposing the internal pressure within the elastic lens, keep it relatively flattened.[6][unreliable medical source?]
Opposite of fixating on a near object, the ciliary muscle relaxes and the diameter of the lens increases to increase the lens’ size. The tension along the suspensory ligaments is increased to flatten the lens and decrease the curvature and achieve a lower refractive power.[6][unreliable medical source?]
Neural circuit[edit]
Three regions make up the accommodation neural circuit, the afferent limb, the efferent limb and the ocular motor neurons that are between the afferent and efferent limb.
The afferent limb of the circuit
This limb contains the main structures; the retina that contains the retinal ganglion axons in the optic nerve, chiasm and tract, the lateral geniculate body, and the visual cortex.[4]
The efferent limb of the circuit
This limb includes Edinger-Westphal nucleus and the oculomotor neurons. The main function of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus is to send axons in the oculomotor nerve to control the ciliary ganglion which in turn, sends its axons in the short ciliary nerve to control the iris and the ciliary muscle of the eye. The oculomotor neurons functions to send its axons in the oculomotor nerve, to control the medial rectus, and converge the two eyes.[4]
Ocular motor control neurons
Neurons that are interposed between the afferent and efferent limbs of this circuit and include the visual association cortex, which determines the image is "out-of-focus, and sends corrective signals via the internal capsule and crus cerebri to the supraoculomotor nuclei. It also includes the supraoculomotor nuclei (located immediately superior to the oculomotor nuclei) that generates motor control signals that initiate the accommodation response and sends these control signals bilaterally to the oculomotor complex.[4]
See also[edit]
Presbyopia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Watson, Neil V.; Breedlove, S. Marc (2012). Mind's Machine: Foundations of Brain and Behavior. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-87893-933-6. OCLC 843073456.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Paul L.; Levin, Leonard A.; Alm, Albert (2011). Adler's Physiology of the Eye. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 508. ISBN 0-323-05714-4 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Bhatnagar, Subhash Chandra (2002). Neuroscience for the Study of Communicative Disorders. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 185–6. ISBN 978-0-7817-2346-6 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dragoi, Valentin. "Chapter 7: Ocular Motor System". Neuroscience Online: An Electronic Textbook for the Neurosciences. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Texas Medical School at Houston. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Garg, Ashok; Alió, Jorge L., eds. (2010). Strabismus Surgery. Surgical techniques in ophthalmology. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub. ISBN 978-93-80704-24-1. OCLC 754740941.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Anon-779080 (14 August 2008). "Accommodation Reflex". Scribd. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
External links[edit]
Accommodation at Georgia State University
Ocular Accommodation at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
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Point Break
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the 1991 film. For the 2015 remake, see Point Break (2015 film). For other uses, see Point Break (disambiguation).
Point Break
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Kathryn Bigelow
Produced by
Peter Abrams
Robert L. Levy
Screenplay by
W. Peter Iliff
Uncredited:
James Cameron[1][2]
Story by
Rick King
W. Peter Iliff
Starring
Patrick Swayze
Keanu Reeves
Gary Busey
Lori Petty
Music by
Mark Isham
Cinematography
Donald Peterman
Edited by
Howard Smith
Production
companies
Largo Entertainment
Levy/Abrams/Guerin Productions
Distributed by
20th Century Fox
Release date
July 10, 1991 (1991-07-10) (Westwood, California)
July 12, 1991 (1991-07-12) (United States)
Running time
122 minutes[3]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
US$24 million
Box office
US$83.5 million[4]
Point Break is a 1991 American action crime thriller film directed by Kathryn Bigelow, starring Patrick Swayze, Keanu Reeves, Lori Petty and Gary Busey. The title refers to the surfing term "point break," where a wave breaks as it hits a point of land jutting out from the coastline. Reeves stars as rookie FBI agent Johnny Utah, who is investigating a string of bank robberies possibly being committed by surfers. Johnny goes undercover to infiltrate the surfing community and develops a complex friendship with Bodhi (Swayze), the charismatic leader of a gang of surfers.
The film was a box office success upon its release, with an $83.5 million gross and a budget of $24 million, and has since gained cult status.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Soundtrack
5 Reception
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
5.3 Accolades
6 Legacy
7 Remake
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Former Ohio State Buckeyes quarterback and rookie FBI Agent Johnny Utah is assigned to assist experienced agent and veteran Angelo Pappas in investigating a string of bank robberies by the "Ex-Presidents", a gang of robbers who wear face-masks depicting former US presidents Ronald Reagan, Richard Nixon, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Jimmy Carter to disguise their true identities. They raid only the cash drawers in the banks that they rob—never going for the vault—and are out within 90 seconds.
Pursuing Pappas's theory that the criminals are surfers, Utah goes undercover to infiltrate the surfing community. He fabricates a personal family tragedy in order to persuade orphaned surfer Tyler Endicott to teach him to surf, after she saved him from drowning during his first attempt at surfing. Through her, he meets Bodhi, the charismatic leader of a gang of surfers consisting of Roach, Grommet, and Nathaniel. The group are initially wary of Utah, but accept him when Bodhi recognizes him as the former college football star. As he masters the art of surfing, Utah finds himself increasingly drawn to the surfers' adrenaline-charged lifestyle, Bodhi's philosophies, and Tyler. Following a clue retrieved by analyzing toxins found in the hair of one of the bank robbers, Utah and Pappas lead an FBI raid on another gang of surfers, resulting in the deaths of two of them. Despite their criminal records, these surfers turn out to not be the Ex-Presidents and the raid inadvertently ruins a DEA undercover operation.
Watching Bodhi's group surfing, Utah begins to suspect that they are the "Ex-Presidents," noting how close a group they are and the way one of them moons everyone in the same manner one of the robbers does when leaving a bank. Utah and Pappas stake out a bank and the Ex-Presidents appear. While wearing a Reagan mask, the gang leader (implied to be Bodhi) leads Utah on a foot chase through the neighborhood, which ends when Utah causes an old knee injury to flare up again after jumping into an aqueduct. Despite having a clear shot, Utah does not shoot and the leader escapes.
At a campfire that night, it is confirmed that Bodhi and his gang are the Ex-Presidents. Tyler discovers Utah's FBI badge and angrily terminates their relationship. Shortly afterwards, Bodhi aggressively recruits Utah into going skydiving with the group and he accepts. After the jump, Bodhi reveals that he knows Utah is an FBI agent and has arranged for his friend Rosie, a non-surfing thug, to hold Tyler hostage. Utah is thus blackmailed into participating in the Ex-Presidents last bank robbery of the summer. As a result, Grommet, along with an off-duty police officer and a bank guard—who both attempt to foil the robbery—are killed. Outraged by Grommet's death, Bodhi knocks Utah out and leaves the scene.
Defying their senior officer who arrests Utah for armed robbery, Pappas and Utah head to the airport where Bodhi, Roach, and Nathaniel are about to leave for Mexico. During a shootout, Pappas and Nathaniel are killed, whereas Roach is seriously wounded. With Roach aboard, Bodhi forces Utah onto the plane at gunpoint. Once airborne and over their intended drop zone, Bodhi and Roach put on their parachutes and jump from the plane, leaving Utah to take the blame again. With no other parachutes available, Utah jumps from the plane with Bodhi's gun and intercepts him. After landing safely, Utah's knee gives out again, allowing Bodhi to escape Utah's grasp. Bodhi meets with Rosie and releases Tyler, who reunites with Utah. Roach dies of his wounds, and Bodhi and Rosie leave with the money.
Nine months later, Utah tracks Bodhi at Bells Beach in Victoria, Australia, where a record storm is producing lethal waves. This is an event Bodhi had talked about experiencing, calling it the "50-Year Storm." Utah attempts to bring Bodhi into custody, but Bodhi refuses. During a brawl in the surf, Utah manages to handcuff himself to Bodhi, who begs Utah to release him so he can ride the once-in-a-lifetime wave. Knowing Bodhi will not come back alive, Utah releases him, bids him farewell, and sees him step towards the wave. While the authorities watch Bodhi surf to his death, Utah walks away, throwing his FBI badge into the ocean.
Cast[edit]
Patrick Swayze as Bodhi
Keanu Reeves as FBI Agent Johnny Utah
Gary Busey as FBI Agent Angelo Pappas
Lori Petty as Tyler Endicott
John C. McGinley as FBI Director Ben Harp
James LeGros as Roach
John Philbin as Nathaniel
Lee Tergesen as Rosie
Bojesse Christopher as Grommet
Julian Reyes as FBI Agent Alvarez
Daniel Beer as FBI Agent Babbit
Vincent Klyn as Warchild
Chris Pedersen as Bunker Weiss
Dave Olson as Archbold
Anthony Kiedis as Tone
Christopher Pettiet as 15
Sydney Walsh as Miss Deer
Peter Phelps as Australian surfer
Galyn Gorg as Margarita
Tom Sizemore as DEA Agent Deets (uncredited)
Production[edit]
Originally, Matthew Broderick, Johnny Depp, Val Kilmer and Charlie Sheen were all considered to star in Point Break playing the character Johnny Utah with Ridley Scott directing.[7][8]
After acquiring the screenplay, the producers of Point Break began looking for a director. At the time, executive producer James Cameron was married to director Kathryn Bigelow, who had just completed Blue Steel and was looking for her next project.[7]
Point Break was originally called Johnny Utah when Keanu Reeves was cast in the title role.[7] The studio felt that this title said very little about surfing and by the time Patrick Swayze was cast, the film had been renamed Riders on the Storm after the famous rock song by The Doors. However, Jim Morrison's lyrics had nothing to do with the film and so that title was also rejected. It was not until halfway through filming that Point Break became the film's title because of its relevance to surfing.[7] Reeves and Swayze had appeared together once before, in the 1986 film Youngblood.
Reeves liked the name of his character, as it reminded him of star athletes like Johnny Unitas and Joe Montana.[9] He described his character as a "total control freak and the ocean beats him up and challenges him. After a while everything becomes a game...He becomes as amoral as any criminal. He loses the difference between right and wrong."[7] Swayze felt that Bodhi was a lot like him and that they both shared "that wild-man edge."[7]
Two months before filming, Lori Petty, Reeves and Swayze trained with former world-class professional surfer Dennis Jarvis on the Hawaiian island of Kauai.[7] Jarvis remembers, "Patrick said he'd been on a board a couple of times, Keanu definitely had not surfed before, and Lori had never been in the ocean in her life."[10] Shooting the surfing sequences proved to be challenging for both actors, with Swayze cracking four of his ribs. For many of the surfing scenes, he refused to use a stunt double as he never had one for fight scenes or car chases. He also did the skydiving scenes himself and the film's aerial jump instructor Jim Wallace found that the actor was a natural and took to it right away.[7] The actor ended up making 55 jumps for the film.[11] Swayze actually based aspects of his character after one of his stunt doubles, Darrick Doerner, a top big wave surfer.[12] After learning to surf for the film, Reeves took a liking to it and took it up as a hobby.[13]
Parts of the film were shot at Lake Powell in Utah as well as Ecola State Park and Wheeler, Oregon, and Malibu, Manhattan Beach, Santa Monica, Venice, and Fox Hills Mall in California.[14] Although the final scene of the film is set at Bells Beach, Victoria, Australia, the scene was not filmed there. Bells Beach is a straight stretch and the beach in the film is a cove with spruce trees atop a hill. The actual location of the film was a beach called Indian Beach, in Ecola State Park, located in Cannon Beach, Oregon, USA.[citation needed]
Soundtrack[edit]
Ratt – "Nobody Rides for Free"
Concrete Blonde – "I Want You"
The Jimi Hendrix Experience – "If 6 Was 9"
School of Fish – "Rose Colored Glasses"
Public Image Ltd. – "Criminal"
Shark Island – "My City"
Love – "7 and 7 Is"
Loudhouse – "Smoke on the Water"
Westworld – "So Long Cowboy"
Little Caesar – "Down to the Wire"
L.A. Guns – "Over the Edge"
Liquid Jesus– "7 and 7 Is"
Wire Train – "I Will Not Fall"
Ice-T – "Original Gangster"
Mark Isham – "Foot Chase"
Sheryl Crow – "Hundreds of Tears"
Score album
On February 7, 2008, a score release for Point Break was released by La-La Land Records, featuring composer Mark Isham's score. This edition was limited to 2,000 units and features 65 minutes of score with liner notes by Dan Goldwasser that incorporate comments from both Bigelow and Isham. It is now out of print.[15]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
Point Break was released on July 12, 1991 in 1,615 theaters, grossing $8.5 million on its opening weekend, behind Terminator 2: Judgment Day's (directed by Bigelow's then husband, James Cameron) second weekend and the openings of the re-issue of 101 Dalmatians and Boyz n the Hood. With a budget of $24 million, the film went on to make $43.2 million in North America and $40.3 million internationally for a worldwide total of $83.5 million.[4]
Critical response[edit]
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 68% rating based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1/10.[16] Metacritic reports a 58 out of 100 rating based on 20 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[17] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[18]
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote "Bigelow is an interesting director for this material. She is interested in the ways her characters live dangerously for philosophical reasons. They aren't men of action, but men of thought who choose action as a way of expressing their beliefs."[19] In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin praised Reeves' performance: "A lot of the snap comes, surprisingly, from Mr. Reeves, who displays considerable discipline and range. He moves easily between the buttoned-down demeanor that suits a police procedural story and the loose-jointed manner of his comic roles."[20] Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C+" rating and Owen Gleiberman wrote "Point Break makes those of us who don't spend our lives searching for the ultimate physical rush feel like second-class citizens. The film turns reckless athletic valor into a new form of aristocracy."[21]
In his review for The Washington Post, Hal Hinson wrote "A lot of what Bigelow puts up on the screen bypasses the brain altogether, plugging directly into our viscera, our gut. The surfing scenes in particular are majestically powerful, even awe-inspiring. Bigelow's picture is a feast for the eyes, but we watch movies with more than our eyes. She seduces us, then asks us to be bimbos."[22] Rolling Stone magazine's Peter Travers wrote, "Bigelow can't keep the film from drowning in a sea of surf-speak. But without her, Point Break would be no more than an excuse to ogle pretty boys in wet suits."[23]
USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Mike Clark wrote "Its purely visceral material (surf sounds, skydiving stunt work, a tough indoor shootout midway through) are first-rate. As for the tangibles that matter even more (script, acting, directorial control, credible relationships between characters), Break defies belief. Dramatically, it rivals the lowest surf yet this year."[24] Time magazine's Richard Corliss wrote, "So how do you rate a stunningly made film whose plot buys so blithely into macho mysticism that it threatens to turn into an endless bummer? Looks 10, Brains 3."[25]
In 2006, a special edition was released on DVD (In DVD was released in May 22,2001). Entertainment Weekly gave it a "B" rating and wrote, "The making-of docs (at their best discussing Swayze's extracurricular skydiving—that really is him doing the Adios, amigo fall) will leave you hanging."[26] It was first released on Blu-ray as a special "Pure Adrenaline Edition" on July 1, 2008, but that was later discontinued. Point Break was re-released on Blu-ray by Warner Home Video on June 14, 2011.
Accolades[edit]
At the 1992 MTV Movie Awards, Point Break was nominated for three awards including "Most Desirable Male" (Keanu Reeves), "Most Desirable Male" (Patrick Swayze), and "Best Action Sequence" for the second jump from the plane. In it, Utah jumps out of a plane without a parachute to catch Bodhi and rescue Tyler. Utah catches up with Bodhi and holds a gun to his head. However, Bodhi refuses to pull the rip cord and Utah must decide between dropping his gun (so he can hold on and pull the rip cord) or letting the two fall to the ground. The film ultimately won "Most Desirable Male" for Keanu Reeves.
Legacy[edit]
Point Break was listed in the VH1 series I Love the 90s on the episode "1991". Many celebrities, including Dominic Monaghan, Mo Rocca, Michael Ian Black, Hal Sparks, and Chris Pontius commented about the film and why it deserved to be included in the episode. Entertainment Weekly ranked Point Break as having one of the "10 Best Surfing Scenes" in cinema.[27]
The film inspired a piece of cult theater, Point Break Live!, in which the role of Johnny Utah is played by an audience member chosen by popular acclamation after a brief audition. The new "Keanu" reads all of his (or her) lines from cue-cards for the duration of the show, "to capture the rawness of a Keanu Reeves performance even from those who generally think themselves incapable of acting."[28]
Point Break was referenced in Hot Fuzz, where the scene of Utah emptying his magazine into the sky in frustration is watched by the lead characters and later re-enacted by Nick Frost's character.[29][30]
The scene in which Utah jumps after Bodhi without a parachute was ranked seventh in Empire magazine's Top 10 Crazy Action Sequences. The scene was also tested by the Discovery Channel series MythBusters. It was determined that Utah and Bodhi would not have been able to free-fall for 90 seconds (as in the film), nor would they have been able to hold a conversation in mid-air. However, it was determined that, by streamlining his body, Utah could have conceivably caught up with Bodhi after jumping from the plane.[31]
Point Break has been referenced in Marvel Cinematic Universe films twice, in The Avengers and Thor: Ragnarok, by Tony Stark calling Thor "Point Break" in reference to his long, blond hairstyle, similar to Swayze's character's.
Point Break is referenced on the CBS television program Numb3rs, at the end of the episode entitled "Charlie Don't Surf" (05.7). In a discussion on the benefits of surfing and the connection of surfers to the universe, the character Dr. Larry Fleinhardt quotes Timothy Leary. In response, the character Colby Granger retorts: "It's dancing with the universe." Confused, Fleinhardt asks who said that, to which Granger replies: "Bodhi...Patrick Swayze?...from Point Break...?"
Remake[edit]
Alcon Entertainment and Warner Bros. released a remake of the film in 2015 entitled Point Break, which received mostly negative reviews.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Point Break". www.jamescamerononline.com. Retrieved 2018-03-29.
Jump up ^ "16 Totally Awesome Facts About Point Break". 2016-01-13. Retrieved 2018-03-29.
Jump up ^ "POINT BREAK (15) (CUT)". British Board of Film Classification. August 7, 1991. Retrieved December 25, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Point Break (1991)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
Jump up ^ "With the Point Break remake, I've reached a breaking point".
Jump up ^ Zeitchik, Steven. "'Point Break' remake looks to make a cult classic new, and serious".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Point Break DVD Liner Notes". Point Break: Pure Adrenaline Edition. 20th Century Fox. 2006.
Jump up ^ Cinefile Klady, Leonard. Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File) [Los Angeles, Calif] 14 Aug 1988: K32.
Jump up ^ Strauss, Bob (July 12, 1991). "I'd like to do a lot of different things". The Globe and Mail.
Jump up ^ "Board Certified". Entertainment Weekly. July 26, 1991. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Karen (July 12, 1991). "Swayze's latest step". USA Today.
Jump up ^ Willistein, Paul (July 17, 1991). "Swayze enjoys bad-guy role in Point Break". Toronto Star.
Jump up ^ "Point Break". July 12, 1991 – via IMDb.
Jump up ^ D'Arc, James V. (2010). When Hollywood came to town: a history of moviemaking in Utah (1st ed.). Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith. ISBN 9781423605874.
Jump up ^ "LA LA LAND RECORDS, Point Break". Lalalandrecords.com. Archived from the original on May 4, 2012. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Point Break (1991)". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved December 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Point Break reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved December 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "CinemaScore". cinemascore.com.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (July 12, 1991). "Point Break". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (July 12, 1991). "Surf's Up For F.B.I. In Bigelow's Point Break". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Gleiberman, Owen (July 26, 1991). "Point Break". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Hinson, Hal (July 12, 1991). "Point Break". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Travers, Peter (April 11, 2001). "Point Break". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Clark, Mike (July 12, 1991). "Point Break is a dramatic wipeout". USA Today.
Jump up ^ Corliss, Richard (July 22, 1991). "Cinema". Time. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Bierly, Mandi (September 29, 2006). "DVD Review: Point Break". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ "10 Best Surfing Scenes". Entertainment Weekly. August 8, 2002. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ "Point Break LIVE!". May 12, 2009. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Pegg, Wright and Frost's Best Movie References, From 'Spaced' to 'Hot Fuzz' - BBC America".
Jump up ^ "Point Break movie re-make: Filming underway on 90s classic". September 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ See MythBusters (2007 season)#Point Break Trilogy
External links[edit]
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Information society
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Information society (disambiguation).
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An information society is a society where the creation, distribution, use, integration and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political, and cultural activity. Its main drivers are digital information and communication technologies, which have resulted in an information explosion and are profoundly changing all aspects of social organization, including the economy,[1] education, health, warfare, government[2] and democracy.[3] The People who have the means to partake in this form of society are sometimes called digital citizens. This is one of many dozen labels that have been identified to suggest that humans are entering a new phase of society.[4]
The markers of this rapid change may be technological, economic, occupational, spatial, cultural, or some combination of all of these.[5] Information society is seen as the successor to industrial society. Closely related concepts are the post-industrial society (Daniel Bell), post-fordism, post-modern society, knowledge society, telematic society, Information Revolution, liquid modernity, and network society (Manuel Castells).
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 The growth of information in society
3 Development of the information society model
3.1 Economic transition
3.2 Critiques
4 Second and third nature
5 Sociological uses
6 Related terms
7 Intellectual property considerations
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Works cited[1]
10 Further reading
11 External links
Definition[edit]
There is currently no universally accepted concept of what exactly can be termed information society and what shall rather not so be termed. Most theoreticians agree that a transformation can be seen that started somewhere between the 1970s and today and is changing the way societies work fundamentally. Information technology goes beyond the internet, and there are discussions about how big the influence of specific media or specific modes of production really is. Frank Webster notes five major types of information that can be used to define information society: technological, economic, occupational, spatial and cultural.[5] According to Webster, the character of information has transformed the way that we live today. How we conduct ourselves centers around theoretical knowledge and information.[6]
Kasiwulaya and Gomo (Makerere University) allude that information societies are those that have intensified their use of IT for economic, social, cultural and political transformation. In 2005, governments reaffirmed their dedication to the foundations of the Information Society in the Tunis Commitment and outlined the basis for implementation and follow-up in the Tunis Agenda for the Information Society. In particular, the Tunis Agenda addresses the issues of financing of ICTs for development and Internet governance that could not be resolved in the first phase.
Some people, such as Antonio Negri, characterize the information society as one in which people do immaterial labour. By this, they appear to refer to the production of knowledge or cultural artifacts. One problem with this model is that it ignores the material and essentially industrial basis of the society. However it does point to a problem for workers, namely how many creative people does this society need to function? For example, it may be that you only need a few star performers, rather than a plethora of non-celebrities, as the work of those performers can be easily distributed, forcing all secondary players to the bottom of the market. It is now common for publishers to promote only their best selling authors and to try to avoid the rest—even if they still sell steadily. Films are becoming more and more judged, in terms of distribution, by their first weekend's performance, in many cases cutting out opportunity for word-of-mouth development.
Michael Buckland characterizes information in society in his book Information and Society. Buckland expresses the idea that information can be interpreted differently from person to person based on that individual's experiences.[7]
Considering that metaphors and technologies of information move forward in a reciprocal relationship, we can describe some societies (especially the Japanese society) as an information society because we think of it as such as letters.[8] [9]
The word information may be interpreted in many different ways. According to Buckland in Information and Society, most of the meanings fall into three categories of human knowledge: information as knowledge, information as a process, and information as a thing.[10]
The growth of information in society[edit]
Internet users per 100 inhabitants Source: International Telecommunications Union.[11][12]
The amount of data stored globally has increased greatly since the 1980s, and by 2007, 94% of it was stored digitally. Source
The growth of technologically mediated information has been quantified in different ways, including society's technological capacity to store information, to communicate information, and to compute information. It is estimated that, the world's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986, which is the informational equivalent to less than one 730-MB CD-ROM per person in 1986 (539 MB per person), to 295 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007.[13] This is the informational equivalent of 60 CD-ROM per person in 2007[14] and represents a sustained annual growth rate of some 25%. The world’s combined technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was the informational equivalent of 174 newspapers per person per day in 2007.[13]
The world's combined effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was 281 petabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986, 471 petabytes in 1993, 2.2 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2000, and 65 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007, which is the informational equivalent of 6 newspapers per person per day in 2007.[14] The world's technological capacity to compute information with humanly guided general-purpose computers grew from 3.0 × 10^8 MIPS in 1986, to 6.4 x 10^12 MIPS in 2007, experiencing the fastest growth rate of over 60% per year during the last two decades.[13]
James R. Beniger describes the necessity of information in modern society in the following way: “The need for sharply increased control that resulted from the industrialization of material processes through application of inanimate sources of energy probably accounts for the rapid development of automatic feedback technology in the early industrial period (1740-1830)” (p. 174) “Even with enhanced feedback control, industry could not have developed without the enhanced means to process matter and energy, not only as inputs of the raw materials of production but also as outputs distributed to final consumption.”(p. 175)[4]
Development of the information society model[edit]
Colin Clark's sector model of an economy undergoing technological change. In later stages, the Quaternary sector of the economy grows.
One of the first people to develop the concept of the information society was the economist Fritz Machlup. In 1933, Fritz Machlup began studying the effect of patents on research. His work culminated in the study The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States in 1962. This book was widely regarded[15] and was eventually translated into Russian and Japanese. The Japanese have also studied the information society (or jōhōka shakai, 情報化社会).
The issue of technologies and their role in contemporary society have been discussed in the scientific literature using a range of labels and concepts. This section introduces some of them. Ideas of a knowledge or information economy, post-industrial society, postmodern society, network society, the information revolution, informational capitalism, network capitalism, and the like, have been debated over the last several decades.
Fritz Machlup (1962) introduced the concept of the knowledge industry. He began studying the effects of patents on research before distinguishing five sectors of the knowledge sector: education, research and development, mass media, information technologies, information services. Based on this categorization he calculated that in 1959 29% per cent of the GNP in the USA had been produced in knowledge industries.[16][17][citation needed]
Economic transition[edit]
Peter Drucker has argued that there is a transition from an economy based on material goods to one based on knowledge.[18] Marc Porat distinguishes a primary (information goods and services that are directly used in the production, distribution or processing of information) and a secondary sector (information services produced for internal consumption by government and non-information firms) of the information economy.[19]
Porat uses the total value added by the primary and secondary information sector to the GNP as an indicator for the information economy. The OECD has employed Porat's definition for calculating the share of the information economy in the total economy (e.g. OECD 1981, 1986). Based on such indicators, the information society has been defined as a society where more than half of the GNP is produced and more than half of the employees are active in the information economy.[20]
For Daniel Bell the number of employees producing services and information is an indicator for the informational character of a society. "A post-industrial society is based on services. (…) What counts is not raw muscle power, or energy, but information. (…) A post industrial society is one in which the majority of those employed are not involved in the production of tangible goods".[21]
Alain Touraine already spoke in 1971 of the post-industrial society. "The passage to postindustrial society takes place when investment results in the production of symbolic goods that modify values, needs, representations, far more than in the production of material goods or even of 'services'. Industrial society had transformed the means of production: post-industrial society changes the ends of production, that is, culture. (…) The decisive point here is that in postindustrial society all of the economic system is the object of intervention of society upon itself. That is why we can call it the programmed society, because this phrase captures its capacity to create models of management, production, organization, distribution, and consumption, so that such a society appears, at all its functional levels, as the product of an action exercised by the society itself, and not as the outcome of natural laws or cultural specificities" (Touraine 1988: 104). In the programmed society also the area of cultural reproduction including aspects such as information, consumption, health, research, education would be industrialized. That modern society is increasing its capacity to act upon itself means for Touraine that society is reinvesting ever larger parts of production and so produces and transforms itself. This makes Touraine's concept substantially different from that of Daniel Bell who focused on the capacity to process and generate information for efficient society functioning.
Jean-François Lyotard[22] has argued that "knowledge has become the principle [sic] force of production over the last few decades". Knowledge would be transformed into a commodity. Lyotard says that postindustrial society makes knowledge accessible to the layman because knowledge and information technologies would diffuse into society and break up Grand Narratives of centralized structures and groups. Lyotard denotes these changing circumstances as postmodern condition or postmodern society.
Similarly to Bell, Peter Otto and Philipp Sonntag (1985) say that an information society is a society where the majority of employees work in information jobs, i.e. they have to deal more with information, signals, symbols, and images than with energy and matter. Radovan Richta (1977) argues that society has been transformed into a scientific civilization based on services, education, and creative activities. This transformation would be the result of a scientific-technological transformation based on technological progress and the increasing importance of computer technology. Science and technology would become immediate forces of production (Aristovnik 2014: 55).
Nico Stehr (1994, 2002a, b) says that in the knowledge society a majority of jobs involves working with knowledge. "Contemporary society may be described as a knowledge society based on the extensive penetration of all its spheres of life and institutions by scientific and technological knowledge" (Stehr 2002b: 18). For Stehr, knowledge is a capacity for social action. Science would become an immediate productive force, knowledge would no longer be primarily embodied in machines, but already appropriated nature that represents knowledge would be rearranged according to certain designs and programs (Ibid.: 41-46). For Stehr, the economy of a knowledge society is largely driven not by material inputs, but by symbolic or knowledge-based inputs (Ibid.: 67), there would be a large number of professions that involve working with knowledge, and a declining number of jobs that demand low cognitive skills as well as in manufacturing (Stehr 2002a).
Also Alvin Toffler argues that knowledge is the central resource in the economy of the information society: "In a Third Wave economy, the central resource – a single word broadly encompassing data, information, images, symbols, culture, ideology, and values – is actionable knowledge" (Dyson/Gilder/Keyworth/Toffler 1994).
At the end of the twentieth century, the concept of the network society gained importance in information society theory. For Manuel Castells, network logic is besides information, pervasiveness, flexibility, and convergence a central feature of the information technology paradigm (2000a: 69ff). "One of the key features of informational society is the networking logic of its basic structure, which explains the use of the concept of 'network society'" (Castells 2000: 21). "As an historical trend, dominant functions and processes in the Information Age are increasingly organized around networks. Networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies, and the diffusion of networking logic substantially modifies the operation and outcomes in processes of production, experience, power, and culture" (Castells 2000: 500). For Castells the network society is the result of informationalism, a new technological paradigm.
Jan Van Dijk (2006) defines the network society as a "social formation with an infrastructure of social and media networks enabling its prime mode of organization at all levels (individual, group/organizational and societal). Increasingly, these networks link all units or parts of this formation (individuals, groups and organizations)" (Van Dijk 2006: 20). For Van Dijk networks have become the nervous system of society, whereas Castells links the concept of the network society to capitalist transformation, Van Dijk sees it as the logical result of the increasing widening and thickening of networks in nature and society. Darin Barney uses the term for characterizing societies that exhibit two fundamental characteristics: "The first is the presence in those societies of sophisticated – almost exclusively digital – technologies of networked communication and information management/distribution, technologies which form the basic infrastructure mediating an increasing array of social, political and economic practices. (…) The second, arguably more intriguing, characteristic of network societies is the reproduction and institutionalization throughout (and between) those societies of networks as the basic form of human organization and relationship across a wide range of social, political and economic configurations and associations".[23]
Critiques[edit]
The major critique of concepts such as information society, knowledge society, network society, postmodern society, postindustrial society, etc. that has mainly been voiced by critical scholars is that they create the impression that we have entered a completely new type of society. "If there is just more information then it is hard to understand why anyone should suggest that we have before us something radically new" (Webster 2002a: 259). Critics such as Frank Webster argue that these approaches stress discontinuity, as if contemporary society had nothing in common with society as it was 100 or 150 years ago. Such assumptions would have ideological character because they would fit with the view that we can do nothing about change and have to adopt to existing political realities (kasiwulaya 2002b: 267).
These critics argue that contemporary society first of all is still a capitalist society oriented towards accumulating economic, political, and cultural capital. They acknowledge that information society theories stress some important new qualities of society (notably globalization and informatization), but charge that they fail to show that these are attributes of overall capitalist structures. Critics such as Webster insist on the continuities that characterise change. In this way Webster distinguishes between different epochs of capitalism: laissez-faire capitalism of the 19th century, corporate capitalism in the 20th century, and informational capitalism for the 21st century (kasiwulaya 2006).
For describing contemporary society based on a dialectic of the old and the new, continuity and discontinuity, other critical scholars have suggested several terms like:
transnational network capitalism, transnational informational capitalism (Christian Fuchs 2008, 2007): "Computer networks are the technological foundation that has allowed the emergence of global network capitalism, that is, regimes of accumulation, regulation, and discipline that are helping to increasingly base the accumulation of economic, political, and cultural capital on transnational network organizations that make use of cyberspace and other new technologies for global coordination and communication. [...] The need to find new strategies for executing corporate and political domination has resulted in a restructuration of capitalism that is characterized by the emergence of transnational, networked spaces in the economic, political, and cultural system and has been mediated by cyberspace as a tool of global coordination and communication. Economic, political, and cultural space have been restructured; they have become more fluid and dynamic, have enlarged their borders to a transnational scale, and handle the inclusion and exclusion of nodes in flexible ways. These networks are complex due to the high number of nodes (individuals, enterprises, teams, political actors, etc.) that can be involved and the high speed at which a high number of resources is produced and transported within them. But global network capitalism is based on structural inequalities; it is made up of segmented spaces in which central hubs (transnational corporations, certain political actors, regions, countries, Western lifestyles, and worldviews) centralize the production, control, and flows of economic, political, and cultural capital (property, power, definition capacities). This segmentation is an expression of the overall competitive character of contemporary society." (Fuchs 2008: 110+119).
digital capitalism (Schiller 2000, cf. also Peter Glotz):[24] "networks are directly generalizing the social and cultural range of the capitalist economy as never before" (Schiller 2000: xiv)
virtual capitalism: the "combination of marketing and the new information technology will enable certain firms to obtain higher profit margins and larger market shares, and will thereby promote greater concentration and centralization of capital" (Dawson/John Bellamy Foster 1998: 63sq),
high-tech capitalism[25] or informatic capitalism (Fitzpatrick 2002) – to focus on the computer as a guiding technology that has transformed the productive forces of capitalism and has enabled a globalized economy.
Other scholars prefer to speak of information capitalism (Morris-Suzuki 1997) or informational capitalism (Manuel Castells 2000, Christian Fuchs 2005, Schmiede 2006a, b). Manuel Castells sees informationalism as a new technological paradigm (he speaks of a mode of development) characterized by "information generation, processing, and transmission" that have become "the fundamental sources of productivity and power" (Castells 2000: 21). The "most decisive historical factor accelerating, channelling and shaping the information technology paradigm, and inducing its associated social forms, was/is the process of capitalist restructuring undertaken since the 1980s, so that the new techno-economic system can be adequately characterized as informational capitalism" (Castells 2000: 18). Castells has added to theories of the information society the idea that in contemporary society dominant functions and processes are increasingly organized around networks that constitute the new social morphology of society (Castells 2000: 500). Nicholas Garnham[26] is critical of Castells and argues that the latter’s account is technologically determinist because Castells points out that his approach is based on a dialectic of technology and society in which technology embodies society and society uses technology (Castells 2000: 5sqq). But Castells also makes clear that the rise of a new "mode of development" is shaped by capitalist production, i.e. by society, which implies that technology isn't the only driving force of society.
Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt argue that contemporary society is an Empire that is characterized by a singular global logic of capitalist domination that is based on immaterial labour. With the concept of immaterial labour Negri and Hardt introduce ideas of information society discourse into their Marxist account of contemporary capitalism. Immaterial labour would be labour "that creates immaterial products, such as knowledge, information, communication, a relationship, or an emotional response" (Hardt/Negri 2005: 108; cf. also 2000: 280-303), or services, cultural products, knowledge (Hardt/Negri 2000: 290). There would be two forms: intellectual labour that produces ideas, symbols, codes, texts, linguistic figures, images, etc.; and affective labour that produces and manipulates affects such as a feeling of ease, well-being, satisfaction, excitement, passion, joy, sadness, etc. (Ibid.).
Overall, neo-Marxist accounts of the information society have in common that they stress that knowledge, information technologies, and computer networks have played a role in the restructuration and globalization of capitalism and the emergence of a flexible regime of accumulation (David Harvey 1989). They warn that new technologies are embedded into societal antagonisms that cause structural unemployment, rising poverty, social exclusion, the deregulation of the welfare state and of labour rights, the lowering of wages, welfare, etc.
Concepts such as knowledge society, information society, network society, informational capitalism, postindustrial society, transnational network capitalism, postmodern society, etc. show that there is a vivid discussion in contemporary sociology on the character of contemporary society and the role that technologies, information, communication, and co-operation play in it.[citation needed] Information society theory discusses the role of information and information technology in society, the question which key concepts shall be used for characterizing contemporary society, and how to define such concepts. It has become a specific branch of contemporary sociology.
Second and third nature[edit]
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Information society is the means of getting information from one place to another.[27] As technology has advanced so too has the way people have adapted in sharing this information with each other.
"Second nature" refers a group of experiences that get made over by culture.[28] They then get remade into something else that can then take on a new meaning. As a society we transform this process so it becomes something natural to us, i.e. second nature. So, by following a particular pattern created by culture we are able to recognise how we use and move information in different ways. From sharing information via different time zones (such as talking online) to information ending up in a different location (sending a letter overseas) this has all become a habitual process that we as a society take for granted.[29]
However, through the process of sharing information vectors have enabled us to spread information even further. Through the use of these vectors information is able to move and then separate from the initial things that enabled them to move.[30] From here, something called "third nature" has developed. An extension of second nature, third nature is in control of second nature. It expands on what second nature is limited by. It has the ability to mould information in new and different ways. So, third nature is able to ‘speed up, proliferate, divide, mutate, and beam in on us from else where.[31] It aims to create a balance between the boundaries of space and time (see second nature). This can be seen through the telegraph, it was the first successful technology that could send and receive information faster than a human being could move an object.[32] As a result different vectors of people have the ability to not only shape culture but create new possibilities that will ultimately shape society.
Therefore, through the use of second nature and third nature society is able to use and explore new vectors of possibility where information can be moulded to create new forms of interaction.[33]
Sociological uses[edit]
In sociology, informational society refers to a post-modern type of society. Theoreticians like Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens and Manuel Castells argue that since the 1970s a transformation from industrial society to informational society has happened on a global scale.[34]
As steam power was the technology standing behind industrial society, so information technology is seen as the catalyst for the changes in work organisation, societal structure and politics occurring in the late 20th century.
In the book Future Shock, Alvin Toffler used the phrase super-industrial society to describe this type of society. Other writers and thinkers have used terms like "post-industrial society" and "post-modern industrial society" with a similar meaning.
Related terms[edit]
A number of terms in current use emphasize related but different aspects of the emerging global economic order. The Information Society intends to be the most encompassing in that an economy is a subset of a society. The Information Age is somewhat limiting, in that it refers to a 30-year period between the widespread use of computers and the knowledge economy, rather than an emerging economic order. The knowledge era is about the nature of the content, not the socioeconomic processes by which it will be traded. The computer revolution, and knowledge revolution refer to specific revolutionary transitions, rather than the end state towards which we are evolving. The Information Revolution relates with the well known terms agricultural revolution and industrial revolution.
The information economy and the knowledge economy emphasize the content or intellectual property that is being traded through an information market or knowledge market, respectively. Electronic commerce and electronic business emphasize the nature of transactions and running a business, respectively, using the Internet and World-Wide Web. The digital economy focuses on trading bits in cyberspace rather than atoms in physical space. The network economy stresses that businesses will work collectively in webs or as part of business ecosystems rather than as stand-alone units. Social networking refers to the process of collaboration on massive, global scales. The internet economy focuses on the nature of markets that are enabled by the Internet.
Knowledge services and knowledge value put content into an economic context. Knowledge services integrates Knowledge management, within a Knowledge organization, that trades in a Knowledge market. In order for individuals to receive more knowledge, surveillance is used. This relates to the use of Drones as a tool in order to gather knowledge on other individuals. Although seemingly synonymous, each term conveys more than nuances or slightly different views of the same thing. Each term represents one attribute of the likely nature of economic activity in the emerging post-industrial society. Alternatively, the new economic order will incorporate all of the above plus other attributes that have not yet fully emerged.
In connection with the development of the information society, appeared information pollution, evolving information ecology - associated with information hygiene.[35]
Today, It is important to selectively select the information. Due to information revolution, the amount of information is puzzling. Among these, we need to develop techniques that refine information. This is called data mining. It is an engineering term, but it is used in sociology. In other words, if the amount of information was competitive in the past, the quality of information is important today.
Intellectual property considerations[edit]
One of the central paradoxes of the information society is that it makes information easily reproducible, leading to a variety of freedom/control problems relating to intellectual property. Essentially, business and capital, whose place becomes that of producing and selling information and knowledge, seems to require control over this new resource so that it can effectively be managed and sold as the basis of the information economy. However, such control can prove to be both technically and socially problematic. Technically because copy protection is often easily circumvented and socially rejected because the users and citizens of the information society can prove to be unwilling to accept such absolute commodification of the facts and information that compose their environment.
Responses to this concern range from the Digital Millennium Copyright Act in the United States (and similar legislation elsewhere) which make copy protection (see DRM) circumvention illegal, to the free software, open source and copyleft movements, which seek to encourage and disseminate the "freedom" of various information products (traditionally both as in "gratis" or free of cost, and liberty, as in freedom to use, explore and share).
Caveat: Information society is often used by politicians meaning something like "we all do internet now"; the sociological term information society (or informational society) has some deeper implications about change of societal structure. Because we lack political control of intellectual property, we are lacking in a concrete map of issues, an analysis of costs and benefits, and functioning political groups that are unified by common interests representing different opinions of this diverse situation that are prominent in the information society.[36]
See also[edit]
Digital transformation
Digital Dark Ages
Digital addict
Digital phobic
Information culture
Information history
Information industry
Information Revolution
Network society
Noogenesis
Simon Buckingham and unorganisation
Surveillance capitalism
The Information Society (journal)
World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)
Yoneji Masuda
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hilbert, M. (2015). Digital Technology and Social Change [Open Online Course at the University of California] freely available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xR4sQ3f6tW8&list=PLtjBSCvWCU3rNm46D3R85efM0hrzjuAIg
Jump up ^ Hilbert, M. (2015). Digital Technology and Social Change [Open Online Course at the University of California] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KKGedDCKa68&list=PLtjBSCvWCU3rNm46D3R85efM0hrzjuAIg freely available at: https://canvas.instructure.com/courses/949415
Jump up ^ Hilbert, M. (2015). Digital Technology and Social Change [Open Online Course at the University of California] freely available at: https://canvas.instructure.com/courses/949415
^ Jump up to: a b Beniger, James R. (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Webster, Frank (2002). Theories of the Information Society. Cambridge: Routledge.
Jump up ^ Webster, F. (2006). Chapter 2: What is an information society? In Theories of the Information Society, 3rd ed. (pp. 15-31). New York: Routledge.
Jump up ^ Buckland, Michael (March 3, 2017). Information in Society. MIT Press.
Jump up ^ James Boyle, 1996, 6
Jump up ^ Kasiwulaya and Walter, Makerere University. Makerere University Press.
Jump up ^ Buckland, Michael (2017). Information and Society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 22.
Jump up ^ "Individuals using the Internet 2005 to 2014", Key ICT indicators for developed and developing countries and the world (totals and penetration rates), International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 25 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 1997 to 2007", ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 25 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science (journal), 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here: martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
^ Jump up to: a b "video animation on The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010
Jump up ^ Susan Crawford: "The Origin and Development of a Concept: The Information Society". Bull Med Libr Assoc. 71(4) October 1983: 380–385.
Jump up ^ Rooney, Jim (2014). Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Intellectual Capital, Knowledge Management and Organizational Learning. UK: Academic Conferences and Publishing International Limited. p. 261. ISBN 978-1-910309-71-1.
Jump up ^ Machlup, Fritz (1962). The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jump up ^ Peter Drucker (1969) The Age of Discontinuity. London: Heinemann
Jump up ^ Marc Porat (1977) The Information Economy. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce
Jump up ^ Karl Deutsch (1983) Soziale und politische Aspekte der Informationsgesellschaft. In: Philipp Sonntag (Ed.) (1983) Die Zukunft der Informationsgesellschaft. Frankfurt/Main: Haag & Herchen. pp. 68-88
Jump up ^ Daniel Bell (1976) The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. New York: Basic Books, 127, 348
Jump up ^ Jean-François Lyotard (1984) The Postmodern Condition. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 5
Jump up ^ Darin Barney (2003) The Network Society. Cambridge: Polity, 25sq
Jump up ^ Peter Glotz (1999) Die beschleunigte Gesellschaft. Kulturkämpfe im digitalen Kapitalismus. München: Kindler.
Jump up ^ Wolfgang Fritz Haug (2003) High-Tech-Kapitalismus. Hamburg: Argument.
Jump up ^ Nicholas Garnham (2004) Information Society Theory as Ideology. In: Frank Webster (Ed.) (2004) The Information Society Reader. London: Routledge.
Jump up ^ Wark 1997, p. 22.
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Jump up ^ Eryomin A.L. Information ecology - a viewpoint// International Journal of Environmental Studies. - 1998. - Vol. 54. - pp. 241-253.
Jump up ^ Boyle, James. “A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net?” Duke Law Journal, vol. 47, no. 1, 1997, pp. 87–116. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1372861.
Works cited[1][edit]
Wark, McKenzie (1997). The Virtual Republic. Allen & Unwin, St Leonards.
Further reading[edit]
Alan Mckenna (2011) A Human Right to Participate in the Information Society. New York: Hampton Press. ISBN 978-1-61289-046-3.
Lev Manovich (2009) How to Represent Information Society?, Miltos Manetas, Paintings from Contemporary Life, Johan & Levi Editore, Milan . Online: [1]
Manuel Castells (2000) The Rise of the Network Society. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume 1. Malden: Blackwell. Second Edition.
Michael Dawson/John Bellamy Foster (1998) Virtual Capitalism. In: Robert W. McChesney/Ellen Meiksins Wood/John Bellamy Foster (Eds.) (1998) Capitalism and the Information Age. New York: Monthly Review Press. pp. 51–67.
Aleksander Aristovnik (2014) Development of the information society and its impact on the education sector in the EU : efficiency at the regional (NUTS 2) level. In: Turkish online journal of educational technology. Vol. 13. No. 2. pp. 54–60.
Alistair Duff (2000) Information Society Studies. London: Routledge.
Esther Dyson/George Gilder/George Keyworth/Alvin Toffler (1994) Cyberspace and the American Dream: A Magna Carta for the Knowledge Age. In: Future Insight 1.2. The Progress & Freedom Foundation.
Tony Fitzpatrick (2002) Critical Theory, Information Society and Surveillance Technologies. In: Information, Communication and Society. Vol. 5. No. 3. pp. 357–378.
Vilém Flusser (2013) Post-History, Univocal Publishing, Minneapolis ISBN 9781937561093 [2]
Christian Fuchs (2008) Internet and Society: Social Theory in the Information Age. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96132-7.
Christian Fuchs (2007) Transnational Space and the ’Network Society’. In: 21st Century Society. Vol. 2. No. 1. pp. 49–78.
Christian Fuchs (2005) Emanzipation! Technik und Politik bei Herbert Marcuse. Aachen: Shaker.
Christian Fuchs (2004) The Antagonistic Self-Organization of Modern Society. In: Studies in Political Economy, No. 73 (2004), pp. 183– 209.
Michael Hardt/Antonio Negri (2005) Multitude. War and Democracy in the Age of the Empire. New York: Hamish Hamilton.
Michael Hardt/Antonio Negri Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
David Harvey (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity. London: Blackwell.
Fritz Machlup (1962) The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
OECD (1986) Trends in The Information Economy. Paris: OECD.
OECD (1981) Information Activities, Electronics and Telecommunications Technologies: Impact on Employment, Growth and Trade. Paris: OECD.
Pasquinelli, M. (2014) Italian Operaismo and the Information Machine, Theory, Culture & Society, first published on February 2, 2014.
Pastore G. (2009) Verso la società della conoscenza, Le Lettere, Firenze.
Peter Otto/Philipp Sonntag (1985) Wege in die Informationsgesellschaft. München. dtv.
Pinterič, Uroš (2015): Spregledane pasti informacijske družbe. Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu ISBN 978-961-6974-07-3
Radovan Richta (1977) The Scientific and Technological Revolution and the Prospects of Social Development. In: Ralf Dahrendorf (Ed.) (1977) Scientific-Technological Revolution. Social Aspects. London: Sage. pp. 25–72.
Dan Schiller (2000) Digital Capitalism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rudi Schmiede (2006a) Knowledge, Work and Subject in Informational Capitalism. In: Berleur, Jacques/Nurminen, Markku I./Impagliazzo, John (Eds.) (2006) Social Informatics: An Information Society for All? New York: Springer. pp. 333–354.
Rudi Schmiede (2006b) Wissen und Arbeit im “Informational Capitalism”. In: Baukrowitz, Andrea et al. (Eds.) (2006) Informatisierung der Arbeit – Gesellschaft im Umbruch. Berlin: Edition Sigma. pp. 455–488.
Seely Brown, John; Duguid, Paul (2000). The Social Life of Information. Harvard Business School Press.
Nico Stehr (1994) Arbeit, Eigentum und Wissen. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp.
Nico Stehr (2002a) A World Made of Knowledge. Lecture at the Conference “New Knowledge and New Consciousness in the Era of the Knowledge Society", Budapest, January 31, 2002. Online: [3]
Nico Stehr (2002b) Knowledge & Economic Conduct. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Alain Touraine (1988) Return of the Actor. Minneapolis. University of Minnesota Press.
Jan Van Dijk (2006) The Network Society. London: Sage. Second Edition.
Yannis Veneris (1984) The Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
Yannis Veneris (1990) Modeling the transition from the Industrial to the Informational Revolution, Environment and Planning A 22(3):399-416. [4]
Frank Webster (2002a) The Information Society Revisited. In: Lievrouw, Leah A./Livingstone, Sonia (Eds.) (2002) Handbook of New Media. London: Sage. pp. 255–266.
Frank Webster (2002b) Theories of the Information Society. London: Routledge.
Frank Webster (2006) Theories of the Information Society. 3rd edition. London: Routledge
Gelbstein, E. (2006) Crossing the Executive Digital Divide. ISBN 99932-53-17-0
External links[edit]
‹ The template below (Library resources box) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Library resources about
Information society
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Special Report - "Information Society: The Next Steps"
Knowledge Assessment Methodology - interactive country-level data for the information society and knowledge economy
The origin and development of a concept: the information society.
Global Information Society Project at the World Policy Institute
UNESCO - Observatory on the Information Society
I/S: A Journal of Law and Policy for the Information Society - Ohio State law journal which addresses legal aspects related to the information society.
[5] - Participation in the Broadband Society. European network on social and technical research on the emerging information society.
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text:
White hat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up white hat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
White hat, white hats, or white-hat may refer to:
Contents
[hide]
1 Art, entertainment, and media
2 Other uses
3 See also
Art, entertainment, and media[edit]
White hat, a way of thinking in Edward de Bono's book Six Thinking Hats
White hat, part of black and white hat symbolism in film
Other uses[edit]
White hat (computer security), a computer hacker intending to improve security
White hat, a U.S. Navy version of a sailor cap
White hat bias, the tendency to accept desired findings with less evidence than is required to prove other outcomes
See also[edit]
Black hat (disambiguation)
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title White hat.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=White_hat&oldid=779174070"
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This page was last edited on 7 May 2017, at 12:42.
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