text:
Sherman Antitrust Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is missing information about background. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (March 2017)
Sherman Antitrust Act
Long title
An act to protect trade and commerce against unlawful restraints and monopolies
Enacted by
the 51st United States Congress
Citations
Statutes at Large
26 Stat. 209
Legislative history
Introduced in the Senate by John Sherman
Passed the Senate on (52–1)
Signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison on July 2, 1890
United States Supreme Court cases
Northern Securities Co. v. United States, 193 U.S. 197 (1904)
Hale v. Henkel, 201 U.S. 43 (1906)
Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States, 221 U.S. 1 (1911)
United States v. American Tobacco Co., 221 U.S. 106 (1911)
Federal Baseball Club v. National League, 259 U.S. 200 (1922)
United States v. National City Lines, 334 U.S. 573 (1948)
Lorain Journal Co. v. United States, 342 U.S. 143 (1951)
Sen. John Sherman (R–OH), the principal author of the Sherman Antitrust Act
Competition law
Basic concepts
History of competition law
Monopoly
Coercive monopoly
Natural monopoly
Barriers to entry
Herfindahl–Hirschman Index
Market concentration
Market power
SSNIP test
Relevant market
Merger control
Anti-competitive practices
Monopolization
Collusion
Formation of cartels
Price fixing
Bid rigging
Product bundling and tying
Refusal to deal
Group boycott
Essential facilities
Exclusive dealing
Dividing territories
Conscious parallelism
Predatory pricing
Misuse of patents and copyrights
Enforcement authorities and organizations
International Competition Network
List of competition regulators
v
t
e
The Sherman Antitrust Act (Sherman Act,[1] 26 Stat. 209, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1–7) is a landmark federal statute in the history of United States antitrust law (or "competition law") passed by Congress in 1890 under the presidency of Benjamin Harrison. It allowed certain business activities that federal government regulators deem to be competitive, and recommended the federal government to investigate and pursue trusts.
In the general sense, a trust is a centuries-old legal arrangement whereby one party conveys property to a trustee to hold for a beneficiary. These are commonly used to hold inheritances for the benefit of children, for example. The specific sense from 19th-century America used in the law refers to a type of trust which combines several large businesses for monopolistic purposes – to exert complete control over a market – though the law addresses monopolistic practices even if they have nothing to do with this specific legal arrangement.[2] In most countries outside the United States, antitrust law is known as "competition law".
The law attempts to prevent the artificial raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply.[3] "Innocent monopoly", or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is perfectly legal, but acts by a monopolist to artificially preserve that status, or nefarious dealings to create a monopoly, are not. The purpose of the Sherman Act is not to protect competitors from harm from legitimately successful businesses, nor to prevent businesses from gaining honest profits from consumers, but rather to preserve a competitive marketplace to protect consumers from abuses.[4]
Over time, the act has also been used more broadly, to oppose the combination of entities that could potentially harm competition, such as monopolies or cartels.
Contents
[hide]
1 Provisions
1.1 Original text
1.1.1 Subsequent legislation expanding its scope
2 Legacy
3 Legislative intent
4 Legal application
4.1 Constitutional basis for legislation
4.2 Elements
4.3 Violations "per se" and violations of the "rule of reason"
4.4 Modern trends
4.4.1 Inference of conspiracy
4.4.1.1 Manipulation of market
4.5 Monopoly
4.6 Application of the act outside pure commerce
5 Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition
6 Criticism
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Provisions[edit]
Original text[edit]
The Sherman Act is divided into three sections. Section 1 delineates and prohibits specific means of anticompetitive conduct, while Section 2 deals with end results that are anti-competitive in nature. Thus, these sections supplement each other in an effort to prevent businesses from violating the spirit of the Act, while technically remaining within the letter of the law. Section 3 simply extends the provisions of Section 1 to U.S. territories and the District of Columbia.
Section 1:
"Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal."[5]
Section 2:
"Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony [. . . ]"[6]
Subsequent legislation expanding its scope[edit]
The Clayton Antitrust Act, passed in 1914, prescribes certain additional activities that had been discovered to fall outside the scope of the Sherman Antitrust Act. For example, the Clayton Act added certain practices to the list of impermissible activities:
price discrimination between different purchasers, if such discrimination tends to create a monopoly
exclusive dealing agreements
tying arrangements
mergers and acquisitions that substantially reduce market competition.
The Robinson–Patman Act of 1936 amended the Clayton Act. The amendment proscribed certain anti-competitive practices in which manufacturers engaged in price discrimination against equally-situated distributors.
Legacy[edit]
Main article: History of United States antitrust law
The federal government began filing cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. Some cases were successful and others were not; many took several years to decide, including appeals.
Notable cases filed under the act include:[7]
United States v. Workingmen's Amalgamated Council of New Orleans (1893), which was the first to hold that the law applied to labor unions (reversed by the Clayton Antitrust Act).
Chesapeake & Ohio Fuel Co. v. United States (1902), in which the trust was dissolved[8]
Northern Securities Co. v. United States (1904), which reached the Supreme Court, dissolved the company and set many precedents for interpretation.
Hale v. Henkel (1906) also reached the Supreme Court. Precedent was set for the production of documents by an officer of a company, and the self-incrimination of the officer in his or her testimony to the grand jury. Hale was an officer of the American Tobacco Co.
Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States (1911), which broke up the company based on geography, and contributed to the Panic of 1910–11.
United States v. American Tobacco Co. (1911), which split the company into four.
Federal Baseball Club v. National League (1922) in which the Supreme Court ruled that Major League Baseball was not interstate commerce and was not subject to the anti-trust law.
United States v. National City Lines (1953), related to the General Motors streetcar conspiracy.
United States v. AT&T Co., which was settled in 1982 and resulted in the breakup of the company.
United States v. Microsoft Corp. was settled in 2001 without the breakup of the company.
Legislative intent[edit]
As explained by the U.S. Supreme Court in Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan 506 U.S. 447 (1993):
The purpose of the [Sherman] Act is not to protect businesses from the working of the market; it is to protect the public from the failure of the market. The law directs itself not against conduct which is competitive, even severely so, but against conduct which unfairly tends to destroy competition itself.[9]
According to its authors, it was not intended to impact market gains obtained by honest means, by benefiting the consumers more than the competitors. Senator George Hoar of Massachusetts, another author of the Sherman Act, said the following:
"... [a person] who merely by superior skill and intelligence...got the whole business because nobody could do it as well as he could was not a monopolist..(but was if) it involved something like the use of means which made it impossible for other persons to engage in fair competition."[10]
At Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader 310 U. S. 469, 310 U. S. 492-93 and n. 15:
The legislative history of the Sherman Act, as well as the decisions of this Court interpreting it, show that it was not aimed at policing interstate transportation or movement of goods and property. The legislative history and the voluminous literature which was generated in the course of the enactment and during fifty years of litigation of the Sherman Act give no hint that such was its purpose.[11] They do not suggest that, in general, state laws or law enforcement machinery were inadequate to prevent local obstructions or interferences with interstate transportation, or presented any problem requiring the interposition of federal authority.[12] In 1890, when the Sherman Act was adopted, there were only a few federal statutes imposing penalties for obstructing or misusing interstate transportation.[13] With an expanding commerce, many others have since been enacted safeguarding transportation in interstate commerce as the need was seen, including statutes declaring conspiracies to interfere or actual interference with interstate commerce by violence or threats of violence to be felonies.[14] The law was enacted in the era of "trusts" and of "combinations" of businesses and of capital organized and directed to control of the market by suppression of competition in the marketing of goods and services, the monopolistic tendency of which had become a matter of public concern. The goal was to prevent restraints of free competition in business and commercial transactions which tended to restrict production, raise prices, or otherwise control the market to the detriment of purchasers or consumers of goods and services, all of which had come to be regarded as a special form of public injury.[15] For that reason the phrase "restraint of trade," which, as will presently appear, had a well understood meaning in common law, was made the means of defining the activities prohibited. The addition of the words "or commerce among the several States" was not an additional kind of restraint to be prohibited by the Sherman Act, but was the means used to relate the prohibited restraint of trade to interstate commerce for constitutional purposes, Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, 286 U. S. 427, 286 U. S. 434, so that Congress, through its commerce power, might suppress and penalize restraints on the competitive system which involved or affected interstate commerce. Because many forms of restraint upon commercial competition extended across state lines so as to make regulation by state action difficult or impossible, Congress enacted the Sherman Act, 21 Cong.Rec. 2456. It was in this sense of preventing restraints on commercial competition that Congress exercised "all the power it possessed." Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, supra, 286 U. S. 435.
At Addyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States, 85 F.2d 1, affirmed, 175 U. S. 175 U.S. 211;
At Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States, 221 U. S. 1, 221 U. S. 54-58.
Legal application[edit]
Constitutional basis for legislation[edit]
Congress claimed power to pass the Sherman Act through its constitutional authority to regulate interstate commerce. Therefore, federal courts only have jurisdiction to apply the Act to conduct that restrains or substantially affects either interstate commerce or trade within the District of Columbia. This requires that the plaintiff must show that the conduct occurred during the flow of interstate commerce or had an appreciable effect on some activity that occurs during interstate commerce.
Elements[edit]
A Section 1 violation has three elements:[16]
(1) an agreement;
(2) which unreasonably restrains competition; and
(3) which affects interstate commerce.
A Section 2 monopolization violation has two elements:[17]
(1) the possession of monopoly power in the relevant market; and
(2) the willful acquisition or maintenance of that power as distinguished from growth or development as a consequence of a superior product, business acumen, or historic accident.
Section 2 also bans attempted monopolization, which has the following elements:
(1) qualifying exclusionary or anticompetitive acts designed to establish a monopoly
(2) specific intent to monopolize; and
(3) dangerous probability of success (actual monopolization).
Violations "per se" and violations of the "rule of reason"[edit]
Violations of the Sherman Act fall (loosely[18]) into two categories:
Violations "per se": these are violations that meet the strict characterization of Section 1 ("agreements, conspiracies or trusts in restraint of trade"). A per se violation requires no further inquiry into the practice's actual effect on the market or the intentions of those individuals who engaged in the practice. Conduct characterized as per se unlawful is that which has been found to have a "'pernicious effect on competition' or 'lack[s] . . . any redeeming virtue'"[19] Such conduct "would always or almost always tend to restrict competition and decrease output."[20] When a per se rule is applied, a civil violation of the antitrust laws is found merely by proving that the conduct occurred and that it fell within a per se category.[21] (This must be contrasted with rule of reason analysis.) Conduct considered per se unlawful includes horizontal price-fixing,[22] horizontal market division,[23] and concerted refusals to deal.[24]
Violations of the "rule of reason": A totality of the circumstances test, asking whether the challenged practice promotes or suppresses market competition. Unlike with per se violations, intent and motive are relevant when predicting future consequences. The rule of reason is said to be the "traditional framework of analysis" to determine whether Section 1 is violated.[25] The court analyzes "facts peculiar to the business, the history of the restraining, and the reasons why it was imposed,"[26] to determine the effect on competition in the relevant product market.[27] A restraint violates Section 1 if it unreasonably restrains trade.[28]
Quick-look: A "quick look" analysis under the rule of reason may be used when "an observer with even a rudimentary understanding of economics could conclude that the arrangements in question would have an anticompetitive effect on customers and markets," yet the violation is also not one considered illegal per se.[29] Taking a "quick look," economic harm is presumed from the questionable nature of the conduct, and the burden is shifted to the defendant to prove harmlessness or justification. The quick-look became a popular way of disposing of cases where the conduct was in a grey area between illegality "per se" and demonstrable harmfulness under the "rule of reason".
Modern trends[edit]
Inference of conspiracy[edit]
A modern trend has increased difficulty for antitrust plaintiffs as courts have come to hold plaintiffs to increasing burdens of pleading. Under older Section 1 precedent, it was not settled how much evidence was required to show a conspiracy. For example, a conspiracy could be inferred based on parallel conduct, etc. That is, plaintiffs were only required to show that a conspiracy was conceivable. Since the 1970s, however, courts have held plaintiffs to higher standards, giving antitrust defendants an opportunity to resolve cases in their favor before significant discovery under FRCP 12(b)(6). That is, to overcome a motion to dismiss, plaintiffs, under Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly, must plead facts consistent with FRCP 8(a) sufficient to show that a conspiracy is plausible (and not merely conceivable or possible). This protects defendants from bearing the costs of antitrust "fishing expeditions"; however it deprives plaintiffs of perhaps their only tool to acquire evidence (discovery).
Manipulation of market[edit]
Second, courts have employed more sophisticated and principled definitions of markets. Market definition is necessary, in rule of reason cases, for the plaintiff to prove a conspiracy is harmful. It is also necessary for the plaintiff to establish the market relationship between conspirators to prove their conduct is within the per se rule.
In early cases, it was easier for plaintiffs to show market relationship, or dominance, by tailoring market definition, even if it ignored fundamental principles of economics. In U.S. v. Grinnell, 384 U.S. 563 (1966), the trial judge, Charles Wyzanski, composed the market only of alarm companies with services in every state, tailoring out any local competitors; the defendant stood alone in this market, but had the court added up the entire national market, it would have had a much smaller share of the national market for alarm services that the court purportedly used. The appellate courts affirmed this finding; however, today, an appellate court would likely find this definition to be flawed. Modern courts use a more sophisticated market definition that does not permit as manipulative a definition.[citation needed]
Monopoly[edit]
Section 2 of the Act forbade monopoly. In Section 2 cases, the court has, again on its own initiative, drawn a distinction between coercive and innocent monopoly. The act is not meant to punish businesses that come to dominate their market passively or on their own merit, only those that intentionally dominate the market through misconduct, which generally consists of conspiratorial conduct of the kind forbidden by Section 1 of the Sherman Act, or Section 3 of the Clayton Act.
Application of the act outside pure commerce[edit]
The Act was aimed at regulating businesses. However, its application was not limited to the commercial side of business. Its prohibition of the cartel was also interpreted to make illegal many labor union activities. This is because unions were characterized as cartels as well (cartels of laborers).[30] This persisted until 1914, when the Clayton Act created exceptions for certain union activities.
Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition[edit]
Main article: Sherman Antitrust Act (federal preemption)
To determine whether a particular state statute that restrains competition was intended to be preempted by the Act, courts will engage in a two-step analysis, as set forth by the Supreme Court in Rice v. Norman Williams Co.:
First, they will inquire whether the state legislation "mandates or authorizes conduct that necessarily constitutes a violation of the antitrust laws in all cases, or ... places irresistible pressure on a private party to violate the antitrust laws in order to comply with the statute." Rice v. Norman Williams Co., 458 U.S. 654, 661; see also 324 Liquor Corp. v. Duffy, 479 U.S. 335 (1987) ("Our decisions reflect the principle that the federal antitrust laws pre-empt state laws authorizing or compelling private parties to engage in anticompetitive behavior.")
Second, they will consider whether the state statute is saved from preemption by the state action immunity doctrine (aka Parker immunity). In California Retail Liquor Dealers Association v. Midcal Aluminum, Inc., 445 U.S. 97, 105 (1980), the Supreme Court established a two-part test for applying the doctrine: "First, the challenged restraint must be one clearly articulated and affirmatively expressed as state policy; second, the policy must be actively supervised by the State itself." Id. (citation and quotation marks omitted).
Criticism[edit]
See also: United States antitrust law and Competition law
The Sherman Act has seen much controversy. One branch of the criticism focuses on whether the Act improves competition and benefits consumers, or merely aids inefficient businesses at the expense of more innovative ones. Alan Greenspan, in his essay entitled Antitrust[31] condemns the Sherman Act as stifling innovation and harming society. "No one will ever know what new products, processes, machines, and cost-saving mergers failed to come into existence, killed by the Sherman Act before they were born. No one can ever compute the price that all of us have paid for that Act which, by inducing less effective use of capital, has kept our standard of living lower than would otherwise have been possible." Greenspan summarized the nature of antitrust law as: "a jumble of economic irrationality and ignorance."[32]
Greenspan at that time was a disciple and friend of Ayn Rand, and he first published Antitrust in Rand's monthly publication The Objectivist Newsletter. Rand, who described herself as "a radical for capitalism,"[33] opposed antitrust law not only on economic grounds but also morally, as a violation of property rights, asserting that the "meaning and purpose" of antitrust law is "the penalizing of ability for being ability, the penalizing of success for being success, and the sacrifice of productive genius to the demands of envious mediocrity."[34]
Other normative criticism of antitrust policy has been framed in utilitarian terms. Critics, having assumed that some kind of competition law is inevitable, argue as to what its central policy should be, and raise doubts as to whether it is accomplishing its goal. A common tactic is to choose a goal, and then cite evidence that it supports the opposite.[original research?] For example, during a debate over the act in 1890, Representative William Mason said "trusts have made products cheaper, have reduced prices; but if the price of oil, for instance, were reduced to one cent a barrel, it would not right the wrong done to people of this country by the trusts which have destroyed legitimate competition and driven honest men from legitimate business enterprise."[35] Consequently, if the primary goal of the act is to protect consumers, and consumers are protected by lower prices, the act may be harmful if it reduces economy of scale, a price-lowering mechanism, by breaking up big businesses. Mason put small business survival, a justice interest, on a level concomitant with the pure economic rationale of consumer interest.
The converse argument is that if lowering prices alone is not the goal, and instead protecting competitions and markets as well as consumers is the goal, the law again arguably has the opposite effect — it could be protectionist. Economist Thomas DiLorenzo notes that Senator Sherman sponsored the 1890 William McKinley tariff just three months after the Sherman Act, and agrees with The New York Times which wrote on October 1, 1890: "That so-called Anti-Trust law was passed to deceive the people and to clear the way for the enactment of this Pro-Trust law relating to the tariff." The Times went on to assert that Sherman merely supported this "humbug" of a law "in order that party organs might say...'Behold! We have attacked the trusts. The Republican Party is the enemy of all such rings.'" [36]
Dilorenzo writes: "Protectionists did not want prices paid by consumers to fall. But they also understood that to gain political support for high tariffs they would have to assure the public that industries would not combine to increase prices to politically prohibitive levels. Support for both an antitrust law and tariff hikes would maintain high prices while avoiding the more obvious bilking of consumers."[37]
The criticism of antitrust law is often associated with conservative politics. For example, conservative legal scholar, judge, and failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork was well known for his outspoken criticism of the antitrust regime. Another conservative legal scholar and judge, Richard Posner of the Seventh Circuit does not condemn the entire regime, but expresses concern with the potential that it could be applied to create inefficiency, rather than to avoid inefficiency.[38] Posner further believes, along with a number of others, including Bork, that genuinely inefficient cartels and coercive monopolies, the target of the act, would be self-corrected by market forces, making the strict penalties of antitrust legislation unnecessary.[38]
Conversely, liberal Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas criticized the judiciary for interpreting and enforcing the antitrust law unequally:
"From the beginning it [the Sherman Act] has been applied by judges hostile to its purposes, friendly to the empire builders who wanted it emasculated... trusts that were dissolved reintegrated in new forms... It is ironic that the Sherman Act was truly effective in only one respect, and that was when it was applied to labor unions. Then the courts read it with a literalness that never appeared in their other decisions."[39]
According to a 2018 study in the journal Public Choice, "Senator John Sherman of Ohio was motivated to introduce an antitrust bill in late 1889 partly as a way of enacting revenge on his political rival, General and former Governor Russell Alger of Michigan, because Sherman believed that Alger personally had cost him the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican national convention... Sherman was able to pursue his revenge motive by combining it with the broader Republican goals of preserving high tariffs and attacking the trusts. "[40]
See also[edit]
Alcoa
American Bar Association
American Tobacco Company
Antitrust
Bell System divestiture
Cartel
Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914
DRAM price fixing
George H. Earle, Jr.
Plan of Bill Proposed by Hon. George H. Earle, Jr., Philadelphia. (1911)
Federal Baseball Club v. National League
Laissez-faire
Lysine price-fixing conspiracy
Monsanto Co. v. Spray-Rite Service Corp.
National Linseed Oil Trust
Northern Securities Company
Price fixing
Resale price maintenance
Sarbanes–Oxley Act
Standard Oil
Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States
Ticketmaster
Tying (commerce)
United States v. Microsoft
[hide]
v
t
e
History of the United States
Timeline
Prehistory
Pre-Columbian
Colonial
America's Critical Period
1776–89
1789–1849
1849–65
1865–1918
1918–45
1945–64
1964–80
1980–91
1991–2008
2008–present
Topics
American Century
Cities
Constitution
Demographic
Diplomatic
Economic
Education
Immigration
Medical
Merchant Marine
Military
Musical
Religious
Slavery
Southern
Technological and industrial
Territorial acquisitions
Territorial evolution
Voting rights
Women
Category
Portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Officially re-designated and to be recognized from then on as the "Sherman Act" by Congress in the Hart–Scott–Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976, (Public Law 94-435, Title 3, Sec. 305(a), 90 Stat. 1383 at p. 1397).
Jump up ^ [See William L. Letwin, Congress and the Sherman Antitrust Law: 1887-1890, 23 U.Chi.L.Rev 221 (1956)]
Jump up ^ Sherman Anti-Trust Act, and Analysis
Jump up ^ "This focus of U.S. competition law, on protection of competition rather than competitors, is not necessarily the only possible focus or purpose of competition law. For example, it has also been said that competition law in the European Union (EU) tends to protect the competitors in the marketplace, even at the expense of market efficiencies and consumers."< Cseres, Katalin Judit (2005). Competition law and consumer protection. Kluwer Law International. pp. 291–293. ISBN 9789041123800. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ See 15 U.S.C. § 1.
Jump up ^ See 15 U.S.C. § 2.
Jump up ^ For a complete list up to 1902
Jump up ^ http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=wharton_research_scholars
Jump up ^ 'Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan' , 506 U.S. 447, 458 (Supreme Court 1993).
Jump up ^ Bills and debates in Congress relating to trusts
Jump up ^ Footnote 11 appears here: "See the Bibliography on Trusts (1913) prepared by the Library of Congress. Cf. Homan, Industrial Combination as Surveyed in Recent Literature, 44 Quart.J.Econ., 345 (1930). With few exceptions, the articles, scientific and popular, reflected the popular idea that the Act was aimed at the prevention of monopolistic practices and restraints upon trade injurious to purchasers and consumers of goods and services by preservation of business competition. See, e.g., Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (1929), 367 et seq., 42 Ann.Am.Acad., Industrial Competition and Combination (July 1912); P. L. Anderson, Combination v. Competition, 4 Edit.Rev. 500 (1911); Gilbert Holland Montague, Trust Regulation Today, 105 Atl.Monthly, 1 (1910); Federal Regulation of Industry, 32 Ann.Am.Acad. of Pol.Sci., No. 108 (1908), passim; Clark, Federal Trust Policy (1931), Ch. II, V; Homan, Trusts, 15 Ency.Soc.Sciences 111, 113: "clearly the law was inspired by the predatory competitive tactics of the great trusts, and its primary purpose was the maintenance of the competitive system in industry." See also Shulman, Labor and the Anti-Trust Laws, 34 Ill.L.Rev. 769; Boudin, the Sherman Law and Labor Disputes, 39 Col.L.Rev. 1283; 40 Col.L.Rev. 14."
Jump up ^ Footnote 12 appears here: "There was no lack of existing law to protect against evils ascribed to organized labor. Legislative and judicial action of both a criminal and civil nature already restrained concerted action by labor. See, e.g., the kinds of strikes which were declared illegal in Pennsylvania, including a strike accompanied by force or threat of harm to persons or property, Brightly's Purdon's Digest of 1885, pp. 426, 1172. For collection of state statutes on labor activities, see Report of the Commissioner of Labor, Labor Laws of the Various States (1892); Bull. 370, Labor Laws of the United States with Decisions Relating Thereto, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (1925); Witte, The Government in Labor Disputes (1932), 12–45, 61–81."
Jump up ^ Footnote 13 appears here: "Three statutes covered in 1890 the Congressional action in relation to obstructions to interstate commerce. A penalty was imposed for the refusal to transmit a telegraph message (R.S. § 5269, 17 Stat. 366 (1872)) for transporting nitroglycerine and other explosives without proper safeguards (R.S. § 5353, 14 Stat. 81 (1866)) and for combining to prevent the continuous carriage of freight, 24 Stat. 382, 49 U.S.C. § 7."
Jump up ^ Footnote 14 appears here: "See, e.g. regulation of; interstate carriage of lottery tickets, 28 Stat. 963 (1895), 18 U.S.C. § 387; Transportation of obscene books, 29 Stat. 512 (1897), 18 U.S.C. § 396; transportation of illegally killed game, 31 Stat. 188 (1900), 18 U.S.C. §§ 392–395; interstate shipment of intoxicating liquors, 35 Stat. 1136 (1909), 18 U.S.C. §§ 388–390; white slave traffic, 36 Stat. 825 (1910), 18 U.S.C. §§ 397–404; transportation of prize-fight films, 37 Stat. 240 (1912), 18 U.S.C. §§ 405–407; larceny of goods moving in interstate commerce, 37 Stat. 670 (1913), 18 U.S.C. § 409; violent interference with foreign commerce, 40 Stat. 221 (1917), 18 U.S.C. § 381; transportation of stolen motor vehicles, 41 Stat. 324 (1919), 18 U.S.C. § 408; transportation of kidnapped persons, 47 Stat. 326 (1932), 18 U.S.C. § 408a–408c; threatening communication in interstate commerce, 48 Stat. 781 (1934), 18 U.S.C. § 408d; transportation of stolen or feloniously taken goods, securities or money, 48 Stat. 794 (1934), 18 U.S.C. § 415; transporting strikebreakers, 49 Stat. 1899 (1936), 18 U.S.C. § 407a; destruction or dumping of farm products received in interstate commerce, 44 Stat. 1355 (1927), 7 U.S.C. § 491. Cf. National Labor Relations Act, 49 Stat. 449 (1935), 29 U.S.C., Ch. 7, § 151, "Findings and declaration of policy. The denial by employers of the right of employees to organize and the refusal by employers to accept the procedure of collective bargaining lead to strikes and other forms of industrial strife or unrest, which have the intent or the necessary effect of burdening or obstructing commerce. . . ." The Anti-Racketeering Act, 48 Stat. 979, 18 U.S.C. §§ 420a-420e (1934), is designed to protect trade and commerce against interference by violence and threats. § 420a provides that "any person who, in connection with or in relation to any act in any way or in any degree affecting trade or commerce or any article or commodity moving or about to move in trade or commerce --" "(a) Obtains or attempts to obtain, by the use of or attempt to use or threat to use force, violence, or coercion, the payment of money or other valuable considerations . . . not including, however, the payment of wages by a bonafide employer to a bona fide employee; or" "(b) Obtains the property of another, with his consent, induced by wrongful use of force or fear, or under color of official right; or" "(c) Commits or threatens to commit an act of physical violence or physical injury to a person or property in furtherance of a plan or purpose to violate subsections (a) or (b); or" "(d) Conspires or acts concertedly with any other person or persons to commit any of the foregoing acts; shall, upon conviction thereof, be guilty of a felony and shall be punished by imprisonment from one to ten years or by a fine of $10,000 or both." But the application of the provisions of § 420a to labor unions is restricted by § 420d, which provides: "Jurisdiction of offenses. Any person charged with violating section 420a of this title may be prosecuted in any district in which any part of the offense has been committed by him or by his actual associates participating with him in the offense or by his fellow conspirators: Provided, That no court of the United States shall construe or apply any of the provisions of sections 420a to 420e of this title in such manner as to impair, diminish, or in any manner affect the rights of bona fide labor organizations in lawfully carrying out the legitimate objects thereof, as such rights are expressed in existing statutes of the United States." It is significant that Chapter 9 of the Criminal Code, dealing with "Offenses Against Foreign And Interstate Commerce" and relating specifically to acts of interstate transportation or its obstruction, makes no mention of the Sherman Act, which is made a part of the Code which deals with social, economic and commercial results of interstate activity, notwithstanding its criminal penalty."
Jump up ^ Footnote 15 appears here: "The history of the Sherman Act, as contained in the legislative proceedings, is emphatic in its support for the conclusion that "business competition" was the problem considered, and that the act was designed to prevent restraints of trade which had a significant effect on such competition. On July 10, 1888, the Senate adopted without discussion a resolution offered by Senator Sherman which directed the Committee on Finance to inquire into, and report in connection with, revenue bills "such measures as it may deem expedient to set aside, control, restrain or prohibit all arrangements, contracts, agreements, trusts, or combinations between persons or corporations, made with a view, or which tend to prevent free and full competition . . . with such penalties and provisions . . . as will tend to preserve freedom of trade and production, the natural competition of increasing production, the lowering of prices by such competition . . ." (19 Cong.Rec. 6041). This resolution explicitly presented the economic theory of the proponents of such legislation. The various bills introduced between 1888 and 1890 follow the theory of this resolution. Many bills sought to make void all arrangements "made with a view, or which tend, to prevent full and free competition in the production, manufacture, or sale of articles of domestic growth or production, . . ." S. 3445; S. 3510; H.R. 11339; all of the 50th Cong., 1st Sess. (1888) were bills of this type. In the 51st Cong. (1889), the bills were in a similar vein. See S. 1, sec. 1 (this bill as redrafted by the Judiciary Committee ultimately became the Sherman Law); H.R. 202, sec. 3; H.R. 270; H.R. 286; H.R. 402; H.R. 509; H.R. 826; H.R. 3819. See Bills and Debates in Congress relating to Trusts (1909), Vol. 1, pp. 1025–1031. Only one, which was never enacted, S. 1268 in the 52d Cong., 1st Sess. (1892), introduced by Senator Peffer, sought to prohibit "every willful act . . . which shall have the effect to in any way interfere with the freedom of transit of articles in interstate commerce, . . ." When the antitrust bill (S. 1, 51st Cong., 1st Sess.) came before Congress for debate, the debates point to a similar purpose. Senator Sherman asserted the bill prevented only "business combinations" "made with a view to prevent competition", 21 Cong.Rec. 2457, 2562; see also ibid. at 2459, 2461. Senator Allison spoke of combinations which "control prices," ibid., 2471; Senator Pugh of combinations "to limit production" for "the purpose of destroying competition", ibid., 2558; Senator Morgan of combinations "that affect the price of commodities," ibid., 2609; Senator Platt, a critic of the bill, said this bill proceeds on the assumption that "competition is beneficent to the country," ibid., 2729; Senator George denounced trusts which crush out competition, "and that is the great evil at which all this legislation ought to be directed," ibid., 3147. In the House, Representative Culberson, who was in charge of the bill, interpreted the bill to prohibit various arrangements which tend to drive out competition, ibid., 4089; Representative Wilson spoke in favor of the bill against combinations among "competing producers to control the supply of their product, in order that they may dictate the terms on which they shall sell in the market, and may secure release from the stress of competition among themselves," ibid., 4090. The unanimity with which foes and supporters of the bill spoke of its aims as the protection of free competition permits use of the debates in interpreting the purpose of the act. See White, C.J. in Standard Oil Co. v. United States, 221 U. S. 1, 221 U. S. 50; United States v. San Francisco, ante, p. 310 U. S. 16. See also Report of Committee on Interstate Commerce on Control of Corporations Engaged in Interstate Commerce, S.Rept. 1326, 62d Cong., 3d Sess. (1913), pp. 2, 4; Report of Federal Trade Commission, S.Doc. 226, 70th Cong., 2d Sess. (1929), pp. 343–345."
Jump up ^ E.g., Richter Concrete Corp. v. Hilltop Basic Resources, Inc., 547 F. Supp. 893, 917 (S.D. Ohio 1981), aff'd, 691 F.2d 818 (6th Cir. 1982); Consolidated Farmers Mut. Ins. Co. v. Anchor Sav. Association, 480 F. Supp. 640, 648 (D. Kan. 1979); Mardirosian v. American Inst. of Architects, 474 F. Supp. 628, 636 (D.D.C. 1979).
Jump up ^ United States v. Grinnell Corp., 384 U.S. 563, 570–71, 16 L. Ed. 2d 778, 86 S. Ct. 1698 (1966); see also Weiss v. York Hosp., 745 F.2d 786, 825 (3d Cir. 1984).
Jump up ^ The truth is that our categories of analysis of anticompetitive effect are less fixed than terms like 'per se,' 'quick look,' and 'rule of reason' tend to make them appear. We have recognized, for example, that 'there is often no bright line separating per se from rule of reason analysis,' since 'considerable inquiry into market conditions' may be required before the application of any so-called 'per se' condemnation is justified. Cal. Dental Association v. FTC at 779 (quoting NCAA, 468 U.S. at 104 n.26). "'Whether the ultimate finding is the product of a presumption or actual market analysis, the essential inquiry remains the same whether or not the challenged restraint enhances competition.'" 526 U.S. at 779–80 (quoting NCAA, 468 U.S. at 104).
Jump up ^ Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc., 433 U.S. 36, 58 (1977) (quoting Northern Pac. Ry. v. United States, 356 U.S. 1, 5 (1958)).
Jump up ^ Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS, 441 U.S. 1, 19–20 (1979).
Jump up ^ Jefferson Parish Hosp. Dist. No. 2 v. Hyde, 104 S. Ct. 1551, 1556 (1984); Gough v. Rossmoor Corp., 585 F.2d 381, 386–89 (9th Cir. 1978), cert. denied, 440 U.S. 936 (1979); see White Motor v. United States, 372 U.S. 253, 259–60 (1963) (a per se rule forecloses analysis of the purpose or market effect of a restraint); Northern Pac. Ry. v. United States, 356 U.S. 1, 5 (1958) (same).
Jump up ^ United States v. Trenton Potteries Co., 273 U.S. 392, 397–98 (1927)
Jump up ^ Continental T.V., Inc. v. G.T.E. Sylvania Inc.97 S.Ct. 2549(1977) limiting[United States v. Topco Assocs.405 U.S. 596, 608 (1972); by making vertical market division rule-of-reason analysis]
Jump up ^ [FTC v. Superior Court Trial Lawyers Ass'n, 493 U.S. 411 for collusive effects and NW Wholesale Stationers, Inc. v. Pacific Stationery & Printing Co., 472 U.S. 284 (1985) for exclusionary effects
Jump up ^ Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc., 433 U.S. 36, 49 (1977). The inquiry focuses on the restraint's effect on competition. National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs v. United States, 435 U.S. 679, 691 (1978).
Jump up ^ id. at 692
Jump up ^ see Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc., 433 U.S. 36, 45 (1977) (citing United States v. Arnold, Schwinn & Co., 388 U.S. 365, 382 (1967)), and geographic market, see United States v. Columbia Steel Co., 334 U.S. 495, 519 (1948).
Jump up ^ Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc., 433 U.S. 36, 49 (1977); see Standard Oil Co. v. United States, 221 U.S. 1, 58 (1911) (Congress only intended to prohibit agreements that were "unreasonably restrictive of competitive (conditions").
Jump up ^ Cal. Dental Association, 526 U.S. at 770.
Jump up ^ see Loewe v. Lawlor, 208 U.S. 274 (1908)
Jump up ^ http://www.polyconomics.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1605:antitrust-by-alan-greenspan&catid=47:1998
Jump up ^ It should be noted that criticisms such as this one, attributed to Greenspan, are not directed at the Sherman act in particular, but rather at the underlying policy of all antitrust law, which includes several pieces of legislation other than just the Sherman Act, e.g. the Clayton Antitrust Act.
Jump up ^ Check Your Premises, The Objectivist Newsletter, January 1962, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1
Jump up ^ Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, Ch. 3, New American Library, Signet, 1967
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, 51st Congress, 1st session, House, June 20, 1890, p. 4100.
Jump up ^ "Mr. Sherman's Hopes and Fears" (PDF). New York Times. 1890-10-01. Retrieved 2008-04-21.
Jump up ^ DiLorenzo, Thomas, Cato Handbook for Congress, Antitrust.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Posner, _Economic Analysis of Law_ p.295 et seq. (explaining the optimal antitrust regime from an economic point of view)
Jump up ^ Douglas, William O., An Almanac of Liberty, Doubleday & Company, 1954, pg. 189
Jump up ^ Newman, Patrick (2018-01-12). "Revenge: John Sherman, Russell Alger and the origins of the Sherman Act". Public Choice: 1–19. doi:10.1007/s11127-017-0497-x. ISSN 0048-5829.
'Labor and the Sherman Act' (1940) 49(3) Yale Law Journal 518
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Sherman Anti-Trust Act
Official websites
U.S. Department of Justice: Antitrust Division
U.S. Department of Justice: Antitrust Division – text of SHERMAN ANTITRUST ACT, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1–7 - broken link
Additional information
Antitrust Division's "Corporate Leniency Policy"
Antitrust by Alan Greenspan
Dr. Edward W. Younkins (February 19, 2000). "Antitrust Laws Should Be Abolished".
DiLorenzo, Thomas Cato Handbook for Congress, Antitrust
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sherman_Antitrust_Act&oldid=828276221"
Categories:
United States federal antitrust legislation
United States federal criminal legislation
History of the petroleum industry in the United States
1890 in American law
History of the United States (1865–1918)
Monopoly (economics)
1890 in American politics
Progressive Era in the United States
Hidden categories:
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
Articles to be expanded from March 2017
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009
All articles that may contain original research
Articles that may contain original research from December 2012
Pages using div col with deprecated parameters
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikiquote
Wikisource
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Български
Català
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
한국어
Italiano
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Русский
Suomi
Svenska
Українська
中文
10 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 1 March 2018, at 16:29.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: td

value: span

value: i

value: small

value: tr

value: tbody

value: table

attrs: class role

values:
plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content
presentation

value: caption

values:
nofollow
external text
http://legislink.org/us/stat-26-209

values:
/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court
mw-redirect
United States Supreme Court

values: Northern Securities Co. v. United States

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 193

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 201

values: Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 221

values: Federal Baseball Club v. National League

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 259

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 334

values: List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 342

values: List of United States Senators from Ohio

values: Small but significant and non-transitory increase in price

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width: 18em;

values:
/wiki/Trust_(19th_century)
mw-redirect
Trust (19th century)

values: Edit section: Subsequent legislation expanding its scope

values:
/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act
mw-redirect
Clayton Antitrust Act

values:
/wiki/American_Tobacco_Co.
mw-redirect
American Tobacco Co.

values:
/wiki/Interstate_commerce
mw-redirect
Interstate commerce

values:
/wiki/United_States_v._AT%26T_Co.
mw-redirect
United States v. AT&T Co.

values:
/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft_Corp.
mw-redirect
United States v. Microsoft Corp.

values:
/wiki/George_Hoar
mw-redirect
George Hoar

values: Addyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States

values: Edit section: Constitutional basis for legislation

values: Edit section: Violations "per se" and violations of the "rule of reason"

values:
/wiki/Motion_in_United_States_law
mw-redirect
Motion in United States law

values:
/wiki/Charles_Wyzanski
mw-redirect
Charles Wyzanski

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Application of the act outside pure commerce

values: Edit section: Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition

values: Sherman Antitrust Act (federal preemption)

values: 324 Liquor Corp. v. Duffy (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/State_action_immunity_doctrine
mw-redirect
State action immunity doctrine

values: The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (December 2012)

values:
/wiki/Economy_of_scale
mw-redirect
Economy of scale

values: United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit

values:
/wiki/Supreme_Court
mw-redirect
Supreme Court

values:
/wiki/Bell_System_divestiture
mw-redirect
Bell System divestiture

values:
/wiki/George_Howard_Earle,_Jr.
mw-redirect
George Howard Earle, Jr.

values: wikisource:Plan of Bill Proposed by Hon. George H. Earle, Jr., Philadelphia.

values: Monsanto Co. v. Spray-Rite Service Corp.

values:
/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft
mw-redirect
United States v. Microsoft

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-3

values: -moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;

values:
/wiki/America%27s_Critical_Period
mw-redirect
America's Critical Period

values: History of the United States (1789–1849)

values: History of the United States (1865–1918)

values: History of the United States (1991–2008)

values: History of the United States (2008–present)

values: Category:Histories of cities in the United States

values: History of the United States Constitution

values: Demographic history of the United States

values: Timeline of United States diplomatic history

values: History of education in the United States

values: History of immigration to the United States

values: History of medicine in the United States

values: History of the United States Merchant Marine

values: History of religion in the United States

values: Technological and industrial history of the United States

values: Territorial evolution of the United States

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act

values: s:Page:United States Statutes at Large Volume 90 Part 1.djvu/1447

values: United States v. Grinnell Corp. (page does not exist)

values: Weiss v. York Hosp. (page does not exist)

values: Cal. Dental Association v. FTC (page does not exist)

values: Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc.

values: Northern Pac. Ry. v. United States (page does not exist)

values: Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS (page does not exist)

values: Jefferson Parish Hosp. Dist. No. 2 v. Hyde (page does not exist)

values: Gough v. Rossmoor Corp. (page does not exist)

values: United States v. Trenton Potteries Co. (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11127-017-0497-x

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0048-5829

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/pss/792668

values:
nofollow
http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/
external text

values: Category:United States federal antitrust legislation

values: Category:United States federal criminal legislation

values: Category:History of the petroleum industry in the United States

values: Category:History of the United States (1865–1918)

values: Category:Progressive Era in the United States

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from March 2017

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009

values: Category:All articles that may contain original research

values: Category:Articles that may contain original research from December 2012

values: Category:Pages using div col with deprecated parameters

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: Антитръстов закон Шърман – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values: Llei Sherman Antitrust dels Estats Units d'Amèrica – Catalan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Kontraŭtrusta akto de Sherman – Esperanto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: قانون شرمن – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: 셔먼 반독점법 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Акт Шермана – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Акт Шермана – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Sherman_Antitrust_Act rootpage-Sherman_Antitrust_Act skin-vector action-view