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Last glacial period
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For the most recent period cooler than present but without significant glaciation, see Little Ice Age. For the full sequence of geologically recent glacial advances and retreats, see Quaternary glaciation. For the geological epoch often associated with or referred to as "The Ice Age", see Pleistocene.
For a generic geological period of reduced temperature and increased glaciation, see Ice age.
"Last glacial" redirects here. For the period of maximum glacier extent during this time, see Last Glacial Maximum.
Chronology of climatic events of importance for the last glacial period (about the last 120,000 years)
The last glacial period occurred from the end of the Eemian interglacial to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 110,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. This most recent glacial period is part of a larger pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation extending from c. 2,588,000 years ago to present.[1]
During this last glacial period there were alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat. Within the last glacial period the Last Glacial Maximum was approximately 22,000 years ago. While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar, local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). Approximately 13,000 years ago, the Late Glacial Maximum began. The end of the Younger Dryas about 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch, which includes the Holocene glacial retreat.
From the point of view of human archaeology, the last glacial period falls in the Paleolithic and early Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens was confined to lower latitudes and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Homo erectus in Asia. Near the end of the event, Homo sapiens migrated into Eurasia and Australia. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.[2] The retreat of the glaciers 15,000 years ago allowed groups of humans from Asia to migrate to the Americas.
Artist's impression of the last glacial period at glacial maximum[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and definition
2 Overview
2.1 Northern Hemisphere
2.2 Southern Hemisphere
3 Deglaciation
4 Named local glaciations
4.1 Antarctica glaciation
4.2 Europe
4.2.1 Devensian and Midlandian glaciation (Britain and Ireland)
4.2.2 Weichselian glaciation (Scandinavia and northern Europe)
4.2.3 Würm glaciation (Alps)
4.3 North America
4.3.1 Pinedale or Fraser glaciation (Rocky Mountains)
4.3.2 Wisconsin glaciation
4.3.3 Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga, Sierra Nevada
4.3.4 Greenland glaciation
4.4 South America
4.4.1 Mérida glaciation (Venezuelan Andes)
4.4.2 Llanquihue glaciation (Southern Andes)
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Origin and definition[edit]
The last glacial period is sometimes colloquially referred to as the "last ice age", though this use is incorrect because an ice age is a longer period of cold temperature in which year-round ice sheets are present near one or both poles. Glacials are colder phases within an ice age in which glaciers advance; glacials are separated by interglacials. Thus, the end of the last glacial period, which was about 11,700 years ago, is not the end of the last ice age since extensive year-round ice persists in Antarctica and Greenland. Over the past few million years the glacial-interglacial cycles have been "paced" by periodic variations in the Earth's orbit via Milankovitch cycles.
The last glacial period is the best-known part of the current ice age, and has been intensively studied in North America, northern Eurasia, the Himalaya and other formerly glaciated regions around the world. The glaciations that occurred during this glacial period covered many areas, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere and to a lesser extent in the Southern Hemisphere. They have different names, historically developed and depending on their geographic distributions: Fraser (in the Pacific Cordillera of North America), Pinedale (in the Central Rocky Mountains), Wisconsinan or Wisconsin (in central North America), Devensian (in the British Isles), Midlandian (in Ireland), Würm (in the Alps), Mérida (in Venezuela), Weichselian or Vistulian (in Northern Europe and northern Central Europe), Valdai in Russia and Zyryanka in Siberia, Llanquihue in Chile, and Otira in New Zealand. The geochronological Late Pleistocene comprises the late glacial (Weichselian) and the immediately preceding penultimate interglacial (Eemian) period.
Overview[edit]
Vegetation types at time of Last Glacial Maximum
Last glacial period, as seen in ice core data from Antarctica and Greenland
The last glaciation centered on the huge ice sheets of North America and Eurasia. Considerable areas in the Alps, the Himalaya and the Andes were ice-covered, and Antarctica remained glaciated.
Northern Hemisphere[edit]
Canada was nearly completely covered by ice, as well as the northern part of the United States, both blanketed by the huge Laurentide Ice Sheet. Alaska remained mostly ice free due to arid climate conditions. Local glaciations existed in the Rocky Mountains and the Cordilleran Ice Sheet and as ice fields and ice caps in the Sierra Nevada in northern California.[4] In Britain, mainland Europe, and northwestern Asia, the Scandinavian ice sheet once again reached the northern parts of the British Isles, Germany, Poland, and Russia, extending as far east as the Taymyr Peninsula in western Siberia.[5] The maximum extent of western Siberian glaciation was reached by approximately 16,000–15,000 BC and thus later than in Europe (c. 20,000 – c. 16,000 BC).[6] Northeastern Siberia was not covered by a continental-scale ice sheet.[7] Instead, large, but restricted, icefield complexes covered mountain ranges within northeast Siberia, including the Kamchatka-Koryak Mountains.[8][9]
The Arctic Ocean between the huge ice sheets of America and Eurasia was not frozen throughout, but like today probably was only covered by relatively shallow ice, subject to seasonal changes and riddled with icebergs calving from the surrounding ice sheets. According to the sediment composition retrieved from deep-sea cores there must even have been times of seasonally open waters.[10]
Outside the main ice sheets, widespread glaciation occurred on the Alps−Himalaya mountain chain. In contrast to the earlier glacial stages, the Würm glaciation was composed of smaller ice caps and mostly confined to valley glaciers, sending glacial lobes into the Alpine foreland. To the east the Caucasus and the mountains of Turkey and Iran were capped by local ice fields or small ice sheets.[11]
In the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau, glaciers advanced considerably, particularly between 45,000 and 25,000 BC,[12] but these datings are controversial.[13][14] The formation of a contiguous ice sheet on the Tibetan Plateau[15][16] is controversial.[17]
Other areas of the Northern Hemisphere did not bear extensive ice sheets, but local glaciers in high areas. Parts of Taiwan, for example, were repeatedly glaciated between 42,250 and 8,680 BCE[18] as well as the Japanese Alps. In both areas maximum glacier advance occurred between 58,000 and 28,000 BCE.[19] To a still lesser extent glaciers existed in Africa, for example in the High Atlas, the mountains of Morocco, the Mount Atakor massif in southern Algeria, and several mountains in Ethiopia. In the Southern Hemisphere, an ice cap of several hundred square kilometers was present on the east African mountains in the Kilimanjaro massif, Mount Kenya and the Rwenzori Mountains, still bearing remnants of glaciers today.[20]
Southern Hemisphere[edit]
Glaciation of the Southern Hemisphere was less extensive because of current configuration of continents. Ice sheets existed in the Andes (Patagonian Ice Sheet), where six glacier advances between 31,500 and 11,900 BC in the Chilean Andes have been reported.[21] Antarctica was entirely glaciated, much like today, but the ice sheet left no uncovered area. In mainland Australia only a very small area in the vicinity of Mount Kosciuszko was glaciated, whereas in Tasmania glaciation was more widespread.[22] An ice sheet formed in New Zealand, covering all of the Southern Alps, where at least three glacial advances can be distinguished.[23] Local ice caps existed in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, where in three ice areas remnants of the Pleistocene glaciers are still preserved today.[24]
Small glaciers developed in a few favorable places in Southern Africa during the last glacial period.[25][A][B] These small glaciers would have developed in the Lesotho Highlands and parts of the Drakensberg.[27][28] The development of glaciers was likely aided by localized cooling indebted to shading by adjacent cliffs.[28] Various moraines and former glacier niches have been identified in the eastern Lesotho Highlands, above 3,000 m.a.s.l. and on south-facing slopes, a few kilometres west of the Great Escarpment.[27] Studies suggest the mountains of Southern Africa were mostly subject to mild periglaciation during the last glacial cycle and the annual average temperatures were about 6 °C colder than at present. The estimated 6 °C temperature drop for Southern Africa is in line with temperature drops estimated for Tasmania and southern Patagonia during the same time.[25][26] The environment of the Lesotho Highlands during the Last Glacial Maximum was one of a relatively arid periglaciation without permafrost but with deep seasonal freezing on south-facing slopes. Periglaciation in the Eastern Drakensberg and Lesotho Highlands produced solifluction deposits, blockfields and blockstreams, and stone garlands.[25][26]
Deglaciation[edit]
See also: Bølling-Allerød warming, Meltwater pulse 1A, and Deglaciation
Scientists from the Center for Arctic Gas Hydrate, Environment (CAGE) and Climate at the Arctic University of Norway, published a study in June 2017[29] describing over a hundred ocean sediment craters, some 3,000 meters wide and up to 300 meters deep, formed by explosive eruptions of methane from destabilized methane hydrates, following ice-sheet retreat during the last glacial period, around 12,000 years ago. These areas around the Barents Sea still seep methane today. The study hypothesized that existing bulges containing methane reservoirs could eventually have the same fate.
Named local glaciations[edit]
Antarctica glaciation[edit]
During the last glacial period Antarctica was blanketed by a massive ice sheet, much as it is today. The ice covered all land areas and extended into the ocean onto the middle and outer continental shelf.[30][31] According to ice modelling, ice over central East Antarctica was generally thinner than today.[32]
Europe[edit]
Devensian and Midlandian glaciation (Britain and Ireland)[edit]
The name Devensian glaciation is used by British geologists and archaeologists and refers to what is often popularly meant by the latest ice age. Irish geologists, geographers, and archaeologists refer to the Midlandian glaciation as its effects in Ireland are largely visible in the Irish Midlands. The name Devensian is derived from the Latin Dēvenses, people living by the Dee (Dēva in Latin), a river on the Welsh border near which deposits from the period are particularly well represented.[33]
The effects of this glaciation can be seen in many geological features of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Its deposits have been found overlying material from the preceding Ipswichian stage and lying beneath those from the following Flandrian interglacial stage of the Holocene.
The latter part of the Devensian includes Pollen zones I-IV, the Allerød oscillation and Bølling oscillation, and the Older Dryas and Younger Dryas climatic stages.
Weichselian glaciation (Scandinavia and northern Europe)[edit]
Main article: Weichselian glaciation
Europe during the last glacial period
Alternative names include: Weichsel glaciation or Vistulian glaciation (referring to the Polish river Vistula or its German name Weichsel). Evidence suggests that the ice sheets were at their maximum size for only a short period, between 25,000 and 13,000 BP. Eight interstadials have been recognized in the Weichselian, including: the Oerel, Glinde, Moershoofd, Hengelo and Denekamp; however correlation with isotope stages is still in process.[34][35] During the glacial maximum in Scandinavia, only the western parts of Jutland were ice-free, and a large part of what is today the North Sea was dry land connecting Jutland with Britain (see Doggerland). It is also in Denmark that the only Scandinavian ice-age animals older than 13,000 BCE are found.[citation needed]
The Baltic Sea, with its unique brackish water, is a result of meltwater from the Weichsel glaciation combining with saltwater from the North Sea when the straits between Sweden and Denmark opened. Initially, when the ice began melting about 10,300 BP, seawater filled the isostatically depressed area, a temporary marine incursion that geologists dub the Yoldia Sea. Then, as post-glacial isostatic rebound lifted the region about 9500 BP, the deepest basin of the Baltic became a freshwater lake, in palaeological contexts referred to as Ancylus Lake, which is identifiable in the freshwater fauna found in sediment cores. The lake was filled by glacial runoff, but as worldwide sea level continued rising, saltwater again breached the sill about 8000 BP, forming a marine Littorina Sea which was followed by another freshwater phase before the present brackish marine system was established. "At its present state of development, the marine life of the Baltic Sea is less than about 4000 years old", Drs. Thulin and Andrushaitis remarked when reviewing these sequences in 2003.
Overlying ice had exerted pressure on the Earth's surface. As a result of melting ice, the land has continued to rise yearly in Scandinavia, mostly in northern Sweden and Finland where the land is rising at a rate of as much as 8–9 mm per year, or 1 meter in 100 years. This is important for archaeologists since a site that was coastal in the Nordic Stone Age now is inland and can be dated by its relative distance from the present shore.
Würm glaciation (Alps)[edit]
Main article: Würm glaciation
Extent of Alpine glaciation during the Würm ice age. Blue: extent of the early ice ages:
The term Würm is derived from a river in the Alpine foreland, approximately marking the maximum glacier advance of this particular glacial period. The Alps were where the first systematic scientific research on ice ages was conducted by Louis Agassiz at the beginning of the 19th century. Here the Würm glaciation of the last glacial period was intensively studied. Pollen analysis, the statistical analyses of microfossilized plant pollens found in geological deposits, chronicled the dramatic changes in the European environment during the Würm glaciation. During the height of Würm glaciation, c. 24,000 – c. 10,000 BP, most of western and central Europe and Eurasia was open steppe-tundra, while the Alps presented solid ice fields and montane glaciers. Scandinavia and much of Britain were under ice.
During the Würm, the Rhône Glacier covered the whole western Swiss plateau, reaching today's regions of Solothurn and Aarau. In the region of Bern it merged with the Aar glacier. The Rhine Glacier is currently the subject of the most detailed studies. Glaciers of the Reuss and the Limmat advanced sometimes as far as the Jura. Montane and piedmont glaciers formed the land by grinding away virtually all traces of the older Günz and Mindel glaciation, by depositing base moraines and terminal moraines of different retraction phases and loess deposits, and by the pro-glacial rivers' shifting and redepositing gravels. Beneath the surface, they had profound and lasting influence on geothermal heat and the patterns of deep groundwater flow.
North America[edit]
Pinedale or Fraser glaciation (Rocky Mountains)[edit]
The Pinedale (central Rocky Mountains) or Fraser (Cordilleran Ice Sheet) glaciation was the last of the major glaciations to appear in the Rocky Mountains in the United States. The Pinedale lasted from approximately 30,000 to 10,000 years ago and was at its greatest extent between 23,500 and 21,000 years ago.[36] This glaciation was somewhat distinct from the main Wisconsin glaciation as it was only loosely related to the giant ice sheets and was instead composed of mountain glaciers, merging into the Cordilleran Ice Sheet.[37] The Cordilleran Ice Sheet produced features such as glacial Lake Missoula, which would break free from its ice dam causing the massive Missoula Floods. USGS geologists estimate that the cycle of flooding and reformation of the lake lasted an average of 55 years and that the floods occurred approximately 40 times over the 2,000 year period between 15,000 and 13,000 years ago.[38] Glacial lake outburst floods such as these are not uncommon today in Iceland and other places.
Wisconsin glaciation[edit]
The Wisconsin Glacial Episode was the last major advance of continental glaciers in the North American Laurentide Ice Sheet. At the height of glaciation the Bering land bridge potentially permitted migration of mammals, including people, to North America from Siberia.
It radically altered the geography of North America north of the Ohio River. At the height of the Wisconsin Episode glaciation, ice covered most of Canada, the Upper Midwest, and New England, as well as parts of Montana and Washington. On Kelleys Island in Lake Erie or in New York's Central Park, the grooves left by these glaciers can be easily observed. In southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta a suture zone between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets formed the Cypress Hills, which is the northernmost point in North America that remained south of the continental ice sheets.
The Great Lakes are the result of glacial scour and pooling of meltwater at the rim of the receding ice. When the enormous mass of the continental ice sheet retreated, the Great Lakes began gradually moving south due to isostatic rebound of the north shore. Niagara Falls is also a product of the glaciation, as is the course of the Ohio River, which largely supplanted the prior Teays River.
With the assistance of several very broad glacial lakes, it released floods through the gorge of the Upper Mississippi River, which in turn was formed during an earlier glacial period.
In its retreat, the Wisconsin Episode glaciation left terminal moraines that form Long Island, Block Island, Cape Cod, Nomans Land, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Sable Island, and the Oak Ridges Moraine in south central Ontario, Canada. In Wisconsin itself, it left the Kettle Moraine. The drumlins and eskers formed at its melting edge are landmarks of the Lower Connecticut River Valley.
Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga, Sierra Nevada[edit]
In the Sierra Nevada, there are three named stages of glacial maxima (sometimes incorrectly called ice ages) separated by warmer periods. These glacial maxima are called, from oldest to youngest, Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga.[39] The Tahoe reached its maximum extent perhaps about 70,000 years ago. Little is known about the Tenaya. The Tioga was the least severe and last of the Wisconsin Episode. It began about 30,000 years ago, reached its greatest advance 21,000 years ago, and ended about 10,000 years ago.
Greenland glaciation[edit]
In Northwest Greenland, ice coverage attained a very early maximum in the last glacial period around 114,000. After this early maximum, the ice coverage was similar to today until the end of the last glacial period. Towards the end, glaciers readvanced once more before retreating to their present extent.[40] According to ice core data, the Greenland climate was dry during the last glacial period, precipitation reaching perhaps only 20% of today's value.[41]
South America[edit]
Mérida glaciation (Venezuelan Andes)[edit]
Map showing the extent of the glaciated area in Venezuelan Andes during the Mérida glaciation
The name Mérida Glaciation is proposed to designate the alpine glaciation which affected the central Venezuelan Andes during the Late Pleistocene. Two main moraine levels have been recognized: one with an elevation of 2,600–2,700 m (8,500–8,900 ft), and another with an elevation of 3,000–3,500 m (9,800–11,500 ft). The snow line during the last glacial advance was lowered approximately 1,200 m (3,900 ft) below the present snow line, which is 3,700 m (12,100 ft). The glaciated area in the Cordillera de Mérida was approximately 600 km2 (230 sq mi); this included the following high areas from southwest to northeast: Páramo de Tamá, Páramo Batallón, Páramo Los Conejos, Páramo Piedras Blancas, and Teta de Niquitao. Approximately 200 km2 (77 sq mi) of the total glaciated area was in the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, and of that amount, the largest concentration, 50 km2 (19 sq mi), was in the areas of Pico Bolívar, Pico Humboldt [4,942 m (16,214 ft)], and Pico Bonpland [4,983 m (16,348 ft)]. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the moraines are older than 10,000 BP, and probably older than 13,000 BP. The lower moraine level probably corresponds to the main Wisconsin glacial advance. The upper level probably represents the last glacial advance (Late Wisconsin).[42][43][44][45]
Llanquihue glaciation (Southern Andes)[edit]
Main article: Llanquihue glaciation
Map showing the extent of the Patagonian Ice Sheet in the Strait of Magellan area during the last glacial period. Selected modern settlements are shown with yellow dots.
The Llanquihue glaciation takes its name from Llanquihue Lake in southern Chile which is a fan-shaped piedmont glacial lake. On the lake's western shores there are large moraine systems of which the innermost belong to the last glacial period. Llanquihue Lake's varves are a node point in southern Chile's varve geochronology. During the last glacial maximum the Patagonian Ice Sheet extended over the Andes from about 35°S to Tierra del Fuego at 55°S. The western part appears to have been very active, with wet basal conditions, while the eastern part was cold based. Cryogenic features like ice wedges, patterned ground, pingos, rock glaciers, palsas, soil cryoturbation, solifluction deposits developed in unglaciated extra-Andean Patagonia during the Last Glaciation. However, not all these reported features have been verified.[46] The area west of Llanquihue Lake was ice-free during the LGM, and had sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by Nothofagus. Valdivian temperate rain forest was reduced to scattered remnants in the western side of the Andes.[47]
Modelled maximum extent of the Antarctic ice sheet 21,000 years before present
See also[edit]
Glacial history of Minnesota
Glacial lake outburst flood
Glacial period
Ice age
Last Glacial Maximum
Pleistocene
Pleistocene megafauna
Plio-Pleistocene
Quaternary extinction event
Quaternary glaciation
Sea level rise
Stone Age
Timeline of glaciation
Valparaiso Moraine
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Prior to the 2010s there was considerable debate on whether Southern Africa was glaciated during the last glacial cycle or not.[25][26]
Jump up ^ The former existence of large glaciers or deep snow cover over much of the Lesotho Highlands has been judged unlikely considering the lack of glacial morphology (e.g. rôche moutonnées) and the existence of periglacial regolith that has not been reworked by glaciers.[26] Estimates of the mean annual temperature in Southern Africa during the Last Glacial Maximum indicate the temperatures were not low enough to initiate or sustain a widespread glaciation. The former existence of rock glaciers or large glaciers is according to the same study ruled out, because of a lack of conclusive field evidence and the implausibility of the 10-17° C temperature drop, relative to the present, that such features would imply.[25]
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Jump up ^ Huybrechts, P. (2002). "Sea-level changes at the LGM from ice-dynamic reconstructions of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets during the glacial cycles". Quaternary Science Reviews. 21 (1–3): 203–231. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00082-8.
Jump up ^ OED
Jump up ^ Behre Karl-Ernst, van der Plicht Johannes (1992). "Towards an absolute chronology for the last glacial period in Europe: radiocarbon dates from Oerel, northern Germany". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 1 (2): 111–117. doi:10.1007/BF00206091.
Jump up ^ Davis, Owen K. (2003) "Non-Marine Records: Correlations with the Marine Sequence" Introduction to Quaternary Ecology University of Arizona web site, doi: 2003618-145735g
Jump up ^ "Brief geologic history". Rocky Mountain National Park. Archived from the original on May 15, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Ice Age Floods". U.S. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Waitt, Jr., Richard B. (October 1985). "Case for periodic, colossal jökulhlaups from Pleistocene glacial Lake Missoula". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 96 (10): 1271–86. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1985)96<1271:CFPCJF>2.0.CO;2. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Ehlers, Gibbard & 2004 II, p. 57
Jump up ^ Funder, Svend "Late Quaternary stratigraphy and glaciology in the Thule area, Northwest Greenland". MoG Geoscience. 22: 63. 1990. Archived from the original on June 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ Johnsen, Sigfus J.; et al. (1992). "A "deep" ice core from East Greenland". MoG Geoscience. 29: 22. Archived from the original on June 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ Schubert, Carlos (1998). "Glaciers of Venezuela". US Geological Survey (USGS P 1386-I).
Jump up ^ Schubert, C.; Valastro, S. (1974). "Late Pleistocene glaciation of Páramo de La Culata, north-central Venezuelan Andes" (PDF). Geologische Rundschau. 63 (2): 516–538. doi:10.1007/BF01820827.
Jump up ^ Mahaney, William C.; Milner, M.W., Kalm, Volli; Dirsowzky, Randy W.; Hancock, R.G.V.; Beukens, Roelf P. (April 1, 2008). "Evidence for a Younger Dryas glacial advance in the Andes of northwestern Venezuela". Geomorphology. 96 (1–2): 199–211. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.08.002. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Maximiliano, B.; Orlando, G.; Juan, C.; Ciro, S. "Glacial Quaternary geology of las Gonzales basin, páramo los conejos, Venezuelan andes".
Jump up ^ Trombotto Liaudat, Darío (2008). "Geocryology of Southern South America". In Rabassa, J. The Late Cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. pp. 255–268. ISBN 978-0-444-52954-1.
Jump up ^ Adams, Jonathan. "South America during the last 150,000 years". Archived from the original on January 30, 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Bowen, D.Q. (1978). Quaternary geology: a stratigraphic framework for multidisciplinary work. Oxford UK: Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-020409-3.
Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P. L., eds. (2004). Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 2: Part II North America. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-51462-7.
Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P. L., eds. (2004). Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 3: Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-51593-3.
Gillespie, A. R., Porter, S. C.; Atwater, B. F. (2004). The Quaternary Period in the United States [of America]. Developments in Quaternary Science. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-51471-4. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Harris, A. G.; Tuttle, E.; Tuttle, S. D. (1997). Geology of National Parks (5th ed.). Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. ISBN 0-7872-5353-7.
Kuhle, M. (1988). "The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages — An Autocycle HypothesisGeoJournal". GeoJournal. 17 (4): 581–596. doi:10.1007/BF00209444.
Mangerud, J.; Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P., eds. (2004). Quaternary Glaciations : Extent and Chronology 1: Part I Europe. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-51462-7.
Sibrava, V.; Bowen, D.Q; Richmond, G. M. (1986). "Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere". Quaternary Science Reviews. 5: 1–514. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(86)80002-6.
Pielou, E. C. (1991). After the Ice Age : The Return of Life to Glaciated North America. Chicago IL: University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-66812-6.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ice age.
Pielou, E. C. After the Ice Age: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America (University of Chicago Press: 1992)
National Atlas of the USA: Wisconsin Glaciation in North America: Present state of knowledge
Ray, N.; Adams, J.M. (2001). "A GIS-based Vegetation Map of the World at the Last Glacial Maximum (25,000–15,000 BP)" (PDF). Internet Archaeology. 11.
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Lake Balkhash
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Lake Baikal.
Lake Balkhash
Балқаш Көлі
Озеро Балхаш
View from Space, April 1991
Map of the Lake Balkhash drainage basin
Location
Kazakhstan
Coordinates
46°10′N 74°20′E / 46.167°N 74.333°E / 46.167; 74.333Coordinates: 46°10′N 74°20′E / 46.167°N 74.333°E / 46.167; 74.333
Type
Endorheic, Saline
Primary inflows
Ili, Karatal, Aksu, Lepsy, Byan, Kapal, Koksu rivers
Primary outflows
evaporation
Basin countries
Kazakhstan 85%
China 15%
Max. length
605 km (376 mi)
Max. width
East 19 km (12 mi)
West 74 km (46 mi)
Surface area
16,400 km2 (6,300 sq mi)
Average depth
5.8 m (19 ft)
Max. depth
26 m (85 ft)
Water volume
106 cu mi (440 km3)
Surface elevation
341.4 m (1,120 ft)
Frozen
November to March
Lake Balkhash (Kazakh: Балқаш көлі, Kazakh pronunciation: [bɑɫqɑʃ kyʉlɘ]; Russian: Озеро Балхаш, Ozero Balhaš) is one of the largest lakes in Asia and 15th largest in the world. It is located in Central Asia in southeastern Kazakhstan and belongs to an endorheic (closed) basin shared by Kazakhstan and China, with a small portion in Kyrgyzstan. The basin drains into the lake via seven rivers, the primary of which is the Ili River, bringing the majority of the riparian inflow; others, such as the Karatal, provide both surface and subsurface flow. The Ili is fed by precipitation, largely vernal snowmelt, from the mountains of China's Xinjiang region.
The lake currently covers an area of about 16,400 km2 (6,300 sq mi). However, like the Aral Sea, it is shrinking as a result of the diversion of water from rivers that feed it.[1] The lake is divided by a strait into two distinct parts. The western part is fresh water, while the eastern half is saline.[2][3][4][5] The eastern part is on average 1.7 times deeper than the western section. The largest city near the lake is also named Balkhash and has about 66,000 inhabitants. Major economic activities in the area include mining, ore processing and fishing.
While the size of the lake is temporarily growing, there is concern about the lake's shallowing due to desertification and industrial activity.
Contents
1 History and naming
2 The origin of the lake
3 Relief
4 Feeding the lake and the water level
4.1 Water composition
5 Climate
6 Flora and fauna
7 Cities and economy
7.1 Fishing
7.2 Energy projects
7.3 Navigation
8 Environmental and political issues
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History and naming[edit]
The present name of the lake originates from the word "balkas" of Tatar, Kazakh and Southern Altai languages which means "tussocks in a swamp".[6]
From as early as 103 BC up until the 8th century, the Balkhash polity was known to the Chinese as 布谷/布库/布苏 "Pu-Ku/Bu-Ku". From the 8th century on, the land to the south of the lake, between it and the Tian Shan mountains, was known in Turkic as Jetisu "Seven Rivers" (Semirechye in Russian). It was a land where the nomadic Turks and Mongols of the steppe mingled cultures with the settled peoples of Central Asia.[7]
During China's Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the lake formed the northwestern-most boundary of the Empire. In 1864, the lake and its neighboring area were ceded to Imperial Russia under the Protocol of Chuguchak. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the lake became part of Kazakhstan.
The origin of the lake[edit]
Satellite image of the Karatal River delta
Balkhash lies in the deepest part of the vast Balkhash-Alakol depression, which was formed by a sloping trough between mountains of the Alpine orogeny and the older Kazakhstan Block during the Neogene and Quaternary. Rapid erosion of the Tian Shan has meant the depression subsequently filled with sand river sediments in what is geologically a very short time span. The basin is a part of Dzungarian Alatau, which also contains lakes Sasykkol, Alakol and Aibi.[4] These lakes are remnants of an ancient sea which once covered the entire Balkhash-Alakol depression, but was not connected with the Aral–Caspian Depression.[8]
Relief[edit]
The lake has an area of about 16,400 km2 (2000),[3] making it the largest lake which lies entirely within the territory of Kazakhstan. It is elevated about 340 m above sea level and has a sickle shape. Its length is about 600 km and the width varies from 9–19 km in the eastern part to 74 km in the western part. Saryesik Peninsula, located near the middle of the lake, hydrographically divides it into two very different parts. The western part, which comprises 58% of the total lake area and 46% of its volume,[9] is relatively shallow, quiet and is filled with freshwater, whereas the eastern part is much deeper and saltier. These parts are connected by the Uzynaral Strait (Kazakh: Ұзынарал – "long island") which is 3.5 km wide and about 6 m deep.[2]
View of Lake Balkhash from Space (August 2002)
The numbers mark the largest peninsulas, island and bays:
Saryesik peninsula, separating the lake into two parts, and Uzynaral Strait
Baygabyl Peninsula
Balai Peninsula
Shaukar Peninsula
Kentubek Peninsula
Basaral and Ortaaral Islands
Tasaral Island
Shempek Bay
Saryshagan Bay
The lake includes several small basins. In the western part, there are two depressions 7–11 meters deep. One of them extends from the western coast (near Tasaral Island) to Cape Korzhyntubek, whereas the second lies south from the Gulf Bertys, which is the deepest part of western Balkhash. The average depth of the eastern basin is 16 m and the maximum depth of the eastern part (and of the lake) is 26 m.[10] The average depth of the lake is 5.8 m, and the total volume of water is about 112 km3.
The western and northern shores of the lake are high (20–30 m) and rocky; they are composed of such Paleozoic rocks as porphyry, tuff, granite, schist and limestone and keep traces of ancient terraces. The southern shores near the Gulf Karashagan and Ili River are low (1–2 m) and sandy. They are often flooded and therefore contain numerous water pools. Occasional hills are present with the height of 5–10 m.[10] The coastline is very curvy and dissected by numerous bays and coves. The large bays of the western part are: Saryshagan, Kashkanteniz, Karakamys, Shempek (the southern pole of the lake), and Balakashkan Ahmetsu, and those in the eastern part are: Guzkol, Balyktykol, Kukuna, Karashigan. The eastern part also includes peninsulas Baygabyl, Balay, Shaukar, Kentubek and Korzhintobe.
The lake contains 43 islands with a total area of 66 km2;[11] however, new islands are being formed due to the lowering of water level, and the area of the existing ones is increasing.[12] The islands of the western part include Tasaral and Basaral (the largest), as well as Ortaaral, Ayakaral and Olzhabekaral. The eastern islands include Ozynaral, Ultarakty, Korzhyn and Algazy.
Feeding the lake and the water level[edit]
Ice over Lake Balkhash on April 11, 2003.
By April 18, 2003 most ice has melted.
Rapid ice melt on Lake Balkhash in April 2003.
Balkhash-Alakol Basin covers an area of 512,000 km2,[13] and its average surface water runoff is 27.76 km3/year, of which 11.5 km3 come from the territory of China. The area of drainage basin of the lake is about 413,000 km2;[9][12] with 15% belonging to the north-west of Xinjiang region in China and a small part in Kyrgyzstan. Lake Balkhash takes 86% of water inflow from Balkhash-Alakol basin. Ili River accounts for 73–80% of the inflow with the total volume quoted as either 12.3 km3/year[14] or 23 km3/year.[15] The river originates in Tian Shan mountains and is mainly fed by glacier. This results in daily and seasonal fluctuations of its water level with a strong increase during the glacier melting season in June–July.[15] The river forms an extended delta which covers the area of 8,000 km2 and serves as an accumulator, providing water in the drought years.[16]
The eastern part of the lake is fed by the rivers Karatal, Aksu and Lepsy, as well as by groundwater.[3][14] The Karatal River originates on the slopes of Dzungarian Alatau and is the second largest water source for the lake. River Ayaguz, which fed the eastern part of the lake until 1950, barely reaches it nowadays. The annual difference in the flow to the western and eastern parts of the lake is 1.15 km3.[17]
Water balance of the lake in 2000[16]
Total inflow to the lake was 22.51 km3, including:
Surface water – 18.51 km3,
Underground water – 0.9 km3,
Sediments and ice – 3.1 km3.
Total losses amounted to 24.58 km3, including
Evaporation – 16.13 km3,
Ili delta – 4.22 km3,
Ice formation – 0.749 km3,
Housing and communal services – 0.24 km3,
Industry – 0.22 km3,
Agriculture – 3.24 km3,
Fisheries – 0.027 km3.
The area and volume of the lake vary due to long-term and short-term fluctuations in water level. Long-term fluctuations had an amplitude of 12–14 m, which was minimum between the 5th and 10th centuries and maximum between the 13th and 18th centuries.[4] In the early 20th century and between 1958 and 1969, the area of the lake increased to ~18,000 km2, and during the droughts, for example in the late 1900s, 1930s and 1940s, the lake shrank to ~16,000 km2 with the water level fluctuations of about 3 m.[2] In 1946, the area was 15,730 km2 and the lake volume was 82.7 km3.[9] From the late 1900s, the lake is shrinking due to the diversion of the rivers supplying it.[12] For example, Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on Ili River in 1970. Filling the associated Kapshagay Reservoir disbalanced Balkhash Lake, causing deterioration of water quality, especially in the eastern part of the lake. Between 1970 and 1987, the water level fell by 2.2 m,[2] the volume reduced by 30 km3 and the salinity of the western part was increasing. Projects were proposed to slow the changes down, e.g. by splitting the lake in two with a dam, but were cancelled due to the economic decline in the Soviet Union.[4][8][18]
The minimal water level in the lake (340.65 meters above sea level) was recorded in 1987, when the filling Kapshagay Reservoir was completed. The level rose to 342.5 m by January 2005 that was attributed to large volume of precipitations in the late 1990s.[19]
Water composition[edit]
Balkhash is a semi-saline lake, and the chemical composition of its water strongly depends on the hydrographic features of the reservoir. Water in the western part is nearly fresh, with the content of total dissolved solids about 0.74 g/L, and cloudy (visibility 1 m); it is used for drinking and industry. Water in the eastern part is more transparent (visibility 5.5 m) and saline, with the average salt concentration of 3.5–6 g/L.[11] The average salinity of the lake is 2.94 g/L. Long-term (1931–1970) average precipitation of salts in Lake Balkhash is 7.53 million tonnes and the reserves of dissolved salts in the lake are about 312 million tonnes.[10] The water in the western part has a yellow-gray tint, and in the eastern part the color varies from bluish to emerald-blue.[20]
Climate[edit]
Lake Balkhash in the spring, 2008
The climate of the lake area is continental. Average temperature is about 30 °C in July and −14 °C in January. Average precipitation is 131 mm per year and the relative humidity is about 60%. Wind, dry climate and high summer temperatures result in high evaporation rate – 950 mm in cold and up to 1200 mm in dry years.[15] Wind has average speed of 4.5–4.8 m/s and blows mainly southward in the western part and to the south-west in the eastern part. The wind induces waves up to 2–3.5 m in height[8] and steady clockwise currents in the western part.
There are 110–130 sunny days per year with the average irradiance of 15.9 MJ/m2 per day.[9] Water temperature at the surface of the lake varies from 0 °C in December to 28 °C in July. The average annual temperature is 10 °C in the western and 9 °C in the eastern parts of the lake. The lake freezes every year between November and early April,[21] and the melting is delayed by some 10–15 days in the eastern part.[8]
Balkhash City
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
13
−9
−18
10
−8
−18
10
0
−10
11
14
3
15
22
10
12
28
16
10
30
18
8
28
16
4
22
9
9
13
2
14
3
−6
15
−5
−13
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
showImperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0.5
15
−1
0.4
17
0
0.4
32
14
0.4
58
37
0.6
72
50
0.5
82
61
0.4
86
65
0.3
82
60
0.2
71
49
0.4
55
35
0.6
37
21
0.6
23
8
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
Water temperature (°C) (data from 1985–1987) [9]
Depth
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Eastern part of the lake
0
– −0.2 0.2 – 13.9 19.0 23.4 23.2 17.2 11.4 – –
10
– 1 – – 10.8 16.7 21.7 22.8 – – – –
20
(near the bottom)
– 1.7 1.9 – 8.9 13.7 14.6 19.7 17.1 11.5 – –
Western part of the lake, near Balkhash City
0
– 0.0 0.8 6.7 13.3 20.5 24.7 22.7 16.6 7.8 2.0 –
3
(near the bottom)
– 0.3 2.2 6.5 13.1 19.6 24.1 22.6 16.5 7.4 2.0 –
Flora and fauna[edit]
The shores of the lake contain individual willow trees and riparian forests, mostly composed of various species of Populus. Plants include common reed (Phragmites australis), lesser Indian reed mace (Typha angustata ) and several species of cane – Schoenoplectus littoralis, S. lacustris and endemic S. kasachstanicus. Under water grow two types of Myriophyllum – spiked (M. spicatum) and whorled (M. verticillatum); several kinds of Potamogeton – shining (P. lucens), perfoliate (P. perfoliatus), kinky (P. crispus), fennel (P. pectinatus) and P. macrocarpus; as well as common bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), rigid hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum) and two species of Najas. Phytoplankton, the concentration of which was 1.127 g/L in 1985, is represented by numerous species of algae.[9]
Coastal cane
The lake used to have a rich fauna, but since 1970, biodiversity began to decline due to deterioration of water quality. Before then, there were abundant shellfish, crustaceans, chironomidae and oligochaeta, as well as zooplankton (concentration 1.87 g/L in 1985[9]), especially in the western part. The lake hosted about 20 species of fish, 6 of which were native: Ili marinka (Schizothorax pseudoaksaiensis), Balkhash marinka (S. argentatus), Balkhash perch (Perca schrenkii), Triplophysa strauchii, T. labiata and Balkhash minnow (Rhynchocypris poljakowi). Other fish species were alien: common carp (Cyprinus carpio), spine,[which?] Oriental bream (Abramis brama orientalis), Aral barbel (Luciobarbus brachycephalus), Siberian dace (Leuciscus baicalensis), tench (Tinca tinca), European perch (Perca fluviatilis), catfish,[which?] Diptychus, Prussian carp (Carassius gibelio) and others. The fishery was focused on carp, perch, asp (Aspius aspius) and bream.[9][15]
Abundant and dense reeds in the southern part of the lake, especially in the delta of Ili River, served as a haven for birds and animals. Changes in the water level led to the degradation of the delta – since 1970, its area decreased from 3,046 to 1,876 km2, reducing wetlands and riparian forests which were inhabited by birds and animals. Land development, application of pesticides, overgrazing and deforestation also contributed to the decrease in biodiversity. Of the 342 species of vertebrate, 22 are endangered and are listed in the Red Book of Kazakhstan.[16] Forests of the Ili delta were inhabited by the rare (now probably extinct) Caspian tiger and its prey, wild boar. Around the 1940s, Canadian muskrat was brought to the Ili delta; it quickly acclimatized, feeding on Typha,[22] and was trapped for fur, up to 1 million animals per year. However, recent changes in the water level destroyed its habitat, bringing the fur industry to a halt.[16]
Balkhash is also the habitat of 120 types of bird, including cormorants, marbled teal, pheasants, golden eagle and great egret; 12 of those are endangered, including great white pelican, Dalmatian pelican, Eurasian spoonbill, whooper swan and white-tailed eagle.[16]
Cities and economy[edit]
A view from the lake of the Balkhash Mining and Metallurgy Plant.
In 2005, 3.3 million people lived in the basin of the Lake Balkhash, including residents of Almaty – the largest city of Kazakhstan.[23] The largest city on the lake is Balkhash with 66,724 inhabitants (2010).[24] It is located on the northern shore and has a prominent mining and metallurgy plant. A large copper deposit was discovered in the area in 1928–1930 and is being developed in the villages north of the lake. Part of the motorway between Bishkek and Karaganda runs along the western shore of the lake. The western shore also hosts military installations built during the Soviet era, such as radar missile warning systems. The southern shore is almost unpopulated and has only a few villages. The nature and wild life of the lake attract tourists, and there are several resorts on the lake.[25]
Fishing[edit]
The economic importance of the lake is mostly in its fishing industry. Systematic breeding of fish began in 1930;[2] the annual catch was 20 thousand tonnes in 1952,[8] it increased to 30 thousands in the 1960s and included up to 70% of valuable species. However, by the 1990s production fell to 6,600 tonnes per year with only 49 tonnes of valuable breeds. The decline is attributed to several factors, including the halt of reproduction programs, poaching and decline in water level and quality.[16]
Energy projects[edit]
Lake Balkhash, the neighborhood of the city Priosersk
In 1970, the 364-megawatt Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was built on the Ili River, drawing water out of the new Kapshagay Reservoir for irrigation. Ili's water is also extensively used upstream, in the Xinjiang province of China, for the cultivation of cotton.[2] Currently, there is a project for an additional counter-regulatory dam 23 km downstream from the Kapchagay. The associated 49.5-MW Kerbulak Hydroelectric Power Plant will partially solve the problem of providing electricity to the southern areas of Kazakhstan and will serve as a buffer for daily and weekly fluctuations in the water level of Ili River.[26]
Energy supply to the south-eastern part of Kazakhstan is an old problem, with numerous solutions proposed in the past. Proposals to build power plants on Balkhash in the late 1970s and 1980s stalled, and the initiative to erect a nuclear plant near the village Ulken[27] met strong opposition from environmentalists and residents.[28] Therefore, in 2008, the Kazakh government reconsidered and announced building of a Balkhash Thermal Power Plant.[29][30]
Navigation[edit]
A pier near Balkhash City
There is a regular ship navigation through the lake, mouth of Ili River and Kapchagay Reservoir. The main piers are Burylbaytal and Burlitobe.[15] The ships[31] are relatively light due to the limiting depth in some parts of the lake; they are used mainly for catching fish and transporting fish and construction materials. The total length of the waterway is 978 km, and the navigation period is 210 days/year.
Navigation on the Lake Balkhash originated in 1931 with the arrival of two steamers and three barges. By 1996, up to 120 thousand tonnes of construction materials, 3,500 tonnes of ore, 45 tonnes of fish, 20 tonnes of melons and 3,500 passengers were transported on Balkhash. However, these values decreased by 2004 to 1000 passengers and 43 tonnes of fish. In 2004, the Balkhash fleet consisted of 87 vessels, including 7 passenger ships, 14 cargo barges and 15 tugboats. The government projects that by 2012, the transported volume in the Ili-Balkhash basin will reach 233 thousand tonnes of construction materials, at least 550 thousand tonnes of livestock and agriculture products and at least 53 tonnes of fish. Development of eco-tourism is expected to increase the passenger traffic to 6,000 people per year.[32]
Environmental and political issues[edit]
The central peninsula of the lake as seen from the air.
There are serious concerns about the ecology of the lake, especially in the view of repeating the environmental disaster at the Aral Sea.[16] Since 1970, the 39 km3 outflow of water to fill the Kapchagay Reservoir resulted in a 2/3 decrease in the supply to the lake from Ili River.[2] The concomitant decrease in the level of the lake was approximately 15.6 cm/year, much larger than the natural decline in 1908–1946 (9.2 cm/year).[17] The shallowing of Balkhash is especially evident in its western part. From 1972 till 2001, a small salt lake Alakol, located 8 km south of Balkhash, had practically disappeared and the southern part of the lake lost about 150 km2 of water surface.[12] Of the 16 existing lake systems around the lake only five remain. The desertification process involved about 1/3 of the basin.[33] Salt dust is blown away from the dried areas, contributing to the generation of Asian dust storms, increase the soil salinity and adversely influencing the climate. Increasing formation of silt in the river's delta further reduces the inflow of water to the lake.[16]
Water pollution index
0.5 – clean, 2 – dirty, 4 – very dirty[17]
Location
1997
2000
2001
Gulf Tarangalyk
2.38 3.70 3.96
Gulf MA Sary-Shagan
2.56 4.83 4.52
Another factor affecting the ecology of the Ili-Balkhash basin is emissions due to mining and metallurgical processes, mostly at the Balkhash Mining and Metallurgy Plant operated by Kazakhmys. In the early 1990s, emission level was 280–320 thousand tonnes per year, depositing 76 tonnes of copper, 68 tonnes of zinc and 66 tonnes of lead on the surface of the lake. Since then, emission almost doubled. Contaminants are also brought from the dump sites by the dust storms.[23]
In 2000, a major conference "Balkhash 2000" brought together environmental scientists from different countries, as well as representatives of business and government. The conference adopted a resolution and appeal to the Government of Kazakhstan and international organizations, suggesting new ways of managing the ecosystems of Alakol and Balkhash basins.[17] At the 2005 International Environmental Forum devoted to Lake Balkhash, Kazakhmys announced that by 2006 it will restructure its processes, thereby reducing emissions by 80–90%.[23]
Contamination of Balkhash originates not only locally, but is also brought by inflow of polluted water from China. China also consumes 14.5 km3 of water per year from Ili River, with a planned increase by 3.6 times.[23] The current rate of the increase is 0.5–4 km3/year.[14] In 2007, Kazakhstan Government proposed a price reduction for sales of Kazakh products to China in exchange for reduction of water consumption from Ili River, but the offer was declined by China.[34][35]
See also[edit]
Balkhash – the city at Lake Balkhash
Korzhin Island
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lake Balkhash, International Lake Environment Committee
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Lake Balkhash". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c Igor S. Zektser, Lorne G Everett (2000). Groundwater and the Environment: Applications for the Global Community. CRC Press. p. 76. ISBN 1-56670-383-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Maria Shahgedanova (2002). The Physical Geography of Northern Eurasia. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 0-19-823384-1.
Jump up ^ Yoshiko Kawabata; et al. (1997). "The phytoplankton of some saline lakes in Central Asia". International Journal of Salt Lake Research. 6 (1): 5–16. doi:10.1007/BF02441865.
Jump up ^ Balkhash in Etymological dictionary of Max Vasmer (in Russian)
Jump up ^ Soucek, Svat (2000) A History of Inner Asia, Princeton: Cambridge University Press, p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e A. Sokolov (1952). "Central Asia and Kazakhstan". Hydrography of the USSR (in Russian). Gidrometeoizdat.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h International Lake Environment Committee. "Lake Balkhash". World Lakes Database. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c R. N. Nurgaliev, ed. (1988). Казахская ССР. 2. Alma-Ata: Kazakh Soviet Encyclopedia. pp. 101–102. ISBN 5-89800-002-X.
^ Jump up to: a b V.M. Kotlyakov. "Balkhash" (in Russian). Dictionary of modern geographical names. Retrieved 2009-01-30. [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Guillaume Le Sourd, Diana Rizzolio (2004). "United Nations Environment Programme – Lake Balkhash". UNEP Global Resource Information Database. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ World Resources Institute. "Watersheds of the World: Asia and Oceania – Lake Balkhash Watershed". World Resources Institute. Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c Institute of Hydrogeology and Hydrophysics Ministry of Education and Science. "Water problems in Kazakhstan". unesco.kz. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Balkhash" (in Russian). Great Soviet Encyclopedia. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Или-Балхаш — Концепция устойчивого развития (PDF) (in Russian). UNDP Kazakhstan. 4 November 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Water resources of Kazakhstan in the new millennium" (PDF) (in Russian). UNDP Kazakhstan. April 19, 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2007. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
Jump up ^ Kezer, Kader; Matsuyama, Hiroshi (2006). "Decrease of river runoff in the Lake Balkhash basin in Central Asia". Hydrological Processes. 20 (6): 1407. doi:10.1002/hyp.6097.
Jump up ^ Olga Malakhova (September 23, 2005). "Save Balkhash we can together" (in Russian). Kazakhstan Pravda. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Lake Balkhash, Kazakhstan: Image of the Day". NASA Earth Observatory. December 1, 2000. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Ice Melts on Lake Balkhash, Kazakhstan: Image of the Day". NASA Earthobservatory. April 30, 2003. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Typha" (in Russian). Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2010-01-08. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d A. Samakova (2005-10-01). "The main problem of Balkhash Lake is poor water quality" (in Russian). zakon.kz. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Қазақстан / Qаzаqstаn population statistics" (Entry Балқаш/Bаlqаş).
Jump up ^ Kazakh News agency (2008). "Foreign guests are delighted with the Lake Balkhash: Tourism News" (in Russian). votpusk.ru. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Construction Kerbulak hydroelectric power, 49 5 MW" (in Russian). klimate.kz. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ Gulsum Kunelekova (2006-10-30). "From age to age" (in Russian). newspaper "Megapolis" No. 43 (307). Archived from the original on 2011-08-18. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Research: NPP Balkhash" (in Russian). COMCON-2 Eurasia. Archived from the original on 2009-06-24. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ Larissa Stoppel (2008-11-12). И ГЭС, и ТЭС, и на дуде игрец (in Russian). "Express K" No. 213 (16599). Archived from the original on 2011-08-18. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Project "Construction of the Balkhash Thermal Power Plant"". builder.kz. 20 October 2008. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Balkhash – ships, ships, shipping". forum, photo. 2008. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 26 September 2006, N 917. "On Approval of the Programme of development of navigation and safety on the inland waterways of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2007–2012" (in Russian). government.kz. Archived from the original on 18 August 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2009.
Jump up ^ N. Borovaya (4 October 2005). "Спасти уникальное озеро. Стремительно мелеет казахстанский Балхаш" (in Russian). Экспресс К, No. 186 (15844). Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ Ilan Greenberg (8 March 2007). "Kazakhstan and China Deadlock Over Depletion of a Major Lake". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
Jump up ^ Jack Carino (April 1, 2008). "Water woes in Kazakhstan". China Dialogue. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Balkash.
"Information on Balkhash's geography and biology". Archived from the original on 5 March 2001.
Kazakh 'national treasure' under threat
United Nations Environmental Programme details on Lake Balkhash
"Central Asia: Kazakhstan, aid bodies work to save major lake" 13 March 2007 RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
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text:
Fake it till you make it
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Act as if" redirects here. For the band, see Act As If (band).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Fake it till you make it" is a common English idiom, which suggests that by imitating confidence, competence, and an optimistic mindset, a person can realize those qualities in their real life. It echoes the underlying principles of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) as a means to enable a change in one's behavior.
The phrase "fake it till you make it" is similar in meaning to the idiom "act as if", and is also similar to Aristotle's idea that to be virtuous, one must act as a virtuous person would act.
In the 1920s, Alfred Adler, a disciple of Sigmund Freud, developed a therapeutic technique that he called "acting as if". This strategy gave his clients an opportunity to practice alternatives to dysfunctional behaviors. Adler's method is still used today and is often described as "role play".
See also[edit]
Faking It
References[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_it_till_you_make_it&oldid=803335661"
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