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Season
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A season is a division of the year[1] marked by changes in weather, ecology, and amount of daylight. Seasons result from Earth's orbit around the Sun and Earth's axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane.[2][3] In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergo hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant.
Red and green trees in autumn (fall)
During May, June, and July, the Northern Hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the Sun. The same is true of the Southern Hemisphere in November, December, and January. It is Earth's axial tilt that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months, which increases the solar flux. However, due to seasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere.
In temperate and subpolar regions, four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter. Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions: prevernal, vernal, estival, serotinal, autumnal, and hibernal. Many tropical regions have two seasons: the rainy, wet, or monsoon season and the dry season. Some have a third cool, mild, or harmattan season. Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies, whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times, and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual.
A deciduous tree in winter
The six ecological seasons
The four calendar seasons, depicted in an ancient Roman mosaic from Tunisia.
In some parts of the world, some other "seasons" capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season, tornado season, and wildfire season.[citation needed] The most historically important of these are the three seasons—flood, growth, and low water—which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt.
A deciduous tree in autumn (fall)
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes and effects
1.1 Axis tilt
1.2 Elliptical Earth orbit
1.3 Maritime and hemispheric
1.4 Tropics
1.5 Mid-latitude thermal lag
2 Four-season calendar reckoning
2.1 Meteorological
2.2 Astronomical
2.2.1 Variation due to calendar misalignment
2.2.2 Change over time
2.3 Solar
3 Six-season calendar reckoning
4 Polar day and night
5 Non-calendar-based reckoning
5.1 Modern mid-latitude ecological
5.2 Tropical ecological
5.3 Indigenous ecological
6 "Official" designations
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Causes and effects[edit]
Illumination of the earth at each change of astronomical season
Fig. 1
This diagram shows how the tilt of the Earth's axis aligns with incoming sunlight around the winter solstice of the northern hemisphere. Regardless of the time of day (i.e. the Earth's rotation on its axis), the North Pole will be dark, and the South Pole will be illuminated; see also arctic winter. In addition to the density of incident light, the dissipation of light in the atmosphere is greater when it falls at a shallow angle.
Main article: Effect of sun angle on climate
Axis tilt[edit]
The seasons result from the Earth's axis of rotation being tilted with respect to its orbital plane by an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees.[4] (This tilt is also known as "obliquity of the ecliptic".)
Regardless of the time of year, the northern and southern hemispheres always experience opposite seasons. This is because during summer or winter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun (see Fig. 1) than the other, and this exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. For approximately half of the year (from around March 20 to around September 22), the northern hemisphere tips toward the Sun, with the maximum amount occurring on about June 21. For the other half of the year, the same happens, but in the southern hemisphere instead of the northern, with the maximum around December 21. The two instants when the Sun is directly overhead at the Equator are the equinoxes. Also at that moment, both the North Pole and the South Pole of the Earth are just on the terminator, and hence day and night are equally divided between the northern and southern hemispheres. Around the March equinox, the northern hemisphere will be experiencing spring as the hours of daylight increase, and the southern hemisphere is experiencing autumn as daylight hours shorten.
The effect of axial tilt is observable as the change in day length and altitude of the Sun at noon (the culmination of the Sun) during a year. The low angle of Sun during the winter months means that incoming rays of solar radiation are spread over a larger area of the Earth's surface, so the light received is more indirect and of lower intensity. Between this effect and the shorter daylight hours, the axial tilt of the Earth accounts for most of the seasonal variation in climate in both hemispheres.
A deciduous tree in winter
Illumination of Earth by Sun at the northern solstice.
Illumination of Earth by Sun at the southern solstice.
Diagram of the Earth's seasons as seen from the north. Far right: southern solstice
Diagram of the Earth's seasons as seen from the south. Far left: northern solstice
Play media
Animation of Earth as seen daily from the Sun looking at UTC+02:00, showing the solstice and changing seasons.
Two images showing the amount of reflected sunlight at southern and northern summer solstices respectively (watts / m²).
Elliptical Earth orbit[edit]
Compared to axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes. The seasons are not the result of the variation in Earth's distance to the sun because of its elliptical orbit.[5] In fact, Earth reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the Sun) in January, and it reaches aphelion (farthest point from the Sun) in July, so the slight contribution of orbital eccentricity opposes the temperature trends of the seasons in the northern hemisphere.[6] In general, the effect of orbital eccentricity on Earth's seasons is a 7% variation in sunlight received.
A tree in summer
Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when farther from the sun. This is because the northern hemisphere has more land than the southern, and land warms more readily than sea.[6] Any noticeable intensification of the southern hemisphere's winters and summers due to Earth's elliptical orbit is mitigated by the abundance of water in the southern hemisphere.[7]
Maritime and hemispheric[edit]
Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on factors such as proximity to oceans or other large bodies of water, currents in those oceans, El Niño/ENSO and other oceanic cycles, and prevailing winds.
A deciduous tree in autumn (fall)
In the temperate and polar regions, seasons are marked by changes in the amount of sunlight, which in turn often causes cycles of dormancy in plants and hibernation in animals. These effects vary with latitude and with proximity to bodies of water. For example, the South Pole is in the middle of the continent of Antarctica and therefore a considerable distance from the moderating influence of the southern oceans. The North Pole is in the Arctic Ocean, and thus its temperature extremes are buffered by the water. The result is that the South Pole is consistently colder during the southern winter than the North Pole during the northern winter.
The cycle of seasons in the polar and temperate zones of one hemisphere is opposite to that in the other. When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in the southern hemisphere, and vice versa.
Tropics[edit]
In tropical and subtropical regions there is little annual fluctuation of sunlight. However, there are seasonal shifts of a rainy global-scale low pressure belt called the Intertropical convergence zone. As a result, the amount of precipitation tends to vary more dramatically than the average temperature. When the convergence zone is north of the equator, the tropical areas of the northern hemisphere experience their wet season while the tropics south of the equator have their dry season. This pattern reverses when the convergence zone migrates to a position south of the equator.
Mid-latitude thermal lag[edit]
In meteorological terms, the summer solstice and winter solstice (or the maximum and minimum insolation, respectively) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of these seasons occur up to seven weeks later because of seasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always defined in meteorological terms.
In astronomical reckoning by hours of daylight alone, the solstices and equinoxes are in the middle of the respective seasons. Because of seasonal lag due to thermal absorption and release by the oceans, regions with a continental climate which predominate in the northern hemisphere often consider these four dates to be the start of the seasons as in the diagram, with the cross-quarter days considered seasonal midpoints. The length of these seasons is not uniform because of the elliptical orbit of the earth and its different speeds along that orbit.[8]
Four-season calendar reckoning[edit]
Calendar-based reckoning defines the seasons in absolute rather than relative terms. Accordingly, if floral activity is regularly observed during the coolest quarter of the year in a particular area, it is still considered winter despite the traditional association of flowers with spring and summer. Additionally, the seasons are considered to change on the same dates everywhere that uses a particular calendar method regardless of variations in climate from one area to another. Most calendar-based methods use a four-season model to identify the warmest and coldest seasons, which are separated by two intermediate seasons.
A deciduous tree in autumn (fall)
Meteorological[edit]
Animation of seasonal differences especially snow cover through the year
Meteorological seasons are reckoned by temperature, with summer being the hottest quarter of the year and winter the coldest quarter of the year. In 1780 the Societas Meteorologica Palatina (which became defunct in 1795), an early international organization for meteorology, defined seasons as groupings of three whole months as identified by the Gregorian calendar. Ever since, professional meteorologists all over the world have used this definition.[9] Therefore, for temperate areas in the northern hemisphere, spring begins on 1 March, summer on 1 June, autumn on 1 September, and winter on 1 December. For the southern hemisphere temperate zone, spring begins on 1 September, summer on 1 December, autumn on 1 March, and winter on 1 June.[10][11] In Australasia the meteorological terms for seasons apply to the temperate zone that occupies all of New Zealand, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, the south-eastern corner of South Australia and the south-west of Western Australia, and the south east Queensland areas south of Brisbane.
Australasian seasons
Season
Start date
End date
Summer 1 December 28 February[12]
Autumn 1 March 31 May
Winter 1 June 31 August
Spring 1 September 30 November
A tree in summer
In Sweden and Finland, meteorologists use a non-calendar based definition for the seasons based on the temperature. Spring begins when the daily averaged temperature permanently rises above 0 °C, summer begins when the temperature permanently rises above +10 °C, summer ends when the temperature permanently falls below +10 °C and winter begins when the temperature permanently falls below 0 °C. "Permanently" here means that the daily averaged temperature has remained above or below the limit for seven consecutive days. This implies two things: first, the seasons do not begin at fixed dates but must be determined by observation and are known only after the fact; and second, a new season begins at different dates in different parts of the country. In Great Britain, the onset of spring used to be defined as when the maximum daily temperature reached 50 °F (10 °C) in a defined sequence of days. This almost always occurred in March. However, with global warming this temperature is now not uncommon in the winter.
Surface air temperature
Diagram was calculated (Abscisse: 21. of each month)
Calculation based on data published by Jones et al. [13]
The picture shows Figure 7 as published by Jones et al.[13]
Astronomical[edit]
UT date and time of
equinoxes and solstices on Earth[14]
event
equinox
solstice
equinox
solstice
month
March
June
September
December
year
day
time
day
time
day
time
day
time
2010
20 17:32 21 11:28 23 03:09 21 23:38
2011
20 23:21 21 17:16 23 09:04 22 05:30
2012
20 05:14 20 23:09 22 14:49 21 11:12
2013
20 11:02 21 05:04 22 20:44 21 17:11
2014
20 16:57 21 10:51 23 02:29 21 23:03
2015
20 22:45 21 16:38 23 08:21 22 04:48
2016
20 04:30 20 22:34 22 14:21 21 10:44
2017
20 10:28 21 04:24 22 20:02 21 16:28
2018
20 16:15 21 10:07 23 01:54 21 22:23
2019
20 21:58 21 15:54 23 07:50 22 04:19
2020
20 03:50 20 21:44 22 13:31 21 10:02
Astronomical timing as the basis for designating the temperate seasons dates back at least to the Julian calendar used by the ancient Romans. It continues to be used on many modern Gregorian calendars worldwide, although some countries like Australia, New Zealand, and Russia prefer to use meteorological reckoning. The precise timing of the seasons is determined by the exact times of transit of the sun over the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn for the solstices and the times of the sun's transit over the equator for the equinoxes, or a traditional date close to these times.[15]
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse (with eccentricity exaggerated for effect) goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis—nearest point to the sun) on anywhere from 2 January to 5 January, the point of March equinox on 19, 20 or 21 March, the point of June solstice on 20 or 21 June, the aphelion (apoapsis—farthest point from the sun) on anywhere from 4 July to 7 July, the September equinox on 22 or 23 September, and the December solstice on 21 or 22 December.
Note: Distances are exaggerated and not to scale
These "astronomical" seasons are not of equal length, because of the elliptical nature of the orbit of the Earth, as discovered by Johannes Kepler. From the March equinox it currently takes 92.75 days until the June solstice, then 93.65 days until the September equinox, 89.85 days until the December solstice and finally 88.99 days until the March equinox.
Variation due to calendar misalignment[edit]
The times of the equinoxes and solstices are not fixed with respect to the modern Gregorian calendar, but fall about six hours later every year, amounting to one full day in four years. They are reset by the occurrence of a leap year. The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the March equinox no later than 21 March as accurately as is practical. Also see: Gregorian calendar seasonal error.
The calendar equinox (used in the calculation of Easter) is 21 March, the same date as in the Easter tables current at the time of the Council of Nicaea in AD 325. The calendar is therefore framed to prevent the astronomical equinox wandering onto 22 March. From Nicaea to the date of the reform, the years 500, 600, 700, 900, 1000, 1100, 1300, 1400 and 1500, which would not have been leap years in the Gregorian calendar, amount to nine days, but astronomers directed that ten days be removed.
Currently, the most common equinox and solstice dates are March 20, June 21, September 22 or 23 and December 21; the four-year average slowly shifts to earlier times as the century progresses. This shift is a full day in about 128 years (compensated mainly by the century "leap year" rules of the Gregorian calendar) and as 2000 was a leap year the current shift has been progressing since the beginning of the last century, when equinoxes and solstices were relatively late. This also means that in many years of the twentieth century, the dates of March 21, June 22, September 23 and December 22 were much more common, so older books teach (and older people may still remember) these dates.
Note that all the times are given in UTC (roughly speaking, the time at Greenwich, ignoring British Summer Time). People living farther to the east (Asia and Australia), whose local times are in advance, will see the astronomical seasons apparently start later; for example, in Tonga (UTC+13), an equinox occurred on September 24, 1999, a date which will not crop up again until 2103. On the other hand, people living far to the west (America) whose clocks run behind UTC may experience an equinox as early as March 19.
Change over time[edit]
Over thousands of years, the Earth's axial tilt and orbital eccentricity vary (see Milankovitch cycles). The equinoxes and solstices move westward relative to the stars while the perihelion and aphelion move eastward. Thus, ten thousand years from now Earth's northern winter will occur at aphelion and northern summer at perihelion. The severity of seasonal change — the average temperature difference between summer and winter in location — will also change over time because the Earth's axial tilt fluctuates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees.
Smaller irregularities in the times are caused by perturbations of the Moon and the other planets.
Solar[edit]
The annual cycle of insolation (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle), quarter days (top) and cross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed by seasonal lag.
Solar timing is based on insolation in which the solstices and equinoxes are seen as the midpoints of the seasons. It was the method for reckoning seasons in medieval Europe, especially by the Celts, and is still ceremonially observed in some east Asian countries. Summer is defined as the quarter of the year with the greatest insolation and winter as the quarter with the least.
The solar seasons change at the cross-quarter days, which are about 3–4 weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 6–7 weeks earlier than seasons starting at equinoxes and solstices. Thus, the day of greatest insolation is designated "midsummer" as noted in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream, which is set on the summer solstice. On the Celtic calendar, the traditional first day of winter is 1 November (Samhain, the Celtic origin of Halloween); spring starts 1 February (Imbolc, the Celtic origin of Groundhog Day); summer begins 1 May (Beltane, the Celtic origin of May Day); the first day of autumn is 1 August (Celtic Lughnasadh). The Celtic dates corresponded to four Pagan agricultural festivals.
The traditional calendar in China forms the basis of other such systems in East Asia. Its seasons are traditionally based on 24 periods known as solar terms.[16] The four seasons chūn (春), xià (夏), qiū (秋), and dōng (冬) are universally translated as "spring", "summer", "autumn", and "winter" but actually begin much earlier, with the solstices and equinoxes forming the midpoint of each season rather than their start. Astronomically, the seasons are said to begin on Lichun (立春, lit. "standing spring") on about 4 February, Lixia (立夏) on about 6 May, Liqiu (立秋) on about 8 August, and Lidong (立冬) on about 7 November. These dates were not part of the traditional lunar calendar, however, and moveable holidays such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival are more closely associated with the seasons.
Six-season calendar reckoning[edit]
Some calendars in south Asia use a six-season method where the number of seasons between summer and winter can number from one to three. The dates are fixed at even intervals of months.
In the Hindu calendar of tropical and subtropical India, there are six seasons or Ritu that are calendar-based in the sense of having fixed dates: Vasanta (spring), Greeshma (summer), Varsha (monsoon), Sharad (autumn), Hemanta (early winter), and Shishira (prevernal or late winter). The six seasons are ascribed to two months each of the twelve months in the Hindu calendar. The rough correspondences are:
Hindu season
Start
End
Hindu Months
Mapping to English Names
Vasanta Mid-March Mid-May Chaitra, Vaishakha spring
Greeshma Mid-May Mid-July Jyeshtha, Ashadha summer
Varsha Mid-July Mid-September Shraavana, Bhadrapada monsoon
Sharad Mid-September Mid-November Ashwin, Kartika autumn
Hemanta Mid-November Mid-January Maargashirsha, Pausha early winter
Shishira Mid-January Mid-March Magh, Phalguna prevernal or late winter
The Bengali Calendar is similar but differs in start and end time. It has the following seasons or ritu:
Bengali season
Start
End
Bengali Months
Mapping to English Names
Bosonto বসন্ত (ঋতু) (Spring) Mid-February Mid-April Falgun, Choitro Spring
Grishmo (গ্রীষ্ম) (Summer) Mid-April Mid-June Boishakh, Joishtho Summer
Borsha (বর্ষা) (Monsoon) Mid-June Mid-August Asharh, Srabon Monsoon
Shorot (শরৎ) (Autumn/ Fall) Mid-August Mid-October Bhadro, Ashwin Autumn
Hemonto (হেমন্ত) (Frost/ Late Autumn) Mid-October Mid-December Kartik, Ogrohayon Late Autumn
Sit (শীত) (Winter) Mid-December Mid-February Poush, Magh Winter
The Tamil calendar follows a similar pattern of six seasons
Tamil season
Gregorian Months
Tamil Months
IlaVenil (Spring) April 15 to June 14 Chithirai and Vaikasi
MuthuVenil (Summer) June 15 to August 14 Aani and Aadi
Kaar (Monsoon) August 15 to October 14 Avani and Purattasi
Kulir (Autumn) October 15 to December 14 Aipasi and Karthikai
MunPani (Winter) December 15 to February 14 Margazhi and Thai
PinPani (Prevernal) February 15 to April 14 Maasi and Panguni
Polar day and night[edit]
Any point north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle will have one period in the summer when the sun does not set, and one period in the winter when the sun does not rise. At progressively higher latitudes, the maximum periods of "midnight sun" and "polar night" are progressively longer.
For example, at the military and weather station Alert located at 82°30′05″N and 62°20′20″W, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island, Canada (about 450 nautical miles or 830 km from the North Pole), the sun begins to peek above the horizon for minutes per day at the end of February and each day it climbs higher and stays up longer; by 21 March, the sun is up for over 12 hours. On 6 April the sun rises at 0522 UTC and remains above the horizon until it sets below the horizon again on 6 September at 0335 UTC. By October 13 the sun is above the horizon for only 1 hour 30 minutes and on October 14 it does not rise above the horizon at all and remains below the horizon until it rises again on 27 February.[17]
First light comes in late January because the sky has twilight, being a glow on the horizon, for increasing hours each day, for more than a month before the sun first appears with its disc above the horizon. From mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight.
In the weeks surrounding 21 June, in the northern polar region, the sun is at its highest elevation, appearing to circle the sky there without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day until around the middle of October, when it disappears for the last time until the following February. For a few more weeks, "day" is marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, from mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight and it is continuously dark. In mid January the first faint wash of twilight briefly touches the horizon (for just minutes per day), and then twilight increases in duration with increasing brightness each day until sunrise at end of February, then on 6 April the sun remains above the horizon until mid October.
Non-calendar-based reckoning[edit]
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Seasonal changes regarding a tree over a year
Ecologically speaking, a season is a period of the year in which only certain types of floral and animal events happen (e.g.: flowers bloom—spring; hedgehogs hibernate—winter). So, if we can observe a change in daily floral/animal events, the season is changing. In this sense, ecological seasons are defined in absolute terms, unlike calendar-based methods in which the seasons are relative. If specific conditions associated with a particular ecological season don't normally occur in a particular region, then that area cannot be said to experience that season on a regular basis.
Modern mid-latitude ecological[edit]
Six seasons can be distinguished which do not have fixed calendar-based dates like the meteorological and astronomical seasons.[18] Mild oceanic regions tend to experience the beginning of the hibernal season up to a month later than continental climates, while the prevernal and vernal seasons begin up to a month earlier near to the sea. For example, prevernal crocus blooms typically appear as early as February in mild coastal areas of British Columbia, the British Isles, and western and southern Europe. The actual dates for each season vary by climate region and can shift from one year to the next. Average dates listed here are for mild and cool temperate climate zones in the Northern Hemisphere:
Prevernal (early or pre-spring): Begins February or late January (mild temperate), March (cool temperate). Deciduous tree buds begin to swell. Migrating birds fly from winter to summer habitats.
Vernal (spring): Begins March (mild temperate), April (cool temperate). Tree buds burst into leaves. Birds establish territories and begin mating and nesting.
Estival (high summer): Begins June in most temperate climates. Trees in full leaf. Birds hatch and raise offspring.
Serotinal (late summer): Generally begins mid to late August. Deciduous leaves begin to change color. Young birds reach maturity and join other adult birds preparing for autumn migration. The traditional "harvest season" begins.
Autumnal (autumn): Generally begins mid to late September. Tree leaves in full color then turn brown and fall to the ground. Birds migrate back to wintering areas.
Hibernal (winter): Begins December (mild temperate), November (cool temperate). Deciduous trees are bare and fallen leaves begin to decay. Migrating birds settled in winter habitats.
Tropical ecological[edit]
In the tropics, where seasonal dates also vary, it is more common to speak of the rainy (or wet, or monsoon) season versus the dry season. For example, in Nicaragua the dry season (November to April) is called 'summer' and the rainy season (May to October) is called 'winter', even though it is located in the northern hemisphere. In some tropical areas a three-way division into hot, rainy, and cool season is used. There is no noticeable change in the amount of sunlight at different times of the year. However, many regions (such as the northern Indian ocean) are subject to monsoon rain and wind cycles.
Floral and animal activity variation near the equator depends more on wet/dry cycles than seasonal temperature variations, with different species flowering (or emerging from cocoons) at specific times before, during, or after the monsoon season. Thus, the tropics are characterized by numerous "mini-seasons" within the larger seasonal blocks of time.
In the tropical parts of Australia in the northern parts of Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory, wet and dry seasons are observed in addition to or in place of temperate season names.[19]
Indigenous ecological[edit]
See also: Indigenous Australian seasons
Indigenous people in polar, temperate and tropical climates of northern Eurasia, the Americas, Africa, Oceania, and Australia have traditionally defined the seasons ecologically by observing the activity of the plants, animals and weather around them. Each separate tribal group traditionally observes different seasons determined according to local criteria that can vary from the hibernation of polar bears on the arctic tundras to the growing seasons of plants in the tropical rainforests. In Australia, some tribes have up to eight seasons in a year,[10] as do the Sami people in Scandinavia. Many indigenous people who no longer live directly off the land in traditional often nomadic styles, now observe modern methods of seasonal reckoning according to what is customary in their particular country or region.
"Official" designations[edit]
As noted, a variety of dates are used in different countries to mark the changes of seasons, especially those that are calendar based. These observances are often declared "official" within their respective jurisdictions by the local or national media, even when the weather or climate is contradictory.[20] However they are mainly a matter of custom only, and have not generally been proclaimed by governments north or south of the equator for civil purposes.[21][22] The Met Office in the UK uses a three-month definition, e.g. declaring "spring" to be March, April, and May.[23] At least one researcher writing in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society compared various definitions to actual temperature changes, and recommended this three-month definition for general use in the United States.[24]
See also[edit]
Equinox
Growing season
Indian summer
Persephone, Greek mythological figure associated with the rebirth of vegetation in the spring
Solstice
Sun path
Vertumnus, Roman god of the seasons
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Khavrus, V.; apple, I. (2012). "Geometry and the physics of seasons". Physics Education. 47 (6): 680–692. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/47/6/680.
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Jump up ^ United States Naval Observatory (21 September 2015). "Earth's Seasons: Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000-2025". Retrieved 9 December 2015.
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Jump up ^ Ross, Kelley L. "The Solar Terms and the Chinese 60 Year Calendar Cycle". friesian.com. Retrieved 2010-12-03.
Jump up ^ U.S. Naval Observatory
Jump up ^ Michael Allaby (1999). "A Dictionary of Zoology". Retrieved 2012-05-30.
Jump up ^ "Australian weather and the seasons". Australian Government. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
Jump up ^ CBC News Canada (2013). "Canadians brace for a cold spring start". CBC News. Retrieved 2014-10-01.
Jump up ^ NPL (2007). "FAQ-Time". NPL. Retrieved 2014-10-01.
Jump up ^ http://www.weathersa.co.za/learning/weather-questions/82-how-are-the-dates-of-the-four-seasons-worked-out
Jump up ^ http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/learn-about-the-weather/how-weather-works/when-does-spring-start
Jump up ^ Trenberth, Kevin E. (1983). "What are the Seasons?". Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 64: 1276–1282. Bibcode:1983BAMS...64.1276T. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1983)064<1276:WATS>2.0.CO;2.
Maris, Mihaela, St. Luchian School, Bacau, Romania, Seasonal Variations of the Bird Species, ref. ecological seasons pp. 195–196 incl. and pp. 207–209 incl.
External links[edit]
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to seasons.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: seasons
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Seasons.
When do the Seasons Begin? (from the Bad Astronomer)
Southern Hemisphere calendar
Solstice does not signal season's start (from The Straight Dope)
Why the Earth has seasons article on h2g2.
Aboriginal seasons of Kakadu
Indigenous seasons (Australian Bureau of Meteorology)
Mt Stirling Seasons
The Lost Seasons
Melbourne's six seasons
The Lengths of the Seasons (numerical integration analysis)
Earth distance vs tilt
Tutorial on Earth/Sun Relations and Seasons
Sunpreview Season Forecast Project
Satellite photo demonstrating seasons changes in 2004 on NASA website
Video – how seasonal change looks from space
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text:
Juan de Fuca Plate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the entire Juan de Fuca Plate, or more specifically the middle fragment. For the northern fragment, see Explorer Plate. For the southern fragment, see Gorda Plate.
Juan de Fuca Plate
Type
Minor
Approximate area
250,000 km2 (96,000 sq mi)[1]
Movement1
north-east
Speed1
26 mm/year (1.0 in/yr)
Features
Pacific Ocean
1Relative to the African Plate
Cutaway of the Juan de Fuca Plate. USGS image
The Juan de Fuca Plate is a tectonic plate generated from the Juan de Fuca Ridge and is subducting under the northerly portion of the western side of the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone. It is named after the explorer of the same name. One of the smallest of Earth's tectonic plates, the Juan de Fuca Plate is a remnant part of the once-vast Farallon Plate, which is now largely subducted underneath the North American Plate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Extent
3 Volcanism
4 Earthquakes
5 Carbon sequestration potential
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Origins[edit]
The Juan de Fuca plate system has its origins with Panthalassa's oceanic basin and crust. This oceanic crust has primarily been subducted under the North American plate, and the Eurasian Plate. Panthalassa's oceanic plate remnants are understood to be the Juan de Fuca, Gorda, Cocos and the Nazca plates, all four of which were part of the Farallon Plate.
Extent[edit]
A map of the Juan de Fuca Plate
The Juan de Fuca plate is bounded on the south by the Blanco Fracture Zone (running northwest off the coast of Oregon), on the north by the Nootka Fault (running southwest off Nootka Island, near Vancouver Island, British Columbia) and along the west by the Pacific Plate (which covers most of the Pacific Ocean and is the largest of Earth's tectonic plates). The Juan de Fuca plate itself has since fractured into three pieces, and the name is applied to the entire plate in some references, but in others only to the central portion. The three fragments are differentiated as such: the piece to the south is known as the Gorda Plate and the piece to the north is known as the Explorer Plate. The separate pieces are demarcated by the large offsets of the undersea spreading zone.
Volcanism[edit]
This subducting plate system has formed the Cascade Range, the Cascade Volcanic Arc, and the Pacific Ranges, along the west coast of North America from southern British Columbia to northern California. These in turn are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a much larger-scale volcanic feature that extends around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean.
Earthquakes[edit]
The last megathrust earthquake at the Cascadia subduction zone was the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, estimated to have a moment magnitude of 8.7 to 9.2. Based on carbon dating of local tsunami deposits, it is inferred to have occurred around 1700.[2] Evidence of this earthquake is also seen in the ghost forest along the bank of the Copalis River in Washington. The rings of the dead trees indicate that they died around 1700, and it is believed that they were killed when the earthquake occurred and sunk the ground beneath them causing the trees to be flooded by saltwater.[3] Japanese records indicate that a tsunami occurred in Japan on 26 January 1700, which was likely caused by this earthquake.[4]
In 2008, small earthquakes were observed within the Juan de Fuca Plate. The unusual quakes were described as "more than 600 quakes over the past 10 days in a basin 150 miles [240 km] southwest of Newport". The quakes were unlike most quakes in that they did not follow the pattern of a large quake, followed by smaller aftershocks; rather, they were simply a continual deluge of small quakes. Furthermore, they did not occur on the tectonic plate boundary, but rather in the middle of the plate. The subterranean quakes were detected on hydrophones, and scientists described the sounds as similar to thunder, and unlike anything previously recorded.[5]
Carbon sequestration potential[edit]
The basaltic formations of the Juan de Fuca Plate could potentially be suitable for long-term CO2 sequestration as part of a carbon capture and storage (CCS) system. Injection of CO2 would lead to the formation of stable carbonates. It is estimated that 100 years of US carbon emissions (at current rate) could be stored securely, without risk of leakage back into the atmosphere.[6][7]
See also[edit]
Astoria Fan
Cascadia Channel
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
Plate tectonics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sizes of Tectonic or Lithospheric Plates". Geology.about.com. 2014-03-05. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
Jump up ^ Wong, Florence L. "Seaside, Oregon, Tsunami Pilot Study GIS, USGS Data Series 236, home page". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-15.
Jump up ^ Schulz, Kathryn (June 20, 2015). "The Earthquake That Will Devastate the Pacific Northwest". The New Yorker.
Jump up ^ Satake, Kenji; Wang, Kelin; Atwater, Brian F. (2003-11-01). "Fault slip and seismic moment of the 1700 Cascadia earthquake inferred from Japanese tsunami descriptions". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 108 (B11): 2535. Bibcode:2003JGRB..108.2535S. doi:10.1029/2003JB002521. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ "Unusual Earthquake Swarm Off Oregon Coast Puzzles Scientists". Science News. ScienceDaily. 2008-04-14.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, D. S. "Carbon dioxide sequestration in deep-sea basalt". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105: 9920–9925. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804397105. PMC 2464617  . Retrieved 12 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Fairley, Jerry. "Sub-seafloor Carbon Dioxide Storage Potential on the Juan de Fuca Plate, Western North America". Energy Procedia. 37: 5248–5257. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2013.06.441. Retrieved 2017-04-15.
External links[edit]
National Geographic on Japanese records verifying an American earthquake
Cascadia tectonic history with map
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List of countries by energy consumption per capita
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Social Progress Index vs Energy Use per capita. List of countries by Social Progress Index.
A map depicting world energy consumption per capita based on 2003 data from the International Energy Agency.
A map depicting world energy consumption per capita based on 2013 data from the World Bank[1]
The World Bank : Kilograms of oil equivalent (2011)
This is a list of countries by total energy consumption per capita.[2] This is not the consumption of end-users but all energy needed as input to produce fuel and electricity for end-users. It is known as Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES), a term used to indicate the sum of production and imports subtracting exports and storage changes (see also Worldwide energy supply). Numbers from 2013 and 2014 are from The World Bank - World Development Indicators[3]
Map of Earth lights (green channel) vs population density (red channel)
Methodology[edit]
The data is given in kilogrammes of oil equivalent per year, and gigajoules per year, and in watts, as average equivalent power.
Note:Conversion of 1 kilogrammes of oil equivalent (koe)
1 koe = 11.63 kWh or 1 kWh = 0.085984522785899 koe [4]
2003
2013
2014
Country
Total energy consumption per capita per annum (kgoe/a)
The same value in GJ per capita per annum (1000 kgoe = 42 GJ)
The same value in W per capita (1 GJ/a = 31.7 W) (multiply by 8.766 to get kWh/year)
Total energy
consumption per
capita per annum (kgoe/a)
The same value in GJ
per capita per annum
(1000 kgoe = 42 GJ)
The same value in W
per capita (1 GJ/a =
31.7 W) (multiply by
8.766 to get kWh/year)
Total energy
consumption per
capita per annum (kgoe/a)
Afghanistan[5] 90 3.78 119.8
Albania 648.3 27.23 863.2 800.6 33.62 1065.9
Algeria 1138.2 47.81 1515.5 1246.0 52.33 1658.9
Angola 716.5 30.09 953.9 654.9 27.51 871.9
Argentina 1846.8 77.57 2458.9 1894.6 79.57 2522.5
Armenia 790.8 33.22 1052.9 969.3 40.71 1290.5
Australia 5593.2 234.92 7446.8 5586.3 234.63 7437.7 5484.7
Austria 4033.6 169.41 5370.3 3917.8 164.55 5216.2 3754.1
Azerbaijan 1307.5 54.91 1740.8 1474.0 61.91 1962.5
Bahrain 7753.7 325.65 10323.2 10171.7 427.21 13542.6
Bangladesh 208.8 8.77 278.1 215.5 9.05 286.9
Belarus 2922.0 122.73 3890.4 2881.5 121.02 3836.4
Belgium 5585.6 234.59 7436.6 5039.0 211.64 6708.9 4810.3
Benin 412.8 17.34 549.6 393.4 16.52 523.8
Bolivia 737.4 30.97 981.7 785.5 32.99 1045.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina 1703.4 71.54 2267.9 1688.0 70.89 2247.4
Botswana 1127.8 47.37 1501.6 1098.4 46.13 1462.4
Brazil 1362.5 57.23 1814.1 1437.8 60.39 1914.3
Brunei Darussalam 8308.4 348.95 11061.9 7392.9 310.50 9842.9
Bulgaria 2370.1 99.55 3155.6 2327.4 97.75 3098.7
Cambodia 355.4 14.93 473.1 396.2 16.64 527.5
Cameroon 362.7 15.23 482.9 330.7 13.89 440.3
Canada 7379.6 309.94 9825.2 7202.2 302.49 9589.0 7247.2
Chile 1806.7 75.88 2405.5 2201.2 92.45 2930.6 2186.6
China 1806.8 75.88 2405.5 2226.3 93.50 2964.1
Colombia 696.3 29.24 927.1 668.5 28.08 890.0
Congo, Dem. Rep. 360.2 15.13 479.5 292.3 12.28 389.1
Congo, Rep. 363.5 15.27 483.9 555.8 23.34 740.0
Costa Rica 997.8 41.91 1328.5 1029.0 43.22 1370.0
Cote d'Ivoire 484.9 20.37 645.6 605.3 25.42 805.9
Croatia 1931.9 81.14 2572.2 1813.9 76.19 2415.1
Cuba 975.3 40.96 1298.5 1030.9 43.30 1372.5
Cyprus 2215.2 93.04 2949.3 1691.1 71.03 2251.5
Czech Republic 4192.8 176.10 5582.3 3989.9 167.58 5312.2 3945.3
Denmark 3470.4 145.76 4620.5 3107.1 130.50 4136.9 2903.7
Dominican Republic 840.0 35.28 1118.4 731.3 30.72 973.7
Ecuador 836.3 35.12 1113.5 979.8 41.15 1304.4
Egypt 903.1 37.93 1202.4 885.0 37.17 1178.3
El Salvador 676.9 28.43 901.2 693.4 29.12 923.3
Eritrea 141.7 5.95 188.7
Estonia 4154.5 174.49 5531.3 4623.3 194.18 6155.4 4599.7
Ethiopia 400.3 16.81 532.9 507.0 21.29 675.0
Finland 6787.2 285.06 9036.5 6074.7 255.14 8087.9 6266.9
France 4030.5 169.28 5366.2 3839.9 161.27 5112.4 3641.1
Gabon 1417.6 59.54 1887.4 1434.9 60.27 1910.4
Georgia 700.3 29.41 3142.8 1032.1 43.35 1374.2
Germany 4003.3 168.14 5329.9 3867.6 162.44 5149.4 3749.1
Ghana 382.2 16.05 508.9 343.6 14.43 457.5
Greece 2440.5 102.50 3249.3 2134.1 89.63 2841.3 2061.4
Guatemala 712.8 29.94 949.0 767.6 32.24 1022
Haiti 229.0 9.62 304.9 393.2 16.51 523.5
Honduras 600.9 25.24 800.1 662.4 27.82 882
Hong Kong 1951.3 81.96 2598.0 1938.4 81.41 2580.7
Hungary 2566.7 107.80 3417.3 2280.4 95.78 3036.1 2292.3
Iceland 16882.5 709.06 22477.4 18177.3 763.44 24201.2 17583.6
India 565.6 23.76 753.1 606.1 25.45 806.9
Indonesia 866.5 36.39 1153.7 850.2 35.71 1132
Iran, Islamic Rep. 2816.8 118.30 3750.2 2960.4 124.34 3941.5
Iraq 1180.3 49.57 1571.4 1466.6 61.6 1952.6
Ireland 3217.7 135.14 4284.0 2840.2 119.29 3781.4 2766.6
Israel 3005.4 126.23 4001.3 2970.8 124.77 3955.3 2849.5
Italy 2814.6 118.21 3747.4 2579.5 108.34 3434.3 2405.5
Jamaica 1130.2 47.47 1504.7 1083.6 45.51 1442.7
Japan 3898.4 163.73 5190.3 3570.4 149.96 4753.7 3470.2
Jordan 1191.4 50.04 1586.2 1071 44.98 1426
Kazakhstan 4595.1 193.00 6118.0 4786.7 201.04 6373
Kenya 482.9 20.28 642.9 491.7 20.65 654.7
North Korea 761.2 31.97 1013.4 580.6 24.38 773
South Korea 5059.9 212.52 6736.8 5253.5 220.65 6994.5 5262
Kosovo[6] 1372.1 57.63 1826.9 1296.7 54.46 1726.4
Kuwait 12204.3 512.58 16248.8 9757.4 409.81 12991.1
Kyrgyzstan 535.6 22.50 713.2 690.4 29 919.2
Latvia 1971.3 82.79 2624.6 2159.2 90.69 2874.8
Lebanon 1526.1 64.10 2031.8 1337.2 56.16 1780.3
Libya 3013.0 126.54 4011.5 2711.3 113.87 3609.8
Lithuania 2107.0 88.49 2805.2 2356.6 98.98 3137.6
Luxembourg 8342.5 350.39 11107.3 7310.3 307.03 9732.9 6812.2
Macedonia 1402.3 58.90 1867.0 1349.5 56.68 1796.7
Malaysia 2557.8 107.43 3405.5 3019.8 126.83 4020.6
Malta 2012.9 84.54 2680.0 3019.8 126.83 4020.6
Mexico 1570.3 65.95 2090.8 1545.8 64.92 2058 1510.1
Moldova 730.7 30.69 972.8 862.7 36.23 1148.5
Mongolia 1188.7 49.92 1582.6 1826.5 76.71 2431.7
Montenegro 1303.5 54.75 1735.5 1651.3 69.35 2198.5
Morocco 516.7 21.70 687.9 564.4 23.7 751.4
Mozambique 436.0 18.31 580.5 407.4 17.11 542.4
Myanmar 291.8 12.26 388.6 312.8 13.14 416.4
Namibia 702.5 29.50 935.3 742.3 31.18 988.4
Nepal 341.1 14.32 454.1 369.7 15.53 492.2
Netherlands 5021.0 210.88 6685.0 4605.4 193.43 6131.7 4289.4
New Zealand 4166.4 174.99 5547.2 4391.6 184.45 5846.9 4454.7
Nicaragua 542.0 22.76 721.6 593.7 24.93 790.4
Nigeria 713.6 29.97 950.1 773 32.47 1029.2
Norway 6637.4 278.77 8837.0 6438.8 270.43 8572.6 5854
Oman 7187.7 301.88 9569.7 6232.5 261.76 8297.9
Pakistan 487.3 20.47 648.8 474.9 19.94 632.2
Panama 1072.7 45.05 1428.2 1057.5 44.41 1407.9
Paraguay 741.9 31.16 987.7 764.1 32.09 1017.4
Peru 667.1 28.02 888.2 708.3 29.75 943.1
Philippines 434.0 18.23 577.8 457.1 19.2 608.6
Poland 2657.0 111.59 3537.5 2565.4 107.75 3415.6 2495.8
Portugal 2213.1 92.95 2946.5 2082.8 87.48 2773.1 2028.1
Qatar 12799.4 537.58 17041.2 19120.3 803.05 25456.8
Romania 1632.2 68.55 2173.1 1592.1 66.87 2119.8
Russia 4943.1 207.61 6581.2 5093.1 213.91 6780.9
Saudi Arabia 6167.9 259.05 8212.0 6363.4 267.26 8472.2
Senegal 272.0 11.42 362.1 261 10.96 347.5
Serbia 2141.0 89.92 2850.5 2078.5 87.3 2767.3
Singapore 6455.7 271.14 8595.2 4833.4 203 6435.2
Slovakia 3280.5 137.78 4367.6 3178.3 133.49 4231.6 2846.9
Slovenia 3520.2 147.85 4686.7 3323.2 139.58 4424.6 3272
South Africa 2737.8 114.99 3645.1 2655.9 111.55 3536
Spain 2772.7 116.45 3691.5 2503.8 105.16 3333.6 2449.8
Sri Lanka 477.9 20.07 636.3 487.5 20.48 649.1
Sudan 370.9 15.58 493.9 374.8 15.74 499
Sweden 5468.2 229.67 7280.4 5131.5 215.52 6832.1 4811
Switzerland 3348.8 140.65 4458.5 3304 138.77 4399 3074.8
Syrian Arab Republic 1063.0 44.64 1415.2 668.1 28.06 889.6
Tajikistan 335.5 14.09 446.7 302.7 12.71 403.1
Tanzania 447.8 18.81 596.1 469.7 19.73 625.4
Thailand 1698.9 71.35 2261.9 1987.6 83.48 2646.3
Togo 446.1 18.74 593.9 462.6 19.43 615.9
Trinidad and Tobago 15913.3 668.36 21187.0 14537.6 610.58 19355.3
Tunisia 912.8 38.34 1215.3 956.5 40.17 1273.5
Turkey 1445.1 60.69 1924.0 1528.2 64.18 2034.6 1540.5
Turkmenistan 4225.9 177.49 5626.3 5011.6 210.49 6672.5
Ukraine 2844.9 119.49 3787.7 2553.2 107.23 3399.3
United Arab Emirates 8271.5 347.40 11012.6 7691 323.02 10239.8
United Kingdom 3254.1 136.67 4332.5 2977.7 125.06 3964.5 2751.6
United States 7164.5 300.91 9538.8 6915.8 290.47 9207.8 6917.4
Uruguay 1240.9 52.12 1652.1 1350.5 56.72 1798.1
Uzbekistan 1533.0 64.39 2041.1 1419.5 59.62 1889.9
Venezuela 2668.6 112.08 3553.0 2271.2 95.39 3023.9
Vietnam 681.4 28.62 907.2 667.6 28.04 888.9
Yemen 297.9 12.51 396.6 323.7 13.6 431
Zambia 627.8 26.37 835.9 631.5 26.52 840.7
Zimbabwe 764.0 32.09 1017.2 757.5 31.82 1008.6
See also[edit]
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
List of countries by energy intensity
European countries by fossil fuel use (% of total energy)
European countries by electricity consumption per person
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "World Development Indicators Data". World Bank. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Energy Use Per Capita". World Development Indicators. World Bank. Retrieved 2012-12-26.
Jump up ^ "World Development Indicators | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
Jump up ^ convertenergy from koe to kWh
Jump up ^ http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=44&pid=45&aid=2&cid=regions&syid=2007&eyid=2011&unit=QBTU
Jump up ^ "EBRD celebrates energy efficiency in Kosovo". EBRD. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
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