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Back to the Future Part II
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Back to the Future Part II
Original theatrical poster by Drew Struzan
Directed by
Robert Zemeckis
Produced by
Neil Canton
Bob Gale
Screenplay by
Bob Gale
Story by
Robert Zemeckis
Bob Gale
Starring
Michael J. Fox
Christopher Lloyd
Lea Thompson
Thomas F. Wilson
Music by
Alan Silvestri
Cinematography
Dean Cundey
Edited by
Harry Keramidas
Arthur Schmidt
Production
company
Amblin Entertainment[1]
Universal Pictures[1]
Distributed by
Universal Pictures[1]
Release date
November 22, 1989 (1989-11-22)
Running time
108 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$40 million[3]
Box office
$332 million[3]
Back to the Future Part II is a 1989 American adventure film directed by Robert Zemeckis and written by Bob Gale. It is the sequel to the 1985 film Back to the Future and the second installment in the Back to the Future trilogy. The film stars Michael J. Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Thomas F. Wilson, and Lea Thompson. In the plot, Marty McFly (Fox) and his friend Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown (Lloyd) travel to 2015, where bully Biff Tannen (Wilson) steals Doc's DeLorean time machine and uses it to alter history for the worse.
The film was produced on a $40-million budget and was filmed back to back with its sequel, Part III. Filming began in February 1989 after two years were spent building the sets and writing the scripts. Two actors from the first film, Crispin Glover and Claudia Wells, did not return. While Elisabeth Shue was recast in the role of Wells' character, Jennifer, Glover's character, George McFly, was not only minimized in the plot, but also was obscured and recreated with another actor. Glover successfully sued Zemeckis and Gale, changing how producers can deal with the departure and replacement of actors in a role. Back to the Future Part II was also a ground-breaking project for effects studio Industrial Light & Magic (ILM): In addition to digital compositing, ILM used the VistaGlide motion control camera system, which allowed an actor to portray multiple characters simultaneously on-screen without sacrificing camera movement.
Back to the Future Part II was released by Universal Pictures on November 22, 1989. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over $331 million worldwide, making it the third-highest-grossing film of 1989.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Development
4 Production
4.1 Replacement of Crispin Glover
4.2 Replacement of Claudia Wells
4.3 Hoverboard hoax
5 Depiction of the future
6 Release and reception
6.1 Box office
6.2 Critical response
6.3 Accolades
6.4 Home media
7 Soundtrack
7.1 Intrada release
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Plot[edit]
On October 26, 1985, Dr. Emmett Brown arrives in the DeLorean time machine and persuades Marty McFly and his girlfriend, Jennifer Parker, to travel to the future with him, and help their future children. Biff Tannen witnesses their departure. They arrive on October 21, 2015, where Doc electronically knocks out Jennifer, and leaves her asleep in an alley, explaining that she should not have too much knowledge of future events. He has Marty pose as his own son and lookalike Marty Jr. to refuse an offer to participate in a robbery with Biff's grandson Griff, thus saving both of Marty's children from prison.
Marty switches places with Marty Jr. and refuses Griff's offer, but Griff goads Marty into a fight. Griff and his gang are arrested, saving Marty's future children. Before rejoining Doc, Marty purchases an almanac, containing the results of major sporting events from 1950 to 2000. Doc discovers it and warns Marty about attempting to profit from time travel, but before Doc can adequately dispose of it, they are interrupted by the police, who have found Jennifer incapacitated, and are taking her to her 2015 home. They pursue, as does Biff, who has overheard their conversation, and picked up the almanac that Doc discarded.
Jennifer wakes up in her 2015 home and hides from the McFly family. She overhears that her future self's life with Marty is not what she expected, due to his involvement in an automobile accident. She witnesses Marty being goaded by his co-worker, Douglas J. Needles, into a shady business deal, which leads to Marty's firing. Attempting to escape the house, Jennifer encounters her 2015 self and they both faint. While Marty and Doc attend to her, Biff steals the time machine and uses it to travel back to 1955 and give the almanac to his younger self to get rich betting, then returns to 2015. Marty, Doc, and an unconscious Jennifer return to 1985, unaware of Biff's actions.
The 1985 they return to has altered: Biff has become wealthy and corrupt, and has changed Hill Valley into a chaotic dystopia. Marty's father, George, was killed in 1973 and Biff has forced Marty's mother, Lorraine, to marry him. Doc has been committed to an insane asylum. Marty and Doc determine that the 2015 Biff took the time machine to change 1985, and Marty learns from the alternate 1985 Biff that he got the almanac on November 12, 1955. Biff attempts to confront Marty, but Marty flees and returns to 1955 with Doc, leaving Jennifer on her own front porch.
Marty secretly follows the 1955 Biff, and watches him receive the almanac from his 2015 self. Marty then follows him to the high school's dance, being careful to avoid interrupting the events from his previous visit. Marty and the 1955 Biff steal the almanac back and forth, but Marty and Doc retrieve it, until Biff crashes into a manure truck. Marty burns the almanac, reversing Biff's changes to the timeline, as Doc hovers above in the time machine. Before Marty can join him inside, the DeLorean is struck by lightning, and disappears. A Western Union courier immediately arrives and delivers a letter to Marty; it is from Doc, who explains that he was transported back to 1885. Marty races back into town to find the 1955 Doc, who had just helped the original Marty return to 1985. Shocked by Marty's sudden reappearance, Doc faints.
Cast[edit]
Michael J. Fox as Marty McFly, Marty McFly, Jr., and Marlene McFly
Christopher Lloyd as Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown
Thomas F. Wilson as Biff Tannen and Griff Tannen
Lea Thompson as Lorraine Baines-McFly
Elisabeth Shue as Jennifer Parker
James Tolkan as Mr. Strickland
Jeffrey Weissman as George McFly
Crispin Glover as George McFly (archival footage)
Flea as Douglas J. Needles
Development[edit]
Director Robert Zemeckis said that, initially, a sequel was not planned for the first film, but its huge box office success led to the conception of a second installment. He later agreed to do a sequel, but only if Michael J. Fox and Christopher Lloyd returned as well. With Fox and Lloyd confirmed, Zemeckis met with screenwriting partner Bob Gale to create a story for the sequel. Zemeckis and Gale would later regret that they ended the first one with Jennifer in the car with Marty and Doc Brown, because it required them to come up with a story that fit her in, rather than a whole new adventure.[4]
Gale wrote most of the first draft by himself, as Zemeckis was busy making Who Framed Roger Rabbit. At first, the film was to take place in 1967, but Zemeckis later stated that the time paradoxes of it provided a good opportunity to go back to 1955 and see the first one's events in a different light. While most of the original cast agreed to return, a major stumbling block arose when negotiating Crispin Glover's fee for reprising the role of George McFly. When it became clear that he would not be returning, the role was rewritten so that George is dead when the action takes place in the alternative version of 1985.[4]
The greatest challenge was the creation of the futuristic vision of Marty's home town in 2015. Production designer Rick Carter wanted to create a very detailed image with a different tone from the film Blade Runner, wishing to get past the smoke and chrome. Carter and his most talented men spent months plotting, planning and preparing Hill Valley's transformation into a city of the future.[5] Visual effects art director John Bell stated they had no script to work with, only the indications that the setting would be 30 years into the future featuring "something called hoverboards".[6]
When writing the script for the film, Gale wanted to push the first one's ideas further for humorous effect. Zemeckis said he was somewhat concerned about portraying the future because of the risk of making wildly inaccurate predictions. According to Gale, they tried to make the future a nice place, "where what's wrong is due to who lives in the future as opposed to the technology" in contrast to the pessimistic, Orwellian future seen in most science fiction.[4] To keep production costs low and take advantage of an extended break Fox had from Family Ties (which was ending its run when filming began), it was shot back-to-back with sequel Part III.[7]
Production[edit]
It took two years to finish the set building and the writing on the script before shooting could finally begin. During the shooting, the creation of the appearance of the aged characters was a well-guarded secret, involving state-of-the-art make-up techniques. Michael J. Fox described the process as very time consuming. "It took over four hours, although it could be worse".[4] Principal photography began on February 20, 1989.[7] For a three-week period nearing the conclusion of the film, the crew split and, while most remained shooting Part III, a few, including writer-producer Gale, focused on finishing its predecessor. Zemeckis himself slept only a few hours per day, supervising both films, having to fly between Burbank, where it was being finished, and other locations in California for Part III.[8]
The film was considered one of the most ground-breaking projects for Industrial Light & Magic. It was one of the effects house's first forays into digital compositing, as well as the Vistaglide motion control camera system, which enabled them to shoot one of its most complex sequences, in which Fox played three separate characters (Marty Sr., Marty Jr., and Marlene), all of whom interacted with each other. Although such scenes were not new, the VistaGlide allowed, for the first time, a completely dynamic scene in which camera movement could finally be incorporated. The technique was also used in scenes where Thomas F. Wilson, Christopher Lloyd, and Elisabeth Shue's characters encounter and interact with their counterparts.[4] It also includes a brief moment of computer-generated imagery in a holographic shark used to promote a fictional Jaws 19, which wound up unaltered from the first test done by ILM's digital department because effects supervisor Ken Ralston "liked the fact that it was all messed up.”[6]
Animation supervisor Wes Takahashi, who then was the head of ILM's animation department, worked heavily on the film's time travel sequences, as he had done in the original film and in Part III.[9][10] As the film neared release, sufficient footage of Part III had been shot to allow a trailer to be assembled. It was added at the conclusion of Part II, before the closing credits, as a reassurance to moviegoers that there was more to follow.[11]
Replacement of Crispin Glover[edit]
Crispin Glover was asked to reprise the role of George McFly. He expressed interest, but could not come to an agreement with the producers regarding his salary. He stated in a 1992 interview on The Howard Stern Show that the producers' highest offer was $125,000, less than half of what the other returning cast members were offered. Gale has since asserted that Glover's demands were excessive for an actor of his professional stature at that time.[11] In an interview on the Opie and Anthony show in 2013, Glover stated that his primary reason for not doing Part II was a philosophical disagreement on the film's message; Glover felt the story rewarded the characters with financial gain, such as Marty's truck, rather than love.[12]
Rather than write George McFly out of the film, Zemeckis used previously filmed footage of Glover from the first film as well as new footage of actor Jeffrey Weissman, who wore prosthetics including a false chin, nose, and cheekbones to resemble Glover. Various techniques were used to obfuscate the Weissman footage, such as placing him in the background rather than the foreground, having him wear sunglasses, and hanging him upside down. Glover filed a lawsuit against the producers of the film on the grounds that they neither owned his likeness nor had permission to use it. As a result of this suit, there are now clauses in the Screen Actors Guild collective bargaining agreements which state that producers and actors are not allowed to use such methods to reproduce the likeness of other actors.[13]
Replacement of Claudia Wells[edit]
Claudia Wells' scene at the end of Back to the Future (top) was reshot with Elisabeth Shue for the beginning of Part II (bottom).
Claudia Wells, who had played Marty McFly's girlfriend Jennifer Parker in the first film, was to reprise her role, but turned it down due to her mother's ill health. The producers cast Elisabeth Shue instead, which involved re-shooting the closing scenes of the first film for the beginning of Part II. The re-shot sequence is a near shot-for-shot match with the original, with only minor differences: for example, Doc noticeably hesitates before reassuring Marty that his future self is fine – something he did not do in the first film. Marty is also wearing a watch in the second film whereas he was not in the first.[14][15]
Wells returned to Hollywood with a starring role in the 1996 independent film Still Waters Burn. She is one of the few cast members not to make an appearance within the bonus material on the Back to the Future Trilogy DVD set released in 2002. However, she is interviewed for the Tales from the Future documentaries in the trilogy's 25th anniversary issue on Blu-ray Disc in 2010. In 2011, she finally had the opportunity to reprise her role from the first film, 26 years after her last appearance in the series. She provided the voice of Jennifer Parker for Back to the Future: The Game by Telltale Games.[16]
Hoverboard hoax[edit]
Zemeckis said on the film's behind-the-scenes featurette that the hoverboards (flying skateboards) used in it were real, yet not released to the public, due to parental complaints regarding safety.[5] Footage of "real hoverboards" was also featured in the extras of a DVD release of the trilogy. A number of people thought Zemeckis was telling the truth and requested them at toy stores. In an interview, Thomas F. Wilson said one of the most frequent questions he was asked was if they are real.[17]
Depiction of the future[edit]
According to Zemeckis, the 2015 depicted in the film was not meant to be an accurate depiction of the future. "For me, filming the future scenes of the movie were the least enjoyable of making the whole trilogy, because I don't really like films that try and predict the future. The only ones I've actually enjoyed were the ones done by Stanley Kubrick, and not even he predicted the PC when he made A Clockwork Orange. So, rather than trying to make a scientifically sound prediction that we were probably going to get wrong anyway, we figured, let's just make it funny." Despite this, the filmmakers did do some research into what scientists thought may occur in the year 2015.[18] Bob Gale said, "We knew we weren't going to have flying cars by the year 2015, but God we had to have those in our movie."[19]
However, the film did correctly predict a number of technological and sociological changes that occurred by 2015, including: the rise of ubiquitous cameras; use of unmanned flying drones for newsgathering; widescreen flat-panel television sets mounted on walls with multiple channel viewing; video chat systems; hands-free video games; talking hologram billboards; wearable technology; tablet computers with fingerprint scanners; and head-mounted displays.[20][21] Payment on personal portable devices is also depicted. Although payment by thumbprint is not widely used, fingerprint scanning is in use as security at places such as airports and schools, and electronic payment with fingerprint scanning as a security feature is deployed for Apple Pay.[21] Cars and other vehicles have been able to be run using fuel generated from food wastes, though not through a fusion reactor as suggested in the film.[22] The popularity of 3-D film in the 2010s was also somewhat accurately predicted, although overlaid polarized imagery remains the standard format (as it has been since the 1950s, since updated in modern times to digital) and holography is still not in use for major films.
Other aspects of the depiction of the future had not come to pass by 2015, but efforts were made to replicate the technology advances.
The film shows Marty putting on Nike "Air Mag" tennis shoes with automatic shoelaces. Nike released a version of their Hyperdunk Supreme shoes, which appear similar to Marty's, in July 2008. Fans dubbed them the Air McFly.[23] In April 2009, they filed the patent for self-lacing shoes, and their design bears a resemblance to those worn by Marty in the film.[24] In 2010, a fan named Blake Bevin created shoes that tie themselves.[25] Though Nike had made very limited quantity of Air Mags in the same style as the movie, they stated in September 2011 that their consumer-line MAG line of shoes would not feature the self-lacing feature shown in it.[26][27] Tinker Hatfield, one of the shoe's designers, indicated in 2014 that they would introduce shoes with power-lacing technology the following year, 2015.[28] In March 2016, Nike unveiled the HyperAdapt 1.0 shoe, which is a consumer-market model of the Air Mag and features the same self-lacing technology they used for the commemorative Air Mags, and are expected to start selling in late 2016.[29]
The concept of the hoverboard—a skateboard that can float off the ground—has been explored by various groups since the release of the film. Attempts similar to hoverboats, which blast air at the ground, have been demonstrated,[30] with a 2015 record distance of 275 meters.[31] A different type is the MagBoard, developed by researchers at the Paris Diderot University. It uses a large superconductor plate on the bottom cooled with liquid nitrogen as to achieve the Meissner effect and allow it to float over a special track; it was shown capable of carrying the weight of a human in its practical demonstration. However, the requirement to run the superconductor at higher, more ambient temperatures prevents this from becoming practical.[32][33] In March 2014, a company named HUVr Tech purportedly demonstrated a working hoverboard along with several celebrities including Lloyd, though this shortly was revealed as a hoax created by the website Funny or Die.[34] Self-balancing 'hoverboards' became popular in 2015 even though they do not hover above the ground.[35]
In the 2015 scene, the film imagines the Chicago Cubs winning the 2015 World Series against the fictional Miami-based Gators, referencing the Cubs' longstanding failure to win a championship. In the actual 2015 season, the Cubs qualified for the postseason, their first postseason appearance since 2008,[36] but the Cubs lost the National League Championship Series (not the World Series) to the New York Mets on October 21, 2015, which coincidentally was the same day as "Back to the Future Day," the day Marty McFly arrived in 2015 in the film.[37] Despite losing in 2015, one year later the Cubs did win the 2016 World Series against the Cleveland Indians;[38] the official Twitter feed for the Back to the Future franchise tweeted out that Marty & Doc's time-traveling caused "a rift in the space-time continuum" that led to the 1994 strike (and subsequent cancellation of the 1994 World Series), thus delaying the accurate prediction by a year.[39] In the real 2015 World Series, the Kansas City Royals defeated the Mets to win their first World Series championship since 1985, the same year from which Marty and Doc time traveled in the film. As for the fictional Miami Gators, when the film was made Florida did not yet have a Major League Baseball team,[40] but the state has since gained two franchises: the Florida Marlins (now the Miami Marlins) in 1993 and the Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now the Tampa Bay Rays) in 1998. Neither qualified for the postseason in 2015.
Release and reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
The film was released to theaters in North America on Wednesday, November 22, 1989, the day before Thanksgiving. It grossed a total of $27.8 million over Friday to Sunday, and $43 million across the five-day holiday opening. On the following weekend, it had a drop of 56 percent, earning $12.1 million, but remained at #1.[41] Its total gross was $118.5 million in the United States and $213 million overseas, for a total of $331 million worldwide, ranking as 1989's sixth-most successful film domestically and the third-most worldwide—behind Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Batman.[42] However, this was still short of the first film's gross. Part III, which Universal released only six months later, experienced a similar drop.
Critical response[edit]
As of March 2016[update], the film received a 63% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 60 reviews with an average rating of 6.2/10, with the critical consensus reading, "Back to the Future II is far more uneven than its predecessor, but its madcap highs outweigh the occasionally cluttered machinations of an overstuffed plot".[43] The film has a score of 57 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[44]
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars. Ebert criticized it for lacking the "genuine power of the original," but praised it for its slapstick humor and the hoverboard in its chase sequence.[45] Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film is "ready for bigger and better things." Maslin later said that it "manages to be giddily and merrily mind-boggling, rather than confusing."[46] Tom Tunney of Empire magazine wrote that the film was well-directed, "high-energy escapism", and called it "solidly entertaining", though noting it as being inferior to the other two films in the franchise.[47]
Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, criticizing Zemeckis and Gale for turning the characters into "strident geeks" and for making the "frenetic action strictly formulaic." He believed that it contained "rampant misogyny," because the character of Jennifer Parker "is knocked unconscious early on so she won't interfere with the little-boy games." He cited, as well, Michael J. Fox dressing in drag.[48] Variety said, "[Director Robert] Zemeckis' fascination with having characters interact at different ages of their lives hurts it visually, and strains credibility past the breaking point, by forcing him to rely on some very cheesy makeup designs."[49]
Accolades[edit]
The film won the Saturn Award for Best Special Effects (for Ken Ralston, the special effects supervisor), the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects (Ken Ralston, Michael Lantieri, John Bell and Steve Gawley),[50] an Internet-voted 2003 AOL Movies DVD Premiere Award for the trilogy DVDs, a Golden Screen Award, a Young Artist Award, and the Blimp Awards for Favorite Movie Actor (Michael J. Fox), and Favorite Movie Actress (Lea Thompson) at the 1990 Kids' Choice Awards. It was nominated in 1990 for an Academy Award for Visual Effects (John Bell, Steve Gawley, Michael Lantieri and Ken Ralston).[51]
Home media[edit]
The film was released on VHS and LaserDisc on May 22, 1990. Universal reissued it on VHS, LaserDisc, and compact disc in 1991, 1995, and 1998. On December 17, 2002, Universal released it on DVD in a boxed trilogy set, although widescreen framing problems led to a product recall.[52] The trilogy was released on Blu-ray Disc in October 2010.
Universal re-released the trilogy alongside new features on DVD and Blu-ray on October 21, 2015, coinciding with Back to the Future Day. The new set included a featurette called "Doc Brown Saves the World", where Lloyd, reprising his role as Doc Brown, explains the reasons for the differences between the future of 2015 as depicted in Back to the Future Part II and in real life.[53]
Soundtrack[edit]
The soundtrack was released by MCA Records on November 22, 1989. AllMusic rated it four-and-a-half stars out of five. [54] Unlike the previous soundtrack, it contains only a musical score by composer Alan Silvestri. None of the vocal songs featured throughout the film are featured.
Intrada release[edit]
On October 12, 2015, Intrada Records released the complete score of Back to the Future Part II in a 2-disc set including early scoring sessions and alternate takes.[55]
See also[edit]
List of 1989 box office number-one films in the United States
List of films featuring drones
Film in the United States portal
1980s portal
Science fiction portal
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Back to the Future Part II.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Back to the Future Part II
Official website
Back to the Future Part II on IMDb
Back to the Future Part II at Box Office Mojo
Back to the Future Part II at Rotten Tomatoes
Back to the Future Part II at Metacritic

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Back to the Future
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Marty McFly
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Music
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Basketball (ball)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A typical basketball
A basketball is a spherical ball used in basketball games. Basketballs typically range in size from very small promotional items only a few inches in diameter to extra large balls nearly a foot in diameter used in training exercises. For example, a youth basketball would be a little over 27 inches (69 cm) in circumference, while an NBA ball (also college and boys high school) would be a little over 29 inches (74 cm). The standard for a basketball in the NBA is 29.5 inches (75 cm) in circumference.[1]
Aside from the court and the baskets, the basketball is the only piece of equipment necessary to play the game of basketball. During the game, the ball must be bounced continuously (dribbling), thrown through the air to other players (passing) and towards the basket (shooting). Therefore, the ball must be very durable and easy to hold on to. The ball is also used to perform tricks (sometimes called freestyling), the most common of which are spinning the ball on the tip of one's middle finger, dribbling in complex patterns, rolling the ball over one's shoulder, or performing aerobatic maneuvers with the ball while executing a slam dunk, most notably in the context of a slam dunk contest.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Sizes
3 History
4 Notable basketball manufacturers
4.1 Spalding
4.2 Molten
4.3 Wilson
4.4 Rawlings
4.5 Nike
4.6 Nivia
5 Others
6 See also
7 References
Characteristics[edit]
Nearly all basketballs have an inflatable inner rubber bladder, generally wrapped in layers of fiber and then covered with a surface made either from leather (traditional), rubber, or a synthetic composite. As in most inflatable balls, there is a small opening that allows the pressure to be increased or decreased.
The surface of the ball is nearly always divided by "ribs" that are recessed below the surface of the ball in a variety of configurations and are generally a contrasting color. A brownish orange surface with black ribs and a possible logo is the traditional color scheme of basketballs but they are sold in various colors.
Balls are generally designated for indoor (generally made of leather or absorbent composites), or all-surface use (generally made of rubber or durable composites, also known as Indoor/Outdoor balls). Indoor balls tend to be considerably more expensive than all-surface balls due to cost of materials. In addition, brand new all-leather indoor balls must be "broken in" first to achieve optimal grip before use in competition. The abrasiveness of asphalt and the dirt and moisture present in an outdoor setting will usually ruin an indoor ball within a very short period of time, which is why an indoor/outdoor ball is recommended for recreational players. Outdoor balls are commonly made from rubber to cope with rougher conditions, and they need to be filled with more air to retain a suitable level of air pressure in colder weather.[2]
Sizes[edit]
Different sizes are used for different age groups.[3][4] The common standards are:
Size
Type
Circumference
Weight
3 Mini (North America) 56–57 cm (22–22 in) 283 g (10.0 oz) maximum
5 Youth (North America)
Mini (FIBA) 69–71 cm (27–28 in) 470–500 g (17–18 oz)
6 Women's official 72–74 cm (28–29 in) 510–567 g (18.0–20.0 oz)
7 Men's official 74–76 cm (29–30 in) 567–650 g (20.0–22.9 oz)
Note that the ball used for all competitions (men's, women's, and mixed) in the formalized halfcourt game of 3x3 combines characteristics of the size 6 and size 7 balls. Its circumference is that of a size 6 ball, but its weight is that of a size 7.[5]
History[edit]
A historic basketball.
In early December 1891, the chairman of the physical education department at the School for Christian Workers (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts, instructed physical education teacher James Naismith, known to many as the inventor of basketball, to invent a new game to entertain the school's athletes in the winter season. Naismith assembled his class of 18 young men, appointed captains of two nine-player teams, and set in motion the first ever basketball game, played with a soccer ball and two peach baskets tacked to either end of the gymnasium.
The first purpose-built basketballs were made from panels of leather stitched together with a rubber bladder inside. A cloth lining was added to the leather for support and uniformity (identity). A molded version of the early basketball was invented in 1942. From 1967 through 1976, the American Basketball Association (ABA) used a distinctive red, white and blue basketball that is still seen from time to time. For many years, leather was the material of choice for basketball coverings, however in the late 1990s, composite materials, like synthetics were put forth and have rapidly gained acceptance in most leagues due to their superior performance in harsh outdoor game conditions.
Notable basketball manufacturers[edit]
Spalding[edit]
A Spalding basketball
Spalding was the first company to produce a basketball for official use. Company founder A.G. Spalding made the first dedicated basketball in the last years of the 19th century at the behest of James Naismith. It has produced basketballs since that time and has produced the NBA’s official game ball since 1983. They also produce the balls for the Women's National Basketball Association and NBA Development League. The company also produces a wide variety of balls for the consumer market.
In 2012, it also became official provider for both the Euroleague and Eurocup competitions.[6] It also serves as provider for Liga ACB.
Spalding became the new supplier for NBL (Australia) in 2010.[7]

Molten[edit]
Molten GL7 basketball
Molten, a Japanese sporting goods manufacturer, has the current contract to provide game balls for:
All FIBA world championships and continental qualifying events.
All FIBA Asia events.
The VTB United League.
Many domestic leagues, including Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, British Basketball League, France (women), Greece, Indonesia, Italy, Lithuania, the Philippines, Poland (women's), and Portugal.
Until the 2006–07 season, it had provided balls for both Europe-wide competitions organized by Euroleague Basketball, the Euroleague and ULEB Cup (now the Eurocup). Molten's top-of-the line product is the GL7, a leather ball with a distinctive 12-panel design.[8]

Wilson[edit]
Wilson Solution basketball
Wilson Sporting Goods is the official ball supplier of all NCAA postseason tournaments, most notably the men's and women's Division I tournaments, and is used by many NCAA teams during the season as well by many high school leagues. As of 2015, Wilson also supplies balls for all FIBA-operated 3x3 competitions.[5] Like Spalding, Wilson produces a variety of balls for the consumer market as well.

Rawlings[edit]
Rawlings TEN basketball
Rawlings has manufactured basketballs since 1902. The company is known for producing a 10-panel ball (known as the TEN), along with traditional 8-panel balls. The TEN basketball is the official ball of the Amateur Athletic Union and the "Gus Macker", the largest 3-on-3 basketball tournament in the United States.[9]

Nike[edit]
Nike 4005 basketball
Nike had the contract to produce balls for the Euroleague Basketball Company (including the Euroleague and the Eurocup) from 2007[10] until 2012, when it turned to Spalding. In the Philippines the NCAA and UAAP use the Nike 4005 Official Tournament Balls.

Nivia[edit]
Nivia Basketball
Nivia is India's first sports equipment manufacturer produces hand made basketballs. Nivia was one of the official partners of 2015 National Games of India for basketball. Former sponsored for Indian College basketball league & Indian school of basketball league. Nivia makes 1 ball in every 3 seconds, all balls are assured with quality test by shooting them at the speed of 25 mph at an iron plate of thickness of 1 inch for 2000 times before sending them to leagues.[11]
Others[edit]
include: Adidas, Avaro, Baden (official Harlem Globetrotters supplier), Dunlop, DHS, Kipsta, Mikasa, Mitre, Sterling Athletics ...
See also[edit]
List of inflatable manufactured goods
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Basketball balls.
Look up basketball in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Jump up ^ Zirm, Jordan. "Basketball Sizes: A Quick Guide for All Levels of Play". STACK. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
Jump up ^ "Sports Gear Lab". Sportsgearlab.com. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Basketball Size Chart - Recommended Sizes for Mom & Me". www.breakthroughbasketball.com. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
Jump up ^ "Rule 7: Basketballs" (PDF). Official Basketball Rules 2017: Basketball Equipment. FIBA. 4 July 2017. pp. 11–12. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wilson to provide the Official Game Ball for FIBA" (Press release). Amer Sports. 9 June 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Spalding becomes global provider for Euroleague Basketball
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-03-15. Retrieved 2010-03-15. [tt_news]=17608&tx_ttnews[backPid]=4&cHash=2f3e247944
Jump up ^ GL7 Archived April 19, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ ":: Rawlings is a manufacturer of baseball gloves, composite bats, aluminum bats, wood bats, batting helmets, catcher's gear, team uniforms, basketballs, and footballs ::". Rawlings.com. Retrieved 2012-11-21.
Jump up ^ "Euroleague Basketball Announces Partnership with Nike". Euroleague Basketball. 2007-06-28. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-02.
Jump up ^ "In the making of Nivia's Basketball".
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Nilotic peoples
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Nilotic" redirects here. For the river, see Nile.
Nilotes
Regions with significant populations
Nile Valley, African Great Lakes, Lake Chad, southwestern Ethiopia
Languages
Nilotic languages
Religion
Traditional faiths (Dinka religion), Christianity
The Nilotic peoples are peoples indigenous to the Nile Valley who speak Nilotic languages, which constitute a large sub-group of the Nilo-Saharan languages spoken in South Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania.[1] In a more general sense, the Nilotic peoples include all descendants of the original Nilo-Saharan speakers. Among these are the Luo, Sara, Maasai, Kalenjin, Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Ateker, and the Maa-speaking peoples, each of which is a cluster of several ethnic groups.[2]
The Nilotes constitute the majority of the population in South Sudan, an area that is believed to be their original point of dispersal. After the Bantu peoples, they constitute the second-most numerous group of peoples inhabiting the African Great Lakes region around the Eastern Great Rift.[2] They make up a notable part of the population of southwestern Ethiopia as well.
The Nilote peoples primarily adhere to Christianity and traditional faiths, including the Dinka religion.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Origins and history
2.1 Nilotic expansion out of the Sudd
2.2 Shilluk
2.3 Azande
3 Ethnic/linguistic divisions
3.1 Languages
3.2 Ethnic groups
4 Culture and religion
5 Genetics
5.1 Y DNA
5.2 mtDNA
5.3 Autosomal DNA
6 Physiology
7 References
8 Bibliography
Name[edit]
The terms Nilotic and Nilote were previously used as racial sub-classifications, based on anthropological observations of the distinct body morphology of many Nilotic speakers. Twentieth-century social scientists have largely discarded such efforts to classify peoples according to physical characteristics, in favor of using linguistic studies to distinguish among peoples. They formed ethnicities and cultures based on shared language.[3] Since the late 20th century, however, social and physical scientists are making use of data from population genetics.[4]
Nilotic and Nilote are now mainly used to classify "Nilotic people" based on ethnic identification and linguistic families. Etymologically, the terms Nilotic and Nilote (singular nilot) derive from the Nile Valley; specifically, the Upper Nile and its tributaries, where most Sudanese Nilo-Saharan-speaking people live.[5]
Origins and history[edit]
Further information: History of South Sudan, History of Uganda, History of Kenya, and History of Tanzania
Politician John Garang (Dinka) amongst Nilotic supporters in South Sudan.
A Proto-Nilotic unity, separate from an earlier undifferentiated Eastern Sudanic unity, is assumed to have emerged by the 3rd millennium BC. The development of the Proto-Nilotes as a group may have been connected with their domestication of livestock. The Eastern Sudanic unity must have been considerably earlier still, perhaps around the 5th millennium BC (while the proposed Nilo-Saharan unity would date to the Upper Paleolithic about 15kya). The original locus of the early Nilotic speakers was presumably east of the Nile in what is now South Sudan. The Proto-Nilotes of the 3rd millennium BC were pastoralists, while their neighbors, the Proto-Central Sudanic peoples, were mostly agriculturalists.[6]
Nilotic expansion out of the Sudd[edit]
Areas where Nilotic languages are spoken.
Linguistic evidence shows that over time Nilotic speakers, such as the Dinka, Shilluk, and Luo, took over. These groups spread from the Sudd marshlands, where archaeological evidence shows that a culture based on transhumant cattle raising had been present since 3000 BCE, and the Nilotic culture in that area may thus be continuous to that date.[7]
The Nilotic expansion from the Sudd Marshes into the rest of South Sudan seems to have begun in the 14th century. This coincides with the collapse of the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia and the penetration of Arab traders into central Sudan. From the Arabs the South Sudanese may have obtained new breeds of hump-less cattle.[7] Archaeologist Roland Oliver notes that the period also shows an Iron Age beginning among the Nilotics. These factors may explain how the Nilotic speakers expanded to dominate the region.
Shilluk[edit]
The kingdoms of the Funj, Shilluk, Tegali, and Fur c.1800
By the sixteenth century the most powerful group among the Nilotic speakers were Shilluk, who spread east to the banks of the white Nile under the legendary leadership of Nyikang, who is said to have ruled the Shilluk c.1490 to c.1517.[8] The Shilluk gained control of the west bank of the river as far north as Kosti in Sudan. There they established an economy based on cattle raising, cereal farming, and fishing, with small villages located along the length of the river.[9] The Shilluk developed an intensive system of agriculture, and the Shilluk lands in the 17th century had a population density similar to that of the Egyptian Nile lands.[10]
One theory is that it was pressure from the Shilluk that drove the Funj people north, who would establish the Sultanate of Sennar. The Dinka remained in the Sudd area, maintaining their transhumance economy.[11]
While the Dinka were protected and isolated from their neighbours, the Shilluk were more involved in international affairs. The Shilluk controlled the west bank of the White Nile, but the other side was controlled by the Funj Sultanate, and there were regular conflict between the two. The Shilluk had the ability to quickly raid outside areas by war canoe, and had control of the waters of the Nile. The Funj had a standing army of armoured cavalry, and this force allowed them to dominated the plains of the sahel.
Shilluk traditions tell of King Odak Ocollo who ruled c. 1630 and led them in a three decade war with Sennar over control of the White Nile trade routes. The Shilluk allied with the Sultanate of Darfur and the Kingdom of Takali against the Funj, but the capitulation of Takali ended the war in the Funj's favour. In the later 17th century the Shilluk and Funj allied against the Jieng, a group of Dinka who rose to power in the border area between the Funj and Shilluk. The Shilluk political structure gradually centralized under the a king or reth. The most important is Reth Tugo who ruled c. 1690 to 1710 and established the Shilluk capital of Fashoda. The same period saw the gradual collapse of the Funj sultanate, leaving the Shilluk in complete control of the White Nile and its trade routes. The Shilluk military power was based on control of the river.[12]
Azande[edit]
The non-Nilotic Azande people, who entered southern Sudan in the 16th century, established the region's largest state. The Azande are the third largest nationality in Southern Sudan. They are found in Maridi,Iba, Yambio, Nzara,Ezon, Tambura and Nagere Counties in the tropical rain forest belt of western Equatoria and Bahr el Ghazal. In the 18th century, the Avungara people entered and quickly imposed their authority over the Azande. Avungara power remained largely unchallenged until the arrival of the British at the end of the 19th century.[13]
Geographical barriers protected the southerners from Islam's advance, enabling them to retain their social and cultural heritage and their political and religious institutions. The Dinka people were especially secure in the Sudd marshlands, which protected them from outside interference, and allowed them to remain secure without a large armed forces. The Shilluk, Azande, and Bari people had more regular conflicts with neighbouring states[citation needed]
Ethnic/linguistic divisions[edit]
Languages[edit]
Areas where Nilotic languages are spoken.
Main article: Nilotic languages
Further information: Paranilotic languages
Linguistically, Nilotic people are divided into three sub-groups:
Eastern Nilotic - Spoken by Nilotic populations in southwestern Ethiopia, eastern South Sudan, northeastern Uganda, western Kenya and northern Tanzania. Includes languages like Turkana and Maasai.
Bari
Teso–Lotuko–Maa
Southern Nilotic - Spoken by Nilotic populations in western Kenya, northern Tanzania and eastern Uganda. Includes Kalenjin and Datog.
Kalenjin
Omotik–Datooga
Western Nilotic - Spoken by Nilotic populations in South Sudan, Sudan, northeastern Congo (DRC), northern Uganda, southwestern Kenya, northern Tanzania and southwestern Ethiopia. Includes Dinka and Luo.
Dinka–Nuer
Luo
Ethnic groups[edit]
See also: Kunama people
Maasai men in Ngorongoro, Tanzania.
Nilotic people constitute the bulk of the population of South Sudan. The largest of the Sudanese Nilotic peoples are the Dinka, who have as many as twenty-five ethnic subdivisions. The next largest group are the Nuer, followed by the Shilluk.[14]
The Nilotic people in Uganda include the Luo (Acholi, Alur and Adhola), Ateker (Teso and Karamojong), Lango and Kumam.
In East Africa, the Nilotes are often subdivided into three general groups:
The Plain Nilotes: they speak Maa languages and include the Maasai, Samburu and Turkana[2]
The River Lake Nilotes: the Joluo (Kenyan Luo), who are part of the larger Luo group[2]
The Highland Nilotes: subdivided into two groups, the Kalenjin and the Datog
Kalenjin: Elgeyo, Kipsigis, Marakwet, Nandi, Pokot, Sabaot, Terik and Tugen [Keiyo] [2]
Datog: represented mainly by the Barabaig and small clusters of other Datog speakers[15]
Culture and religion[edit]
A Luo village in Kenya.
Most Nilotes continue to practice pastoralism, migrating on a seasonal basis with their herds of livestock.[2] Some tribes are also known for a tradition of cattle raiding.[16]
Through lengthy interaction with neighbouring peoples, the Nilotes in East Africa have adopted many customs and practices from Southern Cushitic groups. The latter include the age set system of social organization, circumcision, and vocabulary terms.[2][17]
In terms of religious beliefs, Nilotes primarily adhere to traditional faiths and Christianity. The Dinka religion has a pantheon of deities. The Supreme, Creator God is Nhialic, who is the God of the sky and rain, and the ruler of all the spirits.[18] He is believed to be present in all of creation, and to control the destiny of every human, plant and animal on Earth. Nhialic is also known as Jaak, Juong or Dyokin by other Nilotic groups, such as the Nuer and Shilluk. Dengdit or Deng, is the sky God of rain and fertility, empowered by Nhialic.[19] Deng's mother is Abuk, the patron Goddess of gardening and all women, represented by a snake.[20] Garang, another deity, is believed or assumed by some Dinka to be a god suppressed by Deng; his spirits can cause most Dinka women, and some men, to scream. The term "Jok" refers to a group of ancestral spirits.
In the Lotuko mythology, the chief God is called Ajok. He is generally seen as kind and benevolent, but can be angered. He once reportedly answered a woman's prayer for the resurrection of her son. Her husband, however, was angry and killed the child. According to the Lotuko religion, Ajok was annoyed by the man's actions and swore never to resurrect any Lotuko again. As a result, death was said to have become permanent.
Genetics[edit]
Y DNA[edit]
Nilotic men in Kapoeta, South Sudan.
A Y-chromosome study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various populations in Africa for paternal lineages, including 26 Maasai and 9 Luo from Kenya, and 9 Alur from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The signature Nilotic paternal marker Haplogroup A3b2 was observed in 27% of the Maasai, 22% of the Alur, and 11% of the Luo.[21]
According to Gomes et al. (2010),[22] Haplogroup B is another characteristically Nilotic paternal marker. It was found in 22% of Wood et al.'s Luo samples and 8% of the studied Maasai.[21] The E1b1b haplogroup has been observed at overall frequencies of around 11% among Nilo-Saharan-speaking groups in the Great Lakes area,[23] with this influence concentrated among the Maasai (50%).[21] This is indicative of substantial historic gene flow from Cushitic-speaking males into these Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations.[24] In addition, 67% of the Alur samples possessed the E2 haplogroup.[21]
A study by Hassan et al. (2008) analysed the Y-DNA of populations in the Sudan region, with various local Nilotic groups included for comparison. The researchers found the signature Nilotic A and B clades to be the most common paternal lineages amongst the Nilo-Saharan speakers, except those inhabiting western Sudan. There, an appreciable North African influence was noted. Haplogroup A was observed amongst 62% of Dinka, 53.3% of Shilluk, 46.4% of Nuba, 33.3% of Nuer, 31.3% of Fur and 18.8% of Masalit. Haplogroup B was found in 50% of Nuer, 26.7% of Shilluk, 23% of Dinka, 14.3% of Nuba, 3.1% of Fur and 3.1% of Masalit. The E1b1b clade was also observed in 71.9% of the Masalit, 59.4% of the Fur, 39.3% of the Nuba, 20% of the Shilluk, 16.7% of the Nuer, and 15% of the Dinka.[25] Hassan et al. attributed the atypically high frequencies of the haplogroup in the Masalit to either a recent population bottleneck, which likely altered the community's original haplogroup diversity, or to geographical proximity to E1b1b's place of origin in North Africa. The researchers suggest that the clade "might have been brought to Sudan [...] after the progressive desertification of the Sahara around 6,000–8,000 years ago".[25] Henn et al. (2008) similarly observed Afro-Asiatic influence in the Nilotic Datog of northern Tanzania, 43% of whom carried the M293 sub-clade of E1b1b.[26]
mtDNA[edit]
Pokot women trekking through the Kenya outback.
Unlike the paternal DNA of Nilotes, the maternal lineages of Nilotes in general show low-to-negligible amounts of Afro-Asiatic and other extraneous influences. An mtDNA study by Castri et al. (2008) examined the maternal ancestry of various Nilotic populations in Kenya, with Turkana, Samburu, Maasai and Luo individuals sampled. The mtDNA of almost all of the tested Nilotes belonged to various Sub-Saharan macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0, L2, L3, L4 and L5. Low levels of maternal gene flow from North Africa and the Horn of Africa were observed in a few groups, mainly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M and haplogroup I lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai and 7% of the Samburu samples, respectively.[27]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
The autosomal DNA of Nilotic peoples has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al. (2009) on the genetic clusters of various populations in Africa. According to the researchers, Nilotes generally form their own African genetic cluster. The authors also found that certain Nilotic populations in the eastern Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, showed some additional Afro-Asiatic affinities due to repeated assimilation of Cushitic-speaking peoples over the past 5000 or so years.[28]
Physiology[edit]
Cross country world champion and record holder Lornah Kiplagat, one of many prominent Nilotic distance runners.
Physically, Nilotes are noted for their typically very dark skin color and slender, tall bodies. They often possess exceptionally long limbs, particularly vis-a-vis the distal segments (forearms, calves). This characteristic is thought to be a climatic adaptation to allow their bodies to shed heat more efficiently.
Sudanese Nilotes are regarded as one of the tallest peoples in the world. Roberts and Bainbridge (1963) reported average values of 182.6 cm (71.9") for height and 58.8 kg (129.6 lbs) for weight in a sample of Sudanese Shilluk.[29] Another sample of Sudanese Dinka had a stature/weight ratio of 181.9 cm/58.0 kg (71.6"/127.9 lbs), with an extremely ectomorphic somatotype of 1.6-3.5-6.2.
In terms of facial features, Hiernaux (1975) observed that the nasal profile most common amongst Nilotic populations is broad, with characteristically high index values ranging from 86.9 to 92.0. He also reported that lower nasal indices are often found amongst Nilotes who inhabit the more southerly Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, a fact which he attributed to genetic differences.[30]
Additionally, it has been remarked that the Nilotic groups presently inhabiting the African Great Lakes region are sometimes smaller in stature than those residing in the Sudan region. Campbell et al. (2006) recorded measurements of 172.0 cm/53.6 kg (67.7"/118.2 lbs) in a sample of agricultural Turkana in northern Kenya, and of 174.9 cm/53.0 kg (68.8"/116.8 lbs) in pastoral Turkana.[31] Hiernaux similarly listed a height of 172.7 cm (68") for Maasai in southern Kenya, with an extreme trunk/leg length ratio of 47.7.[30]
Many Nilotic groups excel in long and middle distance running. Some researchers have suggested that this sporting prowess is related to their exceptional running economy, a function of slim body morphology and slender legs.[32] A study by Pitsiladis et al. (2006) surveyed 404 elite Kenyan distance runners; it found that 76% of the international-class respondents identified as part of the Kalenjin ethnic group and that 79% spoke a Nilotic language.[33]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Nilotic". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing. 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Okoth, Assa; Ndaloh, Agumba (2006). Peak Revision K.C.P.E. Social Studies. Nairobi, Kenya: East African Educational Publishers. pp. 60–62. ISBN 978-9966-25-450-4. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
Jump up ^ The Forging of Races Cambridge University Press THE FORGING OF RACES - by Colin Kidd Excerpt
Jump up ^ Sarah A. Tishkoff et al.: "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans", Science (magazine)
Jump up ^ Article: "Nilot", Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ John Desmond Clark, From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, University of California Press, 1984, p. 31
^ Jump up to: a b Robertshaw, Peter (1987). "Prehistory in the Upper Nile Basin". Journal of African History. 28 (2): 177–189. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Patricia Mercer. "Shilluk Trade and Politics from the Mid-Seventeenth Century to 1861." The Journal of African History 1971. Page 410 of 407-426
Jump up ^ "Shilluk." Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1 Infobase Publishing, 2009
Jump up ^ Nagendra Kr Singh. "International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties." Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 2002 pg. 659
Jump up ^ "Dinka." Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1 Infobase Publishing, 2009
Jump up ^ Ogot, B. A., ed. (1999). "Chapter 7: The Sudan, 1500–1800". General History of Africa. Volume V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 89–103. ISBN 978-0-520-06700-4.
Jump up ^ Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. Sudan: A Country Study. The Turkiyah, 1821-85 Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991.
Jump up ^ Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Sudan: A Country Study, Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991.
Jump up ^ Oboler, Regina Smith (1985). Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya. Stanford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0804712247.
Jump up ^ "South Sudan horror at deadly cattle vendetta". BBC News. 12 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Robert O. Collins, The Southern Sudan in Historical Perspective, (Transaction Publishers: 2006), p.9-10.
Jump up ^ Lienhardt, p 29
Jump up ^ Lienhardt, p 104
Jump up ^ Lienhardt, p 90
^ Jump up to: a b c d Elizabeth T Wood, Daryn A Stover, Christopher Ehret et al., "Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome and mtDNA variation in Africa: evidence for sex-biased demographic processes", European Journal of Human Genetics (2005) 13, 867–876. (cf. Appendix A: Y Chromosome Haplotype Frequencies)
Jump up ^ Gomes, V; Sánchez-Diz, P; Amorim, A; Carracedo, A; Gusmão, L (Mar 2010). "Digging deeper into East African human Y chromosome lineages". Hum Genet. 127 (5): 603–13. doi:10.1007/s00439-010-0808-5. PMID 20213473.
Jump up ^ Cruciani et al. (May 2004). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1014–1022. doi:10.1086/386294. PMC 1181964  . PMID 15042509. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Cruciani; et al. (May 2004). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa". Am J Hum Genet. 74 (5): 1014–1022. doi:10.1086/386294. PMC 1181964  . PMID 15042509. Archived from the original on 2013-01-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Hassan, Hisham Y. et al. (2008), "Y-Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History," American Journal of Physical Anthropology (2008), Volume: 137, Issue: 3, Pages: 316-323
Jump up ^ Henn; Gignoux; Lin, Alice A; Oefner, Peter J. (2008), "Y-chromosomal evidence of a pastoralist migration through Tanzania to southern Africa", PNAS, 105 (31): 10693–10698, Bibcode:2008PNAS..10510693H, doi:10.1073/pnas.0801184105, PMC 2504844  , PMID 18678889
Jump up ^ Castrí (2008). "Kenyan crossroads: migration and gene flow in six ethnic groups from Eastern Africa" (PDF). J Anthropol Sci. 86: 189–92. PMID 19934476.
Jump up ^ Tishkoff; et al. (2009), "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans", Science, 324 (5930): 1035–44, Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T, doi:10.1126/science.1172257, PMC 2947357  , PMID 19407144 ; Also see Supplementary Data
Jump up ^ D. F. Roberts, D. R. Bainbridge: "Nilotic physique," American Journal of Physical Anthropology (1963), p. 341-370
^ Jump up to: a b Jean Hiernaux, The People of Africa, (Scribners: 1975), pp.142-143 & 147.
Jump up ^ B. Campbell, P. Leslie, K. Campbell: "Age-related Changes in Testosterone and SHBG among Turkana Males." American Journal of Human Biology (2006), p. 71-82
Jump up ^ Bengt Saltin: "The Kenya project - Final report." New Studies In Athletics, vol. 2, pp. 15-24
Jump up ^ Yannis Pitsiladis, Vincent O. Onywera, Robert A. Scott, Michael K. Boit. "Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners" (PDF). Retrieved 20 June 2012.
Bibliography[edit]
(in English) Lienhardt, Godfrey, Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka, Oxford University Press (1988), ISBN 0198234058 [1] (Retrieved : 9 June 2012)
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