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Welcome Back, Kotter
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Welcome Back, Kotter
Created by
Gabe Kaplan
Alan Sacks
Starring
Gabe Kaplan
Marcia Strassman
John Sylvester White
Robert Hegyes
Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs
Ron Palillo
John Travolta
Opening theme
"Welcome Back"
performed by John Sebastian
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
4
No. of episodes
95 (list of episodes)
Production
Running time
24–25 minutes, 30 minutes with commercials
Production company(s)
The Komack Company
Wolper Productions
Distributor
Warner Bros. Television Distribution
Release
Original network
ABC
Original release
September 9, 1975 – May 17, 1979
Welcome Back, Kotter is an American sitcom starring Gabe Kaplan as a sardonic high school teacher in charge of a racially and ethnically diverse remedial class called the "Sweathogs". Recorded in front of a live studio audience, it originally aired on ABC from September 9, 1975, to May 17, 1979.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Premise
2 Characters
2.1 Gabe Kotter
2.2 Julie Kotter
2.3 Michael Woodman
2.4 Vincent "Vinnie" Barbarino
2.5 Arnold Dingfelder Horshack
2.6 Freddie Percy "Boom Boom" Washington
2.7 Juan Luis Pedro Felipo de Huevos Epstein
2.8 Recurring characters
2.8.1 Rosalie "Hotsie" Totsie
2.8.2 Judy Borden
2.8.3 Beauregarde "Beau" De LaBarre
3 Other recurring characters
4 Show history
5 Popularity
6 Theme song
7 Comic books
8 Novels
9 Action figures
10 Episodes
11 DVD releases
12 Nominations
13 Guest stars
14 Spin-offs
15 Broadcast history and Nielsen ratings
16 International airing
17 After the show
18 Reruns
19 See also
20 References
21 External links
Premise[edit]
The show stars stand-up comedian and actor Gabriel "Gabe" Kaplan as the title character, Gabe Kotter, a wisecracking teacher who returns to his alma mater, James Buchanan High School in Brooklyn, New York, to teach a remedial class of loafers, called "Sweathogs". The school's principal is referred to, but rarely seen on-screen. The rigid vice principal, Michael Woodman (John Sylvester White), dismisses the Sweathogs as witless hoodlums, and only expects Kotter to contain them until they drop out or are otherwise banished. As a former remedial student, and a founding member of the original class of Sweathogs, Kotter befriends the current Sweathogs and stimulates their potential. A pupil-teacher rapport is formed, and the students often visit Kotter's Bensonhurst apartment, sometimes via the fire-escape window, much to the chagrin of his wife, Julie (Marcia Strassman).
The Sweathogs celebrate a winning lottery ticket as Mr. Kotter looks on.
The fictional James Buchanan High is based on the Brooklyn high school that Kaplan attended in real life, New Utrecht High School,[2] which is also shown in the opening credits. Many of the show's characters were also based on people Kaplan knew during his teen years as a remedial student, several of whom were described in one of Kaplan's stand-up comic routines entitled "Holes and Mellow Rolls". "Vinnie Barbarino" was inspired by Eddie Lecarri and Ray Barbarino; "Freddie 'Boom Boom' Washington" was inspired by Freddie "Furdy" Peyton; "Juan Epstein" was partially inspired by Epstein "The Animal"; however, "Arnold Horshack" was unchanged.
Characters[edit]
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Gabe Kotter[edit]
Played by Gabe Kaplan
Gabe Kotter is a flippant, but well-meaning teacher who returns to his alma mater, Buchanan High, to teach a group of remedial students known as the Sweathogs. Being a founding member of the original Sweathogs, Kotter has a special understanding of the potential of these supposedly "unteachable" students. On his first day on the job, he launches into a Groucho Marx impersonation. Kotter is married to Julie, with whom he eventually has twin girls, Robin and Rachel. It is confirmed by Julie in the episode "Follow the Leader (part 1)" that Gabe is Jewish. During season four, Kaplan had contract issues with the executive producer, and only appeared in a handful of episodes. In season four, the invisible principal John Lazarus retires, and Kotter becomes the vice-principal. Though he is said to maintain some social studies teaching duties, most of that season's shows are filmed outside his classroom (#11), or if in room 11, Mr. Woodman is teaching. To minimize Kotter's absence, scenes were shot in either the school's hallway, the schoolyard, or the principal's waiting area. Season four ended the series.
Julie Kotter[edit]
Played by Marcia Strassman
Julie Kotter is Gabe's wife and closest friend. Though she has a sense of humor, she often wishes Gabe would take matters more seriously. She is occasionally upset with the amount of time her husband spends with his students, and she is troubled that he allows them to visit their apartment regularly; in the two-part story arc "Follow the Leader", the Sweathogs' constant intrusions lead Julie to separate briefly from Gabe and even seriously consider divorce. Originally from Nebraska, with a college degree in anthropology, Julie eventually became a secretary, and later a substitute teacher at Buchanan after Gabe's promotion to vice-principal. She makes several references to her "world famous tuna casserole", a common meal at the Kotter dinner table, which Gabe and the Sweathogs dislike.
Michael Woodman[edit]
Played by John Sylvester White
Michael Woodman is the curmudgeonly vice-principal (and later principal) of Buchanan High. He makes no secret of his dislike for the Sweathogs, whom he considers the bottom of the social register at his school. He refers to non-Sweathogs as "real" students. When Kotter was a student at Buchanan, Woodman taught social studies, the same class Kotter returns to Buchanan to teach. His old age, and sometimes his diminutive height, are common jokes with the Sweathogs. Woodman was totally against Kotter's unorthodox teaching methods and at one point even put Kotter in front of the school's review board in an unsuccessful attempt to have him fired. As the series progresses, Woodman begins to tolerate them marginally. In the season one episode "No More Mr. Nice Guy", Kotter is shown to be a gifted teacher, willing to wear historic costumes, and role-play in front of the class during his lessons.
Vincent "Vinnie" Barbarino[edit]
Played by John Travolta
Vinnie Barbarino is a cocky Italian-American, the "unofficial official" leader and resident heartthrob of the Sweathogs. He has a need to be the center of attention, as seen when he admits to making it rain in the school gymnasium. In the two-episode "Follow the Leader", Barbarino quits the Sweathogs and drops out of school in anger when Freddy Washington is chosen as the "leader" of the group, though he returns as leader at the finish of the story. Barbarino's prowess with women is a source of envy (and more often amusement) among his classmates. On occasion, he breaks out in song about his last name sung to the tune of "Barbara Ann". He was the first of the Sweathogs to move out on his own when he got a job as a hospital orderly. In the first episode of the series and fourth season, he has a girlfriend, Sally. Vinnie is Catholic (often describing his mother as a saint), and, as shown in "I'm Having Their Baby", is a Star Trek fan. Little is known about Vinnie's home life other than that his parents argue a lot ("Follow the Leader (part 2)") and take turns beating him when in a mutual rage. His mother's name is Margie ("The Great Debate"), and he shares a bed with his brother. The episode "Don't Come Up And See Me Sometime" implies that Vinnie is the older of the two. Travolta himself was a high school drop-out.[3]
Arnold Dingfelder Horshack[edit]
Played by Ron Palillo
The class clown of the Sweathogs, Arnold Horshack, is completely comfortable with his oddball, if naïve, personality. Horshack was known for his unique observations and his wheezing laugh, similar to that of a hyena. (Palillo revealed on a 1995 episode of The Jenny Jones Show that it originated from the way his father breathed during the last two weeks of his life as he lay dying from lung cancer.) It is possible that academically he is the smartest Sweathog. He is the only central Sweathog character to be promoted out of remedial academics class, but he soon returns after feeling out of place. He has an affection for acting and enjoys old movies, particularly 1930s musicals. He eventually marries Mary Johnson, a co-worker and fellow Sweathog. Although his surname sounds like a term for a bordello, he claimed it is a "very old and respected name" meaning "the cattle are dying." His middle name (and his mother's maiden name) is "Dingfelder".
Freddie Percy "Boom Boom" Washington[edit]
Played by Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs
The hip, black student known as the athletic Sweathog for his skills on the basketball court, Washington claimed his nickname came from his habit of "pretending to play the bass" and singing "Boom-boom-boom-boom!". His trademark phrase is, "Hi, there" (spoken with a deep voice and a broad smile). Though often the voice of reason among his classmates, Washington nonetheless is a willing participant in the Sweathogs' various antics and pranks. Freddie also finds success as a radio disc jockey along with another former Sweathog, Wally "The Wow" (played by George Carlin). At one point, Washington challenges Barbarino for leadership of the Sweathogs, and even replaces him for a time until the group grows tired of his dictatorial style.
Washington has an older sister, who got divorced twice while living in Vermont ("The Longest Weekend"), and a brother, Leroy. In "The Great Debate" it is revealed that he has another brother, Douglas, and that his father's name is Lincoln. Kotter uses his own past to bond with Freddie, because in addition to being a former Sweathog he was also a former star of Buchanan's basketball team.
Juan Luis Pedro Felipo de Huevos Epstein[edit]
Played by Robert Hegyes
A fiercely proud Puerto Rican Jew (when asked if his mother was Puerto Rican, Juan replies that his mother's maiden name was Bibbermann and that his grandfather saw Puerto Rico from the ship as he was making his way to America and decided to settle there instead of Miami, making him one of the earliest Puerto Rican Jews; Juan is thus Puerto Rican on his father's side and Jewish on both parents' sides), Epstein is one of the toughest students at Buchanan High, despite his short stature. He normally walks with a tough-man strut, wears a red handkerchief hanging out of his right back pocket, and was voted "Most Likely to Take a Life" by his peers. In the season one episode, "One of Our Sweathogs Is Missing", Epstein was said to be the sixth of ten children (When speaking on the phone to his mother (who had failed to notice that he had been missing for three days), she apparently failed to recognize his name and he had to further identify himself as "Number Six".), although he later mentions, in "I'm Having Their Baby", that his mother only gave birth eight times, implying two of them were twin births. Only four of his siblings are mentioned by name: his brothers Pedro, Irving, and Sanchez ("One of Our Sweathogs Is Missing"), establishing that some of his siblings had Jewish names and others Puerto Rican names, and a younger sister, Carmen ("A Love Story"). Epstein's toughness was downplayed later on, and he became more of a wiseguy. He was also known to have a "buddy" relationship with Principal Lazarus as he often refers to him by his first name, Jack. On a few occasions, when Kotter did his Groucho Marx impersonation, Epstein would jump in and impersonate Chico Marx or Harpo Marx. Epstein's diminutive height, large hair, and fake excuse notes (always signed, "Epstein's Mother"), are common jokes associated with him.
Recurring characters[edit]
Rosalie "Hotsie" Totsie[edit]
Played by Debralee Scott
Rosie Totsie is the femme fatale purported to have put the "sweat" in Sweathog, though her reputation is largely exaggerated by the Sweathogs' word of mouth. Her promiscuity is at least in part a reaction to the strict discipline enforced by her father, the Reverend Totsie. To restore her good name, and to prove a point, she fabricates a story about one of the Sweathogs getting her pregnant. The character was a favorite among male viewers but was phased out of the series at the end of the first season when Scott was picked to co-star in the syndicated Norman Lear comedy, Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman.[citation needed] She reprised the role in a 1978 episode, "The Return of Hotsie Totsie", in which it was revealed that she dropped out of school because she became pregnant and had to become a stripper to support her infant child.
Judy Borden[edit]
Played by Helaine Lembeck
A recurring non-Sweathog character in the earlier seasons, Borden is a Straight A student and editor of the Buchanan Bugle, the school newspaper. She was Barbarino's tutor, and even dated him at one point. Despite her academic superiority, she can easily hold her own in a Dozens contest against any Sweathog.
Beauregarde "Beau" De LaBarre[edit]
Played by Stephen Shortridge
Introduced as a regular character in the fourth and final season, Beau is a handsome, friendly, blond, silver-tongued southerner who transfers from New Orleans after being kicked out of several other schools. He ends up in Kotter's class. The producers sought a heart throb who was not a direct knock-off of the "Italian-Stallion" trend that was permeating Hollywood in the mid-1970s who would improve ratings in the South where the show's New York setting was seen as unrelatable. They wanted to retain female viewers, but avoid a Travolta clone. Beau's first reaction to the term "Sweathog" is, "That sounds gross." He seems to have a way with women, as shown in later episodes. One of his running jokes involves imparting whimsical sayings, such as one about how a real man never steps on a pregnant alligator.
Other recurring characters[edit]
Vernee Watson as Verna Jean Williams, Freddie's girlfriend.
Susan Lanier as Bambi, a female addition to the Sweathogs introduced mostly as eye candy.
Charles Fleischer as Carvelli, introduced as a student foil to the Sweathogs in Season 2.
Bob Harcum as Murray, Carvelli's loyal, and extremely dim, sidekick.
Dennis Bowen as Todd Ludlow, a nerdy academic high achiever.
Geoffrey Stump as Kyle "the Heartbreaker" Lucas
Irene Arranga as Mary Johnson, later became Arnold Horshack's wife.
Melonie Haller as Angie Grabowski, introduced in Season 3 as the only official female Sweathog but was gone by the end of the season.
Show history[edit]
Welcome Back, Kotter's first season was controversial. In Boston, the local ABC affiliate (WCVB-TV) initially refused to air the show.[4] The city was going through a tumultuous school busing program that involved widespread protests and riots, and the local affiliate felt Kotter's fictional integrated classroom would exacerbate the situation. However, the show became an early ratings success and the affiliate relented, picking it up from its fifth episode.
Teachers in other cities had concerns about how Kotter would be portrayed, so producers allowed a union representative on the set to ensure the show protected the image of those in the profession. Kaplan opposed the idea, at one point asking a reporter if there was a junkman on the set of Sanford and Son to protect the reputation of junkmen.[citation needed]
Censor sentiments of Juvenile delinquency faded after the Sweathogs' antics proved to be silly rather than criminal. Like Kaplan, Hegyes was a fan of the Marx Brothers. Hegyes claimed that he suggested that the Sweathogs be modeled after the Marx Brothers in order to reduce tension.[5]
Ratings slipped greatly in the third season. Kaplan later attributed the decline to the age of the actors playing the Sweathogs, all then in their mid to late twenties, claiming that they were no longer believable as high school students. His idea was to have Kotter join the faculty of a community college attended by the Sweathogs;[6] however, this storyline never materialized. In order to increase viewership, the Kotters had twin girls, but this did not prove to be enough to regain the show's earlier momentum. The show introduced a female Sweathog, Angie Grabowski, played by Melonie Haller.
Major changes took place in the fourth and final season.
Shortly before the season began, the series was moved from its successful Thursday 8:00 pm time slot to Monday 8:00 pm to make way for the impending hit series Mork & Mindy.
Virtually the entire writing staff was fired after season 3, and replaced with veteran writers from family-based series (such as Bob Claver from Leave It To Beaver and The Munsters).
Travolta, who had already starred in box office hits such as Grease, Saturday Night Fever, and Carrie, began to focus more time on his film career. He was featured in eight episodes, earning $2,000 for each one, and he was billed as a special guest star.
Mr. Woodman was promoted to Principal of the school (Principal Lazarus quit to take a "less stressful" job at a high-security prison), and Kotter was promoted to Vice-Principal, purposefully moving the show's focus away from Kotter's class.
Major off-screen disputes led Kaplan to break his contract and reduce his appearances. To help fill the voids, Stephen Shortridge joined the cast as smooth-talking Southerner Beau De LaBarre, and Kotter's wife, Julie, became a school secretary and occasional fill-in teacher, despite having one-year-old twin daughters.
Knowing the series was in a nosedive, producer James Komack attempted to spin-off a newly married Arnold Horshack into a new sitcom (see section below).[citation needed]
Popularity[edit]
The show enjoyed ratings success during its first two seasons, spawning a host of merchandising tie-ins including: lunch boxes, dolls, comic books, novels, and even a board game, advertised as "The 'Up Your Nose With A Rubber Hose' Game" in a commercial with a class full of Sweathog look-alikes featuring Steve Guttenberg as Barbarino. The Sweathogs (or at least an impressionist's version of them) even made a crossover appearance with characters from the Happy Days universe on one track (the disco-themed "Fonzarelli Slide") of a 1976 TV-promoted oldies compilation album.
In 2010, the cast, including: Gabe Kaplan, Marcia Strassman, John Travolta, Robert Hegyes, Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs, and Ellen Travolta were honored at the TV Land Award ceremonies that year. Co-star Ron Palillo was not in attendance.
Theme song[edit]
Main article: Welcome Back (John Sebastian song)
Welcome Back, Kotter theme song, (reduced quality)
from Welcome Back by John B. Sebastian, Reprise Records 1976. Sample from The Best of John Sebastian, Rhino Entertainment/WEA Corp., 1989, 1990
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The popular theme song, "Welcome Back", written and recorded by former Lovin' Spoonful frontman John Sebastian, became a No. 1 hit in the spring of 1976. The show was originally going to be called Kotter, but that was changed because of the theme song lyrics. Sebastian has said he tried to find a more general theme for the song after being unable to find any reasonable rhymes for Kotter.
Sebastian performed the song on Saturday Night Live (April 24, 1976 – Season 1, Episode 18), and memorably flubbed the opening lyrics.
Comic books[edit]
DC Comics published ten issues of a Welcome Back, Kotter comic book starting in 1976.[7] Following its cancellation in 1978, a Limited Collectors' Edition was issued, incorporating a 4-page "On the Set" section and photographs from the show.[8]
Novels[edit]
A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the 1970s.
Action figures[edit]
Mattel produced a series of 9 inch Welcome Back, Kotter action figures in 1977. Figures produced included Barbarino, Horshack, Epstein, Washington, and Mr. Kotter.[9]
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Welcome Back, Kotter episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 22 September 9, 1975 February 26, 1976
2 23 September 23, 1976 March 3, 1977
3 27 September 10, 1977 May 18, 1978
4 23 September 11, 1978 June 8, 1979
DVD releases[edit]
Warner Home Video released a 6-episode Television Favorites collection on February 28, 2006. Due to the success of this release, Warner released the Complete first Season on DVD in Region 1 on June 12, 2007.
On May 7, 2014, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series. Ultimately, they released Welcome Back, Kotter: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 on August 26, 2014,[10] and have since released the second, third, and fourth seasons as individual sets.[11]
DVD Name
Ep #
Release Date
The Complete First Season 22 June 12, 2007
The Complete Second Season 23 January 20, 2015
The Complete Third Season 27 May 26, 2015
The Complete Fourth Season 23 August 18, 2015
The Complete Series 95 August 26, 2014
Nominations[edit]
Kotter failed to receive any major awards, though it was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1976 [12] after its first season; it lost to The Mary Tyler Moore Show. The series was also nominated for three technical Emmy Awards: Outstanding Achievement in Videotape Editing for a Series (to Editors Susan Jenkins and Manuel Martinez) in 1976, Outstanding Art Direction for a Comedy Series (to Art Directors Roy Christopher and James Shanahan) in 1978, and Outstanding Individual Achievement – Creative Technical Crafts (to Dick Wilson for sound effects) in 1979.[12]
Guest stars[edit]
Several noteworthy performers enjoyed guest stints on Kotter either during or prior to their widespread fame. James Woods guest starred in the first season ("The Great Debate") as Alex Welles, a drama teacher who leads the school debate team ("the Turkeys") in a competition against the Sweathogs. Pat Morita appears in the 1976 episode "Career Day" as Mr. Takahashi. Comedian George Carlin was featured, as was John Astin. Other guest stars included Scott Brady, Ellen Travolta, Richard Moll, Della Reese, and Dinah Manoff who would work with John Travolta again in Grease.
Groucho Marx was set to have a brief walk-on role in one episode. He arrived on-set, but was deemed to be too sick to appear. Pictures of Marx with the cast were taken, but were never released because of his sickly appearance.[13][14]
Spin-offs[edit]
At least three spin-offs of Kotter were seriously considered, but only one ever became a series. The short-lived Mr. T and Tina starred Pat Morita as Taro Takahashi (Mr. T for short), a brilliant Japanese inventor whom he portrayed in one episode of Kotter. The show was not received well by critics and lasted for five episodes on ABC. There was also talk of developing a spin-off built around the Horshack character and his family, Rich Man, Poor Man; Horshack!, but it never went beyond the backdoor pilot stage, shown as an episode of Kotter. In the mid-1990s, Hegyes announced on The Jenny Jones Show that plans were in the works to create a spin-off featuring the Sweathogs (minus Travolta's Barbarino) all grown up. The project, however, never got off the ground, and little information about it was ever made public.
Broadcast history and Nielsen ratings[edit]
Season
Time slot (ET)
Rank
Rating[15]
1975–1976 Tuesday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episodes 1-16)
Thursday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 17-22) 18 22.1
1976–1977 Thursday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 1-18, 20-23)
Thursday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episode 19)[16] 13 22.7
1977–1978 Saturday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episode 1)[17]
Thursday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 2, 4-27)
Thursday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episode 3)[18] 26 19.9 (Tied with The Incredible Hulk and Family)
1978–1979 Monday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 1, 3-6)
Monday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episode 2)[19]
Saturday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 7-14)
Saturday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episodes 15-19)
Friday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episode 20)[20]
Friday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episodes 21-23) N/A
International airing[edit]
In Germany, 23 episodes of Welcome Back, Kotter was shown dubbed, but under its original title – first from September 1979 till May 1980 by the ZDF, then again from April to July 1985 by Sat.1.
In the United Kingdom, 26 episodes were shown from December 1981 until July 1983 on ITV.
In Australia, the show was broadcast on The Seven Network from June 1976 and rated very well for the first two seasons.
In New Zealand, the show was screened on Television New Zealand's TV ONE. As in Australia, the first two seasons rated highly.
In Italy, the show was aired by the Italian TV second channel RAI 2 in the spring of 1980. Since at the time there were only two national TV networks, the rating was high. The show was dubbed, and the title was translated in Italian into I Ragazzi del Sabato sera (Saturday Night Guys), clearly aiming to build on the success of Saturday Night Fever. Viewers believed that the show had been shot after the movie.[citation needed]
In Greece, the show was screened on ANT1 in the summer of 1992, on a morning slot (07.30).
After the show[edit]
Kaplan welcomed back Hegyes and Jacobs on his short-lived 1981 sitcom Lewis & Clark. Their characters joked that Kaplan seemed familiar and being a smart guy, "should become a teacher."
The Simpsons referenced the sitcom in the fourth-season episode "Selma's Choice" (episode 9F11), first aired on January 21, 1993. Marge is impressed to find one of the Sweathogs listed as a donor in the Springfield Sperm Bank's "101 Frozen Pops" catalog. She is disappointed, however, to learn from Selma that it's not Horshack.[21]
In 1997, Ron Palillo, Robert Hegyes, and Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs reprised their respective roles in a dream sequence in the Mr. Rhodes episode "The Welcome Back Show".
In the mid-2000s, WPIX-TV, Channel 11 in New York City, aired the series in its old Saturday night at 8 pm timeslot, pulling surprisingly strong ratings.
In 2012, both Ron Palillo and Robert Hegyes died.[22] Other members of the cast who have died include Marcia Strassman in 2014, John Sylvester White in 1988, and Debralee Scott in 2005.
The show's lunchbox was the subject of the season one finale of the podcast Mystery Show.
Reruns[edit]
In March 2016, the show aired on Me-TV Sunday mornings at 8:00 am and 8:30 am Eastern Time. In September 2017, Antenna TV began airing the show weekdays at 6:30 pm and 1:30 am Eastern.
See also[edit]
Head of the Class (1986)
White savior § Appearance in television
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Welcome Back Kotter | Archive of American Television". Emmytvlegends.org. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
Jump up ^ "www.genreonline.net". www.genreonline.net. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
Jump up ^ Michael, Reeves (9 September 1978). "The Phoneix". Retrieved 19 September 2016 – via Google News.
Jump up ^ "11 things you never knew about 'Welcome Back, Kotter'". Me-TV Network.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived April 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Yahoo TV". Tv.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
Jump up ^ McAvennie, Michael; Dolan, Hannah, ed. (2010). "1970s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle. Dorling Kindersley. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9. The first issue [was] written by Elliot S! Maggin with spot-on likenesses rendered by Jack Sparling. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Limited Collectors' Edition #57 - Welcome Back Kotter (Issue)". Comicvine.com. 1978-01-01. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
Jump up ^ Figure Realm, LLC. "Welcome Back Kotter (Mattel) Action Figure Checklist". Figurerealm.com. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
Jump up ^ "Welcome Back, Kotter DVD news: Press Release for Welcome Back, Kotter - The Complete Series". TVShowsOnDVD.com. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved January 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Welcome Back, Kotter DVD news: Announcement for The Complete 4th Season: The Final Season". TVShowsOnDVD.com. June 5, 2015. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved January 17, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Welcome Back, Kotter | Television Academy". Emmys.com. 2015-11-13. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
Jump up ^ Evanier, Mark (11 June 1999). "Groucho, Part 2". Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Hegyes, Robert. "kotter4". Archived from the original on April 11, 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle (2007). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present (Ninth Edition). Ballantine Books. pp. 1687–1688. ISBN 978-0-345-49773-4.
Jump up ^ "TV Listings for February 3, 1977". TV Tango. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TV Listings for September 10, 1977". TV Tango. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TV Listings for September 15, 1977". TV Tango. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TV Listings for September 11, 1978". TV Tango. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TV Listings for May 25, 1979". TV Tango. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived August 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "'Welcome Back, Kotter' Cast: 40 Years Later Photos – ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Welcome Back, Kotter
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Welcome Back, Kotter.
Welcome Back, Kotter on IMDb
Welcome Back, Kotter at TV.com
Welcome Back, Kotter-related interview videos at the Archive of American Television
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welcome_Back,_Kotter&oldid=843142734"
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Standard Model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about a non-mathematical general overview of the Standard Model of particle physics. For a mathematical description, see Standard Model (mathematical formulation). For other uses, see Standard model (disambiguation).
The Standard Model of elementary particles (more schematic depiction), with the three generations of matter, gauge bosons in the fourth column, and the Higgs boson in the fifth
Standard Model of particle physics
Elementary particles of the standard model
Background[show]
Particle physics
Standard Model
Quantum field theory
Gauge theory
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
Higgs mechanism
Constituents[show]
Electroweak interaction
Quantum chromodynamics
CKM matrix
Standard Model mathematics
Limitations[show]
Strong CP problem
Hierarchy problem
Neutrino oscillations
Physics beyond the Standard Model
Scientists[show]
Rutherford · Thomson · Chadwick · Bose · Sudarshan · Koshiba · Davis Jr. · Anderson · Fermi · Dirac · Feynman · Rubbia · Gell-Mann · Kendall · Taylor · Friedman · Powell · P. W. Anderson · Glashow · Iliopoulos · Maiani · Meer · Cowan · Nambu · Chamberlain · Cabibbo · Schwartz · Perl · Majorana · Weinberg · Lee · Ward · Salam · Kobayashi · Maskawa · Yang · Yukawa · 't Hooft · Veltman · Gross · Politzer · Wilczek · Cronin · Fitch · Vleck · Higgs · Englert · Brout · Hagen · Guralnik · Kibble · Ting · Richter
v
t
e
The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, and not including the gravitational force) in the universe, as well as classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists around the world,[1] with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, confirmation of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy.
Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent[2] and has demonstrated huge successes in providing experimental predictions, it leaves some phenomena unexplained and falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions. It does not fully explain baryon asymmetry, incorporate the full theory of gravitation[3] as described by general relativity, or account for the accelerating expansion of the Universe as possibly described by dark energy. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-zero masses.
The development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and experimental particle physicists alike. For theorists, the Standard Model is a paradigm of a quantum field theory, which exhibits a wide range of physics including spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies and non-perturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building more exotic models that incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such as supersymmetry) in an attempt to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical background
2 Overview
3 Particle content
3.1 Fermions
3.2 Gauge bosons
3.3 Higgs boson
4 Theoretical aspects
4.1 Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian
4.1.1 Quantum chromodynamics sector
4.1.2 Electroweak sector
4.1.3 Higgs sector
4.1.4 Yukawa sector
5 Fundamental forces
6 Tests and predictions
7 Challenges
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Historical background[edit]
See also: History of quantum field theory and History of subatomic physics
The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashow's discovery in 1961 of a way to combine the electromagnetic and weak interactions.[4] In 1967 Steven Weinberg[5] and Abdus Salam[6] incorporated the Higgs mechanism[7][8][9] into Glashow's electroweak interaction, giving it its modern form.
The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions, i.e. the quarks and leptons.
After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973,[10][11][12][13] the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering it. The W± and Z0 bosons were discovered experimentally in 1983; and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the Standard Model predicted.[citation needed]
The theory of the strong interaction (i.e. quantum chromodynamics, QCD), to which many contributed, acquired its modern form in 1973–74 when asymptotic freedom was proposed[14][15] (a development which made QCD the main focus of theoretical research)[16] and experiments confirmed that the hadrons were composed of fractionally charged quarks.[17][18]
The term "Standard Model" was first coined by Abraham Pais and Sam Treiman in 1975, with reference to the electroweak theory with four quarks.[19]
Overview[edit]
At present, matter and energy are best understood in terms of the kinematics and interactions of elementary particles. To date, physics has reduced the laws governing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of matter and energy to a small set of fundamental laws and theories. A major goal of physics is to find the "common ground" that would unite all of these theories into one integrated theory of everything, of which all the other known laws would be special cases, and from which the behavior of all matter and energy could be derived (at least in principle).[20]
Particle content[edit]
The Standard Model includes members of several classes of elementary particles, which in turn can be distinguished by other characteristics, such as color charge.
All particles can be summarized as follows:
Elementary particles
Elementary fermionsHalf-integer spinObey the Fermi–Dirac statistics Elementary bosonsInteger spinObey the Bose–Einstein statistics
Quarks and antiquarksSpin = 1/2Have color chargeParticipate in strong interactions Leptons and antileptonsSpin = 1/2No color chargeElectroweak interactions Gauge bosonsSpin ≠ 0Force carriers Scalar bosonsSpin = 0
Generations
Up (u), Down (d)
Charm (c), Strange (s)
Top (t), Bottom (b)
Generations
Electron (
e−
)1, Electron neutrino (
ν
e)
Muon (
μ−
), Muon neutrino (
ν
μ)
Tau (
τ−
), Tau neutrino (
ν
τ)
Four kinds (four fundamental interactions)
Photon (
γ
, electromagnetic interaction)
W and Z bosons (
W+
,
W−
,
Z
, weak interaction)
Eight types of gluons (
g
, strong interaction)
Graviton (
G
, gravity, hypothetical)2
Higgs boson (H0)
Notes:
1. The antielectron (
e+
) is traditionally called positron.
2. The known force carrier bosons all have spin = 1 and are therefore vector bosons. The hypothetical graviton has spin = 2 and is a tensor boson; whether it is a gauge boson as well, is unknown.
Fermions[edit]
Summary of interactions between particles described by the Standard Model
The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin 1⁄2, known as fermions. According to the spin–statistics theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion principle. Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle.
The fermions of the Standard Model are classified according to how they interact (or equivalently, by what charges they carry). There are six quarks (up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom), and six leptons (electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino). Pairs from each classification are grouped together to form a generation, with corresponding particles exhibiting similar physical behavior (see table).
The defining property of the quarks is that they carry color charge, and hence interact via the strong interaction. A phenomenon called color confinement results in quarks being very strongly bound to one another, forming color-neutral composite particles (hadrons) containing either a quark and an antiquark (mesons) or three quarks (baryons). The familiar proton and neutron are the two baryons having the smallest mass. Quarks also carry electric charge and weak isospin. Hence they interact with other fermions both electromagnetically and via the weak interaction. The remaining six fermions do not carry color charge and are called leptons. The three neutrinos do not carry electric charge either, so their motion is directly influenced only by the weak nuclear force, which makes them notoriously difficult to detect. However, by virtue of carrying an electric charge, the electron, muon, and tau all interact electromagnetically.
Each member of a generation has greater mass than the corresponding particles of lower generations. The first-generation charged particles do not decay, hence all ordinary (baryonic) matter is made of such particles. Specifically, all atoms consist of electrons orbiting around atomic nuclei, ultimately constituted of up and down quarks. Second- and third-generation charged particles, on the other hand, decay with very short half-lives and are observed only in very high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do not decay and pervade the universe, but rarely interact with baryonic matter.
Gauge bosons[edit]
The above interactions form the basis of the standard model. Feynman diagrams in the standard model are built from these vertices. Modifications involving Higgs boson interactions and neutrino oscillations are omitted. The charge of the W bosons is dictated by the fermions they interact with; the conjugate of each listed vertex (i.e. reversing the direction of arrows) is also allowed.
In the Standard Model, gauge bosons are defined as force carriers that mediate the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions.
Interactions in physics are the ways that particles influence other particles. At a macroscopic level, electromagnetism allows particles to interact with one another via electric and magnetic fields, and gravitation allows particles with mass to attract one another in accordance with Einstein's theory of general relativity. The Standard Model explains such forces as resulting from matter particles exchanging other particles, generally referred to as force mediating particles. When a force-mediating particle is exchanged, at a macroscopic level the effect is equivalent to a force influencing both of them, and the particle is therefore said to have mediated (i.e., been the agent of) that force. The Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical representation of the perturbation theory approximation, invoke "force mediating particles", and when applied to analyze high-energy scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement with the data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a "force-mediating particle") fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states, and solitons.
The gauge bosons of the Standard Model all have spin (as do matter particles). The value of the spin is 1, making them bosons. As a result, they do not follow the Pauli exclusion principle that constrains fermions: thus bosons (e.g. photons) do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial density (number per volume). The different types of gauge bosons are described below.
Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between electrically charged particles. The photon is massless and is well-described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
The
W+
,
W−
, and
Z
gauge bosons mediate the weak interactions between particles of different flavors (all quarks and leptons). They are massive, with the
Z
being more massive than the
W±
. The weak interactions involving the
W±
exclusively act on left-handed particles and right-handed antiparticles. Furthermore, the
W±
carries an electric charge of +1 and −1 and couples to the electromagnetic interaction. The electrically neutral
Z
boson interacts with both left-handed particles and antiparticles. These three gauge bosons along with the photons are grouped together, as collectively mediating the electroweak interaction.
The eight gluons mediate the strong interactions between color charged particles (the quarks). Gluons are massless. The eightfold multiplicity of gluons is labeled by a combination of color and anticolor charge (e.g. red–antigreen).[nb 1] Because the gluons have an effective color charge, they can also interact among themselves. The gluons and their interactions are described by the theory of quantum chromodynamics.
The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the right of this section.
Higgs boson[edit]
Main article: Higgs boson
The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle theorized by Peter Higgs in 1964, when he showed that Goldstone's 1962 theorem (generic continuous symmetry, which is spontaneously broken) provides a third polarisation of a massive vector field. Hence, Goldstone's original scalar doublet, the massive spin-zero particle, was proposed as the Higgs boson. (see 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers) and is a key building block in the Standard Model.[7][8][9][21] It has no intrinsic spin, and for that reason is classified as a boson (like the gauge bosons, which have integer spin).
The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, by explaining why the other elementary particles, except the photon and gluon, are massive. In particular, the Higgs boson explains why the photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons are very heavy. Elementary-particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (mediated by the photon) and the weak force (mediated by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In electroweak theory, the Higgs boson generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks. As the Higgs boson is massive, it must interact with itself.
Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when created, only a very high-energy particle accelerator can observe and record it. Experiments to confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN began in early 2010 and were performed at Fermilab's Tevatron until its closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating the masses of elementary particles becomes visible[clarification needed] at energies above 6993224304708179999♠1.4 TeV;[22] therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two 6994112152354090000♠7 TeV proton beams) was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists.[23]
On 4 July 2012, two of the experiments at the LHC (ATLAS and CMS) both reported independently that they found a new particle with a mass of about 7002125000000000000♠125 GeV/c2 (about 133 proton masses, on the order of 6976100000000000000♠10×10−25 kg), which is "consistent with the Higgs boson".[24][25][26][27][28][29] It was later confirmed to be the searched-for Higgs boson.[30]
Theoretical aspects[edit]
Main article: Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian[edit]
[show]Parameters of the Standard Model
Symbol
Description
Renormalization
scheme (point)
Value
me Electron mass 511 keV
mμ Muon mass 105.7 MeV
mτ Tau mass 1.78 GeV
mu Up quark mass μ
MS = 2 GeV
1.9 MeV
md Down quark mass μ
MS = 2 GeV
4.4 MeV
ms Strange quark mass μ
MS = 2 GeV
87 MeV
mc Charm quark mass μ
MS = mc
1.32 GeV
mb Bottom quark mass μ
MS = mb
4.24 GeV
mt Top quark mass On shell scheme 173.5 GeV
θ12 CKM 12-mixing angle 13.1°
θ23 CKM 23-mixing angle 2.4°
θ13 CKM 13-mixing angle 0.2°
δ CKM CP violation Phase 0.995
g1 or g' U(1) gauge coupling μ
MS = mZ
0.357
g2 or g SU(2) gauge coupling μ
MS = mZ
0.652
g3 or gs SU(3) gauge coupling μ
MS = mZ
1.221
θQCD QCD vacuum angle ~0
v Higgs vacuum expectation value 246 GeV
mH Higgs mass 6992200416256758830♠125.09±0.24 GeV
Technically, quantum field theory provides the mathematical framework for the Standard Model, in which a Lagrangian controls the dynamics and kinematics of the theory. Each kind of particle is described in terms of a dynamical field that pervades space-time. The construction of the Standard Model proceeds following the modern method of constructing most field theories: by first postulating a set of symmetries of the system, and then by writing down the most general renormalizable Lagrangian from its particle (field) content that observes these symmetries.
The global Poincaré symmetry is postulated for all relativistic quantum field theories. It consists of the familiar translational symmetry, rotational symmetry and the inertial reference frame invariance central to the theory of special relativity. The local SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1) gauge symmetry is an internal symmetry that essentially defines the Standard Model. Roughly, the three factors of the gauge symmetry give rise to the three fundamental interactions. The fields fall into different representations of the various symmetry groups of the Standard Model (see table). Upon writing the most general Lagrangian, one finds that the dynamics depends on 19 parameters, whose numerical values are established by experiment. The parameters are summarized in the table (made visible by clicking "show") above (note: the Higgs mass is at 6992200272060875000♠125 GeV, the Higgs self-coupling strength λ ~ 1⁄8).
Quantum chromodynamics sector[edit]
Main article: Quantum chromodynamics
The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) sector defines the interactions between quarks and gluons, with SU(3) symmetry, generated by Ta. Since leptons do not interact with gluons, they are not affected by this sector. The Dirac Lagrangian of the quarks coupled to the gluon fields is given by
L QCD = ∑ ψ ψ ¯ i ( i γ μ ( ∂ μ δ i j − i g s G μ a T i j a ) − m ψ δ i j ) ψ j − 1 4 G μ ν a G a μ ν , {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{QCD}}=\sum _{\psi }{\overline {\psi }}_{i}\left(i\gamma ^{\mu }(\partial _{\mu }\delta _{ij}-ig_{s}G_{\mu }^{a}T_{ij}^{a})-m_{\psi }\delta _{ij}\right)\psi _{j}-{\frac {1}{4}}G_{\mu \nu }^{a}G_{a}^{\mu \nu },}
where
ψ
i is the Dirac spinor of the quark field, where i = {r, g, b} represents color,
γμ are the Dirac matrices,
Ga
μ is the 8-component ( a = 1 , 2 , … , 8 {\displaystyle a=1,2,\dots ,8} ) SU(3) gauge field,
Ta
ij are the 3 × 3 Gell-Mann matrices, generators of the SU(3) color group,
Ga
μν are the field strength tensors for the gluons,
gs is the strong coupling constant.
Electroweak sector[edit]
Main article: Electroweak interaction
The electroweak sector is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with the simple symmetry group U(1) × SU(2)L,
L EW = ∑ ψ ψ ¯ γ μ ( i ∂ μ − g ′ 1 2 Y W B μ − g 1 2 τ → L W → μ ) ψ − 1 4 W a μ ν W μ ν a − 1 4 B μ ν B μ ν , {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{EW}}=\sum _{\psi }{\bar {\psi }}\gamma ^{\mu }\left(i\partial _{\mu }-g'{\tfrac {1}{2}}Y_{\text{W}}B_{\mu }-g{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\vec {\tau }}_{\text{L}}{\vec {W}}_{\mu }\right)\psi -{\tfrac {1}{4}}W_{a}^{\mu \nu }W_{\mu \nu }^{a}-{\tfrac {1}{4}}B^{\mu \nu }B_{\mu \nu },}
where
Bμ is the U(1) gauge field,
YW is the weak hypercharge – the generator of the U(1) group,
W→μ is the 3-component SU(2) gauge field,
τL→ are the Pauli matrices – infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group – with subscript L to indicate that they only act on left-chiral fermions,
g' and g are the U(1) and SU(2) coupling constants respectively,
W a μ ν {\displaystyle W^{a\mu \nu }} ( a = 1 , 2 , 3 {\displaystyle a=1,2,3} ) and B μ ν {\displaystyle B^{\mu \nu }} are the field strength tensors for the weak isospin and weak hypercharge fields.
Notice that the addition of fermion mass terms into the electroweak lagrangian is forbidden, since terms of the form m ψ ¯ ψ {\displaystyle m{\overline {\psi }}\psi } do not respect U(1) × SU(2)L gauge invariance. Neither is it possible to add explicit mass terms for the U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields. The Higgs mechanism is responsible for the generation of the gauge boson masses, and the fermion masses result from Yukawa-type interactions with the Higgs field.
Higgs sector[edit]
Main article: Higgs mechanism
In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a complex scalar of the group SU(2)L:
φ = 1 2 ( φ + φ 0 ) , {\displaystyle \varphi ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\left({\begin{array}{c}\varphi ^{+}\\\varphi ^{0}\end{array}}\right),}
where the superscripts + and 0 indicate the electric charge (Q) of the components. The weak isospin (YW) of both components is 1.
Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is
L H = φ † ( ∂ μ − i 2 ( g ′ Y W B μ + g τ → W → μ ) ) ( ∂ μ + i 2 ( g ′ Y W B μ + g τ → W → μ ) ) φ − λ 2 4 ( φ † φ − v 2 ) 2 , {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{H}}=\varphi ^{\dagger }\left(\partial ^{\mu }-{\frac {i}{2}}\left(g'Y_{\text{W}}B^{\mu }+g{\vec {\tau }}{\vec {W}}^{\mu }\right)\right)\left(\partial _{\mu }+{\frac {i}{2}}\left(g'Y_{\text{W}}B_{\mu }+g{\vec {\tau }}{\vec {W}}_{\mu }\right)\right)\varphi -{\frac {\lambda ^{2}}{4}}\left(\varphi ^{\dagger }\varphi -v^{2}\right)^{2},}
which can also be written as
L H = | ( ∂ μ + i 2 ( g ′ Y W B μ + g τ → W → μ ) ) φ | 2 − λ 2 4 ( φ † φ − v 2 ) 2 . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{H}}=\left|\left(\partial _{\mu }+{\frac {i}{2}}\left(g'Y_{\text{W}}B_{\mu }+g{\vec {\tau }}{\vec {W}}_{\mu }\right)\right)\varphi \right|^{2}-{\frac {\lambda ^{2}}{4}}\left(\varphi ^{\dagger }\varphi -v^{2}\right)^{2}.}
Yukawa sector[edit]
The Yukawa interaction terms are
L Yukawa = U ¯ L G u U R ϕ 0 − D ¯ L G u U R ϕ − + U ¯ L G d D R ϕ + + D ¯ L G d D R ϕ 0 + h c , {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{Yukawa}}={\overline {U}}_{L}G_{u}U_{R}\phi ^{0}-{\overline {D}}_{L}G_{u}U_{R}\phi ^{-}+{\overline {U}}_{L}G_{d}D_{R}\phi ^{+}+{\overline {D}}_{L}G_{d}D_{R}\phi ^{0}+hc,}
where Gu,d are 3 × 3 matrices of Yukawa couplings, with the ij term giving the coupling of the generations i and j.
Fundamental forces[edit]
Main article: Fundamental interaction
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015)
The Standard Model describes three of the four fundamental forces in nature; only gravity remains unexplained. In the Standard Model, a force is described as an exchange of bosons between the objects affected, such as a photon for the electromagnetic force and a gluon for the strong interaction. Those particles are called force carriers or messenger particles.[31]
The four fundamental interactions of nature[32]
Property/Interaction
Gravitation
Weak
Electromagnetic
Strong
(Electroweak)
Fundamental
Residual
Acts on: Mass – Energy Flavor Electric charge Color charge Atomic nuclei
Particles experiencing: All Quarks, leptons Electrically charged Quarks, Gluons Hadrons
Particles mediating: Not yet observed
(Graviton hypothesised) W+, W− and Z0 γ (photon) Gluons π, ρ and ω mesons
Strength at the scale of quarks: 6959100000000000000♠10−41 6996100000000000000♠10−4 1 60 Not applicable
to quarks
Strength at the scale of
protons/neutrons: 6964100000000000000♠10−36 6993100000000000000♠10−7 1 Not applicable
to hadrons 20
Tests and predictions[edit]
The Standard Model (SM) predicted the existence of the W and Z bosons, gluon, and the top and charm quarks and predicted many of their properties before these particles were observed. The predictions were experimentally confirmed with good precision.[33]
The SM also predicted the existence of the Higgs boson, found at the Large Hadron Collider as last particle of the SM.[34]
Challenges[edit]
See also: Physics beyond the Standard Model
Unsolved problem in physics:
What gives rise to the Standard Model of particle physics?
Why do particle masses and coupling constants have the values that we measure?
Why are there three generations of particles?
Why is there more matter than antimatter in the universe?
Where does Dark Matter fit into the model? Is it even a new particle?

(more unsolved problems in physics)
Self-consistency of the Standard Model (currently formulated as a non-abelian gauge theory quantized through path-integrals) has not been mathematically proven. While regularized versions useful for approximate computations (for example lattice gauge theory) exist, it is not known whether they converge (in the sense of S-matrix elements) in the limit that the regulator is removed. A key question related to the consistency is the Yang–Mills existence and mass gap problem.
Experiments indicate that neutrinos have mass, which the classic Standard Model did not allow.[35] To accommodate this finding, the classic Standard Model can be modified to include neutrino mass.
If one insists on using only Standard Model particles, this can be achieved by adding a non-renormalizable interaction of leptons with the Higgs boson.[36] On a fundamental level, such an interaction emerges in the seesaw mechanism where heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to the theory. This is natural in the left-right symmetric extension of the Standard Model[37][38] and in certain grand unified theories.[39] As long as new physics appears below or around 1014 GeV, the neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude.
Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a Unified field theory or a Theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of the Standard Model that motivate such research include:
The model does not explain gravitation, although physical confirmation of a theoretical particle known as a graviton would account for it to a degree. Though it addresses strong and electroweak interactions, the Standard Model does not consistently explain the canonical theory of gravitation, general relativity, in terms of quantum field theory. The reason for this is, among other things, that quantum field theories of gravity generally break down before reaching the Planck scale. As a consequence, we have no reliable theory for the very early universe.
Some physicists consider it to be ad hoc and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants whose values are unrelated and arbitrary.[40] Although the Standard Model, as it now stands, can explain why neutrinos have masses, the specifics of neutrino mass are still unclear. It is believed that explaining neutrino mass will require an additional 7 or 8 constants, which are also arbitrary parameters.[citation needed]
The Higgs mechanism gives rise to the hierarchy problem if some new physics (coupled to the Higgs) is present at high energy scales. In these cases, in order for the weak scale to be much smaller than the Planck scale, severe fine tuning of the parameters is required; there are, however, other scenarios that include quantum gravity in which such fine tuning can be avoided.[41] There are also issues of Quantum triviality, which suggests that it may not be possible to create a consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar particles.
The model is inconsistent with the emerging "Standard Model of cosmology". More common contentions include the absence of an explanation in the Standard Model of particle physics for the observed amount of cold dark matter (CDM) and its contributions to dark energy, which are many orders of magnitude too large. It is also difficult to accommodate the observed predominance of matter over antimatter (matter/antimatter asymmetry). The isotropy and homogeneity of the visible universe over large distances seems to require a mechanism like cosmic inflation, which would also constitute an extension of the Standard Model.
The existence of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays are difficult to explain under the Standard Model.
Currently, no proposed Theory of Everything has been widely accepted or verified.
See also[edit]
Book: Particles of the Standard Model
Fundamental interaction:
Quantum electrodynamics
Strong interaction: Color charge, Quantum chromodynamics, Quark model
Weak interaction: Electroweak theory, Fermi theory of beta decay, Weak hypercharge, Weak isospin
Gauge theory: Nontechnical introduction to gauge theory
Generation
Higgs mechanism: Higgs boson, Higgsless model
J. C. Ward
J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics
Lagrangian
Open questions: BTeV experiment, CP violation, Neutrino masses, Quark matter, Quantum triviality
Penguin diagram
Quantum field theory
Standard Model: Mathematical formulation of, Physics beyond the Standard Model
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Technically, there are nine such color–anticolor combinations. However, there is one color-symmetric combination that can be constructed out of a linear superposition of the nine combinations, reducing the count to eight.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics (Kindle ed.). Penguin Group. p. 2. ISBN 0-13-236678-9.
Jump up ^ In fact, there are mathematical issues regarding quantum field theories still under debate (see e.g. Landau pole), but the predictions extracted from the Standard Model by current methods applicable to current experiments are all self-consistent. For a further discussion see e.g. Chapter 25 of R. Mann (2010). An Introduction to Particle Physics and the Standard Model. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-8298-2.
Jump up ^ Sean Carroll, Ph.D., Caltech, 2007, The Teaching Company, Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe, Guidebook Part 2 page 59, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013, "...Standard Model of Particle Physics: The modern theory of elementary particles and their interactions ... It does not, strictly speaking, include gravity, although it's often convenient to include gravitons among the known particles of nature..."
Jump up ^ S.L. Glashow (1961). "Partial-symmetries of weak interactions". Nuclear Physics. 22 (4): 579–588. Bibcode:1961NucPh..22..579G. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2.
Jump up ^ S. Weinberg (1967). "A Model of Leptons". Physical Review Letters. 19 (21): 1264–1266. Bibcode:1967PhRvL..19.1264W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264.
Jump up ^ A. Salam (1968). N. Svartholm, ed. Elementary Particle Physics: Relativistic Groups and Analyticity. Eighth Nobel Symposium. Stockholm: Almquvist and Wiksell. p. 367.
^ Jump up to: a b F. Englert; R. Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters. 13 (9): 321–323. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..321E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321.
^ Jump up to: a b P.W. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters. 13 (16): 508–509. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..508H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508.
^ Jump up to: a b G.S. Guralnik; C.R. Hagen; T.W.B. Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters. 13 (20): 585–587. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..585G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585.
Jump up ^ F.J. Hasert; et al. (1973). "Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering". Physics Letters B. 46 (1): 121. Bibcode:1973PhLB...46..121H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90494-2.
Jump up ^ F.J. Hasert; et al. (1973). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment". Physics Letters B. 46 (1): 138. Bibcode:1973PhLB...46..138H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90499-1.
Jump up ^ F.J. Hasert; et al. (1974). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment". Nuclear Physics B. 73 (1): 1. Bibcode:1974NuPhB..73....1H. doi:10.1016/0550-3213(74)90038-8.
Jump up ^ D. Haidt (4 October 2004). "The discovery of the weak neutral currents". CERN Courier. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
Jump up ^ D.J. Gross; F. Wilczek (1973). "Ultraviolet behavior of non-abelian gauge theories". Physical Review Letters. 30 (26): 1343–1346. Bibcode:1973PhRvL..30.1343G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.30.1343.
Jump up ^ H.D. Politzer (1973). "Reliable perturbative results for strong interactions". Physical Review Letters. 30 (26): 1346–1349. Bibcode:1973PhRvL..30.1346P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.30.1346.
Jump up ^ Dean Rickles (2014). A Brief History of String Theory: From Dual Models to M-Theory. Springer, p. 11 n. 22.
Jump up ^ Aubert, J.; et al. (1974). "Experimental Observation of a Heavy Particle J". Physical Review Letters. 33 (23): 1404–1406. Bibcode:1974PhRvL..33.1404A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1404.
Jump up ^ Augustin, J.; et al. (1974). "Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in e+e− Annihilation". Physical Review Letters. 33 (23): 1406–1408. Bibcode:1974PhRvL..33.1406A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1406.
Jump up ^ Cao, Tian Yu. Conceptual developments of 20th century field theories. Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 320.
Jump up ^ "Details can be worked out if the situation is simple enough for us to make an approximation, which is almost never, but often we can understand more or less what is happening." from The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. pp. 2–7
Jump up ^ G.S. Guralnik (2009). "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles". International Journal of Modern Physics A. 24 (14): 2601–2627. arXiv:0907.3466  . Bibcode:2009IJMPA..24.2601G. doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431.
Jump up ^ B.W. Lee; C. Quigg; H.B. Thacker (1977). "Weak interactions at very high energies: The role of the Higgs-boson mass". Physical Review D. 16 (5): 1519–1531. Bibcode:1977PhRvD..16.1519L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.16.1519.
Jump up ^ "Huge $10 billion collider resumes hunt for 'God particle'". CNN. 11 November 2009. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
Jump up ^ M. Strassler (10 July 2012). "Higgs Discovery: Is it a Higgs?". Retrieved 2013-08-06.
Jump up ^ "CERN experiments observe particle consistent with long-sought Higgs boson". CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2016-11-12.
Jump up ^ "Observation of a New Particle with a Mass of 125 GeV". CERN. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
Jump up ^ "ATLAS Experiment". ATLAS. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Confirmed: CERN discovers new particle likely to be the Higgs boson". YouTube. Russia Today. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
Jump up ^ D. Overbye (4 July 2012). "A New Particle Could Be Physics' Holy Grail". New York Times. Retrieved 2012-07-04.
Jump up ^ "LHC experiments delve deeper into precision". CERN. 11 July 2017. Retrieved 2017-07-23.
Jump up ^ http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/standard-model Official CERN website
Jump up ^ "Standard Model of Particles and Interactions". jhu.edu. Johns Hopkins University. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 18, 2016. .gif
Jump up ^ Woithe, Julia; Wiener, Gerfried; Van der Veken, Frederik (2017). "Let's have a coffee with the Standard Model of particle physics!". Phys. Educ. 52 (3): 034001. Bibcode:2017PhyEd..52c4001W. doi:10.1088/1361-6552/aa5b25. Retrieved January 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ Altarelli, Guido (2014). "The Higgs and the Excessive Success of the Standard Model". arXiv:1407.2122  [hep-ph].
Jump up ^ "Particle chameleon caught in the act of changing". CERN. 31 May 2010. Retrieved 2016-11-12.
Jump up ^ S. Weinberg (1979). "Baryon and Lepton Nonconserving Processes". Physical Review Letters. 43 (21): 1566. Bibcode:1979PhRvL..43.1566W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.43.1566.
Jump up ^ P. Minkowski (1977). "μ → e γ at a Rate of One Out of 109 Muon Decays?". Physics Letters B. 67 (4): 421. Bibcode:1977PhLB...67..421M. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(77)90435-X.
Jump up ^ R. N. Mohapatra; G. Senjanovic (1980). "Neutrino Mass and Spontaneous Parity Nonconservation". Physical Review Letters. 44 (14): 912–915. Bibcode:1980PhRvL..44..912M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.44.912.
Jump up ^ M. Gell-Mann, P. Ramond & R. Slansky (1979). F. van Nieuwenhuizen & D. Z. Freedman, eds. Supergravity. North Holland. pp. 315–321. ISBN 0-444-85438-X.
Jump up ^ A. Blumhofer; M. Hutter (1997). "Family Structure from Periodic Solutions of an Improved Gap Equation". Nuclear Physics. B484: 80–96. arXiv:hep-ph/9605393  . Bibcode:1997NuPhB.484...80B. doi:10.1016/S0550-3213(96)00644-X.
Jump up ^ Salvio, Strumia (2014-03-17). "Agravity". JHEP. 6 (6): 080. arXiv:1403.4226  . Bibcode:2014JHEP...06..080S. doi:10.1007/JHEP06(2014)080.
Further reading[edit]
R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics. Plume.
B. A. Schumm (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
"The Standard Model of Particle Physics Interactive Graphic".
Introductory textbooks
I. Aitchison; A. Hey (2003). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction. Institute of Physics. ISBN 978-0-585-44550-2.
W. Greiner; B. Müller (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions. Springer. ISBN 3-540-67672-4.
G. D. Coughlan; J. E. Dodd; B. M. Gripaios (2006). The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists. Cambridge University Press.
D. J. Griffiths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-60386-4.
G. L. Kane (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
Advanced textbooks
T. P. Cheng; L. F. Li (2006). Gauge theory of elementary particle physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-851961-3. Highlights the gauge theory aspects of the Standard Model.
J. F. Donoghue; E. Golowich; B. R. Holstein (1994). Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47652-2. Highlights dynamical and phenomenological aspects of the Standard Model.
L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988). Group structure of gauge theories. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34785-8.
Nagashima, Yorikiyo (2013). Elementary Particle Physics: Foundations of the Standard Model, Volume 2. Wiley. ISBN 978-3-527-64890-0. 920 pages.
Schwartz, Matthew D (2014). Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model. Cambridge University. ISBN 978-1-107-03473-0. 952 pages.
Langacker, Paul (2009). The Standard Model and Beyond. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-7907-4. 670 pages. Highlights group-theoretical aspects of the Standard Model.
Journal articles
E. S. Abers; B. W. Lee (1973). "Gauge theories". Physics Reports. 9: 1–141. Bibcode:1973PhR.....9....1A. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(73)90027-6.
M. Baak; et al. (2012). "The Electroweak Fit of the Standard Model after the Discovery of a New Boson at the LHC". The European Physical Journal C. 72 (11): 2205. arXiv:1209.2716  . Bibcode:2012EPJC...72.2205B. doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9.
Y. Hayato; et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review Letters. 83 (8): 1529. arXiv:hep-ex/9904020  . Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1529H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529.
S. F. Novaes (2000). "Standard Model: An Introduction". arXiv:hep-ph/0001283  [hep-ph].
D. P. Roy (1999). "Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions — A Progress Report". arXiv:hep-ph/9912523  [hep-ph].
F. Wilczek (2004). "The Universe Is A Strange Place". Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements. 134: 3. arXiv:astro-ph/0401347  . Bibcode:2004NuPhS.134....3W. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2004.08.001.
External links[edit]
"The Standard Model explained in Detail by CERN's John Ellis" omega tau podcast.
"The Standard Model" The Standard Model on the CERN web site explains how the basic building blocks of matter interact, governed by four fundamental forces.
Leonard Susskind: Particle Physics: Standard Model. Lecture Collections, Video Recordings, 2010.
"Standard Model" on YouTube
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Fundamental force

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Weak neutral current

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Experimental prediction

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Physics beyond the standard model

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Electromagnetic interaction

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Volume number density

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values: Edit section: Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian

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Gauge symmetry

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Internal symmetries

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Dirac matrices

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Field strength tensor

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values: {\displaystyle m{\overline {\psi }}\psi }

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Higgs field

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Omega meson

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Dark Matter

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Left-right symmetry

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Grand unified theory

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Planck scale

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Theory of Everything

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Electroweak theory

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Fermi theory of beta decay

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Higgsless model

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Neutrino mass

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Quark matter

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//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.19.1264

values: Almquvist and Wiksell (page does not exist)

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//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.13.321

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//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.13.508

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Physics Letters B

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Nuclear Physics B

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//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.30.1343

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//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.33.1404

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values: International Journal of Modern Physics A

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Physical Review D

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Russia Today

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//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.44.912

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https://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ph/9605393

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http://inspirehep.net/record/1286134

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Perseus Books

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The European Physical Journal C

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