text:
St. Paul's Senior Secondary School, Bhopal
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St. Paul's Senior Secondary School, Bhopal
Location
PB 7 Ayodhya Bypass, Anand Nagar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462021
India
Coordinates
23°15′25″N 77°29′03″E / 23.2569085°N 77.48411°E / 23.2569085; 77.48411
Information
Type
Private
Motto
Walk in wisdom
Established
1988; 30 years ago (1988)
Principal
Fr. Sebi Edattukaran
Medium of language
English
Houses
Ruby(Red), Emerald(Green), Sapphire(Blue), Topaz(Yellow)
Affiliation
C.B.S.E.
Website
St. Paul Bhopal
St. Paul's Senior Secondary Co-Ed School is a co-ed school in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. It is affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education[1] and is located in the Anand nagar area in Bhopal. The school was established in 1988 for boys and girls and undergone metamorphosis to become one of the premier educational institutions catering to the needs of Bhopal.
Infrastructure and facilities[edit]
St. Paul School's campus is situated in Anand Nagar, Bhopal. The campus consists of laboratories, classrooms, a general assembly area with a full-sized stage, the office, an auditorium, a sports arena, staff and student parking areas, and the main gate. The school has many laboratories to help students in their learning experience. The school's library contains over 1900 books and electronic media. The school has an Infirmary providing medical assistance and a Counselling Service to help and guide students.
Apart from academics, the school also provides a number of extra-curricular and co-curricular activities. The school also has N.C.C. Cadets to inculcate a feeling of patriotism in the students.
Houses and the cabinet[edit]
A House-System is present in the school to impart competitiveness in the students. The student body is divided into 4 houses, signified by 4 colors: Red House, Green House, Blue House, Yellow House. Each house is led by a House Captain and a Vice Captain, chosen from among the students via an annual school cabinet selection procedure, which is primarily based on the student's overall performance in the preceding years. The cabinet as a whole is led by The Head-Boy and The Head-Girl, along with Cultural, Discipline and Sports Ministers.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "St. Paul Senior Secondary School Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh". iCBSE. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
Jump up ^ "School Uniform". St Paul Senior Secondary School,Bhopal. Retrieved 2018-01-18.

This article about a school in Madhya Pradesh, India is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Paul%27s_Senior_Secondary_School,_Bhopal&oldid=842373748"
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Schools in Bhopal
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Heart of palm
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Fresh heart of palm
Heart of palm is a vegetable harvested from the inner core and growing bud of certain palm trees (notably the coconut (Cocos nucifera), palmito juçara (Euterpe edulis), Açaí palm (Euterpe oleracea), sabal (Sabal spp.), pupunha and pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes) palms). Harvesting of many non-cultivated or wild single-stemmed palms results in palm tree death (e.g. Geonoma edulis).[1] However, other palm species are clonal or multi-stemmed plants (e.g. Prestoea acuminata, Euterpe oleracea) and moderate harvesting will not kill the entire clonal palm. Heart of palm may be eaten on its own, and often it is eaten in a salad.
An alternative to wild heart of palm are palm varieties which have undergone a process of adaptation to become a domesticated farm species. The main variety that has been domesticated is the botanical species Bactris gasipaes, known in Ecuador as chontaduro, in Brazil and Costa Rica as palmito, and in English as the peach palm.[2] This variety is the most widely used for canning. Peach palms are self-suckering and produce multiple stems,[3] up to 40 on one plant, so harvesting several stems from a plant is not so expensive because the plant can live on. Another advantage it has over other palms is that it has been selectively bred to eliminate the vicious thorns of its wild cousins. Since harvesting is still a labor-intensive task, palm hearts are regarded as a delicacy.
As of 2008, Costa Rica is the primary source of fresh palm hearts in the US. The Edible Palm Company located in Orlando, Florida has been the largest importer of sustainably farmed Fresh Hearts of Palm from Costa Rica to the United States since 2002. Peach palm is also cultivated in Hawaii,[3] and now has limited distribution on the mainland, primarily to the restaurant trade. Florida's wild Sabal palmetto or cabbage palm was once a source of hearts of palm but is now protected by conservation law.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Harvesting
2 Nutrition
3 See also
4 References
Harvesting[edit]
Heart of palm being prepared in Brazil for sale
When harvesting the cultivated young palm, the tree is cut down and the bark is removed leaving layers of white fibers around the center core. During processing the fibers are removed leaving the center core or heart of palm. The center core is attached to a slightly more fibrous cylindrical base with a larger diameter. The entire cylindrical center core and the attached base are edible. The center core is considered more of a delicacy because of its lower fiber content.
Nutrition[edit]
Heart of Palm
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
79.5 kJ (19.0 kcal)
Carbohydrates
3.1 g
Sugars
0.0 g
Dietary fiber
1.6 g
Fat
0.39 g
Protein
1.55 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
(3%)
23.4 μg
Vitamin C
(2%)
1.9 mg
Minerals
Calcium
(5%)
47 mg
Iron
(16%)
2.09 mg
Sodium
(23%)
349 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Hearts of palm is rich in fibers, potassium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, copper, vitamins B2, B6, and C.[1]
See also[edit]
Deckenia nobilis
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to heart of palm.
Jump up ^ Sylvester, O.; Avalos, G. (2009). Illegal palm heart (Geonoma edulis) harvest in Costa Rican national parks: patterns of consumption and extraction. Economic Botany. 63(2): 179-189.
^ Jump up to: a b Zeldes, Leah A. (2010-11-17). "Eat this! Heart of palm, an exotic taste of the tropics". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Rose Kahele (August–September 2007). "Big Island Hearts". Hana Hou! Vol. 10, No. 4.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heart_of_palm&oldid=814257635"
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Edible palms
Stem vegetables
Latin American cuisine
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Court of Appeals of the Philippines
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Court of Appeals of the Philippines
Hukuman ng Apelasyon ng Pilipinas
Seal of the Court of Appeals of the Philippines
Established
February 1, 1936
Country
Philippines
Location
Manila, Cebu City and Cagayan de Oro City
Composition method
Presidential appointment from the short-list submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council
Authorized by
Constitution of the Philippines
Website
ca.judiciary.gov.ph
Philippines
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The Court of Appeals of the Philippines (Filipino: Hukuman ng Apelasyon ng Pilipinas) is the Philippines' second-highest judicial court, just after the Supreme Court. The court consists of 69 Associate Justices and 1 Presiding Justice. Under the Constitution, the Court of Appeals (CA) "reviews not only the decisions and orders of the Regional Trial Courts nationwide but also those of the Court of Tax Appeals, as well as the awards, judgments, final orders or resolutions of, or authorized by 21 Quasi-Judicial Agencies exercising quasi-judicial functions mentioned in Rule 43 of the 1997 Rules of Civil Procedure, plus the National Amnesty Commission (Pres. Proclamation No. 347 of 1994) and Office of the Ombudsman (Fabian v. Desierto, 295 SCRA 470). Under RA 9282, which elevated the CTA to the same level of the CA, CTA en banc decisions are now subject to review by the Supreme Court instead of the CA (as opposed to what is currently provided in Section 1, Rule 43 of the Rules of Court). Added to the formidable list are the decisions and resolutions of the National Labor Relations Commission (NLRC) which are now initially reviewable by this court, instead of a direct recourse to the Supreme Court, via petition for certiorari under Rule 65 (St. Martin Funeral Homes v. NLRC, 295 SCRA 414)".
The Court of Appeals building is located at Maria Orosa Street, Ermita in Manila.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Fire
3 Incumbent Justices
4 Former Justices
5 Court of Appeals Presiding Justices of the Philippines
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Flag of the Court of Appeals
Organized on February 1, 1936, the Court of Appeals was initially composed of Justice Pedro Concepcion as the first Presiding Judge and 10 Appellate Judges appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments of the National Assembly.
It had exclusive appellate jurisdiction of all cases not falling under the original and exclusive appellate jurisdiction of the 7-man Supreme Court. Its decisions in those cases were final, except when the Supreme Court upon petition for certiorari on questions of law required that the case be certified to it for review. It had also original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus, prohibition, injunction, certiorari, habeas corpus and all other auxiliary writs in aid of its appellate jurisdiction. The Court then sat either en banc or in two divisions, one of 6 and another of 5 Judges. The appellate Judges had the same qualifications as those provided by the Constitution for Supreme Court Justices.
In March 1938, the appellate Judges were named Justices and their number increased from 11 to 15, with three divisions of 5 under Commonwealth Act No. 259. On December 24, 1941, the membership of the Court was further increased to 19 Justices under Executive Order No. 395.
Court of Appeals
The Court functioned during the Japanese occupation, 1941-44. But in March 1945, due to abnormal conditions at the time, the Court was abolished by President Sergio Osmeña through Executive Order No. 37. The end of World War II restored the democratic processes in the country. On October 4, 1946, Republic Act No. 52 was passed recreating the Court with a Presiding Justice and fourteen (14) Associate Justices. They composed 5 divisions of 3 Justices each.
On August 23, 1956, the Court membership was expanded to 18 Justices per Republic Act No. 1605. The number was hiked to 24 Justices as decreed by Republic Act No. 5204 approved on June 15, 1968. Ten years later, the unabated swelling of its dockets called for a much bigger Court of 45 Justices under Presidential Decree No. 1482 of June 10, 1978. Then came the Judiciary Reorganization on January 17, 1983 through Executive Order No. 864 of President Marcos. The Court was renamed Intermediate Appellate Court and its membership enlarged to 51 Justices. However, only thirty-seven (37) Justices were appointed.
On July 28, 1986, President Aquino issued Executive Order No.33 restoring the original name of the Court of Appeals with a Presiding Justice and fifty (50) Associate Justices.
On February 23, 1995, R.A. No. 7902 was passed expanding the jurisdiction of the Court effective March 18, 1995. On December 30, 1996, R.A. No. 8246 created six (6) more divisions in the Court, thereby increasing its membership from 51 to 69 Justices. These additional divisions - 3 for Visayas and 3 for Mindanao paved the way for the appellate court's regionalization. The CA in the Visayas sits in Cebu City while Cagayan de Oro City is home to the CA for Mindanao.

On August 18, 2007, Atty. Briccio Joseph Boholst, president of IBP — Cebu City Chapter, opposed the abolition of the CA in Cebu City, for it will cause inconvenience for both litigants and lawyers. Supreme Court Associate Justice Ruben Reyes was tasked to investigate and submit recommendation to the High Tribunal because of the alleged massive graft and corruption of justices, especially in the issuance of temporary restraining orders (TRO’s).[1]
On February 1, 2011, the Court celebrated its 75th Anniversary.[2]
The current ACAE (Association of The Court of Appeals Employees) President is Edwin S. Avanceña.
Fire[edit]
On July 26, 2007, Fire hits CA main building, from the room of Associate Justice Edgardo Sundiam at the fourth floor. Thick smoke was coming out of the building as the fire continued to rage amid strong winds blowing, raising fears that the flames would become stronger.[3]
Incumbent Justices[edit]
Name of Court of Appeals Justices
Position
Date of Appointment
Date of Birth
Date of Retirement
Divisions
Rank
Vacante Presiding Justice 01 ch. 1
Hon. REMEDIOS A. SALAZAR-FERNANDO Acting Presiding Justice
(since July 12, 2017) May 21, 1999
(as Associate Justice) September 2, 1953 September 2, 2023 02 ch. 2
Hon. ROSMARI D. CARANDANG Associate Justice March 10, 2003 January 9, 1952 January 9, 2022 03 ch. 3
Hon. JOSE C. REYES, JR Associate Justice July 18, 2003 September 18, 1950 September 18, 2020 04 ch. 4
Hon. FERNANDA LAMPAS-PERALTA Associate Justice February 9, 2004 June 16, 1960 June 16, 2030 05 ch. 5
Hon. MAGDANGAL M. DE LEON Associate Justice February 9, 2004 August 19, 1948 August 19, 2018 06 ch. 6
Hon. JAPAR B. DIMAAMPAO Associate Justice March 15, 2004 December 27, 1963 December 27, 2033 07 ch. 7
Hon. CELIA C. LIBREA-LEAGOGO Associate Justice March 15, 2004 December 15, 1950 December 15, 2020 08 ch. 8
Hon. MARIFLOR PUNZALAN-CASTILLO Associate Justice March 15, 2004 September 21, 1954 September 21, 2024 09 ch. 9
Hon. SESINANDO E. VILLON Associate Justice March 15, 2004 July 16, 1949 July 16, 2019 10 ch. 10
Hon. RAMON M. BATO, JR. Associate Justice March 15, 2004 August 27, 1958 August 27, 2028 11 ch. 11
Hon. ROMULO V. BORJA Associate Justice March 15, 2004 September 11, 1948 September 11, 2018 21 ch. 12
Hon. EDGARDO A. CAMELLO Associate Justice March 15, 2004 May 19, 1952 May 19, 2022 22 ch. 13
Hon. NORMANDIE B. PIZARRO Associate Justice January 24, 2005 February 7, 1949 February 7, 2019 12 ch. 14
Hon. APOLINARIO D. BRUSELAS, JR. Associate Justice August 1, 2005 May 6, 1956 May 6, 2026 13 ch. 15
Hon. RAMON R. GARCIA Associate Justice August 31, 2005 May 10, 1954 May 10, 2024 14 ch. 16
Hon. RICARDO R. ROSARIO Associate Justice September 12, 2005 October 15, 1958 October 15, 2028 15 ch. 17
Hon. MARLENE GONZALES-SISON Associate Justice May 8, 2006 February 28, 1956 February 28, 2026 16 ch. 18
Hon. ROMEO F. BARZA Associate Justice May 8, 2006 August 2, 1949 August 2, 2019 17 ch. 19
Hon. PRISCILLA BALTAZAR-PADILLA Associate Justice May 31, 2006 July 2, 1958 July 2, 2028 01 Member 20
Hon. MARIO V. LOPEZ Associate Justice May 31, 2006 June 4, 1955 June 4, 2025 02 Member 21
Hon. STEPHEN C. CRUZ Associate Justice December 14, 2006 August 3, 1950 August 3, 2020 03 Member 22
Hon. JANE AURORA C. LANTION Associate Justice December 14, 2006 January 9, 1950 January 9, 2020 04 Member 23
Hon. ELIHU A. YBAÑEZ Associate Justice May 15, 2007 November 2, 1951 November 2, 2021 05 Member 24
Hon. FRANCHITO N. DIAMANTE Associate Justice August 8, 2007 October 4, 1951 October 4, 2021 06 Member 25
Hon. AMY C. LAZARO-JAVIER Associate Justice August 29, 2007 November 16, 1956 November 16, 2026 07 Member 26
Hon. FLORITO S. MACALINO Associate Justice January 4, 2008 August 23, 1952 August 23, 2022 08 Member 27
Hon. EDGARDO T. LLOREN Associate Justice January 4, 2008 August 8, 1951 August 8, 2021 23 ch. 28
Hon. EDGARDO L. DELOS SANTOS Associate Justice May 5, 2008 June 12, 1952 June 12, 2022 18 ch. 29
Hon. RODIL V. ZALAMEDA Associate Justice September 5, 2008 August 2, 1963 August 2, 2033 09 Member 30
Hon. MANUEL M. BARRIOS Associate Justice June 15, 2009 November 29, 1952 November 29, 2022 10 Member 31
Hon. SAMEUL H. GAERLAN Associate Justice June 15, 2009 December 19, 1958 December 19, 2028 11 Member 32
Hon. DANTON Q. BUESER Associate Justice June 15, 2009 March 14, 1951 March 14, 2021 12 Member 33
Hon. LEONCIA REAL-DIMAGIBA Associate Justice June 15, 2009 December 1, 1947 December 1, 2017 13 Member 34
Hon. EDWIN D. SORONGON Associate Justice October 30, 2009 October 29, 1954 October 29, 2024 14 Member 35
Hon. RAMON A. CRUZ Associate Justice October 30, 2009 August 25, 1957 August 25, 2027 15 Member 36
Hon. SOCORRO B. INTING Associate Justice October 30, 2009 January 7, 1955 January 7, 2025 16 Member 37
Hon. MYRA GARCIA-FERNANDEZ Associate Justice February 16, 2010 June 24, 1963 June 24, 2033 17 Member 38
Hon. EDUARDO B. PERALTA, JR. Associate Justice February 16, 2010 September 29, 1962 September 29, 2032 01 Member 39
Hon. RAMON PAUL L. HERNANDO Associate Justice February 16, 2010 August 27, 1966 August 27, 2036 02 Member 40
Hon. NINA G. ANTONIO-VALENZUELA Associate Justice February 24, 2010 December 13, 1963 December 13, 2033 03 Member 41
Hon. GABRIEL T. INGLES Associate Justice February 24, 2011 February 27, 1952 February 27, 2022 19 ch. 42
Hon. VICTORIA ISABEL A. PAREDES Associate Justice March 1, 2011 July 1, 1954 July 1, 2024 04 Member 43
Hon. PAMELA ANN ABELLA-MAXINO Associate Justice March 1, 2011 October 3, 1956 October 3, 2026 20 ch. 44
Hon. CARMELITA SALANDANAN-MANAHAN Associate Justice March 15, 2011 March 22, 1949 March 22, 2019 05 Member 45
Hon. ZENAIDA T. GALAPATE-LAGUILLES Associate Justice March 15, 2011 December 18, 1962 December 18, 2032 06 Member 46
Hon. PEDRO B. CORALES Associate Justice November 11, 2011 April 29, 1957 April 29, 2027 07 Member 47
Hon. MARILYN B. LAGURA-YAP Associate Justice February 3, 2012 May 29, 1957 May 29, 2027 18 Member 48
Hon. MARIA ELISA SEMPIO DIY Associate Justice February 16, 2012 April 25, 1966 April 25, 2036 08 Member 49
Hon. MA. LUISA QUIJANO-PADILLA Associate Justice May 17, 2012 January 18, 1950 January 18, 2020 09 Member 50
Hon. RENATO C. FRANCISCO Associate Justice May 17, 2012 August 20, 1948 August 20, 2018 10 Member 51
Hon. JHOSEP Y. LOPEZ Associate Justice May 17, 2012 February 8, 1963 February 8, 2033 11 Member 52
Hon. MARIE CHRISTINE B. AZCARRAGA-JACOB Associate Justice September 14, 2012 January 15, 1956 January 15, 2026 12 Member 53
Hon. OSCAR V. BADELLES Associate Justice September 14, 2012 April 20, 1954 April 20, 2024 13 Member 54
Hon. HENRI JEAN PAUL B. INTING Associate Justice September 14, 2012 September 4, 1957 September 4, 2027 14 Member 55
Hon. EDWARD B. CONTRERAS Associate Justice February 26, 2013 August 8, 1954 August 8, 2024 15 Member 56
Hon. MARIA FILOMENA D. SINGH Associate Justice March 13, 2014 June 25, 1966 June 25, 2036 19 Member 57
Hon. PABLITO A. PEREZ Associate Justice March 13, 2014 January 15, 1957 January 15, 2027 20 Member 58
Hon. RAFAEL M. SANTOS Associate Justice March 13, 2014 February 16, 1960 February 16, 2030 18 Member 59
Hon. GERMANO FRANCISCO D. LEGASPI Associate Justice January 8, 2015 January 29, 1969 January 29, 2039 19 Member 60
Hon. RONALDO B. MARTIN Associate Justice May 5, 2015 October 8, 1964 October 8, 2034 20 Member 61
Hon. GERALDINE C. FIEL-MACARAIG Associate Justice November 6, 2015 March 25, 1963 March 25, 2033 21 Member 62
Hon. GABRIEL T. ROBENIOL Associate Justice November 6, 2015 June 7, 1961 June 7, 2031 22 Member 63
Hon. PERPETUA T. ATAL-PAÑO Associate Justice November 6, 2015 September 20, 1956 September 20, 2026 23 Member 64
Hon. RUBEN REYNALDO G. ROXAS Associate Justice November 6, 2015 March 30, 1962 March 30, 2032 21 Member 65
Hon. LOUIS P. ACOSTA Associate Justice March 2, 2017 June 21, 1961 June 21, 2031 22 Member 66
Hon. TITA MARILYN B. PAYOYO-VILLORDON Associate Justice June 28, 2017 September 16, 1959 September 16, 2029 23 Member 67
Vacante Associate Justice 68
Vacante Associate Justice 69
Former Justices[edit]
Name of Former Court of Appeals Justices
Position
Date of Appointment
Date of Retirement
Hon. Ma. Alicia Austria-Martinez Associate Justice as March 5, 1992 Presiding Justice as July 27, 2001 April 9, 2002 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Ruben T. Reyes Associate Justice as March 22, 1994 Presiding Justice as January 2006 August 2, 2007 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Conrado M. Vasquez, Jr. Associate Justice as March 22, 1994 Presiding Justice as November 28, 2007 January 6, 2010
Hon. Portia Aliño-Hormachuelos Associate Justice as August 28, 1995 Presiding Justice as January 6, 2010 July 23, 2011
Hon. Martin S. Villarama, Jr. Associate Justice March 11, 1998 November 6, 2009 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Andres B. Reyes, Jr. Associate Justice as May 21, 1999 Presiding Justice as February 22, 2010 July 12, 2017 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Bienvenido L. Reyes Associate Justice August 8, 2000 August 20, 2011 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Josefina Guevara-Salonga Associate Justice August 22, 2000 February 14, 2012
Hon. Rebecca De Guia-Salvador Associate Justice August 22, 2000 January 31, 2015 Early Retirement
Hon. Juan Q. Enriquez, Jr. Associate Justice August 22, 2000 June 20, 2012
Hon. Mariano C. del Castillo Associate Justice August 27, 2001 July 29, 2009 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Amelita G. Tolentino Associate Justice August 27, 2001 July 4, 2014
Hon. Mario L. Guariña III Associate Justice August 27, 2001 November 11, 2011
Hon. Sergio Pestaño Associate Justice August 27, 2001 February 28, 2007
Hon. Danilo Pine Associate Justice April 15, 2002 December 27, 2005
Hon. Edgardo F. Sundiam Associate Justice April 15, 2002 February 28, 2007
Hon. Lucas P. Bersamin Associate Justice April 15, 2002 April 3, 2009 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Regalado E. "Dodong" Maambong Associate Justice April 15, 2002 January 2, 2009
Hon. Noel G. Tijam Associate Justice March 10, 2003 March 8, 2017 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Hakim S. Abdulwahid Associate Justice March 10, 2003 June 12, 2015
Hon. Arsenio J. Magpale Associate Justice March 10, 2003 July 16, 2007
Hon. Jose C. Mendoza Associate Justice July 4, 2003 January 4, 2010 Appointment SC JUSTICE
Hon. Rosalinda Asuncion-Vicente Associate Justice July 16, 2003 November 23, 2013
Hon. Arturo D. Brion Associate Justice July 16, 2003 March 17, 2008 Appointment DOLE Secretary
Hon. Aurora Santiago-Lagman Associate Justice February 9, 2004 January 16, 2008
Hon. Vicente S. E. Veloso Associate Justice February 9, 2004 January 7, 2015
Hon. Vicente Q. Roxas Associate Justice February 9, 2004 June 12, 2008
Hon. Isaias P. Dicdican Associate Justice March 15, 2004 July 4, 2015
Hon. Santiago J. Ranada, Jr. Associate Justice March 15, 2004 November 20, 2006
Hon. Arcangelita M. Romilla-Lontok Associate Justice March 15, 2004 March 18, 2010
Hon. Lucenito N. Tagle Associate Justice March 15, 2004 June 26, 2008
Hon. Monina Arevalo-Zenarosa Associate Justice March 15, 2004 August 22, 2009
Hon. Estela Perlas-Bernabe Associate Justice March 15, 2004 September 16, 2011 Appointment SC Justice
Hon. Teresita Dy-Liacco Flores Associate Justice March 15, 2004 March 31, 2011
Hon. Pampio A. Abarintos Associate Justice March 15, 2004 December 14, 2013
Hon. Arturo G. Tayag Associate Justice March 15, 2004 March 2, 2010
Hon. Vicente L. Yap Associate Justice March 15, 2004 August 22, 2006
Hon. Rodrigo F. Lim, Jr. Associate Justice March 15, 2004 October 25, 2011
Hon. Enrico A. Lanzanas Associate Justice January 24, 2005 April 19, 2008
Hon. Myrna Dimaranan-Vidal Associate Justice January 24, 2005 December 20, 2009
Hon. Sixto Marella, Jr. Associate Justice May 4, 2006 February 1, 2010
Hon. FRANCISCO P. ACOSTA Associate Justice December 14, 2006 April 2, 2017
Hon. Michael P. Elbinias Associate Justice December 14, 2006 November 26, 2014 Died November 26, 2014
Hon. Antonio Villamor Associate Justice May 4, 2006 July 4, 2012
Hon. Agustin S. Dizon Associate Justice May 4, 2006 June 24, 2008
Hon. Ruben C. Ayson Associate Justice May 5, 2008 September 19, 2011
Hon. LEONCIA REAL-DIMAGIBA Associate Justice June 15, 2009 December 1, 2017
Hon. AGNES REYES-CARPIO Associate Justice October 30, 2009 December 1, 2016
Hon. Angelita D. Alberto-Gacutan Associate Justice October 30, 2009 December 3, 2013 Early Retirement
Hon. Abraham B. Borreta Associate Justice March 1, 2011 August 23, 2012 Died August 23, 2012
Hon. Melchor Quirino C. Sadang Associate Justice March 15, 2011 January 6, 2017 Early Retirement
Court of Appeals Presiding Justices of the Philippines[edit]
No.
Name of Court of Appeals Presiding Justice
Term of Office
56 Acting Presiding Justice REMEDIOS A. SALAZAR-FERNANDO July 12, 2017-present
55 Andres B. Reyes, Jr. February 22, 2010-July 12, 2017 Appointment SC Justice
54 Portia Aliño Hormachuelos JANUARY 7, 2010-FEBRUARY 21, 2010
53 Conrado M. Vasquez, Jr August 3, 2007-JANUARY 6, 2010
52 Ruben T. Reyes DECEMBER 23, 2005-August 1, 2007 Appointment SC Justice
51 Godardo A. Jacinto SEPTEMBER 17, 2005-DECEMBER 22, 2005
50 Romeo A. Brawner, Sr. JANUARY 28, 2005-SEPTEMBER 16, 2005
49 Eubulo G. Verzola OCTOBER 15, 2004-JANUARY 27, 2005
(47) Cancio C. Garcia APRIL 11, 2002-OCTOBER 14, 2004 Appointment SC Justice
48 Alicia Austria-Martinez JUNE 30, 2001-APRIL 11, 2002 Appointment SC Justice
47 Cancio C. Garcia MARCH 15, 2001-JUNE 29, 2001
46 Salome A. Montoya DECEMBER 7, 1999-MARCH 14, 2001
45 Jainal D. Rasul OCTOBER 16, 1999-DECEMBER 6, 1999
44 Jesus M. Elbinias FEBRUARY 5, 1999-OCTOBER 15, 1999
43 Jorge S. Imperial January 4, 1999-FEBRUARY 4, 1999
42 Arturo B. Buena January 27, 1998-January 3, 1999 Appointment SC Justice
41 Fidel P. Purisima AUGUST 4, 1997-January 26, 1998 Appointment SC Justice
40 Nathanael P. De Pano, Jr. JUNE 28, 1994-AUGUST 3, 1997
39 Vicente V. Mendoza MARCH 22, 1994-JUNE 10, 1994 Appointment SC Justice
(36) Santiago M. Kapunan SEPTEMBER 7, 1993-JANUARY 10, 1994 Appointment SC Justice
38 Serafin E. Camilon MAY 21, 1993-AUGUST 16, 1993
(36) Santiago M. Kapunan FEBRUARY 27, 1993-MAY 20, 1993
37 Lorna S. Lombos-De La Fuente DECEMBER 3, 1992-FEBRUARY 26, 1993
36 Santiago M. Kapunan AUGUST 13, 1992-DECEMBER 1, 1992
35 Jose A.R. Melo December 3, 1991-AUGUST 12, 1992 Appointment SC Justice
34 Rodolfo A. Nocon December 2, 1988-December 2, 1991
(32) Oscar R. Victoriano APRIL 20, 1988-OCTOBER 17, 1988
33 Carolina Griño-Aquino JANUARY 31, 1987-APRIL 19, 1988
32 Oscar R. Victoriano JANUARY 13, 1987-JANUARY 30, 1987
31 Emilio A. Gancayco AUGUST 1, 1986-JANUARY 12, 1987
(29) Ramon G. Gaviola, Jr. FEBRUARY 22, 1984-JULY 31, 1986
30 Buenaventura S. De La Fuente JANUARY 18, 1983-FEBRUARY 21, 1984
29 Ramon G. Gaviola, Jr. APRIL 22, 1980-JANUARY 17, 1983
28 Lourdes P. San Diego SEPTEMBER 4, 1979-APRIL 21, 1980
27 Andres C. Reyes, Sr. JANUARY 2, 1978-SEPTEMBER 3, 1979
26 Magno S. Gatmaitan APRIL 29, 1976-JANUARY 1, 1978
25 Antonio G. Lucero MAY 7, 1973-APRIL 28, 1976
24 Juan P. Enriquez JULY 1, 1972-MAY 6, 1973
23 Salvador V. Esguerra JANUARY 17, 1970-JULY 1, 1972
22 Julio Villamor September 16, 1968-January 24, 1970
21 Francisco Capistrano JULY 5, 1967-September 16, 1968
20 Eugenio Angeles JULY 1, 1966-JULY 4, 1967
19 Fred Ruiz Castro JANUARY 23, 1966-JUNE 30, 1966 Appointment SC Justice
18 Conrado V. Sanchez September 12, 1964-JANUARY 23, 1966
17 Jose P. Bengzon JUNE 18, 1962-September 12, 1964
16 Querube Makalintal May 22, 1961-May 23, 1962 Appointment SC Justice
15 Dionisio De Leon OCTOBER 1960-April 28, 1961
14 Jose Ma. Paredes August 15, 1959-August 18, 1960
13 Jose Gutierrez David MAY 22, 1957-August 14, 1959
12 Alfonso Felix APRIL 18, 1956-July 24, 1956
11 Pastor Endencia JUNE 30, 1952-APRIL 18, 1956
10 Pompeyo Diaz NOVEMBER 10, 1952-FEBRUARY 1954
09 Roberto Concepcion MAY 7, 1952-NOVEMBER 9, 1952 Appointment SC Justice
08 Alejo Labrador OCTOBER 20, 1950-April 22, 1952
07 Fernando Jugo JANUARY 6, 1950-October 20, 1950
06 Luis P. Torres August 21, 1948-August 20, 1949
05 Marcelino R. Montemayor NOVEMBER 2, 1946-August 20, 1948
04 Jose G. Generoso December 28, 1941-May 10, 1943
03 Ricardo Parás JULY 1940-December 28, 1941
02 Antonio Horrilleno FEBRUARY 15, 1937-JULY 1940
01 Pedro Concepción JANUARY 20, 1936-FEBRUARY 14, 1937
Back view of the Court
Old and new building
New (Annex) building
Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary of La Naval de Manila at the 76th Anniversary of the Court of Appeals of the Philippines
See also[edit]
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Court of Tax Appeals of the Philippines
Sandiganbayan
Philippines
Political history of the Philippines
Constitution of the Philippines
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Manila Bulletin, IBP Cebu City opposes abolition of CA Cebu[dead link]
Jump up ^ mb.com.ph, Court of Appeals 75th Anniversary Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ GMA NEWS.TV, Fire hits CA main office
Sources
History of the Court of Appeals
External links[edit]
Philippines: Gov.Ph: About the Philippines – Justice category
The Philippines Court of Appeals – Official website
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History of the Assyrian people
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This article is part of the series on the
History of the Assyrian people
Early History
Early Assyrian Period (2600 BCE – 2025 BCE)
Old Assyrian Empire (2025 BC – 1378 BCE)
Middle Assyrian Empire (1392 BC – 934 BCE)
Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 BCE – 609 BCE)
Achaemenid Assyria (539 BCE – 330 BCE)
Classical Antiquity
Seleucid Empire (312 BCE – 63 BCE)
Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE)
Osroene (132 BCE – 244 CE)
Syrian Wars (66 BCE – 217 CE)
Roman Syria (64 BCE – 637 CE)
Adiabene (15–116)
Roman Assyria (116–118)
Christianization (1st to 3rd c.)
Nestorian Schism (5th c.)
Asōristān (226–651)
Byzantine–Sasanian wars (502–628)
Middle Ages
Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia (630s)
Muslim conquest of Syria (630s)
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)
Emirs of Mosul (905–1383)
Buyid amirate (945–1055)
Principality of Antioch (1098–1268)
Ilkhanate (1258–1335)
Jalairid Sultanate (1335–1432)
Kara Koyunlu (1375–1468)
Ağ Qoyunlu (1453–1501)
Modern History
Safavid dynasty (1508–1555)
Ottoman Empire (1555–1917)
Schism of 1552 (16th c.)
Massacres of Badr Khan (1840s)
Massacres of Diyarbakir (1895)
Rise of nationalism (19th c.)
Adana massacre (1909)
Assyrian genocide (1914–1920)
Assyrian independence movement (since 1919)
Simele massacre (1933)
Post-Saddam Iraq (since 2003)
See also
Assyrian continuity
Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora
v
t
e
This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (September 2016)
The history of the Assyrian people begins with the appearance of Akkadian speaking peoples in Mesopotamia at some point between 3500 and 3000 BC, followed by the formation of Assyria in the 25th century BC. During the early bronze age period Sargon of Akkad united all the native Semitic-speakers and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia (including the Assyrians) under the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC). Assyria essentially existed as part of a unified Akkadian nation for much of the period from the 24th century BC to the 22nd century BC, and a nation state from the mid 21st century BC until its destruction as an independent state between 615–599 BC.
The Assyrians are culturally, linguistically, and ethnically distinct from their neighbours in the Middle East – the Arabs, Syrians, Persians, Kurds, Turks, and Armenians. Assyrian nationalism emphasizes their indigeneity to the Assyrian homeland, together with cultural, historical and ethnic Assyrian continuity since the Iron Age Neo-Assyrian Empire, and Achaemenid Persian, Greek, Roman, Parthian and Sassanid ruled Athura/Assuristan. Assyria was a land stretching from Kirkuk in the south to Amida in the north, and from Edessa in the west to the border of Persia (Iran) in the east.
The Assyrians are indigenous to modern northern Iraq, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and, much recently, northeast Syria.[1] The area which is northern Iraq today encompassed Assyria between the 21st century BC and 7th century AD. Much of this land is now inhabited by Kurds (including Yezidis) and to a lesser extent, Armenians. They are a Semitic people, with many (estimates range between 575,000 and 1,000,000) still speaking, reading and writing Akkadian influenced dialects of East Aramaic. Today they are a Christian people, with most being followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Ancient Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Assyrian Evangelical Church.
Contents
1 Ancient Assyria
2 Post Assyrian Empire
3 Early Christian period
3.1 The Seleucid Greek hegemony
3.2 Roman Empire
3.3 Parthian hegemony
3.4 Sassanid Persian hegemony
4 Islamic empires
5 20th century
6 Post-Ba'thist Iraq
7 Assyrian continuity
8 Timeline
9 See also
10 External links
11 References
Ancient Assyria[edit]
Main article: Assyria
In prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria were the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, the centre of the Hassuna culture, c. 6000 BC.
The cities of Assur (also spelled Ashur or Aššur) and Nineveh, together with a number of other towns and cities, existed as early as the 25th century BC, although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled administrative centres at this time, rather than independent states. The Assyrian king list records kings dating from the 25th century BC onwards, the earliest being Tudiya, who was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla. However, many of these early kings would have been local rulers, and from the late 24th century BC to the early 22nd century BC, usually subject to the Akkadian Empire. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population.[2][3]
Assyria was for most of this period a powerful and highly advanced nation, and a major centre of Mesopotamian civilisation and Mesopotamian religion. Assyria had three periods of empire; the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BC) which saw it emerge as the most powerful state in the region, extending colonies into south east Anatolia, the northern Levant, central Mesopotamia and north western Ancient Iran. The Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) saw Assyria emerge as the most powerful military and political force in the known world, destroying the Mitanni-Hurrian empire, largely annexing the Hittite Empire, forcing the Egyptian Empire from the region, conquering Babylonia and besting the Elamites, Kassites and Phrygians among others. Middle Assyrian Empire kings extended Assyrian domination from Mount Ararat in the north to Dilmun (modern Bahrain) in the south, and from the Eastern Mediterranean and Antioch in the west to the Zagros (in modern northern Iran) in the east.
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the Akkadians once more fragmented into smaller nation states, with Assyria coming to dominate northern Mesopotamia, and states such as Ur, Kish, Isin and Larsa the south. In the 18th century BC the south Mesopotamian states were subsumed into a new power, that of Babylonia. However, Babylonia unlike Assyria, was founded and originally ruled by non indigenous Amorites, and was to be more often than not ruled by other waves of non indigenous peoples such as Kassites, Hittites, Elamites, Arameans and Chaldeans, as well as by the Assyrians.
According to the Assyrian King List, the earliest king of Assyria was Tudiya. From the late 24th century BC it became a part of the Akkadian Empire, based in the city of Akkad, which united all of the Akkadian speaking Semites (including the Assyrians) under one rule. Assyria regained its independence in the early 21st century BC. Assyria became an imperial power with the Old Assyrian Empire (1975–1750 BC), and the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), the latter of which became the most powerful state in the region, eclipsing Egypt, the Hittites, Mitanni, Babylonia and Elam.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) was the largest the world had yet seen; in the north, it extended to the Transcaucasia (modern Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), to the south it encompassed Egypt, northern Nubia (modern Sudan), Libya and much of the Arabian peninsula, to the west it extended into parts of Ancient Greece (Cyprus, Cilicia etc) and the East Mediterranean, and to the east into Persia, Media, Gutium, Parthia, Elam and Mannea (the modern western half of Iran).[4] In 626 BC it descended into a bitter series of civil wars conducted by rival claimants to the throne, allowing it to be conquered by a coalition of former subject peoples. In 615 BC combined attacks by an alliance of its former subjects; namely the Medes, Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Scythians, Sagartians and Cimmerians, gradually led to its fall by 599 BC. However, Assyria was to survive as a geo-political entity until the mid 7th century AD. The Assyrians today speak dialects of Eastern Aramaic, which still contain an Akkadian grammatical structure and hundreds of Akkadian loanwords. This language was originally introduced to Assyria as the lingua franca of the Neo Assyrian Empire in the mid 8th century BC by Tiglath-pileser III.
Post Assyrian Empire[edit]
Further information: Achaemenid Assyria and Achaemenid Empire
After the defeat of Ashur-uballit II in 608 BC at Haran, at Carchemish in 605 BC, and after the last centre of Assyrian imperial records at Dūr-Katlimmu in 599 BC, the Assyrian empire was divided up by the key invading forces, the Babylonians and the Medes, with the Medes ruling Assyria proper. The Assyrian people, after the fall of their empire, fell under foreign domination ever since. Assyria came under the rule of the short lived Median Empire until 546 BC. The last king of Babylon, Nabonidus (together with his son and co-regent Belshazzar), was ironically an Assyrian from Harran. Assyria then became an Achaemenid province named Athura (Assyria).[5]
The Median Empire was then conquered by Cyrus in 547 BC,[6] under the Achaemenid dynasty, and the Persian Empire was thus founded, which consumed the entire Neo-Babylonian or "Chaldean" Empire in 539 BC.[7] King Cyrus changed Assyria's capital from Nineveh to Arbela. Assyrians became front line soldiers for the Persian empire under King Xerxes, playing a major role in the Battle of Marathon under King Darius I in 490 BC.[8] Cyrus II returned the sacred images of the Assyrians to Nineveh and Assur, established for them permanent sanctuaries, gathered all their former inhabitants and returned them to their habitations. The news of the assassination of Bardiya (son of Cyrus II), and this connection, Darius the Great declares that several satrapies including the Assyrian satrapy revolted.[7] In 482 BC, Babylonia and Assyria were joined together in the same administrative division.[7]
The Assyrian people were Christianized in the 1st to 3rd centuries,[9] in Roman Syria and Roman Assyria.[5] They were divided by the Nestorian Schism in the 5th century, and from the 8th century, they became a religious minority following the Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia. They suffered a genocide at the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, and today to a significant extent live in diaspora.
Early Christian period[edit]
Funerary mosaic of an Edessa family, 3rd century.
Further information: Syriac Christianity, History of Eastern Christianity, and Asuristan
In Church tradition, the Assyrians are descended from Abraham's grandson (Dedan son of Jokshan), progenitor of the ancient Assyrians.[10] Along with the Arameans, Phoenicians, Armenians, Greeks and Nabateans, they were among the first people to convert to Christianity and spread Eastern Christianity to the Far East.
The Council of Seleucia of c. 325 dealt with jurisdictional conflicts among the leading bishops. At the subsequent Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon of 410, the Christian communities of Mesopotamia renounced all subjection to Antioch and the "Western" bishops and the Bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon assumed the rank of Catholicos.
The Nestorian and Monophysite schisms of the 5th century divided the church into separate denominations. With the rise of Syriac Christianity, eastern Aramaic enjoyed a renaissance as a classical language in the 2nd to 8th centuries, and the modern Assyrian people continue to speak eastern Neo-Aramaic dialects which still retain a number of Akkadian loan words to this day.
Whereas Latin and Greek Christian cultures became protected by the Roman and Byzantine empires respectively, Assyrian/Syriac Christianity often found itself marginalised and persecuted. Antioch was the political capital of this culture, and was the seat of the patriarchs of the church. However, Antioch was heavily Hellenized, and the cities of Edessa, Nisibis, Arbela and Ctesiphon became Syriac cultural centres.
The Seleucid Greek hegemony[edit]
Further information: Seleucid Empire
At the end of the Achaemenid Persian rule in 330 BC, Mesopotamia was partitioned into the satrapy of Babylon in the south, while the northern part of Mesopotamia was joined with Syria in another satrapy. It is not know how long this division lasted, but by the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the north was removed from Syria and made into a separate satrapy. Generally speaking, the Seleucid rulers respected the native priesthood of Meosopotamia, and there is no record of persecutions.[7] There is proof that the Parthians, when establishing their sovereignty over different parts in the empire, retained the dynasts that had become independent or had been acting on behalf of the Seleucids, as long as they accepted Parthian sovereignty. Full overlordship of the Parthians was established since the full establishment of the empire under Arsaces I of Parthia. Aramaic was the official language of the Achaemenid Persian Empire; after the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek replaced Aramaic, including up to the Seleucid empire. However both Greek and Aramaic were used throughout the empire, although Greek was the principal language of the government. Aramaic underwent changes in different parts of the empire, and in Mesopotamia under the subsequent rule of the Parthians it evolved into Syriac.[7]
Roman Empire[edit]
Further information: Roman Syria
Syria became a Roman province in 64 BC, following the Third Mithridatic War. The Assyria-based army accounted for three legions of the Roman army, defending the Parthian border. In the 1st century, it was the Assyria-based army that enabled Vespasian's coup. Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the crisis of the third century. From the later 2nd century, the Roman senate included several notable Assyrians, including Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius. In the 3rd century, Assyrians even reached for imperial power, with the Severan dynasty.
From the 1st century BC, Assyria was the theatre of the protracted Perso-Roman Wars. It would become a Roman province (Assyria Provincia) between 116 and 363 AD, although Roman control of this province was unstable and was often returned to the Parthians and Persians.
Parthian hegemony[edit]
Further information: Parthian Empire
When the Seleucids passed, it were the Iranian Parthians who took their place, wielding the sceptre over much of West Asia for some 400 years.[11] It is during the Parthian period that the Christianisation of Adiabene began. Despite the influx of foreign elements, despite the changes in architecture, the presence of Assyrians is confirmed by the worship of god Ashur, all proof of the continuity of the Assyrians.[7] The conclusion to be drawn from this is that the Greeks, Parthians, and Romans had a rather low-level of integration with the local population in Mesopotamia, which allowed their cultures to survive. Therefore, the large influx of Greek and Iranian Parthian elements did not wipe out the local population and culture.
The Parthians exercised only loose control over Assyria, and it saw a major cultural revival, with Ashur once more becoming independent, and other Assyrian states arising, such as Adiabene, Osroene, Beth Nuhadra and Beth Garmai, together with the partly Assyrian state of Hatra.
At the dawn of Christianity the people living in Assyria were Assyrians, Medes, Parthians, Persians, Greeks, and Armenians.[11]
Sassanid Persian hegemony[edit]
Further information: Sassanid Empire and Asorestan
In 225 AD Parthian rule over the Assyrian territories straightly moved to the newly established and vibrant Sassanid Persian Empire.[12]
The population of Asorestan was a mixed one, composed of Assyrians, Arameans (in the far south, and western deserts), and Persians.[13][14] The Greek element in the cities, still strong in the Parthian period, was absorbed by the Semites in Sasanian times.[13] The majority of the population were Assyrian people, speaking Eastern Aramaic dialects. As the breadbasket of the Sasanian Empire, most of the population were engaged in agriculture or worked as traders and merchants. The Persians were found in the administrative class of society, as army officers, civil servants, and feudal lords, living partly in the country, partly in Ctesiphon.[13] At least three dialects of Eastern Aramaic were in spoken and liturgical use: Syriac mainly in the north and among Assyrian Christians, Mandaic in the south and among Mandaeans, and a dialect in the central region, of which the Judaic subvariety is known as Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. Aside from the liturgical scriptures of these religions which exist today, archaeological examples of all three of these dialects can be found in the collections of thousands of Aramaic incantation bowls—ceramic artifacts dated to this era—discovered in Iraq. While the Jewish Aramaic script retained the original "square" or "block" form of the Aramaic alphabet used in Imperial Aramaic (the Ashuri alphabet), the Syriac alphabet and the Mandaic alphabet developed when cursive styles of Aramaic began to appear. The Mandaic script itself developed from the Parthian chancellery script.
The religious demography of Mesopotamia was very diverse during Late Antiquity. From the 1st and 2nd centuries Syriac Christianity became the primary religion, while other groups practiced Mandaeism, Judaism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and the old Mesopotamian religion. Christians were probably the most numerous group in the province. The Sasanian state religion, Zoroastrianism, was largely confined to the Persian administrative class.[15] Asorestan, and particularly Assyria proper, were the centers for the Church of the East (now the Assyrian Church of the East), which at times (partially due to the vast areas the Sasanian empire covered) was the most widespread Christian church in the world, reaching well into Central Asia, China and India. The Church of the East went through major consolidation and expansion in 410 during the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, held at the Sasanian capital (in Asorestan). Selucia-Ctesiphon remained a location of the Patriarchate of the Church of the East for over 600 years.
This period of Sassanid hegemony lasted all the way till the advent of the invading Rashidun Arabs between 633 and 638 AD after which Assuristan got annexed by the Islamic Arabs. Together with Mayshan became the province of al-'Irāq. A century later, the area became the capital province of the Abbasid Caliphate and the centre of Islamic civilization for five hundred years; from the 8th to the 13th centuries.
Islamic empires[edit]
See also: Muslim conquest of Persia
After the Arab Islamic Conquest of the mid 7th century AD Assuristan (Assyria) was dissolved as an entity. The previously basic civilisation of the desert dwelling Arabs was greatly enhanced and enriched by the influence and knowledge of native Mesopotamian scientists, physicians, mathematicians, theologians, astronomers, architects, agriculturalists, artists and astrologers.
Aramaic language and Syriac Christianity in the Middle East and Central Asia until being largely annihilated by Tamerlane in the 14th century.
Assyrian Christians especially Nestorian contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Ummayads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic.[16] They also excelled in philosophy, science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Qusta ibn Luqa, Masawaiyh, Patriarch Eutychius, Jabril ibn Bukhtishu etc.) and theology (such as Tatian, Bar Daisan, Babai the Great, Nestorius, Toma bar Yacoub etc.) and the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians such as the long serving Bukhtishu dynasty.[17][18]
However, despite this, indigenous Assyrians became second class citizens in a greater Arab Islamic state, and those who resisted Arabisation and conversion to Islam were subject to religious, ethnic and cultural discrimination, and had certain restrictions imposed upon them.[19] They were excluded from specific duties and occupations reserved for Muslims, did not enjoy the same political rights as Muslims, their word was not equal to that of a Muslim in legal and civil matters, as Christians they were subject to payment of a special tax (jizyah), they were banned from spreading their religion further in Muslim ruled lands, men were banned from marrying Muslim women, but at the same time they were also expected to adhere to the same laws of property, contract and obligation as the Muslim Arabs.[20] The ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh had its own bishop of the Church of the East at the time of the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia. The Arabs still recognised Assyrian identity in the Medieval period, describing them as Ashuriyun.[21]
Assyrian people, still retaining Akkadian infused and influenced Eastern Aramaic and Assyrian Church of the East Christianity, remained dominant in the north of Mesopotamia (what had been Assyria) as late as the 14th century AD[22] and the city of Assur was still occupied by Assyrians during the Islamic period until the mid-14th century when the Muslim Turco-Mongol ruler Tamurlane conducted a religiously motivated massacre of indigenous Assyrian Christians. After that, there are no traces of a settlement at Ashur in the archaeological and numismatic record, and from this point the Assyrian population was dramatically reduced in their homeland.[23]
A religious schism among the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries AD, when a large number of hitherto Assyrian Church of the East Assyrians from the far north of Mesopotamia entered communion with the Roman Catholic Church after becoming dissatisfied with the Abuna family's leadership of the Assyrian Church, and after at first failing to gain acceptance within the Syriac Orthodox Church. Rome named this new church The Church of Assyria and Mosul and its first leader Patriarch of the East Assyrians in 1553 AD. However, in 1683 AD, Rome altered the name to the Chaldean Catholic Church, this group of Assyrians eventually became known as Chaldean Catholics or Chaldo-Assyrians despite having no ethnic, historical, linguistic or geographic connections whatsoever to the long extinct Chaldean tribe of south east Mesopotamia.
Starting from the 19th century after the rise of nationalism in the Balkans, the Ottomans started viewing Assyrians and other Christians in their eastern front as a potential threat. Furthermore, constant wars between The Ottomans and the Shiite Safavids encouraged the Ottomans into settling their allies, the nomadic Sunni Kurds, in what is today Northern Iraq and South-eastern Turkey.[24] Starting from then, Kurdish tribal chiefs established semi-independent emirates. The Kurdish Emirs sought to consolidate their power by attacking Assyrian communities which were already well established there. Scholars estimate that tens of thousands of Assyrian in the Hakkari region were massacred in 1843 when Badr Khan the emir of Bohtan invaded their region.[25] After a later massacre in 1846 The Ottomans were forced by the western powers into intervening in the region, and the ensuing conflict destroyed the Kurdish emirates and reasserted the Ottoman power in the area. The Assyrians of Amid were also subject to the massacres of 1895.
20th century[edit]
Main articles: Assyrian genocide, Assyrianism, Assyrian naming dispute, and Assyrian diaspora
The Assyrians suffered a further catastrophic series of massacres known as the Assyrian Genocide, at the hands of the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Arab allies from 1915–1918. The genocide (committed in conjunction with the Armenian Genocide and Greek Genocide) accounted for up to 750,000 unarmed Assyrian civilians, and the forced deportations of many more. The sizeable Assyrian presence in south eastern Asia Minor which had endured for over four millennia was reduced to a few thousand. As a consequence, the surviving Assyrians took up arms, and an Assyrian war of independence was fought during World War I, For a time, the Assyrians fought successfully against overwhelming numbers, scoring a number of victories over the Ottomans and Kurds, and also hostile Arab and Iranian groups; then their Russian allies left the war following the Russian Revolution, and Armenian resistance broke. The Assyrians were left cut off, surrounded, and without supplies, forcing those in Asia Minor and Northwest Iran to fight their way, with civilians in tow, to the safety of British lines and their fellow Assyrians in the Assyrian homeland of northern Iraq. Assyrians prominently served in Iraq Levies organized by the British in 1919, and after 1928, these became the Assyrian Levies.
Many Assyrians from Hakkari settled in Syria after they were displaced and driven out by Ottoman Turks in southeast Turkey in the early 20th century.[26] During the 1930s and 1940s, many Assyrians resettled in northeastern Syrian villages, such as Tel Tamer, Al-Qahtaniyah Al Darbasiyah, Al-Malikiyah, Qamishli and a few other small towns in Al-Hasakah Governorate.[27]
In 1932, Assyrians refused to become part of the newly formed state of Iraq and instead demanded their recognition as a nation within a nation. The Assyrian leader Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII asked the League of Nations to recognize the right of Assyrians to govern the area known as the "Assyrian triangle" in northern Iraq. The Assyrians suffered the Simele Massacre, where thousands of unarmed villagers (men, women and children) were slaughtered by joint Arab-Kurdish forces of the Iraqi Army. These massacres followed a clash between Assyrian tribesmen and the Iraqi army, where the Iraqi forces suffered a defeat after trying to disarm the Assyrians, whom they feared would attempt to secede from Iraq. Armed Assyrian Levies were prevented by the British from going to the aid of these defenceless civilians.[28] Eventually this led to the Iraqi government to commit its first of many massacres against its unarmed minority populations (see Simele massacre).[29]
The Assyrian Levies were founded by the British in 1928, with ancient Assyrian military rankings, such as Rab-shakeh, Rab-talia and Tartan, being revived for the first time in millennia for this force. The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities, loyalty, bravery and discipline, and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs and Kurds, guard the borders with Iran and Turkey and protect British military installations.[30]
The Assyrians were allied with the British during World War II, with eleven Assyrian companies seeing action in Palestine/Israel and another four serving in Cyprus. The Parachute Company was attached to the Royal Marine Commando and Assyrian Paratroopers were involved in fighting in Albania, Italy and Greece. Assyrians played a major role in the victory over Arab-Iraqi forces at the Battle of Habbaniya and Anglo-Iraq war in 1941, when the Iraqi government decided to join WW2 on the side of Nazi Germany. The British presence in Iraq lasted until 1954, and Assyrian Levies remained attached to British forces until this time.
The period from the 1940s through to 1963 saw a period of respite for the Assyrians. The regime of President Kassim in particular saw the Assyrians accepted into mainstream society. Many urban Assyrians became successful businessmen, others were well represented in politics and the military, their towns and villages flourished undisturbed, and Assyrians came to excel, and be over represented in sports such as Boxing, Football, Athletics, Wrestling and Swimming.
However, in 1963, the Ba'ath Party took power by force in Iraq. The Baathists, though secular, were Arab Nationalists, and set about attempting to Arabize the many non Arab peoples of Iraq, including the Assyrians. Other ethnic groups targeted for forced Arabization included Kurds, Armenians, Turcomans, Mandeans, Yezidi, Shabaki, Kawliya, Persians and Circassians. This policy included refusing to acknowledge the Assyrians as an ethnic group, banning the publication of written material in Eastern Aramaic, and banning its teaching in schools, banning parents giving Assyrian names to their children, banning Assyrian political parties, taking control of Assyrian churches, attempting to divide Assyrians on denominational lines (e.g. Assyrian Church of the East vs Chaldean Catholic Church vs Syriac Orthodox) and forced relocations of Assyrians from their traditional homelands to major cities.
In response to Baathist persecution, the Assyrians of the Zowaa movement within the Assyrian Democratic Movement took up armed struggle against the Iraqi regime in 1982 under the leadership of Yonadam Kanna,[31] and then joined up with the IKF in the early 1990s. Yonadam Kanna in particular was a target of the Saddam Hussein Ba'ath regime for many years.
The policies of the Bathists have also long been mirrored in Turkey, whose governments have refused to acknowledge the Assyrians as an ethnic group since the 1920s, and have attempted to Turkify the Assyrians by calling them Semitic Turks and forcing them to adopt Turkic names. In Syria too, the Assyrian/Syriac Christians have faced pressure to identify as Arab Christians.
Many persecutions have befallen the Assyrians since, such as the Anfal campaign and Baathist, Arab and Kurdish nationalist and Islamist persecutions.
Post-Ba'thist Iraq[edit]
Further information: Assyrian independence movement
With the fall of Saddam Hussein and the 2003 invasion of Iraq, no reliable census figures exist on the Assyrians in Iraq (as they do not for Iraqi Kurds or Turkmen), though the number of Assyrians is estimated to be approximately 800,000.
The Assyrian Democratic Movement (or ADM) was one of the smaller political parties that emerged in the social chaos of the occupation. Its officials say that while members of the ADM also took part in the liberation of the key oil cities of Kirkuk and Mosul in the north, the Assyrians were not invited to join the steering committee that was charged with defining Iraq's future. The ethnic make-up of the Iraq Interim Governing Council briefly (September 2003 – June 2004) guided Iraq after the invasion included a single Assyrian Christian, Younadem Kana, a leader of the Assyrian Democratic Movement and an opponent of Saddam Hussein since 1979.
In October 2008 many Iraqi Christians(about 12,000 almost Assyrians) have fled the city of Mosul following a wave of murders and threats targeting their community.The murder of at least a dozen Christians, death threats to others, the destruction of houses forced the Christians to leave their city in hurry. Some families crossed the borders to Syria and Turkey while others have been given shelters in Churches and Monasteries. Accusations and blames have been exchanged between Sunni fundamentalists and some Kurdish groups for being behind this new exodus. For the time the motivation of these culprits remains mysterious, but some claims related it to the provincial elections due to be held at the end of January 2009, and especially connected to Christian's demand for wider presentation in the provincial councils.[32]
In recent years, the Assyrians in northern Iraq and north east Syria have become the target of extreme unprovoked Islamic terrorism. As a result, Assyrians have taken up arms, alongside other groups (such as the Kurds, Turcomans and Armenians) in response to unprovoked attacks by Al Qaeda, ISIS/ISIL, Nusra Front and other terrorist Islamic Fundamentalist groups. In 2014 Islamic terrorists of ISIS attacked Assyrian towns and villages in the Assyrian Homeland of northern Iraq, together with cities such as Mosul and Kirkuk which have large Assyrian populations. There have been reports of atrocities committed by ISIS terrorists since, including; beheadings, crucifixions, child murders, rape, forced conversions, Ethnic Cleansing, robbery, and extortion in the form of illegal taxes levied upon non Muslims. Assyrians in Iraq have responded by forming armed Assyrian militias to defend their territories.
Assyrian continuity[edit]
Thus far, the only people who have been attested with a high level of genetic, historical, linguistic and cultural research to be the descendants of the ancient Mesopotamians are the Assyrian Christians of Iraq and its surrounding areas in north west Iran, north east Syria and south eastern Turkey (see Assyrian continuity), although others have made unsubstantiated claims of continuity. Assyria continued to exist as a geopolitical entity until the Arab-Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century, and Assyrian identity, personal, family and tribal names, and both spoken and written evolutions of Mesopotamian Aramaic (which still contain many Akkadian loan words and an Akkadian grammatical structure) have survived among the Assyrian people from ancient times to this day. (see Assyrian people).
Timeline[edit]
show
v
t
e
Syriac history
See also[edit]
Assyrian continuity
Assyrian people
Assyria
Old Assyrian Empire
Middle Assyrian Empire
Neo Assyrian Empire
Akkadian Empire
Sumer
Achaemenid Assyria
Athura
Seleucid Syria
Roman Province of Assyria
Assuristan
Adiabene
Osroene
Assur
Beth Nuhadra
Beth Garmai
Hatra
Babylonia
Chaldea
Assyrian homeland
List of Assyrians
Assyrian struggle for independence
Archaeogenetics of the Near East
Assyrian nationalism
Syriac language
Name of Syria
Eastern Aramaic languages
Syriac language
Names of Syriac Christians
History of Syriac Christianity
Assyrian Genocide
Assyrian diaspora
Assyrian culture
Assyrian cuisine
Assyrian music
Assyrian levies
Mesopotamian Religion
Assyrian Church of the East
Syriac Orthodox Church
Nestorian Church
Chaldean Catholic Church
Assyrian Pentecostal Church
Ancient Church of the East
Assyrian Evangelical Church
External links[edit]
Assyrians after Assyria
Assyrians from the fall of Nineveh to Present
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Carl Skutsch (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-135-19388-1.
Jump up ^ Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3.
Jump up ^ Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S. L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120 Chicago [1]
Jump up ^ "Assyrian Eponym List". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Frye, Richard N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms" (PhD., Harvard University). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. The ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote that the Greeks called the Assyrians, by the name Syrian, dropping the A and first S. And that's the first instance we know of, of the distinction in the name, of the same people. Then the Romans, when they conquered the western part of the former Assyrian Empire, they gave the name Syria, to the province, they created, which is today Damascus and Aleppo. So, that is the distinction between Syria, and Assyria. They are the same people, of course. And the ancient Assyrian empire, was the first real, empire in history. What do I mean, it had many different peoples included in the empire, all speaking Aramaic, and becoming what may be called, "Assyrian citizens." That was the first time in history, that we have this. For example, Elamite musicians, were brought to Nineveh, and they were 'made Assyrians' which means, that Assyria, was more than a small country, it was the empire, the whole Fertile Crescent.
Jump up ^ Olmatead, History of the Persian Empire, Chicago University Press, 1959, p.39
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Ancient and Modern Assyrians: A Scientific Analysis". Retrieved 16 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Artifacts show rivals Athens and Sparta, Yahoo News, December 5, 2006.
Jump up ^ Parpola, Simo (2004). "National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. JAAS. 18 (2): 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17. From the 3rd century AD on, the Assyrians embraced Christianity in increasing numbers
Jump up ^ Genesis 25:3
^ Jump up to: a b "The Assyrians and Their Neighbors". Retrieved 16 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Assyrians and Their Neighbors". Retrieved 16 December 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "ĀSŌRISTĀN". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 15 July 2013. ĀSŌRISTĀN, name of the Sasanian province of Babylonia.
Jump up ^ Buck, Christopher (1999). Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháí̕ Faith. SUNY Press. p. 69. ISBN 9780791497944.
Jump up ^ Etheredge, Laura (2011). Iraq. Rosen Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 9781615303045.
Jump up ^ Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p.4
Jump up ^ Rémi Brague, Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization
Jump up ^ Britannica, Nestorian
Jump up ^ Clinton Bennett (2005). Muslims and Modernity: An Introduction to the Issues and Debates. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 163. ISBN 082645481X. Retrieved 2012-07-07
Jump up ^ H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 219.
Jump up ^ Hannibal Travis Archived 2012-05-23 at Archive.is (2006), "Native Christians Massacred": The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, vol. 1.3, pp. 329
Jump up ^ According to Georges Roux and Simo Parpola
Jump up ^ "History of Ashur". Assur.de. Retrieved 12 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Hirmis Aboona, Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire, pp. 105
Jump up ^ David Gaunt, Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern, pp. 32
Jump up ^ Betts, Robert Brenton, Christians in the Arab East (Atlanta, 1978)
Jump up ^ Dodge, Bayard, "The Settlement of the Assyrians on the Khabur," Royal Central Asian Society Journal, July 1940, pp. 301-320.
Jump up ^ Ye'or, Bat; Miriam Kochan; David Littman (2002). Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-8386-3943-7. OCLC 47054791.
Jump up ^ Iraq Between the Two World Wars: The Militarist Origins of Tyranny, by Reeva Spector Simon
Jump up ^ Len Deighton (1993), Blood, Tears and Folly
Jump up ^ "زوعا". www.zowaa.org. Retrieved 2016-09-10.
Jump up ^ "Iraqi Christians' fear of exile". BBC. 2008-10-28. Retrieved 2016-09-10.
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