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Garden of Eden
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Not to be confused with Eden Gardens or Eden Garden.
For other uses, see Garden of Eden (disambiguation).
The Garden of Eden as depicted in the first or left panel of Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights triptych. The panel includes many imagined and exotic African animals.[1]
The Garden of Eden (Hebrew גַּן עֵדֶן, Gan ʿEḏen) or (often) Paradise, is the biblical "garden of God", described most notably in the Book of Genesis chapters 2 and 3, and also in the Book of Ezekiel.[2][3] Genesis 13:10 refers to the "garden of God" (not called Eden by name),[4] and the "trees of the garden" are mentioned in Ezekiel 31.[5] The Book of Zechariah and the Book of Psalms also refer to trees and water in relation to the temple without explicitly mentioning Eden.[6]
Traditionally, scholars favored deriving the name "Eden" from the Akkadian edinnu, derived from a Sumerian word edin meaning "plain" or "steppe". Eden is now believed[by whom?] to be more closely related to an Aramaic root word meaning "fruitful, well-watered."[3] Another interpretation associates the name "Eden" with a Hebrew word for "pleasure"; thus the Douay-Rheims Bible in Genesis 2:8 has the wording "And the Lord God had planted a paradise of pleasure" (rather than "a garden in Eden"). The Hebrew term is translated "pleasure" in Sarah's secret saying in Genesis 18:12.[7]
Much like records of the great flood, the creation story and the account of the confusion of languages, the story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine garden to guard the Tree of life.[8] The Hebrew Bible depicts Adam and Eve as walking around the Garden of Eden naked due to their innocence.[9] Eden and its rivers may signify the real Jerusalem, the Temple of Solomon, or the Promised Land. It may also represent the divine garden on Zion, and the mountain of God, which was also Jerusalem. The imagery of the Garden, with its serpent and cherubim, has been compared[by whom?] to the images of the Solomonic Temple with its copper serpent (the nehushtan) and guardian cherubs.[10][need quotation to verify]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical narratives
1.1 Genesis
1.2 Ezekiel
2 Proposed locations
3 Parallel concepts
4 Other views
4.1 Jewish eschatology
4.2 Islamic view
4.3 Latter-day Saints
5 Art
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Biblical narratives[edit]
Expulsion from Paradise, painting by James Jacques Joseph Tissot
The Expulsion illustrated in the English Caedmon manuscript, c. 1000 CE
Genesis[edit]
Main articles: Genesis creation narrative and Adam and Eve
The second part of the Genesis creation narrative, Genesis, opens with Adonai Elohim (the LORD God, lit. YHWH Elohim, see Names of God in Judaism) creating the first man (Adam), whom he placed in a garden that he planted "eastward in Eden".[11]
And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
—  Genesis 2:9
The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Last of all, the God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to be a companion the man. In chapter three, the man and the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus living forever. Cherubim were placed east of the garden, "and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep him away from the tree of life" (Genesis 3:24).
Genesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. It also refers to the land of Cush—translated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the Kassites.[12] These lands lie north of Elam, immediately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.[13] In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what "the Greeks called Ganges" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.[14]
Ezekiel[edit]
Main article: Ezekiel's cherub in Eden
In Ezekiel 28:12–19 the prophet Ezekiel the "son of man" sets down God's word against the king of Tyre: the king was the "seal of perfection", adorned with precious stones from the day of his creation, placed by God in the garden of Eden on the holy mountain as a guardian cherub. But the king sinned through wickedness and violence, and so he was driven out of the garden and thrown to the earth, where now he is consumed by God's fire: "All the nations who knew you are appalled at you, you have come to a horrible end and will be no more." (v.19).
According to Terje Stordalen, the Eden in Ezekiel appears to be located in Lebanon.[15] "[I]t appears that the Lebanon is an alternative placement in Phoenician myth (as in Ez 28,13, III.48) of the Garden of Eden",[16] and there are connections between paradise, the garden of Eden and the forests of Lebanon (possibly used symbolically) within prophetic writings.[17] Edward Lipinski and Peter Kyle McCarter have suggested that the Garden of the gods (Sumerian paradise), the oldest Sumerian version of the Garden of Eden, relates to a mountain sanctuary in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges.[18]
Proposed locations[edit]
Map showing the rivers in the Middle East known in English as the Tigris and Euphrates.
Map by Pierre Mortier, 1700, based on theories of Pierre Daniel Huet, Bishop of Avranches. A caption in French and Dutch reads: Map of the location of the terrestrial paradise, and of the country inhabited by the patriarchs, laid out for the good understanding of sacred history, by M. Pierre Daniel Huet.
Although the Garden of Eden is considered to be mythological by most scholars,[19][20][21][22][23][24] there have been other suggestions for its location:[25] for example, at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia (now Iraq) where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea;[26] in Iranian Azerbaijan, and in the vicinity of Tabriz,[27] and in the Armenian Highlands or Armenian Plateau.[28][29][30][31]
According to the Bible, the location of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis, chapter 2, verses 10–14:
A river flowed from Eden to water the garden, and from there it divided to make four streams.
The first is named the Pishon, and this winds all through the land of Havilah where there is gold. The gold of this country is pure; bdellium and cornelian stone are found there. The second river is named the Gihon, and this winds all through the land of Cush. The third river is named the Tigris, and this flows to the east of Ashur. The fourth river is the Euphrates.
Parallel concepts[edit]
The city of Dilmun in the Sumerian mythological story of Enki and Ninhursag is a paradisaical abode[32] of the immortals, where sickness and death were unknown.[33]
The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology was somewhat similar to the Christian concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger intellectual association was made in the Cranach painting (see illustration at top). In this painting, only the action that takes place there identifies the setting as distinct from the Garden of the Hesperides, with its golden fruit.
The Persian term "paradise" (Hebrew פרדס, pardes), meaning a royal garden or hunting-park, gradually became a synonym for Eden after c. 500 BCE. The word "pardes" occurs three times in the Old Testament, but always in contexts other than a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon iv. 13: "Thy plants are an orchard (pardes) of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard"; Ecclesiastes 2. 5: "I made me gardens and orchards (pardes), and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits"; and in Nehemiah ii. 8: "And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard (pardes), that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city." In these examples pardes clearly means "orchard" or "park", but in the apocalyptic literature and in the Talmud "paradise" gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, and in the New Testament "paradise" becomes the realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the cursed) among those who have already died, with literary Hellenistic influences.
In ancient Hindu mythology, Nandankanan is a garden of the deities where the virtuous souls of the dead can roam freely.[citation needed]
Other views[edit]
Jewish eschatology[edit]
In the Talmud and the Jewish Kabbalah,[34] the scholars agree that there are two types of spiritual places called "Garden in Eden". The first is rather terrestrial, of abundant fertility and luxuriant vegetation, known as the "lower Gan Eden". The second is envisioned as being celestial, the habitation of righteous, Jewish and non-Jewish, immortal souls, known as the "higher Gan Eden". The Rabbanim differentiate between Gan and Eden. Adam is said to have dwelt only in the Gan, whereas Eden is said never to be witnessed by any mortal eye.[34]
According to Jewish eschatology,[35][36] the higher Gan Eden is called the "Garden of Righteousness". It has been created since the beginning of the world, and will appear gloriously at the end of time. The righteous dwelling there will enjoy the sight of the heavenly chayot carrying the throne of God. Each of the righteous will walk with God, who will lead them in a dance. Its Jewish and non-Jewish inhabitants are "clothed with garments of light and eternal life, and eat of the tree of life" (Enoch 58,3) near to God and His anointed ones.[36] This Jewish rabbinical concept of a higher Gan Eden is opposed by the Hebrew terms gehinnom[37] and sheol, figurative names for the place of spiritual purification for the wicked dead in Judaism, a place envisioned as being at the greatest possible distance from heaven.[38]
In modern Jewish eschatology it is believed that history will complete itself and the ultimate destination will be when all mankind returns to the Garden of Eden.[39]
Islamic view[edit]
Spanish-Arabic world map from 1109 CE with Eden in east (at top)
Events taking place in the Garden of Eden are spoken about prominently in the Quran and the tafsir (interpretation). The term "Jannāt `Adni" ("Gardens of Eden" or "Gardens of Perpetual Residence") is used in the Qur'an for the destination of the righteous. There are several mentions of "the Garden" in the Qur'an (2:35, 7:19, 20:117), meaning the Garden of Eden, but without the word "`Adn".[40] There are other places that talk about events there, without mentioning the location. This includes surat Sad, which features 18 verses on the subject (38:71–88), surat al-Baqarah, surat al-A'raf, and surat al-Hijr. The narrative mainly surrounds the resulting expulsion of Iblis from the garden and his subsequent tempting of Adam and Eve. After Iblis refuses to follow God's command to bow down to Adam for being his greatest creation, Allah transforms him into Satan as a punishment. Despite the Biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, the tree of immortality, which Allah specifically claimed it was forbidden to Adam and Eve. Despite this, however, Satan, disguised as a serpent, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, resulting in disobeying Allah.[41] These stories are also featured in the Islamic hadith collections, including al-Tabari.[42]
Latter-day Saints[edit]
See also: Adam and Eve (LDS Church)
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormons or Latter-day Saints) believe that after Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden they resided in a place known as Adam-ondi-Ahman, located in present-day Daviess County, Missouri. It is recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants that Adam blessed his posterity there and that he will return to that place at the time of the final judgement[43][44] in fulfillment of biblical prophecy.[45]
Numerous early leaders of the Church, including Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George Q. Cannon, taught that the Garden of Eden itself was located in nearby Jackson County, Missouri,[46] but there are no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being taught by Joseph Smith himself. LDS doctrine is unclear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden, but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it somewhere in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson County.[47][48]
Art[edit]
The Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in illuminated manuscripts and paintings are the "Sleep of Adam" ("Creation of Eve"), the "Temptation of Eve" by the Serpent, the "Fall of Man" where Adam takes the fruit, and the "Expulsion". The idyll of "Naming Day in Eden" was less often depicted. Much of Milton's Paradise Lost occurs in the Garden of Eden. Michelangelo depicted a scene at the Garden of Eden in the Sistine Chapel ceiling. In the Divine Comedy, Dante places the Garden at the top of Mt. Purgatory. For many medieval writers, the image of the Garden of Eden also creates a location for human love and sexuality, often associated with the classic and medieval trope of the locus amoenus.[49] One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden is made in Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still under Byzantine control. A preserved blue mosaic is part of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Circular motifs represent flowers of the garden of Eden.
The Garden of Eden by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, a 16th-century German depiction of Eden
The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, depicting both domestic and exotic wild animals such as tigers, parrots and ostriches co-existing in the garden
5th century "Garden of Eden" mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy. UNESCO World heritage site.
"The Garden of Eden" by Thomas Cole (c. 1828)
"The Garden of Eden" by Adi Holzer made in the year 2012.
See also[edit]
Antelapsarianism
Christian naturism
Epic of Gilgamesh
Eridu
Fertile Crescent
Golden Age
Heaven in Judaism
Jannah
Nondualism
Persian gardens
Tamoanchan
The Summerland
Utopia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gibson, Walter S. Hieronymus Bosch. New York:Hudson, 1973. p. 26. ISBN 0-500-20134-X
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce Manning; Coogan, Michael D (2004). The Oxford Guide To People And Places Of The Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-517610-0. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Cohen 2011, pp. 228–229
Jump up ^ http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis+13
Jump up ^ http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ezekiel+31
Jump up ^ Luttikhuizen 1999, p. 37
Jump up ^ H5731 Eden – The same as H5730 (masculine); Eden= "pleasure" ... the first habitat of man after the creation; site unknown
Jump up ^ Davidson 1973, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Donald Miller (2007) Miller 3-in-1: Blue Like Jazz, Through Painted Deserts, Searching for God, Thomas Nelson Inc, ISBN 978-1418551179, p. PT207
Jump up ^ Stordalen 2000, p. 307–310.
Jump up ^ Levenson 2004, p. 13 "The root of Eden denotes fertility. Where the wondrously fertile gard was thought to have been located (if a realistic location was ever conceived) is unclear. The Tigris and Euphrates are the two great rivers of the Mesopotamia (now found in modern Iraq). But the Piston is unidentified, and the only Gihon in the Bible is a spring in Jerusalem (1 Kings 1.33, 38)."
Jump up ^ "The Jewish Quarterly Review". The Jewish Quarterly Review. University of Pennsylvania Press. 64-65: 132. 1973. ISSN 1553-0604. Retrieved 2014-02-19. ...as Cossaea, the country of the Kassites in Mesopotamia [...]
Jump up ^ Speiser 1994, p. 38
Jump up ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews. Book I, Chapter 1, Section 3.
Jump up ^ Stordalen 2000, p. 164
Jump up ^ Brown 2001, p. 138
Jump up ^ Swarup 2006, p. 185
Jump up ^ Smith 2009, p. 61
Jump up ^ Levenson 2004, p. 11 "How much history lies behind the story of Genesis? Because the action of the primeval story is not represented as taking place on the plane of ordinary human history and has so many affinities with ancient mythology, it is very far-fetched to speak of its narratives as historical at all."
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Howard; Loebel-Fried, Caren; Ginsburg, Elliot K. (2007). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. p. 704.
Jump up ^ George, Arthur; George, Elena (2014). The Mythology of Eden. Hamilton Books. p. 458.
Jump up ^ Delumeau, Jean; O'Connell, Matthew (2000). History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition. University of Illinois Press. p. 276.
Jump up ^ Graves, Robert; Patai, Raphael (1986). Hebrew Myths: The Book of Genesis. Random House. p. 315.
Jump up ^ Albright, W. F. (October 1922). "The Location of the Garden of Eden". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. The University of Chicago Press. 39 (1): 15–31. JSTOR 528684. doi:10.1086/369964.
Jump up ^ Wilensky-Lanford, Brook (2012). Paradise Lust: Searching for the Garden of Eden. Grove Press.
Jump up ^ Hamblin, Dora Jane (May 1987). "Has the Garden of Eden been located at last? (Dead Link)" (PDF). Smithsonian. 18 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Cline, Eric H. (2007). From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible. National Geographic. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4262-0084-7.
Jump up ^ Zevit, Ziony. What Really Happened in the Garden of Eden? 2013. Yale University Press, p. 111.
Jump up ^ Day, John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. 2002. Sheffield Academic Press, p. 30.
Jump up ^ Duncan, Joseph E. Milton's Earthly Paradise: A Historical Study of Eden. 1972. University Of Minnesota Press, pp. 96, 212.
Jump up ^ Scafi, Alessandro. Return to the Sources: Paradise in Armenia, in: Mapping Paradise: A History of Heaven on Earth. 2006. London-Chicago: British Library-University of Chicago Press, pp. 317-322
Jump up ^ Mathews 1996, pp. 96.
Jump up ^ Cohen 2011, pp. 229.
^ Jump up to: a b Gan Eden – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
Jump up ^ Olam Ha-Ba – The Afterlife - JewFAQ.org; 02-22-2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Eshatology – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
Jump up ^ "Gehinnom is the Hebrew name; Gehenna is Yiddish." Gehinnom – Judaism 101 websourced 02-10-2010.
Jump up ^ "Gan Eden and Gehinnom". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
Jump up ^ "End of Days". End of Days. Aish. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
Jump up ^ See list of occurrences.
Jump up ^ Leaman, Oliver The Quran, an encyclopedia, p. 11, 2006
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Brannon Mecca and Eden: ritual, relics, and territory in Islam p. 16, 2006
Jump up ^ "Doctrine and Covenants 107:53".
Jump up ^ "Doctrine and Covenants 116:1".
Jump up ^ "Daniel 7:13-14,22".
Jump up ^ "Joseph Smith/Garden of Eden in Missouri", FairMormon Answers
Jump up ^ Bruce A. Van Orden, "I Have a Question: What do we know about the location of the Garden of Eden?", Ensign, January 1994, pp. 54–55.
Jump up ^ http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101#C18 "Mormonism 101: FAQ"
Jump up ^ Curtius 1953, p. 200, n.31
Bibliography[edit]
Brown, John Pairman (2001). Israel and Hellas, Volume 3. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110168822.
Cohen, Chaim (2011). "Eden". In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine. The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199730049.
Curtius, Ernst Robert (1953). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01899-7. Translated by Willard R. Trask.
Davidson, Robert (1973). Genesis 1-11 (commentary by Davidson, R. 1987 [Reprint] ed.). Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521097604.
Levenson, Jon D. (2004). "Genesis: introduction and annotations". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi. The Jewish study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515.
Mathews, Kenneth A. (1996). Genesis. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman Publishers. ISBN 9780805401011.
Smith, Mark S. (2009). "Introduction". In Pitard, Wayne T. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, volume II. BRILL. ISBN 9004153489.
Speiser, E.A. (1994). "The Rivers of Paradise". In Tsumura, D.T.; Hess, R.S. I Studied Inscriptions from Before the Flood. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9780931464881.
Stordalen, Terje (2000). Echoes of Eden. Peeters. ISBN 9789042908543.
Swarup, Paul (2006). The self-understanding of the Dead Sea Scrolls Community. Continuum.
Willcocks, Sir William, Hormuzd Rassam. Mesopotamian Trade. Noah's Flood: The Garden of Eden, in: The Geographical Journal 35, No. 4 (April 1910). DOI: 10.2307/1777041[dead link]
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Garden of Eden.
Look up Garden of Eden in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Smithsonian article on the geography of the Tigris-Euphrates region
Many translations of II Kings 19:12
"Eden". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
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text:
Apportionment Act of 1911
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Apportionment Act of 1911
Long title
An Act For the apportionment of Representatives in Congress among the several States under the Thirteenth Census.
Nicknames
Apportionment Act of 1911,
Public Law 62-5
Enacted by
the 62nd United States Congress
Effective
March 4, 1913
Citations
Public law
Pub.L. 62–5
Statutes at Large
37 Stat. 13
Codification
Acts amended
Apportionment Act of 1901
Titles amended
2
U.S.C. sections amended
2 USC §2a
Legislative history
Introduced in the House as H.R. 2983
Passed the House on
Passed the Senate on August 8, 1911
Signed into law by President William Howard Taft on
Major amendments
Reapportionment Act of 1929
United States Supreme Court cases
Wood v. Broom, 287 U.S. 1 (1932)
Connor v. Johnson, 402 U.S. 690 (1966)
Department of Commerce v. Montana, 503 U.S. 442 (1992)
The Apportionment Act of 1911 (Pub.L. 62–5, 37 Stat. 13) was an apportionment bill passed by the United States Congress on August 8, 1911. The law set the number of members of the United States House of Representatives at 435, effective with the 63rd Congress on March 4, 1913.[1] This number included a provision for the addition of one seat each for Arizona and New Mexico when they became states.
Contents
[hide]
1 Previous apportionment
2 Text
3 Subsequent apportionment
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Previous apportionment[edit]
The requirement for allocating United States Representatives is found in Article One, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution. After the first census, Congress began to pass legislation to dictate the method of allotting U.S. Representatives to the states based on population (see Apportionment Act of 1792).[2] The Jefferson method of apportionment had been in use after the first census of 1790 through the 1830 census, and required fractional remainders to be discarded when calculating each state's total number of U.S. Representatives.[3][4][5][6] Daniel Webster proposed the Webster method, which was adopted for the 1840 census and allocated one representative to states with a fractional remainder greater than 0.5.[7] Prior to the Apportionment Act of 1911, the Hamilton/Vinton (largest remainder) method had been used for this purpose since 1850.[8][9][10][11][12][13] In addition to setting the number of U.S. Representatives at 435, the Apportionment Act of 1911 returned to the Webster method of apportionment of U.S. Representatives. Adopted in 1868, Section Two of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had already removed the three-fifths method of counting slaves, and instead required "counting the whole number of all persons in each State."
Text[edit]
“ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
Section 1. That after the third day of March, nineteen hundred and thirteen, the House of Representatives shall be composed of four hundred and thirty-three Members, to be apportioned among the several States as follows:
Alabama, ten
Arkansas, seven
California, eleven
Colorado, four
Connecticut, five
Delaware, one
Florida, four
Georgia, twelve
Idaho, two
Illinois, twenty-seven
Indiana, thirteen
Iowa, eleven
Kansas, eight
Kentucky, eleven
Louisiana, eight
Maine, four
Maryland, six
Massachusetts, sixteen
Michigan, thirteen
Minnesota, ten
Mississippi, eight
Missouri, sixteen
Montana, two
Nebraska, six
Nevada, one
New Hampshire, two
New Jersey, twelve
New York, forty-three
North Carolina, ten
North Dakota, three
Ohio, twenty-two
Oklahoma, eight
Oregon, three
Pennsylvania, thirty-six
Rhode Island, three
South Carolina, seven
South Dakota, three
Tennessee, ten
Texas, eighteen
Utah, two
Vermont, two
Virginia, ten
Washington, five
West Virginia, six
Wisconsin, eleven
Wyoming, one
Section 2. That if the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico shall become States in the Union before the apportionment of Representatives under the next decennial census they shall have one Representative each, and if one of such Territories shall so become a State, such State shall have one Representative, which Representative or Representatives shall be in addition to the number four hundred and thirty-three, as provided in section one of this Act, and all laws and parts of laws in conflict with this section are to that extent hereby repealed.
Section 3. That in each State entitled under this apportionment to more than one Representative, the Representatives to the Sixty-third and each subsequent Congress shall be elected by districts composed of a contiguous and compact territory, and containing as nearly as practicable an equal number of inhabitants. The said districts shall be equal to the number of Representatives to which such State may be entitled in Congress, no district electing more than one Representative.
Section 4. That in case of an increase in the number of Representatives in any State under this apportionment such additional Representative or Representatives shall be elected by the State at large and the other Representatives by the districts now prescribed by law until such State shall be redistricted in the manner provided by the laws thereof and in accordance with the rules enumerated in section three of this Act; and if there be no change in the number of Representatives from a State, the Representatives thereof shall be elected from the districts now prescribed by law until such State shall be redistricted as herein prescribed.
Section 5. That candidates for Representative or Representatives to be elected at large in any State shall be nominated in the same manner as candidates for governor, unless otherwise provided by the laws of such State.
”
Subsequent apportionment[edit]
For the first and only time, Congress failed to pass an apportionment act after the 1920 census. This left the allocations of the Act of 1911 in place until the 1930 census. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established a method for reallocating seats among the states, given population shifts and the maximum of 435 representatives.[14] The Apportionment Act of 1941 made the apportionment process self-executing after each decennial census.[15] This lifted Congress's responsibility to pass an apportionment act for each census, and ensured that the events surrounding the 1920 census would not happen again. The number of U.S. Representatives increased temporarily to 437 when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states during the 86th Congress (seating one member from each of those states without changing the apportionment of the other seats). After the 1960 census and the 1962 election, that number went back to 435.[16][17]
See also[edit]
United States congressional apportionment
Redistricting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://constitution.org/uslaw/sal/037_statutes_at_large.pdf
Jump up ^ 3 Annals of Cong. 539 (1792)
Jump up ^ Act of Jan. 14, 1802, 2 Stat. 128
Jump up ^ Act of Dec. 21, 1811, 2 Stat. 669
Jump up ^ Act of Mar. 7, 1822, 3 Stat. 651
Jump up ^ Act of May 22, 1832, 4 Stat. 516
Jump up ^ Act of 1842, 5 Stat. 491
Jump up ^ Act of May 23, 1850, 9 Stat. 432-433
Jump up ^ Act of 1862, 12 Stat. 572
Jump up ^ Act of 1872, 17 Stat. 28
Jump up ^ Act of 1882, 22 Stat. 5
Jump up ^ Act of 1891
Jump up ^ Act of 1901, 31 Stat. 733
Jump up ^ Act of June 18, 1929, 46 Stat. 21
Jump up ^ Act of Nov. 15, 1941, 55 Stat. 761-762
Jump up ^ 72 Stat. 345
Jump up ^ 73 Stat. 8
External links[edit]
Member FAQ, "What is the size of the House of Representatives and how is it determined?" - Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apportionment_Act_of_1911&oldid=826927627"
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62nd United States Congress
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text:
Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Deforestation in the Maranhão state of Brazil, 2016
The cattle sector of the Brazilian Amazon, incentivized by the international beef and leather trades,[1] has been responsible for about 80% of all deforestation in the region,[2] or about 14% of the world's total annual deforestation, making it the world's largest single driver of deforestation.[3] By 2017, 20% of land forested before 1970 in the Amazon had been deforested, and 90% of that been converted to cattle ranching.[4][5] Much of the remaining deforestation within the Amazon has resulted from farmers clearing land for small-scale subsistence agriculture[6] or mechanized cropland producing soy, palm, and other crops.[7]
Contents
1 History
2 Causes of deforestation
3 Forest loss rates
4 Impact on Indigenous peoples
5 Future of the Amazon rainforest
6 See also
6.1 Fauna
7 Bibliography
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Chief Raoni, one of the main opponents of deforestation of the Amazon rainforest
In the pre-Columbian era, parts of the Amazon Rainforest were a densely populated open agriculture. After the European colonization in the 16th century, with the hunt for gold, Western diseases, slavery and later the rubber boom, the Amazon Rainforest was depopulated and the forest grew larger.[8]
Prior to the 1970s, access to the forest's largely roadless interior was difficult, and aside from partial clearing along rivers the forest remained intact.[9] Deforestation accelerated greatly following the opening of highways deep into the forest, such as the Trans-Amazonian highway in 1972.
In parts of the Amazon, the poor soil made plantation-based agriculture unprofitable. The key turning point in deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon was when colonists began to establish farms within the forest during the 1960s. Their farming system was based on crop cultivation and the slash-and-burn method. However, the colonists were unable to successfully manage their fields and the crops due to the loss of soil fertility and weed invasion due to this method.[10]
In indigenous areas of the Peruvian Amazon, such as the Urarina's Chambira River Basin,[11] the soils are productive for only relatively short periods of time, therefore causing indigenous horticulturalists like the Urarina to move to new areas and clear more and more land.[10] Amazonian colonization was ruled by cattle raising because ranching required little labor, generated decent profits, and land under state ownership to private companies, without term limits on the property rights.[12] While the law was promoted as a "reforestation" measure, critics claimed the privatization measure would in fact encourage further deforestation of the Amazon,[13] while surrendering the nation's rights over natural resources to foreign investors and leaving uncertain the fate of Peru's indigenous people, who do not typically hold formal title to the forestlands on which they subsist.[14][15] Law 840 met widespread resistance and was eventually repealed by Peru's legislature for being unconstitutional.[14]
In 2015 illegal deforestation of the Amazon was on the rise again for the first time in decades, this was largely a result of consumer demand for products like palm oil.[16] As consumer pressure increases, Brazilian farmers clear their land to make more space for crops like palm oil, and soy [17] Also, studies done by Greenpeace showed that 300 billion tons of carbon, 40 times the annual greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, are stored in trees.[18] In addition to the carbon release associated with deforestation, NASA has estimated that if deforestation levels proceed, the remaining worlds forests will disappear in about 100 years.[18] The Brazilian government adopted a program called RED (United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Program) in order to help prevent deforestation.[19] The RED program has helped more than 44 countries across Africa with the development of education programs and has donated more than 117 million to the program.[19]
Causes of deforestation[edit]
Main article: Deforestation in Brazil § Causes
Fires, and deforestation in Rondônia
One consequence of forest clearing in the Amazon: thick smoke that hangs over the forest
Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest can be attributed to many different factors at local, national, and international levels. The rainforest is seen as a resource for cattle pasture, valuable hardwoods, housing space, farming space (especially for soybeans), road works (such as highways and smaller roads) and medicines.
A 2009 Greenpeace report found that the cattle sector in the Brazilian Amazon, supported by the international beef and leather trades, was responsible for about 80% of all deforestation in the region,[2] or about 14% of the world's total annual deforestation, making it the largest single driver of deforestation in the world.[3] According to a 2006 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 70% of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, is used for livestock pasture.[4][20]
Additional deforestation in the Amazon has resulted from farmers clearing land for small-scale subsistence agriculture[6] or for mechanized cropland. Scientists using NASA satellite data found in 2006 that clearing for mechanized cropland had become a significant force in Brazilian Amazon deforestation. This change in land use may alter the region's climate. Researchers found that in 2003, a peak year of deforestation, more than 20 percent of the Mato Grosso state's forests were converted to cropland.[7] In 2005, soybean prices fell by more than 25 percent and some areas of Mato Grosso showed a decrease in large deforestation events, suggesting that the rise and fall of prices for other crops, beef and timber may also have a significant impact on future land use in the region.[7]
Until 2006, a major driver of forest loss in the Amazon was the cultivation of soy, mainly for export and production of biodiesel and animal feed;[21] as soybean prices have risen, soy farmers pushed northwards into forested areas of the Amazon.[22] However, a private sector agreement referred to as the Soy Moratorium has helped drastically reduce the deforestation linked to soy production in the region. In 2006, a number of major commodity trading companies such as Cargill agreed to not purchase soybeans produced in the Brazilian Amazon in recently deforested areas. Before the moratorium, 30 percent of soy field expansion had occurred through deforestation, contributing to record deforestation rates. After eight years of the moratorium, a 2015 study found that although soy production area had expanded another 1.3 million hectares, only about 1 percent of the new soy expansion had come at the expense of forest. In response to the moratorium, farmers were choosing to plant on already cleared land.[22]
The needs of soy farmers have been used to validate some controversial transportation projects that have developed in the Amazon.[9] The first two highways, the Belém-Brasília (1958) and the Cuiaba-Porto Velho (1968), were the only federal highways in the Legal Amazon to be paved and passable year-round before the late 1990s. These two highways are said to be "at the heart of the 'arc of deforestation'", which at present is the focal point area of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. The Belém-Brasília highway attracted nearly two million settlers in the first twenty years. The success of the Belém-Brasília highway in opening up the forest was reenacted as paved roads continued to be developed, unleashing the irrepressible spread of settlement. The completion of the roads was followed by a wave of resettlement; these settlers had a significant effect on the forest as well.[23]
Research conducted by Leydimere Oliveira et al. has shown that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches the area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. Thus for Brazil as a whole, there is no economic gain to be made by logging and selling trees and using the logged land for pastoral purposes.[24]
A September 2016 Amazon Watch report concludes that imports of crude oil by the US are driving rainforest destruction in the Amazon and releasing significant greenhouse gases.[25][26]
Forest loss rates[edit]
The annual rate of deforestation in the Amazon region dramatically increased from 1991 to 2003.[9] In the nine years from 1991 to 2000, the total area of Amazon rainforest cleared since 1970 rose from 419,010 to 575,903 km2 (161,781 to 222,357 sq mi),[27] comparable to the land area of Spain, Madagascar or Manitoba. Most of this lost forest was replaced by pasture for cattle.[28]
Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest continued to accelerate in the early 2000s, reaching an annual rate of 27,423 km² of forest loss in the year 2004. Today the remaining forest cover continues to dwindle, though the annual rate of forest loss has generally been slowing since 2004. However, rates of deforestation jumped again in 2008,[29] 2013[30] and 2015.[31]
Period[27]
Estimated remaining forest cover
in the Brazilian Amazon (km²)
Annual forest
loss (km²)
Percent of 1970
cover remaining
Total forest loss
since 1970 (km²)
Pre–1970 4,100,000 — — —
1977 3,955,870 21,130 96.5% 144,130
1978–1987 3,744,570 21,130 91.3% 355,430
1988 3,723,520 21,050 90.8% 376,480
1989 3,705,750 17,770 90.4% 394,250
1990 3,692,020 13,730 90.0% 407,980
1991 3,680,990 11,030 89.8% 419,010
1992 3,667,204 13,786 89.4% 432,796
1993 3,652,308 14,896 89.1% 447,692
1994 3,637,412 14,896 88.7% 462,588
1995 3,608,353 29,059 88.0% 491,647
1996 3,590,192 18,161 87.6% 509,808
1997 3,576,965 13,227 87.2% 523,035
1998 3,559,582 17,383 86.8% 540,418
1999 3,542,323 17,259 86.4% 557,677
2000 3,524,097 18,226 86.0% 575,903
2001 3,505,932 18,165 85.5% 594,068
2002 3,484,538 21,651 85.0% 615,719
2003 3,459,291 25,396 84.4% 641,115
2004 3,431,868 27,772 83.7% 668,887
2005 3,413,022 19,014 83.2% 687,901
2006 3,398,913 14,285 82.9% 702,186
2007 3,387,381 11,651 82.6% 713,837
2008 3,375,413 12,911 82.3% 726,748
2009 3,365,788 7,464 82.1% 734,212
2010 3,358,788 7,000 81.9% 741,212
2011 3,352,370 6,418 81.8% 747,630
2012 3,347,799 4,571 81.7% 752,201
2013 3,341,908 5,891 81.5% 758,092
2014 3,336,896 5,012 81.4% 763,104
2015 3,331,065 5,831 81.2% 768,935
2016 3,322,796 7,893 81.0% 777,204
2017 3,316,172 6,624 80.9% 768,935
In Brazil, the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE, or National Institute of Space Research) produces deforestation figures annually. Their deforestation estimates are derived from 100 to 220 images taken during the dry season in the Amazon by the Landsat satellite, also may only consider the loss of the Amazon rainforest – not the loss of natural fields or savannah within the Amazon biome.[32]
Impact on Indigenous peoples[edit]
See also: Genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil
Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the Brazilian state of Acre in 2009
The native tribes of the Amazon have often been abused during the Amazon's deforestation. Loggers have killed natives, and encroached on to their land.[33] Many uncontacted peoples have come out of the jungles to mingle with mainstream society after threats from outsiders.[34] Uncontacted peoples making first contact with outsiders are susceptible to diseases to which they have little immunity. Tribes can easily be decimated, the deaths resulting have been compared to a genocide.[35]
Future of the Amazon rainforest[edit]
Using the 2005 deforestation rates, it was estimated that the Amazon rainforest would be reduced by 40% in two decades.[36] The rate of deforestation is now slowing; rates of forest loss in 2012 were the slowest on record. However, the forest is still shrinking.[37][38]
Norwegian prime minister Jens Stoltenberg announced on September 16, 2008, that Norway's government would donate US $1 billion to the newly established Amazon fund. The money from this fund would go to projects aimed at slowing down the deforestation of the Amazon rainforest.[39]
In September 2015, Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff told the United Nations that Brazil had effectively reduced the rate of deforestation in the Amazon by 82 percent. She also announced that over the next 15 years, Brazil aimed to eliminate illegal deforestation, restore and reforest 120,000 km2 (46,000 sq mi), and recover 150,000 km2 (58,000 sq mi) of degraded pastures.[40]
In August 2017, Brazilian president Michel Temer abolished an Amazonian nature reserve the size of Denmark in Brazil's northern states of Pará and Amapá.[41]
See also[edit]
Belo Monte Dam
Cattle ranching
Clearcutting
Construction of the Trans-Amazonian Highway
Flying river
Logging
IBAMA
INCRA
Population and energy consumption in Brazilian Amazonia
Selective logging in the Amazon rainforest
Terra Preta
Fauna[edit]
Panthera onca onca
Peruvian jaguar
Southern jaguar
Bibliography[edit]
Bradford, Alina. "Deforestation: Facts, Causes, & Effects." Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html. March 4, 2015. Web. July 16, 2017.
Monbiot, George (1991). Amazon watershed: the new environmental investigation. London, UK: Michael Joseph. ISBN 978-0-7181-3428-0.
Scheer, Roddy, and Moss, Doug. "Deforestation and its Extreme Effects on Global Warming." Scientific America. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/deforestation-and-global-warming/. 2017. Web. July 16, 2017.
Tabuchi, Hiroko, Rigby, Claire, and White, Jeremy. "Amazon Deforestation, Once Tamed, now Comes Roaring Back.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/24/business/energy-environment/deforestation-brazil-bolivia-south-america.html. Feb 24, 2017. Web. July 16, 2017.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lucy Siegle (August 9, 2015). "Has the Amazon rainforest been saved, or should I still worry about it?" The Guardian. Retrieved on October 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Adam, David (May 31, 2009). "British supermarkets accused over destruction of Amazon rainforest". The Guardian. Retrieved on October 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Slaughtering the Amazon". Greenpeace. June 1, 2009. Retrieved on October 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Steinfeld, Henning; Gerber, Pierre; Wassenaar, T. D.; Castel, Vincent (2006). Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-105571-8. Retrieved August 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon (PDF). World Bank Working Paper No. 22 (Report). Washington D.C.: The World Bank. 2004. p. 9. ISBN 0-8213-5691-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 10, 2008. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Butler, Rhett (July 9, 2014). "Deforestation in the Amazon". Mongabay.com. Retrieved on October 19, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Growth in Amazon Cropland May Impact Climate and Deforestation Patterns". NASA - Goddard Space Flight Center - News. September 19, 2006. Retrieved on October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Romero, Simon (January 14, 2012) Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World. New York Times
^ Jump up to: a b c Kirby, Kathryn R.; Laurance, William F.; Albernaz, Ana K.; Schroth, Götz; Fearnside, Philip M.; Bergen, Scott; M. Venticinque, Eduardo; Costa, Carlos da (2006). "The future of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon". Futures. 38 (4): 432–453. doi:10.1016/j.futures.2005.07.011.
^ Jump up to: a b Watkins and Griffiths, J. (2000). Forest Destruction and Sustainable Agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon: a Literature Review (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Reading, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 15–17
Jump up ^ Dean, Bartholomew 2009 Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5 [1]
Jump up ^ Vittor, Luis (January 30, 2008). "The law of the jungle, to sell the Amazon basin". Agencia Latinoamericana de información.
Jump up ^ "Peru: Government intent on privatizing the Amazon for implementing tree plantations". World Rainforest Movement, Bulletin 129. April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Polk, James (April 14, 2009). "Time to Strengthen Ties with Peru". Foreign Policy In Focus.
Jump up ^ Salazar, Milagros (February 5, 2008). "ENVIRONMENT-PERU: 'For Sale' Signs in Amazon Jungle". Inter Press Service.
Jump up ^ Bradford, Alina. "Deforestation: Facts, Causes, & Effects." Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html. March 4, 2015. Web. July 16, 2017,
Jump up ^ Tabuchi, Hiroko, Rigby, Claire, and White, Jeremy. "Amazon Deforestation, Once Tamed, now Comes Roaring Back.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/24/business/energy-environment/deforestation-brazil-bolivia-south-america.html
^ Jump up to: a b Bradford, Alina. "Deforestation: Facts, Causes, & Effects." Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html. March 4, 2015. Web. July 16, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Scheer, Roddy, and Moss, Doug. "Deforestation and its Extreme Effects on Global Warming." Scientific America. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/deforestation-and-global-warming/. 2017. Web. July 16, 2017.
Jump up ^ Margulis, Sergio (2004). Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon (PDF). World Bank Working Paper No. 22. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. ISBN 0-8213-5691-7. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ "U.S. ethanol may drive Amazon deforestation". mongabay.com. May 17, 2007. Archived from the original on July 13, 2012. Retrieved October 29, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Kelly April Tyrrell (January 22, 2015). "Study shows Brazil's Soy Moratorium still needed to preserve Amazon". the University of Wisconsin-Madison News. Retrieved on October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Williams, M. (2006). Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ Research paper of Leydimere Oliveira on the Amazon Archived 2013-08-03 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ Milman, Oliver (28 September 2016). "US drives rainforest destruction by importing Amazon oil, study finds". The Guardian. London, UK. Retrieved 2016-09-28.
Jump up ^ Zuckerman, Adam; Koenig, Kevin (September 2016). From well to wheel: the social, environmental, and climate costs of Amazon crude (PDF). Oakland, CA, USA: Amazon Watch. Retrieved 2016-09-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Butler, Rhett A. Calculating Deforestation Figures for the Amazon. rainforests.mongabay.com, sourced from INPE and FAO figures.
Jump up ^ Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2004)
Jump up ^ Staff (February 7, 2008). "Amazon Deforestation Rate Escalates". The Real Truth. Retrieved August 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Amazon deforestation jumps 29%". The Guardian. 11 September 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Amazon deforestation jumps in Brazil, but remains historically low". Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ National Institute for Space Research (INPE) (2005). The INPE deforestation figures for Brazil were cited on the WWF Website in April 2006.
Jump up ^ "Uncontacted Indians killed by loggers". Survival International. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Amazon tribe under threat". CNN. Retrieved January 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Peru Approves Genocide for Uncontacted Tribes". earth first journal. Retrieved June 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wallace, Scott (January 2007) "Last of the Amazon". National Geographic magazine. pp. 40–71.
Jump up ^ INPE figures August to July.
Jump up ^ Rowlatt, Justin (January 2, 2012) Saving the Amazon: Winning the war on deforestation. BBC
Jump up ^ "NOK 5.8 billion to the Amazon fund". The Norwegian Mail. September 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ Megan Rowling (September 30, 2015). "How to stop deforestation? Make 'good stuff' cheaper". Reuters. Retrieved on October 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Brazil abolishes huge Amazon reserve in 'biggest attack' in 50 years". The Guardian. 24 August 2017.
External links[edit]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308899029_ARC_OF_DEFORESTATION_EXPANSION
Camill, Phil. "The Deforestation of the Amazon". (1999). May 31, 2011.
"Amazon Deforestation Trend On The Increase". ScienceDaily LLC (2009). May 31, 2011.
Butler, Rhett. "Deforestation in the Amazon". Mongabay.com. July 9, 2014.
"Amazon Deforestation: Earth's Heart and Lungs Dismembered". LiveScience.com. January 9, 2009.
"The Roots of Deforestation in the Amazon". Effects-of-Deforestation.com. May 31, 2011.
"Amazon Deforestation Declines to Record Low". Nature.com. May 31, 2011.
"Brazil confirms rising deforestation in the Amazon". March 14, 2015.
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