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Amparo and habeas data in the Philippines
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In the Philippines, amparo and habeas data are prerogative writs to supplement the inefficacy of the writ of habeas corpus (Rule 102, Revised Rules of Court). Amparo means 'protection,' while habeas data is 'access to information.'[1] Both writs were conceived to solve the extensive Philippine extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances since 1999.[2]
On July 16, 2007, Philippine Chief Justice Reynato S. Puno and Justice Adolfo Azcuna officially declared the legal conception of the Philippine Writ of Amparo ("Recurso de Amparo"), at the historic Manila Hotel National Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances.[3][4]
On August 25, 2007, Reynato Puno declared the legal conception of amparo's twin, the supplemental Philippine Habeas Data. Puno by judicial fiat proclaimed the legal birth of these twin peremptory writs on October, 2007, as his legacy to the Filipino nation. Puno admitted the inefficacy of Habeas Corpus, under Rule 102, Rules of Court, since government officers repeatedly failed to produce the body upon mere submission of the defense of alibi.
By invoking the truth, Habeas Data will not only compel military and government agents to release information about the desaparecidos but require access to military and police files. Reynato Puno's writ of amparo—Spanish for 'protection'—will bar military officers in judicial proceedings to issue denial answers regarding petitions on disappearances or extrajudicial executions, which were legally permitted in Habeas corpus proceedings.[5]
The Supreme Court of the Philippines announced that the draft guidelines (Committee on Revision of Rules) for the writ of amparo were approved on September 23, to be deliberated by the En Banc Court on September 25.[6]
Contents
1 Origin
1.1 Mexican amparo
1.2 Argentine amparo
1.3 Habeas corpus
2 National Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances
3 Writs of amparo and habeas data
3.1 Historical promulgations of amparo and habeas data
3.1.1 A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, the Rule on the Writ of Amparo
3.1.2 AM No. 08-1-16-SC, the Rule on the Writ of Habeas Data
4 Recent events
4.1 First landmark amparo Supreme Court judgment
5 International criticism
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Origin[edit]
Mexican amparo[edit]
Chief Justice Reynato Puno noted that the model for Amparo was borrowed from Mexico: the right of Amparo is a Mexican legal procedure to protect human rights.[7] Of Mexican origin, thus, “Amparo” literally means “protection” in Spanish.[8] de Tocqueville’s "Democracy in America" had been available in Mexico, in 1837 and its description of judicial review practice in the U.S. appealed to many Mexican jurists.[9] Mexican justice Manuel Crescencio Rejón, drafted a constitutional provision for his native state, Yucatan, which empowered jurists to protect all persons in the enjoyment of their constitutional and legal rights. This was incorporated into the 1847 national constitution.[10][11] The great right proliferated in the Western Hemisphere, slowly evolving into various fora. Amparo became, in the words of a Mexican Federal Supreme Court Justice, Mexico’s “task of conveying to the world’s legal heritage that institution which, as a shield of human dignity, her own painful history conceived.”[12][13]
Amparo's evolution and metamorphosis had been witnessed, for several purposes: "(1) amparo libertad for the protection of personal freedom, equivalent to the habeas corpus right; (2) amparo contra leyes for the judicial review of the constitutionality of statutes; (3) amparo casación for the judicial review of the constitutionality and legality of a judicial decisión; (4) amparo administrativo for the judicial review of administrative actions; and (5) amparo agrario for the protection of peasants’ rights derived from the agrarian reform process." [14]
Latin American countries, except Cuba, used the great right to protect against human rights abuses especially committed in countries under military juntas, adopting an all-encompassing amparo, even to protect socio-economic rights. But other countries like Colombia, Chile, Germany and Spain, opted to limit amparo shield only to some constitutional guarantees or fundamental rights.[15] In the Philippines, while the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines failed to expressly provide for amparo, several amparo protections are already guaranteed, thus: by paragraph 2, Article VIII, Section 1, the "Grave Abuse Clause" - which grants a similar general protection to human rights extended by the amparo contra leyes, amparo casacion, and amparo administrativo. Amparo libertad is similar to habeas corpus in the 1987 Constitution. The Clause is borrowed from the U.S. common law tradition of judicial review (1803 case of Marbury v. Madison).[16][17]
Justice Adolfo Azcuna, a member of two Constitutional Commissions of 1971, and 1986 previously made a study on the Right amparo as published in the Ateneo Law Journal (see Adolfo S. Azcuna, The Right of Amparo: A Remedy to Enforce Fundamental Rights, 37 ATENEO L.J. 15 (1993).).[18]
The "recurso de amparo" is an exhaustive remedy which originated from Latin America's Mexican, Chile and Argentina legal systems, inter alia. Mexico's amparo is found in Articles 103 and 107 of the Mexican Constitution -- the judicial review of governmental action, to empower state courts to protect individuals against state abuses. Amparo was sub-divided into 5 legal departments:
(a) the Liberty Amparo (amparo de libertad);
(b) the Constitutionality Amparo (amparo contra leyes);
(c) the Judicial or “Cassation” Amparo, aimed at the constitutionality of a judicial interpretation;
(d) the Administrative Amparo (amparo como contencioso-administrativo); and
(e) the Agrarian Amparo (amparo en matera agraria, ejidal y comunal).[19]
Argentine amparo[edit]
Amparo was also legally enshrined in Latin America legal systems. It is now an extraordinary legal remedy in Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay Peru, Brazil and Argentina. Amparo in Argentina is a limited, summary, emergency procedure, and merely supplementary, requiring previous exhaustion of administrative remedies before rendition of judgment of mandamus or injunction. The decision bars monetary awards and penal provisions except contempt or declaration of unconstitutionality.[20]
Habeas corpus[edit]
Historically, Philippine Habeas Corpus (from 1901 until the present) failed to provide an efficacious legal remedy to victims of extra-judicial killings and desaparecidos. The amparo de libertad transcends the protection of habeas corpus. Once a lawsuit is filed under Habeas Corpus, Rule 102, Rules of Court, the defendants, government officers would merely submit the usual defense of alibi or non-custody of the body sought to be produced.[21] [22] The 1987 Philippine constitution, however, empowers the Supreme Court of the Philippines to promulgate amparo and habeas data, as part of the Rules of Court expressly: “Promulgate rules concerning the protection and enforcement of constitutional rights.” (Sec. 5, (5), Article VIII, 1987, Constitution)[23][24]
The writ of habeas corpus is an "extraordinary", "common law", or "prerogative writ", which were historically issued by English courts in the name of the monarch to control inferior courts and public authorities within the kingdom. The most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, because they incorporate the presumption of non-authority, so that the official who is the respondent has the burden to prove his authority to do or not do something, failing which the court has no discretion but to decide for the petitioner, who may be any person, not just an interested party.
National Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances[edit]
On July 16, 2007, Justices, activists, militant leaders, police officials, politicians and prelates attended the Supreme Court of the Philippines's 2-day summit at the Manila Hotel, Metro Manila to solve extrajudicial killings. Chief Justice Reynato Puno stated that the "National Consultative Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Forced Disappearances: Searching for Solutions" would help stop the murders. Based on CBCP - Bishop Deogracias Yniguez-church's count, the number of victims of extrajudicial killings was record at 778, while survivors of "political assassinations" was 370; 203 "massacre" victims; 186 desaparecido; 502 tortured, and those illegally arrested.[25]
Puno requested for truce and talks with insurgents: "Let us rather engage in the conspiracy of hope…and hope for peace." Puno forwarded the summit's recommendation to President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the Senate of the Philippines and House of Representatives.[26][27][28]
“Extralegal killings” (UN instruments term) are those committed without due process of law, which include summary and arbitrary executions, “salvagings”, threats to take the life of journalists, inter alia. “Enforced disappearances” (defined by Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances), include: arrest, detention or abduction by a government official or organized groups under the government; the refusal of the State to disclose the fate or whereabouts of missing persons, inter alia.[29]
Writs of amparo and habeas data[edit]
On August 17, 2007 Puno said that the writ of amparo, would bar the military plea of denial (at a speech at the Volunteers Against Crime and Corruption's 9th anniversary, Camp Crame). Under the writ, plaintiffs or victims will have the right of access to information on their lawsuits—a constitutional right called the "habeas data" derived from constitutions of Latin America. The final draft of these twin writs (retroactive) will be promulgated on October. Puno tersely summed the writs "In other words, if you have this right, it would be very, very difficult for State agents, State authorities to be able to escape from their culpability."[30][31]
Puno stated that with the writ of Habeas corpus, the writs of Habeas Data and writ of amparo will further assist "those looking for missing loved ones".[5] On August 30, 2007, Puno (speech at Silliman University in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental) promised to institute the writ of habeas data (“you should have the idea” or “you should have the data”). Puno explained that amparo bars alibi, while Habeas Data "can find out what information is held by the officer, rectify or even the destroy erroneous data gathered". Brazil used the writ, followed by Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, Argentina and Ecuador.[32]
The Philippine 1987 Constitution was derived from the 1973 Ferdinand Marcos Constitution, its 1981 amendment, from the 1935 constitution, and from the United States Constitution. The United States Constitution was adopted in its original form on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and later ratified by conventions in each state in the name of "the People." The U.S. Constitution is the oldest written national constitution except possibly for San Marino 's Statutes of 1600, whose status as a true constitution is disputed by scholars. The Writ of Amparo is a remedy to enforce fundamental rights. “among the different procedures that have been established for the protection of human rights, the primary ones that provide direct and immediate protection are habeas corpus and amparo. The difference between these two writs is that habeas corpus is designed to enforce the right to freedom of the person, whereas amparo is designed to protect those other fundamental human rights enshrined in the Constitution but not covered by the writ of habeas corpus.”[33] [34]
The literal translation from Latin of Habeas Data is “you should have the data”. Habeas Data is a constitutional right to protect, per lawsuit filed in court, to protect the image, privacy, honour, information self-determination and freedom of information of a person. Habeas Data can used to discover what information is held about his or her person (via rectification or destruction of the personal data held. Habeas Data originated, inter alia, from the Council of Europe’s 108th Convention on Data Protection of 1981 (aimed at protecting the privacy of the individual regarding the automated processing of personal data; with right to access their personal data held in an automated database.[35]
Historical promulgations of amparo and habeas data[edit]
A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, the Rule on the Writ of Amparo[edit]
On September 25, 2007, Chief Justice Reynato Puno officially announced the approval or promulgation of the Writ of Amparo: "Today, the Supreme Court promulgated the rule that will place the constitutional right to life, liberty and security above violation and threats of violation. This rule will provide the victims of extralegal killings and enforced disappearances the protection they need and the promise of vindication for their rights. This rule empowers our courts to issue reliefs that may be granted through judicial orders of protection, production, inspection and other relief to safeguard one's life and liberty The writ of amparo shall hold public authorities, those who took their oath to defend the constitution and enforce our laws, to a high standard of official conduct and hold them accountable to our people. The sovereign Filipino people should be assured that if their right to life and liberty is threatened or violated, they will find vindication in our courts of justice."[36]
AM No. 08-1-16-SC, the Rule on the Writ of Habeas Data[edit]
On January 22, 2008, the Supreme En Banc approved the rules for the writ of Habeas Data ("to protect a person’s right to privacy and allow a person to control any information concerning them"), effective on February 2, the Philippines’ Constitution Day.[36] Reynato Puno traced the history of Habeas Data "to the Council of Europe’s 108th Convention on Data Protection of 1981; Brazil was the first Latin American country to adopt the Writ of Habeas Data in 1988 and was strengthened by its National Congress in 1997; in 1991, Colombia incorporated Habeas Data in its Constitution; Paraguay followed in 1992, Peru in 1993, Argentina in 1994, and Ecuador in 1996." In Argentina, Habeas Data allowed "access to police and military records otherwise closed to them."[37][38]
The Resolution and the Rule on the Writ of Amparo gave legal birth to Puno's brainchild.[39][40][41] No filing or legal fee is required for Amparo which takes effect on October 24 in time for the 62nd anniversary of the United Nations. Puno also stated that the court will soon issue rules on the writ of Habeas Data and the implementing guidelines for Habeas Corpus. The petition for the writ of amparo may be filed "on any day and at any time" with the Regional Trial Court, or with the Sandiganbayan, the Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court. The interim reliefs under amparo are: temporary protection order (TPO), inspection order (IO), production order (PO), and witness protection order (WPO, RA 6981).[42] and as of now..
Recent events[edit]
On September 26, 2007, human rights lawyer Jose Manuel Diokno (Free Legal Assistance Group, FLAG) stated that the writ of amparo can be invoked by journalists in stories censorship by the government concerning the anti-terrorism law (Human Security Act). Diokno, in the workshop sponsored by the Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism in Baguio City added that journalist, in the petition, can submit the censored story as annex, and it becomes a public document that can be used for publication.[43]
On October 23, 2007, the Free Legal Assistance Group issued a (a 47-question-and-answer format) primer on the writ of amparo.[44] On October 24, 2007, in a first test case, Merlinda Cadapan and Concepcion Empeno, mothers of 2 missing Philippine students filed the first petition for writ of amparo with the Supreme Court of the Philippines, to direct the military to let them search army offices for their daughters.[45] The Court later amended the Rules by providing specifics on the period to file the return.[46]
On December 3, 2007, Reynato S. Puno stated that the writ released only 3 victims (including Luisito Bustamante, Davao City), since amparo was enforced on October 24: "I would like to think that after the enactment and effectivity (of the writ), the number of extrajudicial killings and disappearances have gone down." [47]
On January, 2008, 11 ABS-CBN news personnel filed the writ of amparo petition with the Supreme Court, which accordingly ordered the government to comment on the petition for protection from harassment and threats of arrest.[48]
On February, 2008, 7 The Supreme Court of the Philippines issued a writ of amparo against President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo and several other government and security officials, granting the petition filed by relatives of the key witness in the Senate investigation of the national broadband network (NBN) controversy.[49]
In January 2017, the Center for International Law (CenterLaw) petitioned for a writ of amparo on behalf of families of victims of the drug war of the government of the Philippines.[50] In October 2017, FLAG, on behalf of another set of victims of the drug war, filed for writs of amparo, injunction, and prohibition, as well as for a temporary protection order and temporary restraining order, before the Supreme Court of the Philippines.[50][51][52][53] The Supreme Court granted the writ and ordered the police to turn over documents relating to the drug war.[52] After hearings on a motion for reconsideration filed by the Office of the Solicitor General, the Supreme Court on April 3, 2018, upheld its earlier decision and ordered the solicitor general and the Philippine National Police to submit data related to the government’s war on drugs.[54][55][56]
First landmark amparo Supreme Court judgment[edit]
The Supreme Court of the Philippines, on October 7, 2008, rendered its first amparo decision, affirming the December 26, 2007 Philippine Court of Appeals judgment in favor of Raymond and Reynaldo Manalo brothers. Reynato Puno's 49-page unanimous ponencia granted amparo relief to the Manalo brothers who were abducted by the Citizens Armed Forces Geographical Unit (CAFGU) in San Ildefonso, Bulacan in February 2006. They escaped on August 13, 2007, after 18 months of detention and torture.[57][58][59]
International criticism[edit]
On September 28, 2007, the Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) described the new writs of amparo and habeas data as insufficient to resolve the problems of extra-legal killings and enforced disappearances in the Philippines. It argued that there must be a cooperative action on all parts of the government and civil society:
Though it responds to practical areas it is still necessary that further action must be taken in addition to this. The legislative bodies, House of Representatives and Senate, should also initiate its own actions promptly and without delay. They must enact laws which ensure protection of rights—laws against torture and enforced disappearance and laws to afford adequate legal remedies to victims.
The AHRC objected that the writs fail to protect non-witnesses, even if they too face threats or risk to their lives.[60]
See also[edit]
Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007
Philippine Habeas Corpus Cases
Constitution of the Philippines
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Literally, 'may you have the data' in Latin.
Jump up ^ Supremecourt.gov.ph, National Consultative Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances Summary of Recommendations Archived 2007-12-05 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Supremecourt.gov.ph, Summit on Extrajudicial Killings Sows Hope Archived 2007-12-05 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Extrajudicial killings, ‘View from the mountaintop’ Archived 2009-06-05 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Inquirer.net, SC drafting writ of habeas data invoking right to truth
Jump up ^ News.balita.ph, Draft Guidelines on Writ of Amparo approved on September 23 Archived 2007-10-07 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Mejorada, Carlos Sánchez (1 January 1946). "The Writ of Amparo. Mexican Procedure to Protect Human Rights". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 243: 107–111. JSTOR 1025063.
Jump up ^ [Barker, R., “Constitutionalism in the Americas: A Bicentennial Perspective,” 49 University of Pittsburgh Law Review (Spring, 1988) 891, 906.]
Jump up ^ [Id., citing Zamudio, F., “A Brief Introduction to the Mexican Right of Amparo,” 9 California Western International Law Journal (1979) 306, 309]
Jump up ^ [“At the time it adopted Rejón’s amparo, Yucatan had separated itself from Mexico. After a few months, the secession ended and the state resumed its place in the union.” (Barker, R., supra at 906.)]
Jump up ^ [Acta de Reformas, art. 25 (1847) (amending Constitution of 1824).]
Jump up ^ [Rule on the Right of Amparo: Annotation, p. 45. See Article 107 of the Constitution of Mexico; Article 28(15) of the Constitution of Ecuador; Article 77 of the Constitution of Paraguay; Article 43 of the Constitution of Argentina; Article 49 of the Constitution of Venezuela; Article 48 (3) of the Constitution of Costa Rica; and Article 19 of the Constitution of Bolivia.]
Jump up ^ [Provost, R., supra at 698, citing Ramirez, F., “The International Expansion of the Mexican Amparo,” 1 Inter-American Law Review (1959) 163, 166.]
Jump up ^ [Rule on the Right of Amparo: Annotation, p. 45; see also Zagaris, B., “The Amparo Process in Mexico,” 6 Mexico Law Journal (Spring 1998) 61, 66 and Provost, R., supra at 708-709.]
Jump up ^ [Brewer-Carias, A., “The Latin American Amparo Proceeding and the Right of Amparo in the Philippines,” Second Distinguished Lecture, Series of 2007, Supreme Court, Philippine Judicial Academy in coordination with the Philippine Association of Law Schools, March 7, 2008.]
Jump up ^ [See 1987 Phil. Const. Art. III, §§ 13 & 15; Art. VII, § 18; Art. VIII, § 5(1).]
Jump up ^ [ 5 U.S. 137 (1803). See Gormley, K. “Judicial Review in the Americas: Comments on the United States and Mexico,” 45 Duquesne Law Review (Spring, 2007) 393.]
Jump up ^ "supremecourt.gov, ANNOTATION TO THE right OF AMPARO" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Inquirer.net, Joaquin G. Bernas, The Mexican amparo Archived 2010-10-15 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Inquirer.net, Joaquin G. Bernas, The Argentine amparo Archived 2007-10-11 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Supremecourt.gov.ph, Rules of Court".
Jump up ^ "Supremecourt.gov.ph, Rule 102, Rules of Court, Habeas Corpus".
Jump up ^ "SPECIAL PROCEEDINGS (RULES OF COURT) - CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY".
Jump up ^ "1987 CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES - CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY".
Jump up ^ GMA NEWS.TV, Justices, activists, prelates map out ways to end killings
Jump up ^ GMA NEWS.TV, CPP: SC summit can’t stop mastermind of killings
Jump up ^ Inquirer.net, Let's engage in a conspiracy of Hope
Jump up ^ ABS-CBN Interactive, More groups ask Supreme Court to junk anti-terror law
Jump up ^ Abs-Cbn Interactive, The writ of amparo: Judiciary’s sword unsheathed
Jump up ^ Inquiret.net, Military can’t shrug off killings--Chief Justice Archived October 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "SC ready with writ of amparo by Sept - Puno".
Jump up ^ Inquirer.net, Habeas data: SC’s new remedy vs killings, disappearances
Jump up ^ Law.ateneo.edu, Ateneo De Manila Law School
Jump up ^ Irb-cisr.gc.ca, RESPONSES TO INFORMATION REQUESTS
Jump up ^ Warwick.ac.uk Andres Guadamuz, "Habeas Data: The Latin American response to data protection", Journal of Information, Law & Technology 2000(2).
Jump up ^ newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews, Supreme Court okays rules of ‘habeas data’
Jump up ^ mb.com.ph, Supreme Court adopts Writ of Habeas Data
Jump up ^ "supremecourt.gov.ph, SC Promulgates Rule on the Writ of Habeas Data".
Jump up ^ Supremecourt.gov.ph, A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, THE RULE ON THE WRIT OF AMPARO[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "S.C. Resolution, A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, THE RULE ON THE WRIT OF AMPARO" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-28.
Jump up ^ "Supremecourt.gov.ph, SC Approves Rule on Writ of Amparo". Archived from the original on 2007-12-23.
Jump up ^ "SC approves rule on writ of amparo vs extralegal killings".
Jump up ^ Abs-Cbn Interactive, Journalists can cite writ of amparo vs censorship
Jump up ^ "Writ of amparo takes effect; lawyers' group issues primer".
Jump up ^ "Missing activists' mothers test Manila court rule". 24 October 2007 – via Reuters.
Jump up ^ "supremecourt.gov.ph, Period to File Return in Amparo Cases Amended".
Jump up ^ "'Amparo' frees 3 detainees - SC chief".
Jump up ^ Abs-Cbn Interactive, Journalists file P10M lawsuit over Peninsula arrests
Jump up ^ Inquirer.net, (UPDATE) SC issues writ of amparo vs gov’t on Lozada case: Orders PNP to explain ‘abduction’
^ Jump up to: a b Adel, Rosette (October 11, 2017). "Petitioners ask Supreme Court to halt war on drugs". Philstar. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
Jump up ^ Cheng, Willard (October 11, 2017). "Petition for prohibition, writ of amparo filed vs gov't war on drugs". ABS-CBN News. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Buan, Lian (October 11, 2017). "Lawyers file petition to declare drug war circulars unconstitutional". Rappler. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
Jump up ^ Ballaran, Jhoanna (October 18, 2017). "Manila residents ask SC for writ of amparo vs police". Inquirer. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
Jump up ^ Punay, Edu (April 4, 2018). "SC orders PNP: Submit report on drug war". Philstar. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
Jump up ^ "Supreme Court orders SolGen Calida to submit drug war records". CNN. April 4, 2018. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
Jump up ^ San Juan, Joel (April 3, 2018). "SC affirms order to PNP to submit documentation on government's drug war". Business Mirror. Retrieved 2018-04-24.
Jump up ^ "supremecourt.gov, SC Decides Its 1st Amparo Case; Upholds Right to Security".
Jump up ^ inquirer.net, SC upholds amparo for Manalo brothers
Jump up ^ "G.R. No. 180906, Secretary of National Defense vs. RAYMOND MANALO and REYNALDO MANALO, October 7, 2008".
Jump up ^ GMA NEWS.TV, Writ of amparo not enough – Hong Kong rights group
External links[edit]
The Supreme Court of the Philippines – Official website
Supremecourt.gov.ph, A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, THE RULE ON THE WRIT OF AMPARO[permanent dead link]
S.C. Resolution, A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, THE RULE ON THE WRIT OF AMPARO
The Corpus Juris, A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, The Rule on the Writ of Amparo
The Corpus Juris, A.M. No. 07-9-12-SC, Amendments to the Rule on the Writ of Amparo
The Corpus Juris, A.M. No. 08-1-15-SC, The Rule on the Writ of Habeas Data
Report on Human Rights Situation in Chile
Library of Congress, Federal Research Division
HabeasData.org
Find Habeas
Law.ateneo.edu
SC takes new role in national debate
supremecourt.gov.ph, Period to File Return in Amparo Cases Amended
Speech of C.J. Puno on Habeas Data
gmanews.tv/video, Reporters file petition for writ of amparo - 21 January 2008
Abs-Cbn Interactive, Petition for Writ of amparo filed by 11 ABS-CBN reporters to ask SC to declare Nov. 29 arrest illegal
pnp.gov.ph, Writ of Amparo
supremecourt.gov.ph, A.M.No.08-1-16-SC.pdf
supremecourt.gov, ANNOTATION TO THE WRIT OF AMPARO
The dictionary definition of amparo at Wiktionary
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text:
Heron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Heron (disambiguation).
Herons
Temporal range: Paleocene-Recent, 55–0 Ma
PreЄ
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O
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P
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[citation needed]
Purple and grey herons (Ardea purpurea and A. cinerea) in Mangaon, Maharashtra, India.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Pelecaniformes
Family: Ardeidae
Leach, 1820
Genera
About 21 extant, see text
Global distribution of herons
Synonyms
Cochlearidae
See also: Crane (bird)
The herons are the long-legged freshwater and coastal birds in the family Ardeidae, with 64 recognised species, some of which are referred to as egrets or bitterns rather than herons. Members of the genera Botaurus and Ixobrychus are referred to as bitterns, and, together with the zigzag heron or zigzag bittern in the monotypic genus Zebrilus, form a monophyletic group within the Ardeidae. Egrets are not a biologically distinct group from the herons, and tend to be named differently because they are mainly white or have decorative plumes. Although egrets have the same build as herons, they tend to be smaller. Herons, by evolutionary adaptation, have long beaks.
The classification of the individual heron/egret species is fraught with difficulty, and no clear consensus exists about the correct placement of many species into either of the two major genera, Ardea and Egretta. Similarly, the relationships of the genera in the family are not completely resolved. However, one species formerly considered to constitute a separate monotypic family, the Cochlearidae or the boat-billed heron, is now regarded as a member of the Ardeidae.
Although herons resemble birds in some other families, such as the storks, ibises, spoonbills, and cranes, they differ from these in flying with their necks retracted, not outstretched. They are also one of the bird groups that have powder down. Some members of this group nest colonially in trees, while others, notably the bitterns, use reed beds.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Distribution and habitat
3 Behaviour and ecology
3.1 Diet
3.2 Breeding
4 Name
5 Taxonomy and systematics
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Description[edit]
The neck of this yellow bittern is fully retracted.
The herons are medium- to large-sized birds with long legs and necks. They exhibit very little sexual dimorphism in size. The smallest species is usually considered the little bittern, which can measure under 30 cm (12 in) in length, although all the species in the Ixobrychus genus are small and many broadly overlap in size. The largest species of heron is the goliath heron, which stands up to 152 cm (60 in) tall. The necks are able to kink in an S-shape, due to the modified shape of the cervical vertebrae, of which they have 20–21. The neck is able to retract and extend, and is retracted during flight, unlike most other long-necked birds. The neck is longer in the day herons than the night herons and bitterns. The legs are long and strong and in almost every species are unfeathered from the lower part of the tibia (the exception is the zigzag heron). In flight, the legs and feet are held backward. The feet of herons have long, thin toes, with three forward-pointing ones and one pointing backward.[1]
The Pacific reef heron has two colour morphs, the light and the dark.
The bill is generally long and harpoon-like. It can vary from extremely fine, as in the agami heron, to thick as in the grey heron. The most atypical bill is owned by the boat-billed heron, which has a broad, thick bill. The bill, as well as other bare parts of the body, is usually yellow, black, or brown in colour, although this can vary during the breeding season. The wings are broad and long, exhibiting 10 or 11 primary feathers (the boat-billed heron has only nine), 15–20 secondaries. and 12 rectrices (10 in the bitterns). The feathers of the herons are soft and the plumage is usually blue, black, brown, grey, or white, and can often be strikingly complex. Amongst the day herons, little sexual dimorphism in plumage is seen (except in the pond-herons); differences between the sexes are the rule for the night herons and smaller bitterns. Many species also have different colour morphs.[1] In the Pacific reef heron, both dark and light colour morphs exist, and the percentage of each morph varies geographically. White morphs only occur in areas with coral beaches.[2]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Lava herons are endemic to the Galápagos Islands, where they feed on fish and crabs in the intertidal and mangrove areas.
The herons are a widespread family with a cosmopolitan distribution. They exist on all continents except Antarctica, and are present in most habitats except the coldest extremes of the Arctic, extremely high mountains, and the driest deserts. Almost all species are associated with water; they are essentially nonswimming waterbirds that feed on the margins of lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds, and the sea. They are predominantly found in lowland areas, although some species live in alpine areas, and the majority of species occurs in the tropics.[1]
The herons are a highly mobile family, with most species being at least partially migratory. Some species are partially migratory, for example the grey heron, which is mostly sedentary in Britain, but mostly migratory in Scandinavia. Birds are particularly inclined to disperse widely after breeding, but before the annual migration, where the species is colonial, searching out new feeding areas and reducing the pressures on feeding grounds near the colony. The migration typically occurs at night, usually as individuals or in small groups.[1]
Behaviour and ecology[edit]
Diet[edit]
A great egret manipulating its prey, a lizard, prior to swallowing
The herons and bitterns are carnivorous. The members of this family are mostly associated with wetlands and water, and feed on a variety of live aquatic prey. Their diet includes a wide variety of aquatic animals, including fish, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, and aquatic insects. Individual species may be generalists or specialise in certain prey types, such as the yellow-crowned night heron, which specialises in crustaceans, particularly crabs.[3] Many species also opportunistically take larger prey, including birds and bird eggs, rodents, and more rarely carrion. Even more rarely, herons eating acorns, peas, and grains have been reported, but most vegetable matter consumed is accidental.[1]
Black herons holding wings out to form an umbrella-like canopy under which to hunt
The most common hunting technique is for the bird to sit motionless on the edge of or standing in shallow water and to wait until prey comes within range. Birds may either do this from an upright posture, giving them a wider field of view for seeing prey, or from a crouched position, which is more cryptic and means the bill is closer to the prey when it is located. Having seen prey, the head is moved from side to side, so that the heron can calculate the position of the prey in the water and compensate for refraction, and then the bill is used to spear the prey.[1]
Tricoloured heron fishing, using wings to create shade
In addition to sitting and waiting, herons may feed more actively. They may walk slowly, around or less than 60 paces a minute, snatching prey when it is observed. Other active feeding behaviours include foot stirring and probing, where the feet are used to flush out hidden prey.[4] The wings may be used to frighten prey (or possibly attract it to shade) or to reduce glare; the most extreme example of this is exhibited by the black heron, which forms a full canopy with its wings over its body.[5]
Some species of heron, such as the little egret and grey heron, have been documented using bait to lure prey to within striking distance. Herons may use items already in place, or actively add items to the water to attract fish such as the banded killifish. Items used may be man-made, such as bread;[6] alternatively, striated herons in the Amazon have been watched repeatedly dropping seeds, insects, flowers, and leaves into the water to catch fish.[7]
Three species, the black-headed heron, whistling heron, and especially the cattle egret, are less tied to watery environments and may feed far away from water. Cattle egrets improve their foraging success by following large grazing animals, catching insects flushed by their movement. One study found that the success rate of prey capture increased 3.6 times over solitary foraging.[8]
Breeding[edit]
The larger bitterns, like this American bittern, are solitary breeders. To advertise for mates, males use loud, characteristic calls, referred to as booming.
While the family exhibits a range of breeding strategies, overall, the herons are monogamous and mostly colonial. Most day herons and night herons are colonial, or partly colonial depending on circumstances, whereas the bitterns and tiger herons are mostly solitary nesters. Colonies may contain several species, as well as other species of waterbirds. In a study of little egrets and cattle egrets in India, the majority of the colonies surveyed contained both species.[9] Nesting is seasonal in temperate species; in tropical species, it may be seasonal (often coinciding with the rainy season) or year-round. Even in year-round breeders, nesting intensity varies throughout the year. Tropical herons typically have only one breeding season per year, unlike some other tropical birds which may raise up to three broods a year.[1]
Courtship usually takes part on the nest. Males arrive first and begin the building of the nest, where they display to attract females. During courtship, the male employs a stretch display and uses erectile neck feathers; the neck area may swell. The female risks an aggressive attack if she approaches too soon and may have to wait up to four days.[10] In colonial species, displays involve visual cues, which can include adopting postures or ritual displays, whereas in solitary species, auditory cues, such as the deep booming of the bitterns, are important. The exception to this is the boat-billed heron, which pairs up away from the nesting site. Having paired, they continue to build the nest in almost all species, although in the little bittern and least bittern, only the male works on the nest.[1]
Some ornithologists have reported observing female herons attaching themselves to impotent mates, then seeking sexual gratification elsewhere.[1]
The nests of herons are usually found near or above water. They are typically placed in vegetation, although the nests of a few species have been found on the ground where suitable trees of shrubs are unavailable.[1][9] Trees are used by many species, and here they may be placed high up from the ground, whereas species living in reed beds may nest very close to the ground.[1]
Generally, herons lay between three and seven eggs. Larger clutches are reported in the smaller bitterns and more rarely some of the larger day herons, and single-egg clutches are reported for some of the tiger herons. Clutch size varies by latitude within species, with individuals in temperate climates laying more eggs than tropical ones. On the whole, the eggs are glossy blue or white, with the exception being the large bitterns, which lay olive-brown eggs.[1]
Name[edit]
The word heron first appeared in the English language around 1300, originating from Old French hairon, eron (12th century), earlier hairo (11th century), from Frankish haigiro or from Proto-Germanic *haigrô, *hraigrô.[11]
Herons are also known as shitepokes /ˈʃaɪtpoʊk/, or euphemistically as shikepokes or shypokes. Webster's Dictionary suggests that herons were given this name because of their habit of defecating when flushed.[12]
The 1971 Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary describes the use of shitepoke for the small green heron of North America (Butorides virescens) as originating in the United States, citing a published example from 1853. The OED also observes that shiterow or shederow are terms used for herons, and also applied as derogatory terms meaning a thin, weakly person. This name for a heron is found in a list of gamebirds in a royal decree of James VI (1566–1625) of Scotland. The OED speculates that shiterow is a corruption of shiteheron.[13]
Another former name was heronshaw. Corrupted to handsaw, this name appears in Shakespeare's Hamlet.[14] A possible further corruption took place in the Norfolk Broads, where the heron is often referred to as a harnser.
Taxonomy and systematics[edit]
Analyses of the skeleton, mainly the skull, suggested that the Ardeidae could be split into a diurnal and a crepuscular/nocturnal group which included the bitterns. From DNA studies and skeletal analyses focusing more on bones of body and limbs, this grouping has been revealed as incorrect.[15] Rather, the similarities in skull morphology reflect convergent evolution to cope with the different challenges of daytime and nighttime feeding. Today, it is believed that three major groups can be distinguished,[16][17] which are (from the most primitive to the most advanced):
tiger herons and the boatbill
bitterns
day herons and egrets, and night herons
The night herons could warrant separation as subfamily Nycticoracinae, as it was traditionally done. However, the position of some genera (e.g. Butorides or Syrigma) is unclear at the moment, and molecular studies have until now suffered from a small number of studied taxa. Especially, the relationships among the Ardeinae subfamily are very badly resolved. The arrangement presented here should be considered provisional.
A 2008 study suggests that this family belongs to the Pelecaniformes.[18] In response to these findings, the International Ornithological Congress recently reclassified Ardeidae and their sister taxa Threskiornithidae under the order Pelecaniformes instead of the previous order of Ciconiiformes.[19]
Subfamily Tigriornithinae
Genus Cochlearius – boat-billed heron
Genus Tigrisoma – typical tiger herons (three species)
Genus Tigriornis – white-crested tiger heron
Genus Zonerodius – forest bittern
Subfamily Botaurinae
Genus Zebrilus – zigzag heron
Genus Ixobrychus – small bitterns (eight living species, one recently extinct)
Genus Botaurus – large bitterns (four species)
Subfamily Ardeinae
Genus Zeltornis (fossil)
Genus Nycticorax – typical night herons (two living species, four recently extinct; includes Nyctanassa)
Genus Nyctanassa – American night herons (one living species, one recently extinct)
Genus Gorsachius – Asian and African night herons (four species)
Genus Butorides – green-backed herons (three species; sometimes included in Ardea)
Genus Agamia – Agami heron
Genus Pilherodius – capped heron
Genus Ardeola – pond herons (six species)
Genus Bubulcus – cattle egrets (one or two species, sometimes included in Ardea)
Genus Proardea (fossil)
Genus Ardea – typical herons (11–17 species)
Genus Syrigma – whistling heron
Genus Egretta – typical egrets (7–13 species)
Genus undetermined
Easter Island heron, Ardeidae gen. et sp. indet. (prehistoric)
Fossil herons of unresolved affiliations
Calcardea (Paleocene)
Xenerodiops (Early Oligocene of Fayyum, Egypt)
"Anas" basaltica (Late Oligocene of Varnsdorf, Czech Republic)
Ardeagradis
Proardeola – possibly same as Proardea
Matuku otagoense (Early Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)
Other prehistoric and fossil species are included in the respective genus accounts. In addition, Proherodius is a disputed fossil which was variously considered a heron or one of the extinct long-legged waterfowl, the Presbyornithidae. It is only known from a sternum; a tarsometatarsus assigned to it actually belongs to the paleognath Lithornis vulturinus.
Bare-throated tiger heron (Tigrisoma mexicanum)
Great bittern (Botaurus stellaris)
Eastern great egret (Ardea modesta)
The Wounded Heron by George Frederic Watts, 1837 (Watts Gallery)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Martínez-Vilalta, Albert; Motis, Anna (1992). "Family Ardeidae (herons)". In del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostriches to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 376–403. ISBN 978-84-87334-10-8.
Jump up ^ Itoh, Singi (1991). "Geographical Variation of the Plumage Polymorphism in the eastern reef heron (Egretta sacra)" (PDF). The Condor. 93 (2): 383–389. JSTOR 1368954. doi:10.2307/1368954.
Jump up ^ Watts, Bryan (1988). "Foraging Implications of Food Usage Patterns in yellow-browned night-herons" (PDF). The Condor. 90 (4): 860–865. JSTOR 1368843. doi:10.2307/1368843.
Jump up ^ Meyerriecks, Andrew (1966). "Additional Observations on "Foot-Stirring" Feeding Behavior in herons" (PDF). The Auk. 83 (3): 471–472. JSTOR 4083060. doi:10.2307/4083060.
Jump up ^ Delacour, J (1946). "Under-Wing Fishing of the black heron, Melanophoyx ardesiaca" (PDF). The Auk. 63 (3): 441–442. JSTOR 4080141. doi:10.2307/4080141.
Jump up ^ Post, R.; Post, C.; F. Walsh (2009). "Little egret (Egretta garzetta) and grey heron (Ardea cinerea) Using Bait for Fishing in Kenya". Waterbirds. 32 (3): 450–452. doi:10.1675/063.032.0311.
Jump up ^ Robinson, S. (1994). "Use of bait and lures by green-backed herons in Amazonian Peru" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 106 (3): 569–571. JSTOR 4163462.
Jump up ^ Dinsmore, James J. (1973). "Foraging Success of Cattle Egrets, Bubulcus ibis". American Midland Naturalist. 89 (1): 242–246. JSTOR 2424157. doi:10.2307/2424157.
^ Jump up to: a b Hilaluddin, Aisha S.; Khan, A.; Yahya, H.; Kaul, R. (2006). "Nesting ecology of Cattle Egrets and Little Egrets in Amroha, Uttar Pradesh, India" (PDF). Forktail. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-10.
Jump up ^ Kushlan, J. A. (2011). The terminology of courtship, nesting, feeding and maintenance in herons. heronconservation.org
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "heron". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Shitepoke" and "Shikepoke" entries, Webster's Third International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, Philip Babcock Gove, Editor in Chief, G. and C. Mirriam Company, 1971 ISBN 0-87779-001-9
Jump up ^ "Shitepoke" and "shiterow" entries, Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1971, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 76-188038
Jump up ^ Armitage, Simon (2009). The Poetry of Birds. Penguin. p. 404. ISBN 0141941863.
Jump up ^ McCracken, Kevin G.; Sheldon, Frederick H. (1998). "Molecular and osteological heron phylogenies: sources of incongruence" (PDF). Auk. 115: 127–141. JSTOR 4089118. doi:10.2307/4089118.
Jump up ^ Sheldon, Frederick H.; McCracken, Kevin G.; Stuebing, Keeley D. (1995). "Phylogenetic relationships of the zigzag heron (Zebrilus undulatus) and white-crested bittern (Tigriornis leucolophus) estimated by DNA-DNA hybridization" (PDF). Auk. 112 (3): 672–679. JSTOR 4088682.
Jump up ^ Sheldon, Frederick H.; Jones, Clare E.; McCracken, Kevin G. (2000). "Relative Patterns and Rates of Evolution in Heron Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 17 (3): 437–450. PMID 10723744. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026323. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-07.
Jump up ^ Hackett SJ, Kimball RT, Reddy S, Bowie RC, Braun EL, Braun MJ, Chojnowski JL, Cox WA, Han KL, Harshman J, Huddleston CJ, Marks BD, Miglia KJ, Moore WS, Sheldon FH, Steadman DW, Witt CC, Yuri T (2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History". Science. 320 (5884): 1763–1768. PMID 18583609. doi:10.1126/science.1157704.
Jump up ^ Gill, F. and Donsker, D. (eds). (2010). Family Links. IOC World Bird Names (version 2.4).
Further reading[edit]
Hancock, James & Elliott, Hugh (1978) The Herons of the World; with paintings by Robert Gillmor and Peter Hayman, and drawings by Robert Gillmor. London: London Editions ISBN 0-905562-05-4; New York: Harper & Row ISBN 0-06-011759-1
External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to: Ardeidae
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Ardeidae (category)
Look up heron in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
HeronConservation Heron Specialist Group of IUCN
Heron videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q18789
ADW: Ardeidae
EoL: 8013
Fossilworks: 39541
GBIF: 3685
ITIS: 174771
NCBI: 8899
WoRMS: 148747
Authority control
GND: 4202113-3
NDL: 00569939
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heron&oldid=807495443"
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Consular immunity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Consular immunity privileges are described in the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 (VCCR).[1][2] Consular immunity offers protections similar to diplomatic immunity, but these protections are not as extensive, given the functional differences between consular and diplomatic officers. For example, consular officers are not accorded absolute immunity from a host country’s criminal jurisdiction, they may be tried for certain local crimes upon action by a local court, and are immune from local jurisdiction only in cases directly relating to consular functions.
Contents
[hide]
1 Consular and diplomatic immunity in the US
1.1 Procedure
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Consular and diplomatic immunity in the US[edit]
Category
May be arrested or detained
Residence may be entered subject to ordinary procedures
May be issued traffic ticket
May be subpoenaed as witness
May be prosecuted for unofficial acts
Official family member
Diplomatic
Diplomatic agent
No[a] No Yes No No Same as sponsor
Member of administrative and technical staff
No[a] No Yes No No Same as sponsor
Service staff
Yes[b] Yes Yes Yes Yes[b] No[b]
Consular
Career consular officers
Yes, if for a felony and pursuant to a warrant.[b] Yes[c] Yes No, for official acts. Testimony may not be compelled in any case. Yes[d] No[b]
Honorary consular officers
Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases Yes No
Consular employees
Yes[b] Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases Yes[b] No[b]
International organization
Diplomatic - level staff of missions to international organizations
No[a] No Yes No No Same as sponsor
International organization staff[d]
Yes[d] Yes[d] Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases Yes[d] No[b]
Support staff of missions to international organizations
Yes Yes Yes No, for official acts. Yes, in all other cases Yes No
^ Jump up to: a b c Reasonable constraints, however, may be applied in emergency circumstances involving self-defense, public safety, or the prevention of serious criminal acts.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i This table presents general rules. Particularly in the cases indicated, the employees of certain foreign countries may enjoy higher levels of privileges and immunities on the basis of special bilateral agreements.
Jump up ^ Note that consular residences are sometimes located within the official consular premises. In such cases, only the official office space is protected from police entry.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e A small number of senior officers are entitled to be treated identically to "diplomatic agents".
Procedure[edit]
Procedurally, official acts immunity is raised as an affirmative defense.[3]
See also[edit]
Diplomatic immunity
Vienna Convention on Consular Relations
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://cil.nus.edu.sg/rp/il/pdf/1963%20Vienna%20Convention%20on%20Consular%20Relations-pdf.pdf
Jump up ^ http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_2_1963.pdf
Jump up ^ Bureau of Diplomatic Security (July 2011). "Diplomatic and Consular Immunity: Guidance for Law Enforcement and Judicial Authorities" (PDF). US Department of State. p. 6. Retrieved 2013-12-30.
External links[edit]
U.S. Department of State - Legal Aspects of Diplomatic Immunity and Privileges
U.S. Diplomacy - Diplomatic and Consular Immunity
[show]
v
t
e
Diplomacy and diplomats
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