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Health insurance mandate
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A health insurance mandate is either an employer or individual mandate to obtain private health insurance instead of (or in addition to) a national health insurance plan.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Australia
2 Japan
3 The Netherlands
4 Switzerland
5 United States
5.1 History
5.2 Massachusetts
5.3 Affordable Care Act
5.4 Constitutional challenges
5.5 Criticism of individual mandate
6 Employer mandates
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Australia[edit]
Main article: Healthcare in Australia
Australia's national health insurance program is known as Medicare, and is financed by general taxation including a Medicare levy on earnings; use of Medicare is not compulsory and those who purchase private health insurance get a government-funded rebate on premiums.[2] Individuals with high annual incomes (A$70,000 in the 2008 federal budget) who do not have specified levels of private hospital coverage are subject to an additional 1% Medicare Levy Surcharge.[3] People of average incomes and below may be eligible for subsidies to buy private insurance, but face no penalty for not buying it.[4] Private insurers must comply with guaranteed issue and community rating requirements, but may limit coverage of pre-existing ailments for up to one year to discourage adverse selection.
Japan[edit]
Main article: Health care system in Japan
Japan has a universal health care system that mandates all residents have health insurance, either at work or through a local community-based insurer, but does not impose penalties on individuals for not having insurance.[5] The Japanese health ministry "tightly controls the price of health care down to the smallest detail. Every two years, the doctors and the health ministry negotiate a fixed price for every procedure and every drug. That helps keep premiums to around $280 a month for the average Japanese family."[6] Insurance premiums are set by the government, with guaranteed issue and community rating.[7] Insurers are not allowed to deny claims or coverage, or to make profits (net revenue is carried over to the next year, and if the carryover is large, the premium goes down).[6] Around 10% evade the compulsory insurance premium; municipal governments do not issue them insurance cards, which providers require.[5] Voluntary private insurance is available through several sources including employers and unions to cover expenditures not covered by statutory insurance, but this accounts for only about 2% of health care spending.[5] In practice, doctors will not deny care to patients in the low-priced universal system because they make up the great majority of patients nationwide, and doctors would not be able to earn enough by serving only the small number of patients with private insurance.[8][9] Total spending is around half the American level, and taxpayers subsidize the poor.[6]
The Netherlands[edit]
Main article: Healthcare in the Netherlands
The Netherlands has a health insurance mandate[10] and allows for-profit companies to compete for minimum coverage insurance plans, though there are also mutual insurers so use of a commercial for-profit insurer is not compulsory. The government regulates the insurers and operates a risk equalization mechanism to subsidize insurers that insure relatively more expensive customers. Several features hold down the level of premiums which facilitate public compliance with the mandate. The cost of health care in the Netherlands is higher than the European average but is less than in the United States. Half of the cost of insurance for adults is paid for by an income-related tax with which goes towards a subsidy of private insurance via the risk reinsurance pool operated by the regulator. The government pays the entire cost for children. Forty percent of the population is eligible for a premium subsidy. About 1.5 percent of the legal population is estimated to be uninsured. The architects of the Dutch mandate did not envision any problem with non-compliance, the initial legislation created few effective sanctions if a person does not take out insurance or pay premiums, and the government is currently developing enforcement mechanisms.[11]
Switzerland[edit]
Main article: Health care in Switzerland
Switzerland's system is similar to that of the Netherlands with regulated private insurance companies competing to provide the minimum necessary coverage to meet its mandate. Premiums are not linked to incomes, but the government provides subsidies to lower-class individuals to help them pay for their plans. About 40% of households received some kind of subsidy in 2004. Individuals are free to spend as much as they want for their plans and buy additional health services if desired. The system has virtual universal coverage, with about 99% of people having insurance. The laws behind the system were created in 1996.[12] A recent issue in the country is their rising health care costs, which are higher than European averages. However, those rising costs are still a little less than the increases in the United States.[12]
United States[edit]
History[edit]
An individual mandate to purchase healthcare was initially proposed by the politically conservative Heritage Foundation in 1989 as an alternative to single-payer health care.[13][14][15][16][17] Stuart Butler, an early supporter of the individual mandate at the Heritage Foundation, wrote:
If a young man wrecks his Porsche and has not had the foresight to obtain insurance, we may commiserate, but society feels no obligation to repair his car. But health care is different. If a man is struck down by a heart attack in the street, Americans will care for him whether or not he has insurance.[18]
The Heritage Foundation changed its position in 2011, calling the individual mandate unconstitutional.[19]
From its inception, the idea of an individual mandate was championed by Republican politicians as a free-market approach to health care reform.[18][20] Supporters included Charles Grassley, Mitt Romney, and the late John Chafee.[21] The individual mandate was felt to resonate with conservative principles of individual responsibility, and conservative groups recognized that the healthcare market was unique.
In 1993, President Bill Clinton proposed a health care reform bill which included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees through a regulated marketplace of health maintenance organizations and an individual mandate.[22][23] However, the Clinton plan failed amid concerns that it was overly complex or unrealistic, and in the face of an unprecedented barrage of negative advertising funded by politically conservative groups and the health insurance industry.[24] At the time, Republican Senators proposed a bill that would have required individuals, and not employers, to buy insurance, as an alternative to Clinton's plan.[18]
Hillary Clinton's plan in 2008 also included an individual mandate.[25]
Massachusetts[edit]
An individual health-insurance mandate was initially enacted on a state level: the 2005 Massachusetts health care reform law. In 2006, Republican Mitt Romney, then governor of Massachusetts, signed an individual mandate into law with strong bipartisan support. In 2007, a Senate bill featuring a federal mandate, authored by Bob Bennett (R-UT) and Ron Wyden (D-OR), attracted substantial bipartisan support.[20][26]
Before the law was passed, per capita health care costs in Massachusetts were the highest for any part of the country except D.C. From 2003 to 2008 (three years prior and two years after enactment) Massachusetts insurance premiums continued to outpace the rest of United States, however the rate of growth year to year for Massachusetts has slowed as a result of the law.[27]
Other states provide community rating and guaranteed issue without mandates.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
Affordable Care Act[edit]
Main article: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Further information: National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius
Romney's success in installing an individual mandate in Massachusetts was at first lauded by Republicans. During Romney's 2008 Presidential campaign, Sen. Jim DeMint (R-SC) praised Romney's ability to "take some good conservative ideas, like private health insurance, and apply them to the need to have everyone insured." Romney himself said of the individual mandate: "I'm proud of what we've done. If Massachusetts succeeds in implementing it, then that will be the model for the nation."[26] In the 2008 Presidential campaign Senator Barack Obama campaigned against an individual mandate.[35] Obama attacked Hillary Clinton and John Edwards for their support of the individual mandate during primary debates and in television ads.[36]
However, following the adoption of an individual mandate as a central component of President Obama's Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in 2009, Republicans began to oppose the mandate. In 2009, every Republican Senator (including Bennett, who had co-written the 2007 bill featuring a mandate) voted to describe the mandate as "unconstitutional". (Explaining his opposition, Bennett later said: "I didn't focus on the particulars of the amendment as closely as I should have, and probably would have voted the other way if I had understood that the individual mandate was at its core. I just wanted to express my opposition to the Obama proposal at every opportunity.")[20] The New York Times wrote: "It can be difficult to remember now, given the ferocity with which many Republicans assail it as an attack on freedom, but the provision in President Obama's health care law requiring all Americans to buy health insurance has its roots in conservative thinking."[18]
Other Republican politicians who had previously supported individual mandates, including Romney and Orrin Hatch, similarly emerged as vocal critics of the mandate in Obama's legislation.[20][26] Writing in The New Yorker, Ezra Klein stated that "the end result was... a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition."[20]
The Affordable Care Act signed in 2010 by Obama included an individual mandate to take effect in 2014.[37]
On August 30, 2013, final regulations for the individual mandate were published in the Federal Register (78 FR 53646),[38] with minor corrections published December 26, 2013 (78 FR 78256).[39]
Constitutional challenges[edit]
The ACA mandate was challenged in federal courts by Republican state Attorneys General. On June 28, 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the provision as Constitutional.[40] Chief Justice John Roberts delivered the majority opinion in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, which upheld the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act by a 5-4 vote. The Court ruled that although the "individual mandate" component of the act was not constitutional under the Commerce Clause, it was reasonably construed as a tax and was therefore valid under the Congressional authority to "lay and collect taxes."[41][42]
There was also disagreement as to whether federal mandates could be constitutional.[43] In 2010, a majority of the 50 states filed litigation contending that the individual mandate was unconstitutional,[44] and newly elected Republican governors campaigned promising to add their states to the list in 2011. The federal district courts initially split on the constitutionality issue, which ultimately was expected to reach the Supreme Court;[45][46] also, state legislative actions may at least cause delay.[47][48][49] The Militia Acts of 1792, based on the Constitution's militia clause (in addition to its affirmative authorization to raise an army and a navy), would have required every "free able-bodied white male citizen" between the ages of 18 and 45, with a few occupational exceptions, to "provide himself" a weapon and ammunition;[50] however, it was never enforced so its constitutionality was never litigated.[51] In 1994, the Congressional Budget Office issued a report describing an individual mandate as "an unprecedented form of federal action." The agency also wrote, "The government has never required people to buy any good or service as a condition of lawful residence in the United States."[52]
In a September 2010 working paper,[53] a forthcoming article in the NYU Journal of Law and Liberty, and a lecture given at NYU, Randy Barnett of Georgetown University Law Center argues that the mandate is unconstitutional under the doctrine of the Commerce and Necessary and Proper Clauses, and that enforcing it is equivalent to "commandeering the people." Penalizing inaction, he argues, is only defensible when a fundamental duty of a person has been established. He also asserted that Congress fails to enforce the mandate under its taxing power because the penalty is not revenue-generating according to the Act itself.
The U.S. Supreme Court decision upholding the individual mandate was rendered in June 2012, in the case of National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius.
Criticism of individual mandate[edit]
Insurance lobbyists (AHIP) in the United States advocate that the mandate is necessary to support guaranteed issue and community rating, which limit underwriting by insurers; insurers propose that the mandate is intended to prevent adverse selection by ensuring healthy individuals purchase insurance and thus broaden the risk pool.[54][55] The mandate has been considered at the heart of health care reform proposals in the United States[56] and "absolutely necessary" pre-condition to universal health care, since any non-compulsory reform would fail to expand coverage.[56][57][58][59] A 2008 AHIP/Kaiser forum cited Dutch and Swiss mandates (see below); AHIP's published report does not mention penalties but says Switzerland "enforces the rules in many ways..."[60] In October 2009, Kaiser Health News reported that "The insurance industry is clearly worried about the mandate being defanged."[61]
Some studies of empirical evidence suggest that the threat of adverse selection is exaggerated,[62] and that risk aversion and propitious selection may balance it.[63] For example, several US states have guaranteed issue[64] and limits on rating,[65] but only Massachusetts has an individual mandate; similarly, although Japan has a nominal mandate, around 10% of individuals do not comply, and there is no penalty (they simply remain uninsured - see below). Without mandates, for-profit insurers have necessarily relied on risk aversion to charge premiums over expected risks, but have been constrained by what customers are willing to pay; mandates eliminate that constraint, allowing insurers to charge more.[66] Governments that impose a mandate must subsidize those who cannot afford it, thus shifting the cost onto taxpayers.[67][68][69]
The insurance mandate faced opposition across the political spectrum, from left-leaning groups such as the Green Party and other advocates of single-payer healthcare to right-leaning groups such as the Heritage Foundation, FreedomWorks, and the Cato Institute as well as some members of the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives.[21][70]
Opponents such as Michael Cannon, Director of Health Policy Studies at the Cato Institute, make a philosophical argument that people should have the right to live without government social interference as a matter of individual liberty. He has stated that federal, state, and local governments are not willing or able to raise the necessary funds to effectively subsidize people who cannot currently afford insurance. He has also stated that the costs of increasing coverage are far higher than other reforms, such as reducing the number of errors and accidents in treatment, which would accomplish as much or more benefit to society.[56]
Public opinion polls from 2009 through 2012 continued to find that most Americans rejected penalizing people for not buying health insurance.[71][72][73][74]
Employer mandates[edit]
In the United States, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) includes both employer and individual mandates that take effect in 2014. The PPACA's employer mandate requires that all businesses with 50 or more full-time employees provide minimum affordable health insurance to at least 95% of their full-time employees and dependents up to age 26, or pay a fee by 2016. In the two largest EU countries, France and Germany, Statutory Health Insurance (SHI) mandates employers and employees pay into statutory sickness funds. In France, private health insurance (PHI) is voluntary and used to increase the reimbursement rate from the statutory sickness system. The same applies in Germany where it is also possible to opt out of SHI if you are a very high earner and into a PHI but if a person has reached the age of 55 and is in the PHI sector he or she must remain covered by PHI and cannot opt back into SHI. Persons who are unemployed can usually continue their payments through social insurance and the very poor receive support from the government to be insured. Most workers are insured through compulsory membership of "sickness funds" that are non-profit entities established originally by trades unions and now given statutory status. In Germany and France, as is the case with most European health care finance, the personal contribution to health care financing varies according to a person's income level and not according to their health status. Only 0.2% of Germans are uninsured, mainly self-employed, rich and poor, and persons who have failed to pay contributions to the statutory insurance or premiums to the private health insurance. Between 1990 and 2000 the share of French SHI income coming directly from employees via salaries fell from around 30% to just 3% and employer direct contributions also fell. The difference was made up by a rise in income from government taxation, thus widening the mandatory contribution base to the health insurance system.[75][76]
See also[edit]
Individual shared responsibility provision
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Individual Mandates for Health Insurance - Slippery Slope to National Health Care
The argument for an employer mandate
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Cry, the Beloved Country
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the novel. For other uses, see Cry, the Beloved Country (disambiguation).
Cry, the Beloved Country
First US edition
Author
Alan Paton
Country
South Africa
Language
English
Publisher
Scribners (USA) & Jonathan Cape (UK)
Publication date
February 1, 1948[1]
Media type
Print (hard~ & paperback)
Pages
256 pp (hardback ed., UK)
273 pp (hardback ed., US)
ISBN
0-224-60578-X (hardback edition, UK)
OCLC
13487773
Cry, the Beloved Country is a novel by Alan Paton, published in 1948. American publisher Bennett Cerf remarked at that year's meeting of the American Booksellers Association that there had been "only three novels published since the first of the year that were worth reading… Cry, The Beloved Country, The Ides of March, and The Naked and the Dead."[2]
Two cinema adaptations of the book have been made, the first in 1951 and the second in 1995. The novel was also adapted as a musical called Lost in the Stars (1949), with a book by the American writer Maxwell Anderson and music composed by the German emigre Kurt Weill.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Characters
3 Main themes
4 Allusions/references to other works
5 Film, television and theatrical adaptations
5.1 Musical adaptation
6 Release details
7 References
Plot summary[edit]
In the remote village of Ndotsheni, in the Natal province of eastern South Africa, the Reverend Stephen Kumalo receives a letter from a fellow minister summoning him to Johannesburg. He is needed there, the letter says, to help his sister, Gertrude, who the letter says has fallen ill. Kumalo undertakes the difficult and expensive journey to the city in the hopes of aiding Gertrude and of finding his son, Absalom, who traveled to Johannesburg from Ndotsheni and never returned. In Johannesburg, Kumalo is warmly welcomed by Msimangu, the priest who sent him the letter, and given comfortable lodging by Mrs. Lithebe, a Christian woman who feels that helping others is her duty.
Kumalo visits Gertrude, who is now a prostitute and liquor seller, and persuades her to come back to Ndotsheni with her young son.
A more difficult quest follows, when Kumalo and Msimangu begin searching the labyrinthine metropolis of Johannesburg for Absalom. They visit Kumalo's brother, John, who has become a successful businessman and politician, and he directs them to the factory where his son and Absalom once worked together.
One clue leads to another, and as Kumalo travels from place to place, he begins to see the gaping racial and economic divisions that are threatening to split his country. Eventually, Kumalo discovers that his son has spent time in a reformatory and that he has gotten a girl pregnant.
Meanwhile, the newspapers announce that Arthur Jarvis, a prominent white crusader for racial justice, has been murdered in his home by a gang of burglars. Kumalo and Msimangu learn that the police are looking for Absalom, and Kumalo's worst suspicions are confirmed when Absalom is arrested for the murder. Absalom confesses to the crime but states that two others, including John's son, Matthew, aided him and that he did not intend to murder Jarvis.
With the help of friends, Kumalo obtains a lawyer for Absalom and attempts to understand what his son has become. John, however, makes arrangements for his own son's defense, even though this split will worsen Absalom’s case. When Kumalo tells Absalom's pregnant girlfriend what has happened, she is saddened by the news, but she joyfully agrees to his proposal that she marry his son and return to Ndotsheni as Kumalo's daughter-in-law.
Meanwhile, in the hills above Ndotsheni, Arthur Jarvis's father, James Jarvis, tends his bountiful land and hopes for rain. The local police bring him news of his son's death, and he leaves immediately for Johannesburg with his wife. In an attempt to come to terms with what has happened, Jarvis reads his son's articles and speeches on social inequality and begins a radical reconsideration of his own prejudices.
He and Kumalo meet for the first time by accident, and after Kumalo has recovered from his shock, he expresses sadness and regret for Jarvis's loss. Both men attend Absalom’s trial, a fairly straightforward process that ends with the death penalty for Absalom and an acquittal for the two other defendants. Kumalo arranges for Absalom to marry the girl who bears his child, and they bid farewell. The morning of his departure, Kumalo rouses his new family to bring them back to Ndotsheni, only to find that Gertrude has disappeared.
Kumalo is now deeply aware of how his people have lost the tribal structure that once held them together, and returns to his village troubled by the situation. It turns out that James Jarvis has been having similar thoughts. Arthur Jarvis's young son befriends Kumalo. As the young boy and the old man become acquainted, James Jarvis becomes increasingly involved with helping the struggling village. He donates milk at first and then makes plans for a dam and hires an agricultural expert to demonstrate newer, less devastating farming techniques.
When Jarvis’s wife dies, Kumalo and his congregation send a wreath to express their sympathy. Just as the bishop is on the verge of transferring Kumalo, Jarvis sends a note of thanks for the wreath and offers to build the congregation a new church, and Kumalo is permitted to stay in his parish.
On the evening before his son's execution, Kumalo goes into the mountains to await the appointed time in solitude. On the way, he encounters Jarvis, and the two men speak of the village, of lost sons, and of Jarvis's bright young grandson, whose innocence and honesty have impressed both men. When Kumalo is alone, he weeps for his son’s death and clasps his hands in prayer as dawn breaks over the valley.
Characters[edit]
Stephen Kumalo: A 69-year-old Zulu priest who attempts to find his family in Johannesburg, and later to reconstruct the disintegrating tribe in his village.
Theophilus Msimangu: A priest from Johannesburg who helps Kumalo find his son Absalom.
John Kumalo: Stephen's brother, who denies the tribal validity and becomes a spokesman for the new racial movement in the city; a former carpenter.
Absalom Kumalo: Stephen's son who left home to look for Stephen's sister Gertrude, and who murders Arthur Jarvis.
Gertrude Kumalo: The young sister of Stephen who becomes a prostitute in Johannesburg and leads a dissolute life.
James Jarvis: A wealthy landowner whose son, Arthur, is murdered. He comes to the realization of the guilt of white residents in such crimes and forgives the Kumalos.
Arthur Jarvis: Murdered by Absalom Kumalo, he is the son of James Jarvis. He does not appear in the novel, but his liberal racial views are highly significant and influential.
Dubula: A big man who was the "heart" of anything and everything Arthur Jarvis did, including wanting peace between the races.
Mr. Carmichael: Absalom's lawyer; he takes his case pro deo (for God) in this case meaning for free.
Father Vincent: A priest from England who helps Stephen in his troubles.
Mrs. Lithebe: A native housewife in whose house Stephen stays while in Johannesburg.
The Harrisons: A father and son who represent two opposing views concerning the racial problem. The father, who is Arthur's father-in-law, represents the traditional view, while the son represents the more liberal view.
The Girl [Absalom's wife]: A teenage girl, approximately 16 years old, impregnated by Absalom, whom she later marries. She tells Kumalo that Absalom will be her third husband and that her father had abandoned her family when she was quite young. Given her young age it is unclear if any of these marriages were wholly consensual.
Main themes[edit]
Cry, the Beloved Country is a social protest against the structures of the society that would later give rise to apartheid. Paton attempts to create an unbiased and objective view of the dichotomies it entails: he depicts whites as affected by "native crime" while blacks suffer from social instability and moral issues due to the breakdown of the tribal system. It shows many of the problems with South Africa such as the degrading of the land reserved for the natives, which is sometimes considered to be the main theme, the disintegration of the tribal community, native crime, and the flight to urban areas.
Another prevalent theme in Cry, the Beloved Country is the detrimental effects of fear on the characters and society of South Africa as indicated in the following quotation from the narrator in Chapter 12:
Cry, the beloved country, for the unborn child that is the inheritor of our fear. Let him not love the earth too deeply. Let him not laugh too gladly when the water runs through his fingers, nor stand too silent when the setting sun makes red the veld with fire. Let him not be too moved when the birds of his land are singing, nor give too much of his heart to a mountain or a valley. For fear will rob him of all if he gives too much.
Paton makes frequent use of literary and linguistic devices such as microcosms, intercalary chapters and dashes instead of quotation marks for dialogue to indicate the start of speech acts to portray the devastating conditions in South Africa.[citation needed]
Allusions/references to other works[edit]
The novel is filled with Biblical references and allusions. The most evident are the names Paton gives to the characters. Absalom, the son of Stephen Kumalo, is named for the son of King David, who rose against his father in rebellion. Also, in the New Testament Book of Acts, Saint Stephen was a martyr who died rather than give up his beliefs. The Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts are written to Theophilus, which is Greek for "friend of God".
In the novel, Absalom requests that his son be named Peter, the name of one of Jesus's disciples. Among Peter's better-known traits is a certain impulsiveness; also, after Christ's arrest, he denied knowing Jesus three times, and later wept in grief over this. After the resurrection, Peter renewed his commitment to Christ and to spreading the Gospel. All that suggests Absalom's final repentance and his commitment to the faith of his father.
In another allusion, Arthur Jarvis is described as having a large collection of books on Abraham Lincoln, and the writings of Lincoln are featured several times in the novel.
Paton describes Arthur's son as having characteristics similar to his when he was a child, which may allude to the resurrection of Christ.
Film, television and theatrical adaptations[edit]
In 1951, the novel was adapted into a motion picture of the same name, directed by Zoltan Korda. Paton wrote the screenplay with John Howard Lawson, who was left out of the original credits because he was blacklisted in Hollywood for refusing to give information to the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Kumalo was played by Canada Lee, Jarvis by Charles Carson, and Msimangu by Sidney Poitier.
In 1983, a historic stage adaptation was performed by the Capital Players theatre group at the Moth Hall in Gaborone, Botswana. The country was at that time one of the leading "frontline states" to apartheid South Africa and a centre for artistic activity that often stood in quiet opposition to the racist regime just across the border. The premiere was attended by Paton himself, who had travelled from Natal, as well as Botswana's then-President Quett Masire (with political acumen, the director had arranged for the first performance to take place on the President's birthday). School students from across the country were bussed to the capital to see the production.[3]
Another film version was released in 1995, directed by Darrell Roodt. James Earl Jones played the Reverend Kumalo and Richard Harris filled the role of Jarvis.
A stage version by the South African playwright Roy Sargeant was developed in early 2003; it was first staged at the National Arts Festival in Grahamstown, Eastern Cape on 27 June 2003 and at the Artscape Theatre in Cape Town on 8 July 2003. The director was Heinrich Reisenhofer. The script, together with notes and activities for school use, was published in 2006 by Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
Musical adaptation[edit]
In 1949, the composer Kurt Weill, in collaboration with the American writer Maxwell Anderson (book and lyrics), composed a musical based on the book called Lost in the Stars. The original Broadway production opened on 30 October 1949 at the Music Box Theatre and starred Todd Duncan and Inez Matthews. It ran for 273 performances before closing on 1 July 1950. It was made into a movie, starring Brock Peters and Melba Moore, released in 1974.
Lost in the Stars is the last work Weill completed before his death in 1950. Although he was influenced by spirituals, jazz and blues, Weill's distinctive and original style shines throughout the score.
Israeli contratenor David D'Or performed in a stage version at the Israeli National Theater ("Habima Theater") in 2004.[4][5] Maariv in its review wrote: "D'or's outstanding voice is meant for great parts. His voice and presence embraces the audience, who showed their appreciation by a lengthy standing ovation."[4][6]
In August 2012, the Glimmerglass Opera of New York produced the work, in conjunction with Cape Town Opera, directed by Tazewell Thompson.[7]
Release details[edit]
1948, USA, Charles Scribner's Sons ?, Pub date 1 February 1948, hardback
1948, UK, Jonathan Cape ISBN 0-224-60578-X, Pub date September 1948, hardback
1970, UK Penguin Modern Classics ISBN 0-14-001274-5, Pub date 28 May 1970, paperback
2000, UK Penguin Modern Classics ISBN 0-14-118312-8, Pub date 27 April 2000, paperback
2003, USA, Charles Scribner's Sons ISBN 0-7432-6217-4, Charles Scribner's Sons, Pub date ? November 2003, paperback
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Chiwengo, Ngwarsungu (2007). Understanding Cry, the Beloved Country. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780313335082.
Jump up ^ "Reader's Digest: Gossip, news: J. F. Albright reports on A.B.A. meeting," The Dallas Morning News, 30 May 1948, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Cited by former President Masire in a foreword to "More Sherlock Holmes than James Herriot", a memoir by the director of the Gaborone production, veterinarian Roger Windsor, published in 2015 by the Book Guild [1]
^ Jump up to: a b "Eurovision Song Contest 2004 on Star Radio". Star Radio. Archived from the original on 10 May 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Israel in 2004". esctoday.com. Retrieved 2 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "About David D'Or & The Philharmonic". Yediot Achronot. April 2003. Archived from the original on 2011-07-10. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Susan Galbraith, "Lost in the Stars at Glimmerglass", DC Theatre Scene.com, 3 August 2012, accessed 14 February 2013
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb166680455 (data)
LCCN: no97072209
VIAF: 184494282
hide
v
t
e
Alan Paton
Novels
Cry, the Beloved Country (1947)
Too Late the Phalarope (1953)
Kontakion For You Departed (1969)
Ah, but Your Land is Beautiful (1981)
Autobiography
Journey Continued: An Autobiography (1988)
Adaptations
Cry, the Beloved Country (1951 film, screenwriter)
Lost in the Stars (1953 musical)
Cry, the Beloved Country (1995 film)
Related
Liberal Party of South Africa
Alan Paton Award
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cry,_the_Beloved_Country&oldid=842246183"
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Medical College Admission Test
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"MCAT" redirects here. For other uses, see MCAT (disambiguation).
Medical College Admission Test
Acronym
MCAT
Type
Computer-based standardized test
Developer / administrator
American Association of Medical Colleges
Knowledge / skills tested
Physical sciences, biological sciences, verbal reasoning.
Purpose
Admissions to medical colleges (principally in the United States and Canada; 15 other countries).
Year started
1928 (1928)
Score / grade range
118 to 132 (in 1-point increments) for each of the 4 sections (Chemistry and Physics, Biology/Biochemistry, Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills, and Psychology and Social Sciences). So total score on scale of 472 to 528.[1]
Score / grade validity
Usually 2 to 3 years (depends on medical college being applied to).[2]
Offered
25 times from January 2017 through September 2017.[3]
Restrictions on attempts
Can be taken a maximum of 3 times in a one year period; 4 times in a two year period; and 7 times for life.
[4]
Countries / regions
United States, Canada and 19 other countries.[5]
Languages
English
Prerequisites / eligibility criteria
Candidate must be preparing to apply to a health professional school (otherwise, "special permission" is required).[6] Fluency in English assumed.
Fee
Gold zone (registration about 1 month or more prior to test date): US $310
Reschedule fee: US $75 Cancellation refund: US $155
Silver zone (registration about 3 to 4 weeks prior to test date): US $310
Reschedule fee: US $135 Cancellation refund: n/a
Bronze zone (registration about 1 to 2 weeks prior to test date): US $360
Reschedule fee: n/a Cancellation refund: n/a International testing: US $100 in addition to above.[7]
("Fee Assistance Program" available to U.S. citizens, permanent residents or refugees, demonstrating financial need.[8])
Scores / grades used by
Medical colleges (mostly in United States and Canada).
Website
students-residents.aamc.org/applying-medical-school/taking-mcat-exam/
The Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) is a computer-based standardized examination for prospective medical students in the United States, Australia,[9] Canada, and Caribbean Islands. It is designed to assess problem solving, critical thinking, written analysis and knowledge of scientific concepts and principles. Prior to 2006, the exam was a paper-and-pencil test; since 2007, all administrations of the exam have been computer-based.
The most recent version of the exam was introduced in April 2015 and takes 7.5 hours to complete. The test is scored in a range from 472 to 528.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Moss Test: 1928–46
1.2 A simpler test: 1946–62
1.3 Status quo: 1962–77
1.4 Phase four: 1977–91
1.5 New changes: 1992–2014
1.6 MR5 and the 2015 test
2 Administration
3 Test Structure
3.1 Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
3.2 Critical Analysis and Reading Skills (CARS)
3.3 Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
3.4 Psychological, Social and Biological Functions of Behavior
3.5 Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills
4 Scoring
4.1 2017 scoring percentiles
5 Policies
6 Preparation
7 Relevance
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Moss Test: 1928–46[edit]
In the 1920s, dropout rates in US medical schools soared from 5% to 50%,[10] leading to the development of a test that would measure readiness for medical school. Physician F. A. Moss and his colleagues developed the "Scholastic Aptitude Test for Medical Students" consisting of true-false and multiple choice questions divided into six to eight subtests. Topics tested included visual memory, memory for content, scientific vocabulary, scientific definitions, understanding of printed material, premedical information, and logical reasoning. The score scale varied from different test forms. Though it had been criticized at the time for testing only memorization ability and thus only readiness for the first two years of medical school, later scholars[who?] denied this. In addition to stricter medical school admission procedures and higher educational standards, the national dropout rate among freshman medical students decreased from 20% in 1925–1930 to 7% in 1946.
A simpler test: 1946–62[edit]
Advancements in test measurement technology, including machine scoring of tests, and changed views regarding test scores and medical school readiness reflected the evolution of the test in this period. The test underwent three major changes. It now had only four sub tests, including verbal ability, quantitative ability, science achievement, and understanding modern society. Questions were all in multiple-choice format. Each subtest was given a single score, and the total score was derived from the sum of the scores from the subtests. The total score ranged from 200–800. The individual scores helped medical school admission committees to differentiate the individual abilities among their candidates. Admission committees, however, did not consider the "understanding modern society" section to be of great importance, even though it was created to reward those with broad liberal arts skills, which included knowledge of history, government, economics, and sociology. Committees placed greater emphasis on scores on the scientific achievement section as it was a better predictor of performance in medical school.
From 1946 to 1948, the test was called the "Professional School Aptitude Test" before finally changing its name to the "Medical College Admission Test" when the developer of the test, the Graduate Record Office (under contract with the AAMC) merged with the newly formed Educational Testing Service (ETS). In 1960, the AAMC transferred its contract over to The Psychological Corporation, which was then in charge of maintaining and developing the test.
Status quo: 1962–77[edit]
From 1962 to 1977, the MCAT retained much of its previous format, though the "understanding modern society" section was renamed as "general information" due to its expanded content. Handbooks at the time criticized the test as only a measure of intellectual achievement and not of personal characteristics expected of physicians. Admission committees responded to this criticism by measuring personal characteristics among their applicants with various approaches.
Phase four: 1977–91[edit]
During phase four, the MCAT underwent several changes. The "general information" section was eliminated and a broader range of knowledge was tested. At this point, topics tested included scientific knowledge, science problems, reading skills analysis, and quantitative skills analysis. Individual scores were reported for biology, chemistry, and physics rather than a composite science score, thus six different scores for the whole test were reported. The score scale changed to 1–15 as opposed to 200–800 from previous versions of the test. Cultural and social bias was minimized. Though the AAMC claimed the new version intended to evaluate "information gathering and analysis, discerning and formulating relationships, and other problem-solving skills," no research supported this claim.
New changes: 1992–2014[edit]
In 1992, the test changed again. Though the test was still divided into four subtests, they were renamed as the verbal reasoning, biological sciences, physical sciences, and writing sample sections. Questions retained the multiple-choice format, though the majority of the questions were divided into passage sets. Passage-based questions were implemented to evaluate "text comprehension, data analysis, ability to evaluate an argument, or apply knowledge from the passage to other contexts." A new scoring scale was also implemented. The total composite score, which ranges from 3–45, is based on the individual scores of the verbal reasoning, biological sciences, and physical sciences, which each have a score range of 1–15. The writing sample, which consists of two essays to be written within 30 minutes for each, is graded on a letter scale from J-T with T being the highest attainable score.
On July 18, 2005, the AAMC announced that it would offer the paper-and-pencil version of the MCAT only through August 2006. A subset of testing sites offered a computer-based version of the full-length exam throughout 2005 and 2006. A shorter, computer-based version of the test debuted in January 2007. The exam was at that point offered numerous times annually, and scored more quickly.[11][12]
Although many medical schools will not accept MCAT exam scores after three years, this version of the MCAT will continue to be reported by the AAMC until the 2019 AMCAS application cycle.[13]
MR5 and the 2015 test[edit]
The MR5 advisory committee was appointed by AAMC in fall 2008 to conduct the fifth comprehensive review of the MCAT exam and to recommend changes for the new exam set to be released in 2015.[14] The advisory committee had 21 members including medical school deans and administrators, basic and clinical science faculty, pre-health advisors, one medical student and a medical resident.[14] The recommendations determined were also based on responses from 2,700 surveys, over 75 meetings and conferences, and 90 outreach events to solicit input.[15] The recommendations considered the content and format of the MCAT, the resources that should be provided relating to the exam, and the changes that should be made to medical school admissions in general.[14]
Ratings of the Importance of Natural and Behavioral Sciences Topics for Mastery of Future Medical School Curricula[16]
To determine the content that should be tested for the exam, the MR5 committee surveyed medical school faculty, residents, and medical students and asked what concepts entering students need to know to be successful in current and future medical school curricula.[17] Three separate surveys were sent asking about concepts in the natural sciences, research methods, and behavioral sciences. The MR5 committee also consulted various expert committees from within and beyond the AAMC.
The largest changes in the exam consist of testing in biochemistry, psychology and sociology concepts. The addition of biochemistry material follows survey results placing biochemistry concepts as highest importance for success in future medical school curricula.[16] The addition of behavioral and cultural material was recommended to provide a solid foundation for learning of these concepts in medical school. According to the committee, psychological science should be understood by medical students as an essential aspect of healthcare.[18] The writing sample section was also removed, since data showed that these scores were not used by most admission committees.[14] These changes were revealed in 2012 so that undergraduate premedical advisers studied the MR5 documents to translate tested core competencies into premedical course recommendations at their campuses.[14]
This version of the MCAT has been administered since March 2015, and is expected to be in place until 2030.[19]
Administration[edit]
The exam is offered 25 or more times per year at Pearson VUE centers.[20] The number of administrations may vary each year. 43% of students take the MCAT within one year of graduation, 44% take the exam between one and four years after graduation and 13% sit for the exam five or more years after graduation.[21] Ever since the exam's duration was lengthened to 7.5 hours, the test is only offered in the morning.
The test, updated in 2015, consists of four sections, listed in the order that they are administered
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills (CARS)
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Psychological, Social and Biological Foundations of Behavior
The four sections are in multiple-choice format. The passages and questions are predetermined, and thus do not change in difficulty depending on the performance of the test taker (unlike, for example, the general Graduate Record Examination).
Test Structure[edit]
The current MCAT consists for four distinct sections that are individually scored. Each section is allotted either 90 or 95 minutes and tests between 50 and 60 questions. Including breaks, the full examination lasts approximately 7.5 hours.[22] The information for each of the science sections is organized into 10 foundational concepts and four Scientific Inquiry & Reasoning Skills.[23] The science passages are guided by Scientific Reasoning and Inquiry Skills identified by the MR5 for medical school success.[19] The Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills section focuses on three skills, since this section does not require outside knowledge to answer questions.[24]
Section
Questions
Minutes
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems 59 95
Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills 53 90
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems 59 95
Psychological, Social and Biological Foundations of Behavior 59 95
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems[edit]
This section tests chemistry and physics in the scope of biological systems, requiring understanding of organic and inorganic chemistry and physics as well as biology and biochemistry. Specifically, this section focuses on the physical principles underlying biological processes and chemical interactions that form the basis of a broader understanding of living systems. Understanding of research methods and statistics are also important to successfully reason through this material.[25]
Critical Analysis and Reading Skills (CARS)[edit]
The CARS section is similar to verbal reasoning sections providing passages with questions testing reading comprehension. The 500-600 word passages can cover topics ranging from the social sciences to the humanities, sometimes presenting in a convoluted or biased manner requiring the reader to consider what is being written from multiple perspectives.[24] The passages are designed to discuss topics that are unfamiliar to the reader, but success in this section requires strictly using information from the passage without using previously known knowledge.[26]
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems[edit]
This section mainly tests biology and biochemistry but also requires an understanding of organic and inorganic chemistry. Students will have to answer questions about the functions of biomolecules, processes unique to living organisms, and the organization of biological systems. Understanding of research methods and statistics are also important to successfully reason through this material.[25]
Psychological, Social and Biological Functions of Behavior[edit]
This section tests psychology and sociology so that student can demonstrate their understanding of the behavioral and sociocultural determinants of health. Specific material tested include behavior and behavior change, perceptions of self and others, cultural and social differences that influence well-being and social stratification. Understanding of research methods and statistics are also important to successfully reason through this material.[25]
Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills[edit]
In the new MCAT exam, changes have been made not only in the content of the exam, but also in the way in which content is presented on the exam. MCAT questions will require examinees to demonstrate four Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills that have been identified by the MR5 as crucial to success in science and medicine. The first skill is Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles, which requires students to not only recognize and recall scientific information, but also to identify relationships between similar concepts. Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving tests the student's ability to relate scientific theories and formulas to presented information to explain findings and draw conclusions. Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research requires examinees to show that they can understand science in the context of experiments. The fourth skill of Data-based and Statistical Reasoning requires students to be able to read graphs and tables and draw conclusion from evidence.[25]
Scoring[edit]
The test consists of four sections, each scored from 118 to 132 with a median score of 125.[27] The total MCAT score is a sum of the scores from each of the four sections, ranging from 472 to 528 with a median score of 500. Scores are released on a pre-determined date between 30–35 days after the exam date.[28]
2017 scoring percentiles[edit]
The following are the scores along with their percentiles from test takers from May 1, 2017 through April 30, 2018. MCAT percentiles are updated every year on May 1. The average scaled score was 500.2 with a standard deviation of 10.5.[29]
MCAT 2015
OG MCAT
Percentile
MCAT 2015
OG MCAT
Percentile
528 45 100 513 32 89
527 44 100 512 32 87
526 43 100 511 31 85
525 42 100 510 31 82
524 41 100 509 30 80
523 40 100 508 29 77
522 39 99 507 29 74
521 38 99 506 28 71
520 37 98 505 28 67
519 36 97 504 27 64
518 35 97 503 27 61
517 34 95 502 26 57
516 34 94 501 26 54
515 33 93 500 25 50
514 33 91 499 25 47
Policies[edit]
Like some other professional exams (e.g. the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) or the Law School Admissions Test (LSAT)), the MCAT may be voided on the day of the exam if the exam taker is not satisfied with his or her performance. It can be voided at any time during the exam, or during a five-minute window that begins immediately after the end of the last section. The decision to void can only be based on the test taker's self-assessment, as no scoring information is available at the time.
The AAMC prohibits the use of calculators, timers, or other electronic devices during the MCAT exam.[30] Cellular phones are also strictly prohibited from testing rooms and individuals found to possess them are noted by name in a security report submitted to the AAMC. The only item that may be brought into the testing room is the candidate's photo ID. If a jacket or sweater is worn, it may not be removed in the testing room.[31]
It is no longer a rule that students must receive permission from the AAMC if they wish to take the MCAT more than three times in total. The limit with the computerized MCAT is three times per year, with a lifetime limit of seven times.[32] An examinee can register for only one test date at a time, and must wait two days after testing before registering for a new test date.
Scaled MCAT exam results are made available to examinees approximately thirty days after the test via the AAMC's MCAT Testing History (THx) Web application. Examinees do not receive a copy of their scores in the mail. Nor are examinees given their raw scores. MCAT THx is also used to transmit scores to medical schools, application services and other organizations (at no cost).
Preparation[edit]
The average student spent 12 weeks preparing for the MCAT exam spending about 23 hours per week, excluding time taking regular courses.[21]
Most students take some time to study intensely for the exam, since some material covered on the exam may not have been studied in classes. The AAMC provides official study materials for purchase on their website with hundreds of questions written by the developers of the MCAT including three scored practice exams.[33] 74% of students who sat for the MCAT exam used official MCAT Practice exams while only about 40% used question packs and section bank questions written by the AAMC. The official questions supplied online by the AAMC were rated to be most useful by test takers.[21] The AAMC also provides free online preparatory material for the MCAT through Khan Academy, including 1,100 free videos and 3,000 review questions including content review and passage-based questions. About 62% of test takers used these free resources and 83% of them found them to be useful.[21]
Another popular study option for students is to use MCAT preparatory materials from a commercial company. Many companies provide preparatory classes in-person and online, sets of preparatory books, full-length practice exams, flashcards and many more. 77% of students used commercial preparation books and 67% of students used practice exams published by a commercial company.[21] 85% of test takers in found MCAT prep books to be useful.
Relevance[edit]
Medical School Acceptance based on MCAT Scores, 2016-2018[34]
Almost all United Stated medical schools and most Canadian medical schools require prospective students to submit MCAT scores for their applications.[35] In a survey conducted by the AAMC of 130 medical schools, MCAT scores were among the most important metrics used to identify applicants to interview and admit.[36] Furthermore, in a recent survey by Kaplan, 54% of medical schools said that a low MCAT score was "the biggest application dealbreaker".[37] Medical school admissions is a holistic process and the AAMC provides recommendations on how MCAT scores should be used in admissions, specifically recommending that MCAT scores should not outweigh an applicant's other materials.[36]
Results from the previous version of the MCAT that was administered between 1992 and 2014 have been studied in relation to academic success in medical school and beyond. Most data suggests that undergraduate grades and MCAT scores can predict scores on USMLE Step exams.[38] Data from a cohort from 14 medical schools' in 1992 and 1993 found that MCAT scores were stronger predictors of USMLE Step scores than undergraduate GPA and were also good predictors for probability of experiencing academic difficulty.[39] Data from students from 119 U.S. medical schools who matriculated between 2001-2004 showed that undergraduate GPA and MCAT total scores predicted unimpeded progress towards medical school graduation better than GPA alone.[40] A third study using data from students from the University of Minnesota Medical School from five graduating classes between 2011-2015, and found that MCAT component scores were significantly associated with USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 scores, although the effect was small.[41] Higher MCAT scores are correlated with membership in the national medical honors society Alpha Omega Alpha (AOA), suggesting that MCAT scores can be useful to identify potential top-performing medical students.[42]
Since the most recent version of the MCAT exam was only released in 2015, insufficient years have passed to determine correlation between MCAT scores and medical school benchmarks. The AAMC plans to use medical school data from 2017-2021 to determine the predictive ability of the new MCAT.[36] The data will be collected from 18 medical schools who have agreed to collect data from students from entry to graduation including academic performance, USMLE Step exam scores, time to graduation and graduation rates.[39]
See also[edit]
List of admissions tests
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The New Score Scales for the 2015 MCAT Exam: An Overview of What Admissions Officers Need to Know" (PDF). Association of American Medical Colleges. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "MCAT FAQ". www.aamc.org.
Jump up ^ "Search" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "MCAT FAQ". www.aamc.org.
Jump up ^ "MCAT Testing Center Locations". services.aamc.org. Retrieved 18 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Taking the MCAT® Exam". www.aamc.org.
Jump up ^ "Register for the MCAT Exam". www.aamc.org.
Jump up ^ "Fee Assistance Program". www.aamc.org.
Jump up ^ "Melbourne Medical School International Applicants". University of Melbourne. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
Jump up ^ McGaghie, William C. (2002-09-04). "Assessing Readiness for Medical Education". Journal of the American Medical Association. 288 (9): 1085–1090. doi:10.1001/jama.288.9.1085. PMID 12204076.
Jump up ^ Medical College Admission Test Will Convert to Computer-Based Format Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ What is changing on the MCAT? Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "How Long Are MCAT® Scores Valid?". Retrieved 2018-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Final MR5 Recommendations" (PDF). Association of American Medical Colleges.
Jump up ^ "MR5: 5th Comprehensive Review of the Medical College Admission Test® March 2011 e-newsletter". line feed character in |title= at position 72 (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Ratings of the Importance of Topics in the Natural Sciences, Research Methods, Statistics, and Behavioral Sciences to Success in Medical School" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Ratings of the Importance of Topics in the Natural Sciences, Research Methods, Statistics, and Behavioral Sciences to Success in Medical School" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "The teaching of psychology and the new MCAT". http://www.apa.org. Retrieved 2018-04-14. External link in |website= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Final Recommendations for the 2015 MCAT Exam" (PDF).
Jump up ^ https://home.pearsonvue.com/About-Pearson-VUE/Press-Room/2017/Pearson-VUE-to-deliver-MCAT®-beginning-in-2018.aspx. Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Post-MCAT Questionnaire 2017 Report" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "The MCAT® Essentials for Testing Year 2018" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "What's on the MCAT Exam?". Retrieved 2018-03-30.
^ Jump up to: a b "Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Section: Overview". Retrieved 2018-03-30.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "What's on the MCAT Exam" (PDF).
Jump up ^ CARS overview, retrieved 2018-03-30
Jump up ^ "The MCAT Exam Score Scale". Retrieved 2018-03-27.
Jump up ^ "MCAT Scores". students-residents.aamc.org. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Summary of MCAT Total and Section Scores" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "The MCAT Essentials for Testing Year 2016" (PDF). Association of American Medical Colleges. 2016. :24−25
Jump up ^ "Testing Center Regulations and Procedures". Association of American Medical Colleges.
Jump up ^ "MCAT FAQ". students-residents.aamc.org.
Jump up ^ "Prepare for the MCAT Exam". offers.aamc.org. Retrieved 2018-04-16.
Jump up ^ "MCAT and GPA Grid for Applicants and Acceptees to U.S. Medical Schools, 2016-2017 through 2017-2018" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "About the MCAT® Exam". students-residents.aamc.org. Retrieved 2018-04-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Using MCAT Data in 2018 Medical Student Selection" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Kaplan Test Prep Survey: Medical School Admissions Officers Advise Aspiring Doctors to Score High on the MCAT®, Apply Early, and Avoid Discussing Politics - Kaplan Test Prep Online Pressroom". Kaplan Test Prep Online Pressroom. 2017-11-27. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Using MCAT® Data in 2018 Medical Student Selection" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b Julian, Ellen R. (October 2005). "Validity of the Medical College Admission Test for predicting medical school performance". Academic Medicine. 80 (10): 910–917. ISSN 1040-2446. PMID 16186610.
Jump up ^ Dunleavy, Dana M.; Kroopnick, Marc H.; Dowd, Keith W.; Searcy, Cynthia A.; Zhao, Xiaohui (May 2013). "The predictive validity of the MCAT exam in relation to academic performance through medical school: a national cohort study of 2001-2004 matriculants". Academic Medicine. 88 (5): 666–671. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182864299. ISSN 1938-808X. PMID 23478635.
Jump up ^ Gauer, Jacqueline L.; Wolff, Josephine M.; Jackson, J. Brooks (2016-09-30). "Do MCAT scores predict USMLE scores? An analysis on 5 years of medical student data". Medical Education Online. 21. doi:10.3402/meo.v21.31795. PMC 5045966. PMID 27702431.
Jump up ^ "Association between the Medical College Admission Test scores and Alpha Omega Alpha Medical Honors Society membership". PMC 5608086. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Further reading[edit]
Julian, E (2005). "Validity of the Medical College Admission Test for predicting medical school performance". Academic Medicine. 80 (10): 910–7. doi:10.1097/00001888-200510000-00010. PMID 16186610.
Simonton, W. Kyle (2006). "Accommodations for the Disabled During Administration of the MCAT, Individual State Interests Versus National Uniformity". Journal of Legal Medicine. 27 (3): 305–322. doi:10.1080/01947640600870890. PMID 16959654.
External links[edit]
Official website
Association of American Medical Colleges
AAMC: MCAT Student Manual
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