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Earth Day
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Not to be confused with the electricity switch off called Earth Hour, celebrated in March.
Earth Day
Unofficial Earth Day Flag created by John McConnell. The Ecology Flag was also used.
Significance
support for environmental protection
Begins
1970
Date
April 22
Next time
22 April 2019 (2019-04-22)
Frequency
annual
Earth Day is an annual event celebrated on April 22. Worldwide, various events are held to demonstrate support for environmental protection. First celebrated in 1970, Earth Day events in more than 193 countries[1] are now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network.[2]
On Earth Day 2016, the landmark Paris Agreement was signed by the United States, China, and some 120 other countries.[3][4][5] This signing satisfied a key requirement for the entry into force of the historic draft climate protection treaty adopted by consensus of the 195 nations present at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris.
In 1969 at a UNESCO Conference in San Francisco, peace activist John McConnell proposed a day to honor the Earth and the concept of peace, to first be celebrated on March 21, 1970, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. This day of nature's equipoise was later sanctioned in a proclamation written by McConnell and signed by Secretary General U Thant at the United Nations. A month later a separate Earth Day was founded by United States Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in first held on April 22, 1970. Nelson was later awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom award in recognition of his work.[6] While this April 22 Earth Day was focused on the United States, an organization launched by Denis Hayes, who was the original national coordinator in 1970, took it international in 1990 and organized events in 141 nations.[7][8]
Numerous communities celebrate Earth Week, an entire week of activities focused on the environmental issues that the world faces. In 2017, the March for Science occurred on Earth Day (April 22, 2017) and was followed by the People's Climate Mobilization (April 29, 2017).
Contents
[hide]
1 Santa Barbara Oil Blowout 1969
2 Santa Barbara’s Environmental Rights Day 1970
3 Earth Day 1970
3.1 New York City
3.2 Philadelphia
4 Earth Day 1990
5 Earth Day 2000
6 Subsequent Earth Day events
7 The Earth Day name
8 Earth Day Canada
9 History of the Equinox Earth Day (March 20)
10 April 22 observances
10.1 Growing eco-activism before Earth Day 1970
10.2 Significance of April 22
11 Earth Day songs
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Santa Barbara Oil Blowout 1969
Main article: 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill
On January 28, 1969, a well drilled by Union Oil Platform A off the coast of Santa Barbara, California, blew out. More than three million gallons of oil spewed, killing over 10,000 seabirds, dolphins, seals, and sea lions. As a reaction to this natural disaster, activists were mobilized to create environmental regulation, environmental education, and Earth Day. Among the proponents of Earth Day were the people in the front lines of fighting this disaster, Selma Rubin, Marc McGinnes, and Bud Bottoms, founder of Get Oil Out.[9] According to Kate Wheeling, Denis Hayes told her that Senator Gaylord Nelson from Wisconsin saw the Santa Barbara Channel 800 square-mile oil slick from an airplane, which gave him the impetus to organize Earth Day.[10]
Santa Barbara’s Environmental Rights Day 1970
On the first anniversary of the oil blowout, January 28,1970, Environmental Rights Day is celebrated, where the Declaration of Environmental Rights is read. It had been written by Rod Nash during a boat trip across the Santa Barbara Channel while carrying a copy of Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence.[11] The organizers of Environmental Rights Day, led by Marc McGinnes, had been working closely over a period of several months with Congressman Pete McCloskey (R-CA) to consult on the creation of the National Environmental Policy Act, the first of many new environmental protection laws sparked by the national outcry about the blowout/oil spill and on the Declaration of Environmental Rights. Both McCloskey (Earth Day co-chair with Senator Gaylord Nelson) and Earth Day organizer Denis Hayes, along with Senator Alan Cranston, Paul Ehrlich, David Brower and other prominent leaders, endorsed the Declaration and spoke about it at the Environmental Rights Day conference. According to Francis Sarguis, "the conference was sort of like the baptism for the movement."[12] Nash, Garrett Hardin, McGinnes and others went on to develop the first undergraduate Environmental Studies program of its kind at the University of California at Santa Barbara.[13]
Earth Day 1970
President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon plant a tree on the White House South Lawn to recognize the first Earth Day.
The first Earth Day celebrations took place in two thousand colleges and universities, roughly ten thousand primary and secondary schools, and hundreds of communities across the United States. More importantly, it "brought 20 million Americans out into the spring sunshine for peaceful demonstrations in favor of environmental reform."[14] It now is observed in 192 countries, and coordinated by the nonprofit Earth Day Network, chaired by the first Earth Day 1970 organizer Denis Hayes, according to whom Earth Day is now "the largest secular holiday in the world, celebrated by more than a billion people every year."[15] Walt Kelly created an anti-pollution poster featuring his comic strip character Pogo with the quotation "We have met the enemy and he is us" to promote the 1970 Earth Day. Environmental groups have sought to make Earth Day into a day of action to change human behavior and provoke policy changes.[16]
New York City
In the winter of 1969–1970, a group of students met at Columbia University to hear Denis Hayes talk about his plans for Earth Day. Among the group were Fred Kent, Pete Grannis, and Kristin and William Hubbard. This group agreed to head up the New York City activities within the national movement. Fred Kent took the lead in renting an office and recruiting volunteers. "The big break came when Mayor Lindsay agreed to shut down Fifth Avenue for the event. A giant cheer went up in the office on that day," according to Kristin Hubbard (now Kristin Alexandre). 'From that time on we used Mayor Lindsay's offices and even his staff. I was Speaker Coordinator but had tremendous help from Lindsay staffer Judith Crichton."
U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie speaking at Fairmount Park, Philadelphia on Earth Day, 1970
In addition to shutting down Fifth Avenue, Mayor John Lindsay made Central Park available for Earth Day. In Union Square, New York Times estimated crowds of up to 20,000 people at any given time and, perhaps, as many as over 100,000 over the course of the day.[17] Since Manhattan was also the home of NBC, CBS, ABC, The New York Times, Time, and Newsweek, it provided the best possible anchor for national coverage from their reporters throughout the country.[18]
Philadelphia
U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie was the keynote speaker on Earth Day in Fairmount Park in Philadelphia. Other notable attendees included consumer protection activist and presidential candidate Ralph Nader; Landscape Architect Ian McHarg; Nobel prize-winning Harvard Biochemist, George Wald; U.S. Senate Minority Leader, Hugh Scott; and poet, Allen Ginsberg.
Earth Day 1990
Mobilizing 200 million people in 141 countries and lifting the status of environmental issues onto the world stage, Earth Day activities in 1990 gave a huge boost to recycling efforts worldwide and helped pave the way for the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Unlike the first Earth Day in 1970, this 20th Anniversary was waged with stronger marketing tools, greater access to television and radio, and multimillion-dollar budgets.[19]
The official logo of the Mount Everest Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb
Two separate groups formed to sponsor Earth Day events in 1990: The Earth Day 20 Foundation, assembled by Edward Furia (Project Director of Earth Week in 1970), and Earth Day 1990, assembled by Denis Hayes (National Coordinator for Earth Day 1970). Senator Gaylord Nelson, the original founder of Earth Day, was honorary chairman for both groups. The two did not combine forces over disagreements about leadership of combined organization and incompatible structures and strategies.[19] Among the disagreements, key Earth Day 20 Foundation organizers were critical of Earth Day 1990 for including on their board Hewlett-Packard, a company that at the time was the second-biggest emitter of chlorofluorocarbons in Silicon Valley and refused to switch to alternative solvents.[19] In terms of marketing, Earth Day 20 had a grassroots approach to organizing and relied largely on locally based groups like the National Toxics Campaign, a Boston-based coalition of 1,000 local groups concerned with industrial pollution. Earth Day 1990 employed strategies including focus group testing, direct mail fund raising, and email marketing.[19]
The Earth Day 20 Foundation highlighted its April 22 activities in George, Washington, near the Columbia River with a live satellite phone call with members of the historic Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb who called from their base camp on Mount Everest to pledge their support for world peace and attention to environmental issues.[20] The Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb was led by Jim Whittaker, the first American to summit Mt. Everest (many years earlier), and marked the first time in history that mountaineers from the United States, Soviet Union, and China had roped together to climb a mountain, let alone Mt. Everest.[20] The group also collected more than two tons of trash (transported down the mountain by support groups along the way) that was left behind on Mount Everest from previous climbing expeditions. The master of ceremonies for the Columbia Gorge event was the TV star, John Ratzenberger, from "Cheers", and the headlining musician was the "Father of Rock and Roll," Chuck Berry.[20]
Warner Bros. Records released an Earth Day-themed single in 1990 entitled "Tomorrow's World", written by Kix Brooks (who would later become one-half of Brooks & Dunn) and Pam Tillis.[21] The song featured vocals from Lynn Anderson, Butch Baker, Shane Barmby, Billy Hill, Suzy Bogguss, Kix Brooks, T. Graham Brown, The Burch Sisters, Holly Dunn, Foster & Lloyd, Vince Gill, William Lee Golden, Highway 101, Shelby Lynne, Johnny Rodriguez, Dan Seals, Les Taylor, Pam Tillis, Mac Wiseman, and Kevin Welch. It charted at number 74 on the Hot Country Songs chart dated May 5, 1990.[22]
Earth Day 2000
Earth Day 2000 combined the ambitious spirit of the first Earth Day with the international grassroots activism of Earth Day 1990. This was the first year that Earth Day used the Internet as its principal organizing tool, and it proved invaluable nationally and internationally. Kelly Evans, a professional political organizer, served as executive director of the 2000 campaign. The event ultimately enlisted more than 5,000 environmental groups outside the United States, reaching hundreds of millions of people in a record 183 countries.[23] Leonardo DiCaprio was the official host for the event,[23] and about 400,000 participants stood in the cold rain during the course of the day.
Subsequent Earth Day events
Earth Day 2007 at San Diego City College in San Diego, California
To turn Earth Day into a sustainable annual event rather than one that occurred every 10 years, Nelson and Bruce Anderson, New Hampshire's lead organizers in 1990, formed Earth Day USA. Building on the momentum created by thousands of community organizers around the world, Earth Day USA coordinated the next five Earth Day celebrations through 1995, including the launch of EarthDay.org. Following the 25th Anniversary in 1995, the coordination baton was handed to Earth Day Network.
As the millennium approached, Hayes agreed to spearhead another campaign, this time focusing on global warming and pushing for clean energy. The April 22 Earth Day in 2000 combined the big-picture feistiness of the first Earth Day with the international grassroots activism of Earth Day 1990. For 2000, Earth Day had the internet to help link activists around the world. By the time April 22 came around, 5,000 environmental groups around the world were on board reaching out to hundreds of millions of people in a record 184 countries. Events varied: A talking drum chain traveled from village to village in Gabon, Africa, for example, while hundreds of thousands of people gathered on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., USA.
Earth Day 2007 was one of the largest Earth Days to date, with many people participating in the activities in thousands of places including Kiev, Ukraine; Caracas, Venezuela; Tuvalu; Manila, Philippines; Togo; Madrid, Spain; London; and New York.
For Earth Day 2017, the Earth Day Network created four toolkits to aid organizations wanting to hold teach-ins to celebrate the theme "Environmental and Climate Literacy."[24] The four toolkits are:
Earth Day Action Toolkit: Educating and Activating Communities for Change
Environmental Teach-in Toolkit
Global Day of Conversation Toolkit for Local Governments
MobilizeU: Campus Teach-in Toolkit
2017 also saw the Earth Day Network co-organize the March for Science rally and teach-in at the National Mall in Washington D.C.[24]
The Earth Day name
According to Nelson, the moniker "Earth Day" was "an obvious and logical name" suggested by a lot of other people in the fall of 1969, including, he writes, both "a friend of mine who had been in the field of public relations" and "a New York advertising executive," Julian Koenig.[25] Koenig, who had been on Nelson's organizing committee in 1969, has said that the idea came to him by the coincidence of his birthday with the day selected, April 22; "Earth Day" rhyming with "birthday," the connection seemed natural.[26][27] Other names circulated during preparations—Nelson himself continued to call it the National Environment Teach-In, but national coordinator Denis Hayes used the term Earth Day in his communications and press coverage of the event was "practically unanimous" in its use of "Earth Day," so the name stuck.[25] The introduction of the name "Earth Day" was also claimed by John McConnell (see "Equinox Earth Day," below).[28]
Earth Day Canada
Paul Tinari officially launched the first Canadian Earth Day on September 11, 1980 – included are Flora MacDonald MP, Ken Keyes and Dr. Ronald Watts
The first Canadian Earth Day was held on Thursday, September 11, 1980, and was organized by Paul D. Tinari, then a graduate student in Engineering Physics/Solar Engineering at Queen's University. Flora MacDonald, then MP for Kingston and the Islands and former Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs, officially opened Earth Day Week on September 6, 1980 with a ceremonial tree planting and encouraged MPs and MPPs across the country to declare a cross-Canada annual Earth Day. The principal activities taking place on the first Earth Day included educational lectures given by experts in various environmental fields, garbage and litter pick-up by students along city roads and highways as well as tree plantings to replace the trees killed by Dutch Elm Disease.[29][30]
History of the Equinox Earth Day (March 20)
The equinoctial Earth Day is celebrated on the March equinox (around March 20) to mark the precise moment of astronomical spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and of astronomical autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. An equinox in astronomy is that point in time (not a whole day) when the Sun is directly above the Earth's equator, occurring around March 20 and September 23 each year. In most cultures, the equinoxes and solstices are considered to start or separate the seasons.
John McConnell[31] first introduced the idea of a global holiday called "Earth Day" at the 1969 UNESCO Conference on the Environment. The first Earth Day proclamation was issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph Alioto on March 21, 1970. Celebrations were held in various cities, such as San Francisco and in Davis, California with a multi-day street party. UN Secretary-General U Thant supported McConnell's global initiative to celebrate this annual event; and on February 26, 1971, he signed a proclamation to that effect, saying:
May there be only peaceful and cheerful Earth Days to come for our beautiful Spaceship Earth as it continues to spin and circle in frigid space with its warm and fragile cargo of animate life.[32]
United Nations secretary-general Kurt Waldheim observed Earth Day with similar ceremonies on the March equinox in 1972, and the United Nations Earth Day ceremony has continued each year since on the day of the March equinox (the United Nations also works with organizers of the April 22 global event). Margaret Mead added her support for the equinox Earth Day, and in 1978 declared:
"Earth Day is the first holy day which transcends all national borders, yet preserves all geographical integrities, spans mountains and oceans and time belts, and yet brings people all over the world into one resonating accord, is devoted to the preservation of the harmony in nature and yet draws upon the triumphs of technology, the measurement of time, and instantaneous communication through space.
Earth Day draws on astronomical phenomena in a new way – which is also the most ancient way – by using the vernal Equinox, the time when the Sun crosses the equator making the length of night and day equal in all parts of the Earth. To this point in the annual calendar, EARTH DAY attaches no local or divisive set of symbols, no statement of the truth or superiority of one way of life over another. But the selection of the March Equinox makes planetary observance of a shared event possible, and a flag which shows the Earth, as seen from space, appropriate."[33]
At the moment of the equinox, it is traditional to observe Earth Day by ringing the Japanese Peace Bell, which was donated by Japan to the United Nations.[34] Over the years, celebrations have occurred in various places worldwide at the same time as the UN celebration. On March 20, 2008, in addition to the ceremony at the United Nations, ceremonies were held in New Zealand, and bells were sounded in California, Vienna, Paris, Lithuania, Tokyo, and many other locations. The equinox Earth Day at the UN is organized by the Earth Society Foundation.[35]
Earth Day ringing the peace bell is celebrated around the world in many towns, ringing the Peace Bell in Vienna,[36] Berlin, and elsewhere. A memorable event took place at the UN in Geneva, celebrating a Minute for Peace ringing the Japanese Shinagawa Peace Bell with the help of the Geneva Friendship Association and the Global Youth Foundation,[37] directly after in deep mourning about the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant catastrophe 10 days before.
Beside the Spring Equinox for the Northern Hemisphere, the observance of the Spring Equinox for the Southern Hemisphere in September is of equal importance. The International Day of Peace[38] is celebrated on September 21, and can thus be considered to accord with the original intentions of John McConnell, U Thant and others.
April 22 observances
Growing eco-activism before Earth Day 1970
In 1968, Morton Hilbert and the U.S. Public Health Service organized the Human Ecology Symposium, an environmental conference for students to hear from scientists about the effects of environmental degradation on human health.[39] This was the beginning of Earth Day. For the next two years, Hilbert and students worked to plan the first Earth Day.[40] In April 1970—along with a federal proclamation from U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson—the first Earth Day was held.[41]
Project Survival, an early environmentalism-awareness education event, was held at Northwestern University on January 23, 1970. This was the first of several events held at university campuses across the United States in the lead-up to the first Earth Day. Also, Ralph Nader began talking about the importance of ecology in 1970.
The 1960s had been a very dynamic period for ecology in the US. Pre-1960 grassroots activism against DDT in Nassau County, New York, and widespread opposition to open-air nuclear weapons tests with their global nuclear fallout, had inspired Rachel Carson to write her influential bestseller, Silent Spring (1962).
Significance of April 22
Global selfie – Earth Day, April 22, 2014.
Nelson chose the date in order to maximize participation on college campuses for what he conceived as an "environmental teach-in". He determined the week of April 19–25 was the best bet as it did not fall during exams or spring breaks.[42] Moreover, it did not conflict with religious holidays such as Easter or Passover, and was late enough in spring to have decent weather. More students were likely to be in class, and there would be less competition with other mid-week events—so he chose Wednesday, April 22. The day also fell after the anniversary of the birth of noted conservationist John Muir. The National Park Service, John Muir National Historic Site, has a celebration every year on or around Earth Day (April 21, 22 or 23), called Birthday-Earth Day, in recognition of Earth Day and John Muir's contribution to the collective consciousness of environmentalism and conservation.[43]
Unbeknownst to Nelson,[44] April 22, 1970, was coincidentally the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Lenin, when translated to the Gregorian calendar (which the Soviets adopted in 1918). Time reported that some suspected the date was not a coincidence, but a clue that the event was "a Communist trick", and quoted a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution as saying, "subversive elements plan to make American children live in an environment that is good for them."[45] J. Edgar Hoover, director of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, may have found the Lenin connection intriguing; it was alleged the FBI conducted surveillance at the 1970 demonstrations.[46] The idea that the date was chosen to celebrate Lenin's centenary still persists in some quarters,[47][48] an idea borne out by the similarity with the subbotnik instituted by Lenin in 1920 as days on which people would have to do community service, which typically consisted in removing rubbish from public property and collecting recyclable material. Subbotniks were also imposed on other countries within the compass of Soviet power, including Eastern Europe, and at the height of its power the Soviet Union established a nationwide subbotnik to be celebrated on Lenin's birthday, April 22, which had been proclaimed a national holiday celebrating communism by Nikita Khrushchev in 1955.
Earth Day songs
See also: Earth Anthem
There are many songs that are performed on Earth Day, that generally fall into two categories. Popular songs by contemporary artists not specific to Earth Day that are under copyright or new lyrics adapted to children's songs.
See also
March for Science (April 22, 2017)
Air pollution
Arbor Day
Net capacity factor
Carbon footprint
Copenhagen Accord
Earth Charter
Earth Hour
Expo '74: "Celebrating Tomorrow's Fresh New Environment"
International Day of Forests
International Mother Earth Day
Live Earth
Pale Blue Dot
World Environment Day by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
World Water Day
Environmental politics
IPCC Fifth Assessment Report
Paris Agreement
Politics of global warming
Under2MOU
References
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Jump up ^ "'Today is an historic day,' says Ban, as 175 countries sign Paris climate accord". United Nations. April 22, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Kate Wheeling & Max Ufberg (April 18, 2017). "'The Ocean Is Boiling': The Complete Oral History of the 1969 Santa Barbara Oil Spill". Pacific Standard. Retrieved May 9, 2018. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Jonathan Bastian (April 21, 2017). "How the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill sparked Earth Day". KCRW. Retrieved May 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Kate Wheeling & Max Ufberg (April 18, 2017). "'The Ocean Is Boiling': The Complete Oral History of the 1969 Santa Barbara Oil Spill". Pacific Standard. Retrieved May 9, 2018. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Kate Wheeling & Max Ufberg (April 18, 2017). "'The Ocean Is Boiling': The Complete Oral History of the 1969 Santa Barbara Oil Spill". Pacific Standard. Retrieved May 9, 2018. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ McGinnes, J. Marc (May 2, 2014). "Environmental Law Series Links Campus and Community in Santa Barbara". The Journal of Environmental Education. Retrieved May 24, 2018.
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Jump up ^ "The Spirit of the First Earth Day". U.S.Environmental Protection Agency. January–February 1990. Archived from the original on March 28, 2010. Retrieved April 22, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Business of Earth Day". Nytimes.com. November 12, 1989. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Ellensburg Daily Record – Google News Archive Search".
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^ Jump up to: a b Gerth, Jeff (April 23, 2000). "Peaceful, Easy Feeling Imbues 30th Earth Day". The New York Times. Retrieved April 15, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Earth Day Network releases teach-in toolkits for Earth Day 2017". Davis Enterprise. April 20, 2017. Retrieved April 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaylord Nelson Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 231, Folder 43.
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External links
Look up earth day in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earth Day.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Environment
Wikinews has related news: Earth Day 2008 marked in various ways
Wikinews has related news: Earth Day 2009 celebrated around the globe
Earth Day
Earth Day Network – Coordinating worldwide events for Earth Day
United States Earth Day – The U.S. government's Earth Day site
Earth Day Canada – The Canadian Official Site for Earth Day
Earth Day at The History Channel
EPA Journal: Earth Day – an entire journal dedicated to Earth Day, written in early 1990
Gaylord Nelson and Earth Day: The Making of the Modern Environmental Movement narrative account of the origins of Earth Day, Nelson's political career, as well as online access to documents from the Wisconsin Historical Society's Nelson Papers collection
Equinoctial Earth Day
Earth Society Foundation – Official organization arranging annual equinox Earth Day celebration at the United Nations
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text:
Sodium perchlorate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Sodium perchlorate
Names
Other names
Sodium chlorate(VII)
Sodium hyperchlorate
Perchloric acid, sodium salt
Identifiers
CAS Number
7601-89-0 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:132103 N
ChemSpider
22668 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.028.647
EC Number 231-511-9
PubChem CID
522606
RTECS number SC9800000
UN number 1502
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/ClHO4.Na/c2-1(3,4)5;/h(H,2,3,4,5);/q;+1/p-1 Y
Key: BAZAXWOYCMUHIX-UHFFFAOYSA-M Y
InChI=1/ClHO4.Na/c2-1(3,4)5;/h(H,2,3,4,5);/q;+1/p-1
Key: BAZAXWOYCMUHIX-REWHXWOFAU
SMILES[show]
[Na+].[O-]Cl(=O)(=O)=O
Properties
Chemical formula
NaClO4
NaClO4.H2O (monohydrate)
Molar mass 122.44 g/mol
Appearance White crystalline solid
Density 2.4994 g/cm3
2.02 g/cm3 (monohydrate)
Melting point 468 °C (874 °F; 741 K) (decomposes, anhydrous)
130 °C (monohydrate)
Boiling point 482 °C (900 °F; 755 K) (decomposes, monohydrate)
Solubility in water
209.6 g/100 mL (25 °C, anhydrous)
209 g/100 mL (15 °C, monohydrate)
Refractive index (nD)
1.4617
Structure
Crystal structure
orthorhombic
Hazards
Safety data sheet ICSC 0715
EU classification (DSD) (outdated)
Oxidant (O)
Harmful (Xn)
R-phrases (outdated) R9, R22
S-phrases (outdated) (S2), S13, S22, S27
NFPA 704
0
2
1
OX
Flash point 400 °C (752 °F; 673 K)
Related compounds
Other anions
Sodium chloride
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium chlorite
Sodium chlorate
Other cations
Lithium perchlorate
Potassium perchlorate
Ammonium perchlorate
Caesium perchlorate
Related compounds
Perchloric acid
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Sodium perchlorate is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaClO4. It is the most soluble of the common perchlorate salts. It is a white crystalline, hygroscopic solid that is highly soluble in water and in alcohol. It usually comes as the monohydrate, which has a rhombic crystal system.[1]
Its heat of formation is −382.75 kJ/mol, meaning that it would be thermodynamically favorable for it to decompose into sodium chloride and dioxygen.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Uses
1.1 Laboratory applications
1.2 In medicine
1.3 In animal training
2 Production
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Uses[edit]
Sodium perchlorate is the precursor to many other perchlorate salts, often taking advantage of their low solubility relative to NaClO4 (209 g/100 mL at 25 °C). Perchloric acid is made by treating NaClO4 with HCl.
NaClO4 finds only minimal use in pyrotechnics because it is hygroscopic; ammonium and potassium perchlorates are preferred. These salts are prepared by double decomposition from a solution of sodium perchlorate and potassium or ammonium chlorides.
Laboratory applications[edit]
NaClO4 has a variety of uses in the laboratory, often as an unreactive electrolyte. For example, it is used in standard DNA extraction and hybridization reactions in molecular biology.
In medicine[edit]
Sodium perchlorate can be used to block iodine uptake before administration of iodinated contrast agents in patients with subclinical hyperthyroidism (suppressed TSH).[3]
In animal training[edit]
Sodium perchlorate may also be used as a material to train canines to detect bomb materials.[4]
Production[edit]
Sodium perchlorate is produced by anodic oxidation of sodium chlorate at an inert electrode, such as platinum.[5]
ClO3−(aq) + H2O(l) → ClO4−(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e− (acidic medium)
ClO3−(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → ClO4−(aq)+ H2O(l) + 2e− (alkaline medium)
See also[edit]
Potassium chlorate
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Eagleson, Mary (1994). Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry. revised, illustrated. Walter de Gruyter. p. 1000. ISBN 9783110114515. Retrieved March 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ WebBook page for NaClO4
Jump up ^ Becker C. [Prophylaxis and treatment of side effects due to iodinated contrast media relevant to radiological practice]. Radiologe. 2007 Sep;47(9):768-73.
Jump up ^ "Explosives Detection Dogs". www.special-dogs.de (in German). Retrieved 2017-07-24.
Jump up ^ Helmut Vogt, Jan Balej, John E. Bennett, Peter Wintzer, Saeed Akbar Sheikh, Patrizio Gallone "Chlorine Oxides and Chlorine Oxygen Acids" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_483
External links[edit]
WebBook page for NaClO4
[show]
v
t
e
Sodium compounds
NaAlO2
NaBH4
NaBH3(CN)
NaBO2
NaBiO3
NaBr
NaBrO
NaBrO3
NaCH3COO
NaC6H5CO2
NaC6H4(OH)CO2
NaCN
NaCl
NaClO
NaClO2
NaClO3
NaClO4
NaF
Na2FeO4
NaH
NaHCO3
NaH2PO4
NaHSO3
NaHSO4
NaI
NaIO3
NaIO4
Na5IO6
NaMnO4
NaN3
NaNH2
NaNO2
NaNO3
NaOCN
NaO2
NaO3
NaOH
NaPO2H2
NaReO4
NaSCN
NaSH
NaTcO4
NaVO3
Na2CO3
Na2C2O4
Na2CrO4
Na2Cr2O7
Na2GeO3
Na2MnO4
Na3MnO4
Na2MoO4
Na2MoS4
Na2N2O2
Na2O
Na2O2
Na2O(UO3)2
Na2PO3F
Na2S
Na2SO3
Na2SO4
Na2S2O3
Na2S2O4
Na2S2O5
Na2S2O6
Na2S2O7
Na2S2O8
Na2S4O6
Na2Se
Na2SeO3
Na2SeO4
Na2SiO3
Na2Si2O5
Na4SiO4
Na2Te
Na2TeO3
Na2TeO4
Na2Po
Na2Ti3O7
Na2U2O7
NaWO4
Na2Zn(OH)4
Na3N
Na3P
Na3PO4
Na3VO4
Na4Fe(CN)6
Na4P3O7
Na5P3O10
Chemical formulas
[show]
v
t
e
Salts and the ester of the perchlorate ion
HClO4 He
LiClO4 Be(ClO4)2 B(ClO4)4−
B(ClO4)3 ROClO3 N(ClO4)3
NH4ClO4
NOClO4 O FClO4 Ne
NaClO4 Mg(ClO4)2 Al(ClO4)3 Si P S ClO4−
ClOClO3
Cl2O7 Ar
KClO4 Ca(ClO4)2 Sc(ClO4)3 Ti(ClO4)4 VO(ClO4)3
VO2(ClO4) Cr(ClO4)3 Mn(ClO4)2 Fe(ClO4)3 Co(ClO4)2,
Co(ClO4)3 Ni(ClO4)2 Cu(ClO4)2 Zn(ClO4)2 Ga(ClO4)3 Ge As Se Br Kr
RbClO4 Sr(ClO4)2 Y(ClO4)3 Zr(ClO4)4 Nb(ClO5)4 Mo Tc Ru Rh(ClO4)3 Pd(ClO4)2 AgClO4 Cd(ClO4)2 In(ClO4)3 Sn(ClO4)4 Sb TeO(ClO4)2 I Xe
CsClO4 Ba(ClO4)2 Hf(ClO4)4 Ta(ClO5)5 W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg2(ClO4)2,
Hg(ClO4)2 Tl(ClO4)3 Pb(ClO4)2 Bi(ClO4)3 Po At Rn
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
↓
La Ce(ClO4)x Pr Nd Pm Sm(ClO4)3 Eu(ClO4)3 Gd(ClO4)3 Tb(ClO4)3 Dy(ClO4)3 Ho(ClO4)3 Er(ClO4)3 Tm(ClO4)3 Yb(ClO4)3 Lu(ClO4)3
Ac Th(ClO4)4 Pa UO2(ClO4)2 Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
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Mental rotation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Mental rotation is the ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual representation of such rotation within the human mind.[1]
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Assessment
3 Notable research
3.1 Shepard and Metzler (1971)
3.2 Vandenburg and Kuse (1978)
4 Neural activity
5 Color
6 Effect on athleticism and artistic ability
7 Gender
8 Current research directions
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Introduction[edit]
Mental rotation, as a function of visual representation in the human brain, has been associated with the right cerebral hemisphere. There is a relationship between similar areas of the brain associated with perception and mental rotation. There could also be a relationship between the cognitive rate of spatial processing, general intelligence and mental rotation.[2][3][4] Mental rotation can be described as the brain moving objects in order to help understand what they are and where they belong. Mental rotation has been studied to try to figure out how the mind recognizes objects in their environment. Researchers generally call such objects stimuli. Mental rotation is one cognitive function for the person to figure out what the altered object is.
Mental rotation can be separated into the following cognitive stages:[2]
Create a mental image of an object from all directions (imagining where it continues straight vs. turns)
Rotate the object mentally until a comparison can be made (orientating the stimulus to other figure)
Make the comparison
Decide if the objects are the same or not
Report the decision (reaction time is recorded when level pulled or button pushed)
Assessment[edit]
In a mental rotation test, the participant compares two 3D objects (or letters), often rotated in some axis, and states if they are the same image or if they are mirror images (enantiomorphs).[1] Commonly, the test will have pairs of images each rotated a specific number of degrees (e.g. 0°, 60°, 120° or 180°). A set number of pairs will be split between being the same image rotated, while others are mirrored. The researcher judges the participant on how accurately and rapidly they can distinguish between the mirrored and non-mirrored pairs.[5]
Notable research[edit]
Shepard and Metzler (1971)[edit]
Roger Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler (1971) were some of the first to research the phenomenon.[6] Their experiment specifically tested mental rotation on three-dimensional objects. Each subject was presented with multiple pairs of three-dimensional, asymmetrical lined or cubed objects. The experiment was designed to measure how long it would take each subject to determine whether the pair of objects were indeed the same object or two different objects. Their research showed that the reaction time for participants to decide if the pair of items matched or not was linearly proportional to the angle of rotation from the original position. That is, the more an object has been rotated from the original, the longer it takes an individual to determine if the two images are of the same object or enantiomorphs.[7]
Vandenburg and Kuse (1978)[edit]
Main article: Mental Rotations Test
In 1978, Steven G. Vandenberg and Allan R. Kuse developed a test to assess mental rotation abilities that was based on Shepard and Metzler's (1971) original study. The Mental Rotations Test was constructed using India ink drawings. Each stimulus was a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object drawn by a computer. The image was then displayed on an oscilloscope. Each image was then shown at different orientations rotated around the vertical axis. Following the basic ideas of Shepard and Metzler's experiment, this study found a significant difference in the mental rotation scores between men and women, with men performing better. Correlations with other measures showed strong association with tests of spatial visualization and no association with verbal ability.[8][9]
Neural activity[edit]
In 1999, a study was conducted to find out which part of the brain is activated during mental rotation. Seven volunteers (four males and three females) between the ages of twenty-nine to sixty-six participated in this experiment. For the study, the subjects were shown eight characters 4 times each (twice in normal orientation and twice reversed) and the subjects had to decide if the character was in its normal configuration or if it was the mirror image. During this task, a PET scan was performed and revealed activation in the right posterior parietal lobe.[10]
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of brain activation during mental rotation reveal consistent increased activation of the parietal lobe, specifically the inter-parietal sulcus, that is dependent on the difficulty of the task. In general, the larger the angle of rotation, the more brain activity associated with the task. This increased brain activation is accompanied by longer times to complete the rotation task and higher error rates. Researchers have argued that the increased brain activation, increased time, and increased error rates indicate that task difficulty is proportional to the angle of rotation.[11][12]
Rotation in depth 90 degrees
Rotation in the picture plane 90 degrees
Color[edit]
Physical objects that people imagine rotating in everyday life have many properties, such as textures, shapes, and colors. A study at the University of California Santa Barbara was conducted to specifically test the extent to which visual information, such as color, is represented during mental rotation. This study used several methods such as reaction time studies, verbal protocol analysis, and eye tracking. In the initial reaction time experiments, those with poor rotational ability were affected by the colors of the image, whereas those with good rotational ability were not. Overall, those with poor ability were faster and more accurate identifying images that were consistently colored. The verbal protocol analysis showed that the subjects with low spatial ability mentioned color in their mental rotation tasks more often than participants with high spatial ability. One thing that can be shown through this experiment is that those with higher rotational ability will be less likely to represent color in their mental rotation. Poor rotators will be more likely to represent color in their mental rotation using piecemeal strategies (Khooshabeh & Hegarty, 2008).
Effect on athleticism and artistic ability[edit]
Research on how athleticism and artistic ability affect mental rotation has also been done. Pietsch, S., & Jansen, P. (2012) showed that people who were athletes or musicians had faster reaction times than people who were not. They tested this by splitting people from the age of 18 and higher into three groups. Group 1 was students who were studying math, sports students and education students. It was found that through the mental rotation test students who were focused on sports did much better than those who were math or education majors. Also it was found that the male athletes in the experiment were faster than females, but male and female musicians showed no significant difference in reaction time.
Moreau, D., Clerc, et al. (2012) also investigated if athletes were more spatially aware than non-athletes. This experiment took undergraduate college students and tested them with the mental rotation test before any sport training, and then again afterward. The participants were trained in two different sports to see if this would help their spatial awareness. It was found that the participants did better on the mental rotation test after they had trained in the sports, than they did before the training. There are ways to train your spatial awareness. This experiment brought to the research that if people could find ways to train their mental rotation skills they could perform better in high context activities with greater ease.
A study investigated the effect of mental rotation on postural stability. Participants performed a MR (mental rotation) task involving either foot stimuli, hand stimuli, or non-body stimuli (a car) and then had to balance on one foot. The results suggested that MR tasks involving foot stimuli were more effective at improving balance than hand or car stimuli, even after 60 minutes.[13]
Researchers studied the difference in mental rotation ability between gymnasts, handball, and soccer players with both in-depth and in-plane rotations. Results suggested that athletes were better at performing mental rotation tasks that were more closely related to their sport of expertise.[14]
There is a correlation in mental rotation and motor ability in children, and this connection is especially strong in boys age 7–8. Children were known for having very connected motor and cognitive processes, and the study showed that this overlap is influenced by motor ability.[15]
A mental rotation test (MRT) was carried out on gymnasts, orienteers, runners, and non athletes. Results showed that non athletes were greatly outperformed by gymnasts and orienteers, but not runners. Gymnasts (egocentric athletes) did not outperform orienteers (allocentric athletes).[16]
Gender[edit]
Different studies have shown that there is a difference between male and female in mental rotation tasks.
In order to explain this difference, we can look at the brain activation during a mental rotation task. In 2012, a study[17] have been done on people that graduated in sciences or in liberal arts. Males and females were asked to execute a mental rotation task, and their brain activity was recorded with an fMRI. The researchers found a difference of brain activation: males present a stronger activity in the area of the brain used in a mental rotation task.
A study from 2008 showed that this difference occurs early during development. The experiment was done on 3- to 4-month-old infants using a 2D mental rotation task. They used a preference apparatus that consists of observing during how much time the infant is looking at the stimulus. They started by familiarizing the participants with the number "1" and its rotations. Then they showed them a picture of a "1" rotated and its mirror image. The study showed that males are more interested by the mirror image. Females are equally interested by the "1" rotated and its mirror image. According to the study, this may mean that males and females, at least when infants, process mental rotation differently.[18]
Another study from 2015 was focused on women and their abilities in a mental rotation task and in an emotion recognition task. In this experiment, they induced a feeling or a situation in which women feel more powerful or less powerful. They were able to conclude that women in a situation of power are better in a mental rotation task (but less performant in an emotion recognition task) than other women.[19]
Studying differences between male and female brains can have interesting applications. For example, it could help in the understanding of the autism spectrum disorders.
One of the theories concerning autism is the EMB (extreme male brain). This theory considers that autist have an "extreme male brain". In a study[20] from 2015, researchers confirmed that there is a difference between male and female in mental rotation task (by studying people without autism): Males are more successful. Then they highlighted the fact that autists do not have this "male performance" in a mental rotation task. They conclude their study by "autistic people do not have an extreme version of a male cognitive profile as proposed by the EMB theory".[20]
Current research directions[edit]
Further information: Abstraction
There may be relationships between competent bodily movement and the speed with which individuals can perform mental rotation. Researchers found children who trained with mental rotation tasks had improved strategy skills after practicing.[21] Follow-ups studies will compare the differences in the brain among the attempts to discover effects on other tasks and the brain. People use many different strategies to complete tasks; psychologists will study participants who use specific cognitive skills to compare competency and reaction times.[22] Others will continue to examine the differences in competency of mental rotation based on the objects being rotated.[23] Participants' identification with the object could hinder or help their mental rotation abilities across gender and ages to support the earlier claim that males have faster reaction times.[17][24][25] Psychologists will continue to test similarities between mental rotation and physical rotation, examining the difference in reaction times and relevance to environmental implications.[26]
See also[edit]
Abstraction
Mental event
Space mapping
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Shepard, Roger N.; Metzler, Jacqueline (1971-02-19). "Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects". Science. 171 (3972): 701–703. doi:10.1126/science.171.3972.701. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 5540314.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, A. Michael (1990-12-01). "Speed of Mental Rotation as a Function of Problem-Solving Strategies". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 71 (3): 803–806. doi:10.2466/pms.1990.71.3.803. ISSN 0031-5125. PMID 2293182.
Jump up ^ Jones, Bill; Anuza, Teresa (1982-12-01). "Effects of Sex, Handedness, Stimulus and Visual Field on "Mental Rotation"". Cortex. 18 (4): 501–514. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(82)80049-X. PMID 7166038.
Jump up ^ Hertzog, Christopher; Rypma, Bart (2013-11-08). "Age differences in components of mental-rotation task performance". Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. 29 (2): 209–212. doi:10.3758/BF03335237. ISSN 0090-5054.
Jump up ^ Caissie, A. F.; Vigneau, F.; Bors, D. A. (2009). "What does the Mental Rotation Test Measure? An Analysis of Item Difficulty and Item Characteristics" (PDF). The Open Psychology Journal. 2 (1): 94–102. doi:10.2174/1874350100902010094.
Jump up ^ Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J., "Mental rotation: Effects of Dimensionality of Objects and Type of Task", Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Vol 14, Feb 1988, pp. 3-11.
Jump up ^ Shepard, R. N.; Metzler, J. (1971). "Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects" (PDF). Science. 171 (3972): 701–703. doi:10.1126/science.171.3972.701. JSTOR 1731476. PMID 5540314.
Jump up ^ Vandenberg, Steven (1978). "Mental Rotations, a Group Test of Three-Dimensional Spatial Visualization". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 47 (2): 599–604. doi:10.2466/pms.1978.47.2.599. PMID 724398.
Jump up ^ Peters, Michael (2005-03-01). "Sex differences and the factor of time in solving Vandenberg and Kuse mental rotation problems". Brain and Cognition. 57 (2): 176–184. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.08.052.
Jump up ^ Harris, Irina M.; Egan, Gary F.; Sonkkila, Cynon; Tochon-Danguy, Henri J.; Paxinos, George; Watson, John D. G. (2000-01-01). "Selective right parietal lobe activation during mental rotation". Brain. 123 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1093/brain/123.1.65. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 10611121.
Jump up ^ "Mental rotation of tactile stimuli". Cognitive Brain Research. 14: 91–98. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00063-0.
Jump up ^ Gogos, Andrea; Gavrilescu, Maria; Davison, Sonia; Searle, Karissa; Adams, Jenny; Rossell, Susan L.; Bell, Robin; Davis, Susan R.; Egan, Gary F. (2010-01-01). "Greater superior than inferior parietal lobule activation with increasing rotation angle during mental rotation: An fMRI study". Neuropsychologia. 48 (2): 529–535. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.10.013. PMID 19850055.
Jump up ^ Kawasaki, Tsubasa (2017-07-11). "Improvement of postural stability during quiet standing obtained after mental rotation of foot stimuli". web.a.ebscohost.com. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Effects of the axis of rotation and primordially solicited limb of high level athletes in a mental rotation task" (PDF). Human Movement Science. 37.
Jump up ^ "The role of rotational hand movements and general motor ability in children's mental rotation performance". Frontiers in Psychology. 6. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00984.
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External links[edit]
Mental rotation lesson using PsyToolkit
"Shepard-Metzler resource pack". An open source collection of items for use in the creation of mental rotation tasks.
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