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Inter-process communication
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For other uses, see IPC.
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
An example showing a grid computing system connecting many personal computers over the Internet using inter-process network communication
In computer science, inter-process communication or interprocess communication (IPC) refers specifically to the mechanisms an operating system provides to allow the processes to manage shared data. Typically, applications can use IPC, categorized as clients and servers, where the client requests data and the server responds to client requests.[1] Many applications are both clients and servers, as commonly seen in distributed computing. Methods for doing IPC are divided into categories which vary based on software requirements, such as performance and modularity requirements, and system circumstances, such as network bandwidth and latency.[1]
IPC is very important to the design process for microkernels and nanokernels. Microkernels reduce the number of functionalities provided by the kernel. Those functionalities are then obtained by communicating with servers via IPC, increasing drastically the number of IPC compared to a regular monolithic kernel.
Contents
[hide]
1 Approaches
2 Synchronization
3 Applications
3.1 Remote procedure call interfaces
3.2 Platform communication stack
3.3 Operating system communication stack
3.4 Distributed object models
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Approaches[edit]
Method
Short Description
Provided by (operating systems or other environments)
File A record stored on disk, or a record synthesized on demand by a file server, which can be accessed by multiple processes. Most operating systems
Signal; also Asynchronous System Trap A system message sent from one process to another, not usually used to transfer data but instead used to remotely command the partnered process. Most operating systems
Socket A data stream sent over a network interface, either to a different process on the same computer or to another computer on the network. Typically byte-oriented, sockets rarely preserve message boundaries. Data written through a socket requires formatting to preserve message boundaries. Most operating systems
Unix domain socket Similar to an internet socket but all communication occurs within the kernel. Domain sockets use the file system as their address space. Processes reference a domain socket as an inode, and multiple processes can communicate with one socket All POSIX operating systems and Windows 10[citation needed]
Message queue A data stream similar to a socket, but which usually preserves message boundaries. Typically implemented by the operating system, they allow multiple processes to read and write to the message queue without being directly connected to each other. Most operating systems
Pipe A unidirectional data channel. Data written to the write end of the pipe is buffered by the operating system until it is read from the read end of the pipe. Two-way data streams between processes can be achieved by creating two pipes utilizing standard input and output. All POSIX systems, Windows
Named pipe A pipe implemented through a file on the file system instead of standard input and output. Multiple processes can read and write to the file as a buffer for IPC data. All POSIX systems, Windows, AmigaOS 2.0+
Shared memory Multiple processes are given access to the same block of memory which creates a shared buffer for the processes to communicate with each other. All POSIX systems, Windows
Message passing Allows multiple programs to communicate using message queues and/or non-OS managed channels, commonly used in concurrency models. Used in RPC, RMI, and MPI paradigms, Java RMI, CORBA, DDS, MSMQ, MailSlots, QNX, others
Memory-mapped file A file mapped to RAM and can be modified by changing memory addresses directly instead of outputting to a stream. This shares the same benefits as a standard file. All POSIX systems, Windows
Synchronization[edit]
Main article: Synchronization (computer science)
Depending on solution IPC mechanism may provide synchronization or leave it up to processes and threads communicating (such as shared memory).
While synchronization includes some information (is lock enabled or not, counter of waiters etc.) it is not primarily information passing communication mechanism per se.
Examples of synchronization primitives are:
Semaphore
Spinlock
Barrier
Mutual exclusion
Applications[edit]
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (November 2016)
Remote procedure call interfaces[edit]
Main article: remote procedure call
Java's Remote Method Invocation (RMI)
ONC RPC
XML-RPC or SOAP
JSON-RPC
Message Bus (Mbus) (specified in RFC 3259)
.NET Remoting
Platform communication stack[edit]
The following are messaging and information systems that utilize IPC mechanisms, but don't implement IPC themselves:
KDE's Desktop Communications Protocol (DCOP) – deprecated by D-Bus
D-Bus
MCAPI Multicore Communications API
SIMPL The Synchronous Interprocess Messaging Project for Linux (SIMPL)
9P (Plan 9 Filesystem Protocol)
Distributed Computing Environment (DCE)
Thrift
TIPC
ZeroC's Internet Communications Engine (ICE)
ØMQ
Enduro/X Middleware
YAMI4
Operating system communication stack[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The following are platform or programming language-specific APIs:
Apple Computer's Apple events (previously known as Interapplication Communications (IAC)).
Enea's LINX for Linux (open source) and various DSP and general purpose processors under OSE
The Mach kernel's Mach Ports
Microsoft's ActiveX, Component Object Model (COM), Microsoft Transaction Server (COM+), Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM), Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE), Object Linking and Embedding (OLE), anonymous pipes, named pipes, Local Procedure Call, MailSlots, Message loop, MSRPC, .NET Remoting, and Windows Communication Foundation (WCF)
Novell's SPX
POSIX mmap, message queues, semaphores,[2] and shared memory
RISC OS's messages
Solaris Doors
System V's message queues, semaphores, and shared memory
OpenBinder Open binder
QNX's PPS (Persistent Publish/Subscribe) service

Distributed object models[edit]
The following are platform or programming language specific-APIs that use IPC, but do not themselves implement it:
Libt2n for C++ under Linux only, handles complex objects and exceptions
PHP's sessions
Distributed Ruby
Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA)
See also[edit]
Computer programming portal
Information technology portal
Computer network programming
Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP paradigm)
Data Distribution Service
Protected procedure call
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Interprocess Communications". Microsoft.
Jump up ^ Concurrent programming - communication between processes http://www.tldp.org/pub/Linux/docs/ldp-archived/linuxfocus/English/Archives/lf-2003_01-0281.pdf
Stevens, Richard. UNIX Network Programming, Volume 2, Second Edition: Interprocess Communications. Prentice Hall, 1999. ISBN 0-13-081081-9
U. Ramachandran, M. Solomon, M. Vernon Hardware support for interprocess communication Proceedings of the 14th annual international symposium on Computer architecture. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Pages: 178 - 188. Year of Publication: 1987 ISBN 0-8186-0776-9
Crovella, M. Bianchini, R. LeBlanc, T. Markatos, E. Wisniewski, R. Using communication-to-computation ratio in parallel program designand performance prediction 1–4 December 1992. pp. 238–245 ISBN 0-8186-3200-3
External links[edit]
Linux ipc(5) man page describing System V IPC
Windows IPC
Windows Support Chat
Unix Network Programming (Vol 2: Interprocess Communications) by W. Richard Stevens
Interprocess Communication and Pipes in C
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Shared memory
Signal
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Internet
Unix
Protocols
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Apple events
COM+
CORBA
D-Bus
DDS
DCE
ICE
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Global commons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Global commons is a term typically used to describe international, supranational, and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found. Global commons include the earth's shared natural resources, such as the high oceans, the atmosphere and outer space and the Antarctic in particular.[1] Cyberspace may also meet the definition of a global commons.
Contents
1 Definition and usage
2 Management of the global commons
2.1 The global ocean
2.2 Atmosphere
2.3 Polar regions
2.4 Outer space
2.5 Internet
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
6 Further reading
Definition and usage[edit]
"Global commons" is a term typically used to describe international, supranational, and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found. In economics, common goods are rivalrous and non-excludable, constituting one of the four main types of goods.[2] A common-pool resource, also called a common property resource, is a special case of a common good (or public good) whose size or characteristics makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential users. Examples include both natural or human-made resource domains (e.g., a "fishing hole" or an irrigation system). Unlike global public goods, global common-pool resources face problems of congestion, overuse, or degradation because they are subtractable (which makes them rivalrous).[3]
The term "commons" originates from the term common land in the British Isles.[4] "Commoners rights" referred to traditional rights held by commoners, such as mowing meadows for hay or grazing livestock on common land held in the open field system of old English common law. Enclosure was the process that ended those traditional rights, converting open fields to private property. Today, many commons still exist in England, Wales, Scotland, and the United States, although their extent is much reduced from the millions of acres that existed until the 17th century.[5] There are still over 7,000 registered commons in England alone.[6]
The term "global commons" is typically used to indicate the earth's shared natural resources, such as the deep oceans, the atmosphere, outer space and the Northern and Southern polar regions, the Antarctic in particular.[7]
According to the World Conservation Strategy, a report on conservation published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in collaboration with UNESCO and with the support of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF):
"A commons is a tract of land or water owned or used jointly by the members of a community. The global commons includes those parts of the Earth's surface beyond national jurisdictions — notably the open ocean and the living resources found there — or held in common — notably the atmosphere. The only landmass that may be regarded as part of the global commons is Antarctica ..."[8]
Today, the Internet, World Wide Web and resulting cyberspace are often referred to as global commons.[9] Other usages sometimes include references to open access information of all kinds, including arts and culture, language and science, though these are more formally referred to as the common heritage of mankind.[10]
Management of the global commons[edit]
The key challenge of the global commons is the design of governance structures and management systems capable of addressing the complexity of multiple public and private interests, subject to often unpredictable changes, ranging from the local to the global level.[11] As with global public goods, management of the global commons requires pluralistic legal entities, usually international and supranational, public and private, structured to match the diversity of interests and the type of resource to be managed, and stringent enough with adequate incentives to ensure compliance.[12] Such management systems are necessary to avoid, at the global level, the classic tragedy of the commons, in which common resources become overexploited.[13]
There are several key differences in management of resources in the global commons from those of the commons, in general.[14] There are obvious differences in scale of both the resources and the number of users at the local versus the global level. Also, there are differences in the shared culture and expectations of resource users; more localized commons users tend to be more homogeneous and global users more heterogeneous. This contributes to differences in the possibility and time it takes for new learning about resource usage to occur at the different levels. Moreover, global resource pools are less likely to be relatively stable and the dynamics are less easily understood. Many of the global commons are non-renewable on human time scales. Thus, resource degradation is more likely to be the result of unintended consequences that are unforeseen, not immediately observable, or not easily understood. For example, the carbon dioxide emissions that drive climate change continue to do so for at least a millennium after they enter the atmosphere[15] and species extinctions last forever. Importantly, because there are significant differences in the benefits, costs, and interests at the global level, there are significant differences in externalities between more local resource uses and uses of global-level resources.
Several environmental protocols have been established (see List of international environmental agreements) as a type of international law, "an intergovernmental document intended as legally binding with a primary stated purpose of preventing or managing human impacts on natural resources."[16] International environmental protocols came to feature in environmental governance after trans-boundary environmental problems became widely perceived in the 1960s.[17] Following the Stockholm Intergovernmental Conference in 1972, creation of international environmental agreements proliferated.[18] Due to the barriers already discussed, environmental protocols are not a panacea for global commons issues. Often, they are slow to produce the desired effects, tend to the lowest common denominator, and lack monitoring and enforcement. They also take an incremental approach to solutions where sustainable development principles suggest that environmental concerns should be mainstream political issues.
The global ocean[edit]
Main articles: World ocean and Water cycle
The global or world ocean, as the interconnected system of the Earth's oceanic (or marine) waters that comprise the bulk of the hydrosphere, is a classic global commons. It is divided into a number of principal oceanic areas that are delimited by the continents and various oceanographic features. In turn, oceanic waters are interspersed by many smaller seas, gulfs, and bays. Further, most freshwater bodies ultimately empty into the ocean and are derived through the Earth's water cycle from ocean waters. The Law of the Sea is a body of public international law governing relationships between nations in respect to navigational rights, mineral rights, and jurisdiction over coastal waters. Maritime law, also called Admiralty law, is a body of both domestic law governing maritime activities and private international law governing the relationships between private entities which operate vessels on the oceans. It deals with matters including marine commerce, marine navigation, shipping, sailors, and the transportation of passengers and goods by sea. However, these bodies of law do little to nothing to protect deep oceans from human threats.
In addition to providing significant means of transportation, a large proportion of all life on Earth exists in its ocean, which contains about 300 times the habitable volume of terrestrial habitats. Specific marine habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.
At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine life resources provide food (especially food fish), medicines, and raw materials. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate.[19] Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.[20]
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified several areas of need in managing the global ocean: strengthen national capacities for action, especially in developing countries; improve fisheries management; reinforce cooperation in semi-enclosed and regional seas; strengthen controls over ocean disposal of hazardous and nuclear wastes; and advance the Law of the Sea. Specific problems identified as in need of attention include rising sea levels; contamination by hazardours chemicals (including oil spills); microbiological contamination; ocean acidification; harmful algal blooms; and over-fishing and other overexploitation.[21] Further, the Pew Charitable Trusts Environmental Initiative program has identified a need for a worldwide system of very large, highly protected marine reserves where fishing and other extractive activities are prohibited.[22]
Atmosphere[edit]
Main articles: Air pollution, Climate change, and Global warming
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. A primary concern for management of the global atmosphere is air pollution, the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Pollution of breathable air is a central problem in the management of the global commons. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases and may be natural or man-made. Although controversial and limited in scope by methods of enforcement, in several parts of the world the polluter pays principle, which makes the party responsible for producing pollution responsible for paying for the damage done to the natural environment, is accepted. It has strong support in most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and European Community (EC) countries. It is also known as extended producer responsibility (EPR). EPR seeks to shift the responsibility dealing with waste from governments (and thus, taxpayers and society at large) to the entities producing it. In effect, it attempts to internalise the cost of waste disposal into the cost of the product, theoretically resulting in producers improving the waste profile of their products, decreasing waste and increasing possibilities for reuse and recycling.
The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, or CLRTAP, is an early international effort to protect and gradually reduce and prevent air pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, or Montreal Protocol (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer), is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989.
Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, which has been observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s. Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action.[23] It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas. Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming.
Along with global warming, generalized climate change is an ongoing global commons concern. Although global warming is now a generally accepted scientific observation, the precise causes of global warming are still a matter of research and debate. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and prevent potentially harmful anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) interference in the climate system.[24] There are 192 parties to the convention, including 191 states and the European Union, but not all have ratified and implemented the protocol.[25]
Polar regions[edit]
Main articles: Polar regions, Climate change in the Arctic, and Antarctic cooling controversy
The eight Arctic nations Canada, Denmark ( Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Norway, the United States (Alaska), Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Russia, are all members of the treaty organization, the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.[26] Currently, the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS, regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. The treaty, entering into force in 1961 and currently having 50 signatory nations, sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on that continent.[27]
Climate change in the Arctic region is leading to widespread ecosystem restructuring.[28] The distribution of species is changing along with the structure of food webs. Changes in ocean circulation appear responsible for the first exchanges of zooplankton between the North Pacific and North Atlantic regions in perhaps 800,000 years. These changes can allow the transmission of diseases from subarctic animals to Arctic ones, and vice versa, posing an additional threat to species already stressed by habitat loss and other impacts. Where these changes lead is not yet clear, but are likely to have far-reaching impacts on Arctic marine ecosystems.
Climate models tend to reinforce that temperature trends due to global warming will be much smaller in Antarctica than in the Arctic,[29] but ongoing research may show otherwise.[30][31]
Outer space[edit]
Main articles: Outer space and Space law
Management of outer space global commons has been contentious since the successful launch of the Sputnik satellite by the former Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. There is no clear boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, although there are several standard boundary designations: one that deals with orbital velocity (the Kármán line), one that depends on the velocity of charged particles in space, and some that are determined by human factors such as the height at which human blood begins to boil without a pressurized environment (the Armstrong line).
Space policy regarding a country's civilian space program, as well as its policy on both military use and commercial use of outer space, intersects with science policy, since national space programs often perform or fund research in space science, and also with defense policy, for applications such as spy satellites and anti-satellite weapons. It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight[32] as well as the creation and application of space law and space advocacy organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.
The Outer Space Treaty provides a basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty. It also prohibits the deployment of nuclear weapons in outer space. The treaty was passed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the USSR, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. As of mid-year, 2013 the treaty has been ratified by 102 states and signed by an additional 27 states.
Beginning in 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly. Of these, more than 50 have concerned the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space. Four additional space law treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Still, there remain no legal prohibitions against deploying conventional weapons in space and anti-satellite weapons have been successfully tested by the US, USSR and China. The 1979 Moon Treaty turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. However, this treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices manned spaceflight.
In 1976 eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia to make the "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries," also known as "the Bogotá Declaration", a claim to control the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country. These claims are not internationally accepted.
The International Space Station programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies: NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RSA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), European Space Agency (ESA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA). National budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects into the International Space Station. In 1993 the partially built components for a Soviet/Russian space station Mir-2, the proposed American Freedom, and the proposed European Columbus merged into this multinational programme.[33] The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever constructed,[34] and may be one of the most significant instances of international cooperation in modern history.
According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and the RSA, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in space. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars and asteroids. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, it was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic[35] and educational purposes.[36]
Internet[edit]
Main article: Digital commons (economics)
As a global system of computers interconnected by telecommunication technologies consisting of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government resources, it is difficult to argue that the Internet is a global commons. These computing resources are largely privately owned and subject to private property law, although many are government owned and subject to public law. The World Wide Web, as a system of interlinked hypertext documents, either public domain (like Wikipedia itself) or subject to copyright law, is, at best, a mixed good.
The resultant virtual space or cyberspace, however, is often viewed as an electronic global commons that allows for as much or more freedom of expression as any public space. Access to those digital commons and the actual freedom of expression allowed does vary widely by geographical area. Management of the electronic global commons presents as many issues as do other commons. In addition to issues related to inequity in access, issues such as net neutrality, Internet censorship, Internet privacy, and electronic surveillance arise.[37]
See also[edit]
Globalization portal
Environmental economics
Environmental law
Free and open-source software
Goods
Global public goods
Human ecology
Tragedy of the commons
Wikipedia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.unep.org/delc/GlobalCommons/tabid/54404/
Jump up ^ For current definitions of public goods see any mainstream microeconomics textbook, e.g.: Hal R. Varian, Microeconomic Analysis ISBN 0-393-95735-7; Mas-Colell, Whinston & Green, Microeconomic Theory ISBN 0-19-507340-1; or Gravelle & Rees, Microeconomics ISBN 0-582-40487-8.
Jump up ^ Ostrom, Elinor (1990). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 521 40599 8.
Jump up ^ Neeson, Jeanette M. (1996). Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700–1820. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521567749.
Jump up ^ * Callander, Robin Fraser (1987), A pattern of Landownership in Scotland: With Particular Reference to Aberdeenshire, Finzean: Haughend, OCLC 60041593 .
Jump up ^ DEFRA Database of registered common land in England Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Dauvergne, Peter (ed.) (2012). Handbook of Global Environmental Politics (2nd edition). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1849809405. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ " Chapter 18, The global commons." World Conservation Strategy, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, accessed 22 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Raymond, Mark (2012). "The Internet as a Global Commons?" Governing the Internet: Chaos, Control or Consensus? The Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI).
Jump up ^ Baslar, Kemal (1998). The Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind in International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Pubs. ISBN 978-90-411-0505-9
Jump up ^ Brousseau, Eric; et al. (2012). Global Environmental Commons: Analytical and Political Challenges in Building Governance Mechanisms. Cambridge, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199656202.
Jump up ^ Shaffer, Gregory (August 2012). "International Law and Global Public Goods in a Legal Pluralist World". European Journal of International Law. 23 (3): 669–693. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs036.
Jump up ^ "The Tragedy of the Commons". Science. 162 (3859): 1243–1248. 1968. Bibcode:1968Sci...162.1243H. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243. PMID 5699198. Also available here [1] and here.
Jump up ^ Stern, Paul C. "Design principles for global commons: natural resources and emerging technologies". International Journal of the Commons. 5 (2).
Jump up ^ Solomon, S.; et al. (2009). "Irreversible Climate Change Due to Carbon Dioxide Emissions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (6): 1704–1709. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.1704S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812721106. PMC 2632717. PMID 19179281.
Jump up ^ Kanie, Norichike (2007). "Governance with Multi-lateral Environmental Agreements: A healthy or ill-equipped fragmentation?" Global Environmental Governance: Perspectives on the Current Debate, Walter Hoffmann and Lydia Swart (eds.): 67-86. New York: Center for UN Reform Education.
Jump up ^ Haas, Keohane and Levy (1993). Institutions for the Earth: Sources of effective international environmental protection. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Jump up ^ Zürn, Michael (1998). "The Rise of International Environmental Politics: A Review of Current Research." World Politics, 50(4):617-649.
Jump up ^ Foley, Jonathan A., Karl E. Taylor, Steven J. Ghan (1991). "Planktonic dimethylsulfide and cloud albedo: An estimate of the feedback response". Climatic Change. 18 (1): 1. Bibcode:1991ClCh...18....1F. doi:10.1007/BF00142502. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Sousa, Wayne P (1986) [1985]. "7, Disturbance and Patch Dynamics on Rocky Intertidal Shores". The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. eds. Steward T. A. Pickett & P. S. White. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-554521-5.
Jump up ^ Global environment outlook: environment for development (GEO4) (PDF). World Commission on Environment and Development, The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2007. ISBN 978-9280728361.
Jump up ^ "Global Ocean Legacy". Environmental Initiative, Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved 1 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Keneth L. Denman; Guy Brasseur; et al. (2007). "Couplings between changes in Climate System and the Biogeochemistry, 7.5.3" (PDF). IPCC. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
Jump up ^ "Article 2". The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Archived from the original on 28 October 2005. Retrieved 15 November 2005. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner
Jump up ^ "7.c Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol". United Nations. Archived from the original on 14 November 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements". United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. April 22, 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved April 30, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Information about the Antarctic Treaty and how Antarctica is governed". Polar Conservation Organisation. December 28, 2005. Archived from the original on March 8, 2011. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Wassmann, P.; et al. (2011). "Footprints of climate change in the Arctic marine ecosystem". Global Change Biology. 17 (2): 1235–1249. Bibcode:2011GCBio..17.1235W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02311.x.
Jump up ^ John Theodore, Houghton, ed. (2001). "Figure 9.8: Multi-model annual mean zonal temperature change (top), zonal mean temperature change range (middle) and the zonal mean change divided by the multi-model standard deviation of the mean change (bottom) for the CMIP2 simulations". Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80767-0. Archived from the original on 2007-10-16.
Jump up ^ Orsi, Anais, Bruce D. Cornuelle, and J. Severinghaus (2012). "Little Ice Age cold interval in West Antarctica: Evidence from borehole temperature at the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) Divide". Geophysical Research Letters. 39: L09710. Bibcode:2012GeoRL..39.9710O. doi:10.1029/2012GL051260. Retrieved 2012-08-08. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Steig, Eric J.; Anais J. Orsi (2013). "Climate science: The heat is on in Antarctica". Nature Geoscience. 6 (2): 87–88. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6...87S. doi:10.1038/ngeo1717.
Jump up ^ Goldman, Nathan C. (1992). Space Policy:An Introduction. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. p. vii. ISBN 0-8138-1024-8.
Jump up ^ John E. Catchpole (17 June 2008). The International Space Station: Building for the Future. Springer-Praxis. ISBN 978-0387781440.
Jump up ^ "How Much the International Space Station (ISS) Cost to Build". whatitcosts.com. 14 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Payette, Julie (10 December 2012). "Research and Diplomacy 350 Kilometers above the Earth: Lessons from the International Space Station". Science & Diplomacy. 1 (4).
Jump up ^ "National Space Policy of the United States of America" (PDF). White House; USA Federal government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Loader, Brian D (2004). The Governance of Cyberspace: Politics, Technology and Global Restructuring. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415147248.
External links[edit]
The Global Environmental Facility
Share the World's Resources Sustainable Economics to End Global Poverty – the Global Commons in Economic Practice.
Further reading[edit]
Goldman, Michael (1998). Privatizing Nature: Political Struggles for the Global Commons. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813525549.
Amstutz, Mark R. (2008). International Ethics: Concepts, Theories, and Cases in Global Politics. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0742556041.
Harrison, Kathryn; Lisa McIntosh Sundstrom (2010). Global Commons, Domestic Decisions: The Comparative Politics of Climate Change. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262514316.
Milun, Kathryn (2010). The Political Uncommons: The Cross-cultural Logic of the Global Commons. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-0754671398.
Jasper, Scott (2012). Conflict and Cooperation in the Global Commons: A Comprehensive Approach for International Security. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1589019232.
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Laylat al-Qadr
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Night of Power" redirects here. For the Spider Robinson novel, see Night of Power (novel).
Laylat al-Qadr
Official name
ليلة القدر (Night of Decree)
Also called
Night of Power, Night of Value, Night of Destiny, or Night of Determination[1]
Observed by
Muslims
Significance
Night the Quran was revealed;
Angels descend to the earth and the annual decree is revealed to them;
Better than 1000 months of worship
Observances
Night prayers, Reading Quran, Making Dua, Doing Dhikr, Observing Iʿtikāf
Date
See text
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Laylat al-Qadr (from Arabic: لیلة القدر), variously rendered in English as the Night of Decree[2], Night of Power,[3] Night of Value, Night of Destiny,[4] or Night of Measures, is in Islamic belief the night when the first verses of the Quran were revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[5] It is one of the nights of the last ten days of Ramadan. Muslims believe that on this night the blessings and mercy of God are abundant, sins are forgiven, supplications are accepted, and that the annual decree is revealed to the angels who also descend to earth, specially the Angel Gabriel, referred to as "the Spirit", to perform every and any errand decreed by God. Islam holds that God Almighty alone answers our supplications and that He alone receives them and forgives humanity and gives them what they ask for and that on this particular night Muslims should actively seek God's forgiveness and engage in various acts of worship.
Contents
[hide]
1 Revelation to Prophet Muhammad
2 Date
2.1 Sunni Islam
2.2 Shia Islam
2.3 Mahdavi Muslims
3 Religious importance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Revelation to Prophet Muhammad[edit]
Some commentators believe that the Quran was revealed to Muhammad twice; the 'immediate revelation' happening on the Laylat al-Qadr and 'gradual revelation' across 23 years. The Quran uses the word Inzal (انزال) which justifies 'the immediate revelation', according to Allamah Tabatabai.[6] However some others believe that the revelation of Quran occurred in two phases, with the first phase being the revelation in its entirety on Laylat al-Qadr to the angel Gabriel (Jibril in Arabic) in the lowest heaven, and then the subsequent verse-by-verse revelation to Muhammad by Gabriel.[4] The revelation started in 610 CE at the Hira cave on Mount Nur in Mecca. The first Surah that was revealed was Sūrat al-ʿAlaq (in Arabic العلق). During the first revelation the first five verses of this Surah, or chapter, were revealed.[citation needed]
Date[edit]
The specific date of Laylat al-Qadr is not mentioned in the Quran.[7][8]
Sunni Islam[edit]
In Islamic countries and Sunni communities all over the world, Laylat al-Qadr is found to be on the last ten nights of Ramadan, mostly in on one of the odd nights (21st, 23rd, 25th, 27th or 29th) whereby night precedes day. Many traditions insist particularly on the night before the 27th of Ramadan.[9][10][11]
27th of Ramadan
Gregorian date[12]
1438 22 June 2017
1439 11 June 2018
Shia Islam[edit]
See also: Assassination of Ali
Iranians observing Qadr Night in Imam Reza shrine
Iranians observing Qadr Night in Jamkaran Mosque
Shia Muslims similarly believe that Laylat al-Qadr is to be found in the last ten odd nights of Ramadan but mostly on the 19th, 21st or 23rd of Ramadan with 23rd being the most important night.[13] The 19th, according to the Shia belief coincides with the night Ali was attacked in the Mihrab while worshipping in the Great Mosque of Kufa, and died on the 21st of Ramadan.
23rd of Ramadan
Gregorian date
1436 10 July 2015
1437 27 June 2016[14]
1438 18 June 2017[15]
1439 8 June 2018[16]
Mahdavi Muslims[edit]
Mahdavi Muslims believe that God blessed them with this most valued night of might/power, by the virtue of Muhammad Jaunpuri while travelling from Thatta (now in Pakistani province of Sindh) towards Farah (now in Afghanistan). During his stay in Makran, Imam Mahdi, in compliance with divine order, offered Dogana Laylat al-Qadr past midnight of 27 Ramadan 908 AH along with his family members and companions at the nearby mountain, which was later named after him as Koh-e-Murad.[17][18]
Religious importance[edit]
The night is not comparable to any others in view of Muslims[13] and according to a tradition, the blessings due to the acts of worship during this night can't be equaled even by worshipping throughout an entire lifetime. The reward of acts of worship done in this one single night is more than the reward of around 83 years (1000 months) of worship.[5] Laylat al-Qadr is referenced in the Quran:[4][13]
We have indeed revealed this (Message) in the Night of Power:
And what will explain to thee what the Night of Power is?
The Night of Power is better than a thousand months.
Therein come down the angels and the Spirit by Allah's permission, on every errand:
Peace!... This until the rise of dawn!
—  Surah 97 (Al-Qadr), āyāt 1–5[19]
The verses above regard the night as better than one thousand months.[13] The whole month of Ramadan is a period of spiritual training wherein believers devote much of their time to fasting, praying, reciting the Quran, engaging in the remembrance of God(dhikr) and giving charity.[citation needed] However, because of the revealed importance of this night, Muslims strive [give more effort] harder in the last ten days of Ramadan since the Laylat al-Qadr could be one of the odd-numbered days in these last ten (the first, third, fifth, seventh or ninth). Normally, some Muslims from each community perform iʿtikāf in the mosque: they remain in the mosque for the last ten days of the month for prayers and recitation.[4] Women also observe i'tikaf. They remain in prayer and meditation mostly, although they are allowed to do the minimum domestic work to run the family. When Muhammed observed i'tikaf in a tent, he saw a few tents around his. His wives joined him by pitching tents.[citation needed]
Shia Muslims believe that Ali (the first Shia Imam, and the fourth Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate to Sunnis) had special insight and intimacy with Allah on this night. Imam Sadiq is quoted as saying (Tafsir “al-Burhan”, vol. 4, p. 487):
Once Imam Ali was reciting Surat al-Qadr and his sons, Imam Hasan (a) and Imam Husayn (a) were near him. Imam Husayn (a) asked his father: “Father, how come we feel a different sensation when you recite this surah?” Imam Ali(a) replied, “O son of the Prophet and my son! I know things from this chapter that you are not aware of now. When this surah was sent down to the Prophet he asked me to go to him. When I went to him he recited this surah, then he put his hand on my right shoulder and said: O my brother and my successor! O the leader of my nation after me! O tireless fighter with my enemies! This surah is yours after me, and is for your two sons after you. Gabriel who is my brother among the angels informs me of the events of one year of my nation at the night of Qadr. And after me he will give this information to you. This surah will always have a shining light in your heart and in the heart of your successors until the rising of the dawn of the day of reappearance of Qa'im [the one who rises, a title for the Islamic Messiah, Mahdi].”[20]
See also[edit]
Predestination in Islam (Qadar)
Glossary of Islam
Islamic calendar
Muslim holidays
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Britannica Guide to the Islamic World. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 2009. ISBN 9781593398491. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Halim, Fachrizal A. (2014). Legal Authority in Premodern Islam: Yahya B Sharaf Al-Nawawi in the Shafi'i School of Law. Routledge. p. 15. ISBN 9781317749189.
Jump up ^ Daneshgar, Majid; Saleh, Walid (10 November 2016). Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin. BRILL. ISBN 9789004337121.
^ Jump up to: a b c d A. Beverley, James (2011). Melton, J. Gordon, ed. Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598842067. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Halim, Fachrizal A. (20 November 2014). Legal Authority in Premodern Islam: Yahya B Sharaf Al-Nawawi in the Shafi'i School of Law. Routledge. ISBN 9781317749189. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Staff. "Qadr night from the view point of Allamah Tabtabaei". Allamah Tabtabaei University. Archived from the original on 3 July 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Islam and state in Sumatra: a study of seventeenth-century Aceh. p.128.
Jump up ^ Marjo Buitelaar. Fasting and feasting in Morocco: women's participation in ramzan. p.64
Jump up ^ Night of 27 Ramadan
Jump up ^ Mohammad Younes, Arefi. "The importance of Qadr night and the secret behind it's being hidden". The message of Woman (in farsi). Retrieved 12 June 2016. CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
Jump up ^ Parsa, Farvardin. "Laylat al-Qadr from the viewpoint of Sunni Muslims". Andisheh Club. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.calendarlabs.com/holidays/islam/laylat-al-kadr.php
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ysuf, Imtiyaz. "Laylat al-Qadr". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World.
Jump up ^ "Calendar center of Geophysics institute of Tehran University, 1395 Calendar" (PDF) (in Persian). Retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Calendar center of Geophysics institute of Tehran University, 1396 Calendar" (PDF) (in Persian). Retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Calendar center of Geophysics institute of Tehran University, 1397 Calendar" (PDF) (in Persian).
Jump up ^ Koh e Murad
Jump up ^ Dogana laytul qadr reference.
Jump up ^ Quran 97:1–5
Jump up ^ "Imam Mahdi (a) in Chapter al-Qadr". Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Laylat al-Qadr.
Lailatul Qadr
Al Qadr (The Night of Power And Fate)
Laylatul Qadr: Introduction and guidance on special prayers for the night. (Includes Salaatul Tasbeeh)
"Deliverance from Error on Knowledge of Times of Day and the Direction of Prayer" is an Arabic manuscript from 1683 which talks about the Night of Destiny
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Masjid (Mosque, literally "Place of Prostration")
Al-Mash‘ar Al-Ḥarām ("The Sacred Grove")
Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa Mosque, literally "The Farthest Place-of-Prostration")
Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
Masjid al-Dirar
A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
Masjid Qubā’ (Quba Mosque)
The Prophet's Mosque
Salat (Synagogue)
Implied
Antioch
Antakya
Arabia
Ayla
Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
Canaan
Cave of Seven Sleepers
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Al-Ḥijāz (literally "The Barrier")
Black Stone (Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
Cave of Hira & Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
Ta'if
Hudaybiyyah
Jordan River
Nile River
Palestine River
Paradise of Shaddad
Plant matter
Baṣal (Onion)
Fūm (Garlic or wheat)
Shaṭ’ (Shoot)
Sūq (Plant stem)
Zar‘ (Seed)
Fruits
‘Adas (Lentil)
Baql (Herb)
Ḥabb dhul-‘aṣf (Corn of the husk)
Qith-thā’ (Cucumber)
Rummān (Pomegranate)
Tīn (Fig)
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Zaytūn (Olive)
In Paradise
Forbidden fruit of Adam
Bushes, trees or plants
Plants of Sheba
Athl (Tamarisk)
Sidr (Lote-tree)
Līnah (Tender Palm tree)
Nakhl (Date palm)
Rayḥān (Scented plant)
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Islamic holy books
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Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)
Tablets of Stone
Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)
Umm al-Kitāb ("Mother of the Book(s)")
Objects of people or beings
Heavenly Food of Christian Apostles
Noah's Ark
Staff of Musa
Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)
Throne of Bilqis
Trumpet of Israfil
Mentioned idols
(cult images)
'Ansāb
Idols of Israelites:
Baal
The ‘ijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
Idols of Noah's people:
Nasr
Suwā‘
Wadd
Yaghūth
Ya‘ūq
Idols of Quraysh:
Al-Lāt
Al-‘Uzzá
Manāt
Jibt and Ṭāghūt
Celestial bodies
Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):
Al-Qamar (The Moon)
Kawākib (Planets)
Al-Arḍ (The Earth)
Nujūm (Stars)
Ash-Shams (The Sun)
Liquids
Mā’ (Water or fluid)
Nahr (River)
Yamm (River or sea)
Sharāb (Drink)
Events, incidents, occasions or times
Incident of Ifk
Laylat al-Qadr
Mubahalah
Sayl al-‘Arim (Flood of the Great Dam of Marib in Sheba)
The Farewell Pilgrimage
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Battles or military expeditions
Battle of al-Aḥzāb ("the Confederates")
Battle of Badr
Battle of Hunayn
Battle of Khaybar
Battle of Tabouk
Battle of Uhud
Conquest of Mecca
Days
Al-Jumu‘ah (The Friday)
As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)
Days of battles
Days of Hajj
Doomsday
Months of the Islamic calendar
Four holy months
Ramaḍān
Pilgrimages
Al-Ḥajj (literally "The Pilgrimmage", the Greater Pilgrimage)
Al-‘Umrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)
Times for Prayer or Remembrance
Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):
Al-‘Ashiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)
Al-Ghuduww ("The Mornings")
Al-Bukrah ("The Morning")
Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ("The Morning")
Al-Layl ("The Night")
Al-‘Ishā’ ("The Late-Night")
Aẓ-Ẓuhr ("The Noon")
Dulūk ash-Shams ("Decline of the Sun")
Al-Masā’ ("The Evening")
Qabl al-Ghurūb ("Before the Setting (of the Sun)")
Al-Aṣīl ("The Afternoon")
Al-Aṣr ("The Afternoon")
Qabl ṭulū‘ ash-Shams ("Before the rising of the Sun")
Al-Fajr ("The Dawn")
Implied
Event of Ghadir Khumm
Laylat al-Mabit
The first pilgrimage
Note: The names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laylat_al-Qadr&oldid=849080430"
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values: ليلة القدر – Arabic

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