text:
Valinor
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Valinor
Tolkien's legendarium location
Created by
J. R. R. Tolkien
Genre
Novel
Type
Land
Notable locations
Tirion
Notable characters
Valar, Elves
First appearance
The Lord of the Rings
Valinor (Land of the Valar) is a fictional location in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the realm of the Valar in Aman. It was also known as the Undying Lands, along with Tol Eressëa and the outliers of Aman. This latter name is somewhat misleading; the land itself, while blessed, did not cause mortals to live forever.[1] However, only immortal beings were generally allowed to reside there. Exceptionally the surviving bearers of the One Ring were allowed to dwell there for a time — Bilbo and Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee — and perhaps[dubious – discuss] Gimli son of Glóin who, it is said, accompanied his friend Legolas to Valinor.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography and residents
2 History
3 Other fantasy uses of the word
4 See also
5 References
6 Works cited
7 External links
Geography and residents[edit]
See also: Aman (Middle-earth)
In Tolkien's works Valinor is the home of the Valar (singular Vala), spirits that often take humanoid form, sometimes called "gods" by the Men of Middle-earth. Other residents of Valinor include the related but less powerful spirits, the Maiar, and most of the Eldar. Valinor lies in Aman, a continent west of Middle-earth. Ekkaia, the encircling sea surrounds both Aman and Middle-earth.
Valinor is located in the middle of Aman, in the tropical and subtropical latitudes. The land has a warm climate generally, though snow falls on the peaks of the Pelóri, the mountains that border Valinor. Every animal and plant found elsewhere in Middle-earth exists in Valinor along with species endemic to Valinor.
While Valinor proper is the part of Aman inside the Pelóri, the "shore of Valinor" where the Elves live is considered a part of Valinor as well.
Each Vala has its own region of the land where it resides and alters things as it pleases. The Mansions of Manwë and Varda, two of the most powerful spirits, stood upon Taniquetil, the highest mountain of the Pelóri. Yavanna, the Vala of Earth, Growth, and Harvest, resided in the Pastures of Yavanna in the south of the land, west of the Pelóri. Near-by were the mansions of Yavanna's spouse, Aulë the Smith, who made the Dwarves. Oromë, the Vala of the Hunt, lived in the Woods of Oromë to the north-east of the pastures. Nienna, the lonely Vala of Sorrow and Endurance, lived in the far west of the island where she spent her days crying about all the evil of the world, looking out to sea. Just south of Nienna's home, and to the north of the pastures, were the Halls of Mandos. Mandos was the Vala of the After-life. Also living in the Halls of Mandos was his spouse Vairë the weaver, who weaves the threads of time. To the east of the Halls of Mandos is the Isle of Estë, which is situated in the middle of the lake of Lórellin, which in turn lies to the north of the Gardens of Lórien (not to be confused with Lothlórien in Middle-earth). Estë and Lórien were married.
In east-central Valinor at the Girdle of Arda (the Equator of Tolkien's world) is Valmar, the capital of Valinor (also called Valimar or the City of Bells), the residence of the Valar and the Maiar in the realm of Valinor. The first house of the Elves, the Vanyar, settled there as well. The mound of Ezellohar, on which stood the Two Trees, and Máhanaxar, the Ring of Doom, are outside Valmar. Farther east is the Calacirya, the only easy pass through the Pelóri, a huge mountain range fencing Valinor on three sides, created to keep Morgoth's forces out. In the pass is the city Tirion, built on a hill, the city of the Noldor Elves. By the shore of the sea, north-east of Tirion, is the Telerin Elves' port Alqualondë.
Directly east of the shore of Valinor is the isle of Tol Eressëa, where the Elves later built the city of Avallónë and where the Teleri lived for centuries before moving to Valinor itself.
In the northern inner foothills of the Pelóri, hundreds of miles north of Valmar was Fëanor's city of Formenos, built upon his banishment from Tirion.
In the extreme north-east, beyond the Pelóri, was the Helcaraxë, a vast ice sheet that joined the two continents of Aman and Middle-earth before the War of Wrath. A long chain of islands called the Enchanted Isles were raised along the east coast Aman, to prevent anyone from reaching Aman by sea, without the blessing of the Valar.
After the destruction of Númenor, the Undying Lands were removed from Arda so that Men could not reach them. The Elves could go there only by the Straight Road and in ships capable of passing out of the spheres of the earth.
The size of Valinor is not specified in the text, and Tolkien created no detailed maps of Aman. The maps of Karen Wynn Fonstad, based on Tolkien's rough sketch of Arda's landmasses and seas, show Valinor about 800 miles wide, west to east (from the Great Sea to the Outer Sea), and about 3000 miles long north to south - similar in size to the United States. The entire continent of Aman runs from the Arctic latitudes of the Helcaraxë to the subarctic southern region of Middle-earth - about 7000 miles.
History[edit]
Valinor was established on the western continent Aman when Melkor (a Vala later named Morgoth, "the black foe", by the Elves) destroyed the Valar's original home on the island Almaren. To defend their new home from attack, they raised the Pelóri Mountains. They also established Valimar, the radiant Two Trees, and their abiding places. Valinor was said to have surpassed Almaren in beauty.
Later, the Valar heard of the awakening of the Elves in Middle-earth, where Melkor was unopposed. They proposed to bring the Elves to the safety of Valinor. However, to get Elves to Valinor, they needed to get Melkor out of the way. A war was fought, and Melkor's stronghold Utumno was destroyed. Then, many Elves came to Valinor, and established their cities Tirion and Alqualonde, beginning Valinor's age of glory.
There was a problem, however. Melkor had come back to Valinor as a prisoner, and after three Ages was brought before the Valar and he sued for pardon, with a vow to assist the Valar and make amends for the hurts he had done. Manwë then granted him pardon, but confined him within Valmar to remain under watch. After his release, Melkor started planting seeds of dissent in the minds of the Elves (particularly, the Noldor - the Vanyar would not hear him and Melkor considered the Teleri weak) in Valinor, saying that the Valar had brought them here so that they would control them and claim their lands in Middle-earth as their own and that they were prisoners of the Valar. He also created dissent between Fëanor and his brothers Fingolfin and Finarfin.
Belatedly, the Valar learned what Melkor had done. Knowing that he was discovered, Melkor went to the home of the Noldorin elves' High King Finwë and stole the Noldorin elves' prized jewels, the Silmarils, killing the king in the process. Melkor destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor with the help of Ungoliant, bringing an endless night to Valinor, then fled back to Middle-earth, to his other stronghold, Angband.
The Two Trees, from which all light both in Valinor and in Middle-earth came, were dead. The last flowers of the Trees were given to two Maiar, each in their own ship, to sail around the world at different times of the day so that neither Valinor nor Middle-earth would be in darkness. One was called the Sun, and it shone a bright yellow. The other was called the Moon and it shone with a pale white light.
As a result of the killing of king Finwë, the majority of the Noldor, led by Fëanor son of Finwë, the maker of the Silmarils, declared their rebellion and decided to pursue Melkor, afterwards known as Morgoth, to Middle-earth to win back their jewels and avenge their king. The Noldor would not listen to Manwë, the lord of the Valar, telling them that they had themselves come to Valinor of their own free will and that the Valar had no desire to rule or control any of them. But Manwë's messenger said also that if they choose to leave and to fight Melkor on their own, the Valar would not help them and that they would suffer great pain and grief on their journey.
Valinor took no part in the struggle between the Noldor and Morgoth, but when the Noldor were in total defeat, the mariner Eärendil convinced the Valar to make a last attack on Morgoth. A mighty host of Maiar, Vanyar and the remaining Noldor in Valinor destroyed Morgoth's gigantic army, destroyed Angband and cast Morgoth into the void.
During the Second Age, Valinor performed a single action: the building of the island Andor as a reward to the Edain (who had fought with the Noldor), where they established Númenor. Soon, the kingdom of Númenor grew powerful, and even invaded Valinor. Then Eru Ilúvatar was called upon by the Valar and the island was destroyed, Aman was lifted out of Arda, and the world was bereft of Valar. Arda then became spherical and was left for Men to govern.
During the Third Age, recognizing that an outright confrontation with dark Maia Sauron would be disastrous, the Valar sent the Istari to Middle-earth with the intent of giving counsel to Men in their resistance to the growing power of the Dark Lord.
Other fantasy uses of the word[edit]
In the Arcanis Dungeons & Dragons campaign setting the word "Valinor" also refers to celestial servants of the Gods. Their names often are in the style of the god, such as the Mercy of Neroth or the Judgement of Nier.
In the 2003 pinball game (by Stern Pinball), Valinor is the game's final "Wizard Mode".
The Townes van Zandt song, "The Silver Ships of Andilar", makes mention of a land called Valinor, although it is unclear if it is meant to be the same location, since van Zandt describes it as a lifeless plain. The song could be telling the story of Númenóreans sailing the Encircling Sea to reach Valinor. Aldarion was not only a mariner, but a Númenórean king as well. Van Zandt also describes a "lifeless plain" as only immortal beings are allowed to live in Valinor.
See also[edit]
Middle-earth portal
Valhalla, a similar location in Norse mythology
Álfheimr, another similar location in Norse mythology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, Letters, ed. by Humphrey Carpenter, #156, p. 205.
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, The Return of the King, "The Grey Havens", p.1006, and Appendix B, entry for S.R. 1482 and 1541.
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, Letters, ed. by Humphrey Carpenter, #249, p. 328–329.
Works cited[edit]
Tolkien, J. R. R. The Return of the King. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-00224-3.
Tolkien, J. R. R. Humphrey Carpenter, ed. Letters. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05699-8.
Oberhelman, David D. (2006). "Valinor". In Drout, Michael D. C. J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. Routledge. pp. 692–693. ISBN 0-415-96942-5.
Fonstad, Karen Wynn (1991), The Atlas of Middle-earth, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Lothlórien, ISBN 0-618-12699-6
External links[edit]
Valinor at the Encyclopedia of Arda
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text:
In God We Trust
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see In God We Trust (disambiguation).
"IN GOD WE TRUST" on the reverse of a United States twenty-dollar bill
"IN GOD WE TRUST" on the Flag of Florida
"In God We Trust" is the official motto of the United States of America and of the U.S. state of Florida. It was adopted as the nation's motto in 1956 as a replacement or alternative to the unofficial motto of E pluribus unum, which was adopted when the Great Seal of the United States was created and adopted in 1782.[1][2]
"In God We Trust" first appeared on the two-cent piece in 1864[3] and has appeared on paper currency since 1957. A law passed in a Joint Resolution by the 84th Congress (P.L. 84-140) and approved by President Dwight Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declared "In God We Trust" must appear on American currency. This phrase was first used on paper money in 1957, when it appeared on the one-dollar silver certificate. The first paper currency bearing the phrase entered circulation on October 1, 1957.[3] The 84th Congress later passed legislation (P.L. 84-851), also signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declaring the phrase to be the national motto.[4][5][6]
Some groups and people have expressed objections to its use, citing its religious reference that violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.[7] These groups believe the phrase should be removed from currency and public property. In lawsuits, this argument has so far not overcome the interpretational doctrine of accommodationism, which allows government to endorse religious establishments as long as they are all treated equally.[8] According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.[9]
In 2006, "In God We Trust" was designated as the motto of the U.S. state of Florida.[10][11] Its Spanish equivalent, En Dios Confiamos, is the motto of the Republic of Nicaragua.[12]
Contents
1 History
2 Society and culture
2.1 Religion
2.2 In popular culture
2.3 License plates
3 Criticism
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Salmon P. Chase, Treasury Secretary, scribes "In God is Our Trust," scratches out "is Our" and overwrites "We" to arrive at "In God We Trust" in a December 9, 1863, letter to James Pollock, Director of the Philadelphia Mint.[13]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" first appeared on the obverse side of the Two-cent piece in 1864[3]
In 1860, the phrase was used in the Coat of arms of New Westminster, Canada. The phrase has been included in many hymns and religious-patriotic songs. During the American Civil War, the 125th Pennsylvania Infantry for the Union Army assumed the motto "In God we trust" in early August 1862.[14][15][16] William W. Wallace, coiner, circa August 1862, of the motto "In God We Trust"[17] was Captain of Company C of the 125th Pennsylvania Infantry.
The Reverend Mark R. Watkinson of 'Ridleyville', Pennsylvania, (pastor of Prospect Hill Baptist Church in present-day Prospect Park, Pennsylvania) in a letter dated November 13, 1861, petitioned the Treasury Department to add a statement recognizing "Almighty God in some form on our coins" in order to "relieve us from the ignominy of heathenism".[18][19] At least part of the motivation was to declare that God was on the Union side of the Civil War.[20] Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase acted on this proposal and directed the then-Philadelphia Director of the Mint, James Pollock, to begin drawing up possible designs that would include the religious phrase. Chase chose his favorite designs and presented a proposal to Congress for the new designs in late 1863.[21]
In December 1863, Abraham Lincoln's Secretary of the Treasury decided on a new motto, "In God We Trust," to engrave on U.S. coins. Lincoln's involvement in this decision is unclear.[22]
A version of the motto made an early appearance on obverse side of the twenty dollar interest bearing note issued in 1864 along with the motto "God and our Right".
As Chase was preparing his recommendation to Congress, it was found that the Act of Congress dated January 18, 1837 prescribed the mottoes and devices that should be placed upon the coins of the United States. This meant that the mint could make no changes without the enactment of additional legislation by the Congress. Such legislation was introduced and passed as the Coinage Act of 1864 on April 22, 1864, allowing the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the inclusion of the phrase on one-cent and two-cent coins.[20]
An Act of Congress passed on March 3, 1865, allowed the Mint Director, with the Secretary's approval, to place the motto on all gold and silver coins that "shall admit the inscription thereon".[20][23] In 1873, Congress passed the Coinage Act, granting that the Secretary of the Treasury "may cause the motto IN GOD WE TRUST to be inscribed on such coins as shall admit of such motto".
The similar phrase 'In God is our Trust' appears in "The Star-Spangled Banner", adopted as the national anthem of the United States in 1931. Written by Francis Scott Key during the War of 1812, the fourth stanza includes the phrase, "And this be our motto: 'In God is our Trust'", which was adapted as the national motto.[24][better source needed]
The use of "In God We Trust" has been interrupted. The motto disappeared from the five-cent coin in 1883, and did not reappear until production of the Jefferson nickel began in 1938.[20] However, at least two other coins minted in every year in the interim still bore the motto,[citation needed] including the Morgan dollar and the Seated Liberty half dollar. The omission of the motto "In God We Trust" on the Indian Head eagle coin caused public outrage, and prompted Congress to pass a bill mandating its inclusion. Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber added the words and made minor modifications to the design. In 1908, Congress made it mandatory that the phrase be printed on all coins upon which it had previously appeared. This decision was motivated after a public outcry following the release of a $20 coin which did not bear the motto.[25] The motto has been in continuous use on the one-cent coin since 1909, and on the ten-cent coin since 1916. It also has appeared on all gold coins and silver dollar coins, half-dollar coins, and quarter-dollar coins struck since July 1, 1908.[20] Since 1938, all US coins have borne the motto.[3]
A quarter dollar with the United States' official motto "IN GOD WE TRUST" on the obverse side
During the Cold War era, the government of the United States sought to distinguish itself from the Soviet Union, which promoted state atheism and thus implemented antireligious legislation.[26] The 84th Congress passed a joint resolution "declaring IN GOD WE TRUST the national motto of the United States". The resolution passed both the House and the Senate unanimously and without debate.[27][28] The law was signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956.[29] The United States Code at 36 U.S.C. § 302, now states: "'In God we trust' is the national motto."
The same day, the President signed into law[30] a requirement that "In God We Trust" be printed on all U.S. currency and coins. On paper currency, it first appeared on the silver certificate in 1957, followed by other certificates. Federal Reserve Notes and United States Notes were circulated with the motto starting from 1964 to 1966, depending on the denomination.[20][31] (Of these, only Federal Reserve Notes are still circulated.)
Representative Charles Edward Bennett of Florida cited the Cold War when he introduced the bill in the House, saying "In these days when imperialistic and materialistic communism seeks to attack and destroy freedom, we should continually look for ways to strengthen the foundations of our freedom". [32]
Aronow v. United States was the first case to challenge the inclusion of "In God We Trust" on U.S. currency.[33] The law it challenged was "31 U.S.C. § 324a "the inscription 'In God we Trust'...shall appear on all United States currency and coins".[33] O'Hair v. Blumenthal (1978) challenged the inclusion of the phrase "In God We Trust" on U.S. currency. A similar decision was reached by the Fifth Circuit in Madalyn Murray O'Hair vs W. Michael Blumenthal in 1979, which affirmed that the "primary purpose of the slogan was secular."[34]
In March 2001, Governor of Mississippi Ronnie Musgrove signed legislation requiring the motto "In God We Trust" to be displayed in every public school classroom, as well as the school auditoriums and cafeterias, throughout the state.[35][36]
A framed poster displaying the national motto of the United States in a New Philadelphia High School classroom
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, many public schools across the United States posted "In God We Trust" framed posters in their "libraries, cafeterias and classrooms". The American Family Association supplied several 11-by-14-inch posters to school systems and vowed to defend any legal challenges to the displaying of the posters.[37]
According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.[9]
In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed "In God We Trust" as the official national motto of the United States of America.[38] In Florida House Bill no. 1145, Florida adopted 'In God We Trust' as the official state motto, effective July 1, 2006.[10][11]
In 2011 the House of Representatives passed an additional resolution reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States, in a 396–9 vote.[39][40]
In 2013, a federal court rejected a challenge, brought by Michael Newdow and the Freedom From Religion Foundation, to remove "In God We Trust" from American currency.[41]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" on the Seal of Mississippi
On January 31, 2014, purporting to defend religious freedom, the Mississippi senate voted to add the words, "In God We Trust" to the state seal and the change was made effective on July 1, 2014.[42][43]
In 2015 the county police department of Jefferson County, Illinois announced that the words "In God We Trust" will be on police squad cars.[44] In 2015, the Freedom from Religion Foundation demanded that local authorities remove decals of the motto from Childress, Texas Police Department patrol vehicles. In response, Police Chief Adrian Garcia told the organization, in a written letter, to "go fly a kite."[45]
In March 2017, Act 911, sponsored by State Rep. Jim Dotson, made it a requirement of Arkansas state law for schools to display posters with the national motto ("In God We Trust").[46][47]
In early 2018, Kimberly Daniels, a pastor[48] who currently serves as the representative for Florida House of Representatives District 14 as a member of the Democratic Party, introduced HB 839, a bill that requires public schools to display the motto "In God We Trust" in a conspicuous place. On Tuesday, January 23, 2018, the bill received unanimous approval from the House PreK-12 Innovation Subcommittee.[49] Later, in a vote on February 21, 2018, the bill passed 97 to 10 in the House.[50][51] As part of Florida's March 2018 K-12 education law, Gov. Rick Scott mandated that all public schools post the state motto ("In God We Trust") in a prominent location.[52]
In March 2018, a bill requiring Tennessee schools to prominently display the national motto ("In God We Trust") sponsored by Rep. Susan Lynn passed the state House with 81 of the 99 members voting in favor of it.[53]
Society and culture[edit]
Religion[edit]
In Judaism and Christianity, the official motto "In God We Trust" resounds with several verses from the Bible, including Psalm 118:8, Psalm 40:3, Psalm 73:28, and Proverbs 29:25.[54] Melkote Ramaswamy, a Hindu American scholar, writes that the presence of the phrase "In God We Trust" on American currency is a reminder that "there is God everywhere, whether we are conscious or not."[55]
In popular culture[edit]
In the 1994 film Miracle on 34th Street, just as Henry is about to make his decision, Susan walks up to him with a Christmas card containing a $1 bill. On the back, the words "In God We Trust" are circled. He realizes that, since the U.S. Department of Treasury can put its official faith in God with no hard evidence, then the people can believe in Santa in the same way. Left with no choice, an elated Henry dismisses the case and declares that Santa is real, existing in the person of Kris.
In the musical Hamilton, Aaron Burr says the line "My God! In God we trust, but we’ll never know what got discussed" in reaction to Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton making a deal.[citation needed]
An e-mail conspiracy theory is that "In God We Trust" was intentionally omitted from new U.S. dollar coins in 2007.[56] The first coins produced under the Presidential $1 Coin Program did indeed lack the "In God We Trust" inscription along their edges (along with the "E Pluribus Unum" inscription, the year of production, and the mint mark; these coins, unlike normal dollar coins, had completely blank edges), but these coins, known as "godless dollars", were the result of a minting error, not a deliberate omission.[57][58]
Marty Feldman's satirical comedy In God We Tru$t (1980).
The film They Live (1988) plays on the idea. Special sunglasses allow the wearers to see simple hidden messages instead of the signs they see without them. Advertising is seen as "OBEY", "CONSUME" and "MARRY AND REPRODUCE". Dollar bills are all marked "THIS IS YOUR GOD".[59]
In January 2006, Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen and his wife Jackie were offered a place on the Valentine's Day celebrity couples edition of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? They appeared on the show managing to reach the £1 million question, before answering it incorrectly and dropping from £500,000 all the way down to just £32,000 (a loss of £468,000). For the first time ever, Celador allowed Llewelyn-Bowen and his wife retry the show after the company claimed that the last question "didn't meet their standards".[citation needed] After returning and being shown a different £1 million question, the couple decided not to risk losing £468,000 for the second time and won £500,000 for their chosen charity, The Shooting Star Children's Hospice, of which Llewelyn-Bowen and his wife are both patrons. Their new question was about the first man to travel to space twice, and the correct answer to the question was Gus Grissom. They decided not to risk it this time and walked away with the £500,000. This amount is the highest amount that any celebrity couple has won on any British edition of Who Wants To Be a Millionaire?[60] The £468,000 they originally lost was also the greatest loss ever seen on the show, and no other contestant has ever answered the final question incorrectly in the United Kingdom version.[61][62] The allegedly misleading question was "Translated from the Latin, what is the motto of the United States?" The answer given was "In God We Trust" which is originally English and has in fact been the motto of the United States since 1956. The intended answer had been "One Out of Many" which is a translation of the Latin phrase E pluribus unum, which is not actually the current United States motto. E pluribus unum had been the de facto motto but was never legally declared as such.[60]
License plates[edit]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" optional license plate designed by Troy Wingard for the South Carolina Department of Public Safety in 2002
As of April 1, 2016 the following U.S. states currently offer an "In God We Trust" license plate as a speciality plate for an additional normal vehicle registration processing which vary from state to state: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio [63], Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.[citation needed]
Florida (Which also offers a speciality plate) and Georgia which both display the county of issuance on their License Plate offer the option of "In God We Trust" in place of the County Name.[citation needed]
Criticism[edit]
Advocates of separation of church and state have questioned the legality of this motto asserting that it is a violation of the United States Constitution, prohibiting the government from passing any law respecting an establishment of religion.[64] Religious accommodationists state that this entrenched practice has not historically presented any constitutional difficulty, is not coercive, and does not prefer one religious denomination over another.[64]
"In God We Trust" as a national motto and on U.S. currency has been the subject of numerous unsuccessful lawsuits.[65] The motto was first challenged in Aronow v. United States in 1970, but the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled: "It is quite obvious that the national motto and the slogan on coinage and currency 'In God We Trust' has nothing whatsoever to do with the establishment of religion. Its use is of patriotic or ceremonial character and bears no true resemblance to a governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise."[66] In Lynch v. Donnelly (1984), the Supreme Court wrote that acts of "ceremonial deism" are "protected from Establishment Clause scrutiny chiefly because they have lost through rote repetition any significant religious content".[67] In Zorach v. Clauson (1952), the Supreme Court also wrote that the nation's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being" and that government recognition of God does not constitute the establishment of a state church as the Constitution's authors intended to prohibit.[68]
In November 2005, Michael Newdow announced he wants to have "In God We Trust" removed from U.S. coins and banknotes. In 2004, he received the special Recognition Freethought Hero Award for his case to remove "In God We Trust" from currency.[69] In a November 14, 2005 interview with Fox News's Neil Cavuto, Newdow compared "In God We Trust" appearing on United States currency with racial segregation (specifically separate drinking fountains), saying, "How can you not compare those? What is the difference there? Both of them [whites and blacks] got equal water. They both had access. It was government saying that it's okay to separate out these two people on the basis of race. Here we're saying it's okay to separate two people on the basis of their religious beliefs."
In June 2006, a federal judge rejected Newdow's Establishment Clause lawsuit on the grounds that the minted words amount to a secular national slogan, and do not dictate anyone's beliefs. Newdow stated that he would appeal the ruling,[70] although it should be noted that Aronow v. United States was decided on the same grounds in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and the lower court was required to return the same ruling, likewise the Ninth Circuit does not traditionally overrule previous Ninth Circuit rulings.
On December 4, 2007, Newdow argued before a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit to remove both "under God" from the Pledge of Allegiance (Roe v. Rio Linda Union School District),[citation needed] and "In God We Trust" from United States currency.[71] The Ninth Circuit rejected Newdow's challenge. In a decision published March 11, 2010, the court held that its earlier decision in Aronow, which "held the national motto is of a "patriotic or ceremonial character," has no "theological or ritualistic impact," and does not constitute "governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise," foreclosed Newdow's argument.[72] In an opinion concurring only in the judgment, even the extremely liberal Judge Stephen Reinhardt[73] agreed that Aronow was controlling precedent.[74]
Newdow v. Congress, 598 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2010) cert. denied 131 S. Ct. 1612 (U.S. 2011). AKA: The "In God We Trust Case" – A prominent atheist, Michael Newdow, filed a suit to declare the national motto – In God We Trust – unconstitutional and to have it removed from coins and currency.[75][76][77] Pacific Justice Institute intervened as a defendant and defended the against the suit.[75][76][77] The case was dismissed by the trial court and the Ninth Circuit affirmed that decision.[75][76][77]
In 2015, David F. Bauman dismissed a case against the Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second-class citizens".[78][79] He noted; "As a matter of historical tradition, the words 'under God' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words 'In God We Trust' from every coin in the land, than the words 'so help me God' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787."
Aside from constitutional objections, President Theodore Roosevelt took issue with using the motto on coinage as he considered using God's name on money to be sacrilege.[80]
In September 2014, a proposal to add displays of "In God We Trust" on public property in Ballwin, Missouri was defeated following a plea to a meeting of aldermen by a local atheist.[81][82]
Gallery[edit]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" motto over the tribune in the United States House of Representatives Chamber (between the clock and the flag)
Flag of Georgia (U.S. state) with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Indian Head eagle, revised design of 1908 adding "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto to reverse
Dollar coin stack showing "IN GOD WE TRUST" on edge
United States one-dollar bill, reverse, series 2009 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
United States two-dollar bill, reverse, series 2003A with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
2013 Lincoln cent obverse, showing "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Saint-Gaudens double eagle, revised design of 1908 adding "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto to reverse
Seal of Florida with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
United States five-dollar bill, reverse, series 2006 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Grand Army of the Republic Memorial (Siloam Springs, Arkansas) engraved with the words "IN GOD WE TRUST"
United States twenty-dollar bill, reverse, series 2006 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
United States one hundred-dollar bill, reverse, series 2009 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
See also[edit]
Religion in the United States
Trust in God and keep your powder dry
Dieu et mon droit
God Save the Queen
God zij met ons
May God have mercy upon your soul
So help me God
Gott mit uns
Deus seja louvado
In God We Trust: All Others Pay Cash
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Annual report – American Civil Liberties Union, Volume 5. American Civil Liberties Union. 1951. Retrieved 1 May 2012. In 1956, an official national motto was adopted, "In God We Trust," replacing the unofficial "E Pluribus Unum."
Jump up ^ Refiguring Mass Communication: A History. University of Illinois Press. 24 March 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2012. He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, e pluribus unum, even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated.
^ Jump up to: a b c d U.S. Department of the Treasury (2011). "History of 'In God We Trust'". www.treasury.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
Jump up ^ 36 U.S.C. § 302 National motto
Jump up ^ "U.S. on the History of "In God We Trust"". United States Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
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Jump up ^ 12 Mar 2010 (2010-03-12). "Atheist in battle to remove 'In God We Trust' from US currency". London: Telegraph. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
Jump up ^ Drakeman, Donald L. (1 January 1991). Church-state Constitutional Issues: Making Sense of the Establishment Clause. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313276637.
^ Jump up to: a b "USA TODAY/CNN/Gallup Poll results". USA Today. 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2011. C. The inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins; 2003 Sep 19–21; Approve 90; Disapprove 8; No opinion 2
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.n-state.com, NSTATE, LLC:. "Florida State Motto In God We Trust". www.netstate.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "State Motto – Florida Department of State". dos.myflorida.com.
Jump up ^ As shown on the Córdoba (bank notes and coins); see for example Banco Central de Nicaragua Archived 2012-05-06 at the Wayback Machine.
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Jump up ^ Duncan, Ann W. (2008). Religion, Rhetoric, and Ritual in the U.S. Government," Church-state Issues in America Today. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 77.
Jump up ^ According to The Congressional Record (1908, House), p. 3387, the motto was adopted "doubtless with his [Lincoln's] knowledge and approval."
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, 1956, p. 13917, via NonBeliever.org
Jump up ^ Begley, Sarah (January 13, 2016). "How 'In God We Trust' Got on the Currency in the First Place". Time. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ "10 Interesting Facts About Theodore Roosevelt". Republicanpresidents.net. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
Jump up ^ Merriman, Scott A. Religion and the Law in America: An Encyclopedia of Personal Belief and Public Policy. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007. Print. "In 1956, the United States, changed its motto to "In God We Trust," in large part to differentiate itself from the Soviet Union, its Cold War enemy that was widely seen as promoting atheism."
Jump up ^ "New National Motto Of U. S. Recalls Key's Words Of 1814". Palladium-Item. Richmond, Indiana. 13 Aug 1956. p. 8. Retrieved 2018-02-15 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ Miller, Douglas and Nowak, Marion, The Fifties: The Way We Really Were. 1977, 89. "'In God We Trust' was adopted as the national motto in 1956, with neither debate nor a single dissenting vote in the House or Senate."
Jump up ^ Public Law 84-851
Jump up ^ Public Law 84-140
Jump up ^ Steven B. Epstein, "Rethinking the Constitutionality of Ceremonial Deism" Columbia Law Review, Vol. 96, No. 8. (Dec., 1996), p. 2083–2174, quoting the peroration (abridged here) of the speech by Charles Edward Bennett, sponsor in the House, the only speech in either House of Congress on the subject. President Eisenhower and W. Randolph Burgess, Deputy to the Treasury for Monetary Affairs, had approved of the legislation! 101 Congressional Record pp. 4384 (quoted), 7796. (1955)
Jump up ^ "The legislation placing "In God We Trust" on national currency | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives". history.house.gov. 1955-07-11. Retrieved 2017-05-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Aronow v. United States , 432 F.2d 242, 243 (9th Cir. October 6, 1970).
Jump up ^ Duncan, Ann W. (2008). Church-state Issues in America Today. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 88.
Jump up ^ "Page not found". Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Press, The Associated (25 March 2001). "National News Briefs; 'In God We Trust' Motto For Mississippi Schools". Retrieved 20 December 2017 – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ "USATODAY.com – 'In God We Trust' pressed for schools". usatoday.com. 19 February 2002.
Jump up ^ Felicia Sonmez (1 November 2011). "Social issues return to fore with 'In God We Trust' resolution". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 November 2011. In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed 'In God We Trust' as the official national motto of the United States," Forbes said in a statement announcing the vote. "Tomorrow, the House of Representatives will have the same opportunity to reaffirm our national motto and directly confront a disturbing trend of inaccuracies and omissions, misunderstandings of church and state, rogue court challenges, and efforts to remove God from the public domain by unelected bureaucrats.
Jump up ^ Jennifer Steinhauer (3 November 2011). "In God We Trust, With the House's Help". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 November 2011. Citing a crisis of national identity and mass confusion among Americans about their nation's motto, the House on Tuesday voted on a resolution "reaffirming 'In God We Trust' as the official motto of the United States."
Jump up ^ Todd Starnes (3 November 2011). "See Which Congressmen Voted Against 'In God We Trust'". Fox News. Retrieved 7 November 2011. The House of Representatives passed a bi-partisan resolution Tuesday night reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States. The 396–9 vote came at the request of Rep. Randy Forbes (R-VA).
Jump up ^ "Lawsuit to remove 'In God We Trust' from money gets dismissed - KSL.com". ksl.com.
Jump up ^ Mississippi Legislature (January 2014). "Mississippi Religious Freedom Restoration Act; enact and modify the great seal" (PDF). Senate Bill No. 2681. Mississippi: State of Mississippi. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 2, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wagster Pettus, Emily (31 January 2014). "Miss. Senate OKs adding 'In God We Trust' to seal". WorldNow and WLBT. Retrieved 1 February 2014. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "'In God We Trust' to be placed on Jefferson Co., IL squad cars" (Archive). KFVS. August 1, 2015. Retrieved on August 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Atheist Group Asks Police Remove 'In God We Trust' Car Decal". dailysignal.com.
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Jump up ^ News, Charlene Aaron/CBN. "Apostle Kimberly Daniels Scores Big Win for Prayer in Public Schools". charismanews.com.
Jump up ^ "Schools could be required to display 'In God we trust'". Sun Sentinel. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
Jump up ^ CNN, Joe Sterling,. "Florida lawmakers advance a bill that requires 'In God We Trust' displayed on school grounds". cnn.com.
Jump up ^ "Florida lawmakers advance bill that would require 'In God We Trust' to be visible on all school buildings". newsweek.com. 23 February 2018.
Jump up ^ http://www.tampabay.com/blogs/gradebook/2018/03/26/atheist-group-offers-to-provide-in-god-we-trust-signs-to-florida-public-schools/
Jump up ^ https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/religion/2018/03/21/tennessee-lawmakers-pass-bill-requiring-public-schools-post-god-we-trust-motto/442884002/
Jump up ^ "In God We Trust: The Motto". All About History. Retrieved 2013-02-26.
Jump up ^ Ramaswamy, Melkote (2012-08-11). "Faith/Values | Indianapolis Star". indystar.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-19. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
Jump up ^ "Historic Change", Snopes, http://www.snopes.com/politics/religion/dollarcoin.asp
Jump up ^ David S Morgan (2007-03-07). ""Godless" Dollar Coins Slip Through Mint". CBS News. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
Jump up ^ Associated Press: Dollar Coins Missing 'In God We Trust', By David S Morgan, (Mar. 7, 2007), CBS News Archived March 19, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rothkopf, Joshua (2014-10-27). ""Empire of the Sunglasses: How 'They Live' Took on Republicans and Won", by Joshua Rothkopf, ''Rolling Stone''". Rollingstone.com. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
^ Jump up to: a b "TV designer's second shot at £1m". British Broadcasting Corporation. 13 January 2006. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Born, Matt (13 January 2006). "Llewelyn-Bowen blows £1m". The Daily Mail. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
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^ Jump up to: a b Richard H. Fallon (2004). The Dynamic Constitution: an Introduction to Americans Constitutional Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-521-60078-1. "Strict separationists" believe that the government has no business supporting religious beliefs or institutions in any way – for example, by providing tax breaks to churches, assisting parochial schools, including prayers or benedictions in public ceremonies, or inscribing "In God We Trust" on the currency. Religious accommodationists can well explain why certain entrenched social practices (such as the inscription of "In God We Trust" on the currency) were not historically perceived as presenting constitutional difficulties: The relevant practices are not coercive and do not prefer one narrow sect over another.
Jump up ^ Markoe, Lauren (2014-05-29). "Atheists Lose Latest Battle To Remove 'In God We Trust' From U.S. Currency". huffingtonpost.com. Religion News Service. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
Jump up ^ Aronow, 432 F.2d at 243.
Jump up ^ LYNCH v. DONNELLY, 465 U.S. 668 (1984) U.S. Supreme Court
Jump up ^ ABA Journal Sep 1962. Much more recently, in 1952, speaking through Mr. Justice Douglas in Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 313, the Supreme Court repeated the same sentiments, saying: We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being. Mr. Justice Brewer in the Holy Trinity case, supra, mentioned many of these evidences of religion, and Mr. Justice Douglas in the Zorach case referred to ... [P]rayers in our legislative halls; the appeals to the Almighty in the messages of the Chief Executive; the proclamation making Thanksgiving Day a holiday; "So help me God" in our courtroom oaths – these and ... other references to the Almighty ... run through our laws, our public rituals, our ceremonies ... the supplication with which the Court opens each session: "God save the United States and this Honorable Court" (312–313). To this list may be added tax exemption of churches, chaplaincies in the armed forces, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, the widespread observance of Christmas holidays, and, in classrooms, singing the fourth stanza of America which is prayer invoking the protection of God, and the words "in God is our trust" as found in the National Anthem, and the reciting of the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to include the words "under God.
Jump up ^ "Freethought Hero Award 2004 – Mike Newdow". Archived from the original on 2007-07-29. Retrieved 2007-07-29. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) , Freedom From Religion Foundation 2004-10-30
Jump up ^ "Federal Judge Nixes 'In God We Trust' Lawsuit". Fox News Channel. 2006-06-12.
Jump up ^ "Newdow v. Congress of the United States" (PDF). findlaw.com.
Jump up ^ "Newdow v. Lefevre, No. 06-16344, at 4210 (9th Cir. Mar. 11, 2010) (citing Aronow, 432 F.2d at 243–44)" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Matt Rees, The Judge the Supreme Court Loves to Overturn, The Weekly Standard, May 5, 1997;". compare "David G. Savage, Crusading Liberal Judge Keeps High Court Busy, L.A. Times, Mar. 3, 1996." The Los Angeles Times. 1996-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Newdow, at 4210–11 (Reinhardt, J., concurring)" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c Bob Egelko, 'In God We Trust' suit rejected by Supreme Court, San Francisco Chronicle, [1] March 8, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b c Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Newdow v. Congress, [2] March 11, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c C-SPAN Video Library, Establishment of Religion Clause Oral Arguments, Part 1, [3] December 7, 2007
Jump up ^ Salvador Rizzo. "Hearing 'Under God' in Pledge of Allegiance does not violate rights of atheist students, NJ judge rules". NorthJersey.com. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Judge Refuses To Kick God Out Of Public Schools". Forbes. February 7, 2015. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "ROOSEVELT DROPPED 'IN GOD WE TRUST'; President Says Such a Motto on Coin Is Irreverence, Close to Sacrilege. NO LAW COMMANDS ITS USE He Trusts Congress Will Not Direct Him to Replace the Exalted Phrase That Invited Constant Levity". The New York Times. November 14, 1907. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
Jump up ^ https://www.riverfronttimes.com/newsblog/2014/09/24/ballwin-rejects-in-god-we-trust-sign-after-atheist-mothers-passionate-plea-video
Jump up ^ http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/ballwin-rejects-in-god-we-trust-sign/article_ed39ceaf-242c-509d-aed6-1f9892489ae3.html
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to In God We Trust.
Final answer? Not quite as star gets second chance to play for a million – article in The Guardian about a disputed quiz question about the motto of the United States.
Local documentary on origin of phrase
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Book of Ezra
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The Book of Ezra is a book of the Hebrew Bible. Originally combined with the Book of Nehemiah in a single book of Ezra–Nehemiah, the two became separated in the early centuries of the Christian era.[1] Its subject is the Return to Zion following the close of the Babylonian captivity, and it is divided into two parts, the first telling the story of the first return of exiles in the first year of Cyrus the Great (538 BC) and the completion and dedication of the new Temple in Jerusalem in the sixth year of Darius I (515 BC), the second telling of the subsequent mission of Ezra to Jerusalem and his struggle to purify the Jews from what the book calls the sin of marriage with non-Jews. Together with the Book of Nehemiah, it represents the final chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.[2]
Ezra is written to fit a schematic pattern in which the God of Israel inspires a king of Persia to commission a leader from the Jewish community to carry out a mission; three successive leaders carry out three such missions, the first rebuilding the Temple, the second purifying the Jewish community, and the third sealing of the holy city itself behind a wall. (This last mission, that of Nehemiah, is not part of the Book of Ezra.) The theological program of the book explains the many problems its chronological structure presents.[3] It probably appeared in its earliest version around 399 BC, and continued to be revised and edited for several centuries before being accepted as scriptural in the early Christian era.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Summary
2 Historical background
3 Texts
3.1 Ezra–Nehemiah
3.2 First Esdras
4 Structure, composition and date
4.1 Structure
4.2 Composition
4.3 Date
5 Persian documents
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Summary[edit]
The Book of Ezra consists of ten chapters: chapters 1–6, covering the period from the Cyrus the Great to the dedication of the Second Temple, are told in the third person; chapters 7–10, dealing with the mission of Ezra, are told largely in the first person. The book contains several documents presented as historical inclusions, written in Aramaic while the surrounding text is in Hebrew (1:2-4, 4:8-16, 4:17-22, 5:7-17, 6:3-5, 6:6-12, 7:12-26) [5]
Chapters 1–6 (documents included in the text in italics)
1. Decree of Cyrus, first version: Cyrus, inspired by God, returns the Temple vessels to Sheshbazzar, "prince of Judah", and directs the Israelites to return to Jerusalem with him and rebuild the Temple.
2. 42,360 exiles, with men servants, women servants and "singing men and women", return from Babylon to Jerusalem and Judah under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Jeshua the High Priest.
3. Jeshua the High Priest and Zerubbabel build the altar and celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles. In the second year the foundations of the Temple are laid and the dedication takes place with great rejoicing.
4. Letter of the Samaritans to Artaxerxes, and reply of Artaxerxes: The "enemies of Judah and Benjamin" offer to help with the rebuilding, but are rebuffed; they then work to frustrate the builders "down to the reign of Darius." The officials of Samaria write to king Artaxerxes warning him that Jerusalem is being rebuilt, and the king orders the work to stop. "Thus the work on the house of God in Jerusalem came to a standstill until the second year of the reign of Darius king of Persia."
5. Tattenai's letter to Darius: Through the exhortations of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, Zerubbabel and Joshua recommence the building of the Temple. Tattenai, satrap over both Judah and Samaria, writes to Darius warning him that Jerusalem is being rebuilt and advising that the archives be searched to discover the decree of Cyrus.
6. Decree of Cyrus, second version, and decree of Darius: Darius finds the decree, directs Tattenai not to disturb the Jews in their work, and exempts them from tribute and supplies everything necessary for the offerings. The Temple is finished in the month of Adar in the sixth year of Darius, and the Israelites assemble to celebrate its completion.
Chapters 7–10
7. Letter of Artaxerxes to Ezra (Artaxerxes' rescript): King Artaxerxes is moved by God to commission Ezra "to inquire about Judah and Jerusalem with regard to the Law of your God" and to "appoint magistrates and judges to administer justice to all the people of Trans-Euphrates—all who know the laws of your God." Artaxerxes gives Ezra much gold and directs all Persian officials to aid him.
8. Ezra gathers a large body of returnees and much gold and silver and precious vessels for the Temple and camps by a canal outside Babylon. There he discovers he has no Levites, and so sends messengers to gather some. The exiles then return to Jerusalem, where they distribute the gold and silver and offer sacrifices to God.
9. Ezra is informed that some of the Jews already in Jerusalem have married non-Jewish women. Ezra is appalled at this proof of sin, and prays to God: "O God of Israel, you are righteous! We are left this day as a remnant. Here we are before you in our guilt, though because of it not one of us can stand in your presence."
10. Despite the opposition of some of their number, the Israelites assemble and send away their foreign wives and children.
Historical background[edit]
In the early 6th century BC, the Kingdom of Judah rebelled against the Neo-Babylonian Empire and was destroyed. As a result, the royal court, the priests, the prophets and scribes were taken into captivity in the city of Babylon. There a profound intellectual revolution took place, the exiles blaming their fate on disobedience to their God and looking forward to a future when he would allow a purified people to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The same period saw the rapid rise of Persia, previously an unimportant kingdom in present-day southern Iran, to a position of great power, and in 539 BC Cyrus II, the Persian ruler, conquered Babylon.[6]
It is difficult to describe the parties and politics of Judea in this period because of the lack of historical sources, but there seem to have been three important groups involved: the returnees from the exile who claimed the reconstruction with the support of Cyrus I; "the adversaries of Judah and Benjamin"; and a third group, "people of the land", who seem to be local opposition against the returnees building the Temple in Jerusalem.
The following table is a guide to major events in the region during the period covered by the Book of Ezra:
King of Persia[7]
Reign (BC)
Main events[8]
Correlation with Ezra–Nehemiah[9]
Cyrus II 550[?]–530 539 BC Fall of Babylon Directive to the Jews to rebuild the Temple and first return of the exiles to Jerusalem (taken as occurring in 538, since Babylon fell in October 539)
Cambyses 530–522 525 Conquest of Egypt
Darius I 522–486 Secures the throne in 520/519 after fighting off various rivals; failed punitive invasion of Greece 515 Temple rebuilt
Xerxes 486–465 Failed attempt to conquer Greece; beginning of struggle with Greeks for control of the eastern Mediterranean
Artaxerxes I 465–424 460–456 Successful suppression of Greek-supported revolt in Egypt
449 Revolt by Megabyzus, governor of the territory which included Judah Currently most widely accepted period for arrival of Ezra "in the seventh year of Artaxerxes"
Second return of the exiles to Jerusalem (in 458 if the king is Artaxerxes I, or 428 if the year is read as his thirty-seventh instead of his seventh)
445–433 Nehemiah's mission (returns before the death of Artaxerxes)
Darius II 423–404
Artaxerxes II 404–358 401 Egypt regains independence Alternative period for arrival of Ezra and second return of exiles to Jerusalem (in 398 if the king is Artaxerxes II)
Artaxerxes III 358–338 Egypt reconquered
Darius III 336–330 The Achaemenid Empire conquered by Alexander the Great
Texts[edit]
Ezra–Nehemiah[edit]
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Nehemiah)
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The oldest texts of the Bible treat Ezra-plus-Nehemiah as a single book (Ezra–Nehemiah). It was divided into two separate works by the time of the 3rd-century Christian scholar Origen, and the separation became entrenched in Christian Bibles in the Western European tradition when this was followed by Jerome in his Latin translation.[1] It was not until the Middle Ages that the two became separated in Jewish Bibles.[10]
First Esdras[edit]
1 Esdras, also known as "Esdras α", is an alternate Greek-language version of Ezra. This text has one additional section (and related changes) in the middle of Ezra 4. The addition arranges the text around a chiastic structure and relieves a textual problem surrounding the identity of King Ahasuerus in Ezra 4:6. Although the content is substantially the same, the verses are numbered differently from Ezra.
Structure, composition and date[edit]
Structure[edit]
The contents of Ezra–Nehemiah are structured in a theological rather than chronological order: "The Temple must come first, then the purifying of the community, then the building of the outer walls of the city, and so finally all could reach a grand climax in the reading of the law."[11]
The "plot" follows a repeating pattern in which the God of Israel "stirs up" the king of Persia to commission a Jewish leader (Zerubbabel, Ezra, Nehemiah) to undertake a mission; the leader completes his mission in the face of opposition; and success is marked by a great assembly.[12] The tasks of the three leaders are progressive: first the Temple is restored (Zerubabbel), then the community of Israel (Ezra), and finally the walls which will separate the purified community and Temple from the outside world (Nehemiah).[13] The pattern is completed with a final coda in which Nehemiah restores the belief of Yahweh.[14] This concern with a schematic pattern-making, rather than with history in the modern sense of a factual account of events in the order in which they occurred, explains the origin of the many problems which surround both Ezra and Nehemiah as historical sources.[15]
Composition[edit]
Twentieth-century views on the composition of Ezra revolved around whether the author was Ezra himself (and who may have also authored the Books of Chronicles) or was another author or authors (who also wrote the Chronicles).[16] More recently it has been increasingly recognised that Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles all have extremely complex histories stretching over many stages of editing,[17] and most scholars now are cautious of assuming a unified composition with a single theology and point of view.[18] As an indication of the many layers of editing which Ezra has undergone, one recent study finds that Ezra 1–6 and Ezra 9–10 were originally separate documents, that they were spliced together at a later stage by the authors of Ezra 7–8, and that all have undergone extensive later editing.[19]
Date[edit]
Most scholars date the work to the fourth century BCE.[20] The events described in Ezra-Nehemiah are mostly dated to the fifth century BCE, and Darius II's (423-405) being mentioned (Neh. 12:22) would appear to support an early fourth-century BCE date for the work's completion and compilation.[20] Other details from the late fourth century BCE are missing.[20]
There is general recognition, however, that the editing of the book continued well into the Hellenistic era.[4] The question of when the core of the book originated depends in the first place on the dates assigned to Ezra himself (assuming him to have been a historic person). The only clue to go by is the note in Ezra 7:7–8 that he arrived in Jerusalem in "the seventh year of Artaxerxes." Unfortunately there were three kings of this name and the text does not specify which one. The traditional date, and currently the most popular candidate, is 458 BC, based on the assumption that the king is Artaxerxes I. A date of 398 BC, based on the possibility that the king might be Artaxerxes II, was once popular but has been seriously challenged in recent scholarship. A date of 428 BC, based on the idea that the "seventh" year of Artaxerxes is a mistake for "thirty-seventh" year, has become less popular, as it is based entirely on conjecture.[21]
Persian documents[edit]
Seven purported Persian decrees of kings or letters to and from high officials are quoted in Ezra. Their authenticity has been contentious; while some scholars accept them in their current form, most accept only part of them as genuine, while still others reject them entirely. L.L. Grabbe surveys six tests against which the documents can be measured (comparative known Persian material, linguistic details, contents, presence of Jewish theology, the Persian attitude to local religions, and Persian letter-writing formulas) and concludes that all the documents are late post-Persian works and probable forgeries, but that some features suggest a genuine Persian correspondence behind some of them.[22]
See also[edit]
Esdras
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Fensham, F. Charles, "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Eerdmans, 1982) p.1
Jump up ^ Albright, William (1963). The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra: An Historical Survey. Harpercollins College Div. ISBN 0-06-130102-7.
Jump up ^ Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) pp.1–3
^ Jump up to: a b Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Judaism, the first phase" (Eerdmans, 2009) p.87
Jump up ^ Torrey, C. C. (April 1908). "The Aramaic Portions of Ezra". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 24 (3): 209–281. JSTOR 527607.
Jump up ^ Fensham, F. Charles, "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Eerdmans, 1982) p. 10
Jump up ^ Coggins, R.J., "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Cambridge University Press, 1976) p. xi
Jump up ^ Fensham, F. Charles, "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Eerdmans, 1982) pp. 10–16
Jump up ^ Min, Kyung-Jin, "The Levitical authorship of Ezra-Nehemiah" (T&T Clark, 2004) pp. 31–32
Jump up ^ Dillard, Raymond B.; Longman, Tremper (January 1994). An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-310-43250-0. LCCN 2006005249. OCLC 31046001. Retrieved 2012-02-24.
Jump up ^ R.J. Coggins, "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Cambridge University Press, 1976)p.107, quoted in Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) p.3
Jump up ^ Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) pp.2–4
Jump up ^ Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) p.3
Jump up ^ Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) p.2
Jump up ^ Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992) pp1-3
Jump up ^ Fensham, F. Charles, "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Eerdmans, 1982) pp.1–2 ff.
Jump up ^ Pakkala, Juha, "Ezra the scribe: the development of Ezra 7–10 and Nehemiah 8" (Walter de Gryter, 2004) p.16
Jump up ^ Grabbe, L.L., "A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Volume 1" (T&T Clark, 2004) p.71
Jump up ^ Ezra the Scribe.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hindy Najman (2014) "Ezra" in Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler (eds.) The Jewish Study Bible (second edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Min, Kyung-Jin, "The Levitical authorship of Ezra-Nehemiah" (T&T Clark, 2004) p.32
Jump up ^ Grabbe, L.L., "A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Volume 1" (T&T Clark, 2004) p.78
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Book of Ezra
Commentaries
Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary" (Eerdmans, 1988)
Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Judaism, the first phase" (Eerdmans, 2009)
Coggins, R.J., "The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Cambridge University Press, 1976)
Ecker, Ronald L., "Ezra and Nehemiah", Ecker's Biblical Web Pages, 2007.
Fensham, F. Charles, "The books of Ezra and Nehemiah" (Eerdmans, 1982)
Grabbe, L.L., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (Routledge, 1998)
Grabbe, L.L., "A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Volume 1" (T&T Clark, 2004)
Pakkala, Juha, "Ezra the scribe: the development of Ezra 7–10 and Nehemiah 8" (Walter de Gryter, 2004)
Throntveit, Mark A., "Ezra-Nehemiah" (John Knox Press, 1992)
Translations
Ezra (Judaica Press) – translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Bible Gateway (opens at NIV version)
Ezra – King James Version
Bible: Ezra public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Book of Ezra
History books
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Daniel Hebrew Bible Succeeded by
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