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Green Revolution in India
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The state of Punjab led India's Green Revolution and earned the distinction of being the country's bread basket.[1]
The Green Revolution in India refers to a period of time when agriculture in India changed to an industrial system due to the adoption of modern methods and technology such as high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, fertilizers etc. Green revolution was started by Norman Borlaug. The key leadership role played by the Indian agricultural scientist M.S.Swaminathan together with many others including GS Kalkat, M.S.Swaminathan earned him the popularly used title 'Father of Green Revolution of India'. The Green Revolution allowed developing countries, like India, to try to overcome poor agricultural productivity. Within India, this started in the early 1960s and led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab, Haryana plusUttar Pradesh(especially Western UP) during the early phase. The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat,[2] for developing rust resistant strains of wheat.[3]
Contents
1 Practices
1.1 Wheat
1.2 Other practices
2 Problems that were addressed
2.1 Frequent famines
2.2 Lack of finance
2.3 Lack of self-sufficiency
3 Criticisms
3.1 Indian Economic Sovereignty
3.2 Environmental Damage
3.3 Increased Regional disparities
3.4 Restrictive Crop Coverage
4 References
Practices[edit]
Wheat[edit]
The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat,[2] for developing rust resistant strains of wheat.[3] The introduction of high-yielding varieties(HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India.[4] The methods adopted included the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds[5] with modern farming methods.
The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation).
Other practices[edit]
This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (January 2018)
Irrigation infrastructure
Use of pesticides
Use of insecticides
Use of herbicides
Consolidation of holdings
Land reforms
Improved rural infrastructure
Supply of agricultural credit
Use of chemical or synthetic fertilizers
Use of sprinklers or drip irrigation systems
Use of advanced machinery
Use of vector quantity
Problems that were addressed[edit]
Frequent famines[edit]
Famines in India were very frequent during the period 1940s to 1970s. Due to faulty distribution of food, and because farmers did not receive the true value for their labour, the majority of the population did not get enough food.[6] Malnutrition and starvation was a huge problem.[citation needed]
Lack of finance[edit]
Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the money lenders. They took loans from zamindars, who charged high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans (farm labourers).[citation needed] Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. Government also helped those under loans.
Lack of self-sufficiency[edit]
Due to traditional agricultural practices, low productivity, and a growing population, often food grains were imported — draining scarce foreign reserves. It was thought that with the increased production due to the Green Revolution, the government could maintain buffer stock and India could achieve self-sufficiency and self-reliability.[citation needed]
Agriculture was basically for subsistence and, therefore, less agricultural product was offered for sale in the market. Hence, the need was felt to encourage the farmers to increase their production and offer a greater portion of their products for sale in the market. The new methods in agriculture increased the yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India's dependence on food imports.
Criticisms[edit]
Indian Economic Sovereignty[edit]
Criticism of the effects of the green revolution include the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. A case study is found in India, where farmers are buying Monsanto BT cotton seeds—sold on the idea that these seeds produced 'natural insecticides'. In reality, they need to still pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which might lead to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers have difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they have a bad harvest.
Indian environmentalist Vandana Shiva writes that this is the "second Green Revolution". The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest – notably MNCs like Monsanto. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India's farmland.[7] [8]
Environmental Damage[edit]
Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides has polluted waterway, killed beneficial insects and wild life. It has caused over-use of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices have led to eventually soil degradation. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to loss of biodiversity of farmers. These problems were aggravated due to absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals.[1]
Increased Regional disparities[edit]
Green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rain fed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc. The application of the new technology in the dry-land areas is simply ruled out.
The states like Punjab, Haryana, Western UP etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production.
Restrictive Crop Coverage[edit]
The new agriculture strategy involving use of HYV seeds was initially limited to wheat, maize and bajra. The other major crop i.e. rice responded much later. The progress of developing and application of HYV seeds in other crops especially commercial crops like oilseeds, jute etc. has been very slow. In fact, in certain period a decline in the output of commercial crops is witnessed because of diversion of area under commercial crop to food crop production. The basic factor for non-spread of green revolution to many crops was that in the early 1960s the severe shortage in food grains existed and imports were resorted to overcome the shortage. Government initiated green revolution to increase food grain productivity and non-food grain crops were not covered. The substantial rise in one or two food grain crop cannot make big difference in the total agricultural production. Thus new technology contributed insignificantly in raising the overall agricultural production due to limited crop coverage. So it is important that the revolutionary efforts should be made in all major crops.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Government of Punjab (2004). Human Development Report 2004, Punjab (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2011. Section: "The Green Revolution", pp. 17–20.
^ Jump up to: a b "About IARI". IARI. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rust-resistant Wheat Varieties. Work at Pusa Institute". The Indian Express. 7 February 1950. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Green Revolution in India". U.S. Library of Congress (released in public domain). Library of Congress is Country Studies. Retrieved 2007-10-06.
Jump up ^ Rowlatt, Justin (2016-12-01). "IR8: The miracle rice which saved millions of lives". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-12-05.
Jump up ^ Amartya Sen. 1981. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Shiva, Vandana. Seeds of Suicide. Navdanya.
Jump up ^ Shiva, V. "Seeds of Suicide". Counter Currents. , originally in Asian Age 5 April 2013
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Disk partitioning
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GParted is a popular utility used for disk partitioning
Disk partitioning or disk slicing[1] is the creation of one or more regions on a hard disk or other secondary storage, so that an operating system can manage information in each region separately.[2] Partitioning is typically the first step of preparing a newly manufactured disk, before any files or directories have been created. The disk stores the information about the partitions' locations and sizes in an area known as the partition table that the operating system reads before any other part of the disk. Each partition then appears in the operating system as a distinct "logical" disk that uses part of the actual disk. System administrators use a program called a partition editor to create, resize, delete, and manipulate the partitions.[3]When a hard drive is installed in a computer, it must be partitioned before you can format and use it. Partitioning a drive is when you divide the total storage of a drive into different pieces. These pieces are called partitions. Once a partition is created, it can then be formatted so that it can be used on a computer.
Contents
[hide]
1 Benefits of multiple partitions
2 Disadvantages of multiple partitions
3 PC partition types
3.1 Primary partition
3.2 Extended partition
4 Partitioning schemes
4.1 DOS, Windows, and OS/2
4.2 Unix-like systems
4.3 Multi-boot and mixed-boot systems[clarification needed]
4.4 GUID Partition Table
5 Partition recovery
6 Compressed disks
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Benefits of multiple partitions[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Creating more than one partition has the following advantages:
Separation of the operating system (OS) and program files from user files. This allows image backups (or clones) to be made of only the operating system and installed software.
Having a separate area for operating system virtual memory swapping/paging.
Keeping frequently used programs and data near each other.
Having cache and log files separate from other files. These can change size dynamically and rapidly, potentially making a file system full.
Use of multi-boot setups, which allow users to have more than one operating system on a single computer. For example, one could install BSD, Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows or other operating systems on different partitions of the same HDD and have a choice of booting into any compatible operating system at power-up.
Protecting or isolating files, to make it easier to recover a corrupted file system or operating system installation. If one partition is corrupted, other file systems may not be affected.
Raising overall computer performance on systems where smaller file systems are more efficient. For instance, large HDDs with only one NTFS file system typically have a very large sequentially accessed Master File Table (MFT) and it generally takes more time to read this MFT than the smaller MFTs of smaller partitions.
Partitioning for significantly less than the full size available when disk space is not needed can reduce the time for diagnostic tools such as checkdisk to run or for full image backups to run.
Disadvantages of multiple partitions[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Creating more than one partition has the following disadvantages, as compared to having a single partition spanning the same disk area:
Reduces the total space available for user storage on the disk, as it forces the operating system to duplicate certain file system administration areas on the disk for each partition.
Reduces overall disk performance on systems where data is accessed regularly and in parallel on multiple partitions, because it forces the disk's read/write head to move back and forth on the disk to access data on each partition[4][5] and to maintain and update file system administration areas on each partition. It also prevents disk optimizers from moving all frequently accessed files closer to each other on the disk, which could reduce the number and distance of required head movements. Files can still be moved closer to each other on each partition, but those areas themselves will still be far apart on the disk. (See "short stroking" considerations above.) This issue does not apply to Solid-state drives as access times on those are neither affected by nor dependent upon relative sector positions.
Increases disk fragmentation because it lowers the average size of contiguous free blocks on each partition – as compared to a single partition of the same overall size – after the same amount of data has been written to them.
May prevent using the whole disk capacity, because it may break free capacities apart.[6] For example, if one has a disk with two partitions, each with 3 GB free (hence 6 GB in total), one can't copy a 4 GB DVD image file on that disk, because none of the partitions will actually provide enough space for that – even though there is more than enough free capacity in total on the disk. If the same files on those two partitions would have been stored on a single partition spanning the whole disk, then the 4 GB file could be easily stored in the 6 GB of free space.
Hurts portability and might impose constraints on how entities might be linked together inside the file system. For example, Unix file systems and the NTFS file system allow hard links to be created only as long as both the link and the referenced file reside inside the same volume/partition.[7][8][9][10] Also, under Windows if one is referencing a file on another partition, one can do that only by specifying the partition's assigned drive letter (or mount point) – which, however, might change with time and depending on the drives installed. This renders references invalid and dependent on actual drive letter assignment, which is not an issue if one has to reference files/directories only on the same partition, as in this case one can use directory-relative or root-relative references, without including the drive/partition letter.
Moving files across volumes will require actual copying (of bytes), whereas moving files within a volume generally requires only the "meta-data" to be updated.
PC partition types[edit]
This section describes the master boot record (MBR) partitioning scheme, as used historically in DOS, Microsoft Windows and Linux (among others) on PC-compatible computer systems. As of the mid-2010s, most new computers use the GUID Partition Table (GPT) partitioning scheme instead. For examples of other partitioning schemes, see the general article on partition tables.
The total data storage space of a PC HDD on which MBR partitioning is implemented can contain at most four primary partitions, or alternatively three primary partitions and an extended partition. The Partition Table, located in the master boot record, contains 16-byte entries, each of which describes a partition.
The partition type is identified by a 1-byte code found in its partition table entry. Some of these codes (such as 0x05 and 0x0F) may be used to indicate the presence of an extended partition. Most are used by an operating system's bootloader (that examines partition tables) to decide if a partition contains a file system that can be used to mount / access for reading or writing data.
Primary partition[edit]
Further information: Partition type
A primary partition contains one file system. In DOS and all early versions of Microsoft Windows systems, Microsoft required what it called the system partition to be the first partition. All Windows operating systems from Windows 95 onwards can be located on (almost) any partition, but the boot files (io.sys, bootmgr, ntldr, etc.) must reside on a primary partition. However, other factors, such as a PC's BIOS (see Boot sequence on standard PC) may also impose specific requirements as to which partition must contain the primary OS.
The partition type code for a primary partition can either correspond to a file system contained within (e.g. 0x07 means either an NTFS or an OS/2 HPFS file system) or indicate that the partition has a special use (e.g. code 0x82 usually indicates a Linux swap partition). The FAT16 and FAT32 file systems have made use of a number of partition type codes due to the limits of various DOS and Windows OS versions. Though a Linux operating system may recognize a number of different file systems (ext4, ext3, ext2, ReiserFS, etc.), they have all consistently used the same partition type code: 0x83 (Linux native file system).
Extended partition[edit]
Further information: Extended Boot Record
An HDD may contain only one extended partition, but that extended partition can be subdivided into multiple logical partitions. DOS/Windows systems may then assign a unique drive letter to each logical partition.
Partitioning schemes[edit]
DOS, Windows, and OS/2[edit]
With DOS, Microsoft Windows, and OS/2, a common practice is to use one primary partition for the active file system that will contain the operating system, the page/swap file, all utilities, applications, and user data. On most Windows consumer computers, the drive letter C: is routinely assigned to this primary partition. Other partitions may exist on the HDD that may or may not be visible as drives, such as recovery partitions or partitions with diagnostic tools or data. (Microsoft drive letters do not correspond to partitions in a one-to-one fashion, so there may be more or fewer drive letters than partitions.)
Microsoft Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7 include a 'Disk Management' program which allows for the creation, deletion and resizing of FAT and NTFS partitions. The Windows Disk Manager in Windows Vista and Windows 7 utilizes a 1 MB partition alignment scheme which is fundamentally incompatible with Windows 2000, XP, OS/2, DOS as well as many other operating systems.
Unix-like systems[edit]
On Unix-based and Unix-like operating systems such as Linux, macOS, BSD, and Solaris, it is possible to use multiple partitions on a disk device. Each partition can be formatted with a file system or as a swap partition.
Multiple partitions allow directories such as /boot, /tmp, /usr, /var, or /home to be allocated their own filesystems. Such a scheme has a number of advantages:
If one file system gets corrupted, the data outside that filesystem/partition may stay intact, minimizing data loss.
Specific file systems can be mounted with different parameters e.g. read-only, or with the execution of setuid files disabled.
A runaway program that uses up all available space on a non-system filesystem does not fill up critical filesystems.
A common configuration for Linux desktop systems is to use two partitions: one holding a file system mounted on "/" (the root directory) and a swap partition.
By default, macOS systems also use a single partition for the entire filesystem and use a swap file inside the file system (like Windows) rather than a swap partition.
In Solaris, partitions are sometimes known as slices. This is a conceptual reference to the slicing of a cake into several pieces.
The term "slice" is used in the FreeBSD operating system to refer to Master Boot Record partitions, to avoid confusion with FreeBSD's own disklabel-based partitioning scheme. However, GUID Partition Table partitions are referred to as "partition" worldwide.
Multi-boot and mixed-boot systems[clarification needed][edit]
Main article: Multi-boot
A GRUB startup menu showing Ubuntu Linux (with three different boot modes) and Windows Vista options
Multi-boot systems are computers where the user can boot into one of two or more distinct operating systems (OS) stored in separate storage devices or in separate partitions of the same storage device. In such systems a menu at startup gives a choice of which OS to boot/start (and only one OS at a time is loaded).
This is distinct from virtual operating systems, in which one operating system is run as a self-contained virtual "program" within another already-running operating system. (An example is a Windows OS "virtual machine" running from within a Linux OS.)
GUID Partition Table[edit]
Main article: GUID Partition Table
The GUID Partition Table (Globally Unique IDentifier) is a part of the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) standard for the layout of the partition table on a physical hard disk. Many operating systems now support this standard.
Partition recovery[edit]
When a partition is deleted, its entry is removed from a table and the data is no longer accessible. The data remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities, (such as TestDisk, AOMEI Partition Assistant, M3 Partition Recovery[11] and gpart), may be able to locate lost file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. Some disk utilities may overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It still may be possible to restore a FAT or NTFS partition if a backup boot sector is available.
Compressed disks[edit]
HDDs can be compressed to create additional space. In DOS and early Microsoft Windows, programs such as Stacker (DR-DOS except 6.0), SuperStor (DR DOS 6.0), DoubleSpace, or DriveSpace (Windows 95) were used. This compression was done by creating a very large file on the partition, then storing the disk's data in this file. At startup, device drivers opened this file and assigned it a separate letter. Frequently, to avoid confusion, the original partition and the compressed drive had their letters swapped, so that the compressed disk is C:, and the uncompressed area (often containing system files) is given a higher name.
Versions of Windows using the NT kernel, including the most recent versions, XP and Vista, contain intrinsic disk compression capability. The use of separate disk compression utilities has declined sharply.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disk partitions.
Amiga Rigid Disk Block
Disk formatting
Extended boot record covers a Linux partition naming convention
File System
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
List of disk partitioning software
LVM
Master boot record covers the partition table layout
Partition alignment
RAID
JBOD
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Calkins, Bill (2013). Oracle Solaris 11 System Administration.
Jump up ^ Levi, Bozidar (2002). UNIX Administration.
Jump up ^ Ward, Brian (2004). How Linux Works: What Every SuperUser Should Know. No Starch Press. p. 39. ISBN 9781593270353.
Jump up ^ Kozierok, Charles M. (2001-04-17). "Partitioning and Volume Position". Pcguide.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ Blake, Ken. "Understanding Disk Partitioning". Computorcompanion.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ Smith, Roderick W. (2000-03-01). The Multi-Boot Configuration Handbook. QUE. p. 178. ISBN 0-7897-2283-6. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ link(2) – Linux Programmer's Manual – System Calls
Jump up ^ link(2) – BSD System Calls Manual
Jump up ^ link(2) – Solaris 10 System Calls Reference Manual
Jump up ^ "CreateHardLink function". Microsoft. 2013-04-16. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Partition recovery software to recover RAW drive and recover deleted or lost partition".
Further reading[edit]
Stéphane Martineau; Jens Olsson; Nick Roberts (2002-11-02). "The Alt-OS-Development Partition Specification (AODPS)". 0.4.
Andries Brouwer (1995–2004). "List of partition identifiers for PCs".
Andries Brouwer (1999-09-16). "Minimal Partition Table Specification".
"partitioning primer". Ranish. 1998-08-05.
Allen Smith. "ATA (EIDE) Drive Capacity and Addressing".
Microsoft (2005-06-03). "Using GPT Drives".
"MS-DOS Partitioning Summary". Support. Microsoft.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Guide to Unix has a page on the topic of: Partitioning Disks
Linux Partition HOWTO
Partition Definition – by The Linux Information Project (LINFO)
Multiple OS Installation in multiple partitions – guide to using chainloaded bootloaders to enable multiple OSs to coexist
Partition Types
Properties of partition tables
Partition Tables – a list of partition tables file system codes
Guide with advantages and disadvantages to disk partitioning
Authority control
GND: 4542600-4
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disk_partitioning&oldid=806257371"
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Lindisfarne Gospels
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Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels contains the incipit from the Gospel of Matthew.
The Lindisfarne Gospels (London, British Library Cotton MS Nero D.IV) is an illuminated manuscript gospel book produced around the year 700 in a monastery off the coast of Northumberland at Lindisfarne and which is now on display in the British Library in London. The manuscript is one of the finest works in the unique style of Hiberno-Saxon or Insular art, combining Mediterranean, Anglo-Saxon and Celtic elements.[1] The Lindisfarne Gospels is a religious and creative book. [2]
The Lindisfarne Gospels are presumed to be the work of a monk named Eadfrith, who became Bishop of Lindisfarne in 698 and died in 721.[3] Current scholarship indicates a date around 715, and it is believed they were produced in honour of St. Cuthbert. However, it is also possible that Eadfrith produced them prior to 698, in order to commemorate the elevation of Cuthbert's relics in that year,[4] which is also thought to have been the occasion for which the St Cuthbert Gospel (also British Library) was produced. The Gospels are richly illustrated in the insular style and were originally encased in a fine leather treasure binding covered with jewels and metals made by Billfrith the Anchorite in the 8th century. During the Viking raids on Lindisfarne this jewelled cover was lost and a replacement was made in 1852.[5] The text is written in insular script, and is the best documented and most complete insular manuscript of the period.
In the 10th century an Old English translation of the Gospels was made: a word-for-word gloss of the Latin Vulgate text, inserted between the lines by Aldred, Provost of Chester-le-Street. This is the oldest extant translation of the Gospels into the English language.[6] The Gospels may have been taken from Durham Cathedral during the Dissolution of the Monasteries ordered by Henry VIII and were acquired in the early 17th century by Sir Robert Cotton from Robert Bowyer, Clerk of the Parliaments. Cotton's library came to the British Museum in the 18th century and went to the British Library in London when this was separated from the British Museum.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical context
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Techniques
2 History
2.1 Condition
3 Formal and stylistic elements of the manuscript
3.1 The script
3.2 Other insular works of art
4 Iconography
4.1 The Evangelists
4.2 The decoration of the manuscript
4.3 The carpet pages
5 Campaign to relocate
6 Exhibited in Durham in 2013
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Historical context[edit]
Evangelist portrait of Mark
Lindisfarne, also known as "Holy Island", is located off the coast of Northumberland in northern England (Chilvers 2004). In around 635 AD, the Irish missionary Aidan founded the Lindisfarne monastery on "a small outcrop of land" on Lindisfarne.[8] King Oswald of Northumbria sent Aidan from Iona to preach to and baptise the pagan Anglo-Saxons, following the conversion to Christianity of the Northumbrian monarchy in 627. By the time of Aidan's death in 651, the Christian faith was becoming well-established in the area.[9] The Lindisfarne gospel book is associated with the Cult of St. Cuthbert. Cuthbert was an ascetic member of a monastic community in Lindisfarne, before his death in 687. The book was made as part of the preparations to translate Cuthbert’s relics to a shrine in 698. Lindisfarne has a reputation as the probable place of genesis according to the Lindisfarne Gospels. Around 705 an anonymous monk of Lindisfarne wrote the Life of St Cuthbert. His bishop, Eadfrith, swiftly commissioned the most famous scholar of the age, Bede, ... to help shape the cult to a new purpose.[10]

In the 10th century, about 250 years after the production of the book, Aldred, a priest of the monastery at Chester-le-Street, added an Old English translation between the lines of the Latin text. In his colophon he recorded the names of the four men who produced the Lindisfarne Gospels:[8] Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, was credited with writing the manuscript; Ethelwald, Bishop of the Lindisfarne islanders, was credited with binding it; Billfrith, an anchorite, was credited with ornamenting the manuscript; and finally Aldred lists himself as the person who glossed it in Anglo-Saxon (Old English).[11]
Some scholars have argued that Eadfrith and Ethelwald did not produce the manuscript but commissioned someone else to do so.[12] However, Janet Backhouse argues for the validity of the statement by pointing out that "there is no reason to doubt [Aldred's] statement" because he was "recording a well established tradition".[8] Eadfrith and Ethelwald were both bishops at the monastery of Lindisfarne where the manuscript was produced. As Alan Thacker notes, the Lindisfarne Gospels are "undoubtedly the work of a single hand", and Eadfrith remains regarded as "the scribe and painter of the Lindisfarne Gospels".[13]
Purpose[edit]
According to Aldred's colophon, the Lindisfarne Gospels were made in honour of God and Saint Cuthbert, a Bishop of the Lindisfarne monastery who was becoming "Northern England's most popular Saint".[14] Scholars think that the manuscript was written sometime between Cuthbert's death in 687 and Eadfrith's death in 721.[15] There is a significant amount of information known about Cuthbert thanks to two accounts of his life that were written shortly after his death, the first by an anonymous monk from Lindisfarne, and the second by Bede, a famous monk, historian, and theologian.[9]
Cuthbert entered into the monastery of Melrose, now in lowland Scotland but then in Northumbria, in the late 7th century, and after being ordained a priest he began to travel throughout Northumbria, "rapidly acquiring a reputation for holiness and for the possession of miraculous powers".[16] The Synod of Whitby in 664 pitted the Hiberno-Celtic church against the Roman church regarding the calculation of the date of Easter. The dispute was adjudged by King Oswiu of Northumbria in favour of the Roman church, but many of the leading monks at Lindisfarne then returned to Iona and Ireland, leaving only a residue of monks affiliated to the Roman church at Lindisfarne. Due to increasingly slack religious practice in Lindisfarne, Cuthbert was sent to Lindisfarne to reform the religious community.[17] In Lindisfarne Cuthbert began to adopt a solitary lifestyle, eventually moving to Inner Farne Island, where he built a hermitage.[17] Cuthbert agreed to become bishop at the request of King Ecgfrith in 684, but within about two years he returned to his hermitage in Farne as he felt death approaching. Cuthbert died on 20 March 687, and was buried in Lindisfarne. As a venerated saint, his tomb attracted many pilgrims to Lindisfarne.[18]
The Lindisfarne Gospels is a Christian manuscript, containing the four gospels and the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The manuscript was used for ceremonial purposes to promote and celebrate the Christian religion and the word of God.[15] Because the body of Cuthbert was buried there, Lindisfarne became an important pilgrimage destination in the 7th and 8th centuries, and the Lindisfarne Gospels would have contributed to the cult of St Cuthbert.[15] The gospels were used by missionaries preaching to uneducated audiences, and the elaborate imagery would entice readers much more so than a plain manuscript with a sensual experience. For the same reason religious buildings are so extravagant in their design, this created a spiritual resonation with the reader which helped to further expand Christianity.
Techniques[edit]
"Chi-Rho" monogram at the start of the Gospel of Matthew
The Lindisfarne Gospels manuscript was produced in a scriptorium in the monastery of Lindisfarne. It took approximately 10 years to create.[19] Its pages are vellum, and evidence from the manuscript reveals that the vellum was made using roughly 150 calf skin.[20] The book is 516 pages long. The text is written "in a dense, dark brown ink, often almost black, which contains particles of carbon from soot or lamp black".[21] The pens used for the manuscript could have been cut from either quills or reeds, and there is also evidence to suggest that the trace marks (seen under oblique light) were made by an early equivalent of a modern pencil.[22]Through the work of the artist two new tools were made. The light box and the lead pencil. Lavish jewellery, now lost, was added to the binding of the manuscript later in the 8th century.[23] Eadfrith manufactured 90 of his own colors with “only six local minerals and vegetable extracts”[24]
There is a huge range of individual pigments used in the manuscript. The colours are derived from animal, vegetable and mineral sources.[25] While some colours were obtained from local sources, others were imported from the Mediterranean, and rare pigments such as lapis lazuli would have come from the Himalayas.[25] Gold is used in only a couple of small details.[23] The medium used to bind the colours was primarily egg white, with fish glue perhaps used in a few places.[23] Backhouse emphasizes that "all Eadfrith's colours are applied with great skill and accuracy, but ... we have no means of knowing exactly what implements he used". Professor Brown added that Eadfrith " knew about lapis lazuli [a semi-precious stone with a blue tint] from the Himalayas but could not get hold of it, so made his own".[23]
The pages were arranged into gatherings of eight. Once the sheets had been folded together, the highest numbered page was carefully marked out by pricking with a stylus or a small knife.[21] Holes were pricked through each gathering of eight leaves, and then individual pages were separately ruled for writing with a sharp, dry, and discreet point.[21]
The Lindisfarne Gospels are impeccably designed, and as Backhouse points out, vellum would have been too expensive for "practice runs" for the pages, and so preliminary designs may have been done on wax tablets (hollowed-out wood or bone with a layer of wax).[26] These would have been an inexpensive medium for a first draft; once a sketch had been transferred to the manuscript, the wax could be remelted and a new design or outline inscribed.[26]
History[edit]
Due to Viking raids, the monastic community left Lindisfarne around 875, taking with them Cuthbert's body, relics, and books, including the Lindisfarne Gospels[15] and the St Cuthbert Gospel. It is estimated that after around seven years the Lindisfarne community settled in the Priory at Chester-le-Street in Durham, where they stayed until 995 (and where Aldred would have done his interlinear translation of the text).[27] After Henry VIII ordered the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539, the manuscript was separated from the priory.[27] In the early 17th century the Gospels were owned by Sir Robert Cotton (1571–1631), and in 1753 they became part of the founding collections of the British Museum.[28]
Condition[edit]
The Lindisfarne Gospels are in remarkable condition and the text is complete and undamaged.[29] However, the original binding of the manuscript was destroyed. In March 1852 a new binding was commissioned by bishop Edward Maltby; Smith, Nicholson and Co. (silversmiths) made the binding with the intention of recreating motifs in Eadfrith's work.[30]
Formal and stylistic elements of the manuscript[edit]
Gospel of Luke
In The Illuminated Manuscript, Backhouse states that "The Lindisfarne Gospels is one of the first and greatest masterpieces of medieval European book painting".[31] The Lindisfarne Gospels is described as Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art, a general term that refers to manuscripts produced in the British Isles between 500–900 AD.[27]
As a part of Anglo-Saxon art the manuscript reveals a love of riddles and surprise, shown through the pattern and interlace in the meticulously designed pages. Many of the patterns used for the Lindisfarne Gospels date back before the Christian period.[32] There is a strong presence of Celtic, Germanic, and Irish art styles. The spiral style and “knot work” evident in the formation of the designed pages are influenced by Celtic art.[32]
One of the most characteristic styles in the manuscript is the zoomorphic style (adopted from Germanic art) and is revealed through the extensive use of interlaced animal and bird patterns throughout the book.[32] The birds that appear in the manuscript may also have been from Eadfrith's own observations of wildlife in Lindisfarne.[27] The geometric design motifs are also Germanic influence, and appear throughout the manuscript.
The carpet pages (pages of pure decoration) exemplify Eadfrith's use of geometrical ornamentation. Another notable aspect of the Gospels is the tiny drops of red lead, which create backgrounds, outlines, and patterns, but never appear on the carpet pages.[33] The red dots appear in early Irish manuscripts, revealing their influence in the design of the Lindisfarne Gospels.[33] Thacker points out that Eadfrith acquired knowledge from, and was influenced by, other artistic styles, showing that he had "eclectic taste".[34] While there are many non-Christian artistic influences in the manuscript, the patterns were used to produce religious motifs and ideas.
The script[edit]
Eadfrith was a highly trained calligrapher and he used insular majuscule script in the manuscript.[34]
Other insular works of art[edit]
The Lindisfarne Gospels are not an example of "isolated genius... in an otherwise dark age":[35] there were other Gospel books produced in the same time period and geographic area that have similar qualities to the Lindisfarne Gospels. Lindisfarne not only produced the lindisfarne gospels, but the Durham Gospels and Echternach Gospels as well. These gospel books were credited to “the ‘Durnham-Echternach Calligrapher’, thought to be the oldest member of the Lindisfarne Scriptorium”.[36] The Echternach gospels are might have been made during the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Durham Gospels came after, but in an old-fashioned style.[37] The Gospels of Saint Chad (Lichfield Cathedral, Chapter Library) employ a very similar style to the Lindisfarne Gospels, and it is even speculated that the artist was attempting to emulate Eadfrith's work.[29] Surviving pages from the Gospels of Saint Chad also have a cross-carpet page and animal and bird interlace, but the designs do not achieve the same perfection, and are seen as looser and heavier than Eadfrith's.[29] The design of the Lindisfarne Gospels has also been related to the Tara Brooch (National Museum of Ireland, Dublin), displaying animal interlace, curvilinear patterns, and borders of bird interlace, but unfortunately the origin and place[clarification needed] of the brooch are unknown.[29] The Durham Gospels (Durham Cathedral Library) are suspected as having been created slightly earlier than the Lindisfarne Gospels, and while they have the bird interlace, the birds are less natural and real than Eadfrith's birds in the Lindisfarne Gospels.[38] The Book of Durrow (Trinity College, Dublin) is also thought of as an earlier insular manuscript, as the style of the manuscript is simpler and less developed than that of the Lindisfarne Gospels.[39] The Book of Kells (Trinity College, Dublin, MS A. I.6 (58)) employs decorative patterns that are similar to other insular art pieces of the period, but is thought to have been produced much later than the Lindisfarne Gospels.[40]
Iconography[edit]
Matthew the Evangelist
The Lindisfarne Gospels is a manuscript that contains the Gospels of the four Evangelists Mark, John, Luke, and Matthew. The Lindisfarne Gospels begins with a carpet page in the form of a cross and a major initial page, introducing the letter of St. Jerome and Pope Damasus I.[27] There are sixteen pages of arcaded canon tables, where parallel passages of the four Evangelists are laid out.[41] A portrait of the appropriate Evangelist, a carpet page and a decorated initial page precedes each Gospel. There is an additional major initial of the Christmas narrative of Matthew.[27]
The Evangelists[edit]
Bede explains how each of the four Evangelists was represented by their own symbol: Matthew was the man, representing the human Christ; Mark was the lion, symbolising the triumphant Christ of the Resurrection; Luke was the calf, symbolising the sacrificial victim of the Crucifixion; and John was the eagle, symbolising Christ's second coming.[42] A collective term for the symbols of the four Evangelists is the Tetramorphs. Each of the four Evangelists is accompanied by their respective symbol in their miniature portraits in the manuscript. In these portraits, Matthew, Mark, and Luke are shown writing, while John looks straight ahead at the reader holding his scroll.[42] The Evangelists also represent the dual nature of Christ. Mark and John are shown as young men, symbolising the divine nature of Christ, and Matthew and Luke appear older and bearded, representing Christ's mortal nature.[42]
The decoration of the manuscript[edit]
A manuscript so richly decorated reveals that the Lindisfarne Gospels not only had a practical ceremonial use, but also attempted to symbolize the Word of God in missionary expeditions.[43] Backhouse points out that the clergy was not unaware of the profound impression a book such as the Lindisfarne Gospels made on other congregations.[43] The opening words of the Gospel (the incipits) are highly decorated, revealing Roman capitals, Greek and Germanic letters, filled with interlaced birds and beasts, representing the splendour of God’s creation.[42] On one page alone, there are 10,600 decorative red dots. [44] Different kinds of pigment are used throughout the manuscript. [25] Red lead and gold were also used for decoration. [23] [33]
The carpet pages[edit]
Carpet page, F26v
The carpet pages are influenced by early Coptic (Christian Egyptian) manuscripts in their resemblance to Islamic prayer rugs, which were probably known during this time in Northumbria.[42] Just as the rugs helped worshippers prepare for prayer, the carpet pages can represent the preparation of the reader before the Gospel message.[42] Each carpet page contains a different image of a cross (called a cross-carpet page), emphasising the importance of the Christian religion and of ecumenical relationships between churches.[42] The pages of ornamentation have motifs familiar from metalwork and jewellery that pair alongside bird and animal decoration[27]
Campaign to relocate[edit]
A campaign exists to have the gospels housed in the North East of England. Supporters include the Bishop of Durham, Viz creator Simon Donald, and the Northumbrian Association. The move is vigorously opposed by the British Library.[45][46] Several possible locations have been mooted, including Durham Cathedral, Lindisfarne itself or one of the museums in Newcastle upon Tyne or Sunderland.[5] In 1971 professor Suzanne Kaufman of Rockford, Illinois, presented a facsimile copy of the Gospels to the clergy of the Island.[47]
Exhibited in Durham in 2013[edit]
From July to September 2013 the Lindisfarne Gospels were displayed for three months in Palace Green Library, Durham. Nearly 100,000 visitors saw the exhibition.[48] The manuscript exhibition also included items from the Staffordshire Hoard, the Yates Thompson 26 Life of Cuthbert, and the gold Taplow belt buckle.[49] Also included was the closely related St Cuthbert Gospel, which was bought by the British Library in 2012. This returned to Durham in 2014 (1 March to 31 December) for an exhibition of bookbindings at the library. Alongside the Lindisfarne Gospels Exhibition was a festival of more than 500 events, exhibitions and performances across the North East and Cumbria.
See also[edit]
List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts
Old English Bible translations
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Hull, Derek (2003). Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Art: Geometric Aspects. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-549-X.
Jump up ^ [1] The British Library, 16 Jan. 2015
Jump up ^ Lindisfarne Gospels British Library. Retrieved 2008-03-21
Jump up ^ Backhouse, Janet (1981). The Lindisfarne Gospels. Phaidon. ISBN 9780714824611.
^ Jump up to: a b Let Gospels come home Sunderland Echo, 2006-09-22. Retrieved 2008-03-21
Jump up ^ "The Lindisfarne Gospels". Northumbrian Association. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Time line British Library. Retrieved 2008-03-21
^ Jump up to: a b c Backhouse 1981, 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Backhouse 1981, 8.
Jump up ^ Brown, Michelle (2003). The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality & the Scribe. London, The British Library: University of Toronto Press.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 12.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 13.
Jump up ^ Thacker 2004.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 7; Chilvers 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b c d BBC Tyne 2012
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 8–9.
^ Jump up to: a b Backhouse 1981, 9.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 9–10.
Jump up ^ Consiglio, Flavia Di (20 March 2013). "Lindisfarne Gospels: Why Is This Book so Special?". BBC.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 27.
^ Jump up to: a b c Backhouse 1981, 28.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 28–31.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Backhouse 1981, 32.
Jump up ^ Consiglio, Flavia Di (March 20, 2013). ""Lindisfarne Gospels: Why Is This Book so Special?". BBC.
^ Jump up to: a b c Backhouse 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Backhouse 1981, 31.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Backhouse, 2004
Jump up ^ Chilvers 2004
^ Jump up to: a b c d Backhouse 1981, 66
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 90
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1979, 10
^ Jump up to: a b c Backhouse 1981, 47
^ Jump up to: a b c Backhouse 1981, 51
^ Jump up to: a b Thacker 2004
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 62
Jump up ^ Brown, Michelle P., The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality & the Scribe. London: The British Library, 2003.
Jump up ^ Brown, Michelle (2003). The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality & the Scribe. London: University of Toronto Press.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 67
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 75
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 41
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1981, 41; Backhouse 2004
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g The British Library Board, “The Lindisfarne Gospels Tour.” Accessed 13 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Backhouse 1981, 33
Jump up ^ Consiglio, Flavia Di. “Lindisfarne Gospels: Why Is This Book so Special?” BBC News, BBC, 20 Mar. 2013, www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/21588667.
Jump up ^ Viz creator urges gospels return BBC News Online, 2008-03-20. Retrieved 2008-03-21
Jump up ^ Hansard, see column 451 Archived 10 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Speech by the Bishop of Durham in the House of Lords in 1998. Retrieved 2009-03-25
Jump up ^ Rockford [Illinois] Register-Star, Sunday 9-27-1970. She led the effort to donate the text after visiting Lindisfarne Island the previous year. Rockford College sponsored the fundraising for the facsimile. She was a professor of art at the college.
Jump up ^ "Lindisfarne Gospels Durham exhibition attracts 100,000 visitors", BBC News, Tyne, accessed 5 December 2013
Jump up ^ Lindisfarne Gospels exhibition website Archived 11 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.

References[edit]
Backhouse, Janet. "Lindisfarne Gospels." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 10 March 2012.
Backhouse, Janet. The Illuminated Manuscript. Oxford: Phaidon Press Ltd., 1979.
Backhouse, Janet. The Lindisfarne Gospels. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981.
BBC Tyne. “The Lindisfarne Gospels.” BBC Online, 2012. Accessed 10 March 2012.
Calkins, Robert G. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.
Chilvers, Ian. ed. “Lindisfarne Gospels” The Oxford Dictionary of Art. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Accessed 9 March 2012.
De Hamel, Christopher. A History of Illuminated Manuscripts. Boston: David R. Godine, 1986.
Thacker, Alan. “Eadfrith (d. 721?).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Accessed 9 March 2012, [2][dead link]
Walther, Ingo F. and Norbert Wolf. Codices Illustres: The world's most famous illuminated manuscripts, 400 to 1600. Köln, TASCHEN, 2005.
"Lindisfarne Gospels." The British Library, The British Library, 16 Jan. 2015, www.bl.uk/collection-items/lindisfarne-gospels.
Brown, Michelle P., The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality & the Scribe. London: The British Library, 2003.
Consiglio, Flavia Di. “Lindisfarne Gospels: Why Is This Book so Special?” BBC News, BBC, 20 Mar. 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Brown, Michelle P., The Lindisfarne Gospels: Society, Spirituality and the Scribe. London: The British Library, 2003
Brown, Michelle P., The Lindisfarne Gospels and the Early Medieval World. London: The British Library, 2010
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lindisfarne Gospels (710-721) - BL Cotton MS Nero D IV.
British Library Digitised Manuscripts Digital facsimile of the entire manuscript
Turning the Pages Leaf through the Lindisfarne Gospels online using the British Library's Turning the Pages software (requires Shockwave plugin)
The Lindisfarne Gospels, a free online seminar from the British Library.
Lindisfarne Gospels: information, zoomable image British Library website
British Library Digital Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts entry
More information at Earlier Latin Manuscripts
Sacred Texts: Lindisfarne Gospels
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