text:
John Roberts (actor)
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John Roberts
Roberts in 2016.
Born
(1971-11-10) November 10, 1971 (age 46)
Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
Nationality
American
Years active
2006–present
Notable works and roles
Linda Belcher on Bob's Burgers
John Roberts (born November 10, 1971) is an American actor, voice actor, comedian and writer. Roberts portrays Linda Belcher on the animated sitcom Bob's Burgers.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Career
2 Personal life
3 Filmography
4 References
5 External links
Career[edit]
Roberts currently provides the voice of Linda, the doting matriarch of the Belcher family, in the FOX animated primetime comedy Bob's Burgers. He has said in interviews that he based the voice of Linda on that of his own mother, Marge.[2]
He has appeared several times on NBC's Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and Watch What Happens: Live, has co-written a pilot for MTV with Bob Odenkirk and performed in two national tours for Margaret Cho as well as her Showtime special. Roberts first gained attention as one of the standout performer/writers on the YouTube follow up "Jackie & Debra" which won The Comedy Smalls award in London. He has over 20 million hits on YouTube and has made videos with the likes of Debbie Harry and David Cross. He performs several times a year at NYC's Joe's Pub and has signed a publishing deal with French Kiss Records.
Personal life[edit]
Roberts is openly gay.[3]
Filmography[edit]
Good Day New York
It's on with Alexa Chung
Late Night with Jimmy Fallon
Eugene!
Bob's Burgers (voice)
Archer (guest voice)
Gravity Falls (guest voice)
The Awesomes (guest voice)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ FOX Broadcasting Company – Bob's Burgers TV Show – Bob's Burgers TV Series – Bob's Burgers Episode Guide
Jump up ^ "An interview with John Roberts, aka Linda Belcher - Features - Impose Magazine". Impose Magazine. 2013-12-12. Retrieved 2017-12-26.
Jump up ^ "The Voice Behind Linda Belcher of 'Bob's Burgers'". Mashable. 2017-12-08. Retrieved 2017-12-08.
External links[edit]
John Roberts on Twitter
Video on YouTube
John Roberts at the Internet Movie Database

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List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan
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Flag of the Prime Minister of Pakistan
Pakistan
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politics and government of
Pakistan
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Chairman: Raza Rabbani
Deputy Chairman: Abdul Ghafoor Haideri
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Speaker: Sardar A. Sadiq
Deputy Speaker: Murtaza Javed Abbasi
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President (list): Mamnoon Hussain
Prime Minister (list): Shahid Khaqan Abbasi
Federal Cabinet
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Supreme Court
Chief Justice
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Chief Justices
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District Courts
Elections[show]
Election Commission
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Recent elections
Presidential: 2013
2008
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General: 2013
2008
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The Prime Minister of Pakistan (Urdu: وزِیرِ اعظم — Wazīr-ē Aʿẓam, Urdu pronunciation: [ʋəˈziːr-ˌeː ˈɑː.zəm]; Turkish lit. "Grand Vizier"), is the popularly elected politician who is the chief executive of the Government of Pakistan.[1] The Prime Minister is vested with responsibility of running the administration through his appointed federal cabinet, formulating national policies to ensure the safeguard of the interests of the nation and its people through the Council of Common Interests as well as making the decision to call to hold the nationwide general elections for the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan.[2][3][4]
Since 1947, Pakistan has had nineteen elected prime ministers, aside from the appointed caretaker prime ministers who were only mandate to oversee the system until the process of elections is due finished. In Pakistan's parliamentary system, the Prime Minister is sworn-in by the President and usually is the Chairman or/ the President of its party or coalition that has the majority in the National Assembly– the lower house of Pakistan Parliament.
After the India's partition on the midnight of 14/15 August of 1947, Pakistan followed the British system by having it created the post of the Prime Minister based at the Prime Minister's Secretariat.[3][4] The Governor-General Muhammad Ali Jinnah, undertaking the advisement from the Founding Fathers of the nation, appointed Liaquat Ali Khan to establish and lead his administration on 15 August 1947.[5] Before the presidential system in 1960, six prime ministers had served between 1947 until martial law in 1958. In 1971, the office was again revived but ceased to exist shortly.[6][7] Executive powers and authority was given to the Prime Minister when the full set of the Constitution of Pakistan was promulgated in 1973 but the post was ceased from its effective operations after another martial law in 1977.[8][9] After the general elections held in 1985, the office came to its existence.[6] Between 1988–99, the office was held by Benazir Bhutto of the PPP and Nawaz Sharif of PML(N), each holding the office for two non-consecutive terms between 1988 and 1999: Bhutto during 1988–90 and 1993–96;[10] and Sharif during 1990–93 and 1997–99.[11][12]
The premiership of the I.I. Chundrigar was the shortest in Pakistan's history, serving only for 55 days into his term. At approximately five years and four months in total, Sharif is the longest-serving Prime Minister.[3][13] Sharif was re-elected for a third non-consecutive term on 5 June 2013, which is a record in the history of Pakistan.[14][15] The national politics in Pakistan was mostly dominated by the army department of the Pakistan Armed Forces throughout its history, but it is now dominated by the political parties.[16]
After the general elections held in 2002, Zafarullah Khan Jamali was invited to form his administration as its Prime Minister.[16] After the Supreme Court of Pakistan's rulings to disqualified the Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani in 2012, the business of his administration was looked after by Pervez Ashraf until the caretaker administration was setup under Mir Hazar Khoso.[17][18][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Key
2 Prime Ministers
3 References
4 External links
Key[edit]
Key for Prime Ministers' list
Symbol/Colours
Meaning
A Caretaker Prime Minister
Muslim League/Pakistan Muslim League
Awami League
Republican Party
Pakistan Peoples Party
National Peoples Party
Pakistan Muslim League (N)
Pakistan Muslim League (Q)
Independent
Position abolished/vacant
Prime Ministers[edit]
List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan
[hide]No.
Portrait
Name
(Birth–death)
Took office
Left office
Tenure
Elections
Political party
(Alliance)
Note(s)
1
Liaquat Ali Khan[19][20]
(1895–1951)
14 August 1947 16 October 1951
(assassinated) 4 Years,
2 Months,
2 Days, — Muslim League Under advised by the Founding Fathers of the nation, Governor-General Jinnah appointed and invited the Finance Minister Liaquat Ali Khan to set and run his administration in 1947. He was assassinated in 1951, and Khawaja Nazimuddin took the office.[5][21]
16 October 1951 – 17 October 1951
2
Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin[3]
(1894–1964)
17 October 1951 17 April 1953 1 Year,
6 Months, — Muslim League Nazimuddin became Prime Minister of Pakistan after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951.[21] He left the office when governor general Malik Ghulam Muhammad dissolved his government in 1953.[3]
3
Mohammad Ali Bogra[6]
(1909–1963)
17 April 1953 12 August 1955 2 Years,
3 Months,
26 Days, — Muslim League A diplomat and relatively unknown personality to Pakistani politics, Bogra established the Ministry of Talents but his administration was dismissed in 1955 by the Governor-General after the legislative elections in 1954.[3]
4
Muhammad Ali[6]
(1905–1980)
12 August 1955 12 September 1956 1 Year,
1 Month, — Muslim League A first appointment from the coalition of Muslim League, Awami League and the Republican Party, he was removed by his own party following the successful vote of no-confidence movement.[3]
5
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy[3]
(1892–1963)
12 September 1956 17 October 1957 1 Year,
1 Month,
5 Days, — Awami League Popular for his wit in law, Suhrwardy resigned due to the loss of control over his party and support from the coalition partners in his administration.[3]
6
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar[3][6]
(1898–1968)
17 October 1957 16 December 1957 1 Month,
29 Days, — Muslim League Shortest tenured Prime Minister, Chundrigar established his administration but removed in mere 55 days into his term amid a vote of no-confidence movement led by majority votes of the Republican Party and Awami League.[3]
7
Sir Feroze Khan Noon[3]
(1893–1970)
16 December 1957 7 October 1958 9 Months,
21 Days, — Republican Party A lawyer, Sir Feroze Khan's administration collapsed after his party's own President Iskander Mirza enforced martial law in 1958 in a view of extending his term of office[22][23]
7 October 1958 – 7 December 1971
8
Nurul Amin[3]
(1893–1974)
7 December 1971 20 December 1971 13 Days, 7 December 1970 Pakistan Muslim League After the general elections in 1971, Amin was invited to be appointed as Prime Minister under Yahya administration; yet he was also the first and the only Vice President of Pakistan from 1970 to 1972, leading Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.[3]
20 December 1971 – 14 August 1973
9
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto[3][24]
(1928–1979)
14 August 1973 5 July 1977 3 Years,
10 Months,
21 Days, 14 August 1973 Pakistan People's Party Bhutto resigned as president to become the empowered Prime Minister after the Constitution was repromulgated, which established a parliamentary system of government. He was deposed in the martial law in 1977 by his appointed army chief, General Zia, in July 1977.[9][25]
5 July 1977 – 24 March 1985
10
Muhammad Khan Junejo[6]
(1932–1993)
24 March 1985 29 May 1988 3 Years,
2 Months,
5 Days, 28 February 1985 Pakistan Muslim League
(Independent) Junejo was elected as the tenth Prime Minister of Pakistan in non-party based elections in 1985, therefore he was elected on an Independent ticket but he served the Pakistan Muslim League while before entering in office and during office. He was dismissed by the president after Eighth Amendment to the Constitution.[3]
29 May 1988 – 2 December 1988
11
Benazir Bhutto[20]
(1953–2007)
2 December 1988 6 August 1990 1 Year,
8 Months,
4 Days, 16 November 1988 Pakistan People's Party Bhutto became the first woman in Pakistan to head a major political party, in 1982. Six years later, she became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim state.[10][26]
1st Caretaker
Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi[27]
(1931–2009)
6 August 1990 6 November 1990 3 Months, — National Peoples Party Jatoi was appointed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan as a caretaker Prime Minister.[3]
12
Nawaz Sharif[11]
(1949–)
6 November 1990 18 April 1993 2 Years,
5 Months,
12 Days, 24 October 1990 Pakistan Muslim League (N) Sharif was elected as the 12th Prime Minister of Pakistan on 1 November 1990.[28] President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved his government in April 1993, which was later on reinstated by the Supreme Court of Pakistan.[11]
2nd Caretaker
Balakh Sher Mazari[3]
(1928–)
18 April 1993 26 May 1993 1 Month,
8 Days, — Pakistan People's Party Appointed by the President Khan as a caretaker Prime Minister, Mazari's term ended when the Supreme Court overturned the Presidential order and restored Sharif's government.[3]
(12)
Nawaz Sharif[11]
(1949–)
26 May 1993 18 July 1993 1 Month,
22 Days, — Pakistan Muslim League (N) Sharif survived a serious constitutional crisis when President Khan attempted to dismiss him under article 58-2b, in April 1993, but he successfully challenged the decision in the Supreme Court.[11] Sharif resigned from the post negotiating a settlement that resulted in the removal of President as well, in July 1993.[29]
3rd Caretaker
Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi[3]
(1930–2016)
18 July 1993 19 October 1993 3 Months,
1 Day, — Independent After Sharif's resignation in July 1993, Qureshi was appointed as the caretaker Prime Minister.
(11)
Benazir Bhutto[10][20]
(1953–2007)
19 October 1993 5 November 1996 3 Years,
17 Days, 6 October 1993 Pakistan People's Party Bhutto was re-elected for a second term, in 1993. She survived an attempted coup d'état in 1995. Bhutto's government was dismissed by president Farooq Leghari in November 1996.[30][31]
4th Caretaker
Malik Meraj Khalid[32]
(1916–2003)
5 November 1996 17 February 1997 3 Months,
12 Days, — Independent Khalid was appointed as a caretaker Prime Minister after the dismissal of Bhutto's government in November 1996.[3]
(12)
Nawaz Sharif[11]
(1949–)
17 February 1997 12 October 1999 2 Years,
7 Months,
25 Days. 3 February 1997 Pakistan Muslim League (N) Sharif was re-elected as Prime Minister with an exclusive mandate from all over Pakistan for a non-consecutive second term, in February 1997.[12][33] His government was deposed by General Pervez Musharraf in October 1999, and Martial law was imposed in the entire country.[13][34]
12 October 1999 – 23 November 2002
13
Zafarullah Khan Jamali[6]
(1944–)
23 November 2002 26 June 2004 1 Year,
7 Months,
3 Days, 10 October 2002 Pakistan Muslim League (Q) Jamali was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan in November 2002. He continued the foreign and economic policies of Pervez Musharraf but could not complete his term and resigned from the post in June 2004.[16]
26 June 2004 – 30 June 2004
14
Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain[35]
(1946–)
30 June 2004 26 August 2004 1 Month,
27 Days, — Pakistan Muslim League (Q) Parliament elected Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain as the Prime Minister and to serve a 50-day period before the Shaukat Aziz, permanently replaces him.[35]
26 August 2004 – 28 August 2004
15
Shaukat Aziz[36]
(1949–)
28 August 2004 15 November 2007 3 Years,
2 Months,
18 Days, — Pakistan Muslim League (Q) Aziz took the office of Prime Minister of Pakistan in August 2004. He left the office at the end of the parliamentary term, in November 2007, and became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan who left the seat after completion of parliamentary term.[37]
15 November 2007 – 16 November 2007
5th Caretaker
Muhammad Mian Soomro[38]
(1950–)
16 November 2007 24 March 2008 4 Months,
8 Days, — Pakistan Muslim League (Q) Soomro took the office as caretaker Prime Minister in November 2007.[38]
16
Yousaf Raza Gillani[39]
(1952–)
25 March 2008 19 June 2012 4 Years,
2 Months,
25 Days. 18 February 2008 Pakistan People's Party Gillani was elected as prime minister in March 2008. He was disqualified from his seat in the parliament in April 2012 by the Supreme Court for contempt of court.[40]
19 June 2012 – 22 June 2012
17
Raja Pervaiz Ashraf[41]
(1950–)
22 June 2012 24 March 2013 9 Months,
2 Days, — Pakistan People's Party Ashraf assumed the post of Prime Minister in June 2012, after Yousaf Raza Gillani was disqualified over contempt of court charges.[17]
24 March 2013 – 25 March 2013
6th Caretaker
Mir Hazar Khan Khoso[42]
(1929–)
25 March 2013 5 June 2013 2 Months,
11 Days, — Independent Khoso was appointed by the Election Commission of Pakistan on 24 March,[43] and took oath on 25 March 2013.[44]
18
Muhammad Nawaz Sharif[11]
(1949–)
5 June 2013 28 July 2017 4 Years,
1 Month,
23 Days, 11 May 2013 Pakistan Muslim League (N) On 5 June 2013, Sharif took office for a third non-consecutive term.[14][15] He took oath under Asif Ali Zardari, the then-president of Pakistan.[45] He was disqualified on 28 July 2017 by the Supreme Court from holding public office as he had been dishonest in not disclosing his employment in the Dubai-based Capital FZE company in his nomination papers.[46]
28 July 2017 – 1 August 2017
19
Shahid Khaqan Abbasi
(1958–)
1 August 2017 Incumbent _ — Pakistan Muslim League (N) Parliament elected Shahid Khaqan Abbasi as the Prime Minister after the disqualification of Nawaz Sharif.[47]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Article 153(2a)-153(2c) in Chapter 3: Special Provisions, Part V: Relations between Federation and Provinces in the Constitution of Pakistan.
Jump up ^ "Prime minister". BBC News. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Tasleem, Nauman (27 June 2004). "20 prime ministers since independence". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Prime ministers". World Statesmen. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Mughal, M Yakub. "Special Edition (Liaqat Ali Khan)". The News International. Daily Jang. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Parliamentary history". National Assembly of Pakistan. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Nagendra Kr. Singh (2003). Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-81-261-1390-3.
Jump up ^ "The constitution of the islamic republic of pakistan" (pdf). National Assembly of Pakistan. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Pakistan: Zia and After. Abhinav Publications. 1989. pp. 20–35. ISBN 978-81-7017-253-6. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Obituary: Benazir Bhutto". BBC News. 27 December 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Profile: Nawaz Sharif". BBC News. 11 December 2000. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Akbar, M.K. "Pakistan under Nawaz Sharif". Pakistan Today. New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications. p. 230. ISBN 81-7099-700-3. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "World: South Asia: Pakistan army seizes power". BBC News. 12 October 1999. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Nawaz Sharif calls for an end to US drone strikes". BBC News. 5 June 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Nangiana, Umer (6 June 2013). "Unprecedented return: He is back". The Express Tribune. Agence France-Presse (AFP). Retrieved 6 June 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Profile: Zafarullah Khan Jamali". BBC News. 26 June 2004. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Rebecca Santana; Chris Brummitt; Zarar Khan (22 June 2012). "Raja Pervaiz Ashraf Is Pakistan's New Prime Minister". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Yousuf Raza Gilani is sent packing". Dawn. Herald. 19 June 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Ziad, Syed Mohammad Zulqarnain. "The Assassination of Prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan: The Fateful Journey". Retrieved 1 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Zaidi, Mazhar (3 January 2008). "Scotland Yard's Pakistan casebook". BBC News. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Death anniversary of Khawaja Nazimuddin". Radio Pakistan. 22 October 2012. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Nagendra Kr. Singh (2003). Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-81-261-1390-3.
Jump up ^ "Ouster of President Iskander Mirza". Story Of Pakistan. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Raza, Member of Sindh Provincial Assembly., Syed Rasul (2008). "Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto; The Architect of New Pakistan (Chapter II: The Constitution)". The Constitution. Karachi, Sindh. pp. 15–17.
Jump up ^ Ali, Hasan (19 August 2008). "4 military dictators among 14 heads of state under Officers' Club of Revolutionary Armed Forces". Daily Times. Retrieved 16 January 2013. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Muhammad Najeeb in Rawalpindi & Hasan Zaidi in Karachi (28 December 2007). "Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy". India Today. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Ex-PM Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi passes away". Daily Times. 21 November 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2012. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ John, Wilson; Vikram Sood and Akmal Hussain (2009). Pakistan's economy in historical perspective: The Growth, Power and Poverty. Pakistan: the struggle within. New Delhi and Washington, D.C.: Dorling Kindersly (Pvt) limited, India and the Library of Congress. p. 220. ISBN 978-81-317-2504-7. Retrieved 27 October 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Dutt, Sanjay (2009). "1993 Elections". Inside Pakistan: 52 years oulook. New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 267. ISBN 81-7648-157-2. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Ranjha, Khalid (1 June 1995). "Altaf accuses Benazir of 'racism'". DawnWireService. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Burns, John F (5 November 1996). "Pakistan's Premier Bhutto is put under house arrest". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
Jump up ^ F. Burns, John (15 November 1996). "Caretaker Premier leads Pakistan into 90 days of no frills". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Hassan, Syed Shoaib (12 March 2009). "Profile: Nawaz Sharif". BBC News. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Dugger, Celia W. (14 October 1999). "Pakistan Calm After Coup; Leading General Gives No Clue About How He Will Rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Qaisar, Rana (29 June 2004). "Chaudhry Shujaat set to become 19th PM". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 21 May 2005. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Profile: Shaukat Aziz". BBC News. 19 August 2004. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Soomro takes oath as Pakistan's caretaker PM". Xinhua News Agency. 16 November 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Soomro takes oath as Pakistan's caretaker PM". Xinhua News Agency. 16 November 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Profile: Yousuf Raza Gilani". Dawn. Herald. 19 June 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Khan, Iftikhar A. (19 June 2012). "Yousuf Raza Gilani is sent packing". Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Profile: Raja Pervaiz Ashraf". Dawn. Herald. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "ECP selects Mir Hazar Khan Khoso as caretaker PM". Dawn. Herald. 24 March 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Justice (r) Mir Hazar Khan Khoso named interim PM of Pakistan". The Express Tribune. AFP/Web Desk. 24 March 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Pakistan's caretaker PM Mir Hazar Khan Khoso sworn in". BBC News. 25 March 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Lucky number three: Nawaz Sharif takes oath as prime minister". The Express Tribune. Web Desk/AFP. 5 June 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Bhatti, Haseeb (28 July 2017). "Nawaz Sharif steps down as PM after SC's disqualification verdict". Dawn (newspaper).
Jump up ^ Zahra-Malik, Mehreen (29 July 2017). "Ousted Pakistan Leader Passes Baton to Brother, Shehbaz Sharif". Asia-Pacific: The New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
External links[edit]
Government of Pakistan portal
"Prime Ministers". National Assembly of Pakistan. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
"Pakistan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
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K. Nazimuddin
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M. M. Soomro (Caretaker)
Y. R. Gillani
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values: قائمة رؤساء وزراء باكستان – Arabic

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List of Renaissance figures
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of notable people associated with the Renaissance.
Contents
1 Artists and architects
2 Mathematicians
3 Writers
4 Philosophers
5 Composers
6 Dancemasters
7 Explorers and navigators
8 References
Artists and architects[edit]
Filippo Brunelleschi
Michelangelo
Sandro Botticelli
Titian
El Greco
King Charles [disambiguation needed]
Donatello
Donato Bramante
Andrea Pisano
Jean Bullant
Agnolo Bronzino
Pieter Brueghel the Elder
Palma Vecchio
Palma il Giovane
Pieter Brueghel the Younger
Jan Brueghel the Elder
Jan Brueghel the Younger
Marco Cardisco
Juan de Castillo
Androuet du Cerceau
Jean Clouet
François Clouet
Philibert Delorme
Alonso Berruguete
Hieronymus Bosch
Pedro Berruguete
Albrecht Dürer
Hans Dürer
Jean Fouquet
Rosso Fiorentino
Francesco Fiorentino
Piero della Francesca
Marcus Gheeraerts
Lorenzo Ghiberti
Leonardo Da Vinci
Giorgione
Giotto di Bondone
George Gower
Benozzo Gozzoli
El Greco
Jean Goujon
Juan de Herrera
Nicholas Hilliard
Hans Holbein the Younger
Inigo Jones
Conrad Faber von Kreuznach
Pierre Lescot
Fra Filippo Lippi
Pedro Machuca
Andrea Mantegna
Luis de Morales
Bernardo Morando
Pietro Negroni
Isaac Oliver
Philibert de l'Orme
Andrea Palladio
Sebastian del Piombo
Bernard Palissy
Germain Pilon
Antonio Pisanello
Jacone Puligo
Giovanni Baptista di Quadro
Jan van Eyck
Jan Polack
Francesco Primaticcio
Raphael
Stanislaw Samostrzelnik
Sebastiano Serlio
Diego Siloe
Il Sodoma
Tintoretto
Titian
Juan Bautista de Toledo
Andres de Vandelvira
Paolo Veronese
Rogier van der Weyden
Andreas Vesalius
Mathematicians[edit]
Luca Pacioli.
Gerolamo Cardano.
Galileo Galilei
Gerolamo Cardano
Luca Pacioli
Petrus Apianus
François d'Aguilon
Gemma Frisius
Marin Getaldić
Guidobaldo del Monte
John Napier
Pedro Nunes
William Oughtred
Robert Recorde
Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia
Galileo Galilei
Writers[edit]
Alberico Gentili
Petrarch
Alberico Gentili
Teresa of Ávila
Ludovico Ariosto
Martin Bauzer
Luís de Camões
Baldassare Castiglione
Miguel de Cervantes
John of the Cross
John Donne
Marko Gerbec
Ben Jonson
Luis de León
Christopher Marlowe
Christine de Pizan
François Rabelais
Fernando de Rojas
Lope de Rueda
Pierre de Ronsard
Cicco Simonetta
Garcilaso de la Vega
Gil Vicente
William Shakespeare
Philosophers[edit]
Niccolò Machiavelli.
Niccolò Machiavelli
Pico della Mirandola
Paracelsus
Martín de Azpilcueta
Francis Bacon
Giordano Bruno
Tommaso Campanella
Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicholas of Cusa
Cornelis Drebbel
Desiderius Erasmus
Marsilio Ficino
Pietro Pomponazzi
Francesco Guicciardini
Michel de Montaigne
Thomas More
Robert Boyle
Antonio Serra
Francisco Suárez
Bernardino Telesio
Francisco de Vitoria
Thomas Hobbes
Composers[edit]
Gilles Binchois
William Byrd
Antonio de Cabezón
Josquin des Prez
John Dowland
Guillaume Dufay
Michelangelo Falvetti
Vincenzo Galilei
Jacobus Handl
Heinrich Isaac
Orlandus Lassus
Claudio Monteverdi
Cristóbal de Morales
Jean Mouton
Johannes Ockeghem
Jacopo Peri
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
Thomas Tallis
Tomás Luis de Victoria
Adrian Willaert
Carlo Gesualdo
Dancemasters[edit]
Domenico da Piacenza
Fabritio Caroso
Thoinot Arbeau
Cesare Negri
Sam Beckett
Explorers and navigators[edit]
Christopher Columbus.
Christopher Columbus
Amerigo Vespucci
Vasco Núñez de Balboa[1]
Tycho Brahe
John Cabot
Jacques Cartier
Samuel de Champlain
Hernán Cortés
Prince Henry
Bartolomeu Dias
Juan Sebastián Elcano
Vasco da Gama
Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri
Ferdinand Magellan
Francisco Pizarro
Juan Ponce de Leon
Gerardus Mercator
Giovanni da Verrazzano
Sir Francis Drake
Marco Polo
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Vasco Nunez de Balboa". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2017-04-26.
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Heaven (Talking Heads song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Heaven"
Song by Talking Heads
from the album Fear of Music
Language
English
Released
August 3, 1979 (1979-08-03)
Genre
New wave, post-punk[citation needed]
Length
4:01
Label
Sire
Songwriter(s)
David Byrne, Jerry Harrison
Producer(s)
Brian Eno, Talking Heads
Fear of Music track listing
"I Zimbra"
"Mind"
"Paper"
"Cities"
"Life During Wartime"
"Memories Can't Wait"
"Air"
"Heaven"
"Animals"
"Electric Guitar"
"Drugs"
Jerry Harrison and David Byrne (right), the songwriters, performing in August 1978 at Jay's Longhorn Bar, Minneapolis'
"Heaven" is a song by the American new wave band Talking Heads from their 1979 album Fear of Music. The song has been called "the calm after their unusual ominous storm" by AllMusic[1] as well as something "psychologists would certainly have a field day with" by journalist Ian Gittins.[2]
Dave Bell, writing for quarterly UK magazine Ceasefire, argued that the song "epitomises pop as Samuel Beckett might write it: tedious, beautiful and desperate".[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Heaven - Talking Heads", Allmusic.com.
Jump up ^ Gittins, Ian (2004). Talking Heads - Once in a Lifetime: The Stories Behind Every Song. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 57. ISBN 9780634080333. Link
Jump up ^ "Deserter's Songs: A Place Where Nothing Ever Happens". Ceasefire Magazine. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
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Talking Heads
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Talking Heads: 77
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Once in a Lifetime
The Best of Talking Heads
Talking Heads
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"Love → Building on Fire"
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"Crosseyed and Painless"
"Once in a Lifetime"
"Houses in Motion"
"Burning Down the House"
"This Must Be the Place (Naive Melody)"
"Girlfriend Is Better"
"Road to Nowhere"
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text:
Conservation of mass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov discovered the law of mass conservation in 1756 by experiments, and came to the conclusion that phlogiston theory is incorrect.[1][2][3]
Antoine Lavoisier's discovery of the Law of Conservation of Mass led to many new findings in the 19th century. Joseph Proust's law of definite proportions and John Dalton's atomic theory branched from the discoveries of Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier's quantitative experiments revealed that combustion involved oxygen rather than what was previously thought to be phlogiston.
The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system mass cannot change quantity cannot added nor removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time. The law implies that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form, as for example in chemical reactions, where the mass of the chemical components before the reaction is equal to the mass of the components after the reaction. Thus, during any chemical reaction and low energy thermodynamic processes in an isolated system, the total mass of the reactants or starting materials must be equal to the mass of the products.
The concept of mass conservation is widely used in many fields such as chemistry, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. Historically, mass conservation was discovered in chemical reactions independently by Mikhail Lomonosov and later rediscovered by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. The formulation of this law was of crucial importance in the progress from alchemy to the modern natural science of chemistry.
The conservation of mass only holds approximately and is considered part of a series of assumptions coming from classical mechanics. The law has to be modified to comply with the laws of quantum mechanics and special relativity under the principle of mass-energy equivalence, which states that energy and mass form one conserved quantity. For very energetic systems the conservation of mass-only is shown not to hold, as is the case in nuclear reactions and particle-antiparticle annihilation in particle physics.
Mass is also not generally conserved in open systems. Such is the case when various forms of energy and matter are allowed into, or out of, the system. However, unless radioactivity or nuclear reactions are involved, the amount of energy escaping (or entering) such systems as heat, mechanical work, or electromagnetic radiation is usually too small to be measured as a decrease in system mass.
For systems where large gravitational fields are involved, general relativity has to be taken into account, where mass-energy conservation becomes a more complex concept, subject to different definitions, and neither mass nor energy is as strictly and simply conserved as is the case in special relativity.
Contents
[hide]
1 Formulation and examples
2 History
2.1 Mass conservation in chemistry
2.2 Modern physics
3 Generalization
3.1 Special relativity
3.1.1 The mass associated with chemical amounts of energy is too small to measure
3.1.2 Mass conservation remains correct if energy is not lost
3.2 General relativity
4 See also
5 References
Formulation and examples[edit]
The law of conservation of mass can only be formulated in classical mechanics when the energy scales associated to an isolated system are much smaller than m c 2 {\displaystyle mc^{2}} , where m {\displaystyle m} is the mass of a typical object in the system, measured in the frame of reference where the object is at rest, and c {\displaystyle c} is the speed of light.
The law can be formulated mathematically in the fields of fluid mechanics and continuum mechanics, where the conservation of mass is usually expressed using the continuity equation, given in differential form as
∂ ρ ∂ t + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ v ) = 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}+\nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf {v} )=0,}
where ρ {\textstyle \rho } is the density (mass per unit volume), t {\textstyle t} is the time, ∇ {\textstyle \nabla } is the divergence, and v {\textstyle \mathbf {v} } is the flow velocity field. The interpretation of the continuity equation for mass is the following: For a given closed surface in the system, the change in time of the mass enclosed by the surface is equal to the mass that traverses the surface, positive if matter goes in and negative if matter goes out. For the whole isolated system, this condition implies that the total mass M {\textstyle M} , sum of the masses of all components in the system, does not change in time, i.e.
d M d t = d d t ∫ ρ d V = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{d}}M}{{\text{d}}t}}={\frac {\text{d}}{{\text{d}}t}}\int \rho {\text{d}}V=0} ,
where d V {\textstyle {\text{d}}V} is the differential that defines the integral over the whole volume of the system.
The continuity equation for the mass is part of Euler equations of fluid dynamics. Many other convection–diffusion equations describe the conservation and flow of mass and matter in a given system.
In chemistry, the calculation of the amount of reactant and products in a chemical reaction, or stoichiometry, is founded on the principle of conservation of mass. The principle implies that during a chemical reaction the total mass of the reactant is equal to the total mass of the products. For example, in the following reaction
CH
4 + 2 O
2 → CO
2 + 2 H
2O,
where one molecule of methane (CH
4) and two oxygen molecules O
2 are converted into one molecule of carbon dioxide (CO
2) and two of water (H
2O). The number of molecules as result from the reaction can be derived from the principle of conservation of mass, as initially four hydrogen atoms, 4 oxygen atoms and one carbon atom are present (as well as in the final state), then the number water molecules produced must be exactly two per molecule of carbon dioxide produced.
Many engineering problems are solved by following the mass distribution in time of a given system, this practice is known as mass balance.
History[edit]
An important idea in ancient Greek philosophy was that "Nothing comes from nothing", so that what exists now has always existed: no new matter can come into existence where there was none before. An explicit statement of this, along with the further principle that nothing can pass away into nothing, is found in Empedocles (approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed."[4]
A further principle of conservation was stated by Epicurus around 3th cenutry BC, who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be".[5]
Jain philosophy, a non-creationist philosophy based on the teachings of Mahavira (6th century BC),[6] states that the universe and its constituents such as matter cannot be destroyed or created. The Jain text Tattvarthasutra (2nd century CE) states that a substance is permanent, but its modes are characterised by creation and destruction.[7] A principle of the conservation of matter was also stated by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (around 13th century CE). He wrote that "A body of matter cannot disappear completely. It only changes its form, condition, composition, color and other properties and turns into a different complex or elementary matter".[8]
Mass conservation in chemistry[edit]
By the 18th century the principle of conservation of mass during chemical reactions was widely used and was an important assumption during experiments, even before a definition was formally established[9], as can be seen in the works of Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish, and Jean Rey.[10]. The first to outline the principle was given by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1756. He demonstrated it by experiments and had discussed the principle before in 1774 in correspondence with Leonhard Euler, though his claim on the subject is sometimes challenged.[11] A more refined series of experiments were later carried out by Antoine Lavoisier who expressed his conclusion in 1773 and popularized the principle of conservation of mass. The demonstrations of the principle led alternatives theories obsolete, like the phlogiston theory that claimed that mass could be lost in combustion and heat processes.
The conservation of mass was obscure for millennia because of the buoyancy effect of the Earth's atmosphere on the weight of gases. For example, a piece of wood weighs less after burning; this seemed to suggest that some of its mass disappears, or is transformed or lost. This was not disproved until careful experiments were performed in which chemical reactions such as rusting were allowed to take place in sealed glass ampoules; it was found that the chemical reaction did not change the weight of the sealed container and its contents. Weighing of gases using scales was not possible unit the invention of the vacuum pump in 17th century.
Once understood, the conservation of mass was of great importance in progressing from alchemy to modern chemistry. Once early chemists realized that chemical substances never disappeared but were only transformed into other substances with the same weight, these scientists could for the first time embark on quantitative studies of the transformations of substances. The idea of mass conservation plus a surmise that certain "elemental substances" also could not be transformed into others by chemical reactions, in turn led to an understanding of chemical elements, as well as the idea that all chemical processes and transformations (such as burning and metabolic reactions) are reactions between invariant amounts or weights of these chemical elements.
Following the pioneering work of Lavoisier the prolonged and exhaustive experiments of Jean Stas supported the strict accuracy of this law in chemical reactions,[12] even though they were carried out with other intentions. His research[13][14] indicated that in certain reactions the loss or gain could not have been more than from 2 to 4 parts in 100,000.[15] The difference in the accuracy aimed at and attained by Lavoisier on the one hand, and by Morley and Stas on the other, is enormous.[16]
Modern physics[edit]
The law of conservation of mass was challenged with the advent of special relativity. In one of the Annus Mirabilis paper of Albert Einstein in 1905, he suggested an equivalence between mass and energy. This theory implied several assertions, like the idea that internal energy of a system could contribute to the mass of whole the system, or that mass could be converted into electromagnetic radiation. However, as Max Planck pointed out, a change in mass as a result of extraction or addition of chemical energy, as predicted by Einstein's theory, is so small that it could not be measured with the available instruments and could not be presented as a test to the special relativity. Einstein speculated that the energies associated with newly discovered radioactivity were significant enough, compared with the mass of systems producing them, to enable their mass-change to be measured, once the energy of the reaction had been removed from the system. This later indeed proved to be possible, although it was eventually to be the first artificial nuclear transmutation reaction in 1932, demonstrated by Cockcroft and Walton, that proved the first successful test of Einstein's theory regarding mass-loss with energy-loss.
The law conservation of mass and the analogous law of conservation of energy were finally overruled by a more general principle known as the mass–energy equivalence. Special relativity also redefines the concept of mass and energy, which can be used interchangeably and are relative to the frame of reference. Several definitions had to be defined for consistency like rest mass of a particle (mass in the rest frame of the particle) and relativistic mass (in another frame). The latter term is usually less frequently used. For discussion see Mass in special relativity.
Generalization[edit]
This article or section may contain misleading parts. Please help clarify this article according to any suggestions provided on the talk page.
Special relativity[edit]
Main article: Conservation of mass in special relativity
In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.
Also, mass must be differentiated from matter (see below), since matter may not be perfectly conserved in isolated systems, even though mass is always conserved in such systems. However, matter is so nearly conserved in chemistry that violations of matter conservation were not measured until the nuclear age, and the assumption of matter conservation remains an important practical concept in most systems in chemistry and other studies that do not involve the high energies typical of radioactivity and nuclear reactions.
The mass associated with chemical amounts of energy is too small to measure[edit]
The change in mass of certain kinds of open systems where atoms or massive particles are not allowed to escape, but other types of energy (such as light or heat) are allowed to enter or escape, went unnoticed during the 19th century, because the change in mass associated with addition or loss of small quantities of thermal or radiant energy in chemical reactions is very small. (In theory, mass would not change at all for experiments conducted in isolated systems where heat and work were not allowed in or out.)
Mass conservation remains correct if energy is not lost[edit]
The conservation of relativistic mass implies the viewpoint of a single observer (or the view from a single inertial frame) since changing inertial frames may result in a change of the total energy (relativistic energy) for systems, and this quantity determines the relativistic mass.
The principle that the mass of a system of particles must be equal to the sum of their rest masses, even though true in classical physics, may be false in special relativity. The reason that rest masses cannot be simply added is that this does not take into account other forms of energy, such as kinetic and potential energy, and massless particles such as photons, all of which may (or may not) affect the total mass of systems.
For moving massive particles in a system, examining the rest masses of the various particles also amounts to introducing many different inertial observation frames (which is prohibited if total system energy and momentum are to be conserved), and also when in the rest frame of one particle, this procedure ignores the momenta of other particles, which affect the system mass if the other particles are in motion in this frame.
For the special type of mass called invariant mass, changing the inertial frame of observation for a whole closed system has no effect on the measure of invariant mass of the system, which remains both conserved and invariant (unchanging), even for different observers who view the entire system. Invariant mass is a system combination of energy and momentum, which is invariant for any observer, because in any inertial frame, the energies and momenta of the various particles always add to the same quantity (the momentum may be negative, so the addition amounts to a subtraction). The invariant mass is the relativistic mass of the system when viewed in the center of momentum frame. It is the minimum mass which a system may exhibit, as viewed from all possible inertial frames.
The conservation of both relativistic and invariant mass applies even to systems of particles created by pair production, where energy for new particles may come from kinetic energy of other particles, or from one or more photons as part of a system that includes other particles besides a photon. Again, neither the relativistic nor the invariant mass of totally closed (that is, isolated) systems changes when new particles are created. However, different inertial observers will disagree on the value of this conserved mass, if it is the relativistic mass (i.e., relativistic mass is conserved but not invariant). However, all observers agree on the value of the conserved mass if the mass being measured is the invariant mass (i.e., invariant mass is both conserved and invariant).
The mass-energy equivalence formula gives a different prediction in non-isolated systems, since if energy is allowed to escape a system, both relativistic mass and invariant mass will escape also. In this case, the mass-energy equivalence formula predicts that the change in mass of a system is associated with the change in its energy due to energy being added or subtracted: Δ m = Δ E / c 2 . {\displaystyle \Delta m=\Delta E/c^{2}.} This form involving changes was the form in which this famous equation was originally presented by Einstein. In this sense, mass changes in any system are explained simply if the mass of the energy added or removed from the system, are taken into account.
The formula implies that bound systems have an invariant mass (rest mass for the system) less than the sum of their parts, if the binding energy has been allowed to escape the system after the system has been bound. This may happen by converting system potential energy into some other kind of active energy, such as kinetic energy or photons, which easily escape a bound system. The difference in system masses, called a mass defect, is a measure of the binding energy in bound systems – in other words, the energy needed to break the system apart. The greater the mass defect, the larger the binding energy. The binding energy (which itself has mass) must be released (as light or heat) when the parts combine to form the bound system, and this is the reason the mass of the bound system decreases when the energy leaves the system.[17] The total invariant mass is actually conserved, when the mass of the binding energy that has escaped, is taken into account.
General relativity[edit]
Main article: Mass in general relativity
In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansions. The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.
See also[edit]
Charge conservation
Conservation law
Fick's laws of diffusion
Law of definite proportions
Law of multiple proportions
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Volkenstein, Mikhail V. (2009). Entropy and Information (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-0346-0078-1. Extract of page 20
Jump up ^ Okuň, Lev Borisovič (2009). Energy and Mass in Relativity Theory. World Scientific. p. 253. ISBN 978-981-281-412-8. Extract of page 253
Jump up ^ Lewis, David (2012). Early Russian Organic Chemists and Their Legacy (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 29. ISBN 978-3-642-28219-5. Extract of page 29
Jump up ^ Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers (2 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27455-5.
Jump up ^ Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation". The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-521-27556-3.
Jump up ^ Mahavira is dated 598 BC - 526 BC. See. Dundas, Paul; John Hinnels ed. (2002). The Jains. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26606-8. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) p. 24
Jump up ^ Devendra (Muni.), T. G. Kalghatgi, T. S. Devadoss (1983) A source-book in Jaina philosophy Udaipur:Sri Tarak Guru Jain Gran. p.57. Also see Tattvarthasutra verses 5.29 and 5.37
Jump up ^ Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution, Azerbaijan International 9 (2).
Jump up ^ Whitaker, Robert D. (1975-10-01). "An historical note on the conservation of mass". Journal of Chemical Education. 52 (10): 658. doi:10.1021/ed052p658. ISSN 0021-9584.
Jump up ^ Robert D. Whitaker, "An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass", Journal of Chemical Education, 52, 10, 658-659, Oct 75
Jump up ^ Pomper, Philip (October 1962). "Lomonosov and the Discovery of the Law of the Conservation of Matter in Chemical Transformations". Ambix. 10 (3): 119–127.
Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasil’evich (1970). Mikhail Vasil’evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory. Henry M. Leicester (trans.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Introduction, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Matthew Moncrieff Pattison Muir, The Elements of Chemistry (1904)
Jump up ^ Nouv. Recherches sur les lois des proportions chimiques (1865) 152, 171, 189
Jump up ^ "Conservation of Mass in Chemical Changes"Journal - Chemical Society, London, Vol.64, Part 2 Chemical Society (Great Britain)
Jump up ^ William Edwards Henderson, A Course in General Chemistry (1921)
Jump up ^ Ida Freund, The study of Chemical Composition: an account of its method and historical development, with illustrative quotations (1904)
Jump up ^ Kenneth R. Lang, Astrophysical Formulae, Springer (1999), ISBN 3-540-29692-1
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