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Rolling Stone
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This article is about the magazine. For the song, see Rollin' Stone. For the band, see The Rolling Stones. For other uses, see Rolling Stone (disambiguation).
Rolling Stone
CeeLo Green, Adam Levine, Christina Aguilera, and Blake Shelton, on the cover of the February 1, 2012, issue of Rolling Stone
Categories
Popular culture
Publisher
Jann Wenner
Total circulation
(2014)
1,468,263[1]
Founder
Jann Wenner, Ralph J. Gleason
First issue
November 9, 1967; 49 years ago (1967-11-09)
Company
Wenner Media LLC
Country
United States
Based in
New York City
Language
English
Website
rollingstone.com
ISSN
0035-791X
Rolling Stone is an American biweekly magazine that focuses on popular culture. It was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner, who is still the magazine's publisher, and the music critic Ralph J. Gleason. It was first known for its musical coverage and for political reporting by Hunter S. Thompson. In the 1990s, the magazine shifted focus to a younger readership interested in youth-oriented television shows, film actors, and popular music.[2] In recent years, it has resumed its traditional mix of content.
Rolling Stone Press is the magazine's associated book publishing imprint.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 2000s
1.2 2010s
2 Website
2.1 Glixel
3 Restaurant
4 Criticism
4.1 Tsarnaev cover
4.2 UVA false rape story
5 Notable current and former staff
6 In popular culture
7 Covers
8 Reference works
9 International editions
10 See also
11 Notes
12 Footnotes
13 External links
History[edit]
Rolling Stone magazine was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner and Ralph Gleason.[3] To get it off the ground, Wenner borrowed $7,500 from his own family and from the parents of his soon-to-be wife, Jane Schindelheim.[4] The first issue carried a cover date of November 9, 1967,[5] and was in newspaper format with a lead article on the Monterey Pop Festival.[6] The cover price was 25¢ (equivalent to $1.80 in 2016).
In the first issue, Wenner explained that the title of the magazine referred to the 1950 blues song, "Rollin' Stone", recorded by Muddy Waters, the rock and roll band the Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan's hit single "Like a Rolling Stone".[a 1][7] Some authors have attributed the name solely to Dylan's hit single: "At [Ralph] Gleason's suggestion, Wenner named his magazine after a Bob Dylan song."[8] Rolling Stone initially identified with and reported the hippie counterculture of the era. However, it distanced itself from the underground newspapers of the time, such as Berkeley Barb, embracing more traditional journalistic standards and avoiding the radical politics of the underground press. In the very first edition, Wenner wrote that Rolling Stone "is not just about the music, but about the things and attitudes that music embraces".
In the 1970s, Rolling Stone began to make a mark with its political coverage, with the likes of gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson writing for the magazine's political section. Thompson first published his most famous work Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas within the pages of Rolling Stone, where he remained a contributing editor until his death in 2005.[9] In the 1970s, the magazine also helped launch the careers of many prominent authors, including Cameron Crowe, Lester Bangs, Joe Klein, Joe Eszterhas, Patti Smith and P. J. O'Rourke. It was at this point that the magazine ran some of its most famous stories, including that of the Patty Hearst abduction odyssey. One interviewer, speaking for a large number of his peers, said that he bought his first copy of the magazine upon initial arrival on his college campus, describing it as a "rite of passage".[2]
In 1977, the magazine moved its headquarters from San Francisco to New York City. Editor Jann Wenner said San Francisco had become "a cultural backwater".[10]
During the 1980s, the magazine began to shift towards being a general "entertainment" magazine. Music was still a dominant topic, but there was increasing coverage of celebrities in television, films and the pop culture of the day. The magazine also initiated its annual "Hot Issue" during this time.
Rolling Stone was initially known for its musical coverage and for Thompson's political reporting. In the 1990s, the magazine changed its format to appeal to a younger readership interested in youth-oriented television shows, film actors and popular music. This led to criticism that the magazine was emphasizing style over substance.[2] In recent years, the magazine has resumed its traditional mix of content, including in-depth political stories. It has also expanded content to include coverage of financial and banking issues. As a result, the magazine has seen its circulation increase and its reporters invited as experts to network television programs of note.[11]
The printed format has gone through several changes. The first publications, in 1967–72, were in folded tabloid newspaper format, with no staples, black ink text, and a single color highlight that changed each edition. From 1973 onwards, editions were produced on a four-color press with a different newsprint paper size. In 1979, the bar code appeared. In 1980, it became a gloss-paper, large format (10"×12") magazine. As of edition of October 30, 2008, Rolling Stone has had a smaller, standard-format magazine size.[12]
2000s[edit]
After years of declining readership, the magazine experienced a major resurgence of interest and relevance with the work of two young journalists in the late 2000s, Michael Hastings and Matt Taibbi.[citation needed]
In 2005, Dana Leslie Fields, former publisher of Rolling Stone, who had worked at the magazine for 17 years, was an inaugural inductee into the Magazine Hall of Fame.[13]
In 2009, Taibbi unleashed an acclaimed series of scathing reports on the financial meltdown of the time. He famously described Goldman Sachs as "a great vampire squid".
2010s[edit]
Bigger headlines came at the end of June 2010. Rolling Stone caused a controversy in the White House by publishing in the July issue an article by journalist Michael Hastings entitled, "The Runaway General",[14] quoting criticism by General Stanley A. McChrystal, commander of the International Security Assistance Force and U.S. Forces-Afghanistan commander, about Vice President Joe Biden and other Administration members of the White House. McChrystal resigned from his position shortly after his statements went public.[15][16][17][18]
In 2010, Taibbi documented illegal and fraudulent actions by banks in the foreclosure courts, after traveling to Jacksonville, Florida and sitting in on hearings in the courtroom. His article, Invasion of the Home Snatchers also documented attempts by the judge to intimidate a homeowner fighting foreclosure and the attorney Taibbi accompanied into the court.[19][20]
In January 2012, the magazine ran exclusive excerpts from Hastings' book just prior to publication.[21] The book, The Operators: The Wild and Terrifying Inside Story of America's War in Afghanistan, provided a much more expansive look at McChrystal and the culture of senior American military and how they become embroiled in such wars. The book reached Amazon's bestseller list in the first 48 hours of release, and it received generally favorable reviews. Salon's Glenn Greenwald described it as "superb," "brave" and "eye-opening".[22]
In 2012, Taibbi, through his coverage of the Libor scandal,[23] emerged as an expert on that topic, which led to media appearances outside Rolling Stone.[24][25]
On November 9, 2012, the magazine published its first Spanish-language section on Latino music and culture, in the issue dated November 22.[26][27]
In September 2016, Advertising Age reported that Wenner is in the process of selling a 49% stake of the magazine to a company from Singapore called BandLab. The new investor will have no direct involvement in the editorial content of the magazine.[28]
Website[edit]
Rolling Stone's website features selected current articles, reviews, blogs, MP3s and other features, such as searchable and free encyclopedic articles about artists, with images and sometimes sound clips of their work. The articles and reviews are sometimes in a revised form of the published versions. The website also carries political and cultural articles and entries selected from the magazine's archives.
The site at one time had an extensive message-board forum. By the late 1990s, this had developed into a thriving community, with a large number of regular members and contributors worldwide. However, the site was also plagued with numerous Internet trolls and malicious code-hackers, who vandalized the forum substantially.[29] The magazine abruptly deleted the forum in May 2004, then began a new, much more limited message board community on their site in late 2005, only to remove it again in 2006. In March 2008, the website started a new message board section once again, then deleted it in April 2010.
Rolling Stone devotes one of its table of contents pages to promoting material currently appearing on its website, listing detailed links to the items. The magazine also has a page at MySpace, Facebook and Twitter.
On April 19, 2010, the website was updated drastically and now features the complete archives of Rolling Stone.[30] The archive was first launched under a for-pay model, but has since transitioned to a free-with-print-subscription model.[31] In the spring of 2012, Rolling Stone launched a federated search feature which searches both the website and the archive.[32]
The website has become an interactive source of biographical information on music artists in addition to historical rankings from the magazine. Users can cross-reference lists and they are also provided with historical insights. For example, one group that is listed on both Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time is Toots and the Maytals, with biographical details from Rolling Stone that explain how Toots and the Maytals are responsible for coining the term "reggae" in their song "Do the Reggay".[33][34] For biographical information on all artists, the website contains a directory listed alphabetically.[35]
Glixel[edit]
In May 2016, Wenner Media announced plans to create a separate online publication dedicated to the coverage of video games and their culture. Gus Wenner, Jann Wenner's son, stated that "gaming is today what rock 'n' roll was when Rolling Stone was founded". Glixel was originally hosted on Rolling Stone's website and transitioned to its own domain by October 2016. Stories from Glixel are included on the Rolling Stone website, while writers for Rolling Stone were also able to contribute to Glixel. The site is headed by John Davison, and its offices were located in San Fransciso.[36][37] Rolling Stone closed down the offices in June 2017, citing the difficulties of working with the remote site from their main New York office; content will still be developed for the site but from the main New York office.[38]
Restaurant[edit]
In December 2009, the Los Angeles Times reported that the owners of Rolling Stone magazine planned to open a Rolling Stone restaurant in the Hollywood & Highland Center in Hollywood in the spring of 2010.[39] The expectation was that the restaurant could become the first of a national chain if it was successful.[40] As of November 2010, the "soft opening" of the restaurant was planned for December 2010.[41] In 2011, the restaurant was open for lunch and dinner as well as a full night club downstairs on the weekends.[42] The restaurant closed in February 2013.[43]
Criticism[edit]
One major criticism of Rolling Stone involves its generational bias toward the 1960s and 1970s. One critic referred to the Rolling Stone list of the "99 Greatest Songs" as an example of "unrepentant rockist fogeyism".[44] In further response to this issue, rock critic Jim DeRogatis, a former Rolling Stone editor, published a thorough critique of the magazine's lists in a book called Kill Your Idols: A New Generation of Rock Writers Reconsiders the Classics, which featured differing opinions from many younger critics.[45]
Rolling Stone magazine has been criticized for reconsidering many classic albums that it had previously dismissed, and for frequent use of the 3.5-star rating. For example, Led Zeppelin was largely written off by Rolling Stone magazine critics during the band's most active years in the 1970s, but by 2006, a cover story on the band honored them as "the Heaviest Band of All Time".[46] A critic for Slate magazine described a conference at which 1984's The Rolling Stone Record Guide was scrutinized. As he described it, "The guide virtually ignored hip-hop and ruthlessly panned heavy metal, the two genres that within a few years would dominate the pop charts. In an auditorium packed with music journalists, you could detect more than a few anxious titters: How many of us will want our record reviews read back to us 20 years hence?"[44]
The hiring of former FHM editor Ed Needham further enraged critics who alleged that Rolling Stone had lost its credibility.[47]
The 2003 Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Guitarists of all Time article, which named only two female musicians, resulted in Venus Zine answering with their own list, entitled "The Greatest Female Guitarists of All Time".[48]
Conservative columnist Jonah Goldberg stated that Rolling Stone had "essentially become the house organ of the Democratic National Committee".[49] Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner has made all of his political donations to Democrats.[50]
Rolling Stone's film critic, Peter Travers, has been criticized for his high number of repetitively used blurbs.[51][52]
Tsarnaev cover[edit]
The August 2013 Rolling Stone cover, featuring then-accused (later convicted) Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, drew widespread criticism that the magazine was "glamorizing terrorism" and that the cover was a "slap in the face to the great city of Boston".[53] The online edition of the article was accompanied by a short editorial stating that the story "falls within the traditions of journalism and Rolling Stone's long-standing commitment to serious and thoughtful coverage of the most important political and cultural issues of our day".[54] The controversial cover photograph that was used by Rolling Stone had previously featured on the front page of The New York Times on May 5, 2013.[55]
In response to the outcry, New England-based CVS Pharmacy and Tedeschi Food Shops banned their stores from carrying the issue.[56] Also refusing to sell the issue were Walgreens,[57] Rite-Aid,[58] Roche Bros.,[59] Kmart,[58] H-E-B,[60] Walmart,[60] 7-Eleven,[61] Hy-Vee,[62] Rutter's Farm,[62] United Supermarkets,[62] Cumberland Farms,[63] Market Basket,[63] Shaw's[64] and Stop & Shop.[59] Boston mayor Thomas Menino sent a letter to Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner, calling the cover "ill conceived, at best ...[it] reaffirms a message that destruction gains fame for killers and their 'causes'." Menino also wrote, "To respond to you in anger is to feed into your obvious market strategy", and that Wenner could have written about the survivors or the people who came to help after the bombings instead. In conclusion he wrote, "The survivors of the Boston Marathon deserve Rolling Stone cover stories, though I no longer feel that Rolling Stone deserves them."[65]
UVA false rape story[edit]
Main article: A Rape on Campus
In the November 19, 2014 issue, the story "A Rape on Campus" was run about an alleged gang rape on the campus of the University of Virginia.[66] Separate inquiries by Phi Kappa Psi, the fraternity accused by Rolling Stone of facilitating the alleged rape, and The Washington Post revealed major errors, omissions and discrepancies in the story.[67][68] Reporter Sabrina Erdely's story was subject to intense media criticism.[67][69] The Washington Post and Boston Herald issued calls for magazine staff involved in the report to be fired.[70] Rolling Stone subsequently issued three apologies for the story. Some suggested that legal action against the magazine by persons accused of the rape might result.[71]
On December 5, 2014, Rolling Stone's managing editor, Will Dana, apologized for not fact-checking the story.[72] Rolling Stone commissioned an outside investigation of the story and its problems by the dean of the Columbia School of Journalism. The report uncovered journalistic failure in the UVA story and institutional problems with reporting at Rolling Stone.[73] Rolling Stone retracted the story on April 5, 2015.[74] On April 6, 2015, following the investigation and retraction of the story, Phi Kappa Psi announced plans to pursue all available legal action against Rolling Stone, including claims of defamation.[75]
On May 12, 2015, UVA associate dean Nicole Eramo, chief administrator for handling sexual assault issues at the school, filed a $7.5 million defamation lawsuit in Charlottesville Circuit Court against Rolling Stone and Erdely, claiming damage to her reputation and emotional distress. Said the filing, "Rolling Stone and Erdely's highly defamatory and false statements about Dean Eramo were not the result of an innocent mistake. They were the result of a wanton journalist who was more concerned with writing an article that fulfilled her preconceived narrative about the victimization of women on American college campuses, and a malicious publisher who was more concerned about selling magazines to boost the economic bottom line for its faltering magazine, than they were about discovering the truth or actual facts."[76] On November 4, 2016, after 20 hours of deliberation,[77] a jury consisting of eight women and two men found Rolling Stone, the magazine's publisher and Erdely liable for defaming Eramo.[78]
On July 29, 2015, three graduates of the fraternity Phi Kappa Psi filed a lawsuit against Rolling Stone, its publisher Wenner Media, and a journalist for defamation and infliction of emotional distress.[79] The same day, and just months after the controversy began, The New York Times reported that managing editor Will Dana was departing the magazine with his last date recorded as August 7, 2015.[80] On November 9, 2015, the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity filed suit for $25 million for damages to its reputation caused by the magazine's publication of this story, "with reckless disregard for the truth".[81][82]
Notable current and former staff[edit]
Robert Altman
Michael Azerrad
Lester Bangs
Robert Christgau
J. D. Considine
Brian Cookman
Timothy Crouse
Cameron Crowe
Anthony DeCurtis
Jancee Dunn
Eric Ehrmann
Sabrina Erdely
Joe Eszterhas
Owen Fegan
Timothy Ferris
Dana Leslie Fields[83]
Ben Fong-Torres
David Fricke
Ralph J. Gleason
William Greider
Michael Hastings
Erik Hedegaard
Jerry Hopkins
Michael Salisbury
Lenny Kaye
Caroline Kennedy
Joe Klein
David LaChapelle
Jon Landau
Annie Leibovitz
Steven Levy
Kurt Loder
Greil Marcus
Dave Marsh
Richard Meltzer
John Mendelsohn
Paul Nelson
P. J. O'Rourke
Rob Sheffield
Ralph Steadman
Neil Strauss
Matt Taibbi
Hunter S. Thompson
Nick Tosches
Touré
Peter Travers
Jann Wenner
Baron Wolman
Evan Wright
Lina Lecaro
In popular culture[edit]
George Harrison's song "This Guitar" (1975), a lyrical sequel to his Beatles track "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" (1968), references the magazine in its second verse: "Learned to get up when I fall / Can even climb Rolling Stone walls". The song was written in response to some highly unfavorable reviews from Rolling Stone and other publications for Harrison's 1974 North American tour and the Dark Horse album.[84][85]
Covers[edit]
See also: List of people on the United States cover of Rolling Stone
Some artists have been featured on the cover many times, and some of these pictures went on to become iconic. The Beatles, for example, have appeared on the cover more than 30 times, either individually or as a band.[86] The first 10 issues featured, in order of appearance, the following:
John Lennon
Tina Turner
The Beatles
Jimi Hendrix, Donovan & Otis Redding
Jim Morrison
Janis Joplin
Jimi Hendrix
Monterey Pop Festival
John Lennon and Paul McCartney
Eric Clapton
Reference works[edit]
Bashe, Patricia R.; George-Warren, Holly; Pareles, Jon, eds. (2005) [1983]. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-9201-4.
Brackett, Nathan; Hoard, Christian, eds. (2004) [1979, 1983, 1992]. The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8.
Miller, Jim (1980) [1976]. The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-51322-3.
Rolling Stone Cover to Cover – the First 40 Years: Searchable Digital Archive-Every Page, Every Issue. Renton, WA: Bondi Digital Pub. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9795261-0-7.
Swenson, John (1985). The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide. New York: Rolling Stone. ISBN 0-394-72643-X.
International editions[edit]
Argentina – Published by Publirevistas S. A. since April 1998. This edition also circulates in Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay.
Australia – Rolling Stone Australia began as a supplement in 1969 in Revolution magazine. It became a full title in 1971 published by Phillip Frazer. It was published by Silvertongues from 1974 to 1987 and by Nextmedia Pty Ltd, Sydney until 2008. Notable editors and contributors include Phillip Frazer, Alistair Jones, Paul and Jane Gardiner, Toby Creswell, Clinton Walker and Kathy Bail. It is now published by Bauer Media Group and is the longest running international edition.
Brazil – Published in Brazil since October 2006 by Spring Comunicações.
Bulgaria – Published in Bulgaria since November 2009 by Sivir Publications. Ceased publication as of the August/September 2011 issue.
Chile – Published by Edu Comunicaciones from May 2003 to December 2005. Published by El Mercurio from January 2006 to December 2011.
China – Rolling Stone in mainland China was licensed to One Media Group of Hong Kong and published in partnership with China Record Corporation in 2006. The magazine was in Chinese with translated articles and local content. It halted publication after one year.
Croatia – Published since October 2013 – 2015 by S3 Mediji. This edition also circulates in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia.
Colombia – Edited in Bogotá for Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Panama and Venezuela, since 1991.
France – Launched 2002. This edition temporarily ceased in 2007 and was relaunched in May 2008 under license with 1633SA publishing group.
Germany – Published in Germany since 1994 by Axel Springer AG.
India – Launched in March 2008 by MW Com, publishers of Man's World magazine.
Indonesia – Published in Indonesia since June 2005 by a&e Media.
Italy – Published in Italy since 1980. After ceasing publication in 1982, it was relaunched in November 2003, first by IXO Publishing, and then by Editrice Quadratum until April 2014. The magazine is currently published by Luciano Bernardini de Pace Editore.[87]
Japan – Launched in March 2007 by International Luxury Media Co., Ltd. (ILM). Published by atomixmedia Inc. (株式会社アトミックスメディア, KK atomikkusumedia) since 2011.
Mexico – Published by PRISA Internacional from 2002 until May 2009; from June 2009 it is published by Editorial Televisa (subsidiary of Televisa) under license.
Middle East – Published in Dubai by HGW Media since November 2010.
Russia – Published since 2004. Currently by OOO "Motor Media»
Spain – Published by PROGRESA (subsidiary of PRISA Group) in Madrid, since 1999.
Turkey – Published since June 2006 by GD Gazete Dergi.
South Africa – Published since November 2011.
United Kingdom – Published under the title Friends from 1969 to 1972.
See also[edit]
The Rolling Stone Interview
Counterculture of the 1960s
Tony Mott
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "You're probably wondering what we're trying to do. It's hard to say: sort of a magazine and sort of a newspaper. The name of it is Rolling Stone which comes from an old saying, "A rolling stone gathers no moss." Muddy Waters used the name for a song he wrote. The Rolling Stones took their name from Muddy's song. "Like a Rolling Stone" was the title of Bob Dylan's first rock and roll record. We have begun a new publication reflecting what we see are the changes in rock and roll and the changes related to rock and roll."—Jann Wenner, Rolling Stone, November 9, 1967, p. 2
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "eCirc for Consumer Magazines Archived June 4, 2012, at Archive.is". Audit Bureau of Circulations. Retrieved April 18, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Freedman, Samuel G. (2002). "Literary 'Rolling Stone' sells out to male titillation". USA Today. Archived from the original on March 12, 2009. Retrieved February 12, 2009.
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone at Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Weir, David (April 20, 1999). "Wenner's World: The evolution of Jann Wenner. How the ultimate '60s rock groupie built his fantasy into a media empire". Salon. Archived from the original on November 7, 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Pable Pawncasso". Pawn Stars. Season 4. Episode 18. April 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ French, Alex. "The Very First Issues of 19 Famous Magazines". Mental Floss. Archived from the original on August 10, 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Robert (1981). Deep Blues. Penguin Books. p. 104. ISBN 0-14-006223-8.
Jump up ^ Richardson, Peter (2009). A Bomb in Every Issue: How the Short, Unruly Life of Ramparts Magazine Changed America. (The New Press) p. 109
Jump up ^ East, Ben (January 5, 2013). "Fear and Loathing at Rolling Stone: The Essential Writing of Hunter S Thompson – review". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on June 2, 2017. Retrieved May 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Temple, Charles (April 18, 2009) "Rolling Stone closes last S.F. office". Archived August 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.. San Francisco Chronicle. (Retrieved August 13, 2014.)
Jump up ^ Bill Moyers, Matt Taibbi and Yves Smith on the Follies of Big Banks and Government Archived December 11, 2014, at the Wayback Machine., June 22, 2012
Jump up ^ Jesdanun, Anick. "Rolling Stone ends large format after 4 decades". The Associated Press, New York, Life, Tue, October 14, 2008. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006 – via USA Today.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone Magazine". LA Music Awards. Archived from the original on July 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Michael Hastings (June 22, 2010). "The Runaway General – Stanley McChrystal, Obama's top commander in Afghanistan, has seized control of the war by never taking his eye off the real enemy: The wimps in the White House". Rollingstone.com. Archived from the original on December 15, 2010. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The unlikely magazine that brought down a general – Rolling Stone has never been just about music". Baltimoresun.com. June 26, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ Jon Boone in Kabul (June 24, 2010). "Rolling Stone man who brought down Stanley McChrystal – Journalist Michael Hastings reveals how he got to write article that was praised by troops and led to US general's sacking". London: The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Helene (June 23, 2010). "Obama Says Afghan Policy Won't Change After Dismissal". Nytimes.com. Archived from the original on July 25, 2012. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Statement by the President in the Rose Garden". Whitehouse.gov. June 23, 2010. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ Taibbi, Matt, Invasion of the Home Snatchers Archived June 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine., Rolling Stone, November 10, 2010
Jump up ^ Charney, April, "that day... a stain on Jacksonville" statement, December 14, 2011 Occupy Jax advised by foreclosure attorney, 10:30–11:00, YouTube video uploaded December 15, 2011 Video on YouTube
Jump up ^ "The Operators by Michael Hastings: 10 Juicy Bits". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on February 23, 2016. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Michael Hastings on war journalists". Salon.com. January 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 8, 2011. Retrieved January 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Taibbi, Matt, "Why is Nobody Freaking Out About the LIBOR Scandal?" Archived July 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.. Rolling Stone, July 3, 2012
Jump up ^ "Matt Taibbi and Yves Smith on the Follies of Big Banks and Government". BillMoyers.com. Archived from the original on December 11, 2014. Retrieved December 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ July 4, 2012 Viewpoint with Elliot Sputzer Archived July 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Newman, Andrew Adam (November 6, 2012). "Rolling Stone Pages Aimed at Latinos, Even the Ads" Archived May 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine.. The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Moreno, Carolina (November 12, 2012). "olling Stone Magazine Publishes First Spanish-Language Section On Latino Music And Culture" Archived April 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.. The Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ Staff, Writer (September 25, 2016). "Jann Wenner Sells 49% of Rolling Stone to Singapore's BandLab". Advertising Age. Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on September 26, 2016. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ "RS.com Castaways – Troll Tribunal". Rsjunior.proboards18.com. Archived from the original on February 11, 2008. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone All Access". Archive.rollingstone.com. Archived from the original on June 17, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone All Access-Subscribe to Rolling Stone". Sub.rollingstone.com. Archived from the original on November 5, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Federated Rolling Stone search for 'wiki'". Rollingstone.com. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone. "453. Toots and the Maytals, 'Pressure Drop'" Rolling Stone magazine. Web. 7 April 2011. Retrieved 16 Dec 2016. < "Archived copy". Archived from the original on November 24, 2016. Retrieved December 16, 2016. >
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone. "380. Toots and the Maytals, 'Funky Kingston'" Rolling Stone magazine. Web. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 16 Dec 2016. < "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 20, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2016. >
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone. "Artists". Rolling Stone magazine. Web. Retrieved 16 Dec 2016. < "Archived copy". Archived from the original on April 27, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2010. >
Jump up ^ Ember, Syndey (May 22, 2016). "Wenner Media to Launch Glixel Website as Lifeline for Gamers". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 24, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ O'Shea, Chris (May 23, 2016). "Wenner Media to Launch Gaming Site 'Glixel'". Adweek. Archived from the original on December 22, 2016. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Batchelor, James (July 3, 2017). "Glixel's San Francisco office closed, team laid off". GamesIndustry.biz. Archived from the original on July 3, 2017. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Vincent, Roger (December 4, 2009). "Rolling Stone to launch restaurant chain in L.A". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on October 13, 2010. Retrieved October 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hadley Tomicki (May 24, 2010). "How Rolling Stone's Hollywood and Highland Restaurant Will Differ From Hard Rock Cafe's". Grub Street Los Angeles (New York magazine). Archived from the original on August 5, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Two Floors of Fun at Rolling Stone Restaurant and Lounge". Eater.com. November 8, 2010. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved December 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone Restaurant". Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved May 31, 2011.
Jump up ^ Tomicki, Hadley (February 27, 2013). "But It's All Over Now: Rolling Stone Restaurant Folds in Hollywood – Grub Street Los Angeles". Losangeles.grubstreet.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved July 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Rosen, Jody (May 9, 2006). "Does hating rock make you a music critic?". Slate. Slate. Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ July 4, 2004. Idle worship, or revisiting the classics. Jim DeRogatis. Chicago Sun-Times. Article discussing intention of book Archived July 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Documentation of attempt to change reviews". Shoutmouth.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The death of Rolling Stone". Salon.com. June 28, 2002. Archived from the original on December 20, 2009. Retrieved August 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ Thurston, Bonnie. "The Greatest Female Guitarists of All Time". Venus Zine. Archived from the original on September 17, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ Jonah Goldberg. "Very Different Visions". townhall.com. Archived from the original on September 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Jann Wenner Campaign Contributions and Donations – Huffington Post". Fundrace.huffingtonpost.com. September 22, 2010. Archived from the original on November 26, 2011. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ Childress, Erik. "Criticwatch 2008 – The Whores of the Year". eFilmCritic.com. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2010.
Jump up ^ Childress, Erik. "Criticwatch 2009 – The Whores of the Year". eFilmCritic.com. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone cover featuring Boston Marathon bombing suspect stirs online backlash". CBS.com. July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on July 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ Reitman, Janet (July 17, 2013). "Jahar's World". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on July 26, 2013. Retrieved July 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ Wemple, Erik. "Rolling Stone's Tsarnaev: Did the New York Times face a backlash?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on July 22, 2013. Retrieved July 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone's 'The Bomber' Issue Banned By CVS, Tedeschi Foods". The Huffington Post. July 17, 2013. Archived from the original on July 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Christopher Seward (July 17, 2013). "Rolling Stone defends mag cover; CVS, Walgreens drop Rolling Stone edition on Boston Marathon suspect". The Atlanta Journal Constitution. Archived from the original on July 20, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Retailers, rock stars rip Rolling Stone's Boston bomber cover". Fox News. July 18, 2013. Archived from the original on July 19, 2013. Retrieved July 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "CVS Boycotting Rolling Stone Over Boston Bomber Cover". TMZ. Archived from the original on July 19, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Neal Morton (July 18, 2013). "H-E-B won't be selling a roiling Rolling Stone". The Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on July 22, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Robert Wilonsky. "Dallas-based 7-Eleven joins list of retailers banning issue of 'Rolling Stone' featuring Dzhokhar Tsarnaev". Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on July 21, 2013. Retrieved July 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "More C-store Retailers Join Rolling Stone Boycott". Convenience Store News. July 18, 2013. Archived from the original on July 22, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Some stores won't sell new issue of 'Rolling Stone'". CW 56 Boston. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Mass. supermarkets won't carry Rolling Stone's Tsarnaev cover". The Lowell Sun. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Tijdlijnfoto's". Facebook. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2013.
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^ Jump up to: a b Wemple, erik (https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/erik-wemple/wp/2014/12/02/rolling-stone-whiffs-in-reporting-on-alleged-rape/). The Washington Post. Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Rees. Shapiro, T (December 10, 2014). "U-Va. students challenge Rolling Stone account of alleged sexual assault". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 23, 2016. Retrieved November 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Schow, Ashe (December 3, 2014). "If false, Rolling Stone story could set rape victims back decades". The Washington Examiner. Archived from the original on December 3, 2014. Retrieved December 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Adriana Cohen (December 7, 2014). "Apparently, this Rolling Stone gathers no facts". Boston Herald. Archived from the original on December 7, 2014. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Civil, Criminal Lawsuits: Possible Outcomes of Rolling Stone Expose". WCAV. December 5, 2014. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006. Retrieved December 5, 2014.
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Jump up ^ Erik Wemple (April 5, 2015). "Columbia Journalism School report blasts Rolling Stone". Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Page 5 of Rolling Stone and UVA: The Columbia School of Journalism Report". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on April 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gershman, Jacob (April 7, 2015). "Sizing Up Phi Kappa Psi's Potential Suit Against Rolling Stone". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on May 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, T. Rees, "U-Va. dean sues Rolling Stone for 'false' portrayal in retracted rape story Archived May 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.", Washington Post, May 12, 2015
Jump up ^ BERG, LAUREN. "Jury says Rolling Stone article defamed UVa administrator". Archived from the original on September 2, 2006.
Jump up ^ Horowitz, Julia (November 4, 2016). "Rolling Stone trial: Jury finds magazine liable for defamation for discredited rape story". Archived from the original on November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Virginia college graduates sue Rolling Stone over rape story". Reuters. July 29, 2015. Archived from the original on August 2, 2015. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Somaiya, Ravi (July 29, 2015). "Will Dana, Rolling Stone's Managing Editor, to Depart". New York Times. Archived from the original on August 2, 2015. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, T. Rees (November 9, 2015). "U-Va. fraternity files $25 million lawsuit against Rolling Stone". Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 1, 2016. Retrieved November 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ian, Simpson (November 9, 2015). "Virginia fraternity sues Rolling Stone over rape story". AOL. Reuters. Archived from the original on November 12, 2015. Retrieved November 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "CONGRATULATIONS TO min's CLASS OF 2005 HALL OF FAME INDUCTEES.(Brief Article)". May 23, 2005. Archived from the original on March 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Leng, Simon (2006). While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. pp. 181–82.
Jump up ^ Clayson, Alan (2003). George Harrison. London: Sanctuary. p. 350.
Jump up ^ Wenner, Jann (2006). "Our 1000th Issue – Jann Wenner looks back on 39 years of Rolling Stone". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006. Retrieved September 21, 2006.
Jump up ^ October edition: Fedez and the MTV Digital Days (The C.I.P)
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8-track tape
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Cartridge (disambiguation).
This article is about the eight-track cartridge. For eight-track multitracking, see Multitrack recording.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Stereo 8
Media type
Magnetic tape
Encoding
Analog signal
Capacity
Four stereo channels
Read mechanism
Tape head
Write mechanism
Magnetic recording head
Usage
Audio storage
Extended from
Fidelipac
The 8-track tape (formally Stereo 8; commonly known as the eight-track cartridge, eight-track tape, or simply eight-track) is a magnetic tape sound-recording technology that was popular in the United States[1] from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s, when the Compact Cassette format took over.[2][3] The format is regarded as an obsolete technology, and was relatively unknown outside the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan.[2][3][4]
Stereo 8 was created in 1964 by a consortium led by Bill Lear of Lear Jet Corporation, along with Ampex, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Motorola, and RCA Victor Records (RCA). It was a further development of the similar Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge introduced by Earl "Madman" Muntz, which was adapted by Muntz from the Fidelipac cartridge developed by George Eash. A later quadraphonic version of the format was announced by RCA in April 1970 and first known as Quad-8, then later changed to just Q8.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Development of tape cartridges
1.2 Introduction of Stereo 8
1.3 Commercial success
1.4 Early karaoke machines
1.5 Other use
1.6 Decline and demise
2 Design
3 Composition
4 Comparison with compact cassette
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The original format for magnetic tape sound reproduction was the reel-to-reel tape recorder, first available in the United States in the late 1940s, but too expensive and bulky to be practical for amateur home use until well into the 1950s. Loading a reel of tape onto the machine and threading it through the various guides and rollers proved daunting to some casual users—certainly, it was more difficult than putting a vinyl record on a record player and flicking a switch. Because in early years each tape had to be dubbed from the master tape in real-time to maintain good sound quality, prerecorded tapes were more expensive to manufacture, and costlier to buy, than vinyl records which could be stamped much quicker than their own playing time.
To eliminate the nuisance of tape-threading, various manufacturers introduced cartridges that held the tape inside a metal or plastic housing to eliminate handling. Most were intended only for low-fidelity voice recording in dictation machines. The first tape cartridge designed for general consumer use, including music reproduction, was the Sound Tape or Magazine Loading Cartridge (RCA tape cartridge), introduced in 1958 by RCA. Prerecorded stereophonic music cartridges were available, and blank cartridges could be used to make recordings at home, but the format failed to gain popularity.
Development of tape cartridges[edit]
The inside of an 8-track cartridge. The black rubber pinch roller is at upper right.
The endless loop tape cartridge was first designed in 1952 by Bernard Cousino around a single reel carrying a continuous loop of standard 1/4-inch, plastic, oxide-coated recording tape running at 3.75 in (9.53 cm) per second. Program starts and stops were signaled by a one-inch-long metal foil that activates the track-change sensor. (Bill Lear had tried to create an endless-loop wire recorder in the 1940s, but gave up in 1946. He would be inspired by Earl Muntz's four-track design in the early 1960s.)
Inventor George Eash invented a cartridge design in 1953, called the Fidelipac cartridge.[5] The Eash cartridge was later licensed by manufacturers, notably the Collins Radio Company, which first introduced a cartridge system for broadcasting at the National Association of Broadcasters 1959 annual show. Fidelipac cartridges (nicknamed "carts" by DJs and radio engineers) were used by many radio stations for commercials, jingles, and other short items. Eash later formed Fidelipac Corporation to manufacture and market tapes and recorders, as did several others, including Audio-Pak (Audio Devices Corp.).
There were several attempts to sell music systems for cars, beginning with the Chrysler Highway Hi-Fi of the late 1950s (which used discs). Entrepreneur Earl "Madman" Muntz of Los Angeles, California, however, saw a potential in these "broadcast carts" for an automobile music system. In 1962 he introduced his Stereo-Pak four-track cartridge stereo system and tapes, mostly in California and Florida. The four tracks were divided into two "programs", typically corresponding to the two sides of an LP record, with each program comprising two tracks read simultaneously for stereo playback. He licensed popular music albums from the major record companies and duplicated them on these four-track cartridges, or "CARtridges", as they were first advertised.
Introduction of Stereo 8[edit]
The Lear Jet Stereo 8 track cartridge was designed by Richard Kraus while working under Bill Lear and for his Lear Jet Corporation in 1963. The major change was to incorporate a neoprene rubber and nylon pinch roller into the cartridge itself, rather than to make the pinch roller a part of the tape player, reducing mechanical complexity. Lear also eliminated some of the internal parts of the Eash cartridge, such as the tape-tensioning mechanism and an interlock that prevented tape spillage. By doubling the number of tracks from 4 to 8,[6] the recording length doubled to 80 minutes.
In 1964, Lear's aircraft company constructed 100 demonstration Stereo 8 players for distribution to executives at RCA and the auto companies.
Commercial success[edit]
Factory optional 8-track stereo player in a 1967 American Motors (AMC) vehicle mounted between the center console and dash
Factory installed AM/FM/8-track unit in 1978 AMC Matador with a Briefcase Full of Blues cartridge in "play" position
The popularity of both four-track and eight-track cartridges grew from the booming automobile industry.[7] In September 1965, Ford Motor Company introduced factory-installed and dealer-installed eight-track tape players as an option on three of its 1966 models (Mustang, Thunderbird, and Lincoln), and RCA Victor introduced 175 Stereo-8 Cartridges from its RCA Victor and RCA Camden artist's catalogs.[8] By the 1967 model year, all of Ford's vehicles offered this tape player upgrade option. Most of the initial factory installations were separate players from the radio (such as shown in the image), but dashboard mounted 8-track units were offered in combination with an AM radio, as well as with AM/FM receivers.[9] Muntz, and a few other manufacturers, also offered 4/8 or "12-track" players that were capable of playing cartridges of either format, 4-track or 8-track. With the backing of the US automakers, the eight-track format quickly won out over the four-track format, with Muntz abandoning it completely by late 1970.
Despite its problems, the format gained steady popularity because of its convenience and portability. Home players were introduced in 1966 that allowed consumers to share tapes between their homes and portable systems. By the late 1960s, the 8-track segment was the largest in the consumer electronics market and the popularity of 8-track systems for cars helped generate demand for home units.[10] "Boombox" type players were also popular but eight-track player/recorders failed to gain wide popularity and few manufacturers offered them. With the availability of cartridge systems for the home, consumers started thinking of eight-tracks as a viable alternative to vinyl records, not only as a convenience for the car. Within a year, prerecorded releases on eight-track began to arrive within a month of the vinyl release. The eight-track format became by far the most popular and offered the largest music library of all the tape systems.[11]
Eight-track players were fitted as standard equipment in most Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars of the period for sale in UK and worldwide. Optional 8-track players were available in many cars and trucks through the early 1980s.
Ampex, based in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, set up a European operation (Ampex Stereo Tapes) in London, England, in 1970 under general manager Gerry Hall, with manufacturing in Nivelles, Belgium, to promote 8-track product (as well as musicassettes) in Britain and in Europe, but it struggled and folded in 1974.[verification needed]
Quadraphonic eight-track cartridges (announced by RCA in April 1970) were also produced, Ford being particularly eager to promote in-car quadraphonic players as a pricey option. Neither Chrysler, General Motors, nor American Motors ever offered a quadraphonic tape player. The format enjoyed a moderate amount of success for a time but faded in the mid-1970s. These cartridges are sought by collectors since they provide four channels of discrete sound, unlike matrixed formats such as SQ, which Columbia/CBS Records used for their quadraphonic vinyl records.
Early karaoke machines[edit]
Daisuke Inoue invented the first karaoke machine in 1971 called the Juke-8.[12][13]
Other use[edit]
Milton Bradley's (MB) OMNI Entertainment System was an electronic quiz machine game, similar to Jeopardy! or later You Don't Know Jack video game series, using 8-track tapes for playback analog audio for questions, instructions and answers as well as digital signals in magnetic tape data storage on remaining tracks to load the right answer for counting the score. Some year[clarification needed] before the Mego Corporation launched the 2-XL toy robot.[14]
Decline and demise[edit]
Eight-track players became less common in homes and vehicles in the late 1970s. The compact cassette arrived in 1962, and by the 1970s the eight-track cartridges had greatly diminished in popularity. In some Latin American countries as well as European, the format was abandoned in the mid-1970s in favor of the cassette. The UK never had as much use as the compact cassette in cars and home players were almost unknown in the UK.
In the US, eight-track cartridges were phased out of retail stores by late 1982. Some titles were still available as eight-track tapes through Columbia House and RCA (BMG) Music Service Record Clubs until late 1988. Many of these late-period releases are highly collectible because of the low numbers that were produced and the few customers who ever purchased them. Among the most rare is Stevie Ray Vaughan's Texas Flood. Another is Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band's Live/1975-85, which was one of the very few boxed sets to be released on vinyl, cassette, compact disc, and eight-track tape.
There is a debate among collectors about the last commercial eight-track released by a major label, but the fan website 8 Track Heaven cannot find a major label release past Fleetwood Mac's Greatest Hits in November 1988.[15] Radio Shack continued to sell blank eight-track cartridges under its Realistic brand until 1990. [16]
The professional broadcast cart format survived for more than another decade at most radio stations. It was used to play and switch jingles, advertisements, station identifications, and music content until it was replaced by various computer-based methods in the 1990s. This format survived longer because it was used for relatively short sound loops, where starting from the beginning was more important than other criteria. The endless loop tape concept continues to be used in modern movie projectors, although in that application the spool is actively rotated and not drawn by tension on the film. That too, however, is being supplanted by digital cinema technologies.
Some independent artists still release eight-track tapes, such as the US band RTB2, who released We Are a Strange Man in 2011.[17] Also, bands sometimes release eight-tracks as special releases; for example, The Melvins released a limited-time, live eight-track album,[18] Cheap Trick issued a limited edition version of their album The Latest on the format on June 23, 2009,[19] and power electronics solo artist Waves Crashing Piano Chords has released multiple eight-track tapes since 2012, as well as starting an eight-track tape label, H8-Track Stereo. In the book Journals, Kurt Cobain wrote about wanting to release Nirvana's album In Utero as an 8-track tape, but this never happened. Apart from a select group of highly collectible artists, the record club issues, and the quadraphonic releases, many eight-track tapes seem to have limited value to most collectors, especially if the tapes have been misused or appear to be worn.
Design[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the Cousino, Eash, Muntz, and Lear cartridges, tape was pulled from the center of the reel, passed across the opening at one end of the cartridge and wound back onto the outside of the same reel. The spool itself was freewheeling and the tape was driven only by tension from the capstan and pinch roller.
With a reel turning at a constant rate, the tape around the hub has a lower linear velocity than the tape at the outside of the reel, so the tape layers must slip past each other as they approach the center. The tape was coated with a slippery backing material, usually graphite and patented by Bernard Cousino, to ease the continuous slip between the tape layers. While the design allowed simple, cheap, and mobile players, unlike a two-reel system, it did not permit rewinding of the tape. Some players offered fast-forward by speeding up the motor while cutting off the audio; but rewinding was never offered, because it was technically impossible.
Muntz's cartridge had used two pairs of stereo tracks in the same configuration as then-current "quarter track" reel-to-reel tapes. This format was intended to parallel his source material, which was usually a single LP (long playing) record with two sides. Program switching was achieved by physically moving the head up and down mechanically by a lever. The Stereo 8 version doubled the amount of programming on the tape by providing eight total tracks, usually comprising four programs of two tracks each. Lear touted this as a great improvement, because much more music could be held inside a standard cartridge housing, but in practice this resulted in a slight loss of sound quality and an increase in background noise from the narrower tape tracks. Unlike the Stereo-Pak, the Stereo 8 could switch between tracks automatically, with the use of a small length of conductive foil at the splice joint on the tape, which would cause the player to change tracks as it passed the head assembly.
The cartridges have an audible pause due to the presence of a length of metallic foil, which a sensor detects and signals the end of the tape and acts as a splice for the loop. The foil passes across a pair of electrical contacts which are in the tape path. Contact of the foil closes an electrical circuit that engages a solenoid which mechanically shifts the tape head to the level of the next track.
Most players produced a mechanical click when switching programs, although early Lear players switched silently. Because of the expense of producing tape heads capable of reading eight tracks, most eight-track players have heads that read just two tracks. Switching from program to program is accomplished by moving the head itself. Since the alignment of the head to the tape is crucial to any tape system, and because eight-track systems were generally designed to be cheap, this configuration further degraded the sound of the eight-track tape.
The Stereo 8 system was fairly simple, mechanically, but presented difficulties in various primary areas:
Capstan wear and buildup. As tape residue, dirt and lubricant built up on the capstan, the tape speed would increase and, since the buildup was uneven, the tape speed would become correspondingly uneven. Similarly, some units were subject to the capstan wear, causing a decrease in tape speed. Technicians routinely kept a supply of new capstans on hand ready to install into worn decks for this reason, during the heyday of the format. Once the capstan wears only .001" the tape speed slows. Replacing or resurfacing the capstan would restore operation. The old "matchpack" or "matchbook" under the tape fix while playing, was done primarily because the capstan was worn or polished, and would no longer grip the tape and play it at the correct speed. Replacing or resurfacing the capstan, restores proper operation without using a wedge under the tape.
Head alignment. This was an issue for two reasons: a) Azimuth misalignment results in reduced high frequencies, and b) Head height misalignment allows sounds from adjacent tracks to bleed over, an effect sometimes known as "double-tracking". This is due to the resultant time delay between the left and right channels resulting in a degradation of phase correlation. This effect is enhanced in an 8-track system, as compared to either reel-to-reel or cassette, due to the larger physical distance, on the tape, between the left and right channel tracks. Resetting head height and azimuth is a primary service procedure required, when refurbishing any vintage tape deck. Once set the player will perform accurately. This format, unlike other tape formats, features a movable head with four positions. Among audio service technicians, there used to be a joke that "the eight-track is the only audio device which knocks itself out of alignment four times during each album." When tracking/azimuth is set using a high quality (ex: Columbia) or alignment tape, correct operation will be restored. Some brands of 8-track decks had adjustable tape head thumbwheel knobs on the front panel, so the listener could adjust the tracking, much like a VHS or Beta tape was adjusted for picture quality. The listener could then adjust the tape head individually for each tape, avoiding double tracking.
The sensing foil that would allow the tape to switch programs, could dry up, fall off, and the tape would separate, and disappear inside the sealed cartridge. This was especially prevalent on bootleg tapes, that used cheaper sensing foils. Had the tape been reinforced on both sides at this point, the tapes would be much more reliable. Many modern collectors replace the old sensing foil with a more robust, properly reinforced foil. As of 2014[update], rolls of new sensing foil and new pressure pads sell at a steady pace on eBay and other specialty online sites who cater to the format.
The movement of the head at program switch point could sometimes pull the tape up or down, causing the tape to fold over and start playing the back side of the tape. The tape would continue to play, albeit muffled and barely audible. Continued playing would flip the entire tape over, so the tape would be wound on the reel inside with the backside showing. Many vintage tapes can be found with the back side of the tape, facing forward. The program switch point is often the place where the tapes would be ingested into the player i.e. "eaten", when the tape head moved from program 4, to program 1- its furthest track change movement. While moving upward the head would grab the tape, fold it over, and when this fold hit the capstan, it would wrap around the capstan and ingest the tape into the player.
The "melted" rubber pinch rollers that can be found in many early 8-Track cartridges were the result of the rubber not being fully cured. After discovering this cause, later cartridges used only fully cured (hard) rubber pinch rollers that did not deteriorate as much over time.
Tape tension was another cause of unreliability. Prerecorded eight-track tapes tended to hold only a single album, about 46 minutes of content, or 11.5 minutes per track. Consumers wanted the ability to record more music on a single cartridge, so manufacturers came out with units of greater capacity, i.e. 60 and 90 minutes tapes. A few 100 minutes tapes do exist. With the corresponding increase in tape length, there was a greater velocity differential between the tape being drawn from the center of the reel and the tape being fed back to the outer edge of the reel as it passed the capstan/pinch-roller assembly (loop length). A 90-minute tape also exerts more drag on the tape deck motor, making a large AC 120 volt motor imperative to play the longest tapes. Over time, cheaper tapes may tighten, making it more difficult to feed, and to maintain a constant playback speed. Once a tape sheds most of its graphite backing, it will bind up and the tape won't play.
When the sliding tape pack would pull itself tight, for whatever reason, a jammed 8-track cartridge was the result. A quick solution was to hold the cartridge in one hand, facing down, while pulling out a section of, about 4-6' in length from the outer winding side. A quick tug on the tape would cause it to immediately wind in and the result was a loosened up tape pack that would play correctly.
Failing that, another solution was to open the cartridge, cut the tape at the splice, and relieve the excess tension by manually unwinding one or two sections from the outer edge of tape (loop length) while keeping the reel stationary, then re-splicing the tape, with a fresh piece of foil. Another, simpler fix was to shake the cassette in the plane of the tape reel with a rotary motion, sometimes this would cause the windings inside to rotate and loosen. If the cartridge has shed its graphite backing, it would have to be discarded. Small businesses that specialize in transferring audio tapes to digital format can remove the tape from the cartridge and play it on a small reel-to-reel player to extract maximum fidelity.
A decrease in the quality of the parts used in the eight-track cartridge, that is, plastic pinch rollers, lubricant quality and quantity, etc., was another blow to the faltering format. As these problems further reduced the reliability, sound quality, and consistent tape speed, the eight-track eventually developed a reputation for being unreliable.
Composition[edit]
The Stereo 8 introduced the problem of dividing up the programming intended for a two-sided LP record into four programs. Often this resulted in songs being split into two parts (the split was often made during an instrumental break or a repeated chorus), song orders being reshuffled, shorter songs being repeated, and songs separated by long passages of silence. Some eight-tracks included extra musical content to fill in time such as a piano solo on Lou Reed's Berlin, extra verses on The Rolling Stones' Some Girls and a guitar solo in Pink Floyd's Animals.
In rare instances, an eight-track was able to be arranged exactly like the record album version, without any song breaks. Examples of this are Quadrophenia by The Who, and some versions of Days of Future Passed by The Moody Blues. Other examples of this rarity are Freeways by Bachman-Turner Overdrive, Bursting Out Live by Jethro Tull, Live Bullet and Nine Tonight by Bob Seger and the Silver Bullet Band, Caught Live + 5 by The Moody Blues, The Concert in Central Park by Simon & Garfunkel, Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs by Derek and The Dominoes, Octave by The Moody Blues, the US version of Three Sides Live by Genesis and Coda by Led Zeppelin (a record club only release).
Comparison with compact cassette[edit]
There are numerous reasons for the format's decline.
Some of the inherent deficiencies of the format were:
High wow and flutter due to the constantly changing load presented by the sliding tape pack
Tendency to jam as the tape got dirty, the lubricant wore away, and the tape was exposed to heat
Flattening of the pinch roller, over time, when a cartridge was left plugged in, causing increased wow and flutter
Inability to attain and maintain head alignment due to the movable head design
Rewind is impossible
Consumer units with both play and recording function were rare and expensive
The order of the songs was often changed, and program changes sometimes occurred in the middle of songs (because the album had to be split into 4 programs, the tape length had to be that of the longest program, and any inequality in program length caused blanks that had to be fast-forwarded through)
As time went on, these issues were compounded as later cartridges started using cheaper, lower quality materials, such as plastic pinch rollers. Another contributing factor was an effort by record companies to reduce the number of formats offered. In the late 1970s, when sales of eight-tracks slipped, they were quick to abandon the format.[citation needed]
While the cassette offered features that the eight-track lacked, such as smaller size, greater reliability and both rewinding and home recording capability, it also had disadvantages:
Its tape speed was half that of Stereo 8, producing theoretically lower sound quality
The tape needed turning over after one side of playing was finished (until late in the lifecycle of the compact cassette, when 'auto-reverse' mechanisms became more popular)
It required greater mechanical complexity of the player
However, constant development of the cassette turned it into a widespread high-fidelity medium and also lowered the cost and complexity. That, combined with the inherent deficiencies of the Stereo 8 format, contributed to its decline.
See also[edit]
Audio format
Audio storage
Birotron
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "What Are 8-Track Tapes?". wisegeek.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015. While immensely popular in the United States for a period of time...
^ Jump up to: a b "Collector’s Corner: The History Of The Eight-Track Tape". Retrieved 2014-01-22. Just as the signs were all pointing to eight-track toppling vinyl as the format of choice for music lovers in the United States, Canada and to a lesser extent, in Great Britain, along came the audio cassette
^ Jump up to: a b "What Are 8-Track Tapes?". Retrieved 2014-01-22. Outside of the United Kingdom, Canada, and a few other nations, the use of 8-track technology was virtually unknown.
Jump up ^ http://www.8trackheaven.com/archive/world.html
Jump up ^ "George Eash CARtridge inventor tells how it was born". Billboard. 78 (10). 3 March 1966. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~cochinea/html-paper/a-crews-03-magnetic-media.html
Jump up ^ "Vintage Audio Recording History". Videointerchange.com. 10 May 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "RCA Fires 175-Title Burst with Release of Stereo 8 Cartridges". Billboard. 77 (39): 3. 25 September 1965. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Larry G. (2000). AMC Muscle Cars. MBI Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-7603-0761-8. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Kussisto, Oscar P. (2 November 1968). "8-track market booms". Billboard. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Shatavsky, Sam (February 1969). "The best tape system for you". Popular Science. 194 (2): 126–129. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Raftery, Brian (2008). Don't Stop Believin': How Karaoke Conquered the World and Changed My Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306815834.
Jump up ^ Mitsui, Tōru; Hosokawa, Shūhei (1998). Karaoke around the world: global technology, local singing. London ; New York: Routledge. pp. 29–42. ISBN 9781280140877.
Jump up ^ Techmoan: MB OMNI Entertainment System - The 1980s 8-Track games machine, YouTube 6 August 2017
Jump up ^ "Record Club Only 8-tracks". 8trackheaven.com. Archived from the original on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/catalogs/1990/
Jump up ^ Floorwalker, Mike (15 January 2013). "10 Music Recordings for the Insanely Determined". listverse.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Slim's 8-Track". Themelvins.net. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Carnoy, David (15 July 2009). "New Cheap Trick album available on 8-track tape". CNET. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 8-track tape.
"A Survey of Recordable Magnetic Media" by Andrew D. Crews, December, 2003, University of Texas, accessed 8 August 2006
So Wrong They're Right - A 1995 documentary about 8-track enthusiasts
8-Track Heaven
8-Track Moments Listen to the sound of the 8-Track click
Bill Lear Invents the 8-Track and Brings in Ford, Motorola, and RCA Victor. Recording History.org
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