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List of law school GPA curves
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Many, or perhaps most, law schools in the United States grade on a curve. The process generally works within each class, where the instructor grades each exam, and then ranks the exams against each other, adding to and subtracting from the initial grades so that the overall grade distribution matches the school's specified curve (usually a bell curve). "The curve" is the permitted range of each letter grade that can be awarded, for example, 0-3% A+, 3-7% A, etc. Curves vary between different law schools, as do the rules for when the curve is mandatory versus suggestive. It is common for the curve to be mandatory for first year ("1L") courses, and for classes above a certain size.
Grading on a curve contributes to the notoriously competitive atmosphere within law schools. "The main source of this competition is the mandatory curve you will likely encounter once you enter law school. The curve affects the class rank, affects the chances of making law review, affects the chances of scoring that big job/externship."[1] Some law schools set their curve lower to retain scholarship funding; others set their curve higher to make their students more competitive in the job market.
The following list shows where law schools set the 50% mark for an individual class subject to the curve. Because not all classes are curved and because professors still have discretion within the curve's ranges, where a law school sets its curve is not necessarily revealing of that school's average student GPA (whether after 1L or upon graduation).
Contents
[hide]
1 The list
2 Class rank and GPA not reported
3 Irregular grading systems
4 Notes
The list[edit]
Law School
GPA Curve
Mississippi College School of Law 2.50–2.79(1L)
University of Akron School of Law 2.78[2]
University of Alabama School of Law 3.20[3]
Albany Law School 2.83[4]
American University Washington College of Law Curve of 3.1 to 3.3 for 1L doctrinal courses.
Appalachian School of Law 2.50–2.67[5]
Atlanta's John Marshall Law School 2.00–2.34(1L)
University of Arizona, James E. Rogers College of Law 3.29[6]
Arizona State University, Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law 3.30[7]
University of Arkansas School of Law 2.67[8]
University of Arkansas at Little Rock, William H. Bowen School of Law 3.0[9]
Ave Maria School of Law 3.08[10]
University of Baltimore School of Law 2.86[11]
Barry University, Dwayne O. Andreas School of Law 2.75[12]
Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law 3.16[13]
Boston College Law School 3.03[14]
Boston University School of Law Not Reported (Top-third: 3.51)[15]
Brigham Young University J. Reuben Clark Law School 3.30[16]
Brooklyn Law School 3.25[17]
Capital University Law School 2.73 1L; 2.82 2/3L[18]
Case Western Reserve University School of Law 3.0 (3.1 Median)[19] for 1Ls, varies from (3.2–3.67) for 2L/3Ls
UCLA School of Law 3.0 in First Year Courses; 3.2 Median in Most Upper Division Courses [20]
UC Davis School of Law 3.25-3.35 [21]
Chapman University School of Law 2.80[citation needed]
Charleston School of Law 2.67–3.00[citation needed]
University of Cincinnati College of Law 3.0 in First Year Courses; 3.3 Median in Most Upper Division Courses[22]
Columbus School of Law 2.80–3.00[23]
University of Connecticut School of Law 3.0 Median
Cornell Law School 3.35[24]
University of Dayton School of Law 2.80 (1L); 3.00 (2L/3L)[25]
University of Denver Sturm College of Law 3.00 (median); 2.85–3.15 (mean)[26]
DePaul University For each first-year course and all JD courses with 50 or more students, the faculty suggests that 12%-17% of the grades be A, 20%-30% of the grades be A- and/or B+, 20%-30% of the grades be B, 20%-30% of the grades be B- and/or C+, 10%-15% of the grades be C or below[27]
Drexel University Earle Mack School of Law 2.8–3.0 [28]
Duke University School of Law 3.30[29]
Duquesne University School of Law For first-year courses: Tier 1 (A+, A, A-) Between 14% and 22% of all grades, with a target of 18%; Tier 2 (B+, B, B-) Between 36% and 54% of all grades, with a target of 45%; Tier 3 (C+, C, C-) Between 24% and 36% of all grades, with a target of 30%; Tier 4 (D+, D, F): Between 0% and 10% of all grades, with a target of 7%. Upper-level courses with 30 or more students have a slightly modified distribution. Upper-level courses with fewer than 30 students are not bound by any distribution.[30]
Elon University School of Law 3.39 (based on a scale where 2.8 was equivalent to C and 4.3 was highest A)[31]
Emory University School of Law 3.30{{[32]}}
Florida Coastal School of Law 2.50 (1L mean); 2.70 (2L/3L mean)[33]
University of Florida Levin College of Law 3.15[citation needed]
Fordham University School of Law 3.19[34]
George Mason University School of Law 3.05–3.45 [35]
The George Washington University Law School 3.15–3.25[36]
Georgetown University Law Center 3.322[37]
University of Georgia School of Law 2.90[38]
Georgia State University College of Law 2.9-3.1[39]
Gonzaga University School of Law 2.60–2.90[40]
Thomas Jefferson School of Law 2.7[41]
University of Houston Law Center 2.9–3.1 (1L mean)[42]
University of Idaho College of Law 2.70[43]
University of Illinois College of Law 3.20 (1L mean)[44]
University of Kansas School of Law 2.80–3.00 (1L mean), 2.9-3.1 (2L/3L required courses mean), 2.8-3.4 (all other mean)[45]
University of Kentucky College of Law 2.9–3.1[46]
Lewis & Clark Law School 3.0 (1L and classes with more than 20 students); 3.3 expected maximum (all other courses) [47]
Lincoln Memorial University - Duncan School of Law 2.3-2.7 (1L) 2.6-3.0 (2L)
<http://law.lmunet.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Student-Handbook-2016-2017-8-25-16.pdf>
Louisiana State University, Paul M. Hebert Law Center 3.0 median, ±.1 (1L and all classes with more than 50 students); 3.0 median and mean, ±.2 (2L/3L Classes with less than 50 but more than 20 students)[48]
Loyola University New Orleans College of Law 3.017[49]
University of Massachusetts School of Law 1.9–2.3[50]
Massachusetts School of Law 2.0[51]
University of Memphis – Cecil C. Humphreys School of Law 2.67[52]
University of Miami School of Law 3.2
University of Michigan Law School 3.25-3.4[53]
University of Minnesota Law School 3.00–3.33[54]
University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law 2.942 (median grade – grading guidelines vary by year in school and type of course)[55]
North Carolina Central University School of Law 1.67–2.33[56]
University of New Mexico School of Law 2.66[57]
Northwestern University School of Law 3.26[58]
Ohio Northern University, Pettit College of Law 2.33 (L1) – 2.66 (L2/L3)[59]
Ohio State University Moritz College of Law 3.30[60]
Oklahoma City University School of Law 2.17–2.60[61]
University of Oregon School of Law 2.67–2.75[62]
Pennsylvania State University – Dickinson School of Law 2.90–3.10[63]
University of Pittsburgh School of Law 3.00[64]
Quinnipiac University School of Law 3.02[65]
University of Richmond School of Law 3.20-3.40[66]
Roger Williams University School of Law 2.65–2.85 1L; 2.80–3.1 2L[67]
Rutgers School of Law 2.95-3.1 (mean) 1L; 3.1-3.4 (mean) upperclass courses[68]
St. John's University School of Law 3.30 (median); 2.95–3.05 (mean)[69]
Saint Louis University School of Law 2.80[70][71][72]
University of St. Thomas School of Law 2.70–3.10 [73]
University of San Diego School of Law 2.95–3.05[74]
University of San Francisco School of Law 2.73–2.99[citation needed]
Seattle University School of Law 3.1–3.2[75]
Seton Hall University School of Law 3.0[76]
University of Southern California School of Law 3.30[77]
South Texas College of Law 2.85–3.15[78]
Southern Illinois University School of Law 2.55–2.80[79]
Southern Methodist University Dedman School of Law 3.093 1L/2E; 3.090 2L/3E; 3.198 3L/4E (graduating)[80]
Southwestern Law School 2.90 (1L mean); 3.00 (2L/3L mean)[81]
Suffolk University Law School 3.02 (1L); 3.16 (2L/3L)[82]
Syracuse University College of Law 2.90–3.10[83]
Temple University Beasley School of Law 3.05[84]
University of Tennessee College of Law 3.0(1L); 3.1 (2L); 3.2–3.3 (3L)[85]
University of Texas School of Law 3.25-3.35[86]
Texas Wesleyan University School of Law 3.00[87]
Thomas M. Cooley Law School 2.00–2.40[88]
Tulane University Law School 3.00[citation needed]
University of Tulsa College of Law 2.50–2.67[89]
University of Utah, S.J. Quinney College of Law 3.38[90]
Valparaiso University School of Law 2.50–2.70[citation needed]
Vanderbilt University Law School 3.17[citation needed]
Vermont Law School 3.00[citation needed]
Villanova University School of Law 3.1[91]
Washington and Lee University School of Law 3.34[92]
University of Washington School of Law 3.40[93]
Whittier Law School 2.50–2.75 (1L); 2.50–2.88 (2L/3L)[94]
University of Nevada, Las Vegas: William S. Boyd School of Law 3.0[95]
Widener University School of Law 2.30–2.75 (1L), 2.50–2.85 (Upper Level Required), 2.50–3.10 (Upper Level Elective, >20 students), 2.50–3.40 (Upper Level Elective, ≤20 students)
William Mitchell College of Law 3.00[96]
University of Wisconsin Law School 2.85–3.10[97]
University of Wyoming College of Law 2.60–3.00[citation needed]
West Virginia University College of Law 2.95–3.05[98]
Class rank and GPA not reported[edit]
University at Buffalo Law School – no curve, but benchmarks for top 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% for each class are released each June
Columbia Law School – Estimated at 3.4.[99] GPA calculated based on 4.33 scale.
New York University School of Law – not reported, but likely between 3.17 and 3.25[100]
University of Michigan Law School – class rank is not established until after graduation[101]
University of New Mexico School of Law – class rank is not provided but a bar graph is provided showing GPA distribution[102]
University of Notre Dame Law School – 1L courses (except for 1L elective, which is graded as an upper‐level course, and Legal Writing (I & II)) mean must be between 3.25 and 3.30 with a mandatory distribution. 1L Legal Writing (I & II) Mean: 3.15 to 3.45. Large upper-level courses for 2L and 3L (>25 students) must have a mean between 3.25 and 3.35 with a mandatory distribution. Paper-Based Small Upper-Level Courses (10 to 24 students) Mean: 3.15 to 3.60. Small upper-level courses (10 to 24 students) must have a mean between 3.15 and 3.45 with no mandatory distribution. Small courses (9 or fewer students) do not have a required curve.[103]
University of Pennsylvania Law School – not reported.[104]
Rutgers School of Law–Camden – class rank was eliminated in 1972; each semester, the law school identifies Dean's Scholars as the top 5% and Dean's List as the next 20%; at graduation, highest honors and high honors are determined by the faculty and honors is given to the top 15%[105]
Rutgers School of Law–Newark – class rank is not published; however, upon graduation, rank is used to determine graduation honors with top 10% awarded Order of the Coif and cum laude; top 5% awarded magna cum laude; and top 1% awarded summa cum laude.[106]
University of Texas School of Law – "It is the policy of The University of Texas School of Law not to rank its students on the basis of academic standing." Therefore, students may not estimate class standing or indicate a percentile ranking on their resumes, cover letters or application materials.[107] UT Law does, however, release interim cutoffs to continuing students for top 25% and top 50% at the end of the school year. Additionally, the school bestows honors on the top 1%, 5%, 10%, and 35% of graduating students.[108] The top sixteen students in the class at the end of the second year are also recognized as Chancellors, with the top four students being identified in order as Grand Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, Clerk, and Keeper of the Peregrinus.[109]
Irregular grading systems[edit]
The following law schools have adopted a grading system which does not allow for the calculation of a comparable median GPA on a 4.0 scale, if any GPA is recorded at all:
Berkeley Law (aka Boalt Hall), University of California, Berkeley, Law School – pass/no pass system with 10% of first-years receiving pass with high honors and 30% of first-year students receiving pass with honors in each class; for upper division classes (2L and 3L years) up to 15% of in a class may receive high honors and up to 45% may receive either honors or high honors.[110] Additionally, the top student in a course may be awarded the American Jurisprudence Award. The second-highest performing student in a course may be award the Prosser Prize.
Campbell Law School – mandatory median (82, or a C)[111]
Harvard Law School – The current grading system of dean's scholar, honors, pass, low pass, and fail had at one time a recommended curve of 37% honors, 55% pass, and 8% low pass in classes with over 30 JD and LLM students,[112] but the curve is no longer enforced. Between 1970 and 2008 Harvard established a GPA cut-off required in order to obtain the summa cum laude distinction. During that time, only 5 students achieved the GPA required for the distinction of summa cum laude (33 out of the 38 years, the top student only managed to obtain the magna cum laude distinction, for example, there was a 15-year hiatus until Lisa Ann Grow managed to obtain summa cum laude). Those who have managed to obtain the summa cum laude distinction include Lewis Sargentich ('70), Isaac Pachulski ('74), Peter Huber ('82), Kristen Chiger ('86), Lisa Ann Grow/Sun ('97), Julian Poon ('99). Since 2008, to address the difficulty of obtaining the summa cum laude distinction, in a year where no student manages to meet the GPA cut-off, Harvard will now award summa cum laude to the top student of the year (a rank that did not guarantee summa cum laude in the past).[113]
Howard University School of Law – uses a scale of 72–100; the mandatory mean range for first-year courses is 81–83.[114] Below are the class rankings:
Class of 2015
Class of 2016
Class of 2017
Class of 2018
Top 5% 90.69 91.12
Top 10% 89 89.41 89.65
Top 15% 88.14 88.55
Top 20% 87.03 87.91
Top 25% 86.21 87.20
Top 33% 85.34 85.92
Top 50% 82.10 83.71
Northeastern University School of Law – written evaluations given for each course with "buzz words" used[citation needed]
Stanford Law School – pass/no pass system with honors and distinctions, with a limit of 30% honors in lecture classes and 40% in seminars[115]
University of Chicago Law School – uses unusual numeric grade with median of 177[116]
Wake Forest University School of Law – curved at 85 (ended with the Class of 2017). Beginning with the Class of 2018: curved at 88. *UPDATE - Beginning with the Class of 2019: A+ 4.00; A 4.00; A- 3.67; B+ 3.33; B 3.00; B- 2.67; C+ 2.33; C 2.00; C- 1.67; D+ 1.33; D 1.00; D- 0.67; F 0.00; H Honors; P Pass; LP Low Pass; F Fail. [117]
Yale Law School – honors/pass/low pass/fail system with no fixed curve[118]
University of Wisconsin Law School - GPA calculated based on a 4.3 scale[119]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Competition and the Mandatory Curve in Law School," Apr. 18, 2006, CALI's Pre-Law Blog ("The main source of this competition is the mandatory curve you will likely encounter once you enter law school. The curve affects the class rank, affects the chances of making law review, affects the chances of scoring that big job/externship.") See also, Barbara Glesner Fines, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law, "Competition and the Curve
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Jump up ^ BYU Policies and Procedures
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Jump up ^ http://law.pitt.edu/pp/grading
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Jump up ^ SLU Third Year Rankings Archived 2006-12-09 at the Wayback Machine.
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Outcome (probability)
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Part of a series on Statistics
Probability theory
Probability axioms
Probability space
Sample space
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Event
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In probability theory, an outcome is a possible result of an experiment.[1] Each possible outcome of a particular experiment is unique, and different outcomes are mutually exclusive (only one outcome will occur on each trial of the experiment). All of the possible outcomes of an experiment form the elements of a sample space.[2]
For the experiment where we flip a coin twice, the four possible outcomes that make up our sample space are (H, T), (T, H), (T, T) and (H, H), where "H" represents a "heads", and "T" represents a "tails". Outcomes should not be confused with events, which are sets (or informally, "groups") of outcomes. For comparison, we could define an event to occur when "at least one 'heads'" is flipped in the experiment - that is, when the outcome contains at least one 'heads'. This event would contain all outcomes in the sample space except the element (T, T).
Contents
[hide]
1 Sets of outcomes: events
2 Probability of an outcome
3 Equally likely outcomes
4 See also
5 References
Sets of outcomes: events[edit]
Main article: Event (probability theory)
Since individual outcomes may be of little practical interest, or because there may be prohibitively (even infinitely) many of them, outcomes are grouped into sets of outcomes that satisfy some condition, which are called "events." The collection of all such events is a sigma-algebra.[3]
An event containing exactly one outcome is called an elementary event. The event that contains all possible outcomes of an experiment is its sample space. A single outcome can be a part of many different events.[4]
Typically, when the sample space is finite, any subset of the sample space is an event (i.e. all elements of the power set of the sample space are defined as events). However, this approach does not work well in cases where the sample space is uncountably infinite (most notably when the outcome must be some real number). So, when defining a probability space it is possible, and often necessary, to exclude certain subsets of the sample space from being events.
Probability of an outcome[edit]
Outcomes may occur with probabilities that are between zero and one (inclusively). In a discrete probability distribution whose sample space is finite, each outcome is assigned a particular probability. In contrast, in a continuous distribution, individual outcomes all have each zero to the probability zero probability, and then non-zero probabilities can only be assigned to ranges of outcomes.
Some "mixed" distributions contain both stretches of continuous outcomes and some discrete outcomes; the discrete outcomes in such distributions can be called atoms and can have non-zero probabilities.[5]
Under the measure-theoretic definition of a probability space, the probability of an outcome need not even be defined. In particular, the set of events on which probability is defined may be some σ-algebra on S and not necessarily the full power set.
Equally likely outcomes[edit]
Flipping a coin leads to two outcomes that are almost equally likely.
Up or down? Flipping a brass tack leads to two outcomes that are not equally likely.
In some sample spaces, it is reasonable to estimate or assume that all outcomes in the space are equally likely (that they occur with equal probability). For example, when tossing an ordinary coin, one typically assumes that the outcomes "head" and "tail" are equally likely to occur. An implicit assumption that all outcomes are equally likely underpins most randomization tools used in common games of chance (e.g. rolling dice, shuffling cards, spinning tops or wheels, drawing lots, etc.). Of course, players in such games can try to cheat by subtly introducing systematic deviations from equal likelihood (e.g. with marked cards, loaded or shaved dice, and other methods).
Some treatments of probability assume that the various outcomes of an experiment are always defined so as to be equally likely.[6] However, there are experiments that are not easily described by a set of equally likely outcomes— for example, if one were to toss a thumb tack many times and observe whether it landed with its point upward or downward, there is no symmetry to suggest that the two outcomes should be equally likely.
See also[edit]
Event (probability theory)
Sample space
Probability distribution
Probability space
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Outcome - Probability - Math Dictionary". HighPointsLearning. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Albert, Jim (21 January 1998). "Listing All Possible Outcomes (The Sample Space)". Bowling Green State University. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
Jump up ^ Leon-Garcia, Alberto (2008). Probability, Statistics and Random Processes for Electrical Engineering. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Jump up ^ Pfeiffer, Paul E. (1978). Concepts of probability theory. Dover Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-486-63677-1.
Jump up ^ Kallenberg, Olav (2002). Foundations of Modern Probability (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 9. ISBN 0-387-94957-7.
Jump up ^ Foerster, Paul A. (2006). Algebra and Trigonometry: Functions and Applications, Teacher's Edition (Classics ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 633. ISBN 0-13-165711-9.
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Cats in ancient Egypt
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A bronze statue of the cat goddess Bastet
Seated Wadjet, 664 BC – 332 BC. Bronze. Usually seen in the form of a cobra, the goddess Wadjet was depicted as a lion-headed woman in the later periods of Egyptian history. (Brooklyn Museum collection)
Cats (Felis silvestris catus), known in ancient Egypt as "Mau",[1] were considered sacred in ancient Egyptian society. Based on recent DNA comparisons of living species, it has been estimated that cats were first domesticated from the Middle Eastern subspecies of the wildcat about 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent.[2][3] Thousands of years later, the peoples in what would later be Upper and Lower Egypt had a religion centered on the worship of animals, including cats.[not verified in body]
Praised for controlling vermin and its ability to kill snakes such as cobras, the domesticated cat became a symbol of grace and poise.
As domestication was not as steadfast with cats as today, wealthy families would often curate examples of well-bred felines, show them, and pride themselves in the coloration and behavioural adaptations that are seen in today's organized shows.
The goddess Mafdet, the deification of justice and execution, was a lion-headed goddess. The cat goddess Bast (also known as Bastet) eventually replaced Mafdet, and Bast's image softened over time and she became the deity representing protection, fertility, and motherhood.
As a revered animal and one important to Egyptian society and religion, some cats received the same mummification after death as humans. Mummified cats were given in offering to Bast.[not verified in body] In 1888, an Egyptian farmer uncovered a large tomb with mummified cats and kittens. This discovery outside the town of Beni Hasan had eighty thousand cat mummies, dated after 1000 BC.[not verified in body] The punishments for harming cats were severe.
Cat's Head, 30 BC to third century AD Bronze, gold. Brooklyn Museum
Cat with Kittens, c. 664-30 BC or later. Bronze, wood. The Egyptians associated the female cat’s fertility and motherly care with several divinities. The base of the statuette of Cat with Kittens is inscribed with a request that Bastet grant life, directly linking the cat pictured here with the goddess Bastet. Brooklyn Museum
Cats were one of the most recognizable species in Egyptian culture and were domesticated much later than dogs.[citation needed] Two types of smaller cats appeared in ancient Egypt: the jungle cat (Felis chaus) and the African wild cat (Felis silvestris libyca). The African wild cat was domesticated from the Predynastic Period onward.[4] Wild cats naturally preyed upon the rats and other vermin that ate from the royal granaries. They earned their place in towns and cities by killing mice, venomous snakes, and other pests. They were worshipped by the Egyptians and given jewelry in hieroglyphics.[citation needed]
Small cats would often be found underneath women's chairs on reliefs, evoking fertility and sexuality. The other variety of cat, the lion, was also prevalent in Egyptian culture.[citation needed] Although most lions receded to the south around the Predynastic Period, lions were rare in pharaonic times, but were extremely important in Egyptian iconography. Lions represented royal authority because of their aggressive nature and power.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cats in Egyptian religion
2 Bubastis and the cult of the cat
3 Funerary traditions
4 Decline of cat-worship
5 See also
6 References
Cats in Egyptian religion[edit]
A bronze statue of a domesticated cat and her kitten, Late Era, 664-332 BC
The earliest evidence of felines as deities comes from a c. 3100 BC crystal cup decorated with an image of the cat-headed goddess Mafdet. The goddess Bastet was originally depicted as a fiercely protective and warlike lioness, like Sekhmet, but as Bastet's image "softened" over time, she became more strongly associated with domestic cats.[citation needed]
As cats were sacred to Bast, the practice of mummification was extended to them,[citation needed] and the respect that cats received after death mirrored the respect with which they were treated in everyday life. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that in the event of a fire, men would guard the fire to make certain that no cats ran into the flame. Herodotus also wrote that when a cat died, the household would go into mourning as if for a human relative, and would often shave their eyebrows to signify their loss.[6]
Diodorus Siculus describes an interesting example of swift justice imposed upon the killer of a cat: about 60 BC, he witnessed a Roman accidentally kill an Egyptian cat. An outraged mob gathered and, despite pleas from pharaoh Ptolemy XII, killed the Roman.[7]
Bubastis and the cult of the cat[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This seated cat has golden earrings, a golden scarab inlaid on the forehead, and a necklace with a pendant in low relief.[8] The Walters Art Museum.
Although the cat cult was a religious movement by the beginning of the New Kingdom, it gained importance when Shoshenq I (c. 943–922 BC) developed Bubastis, chief centre of worship for the goddess Bast, located east of the Nile Delta, into an important city.[citation needed] At the same time, Bast developed into an immensely popular and important deity representing fertility, motherhood, protection, and the benevolent aspects of the sun – along with Sekhmet, she was known as the Eye of Ra. The cult of the cat garnered a huge following, and thousands of pilgrims journeyed each year to Bubastis to celebrate. Bubastis also became another name by which the goddess was known.
Close to the centre of the city lay a large temple to Bast. This temple was in a depression, and thus at a lower elevation than the rest of the city that had been raised to minimize flood damage from the nearby Nile. Herodotus, who visited the city in 450 BC, wrote that although the size of the shrine to Bast was perhaps "not as large as those of other cities, and probably not as costly, no temple in all of Egypt gave more pleasure to the eye."
Herodotus went on to describe the temple in detail. A canal within this depression gave the temple the appearance of a man-made island. In the courtyard was a grove of trees leading the way to the interior, containing a massive statue of Bast, and a great number of sacred cats, cared for by the temple priests with donations from pilgrims. The temple's cat population, while respected, was extremely large, and needed to be moderated by the periodic sacrificial culling of kittens, which were then mummified and sold to pilgrims as relics.
Bubastis became a marketplace for merchants of all sorts; artisans came forth with thousands of bronze sculptures and amulets depicting cats to worshippers of Bast. These amulets commonly featured an image of a cat and its kittens, and were often used by women trying to have children, praying to Bast, or Bastet that they be granted the same number of children as kittens depicted on the amulet.
Herodotus wrote that the annual festival of Bast held in the city was one of the most popular of all, with attendees from all over Egypt, who would raft down the Nile celebrating and feasting all the way. When they arrived in Bubastis, they feasted yet more and made sacrifices to Bast.
Funerary traditions[edit]
A mummified cat
See also: Cat mummies
Herodotus noted that cats that died anywhere in Egypt were often taken to Bubastis to be mummified and buried in the great cemetery, but this may or may not have been the case. At the burial site in Bubastis the Swiss Egyptologist Édouard Naville found more than 20 m3 (720 cubic feet) of cat remains but also a great deal of evidence of cremation. Naville found stacks of cat bones in many pits, the walls of which were made up of bricks and clay. Near each pit lay a furnace, its bricks blackened from fire. This discovery causes some problems. The mummification and preservation of the body was intended to make it possible for the deceased's ka to locate its host and subsequently be reborn into the afterlife. As the body would have to be intact for this process to occur, cremation would seem an undesirable way of dealing with the body of a sacred creature with a ka. Nevertheless, many cats were afforded the full embalming ceremony and buried in other great cemeteries along the Nile.[citation needed]
In her book The Cult of the Cat, Patricia Dale-Green states that, "The cat's body was placed in a linen sheet and carried amidst bitter lamentations by the bereaved to a sacred house where it was treated with drugs and spices by an embalmer."[9]:17 She goes on to state that although the cat of an Egyptian noble would receive more extravagant burial status, the body of a worker's cat would still be carefully prepared and the embalming carried out with the same conscientiousness as for a human body, often with provisions for the afterlife such as pots of milk and even mummified mice.[9]:18
Nowhere, perhaps, is this appreciation shown more than in the colossal tomb at the temple of Bast discovered in 1888. This tomb, outside of Beni Hasan, held more than nineteen tonnes of animal mummies and remains, the vast majority being cats but a number of mongooses, dogs, and foxes were amongst the specimens that made it to the British Museum. The farmer who made the discovery sold most of the tomb's contents to be ground up as fertilizer, but a number of specimens made it into the hands of scientists for testing and examination. Some of these are on display at the British Museum.[citation needed]
William Martin Conway wrote: "The plundering of the cemetery was a sight to see, but one had to stand well windward. The village children came from day to day and provided themselves with the most attractive mummies they could find. These they took down the river bank to sell for the smallest coin to passing travelers. The path became strewn with mummy cloth and bits of cats' skulls and bones and fur in horrid positions, and the wind blew the fragments about and carried the stink afar."[10]
During the making of his documentary for the BBC, Cats: The Rise of the Cat, Roger Tabor discovered a further cat cemetery at Bast's temple. This find consists of a twenty centimetre-thick layer of compressed mummies which spans more than sixty metres in length.[citation needed]
Decline of cat-worship[edit]
The worship of all Pagan gods, including Bast, was officially banned by imperial decree in 390 AD.[11] Egypt has since experienced a decline in the respect once held for cats; they are still kept as pets and tolerated elsewhere because they catch pests. Even so, the cat has not lost all religious significance with modern Egypt's largely Islamic population, since cats are also revered to some extent in Muslim tradition.[12][13]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cats in Ancient Egypt.
Animal worship
Gayer-Anderson cat
History of cats
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "History of EGYPTIAN MAU". www.breeds.traditionalcats.com. Archived from the original on 2016-04-19. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
Jump up ^ Kingdon, J. (1988), East African Mammals: Carnivores, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-43721-3 .
Jump up ^ Wade, N. (June 29, 2007), Study Traces Cat’s Ancestry to Middle East, New York Times, retrieved 19 Apr 2010 .
Jump up ^ Bleiberg,Edward Soulful Creatures: Animal Mummies in Ancient Egypt, Brooklyn Museum (2013).
Jump up ^ Bleiberg, Soulful Creatures
Jump up ^ Dickens, Charles (1862). All the Year Round. p. 308.
Jump up ^ Burton, Anne (1973). "Diodorus Siculus, Book 1". p. 39.
Jump up ^ "Statue of a Seated Cat". The Walters Art Museum.
^ Jump up to: a b Patricia Dale-Green (1963). "The White Cat". The Cult of the Cat. Weathervane Books. ISBN 978-0-517-17500-2.
Jump up ^ Conway, M. 1891. The Dawn of Art in the Ancient World. Macmillan and Co., New York.
Jump up ^ White, Cynthia (2007), The Emergence of Christianity, Greenwood Press, p. 95
Jump up ^ "Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 40: Distribution of Water". usc.edu. Archived from the original on March 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cats and Islam". The Muslim Observer. Archived from the original on 2012-07-11.
"Divine Felines: Cats of Ancient Egypt". Museum Exhibition. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
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