text:
Hot in Herre
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"Hot in Herre"
Single by Nelly
from the album Nellyville
Released
April 16, 2002 (2002-04-16)
Format
12"
CD
MCD
Recorded
2001-02
Genre
Hip hop
pop-rap
Length
3:49
Label
Universal
Fo' Reel
Songwriter(s)
Cornell Haynes, Jr.
Pharrell Williams
Chad Hugo
Charles L. Brown
Producer(s)
The Neptunes
Nelly singles chronology
"#1"
(2002) "Hot in Herre"
(2002) "Dilemma"
(2002)
"#1"
(2002) "Hot in Herre"
(2002) "Dilemma"
(2002)
"Hot In Herre"
sample of "Hot In Herre" by Nelly from Nellyville
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"Hot in Herre" is a song by American rapper Nelly from his second studio album Nellyville (2002). The song features additional vocals by former labelmate Dani Stevenson. It was released on April 16, 2002, by Universal Records as the second single from the project. The song was produced by The Neptunes.
"Hot in Herre" incorporates the hook from go-go performer Chuck Brown's 1979 single "Bustin' Loose", and opens with samples from Neil Young's "There's a World" and Nancy Sinatra's recording of "As Tears Go By".
Contents
[hide]
1 Awards and accolades
2 Commercial performance
3 Music video
4 Other versions
5 Track listings
6 Charts
6.1 Weekly charts
6.2 Year-end charts
6.3 Decade-end charts
7 Certifications
8 References
9 External links
Awards and accolades[edit]
"Hot in Herre" Inaugural winning Grammy Award for Best Male Rap Solo Performance at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards in 23 February 2003.
In 2008, it was ranked number 36 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.
Commercial performance[edit]
The song was Nelly's first number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 and in Canada. It peaked at number four in the United Kingdom, and also hit the top ten in other international markets. The song was number three in the Billboard Year-End Hot 100 Singles Chart for 2002.
Music video[edit]
There were two music videos made for the single "Hot in Herre", one set in a dance club, and an alternative one shot at the St. Louis Arch. The alternative video was played on MTV Europe instead of the official one.
The original video features cameo appearances by actor and comedian Cedric the Entertainer, NBA player Carmelo Anthony, and NFL players T. J. Duckett and Julius Peppers.
One scene of the music video features Nelly and the club goers shouting the chorus for "The Roof Is on Fire" while there's a fire actually burning in the club.
Other versions[edit]
"Hot in Herre" has been remade by the following artists:
Canadian electronic artist Tiga, who remade "Hot in Herre" with Scissor Sisters lead singer Jake Shears on vocals, giving it a more monotone, electro feel (this reached number 46 in the UK). A music video was created for Tiga's version of the song which aired in heavy rotation. The video starred puppets depicting cliche scenes from hip hop videos of the era.
Widespread Panic, whose arrangement was included on their album Jackassolantern and was featured on an episode of The O.C..
Jenny Owen Youngs, whose version also had an accompanying video.[1]
The BossHoss recorded the song.
In the live version of "Jocko Homo" on Devo's album DEVOlution is Real: Live in Central Park, Mark Mothersbaugh briefly sings the chorus of "Hot in Herre" before the song's "O-HI-O" breakdown.
Jill Sobule did the song acoustically at a live performance in Seattle with Melissa Ferrick.
Wang Chung performed the song on the television show Hit Me, Baby, One More Time.
The song was parodied as "Trash Day" by "Weird Al" Yankovic on the album Poodle Hat, replacing the chorus with "There's somethin' rotten here, (say what?) you better hold your nose."
The song was parodied by Mad TV in a sketch satirizing the controversy surrounding the Catholic Church and young boys.
Track listings[edit]
These are the major formats and track listings for the release of "Hot in Herre":[2]
US promo CD
"Hot in Herre" [Clean (w/Drops)] — 3:50
"Hot in Herre" [Super Clean (w/Drops)] — 3:50
"Hot in Herre" [Clean (No Drops)] — 3:50
"Hot in Herre" [Super Clean (No Drops)] — 3:50
"Hot in Herre" [Instrumental] — 3:50
UK vinyl, 12"
A1 "Hot in Herre" [X-Ecutioners Remix] — 3:58
A2 "Hot in Herre" [Radio Edit] — 3:50
B "Hot in Herre" [Third Eye Remix] — 4:57
Europe promo CD
"Hot in Herre" [Radio Edit] — 3:58
Europe Maxi-CD
"Hot in Herre" [Radio Edit] — 3:58
"Hot in Herre" [X-Ecutioners remix] — 3:58
"Not in My House" — 2:58
"Hot in Herre" [Corporate Remix] — 3:36
Australasia Maxi-CD
"Hot in Herre" [Radio Edit]
"Hot in Herre" [Third Eye Remix]
"Hot in Herre" [Maximum Risk Remix]
"Kings Highway"
Australasia Maxi-CD 2
"Hot in Herre" [Radio Edit] — 3:58
"Hot in Herre" [X-Ecutioners remix] — 3:58
"Not in My House" — 2:58
"Hot in Herre" [Corporate Remix] — 3:36
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (2002–03)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[3] 3
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[4] 16
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[5] 7
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[6] 13
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[7] 1
Denmark (Tracklisten)[8] 2
France (SNEP)[9] 23
Germany (Official German Charts)[10] 8
Ireland (IRMA)[11] 10
Italy (FIMI)[12] 37
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[13] 4
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[14] 3
Norway (VG-lista)[15] 5
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[16] 6
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[17] 10
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[18] 4
UK R&B (Official Charts Company)[19] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[20] 1
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[21] 1
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[22] 1
US Hot Rap Songs (Billboard)[23] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2002)
Position
Australian Singles Chart[24] 16
Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart[25] 30
Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart[26] 64
Dutch Top 40[27] 14
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[28] 22
Swiss Singles Chart[29] 48
UK Singles Chart[30] 27
US Billboard Hot 100 3
Decade-end charts[edit]
Chart (2000–2009)
Rank
US Billboard Hot 100[31] 36
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Australia (ARIA)[32]
Platinum 70,000^
New Zealand (RMNZ)[33]
Platinum 10,000*
United States (RIAA)[34]
2× Platinum 2,000,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Jenny Owen Youngs "Hot In Herre"". YouTube. 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2012-08-06.
Jump up ^ "Discogs". Discogs. Retrieved 2012-08-06.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Nelly – Hot in Herre" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Nelly – Hot in Herre" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Nelly – Hot in Herre" (in French). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Nelly Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Danishcharts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre". Tracklisten.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre" (in French). Les classement single.
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – Nelly Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ Irish Singles Chart Irishcharts.ie Archived 2009-06-03 at WebCite (Retrieved April 10, 2008)
Jump up ^ "Italiancharts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre". Top Digital Download.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Nelly – Hot in Herre" (in Dutch). Single Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Nelly – Hot in Herre". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre". VG-lista.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre". Singles Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Nelly – Hot in Herre". Swiss Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ "Nelly: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company.
Jump up ^ "Official R&B Singles Chart Top 40 - Official Charts Company". www.officialcharts.com.
Jump up ^ "Nelly Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Nelly Chart History (Pop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Nelly Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Nelly Chart History (Hot Rap Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ 2002 Australian Singles Chart aria.com (Retrieved August 8, 2008)
Jump up ^ 2002 Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart Ultratop.be (Retrieved August 8, 2008)
Jump up ^ 2002 Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart Ultratop.be (Retrieved August 8, 2008)
Jump up ^ "Single top 100 over 2002" (PDF) (in Dutch). Top40. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "End of Year Charts 2002". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved December 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ 2002 Swiss Singles Chart Hitparade.ch Archived 2013-12-03 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved August 8, 2008)
Jump up ^ 2002 UK Singles Chart ChartsPlus (Retrieved August 8, 2008)
Jump up ^ "The Billboard Hot 100 Singles & Tracks - Decade Year End Charts". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved April 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2002 Singles". Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ THE FIELD id (chart number) MUST BE PROVIDED for NEW ZEALAND CERTIFICATION.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Nelly – Hot in Herre". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved June 10, 2014. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
External links[edit]
HamieNET — "Hot in Herre" MIDI files
"Hot in Herre" Official music video on YouTube
[hide]
v
t
e
Nelly
Discography
Awards and nominations
Studio albums
and singles
Country Grammar
"Country Grammar (Hot Shit)"
"E.I."
"Ride wit Me"
"Batter Up"
Nellyville
"Hot in Herre"
"Dilemma"
"Air Force Ones"
"Work It"
"Pimp Juice"
Sweat and Suit
"Flap Your Wings"
"Tilt Ya Head Back"
"Na-NaNa-Na"
"My Place"
"Over and Over"
"'N' Dey Say"
Brass Knuckles
"Wadsyaname"
"Party People"
"Body on Me"
"Stepped on My J'z"
5.0
"Just a Dream"
"Move That Body"
"Gone"
M.O.
"Hey Porsche"
"Get Like Me"
Compilations
Sweatsuit
The Best of Nelly
EPs
6 Derrty Hits
Remix albums
Da Derrty Versions: The Reinvention
Featured singles
"Where the Party At"
"Girlfriend (The Neptunes Remix)"
"Get It Poppin'"
"Nasty Girl"
"Call on Me"
"5000 Ones"
"Here I Am"
"Miss Me"
"Lose Control (Let Me Down)"
"Cruise (Remix)"
"4x4"
"I Don't Wanna Go to Bed"
"Millionaire"
Soundtrack singles
"#1"
"Shake Ya Tailfeather"
"Errtime"
"Warrior"
Other singles
"Iz U"
"Grillz"
"Tip Drill"
"The Champ"
"The Fix"
"Die a Happy Man"
Films
The Longest Yard
Related articles
St. Lunatics
Derrty Entertainment
Free City (with St. Lunatics)
Who's the Boss (with St. Lunatics)
The Main Event (with New Kids on the Block)
Book
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hot_in_Herre&oldid=825022540"
Categories:
2002 singles
Nelly songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs number-one singles
Billboard Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) number-one singles
Billboard Rap Songs number-one singles
Canadian Singles Chart number-one singles
Internet memes
Songs about sexuality
Music videos directed by Bille Woodruff
Music videos directed by Director X
Song recordings produced by The Neptunes
Songs written by Chad Hugo
Songs written by Pharrell Williams
Grammy Award for Best Male Rap Solo Performance
Universal Records singles
Dirty rap songs
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Cell theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Human cancer cells with nuclei (specifically the DNA) stained blue. The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so the entire nuclei are labeled. The cell on the left is going through mitosis and its DNA has condensed.
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life-forms.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Microscopes
2 Discovery of cells
3 Cell theory
4 Modern interpretation
5 The modern version of the cell theory
6 Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background
6.1 Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories
6.2 The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept
6.3 The reemergence of the bulk phase theories
7 Types of cells
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links
Microscopes
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope from the 17th century with a magnification of 270x.
Robert Hooke's microscope
The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[2] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[3][4] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[5]
Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[6]
Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[6]
Discovery of cells
Drawing of the structure of cork by Robert Hooke that appeared in Micrographia.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[5] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[7] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[8] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[5]
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[8] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[6] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[5]
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[9] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[10] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[11] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.
Cell theory
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881)
Theodor Schwann (1810–1882)
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[12] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[13] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[14] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[9]
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[6] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[9] This translated to:
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells
However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[15] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.
Modern interpretation
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[16]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[17]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[18]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]
The modern version of the cell theory
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]
Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.
Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[20] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[21] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl-, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl- as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg++. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph The Permeability of Living Cells, which rejects the bulk phase theories.
The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]
The reemergence of the bulk phase theories
In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.
In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.
Types of cells
Main article: Cell types
Prokaryote cell.
Eukaryote cell.
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[22] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[22] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[23] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[24]
See also
Biology portal
Cell adhesion
Cell biology
Cellular differentiation
Germ theory of disease
Membrane models
References
Jump up ^ Villarreal, Luis P. (August 8, 2008) Are Viruses Alive? Scientific American
Jump up ^ Atti Della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, page 554
Jump up ^ Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010). The Origins of the Telescope. Amsterdam University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-90-6984-615-6.
Jump up ^ William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391 - 392
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gest, H (2004). "The discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the Royal Society". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 58 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2004.0055. PMID 15209075.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mazzarello, P. (1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology. 1 (1): E13–5. doi:10.1038/8964. PMID 10559875. Archived from the original on 2015-06-03.
Jump up ^ Inwood, Stephen (2003). The man who knew too much: the strange and inventive life of Robert Hooke, 1635–1703. London: Pan. p. 72. ISBN 0-330-48829-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Becker, Wayne M.; Kleinsmith, Lewis J.; Hardin, Jeff (2003). The World of the Cell. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8053-4854-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, Richard. "History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell Structure". Advameg, Inc. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Dutrochet, Henri (1824) "Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la structure intime des animaux et des vegetaux, et sur leur motilite, par M.H. Dutrochet, avec deux planches"
Jump up ^ Kalenderblatt Dezember 2013 – Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät – Universität Rostock. Mathnat.uni-rostock.de (2013-11-28). Retrieved on 2015-10-15.
Jump up ^ Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
Jump up ^ Schleiden, M. J. (1839). "Beiträge zur Phytogenesis". Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin: 137–176.
Jump up ^ Schwann, T. (1839). Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen. Berlin: Sander.
Jump up ^ Silver, GA (1987). "Virchow, the heroic model in medicine: health policy by accolade". American Journal of Public Health. 77 (1): 82–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.1.82. PMC 1646803  . PMID 3538915.
Jump up ^ Wolfe
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 5
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 8
^ Jump up to: a b c "The modern version of the Cell Theory". Retrieved 12 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Ling, Gilbert N. (1984). In search of the physical basis of life. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0306414090.
Jump up ^ Michaelis, L. (1925). "Contribution to the Theory of Permeability of Membranes for Electrolytes". The Journal of General Physiology. 8 (2): 33–59. doi:10.1085/jgp.8.2.33. PMC 2140746  . PMID 19872189.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfe, p. 11
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 13
Jump up ^ Margulis, L. & Chapman, M.J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth ([4th ed.]. ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 116.
Bibliography
Wolfe, Stephen L. (1972). Biology of the cell. Wadsworth Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-534-00106-3.
Further reading
Turner W (January 1890). "The Cell Theory Past and Present". J Anat Physiol. 24 (Pt 2): 253–87. PMC 1328050  . PMID 17231856.
Tavassoli M (1980). "The cell theory: a foundation to the edifice of biology". Am. J. Pathol. 98 (1): 44. PMC 1903404  . PMID 6985772.
External links
Mallery C (2008-02-11). "Cell Theory". Retrieved 2008-11-25.
"Studying Cells Tutorial". 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
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History of Bolivia
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History of Bolivia
Overview
Pre-Columbian Bolivia
1532–1809
1809–1920
1920–1964
1964–1982
1982–present
Bolivia portal
v
t
e
After the fall of Tiwanaku empire, the many Aymara Lake Titicaca were conquered by the Inca empire. Prior to the Spanish conquest, the Andean province of Qullasuyu was a part of the Inca empire, while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by independent nomadic tribes. Spanish conquistadors, arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During most of the Spanish colonial rule, Bolivia was known as Upper Peru and administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. After the first call for independence in 1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Bolivian Republic, named for the Liberator Simón Bolívar, on August 6, 1825. Since then Bolivia has endured regular periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of various provinces to its neighbors, such as Acre, parts of the Gran Chaco and its Pacific coast, making it a land-locked country.
Contents
[hide]
1 Pre-Columbian period
2 Spanish colonial period
2.1 Conquest by Spain
2.2 Spanish administration
2.3 Christianity
3 Rebellions of native peoples
4 Struggle for independence
5 19th century
6 20th century
6.1 Early 20th century
6.2 Bolivian National Revolution
6.3 Military rule
6.4 Transition to democracy
7 1982 to present
7.1 2000 Cochabamba protests
7.2 2002 presidential election
7.3 Black October
7.4 The 2005 election and the Evo Morales administration
8 See also
9 Further reading
10 References
11 External links
Pre-Columbian period[edit]
Main article: Pre-Columbian Bolivia
Gateway of the Sun at Tiwanaku
Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent, AD 950
Cultures of indigenous peoples in Bolivia developed in the high altitude settings of altiplano with low oxygen levels, poor soils and extreme weather patterns. The better suited lowlands were sparsely inhabited by hunter-gatherer societies while much of the pre-Columbian population was concentrated in altiplano valleys of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca.
Potato was domesticated near lake Titicaca between 8000 and 5000 BC, quinoa some 3000–4000 years ago and production of copper began in 2000 BC. Llama, alpaca and vicuña were domesticated and used for transport, food and clothing.
Aymara people arrived in the region some 2000 years ago, eventually settling in Western Bolivia, Southern Peru and Northern Chile. Present-day Aymaras associate themselves with the advanced culture of Tiwanaku, which after 600 became an important regional power. According to early estimates, at its maximum extent, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers, and had between 15,000 - 30,000 inhabitants.[1] However, satellite imaging was used recently to map the extent of "flooded-raised fields" (suka qullu) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.[2]
William H. Isbell states that "Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population."[3] Tiwanaku gained its power through the trade it implemented between all of the cities within its empire.[4] After 950 a dramatic shift in climate occurred and there was a significant drop in precipitation for the Titicaca Basin.[5] Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1150 because food production collapses and could no longer sustain the large population. The land was not inhabited for many years after that.[5]
Between 1438 and 1527 the Inca empire embarked on a mass expansion, acquiring much of what is now western Bolivia under their 9th emperor, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, whose reign lasted from 1438 to 1471. Pachacuti Yupanqui was succeeded by his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui whose reign also increased the Incan territory and lasted from 1471 to 1493. During the 15th century the Incas conquered the region of Lake Titicaca and western Bolivia became a part of the Inca territory as province of Qullasuyu.
Spanish colonial period[edit]
Conquest by Spain[edit]
Further information: European colonization of the Americas and Spanish colonization of the Americas
Inca expansion (1438–1533)
Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luque led the Spanish discovery and conquest of the Inca empire. They first sailed south in 1524 along the Pacific coast from Panama to confirm the existence of a legendary land of gold called "Biru" (later altered to Peru).
Francisco Pizarro
Because the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak, the conquest was remarkably easy. After the Inca Emperor Huayna Capac died in 1527, his sons Huascar and Atahualpa fought over the succession. Although Atahualpa defeated his brother, he had not yet consolidated his power when the conquistadors arrived. Atahualpa did not attempt to defeat Pizarro when he arrived on the coast in 1532 because the Incan ruler was convinced that those who commanded the mountains also controlled the coast. Atahualpa’s refusal to accept the permanent Spanish presence and to convert to Christianity led to the bloody Battle of Cajamarca on November 16, 1532. Pizarro killed Atahualpa's 12-man honor guard and took the Inca captive at the so-called ransom room. One year later, the Inca capital of Cuzco fell and was refounded as a new Spanish settlement.
Despite Pizarro's quick victory, Inca rebellions soon began and continued periodically throughout the colonial period. In 1537 Manco Inca, whom the Spanish had established as a puppet emperor, rebelled against the new rulers and restored a "neo-Inca" state. This state continued to challenge Spanish authority even after the Spanish suppressed the revolt and beheaded Túpac Amaru in the public square of Cuzco in 1572. Later revolts in the Bolivian highlands were usually organized by the elders of the community and remained local in nature, except for the great rebellion of Túpac Amaru II.
During the first two decades of Spanish rule, the settlement of the Bolivian highlands — now known as Upper Peru (Alto Peru) or Real Audiencia of Charcas — was delayed by a civil war between the forces of Pizarro and Diego de Almagro. The two conquistadors had divided the Incan territory, with the north under the control of Pizarro and the south under that of Almagro. Fighting broke out in 1537 when Almagro seized Cuzco after suppressing the Manco Inca rebellion. Pizarro defeated and executed Almagro in 1538, but was himself assassinated three years later by former supporters of Almagro. Pizarro's brother Gonzalo assumed control of Upper Peru but soon became embroiled in a rebellion against the Spanish crown. Only with the execution of Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548 did Spanish crown succeed in reasserting its authority; later that year colonial authorities established the city of La Paz, which soon became an important commercial center.
The conquest and colonial rule were traumatic experiences for the indigenous peoples in Bolivia. Easily susceptible to European diseases, the native population decreased rapidly. However, resistance of indigenous people of the Bolivian lowlands managed to delay the conquest and settlement their lands. The Spanish established Sa Sierra in 1561, but the Gran Ce (colonial name for the arid Chaco region) remained a wild frontier throughout colonial rule. In the Chaco, the Indians, mostly Chiriguano, carried out unrelenting attacks against colonial settlements and remained independent of direct Spanish control.
Spanish administration[edit]
The Cerro Rico, from which the Spanish drew most of their silver
During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was under the authority of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Local government was implemented by the Real Audiencia of Charcas, located in Chuquisaca or La Plata (modern Sucre). Bolivian silver mines produced much of the Spanish Empires wealth, and Potosí, site of the famed Cerro Rico ("Rich Mountain") was for a couple of centuries the largest city in the Western Hemisphere.
The wealth of Upper Peru and its remoteness from Lima convinced the authorities to create a new audiencia in the city of Chuquisaca (present-day Sucre) in 1558. Chuquisaca had become particularly important as Potosí's administrative and agricultural supply center. The jurisdiction of the audiencia, known as Charcas, initially covered a radius of 100 leagues (1,796 km²) around Chuquisaca, but it soon included Santa Cruz and territory belonging to present-day Paraguay and, until 1568, also the entire district of Cuzco. The president of the audiencia had judicial authority as well as administrative and executive powers in the region, but only in routine matters; more important decisions were made in Lima. This situation led to a competitive attitude and the reputation of Upper Peru for assertiveness, a condition reinforced by the economic importance of the region.
The longevity of Spain's empire in South America can be explained partly by the successful administration of the colonies. Spain was at first primarily interested in controlling the independent-minded conquerors, but its main goal soon became maintaining the flow of revenue to the crown and collecting the tribute of goods and labor from the Indian population. To this end, Spain soon created an elaborate bureaucracy in the New World, in which various institutions served as watchdogs over each other and local officials had considerable autonomy. Spain exercised its control of smaller administrative units in the colonies through royal officials, such as the corregidor, who represented the king in the municipal governments that were elected by their citizens. By the early 17th century, there were four corregidores in Upper Peru.
In the late 18th century, Spain undertook an administrative reform to increase revenues of the crown and eliminate a number of abuses. It created an intendancy system, giving extensive powers to highly qualified officials who were directly responsible to the king. In 1784, Spain established four intendancy districts in Upper Peru, covering the present-day departments of La Paz, Cochabamba, Potosí, and Chuquisaca.
Upper Peru was joined to the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata with capital in Buenos Aires) upon its creation in 1776. The viceroy was aided by the audiencia (council), which was simultaneously the highest court of appeal in the jurisdiction and, in the absence of the viceroy, also had administrative and executive powers.
Christianity[edit]
Along with the conquistadors came the Catholic clergy which began the conversion of native peoples to Christianity. In 1552 the first bishopric in Upper Peru was established in La Plata; in 1605 La Paz and Santa Cruz also became bishoprics. In 1623, the Jesuits established the Royal and Pontifical Higher University of San Francisco Xavier of Chuquisaca, Upper Peru's first university.
The official Inca religion disappeared rapidly and Indians continued their local worship under the protection of local Indian rulers. As Christianity's influence grew, a new folk Catholicism developed, incorporating symbols of the indigenous religion. Whereas early Indian rebellions were anti-Christian, the revolts at the end of the 16th century were based in messianic Christian symbolism that was Roman Catholic and anti-Spanish. The church was tolerant of local Indian religions. In 1582 the bishop of La Plata permitted building of a sanctuary for the dark Virgen de Copacabana on the shores of Lake Titicaca.
Rebellions of native peoples[edit]
Main article: Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II
While many Indians adapted to Spanish ways by breaking with their traditions and actively attempting to enter the market economy, they also used the courts to protect their interests, especially against tribute assessments. Others clung to their customs as much as possible, and some rebelled against the white rulers. Local, mostly uncoordinated, rebellions occurred throughout colonial rule. More than 100 revolts occurred in the 18th century in Bolivia and Peru. Indian resentment to colonial rule increased in the 18th century when Spain demanded higher tribute payments and increased mita obligations in an attempt to improve the mining output. It sparked the great rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, this educated, Spanish-speaking Native American took the name of his ancestor, Túpac Amaru. Although Túpac Amaru II insisted that his movement was reformist and did not seek to overthrow Spanish rule, his demands included an autonomous region. The uprising quickly became a full-scale revolt. Approximately 60,000 Indians in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes rallied to the cause. After scoring some initial victories, including defeating a Spanish army of 1,200 men, Túpac Amaru II was captured and executed in May 1781; nonetheless, the revolt continued, primarily in Upper Peru. There, a supporter of Túpac Amaru II, the Indian chief Tomás Catari, had led an uprising in Potosí during the early months of 1780. Catari was killed by the Spaniards a month before Túpac Amaru II. Another major revolt was led by Julián Apaza, a sexton who took the names of the two rebel martyrs by calling himself Túpac Catari (also spelled Katari). He besieged La Paz for more than 100 days in 1781. During the siege, 20,000 people died.[6] In 1782 an Aymara woman, Bartolina Sisa, was executed for raising yet another revolt. Spain did not succeed in putting down all of the revolts until 1783 and then proceeded to execute thousands of Indians.
Struggle for independence[edit]
Main article: Bolivian War of Independence
In the late 18th century, a growing discontent with Spanish rule developed among the criollos who began to assume active roles in the economy, especially in mining and agricultural production, and thus resented the trade barriers established by the mercantalist policies of the Spanish crown. In addition, criollos were incensed that Spain reserved all higher administrative positions for peninsulares (Spanish-born persons).
The Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, questioning of authority and tradition, and individualistic tendencies, also contributed to criollo discontent. The Inquisition had not kept the writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, and others out of Spanish America; their ideas were often discussed by criollos, especially those educated at the university in Chuquisaca. Although Upper Peru was fundamentally loyal to Spain, the ideas of the Enlightenment and independence from Spain continued to be discussed by scattered groups of radicals.[7]
As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic Wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew. Bolivian historiography dates the proclamation of independence to 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of a republic named for Simón Bolívar.
The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 1807-08 by Napoleon's forces proved critical to the independence struggle in South America. The overthrow of the Bourbon Dynasty and the placement of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne tested the loyalty of the local elites in Upper Peru, who were suddenly confronted with several conflicting authorities. Most remained loyal to the Spanish Bourbons. Taking a wait-and-see attitude, they supported the Supreme Central Junta in Spain, a government which claimed to rule in the name of the abdicated Ferdinand VII. Some liberals eagerly welcomed the possible reforms to colonial rule promised by Joseph Bonaparte. A few officials supported the claims to a type of regency of the Spanish realms by Ferdinand's sister, Carlota, who at the moment governed from Brazil with her husband, Prince Regent John of Portugal.[8] Finally, a small number of radical Criollos wanted independence for Upper Peru.[9]
This conflict of authority resulted in a local power struggle in Upper Peru between 1808 and 1810, which constituted the first phase of the efforts to achieve independence. In 1808, the president of the Audiencia, Ramón García León de Pizarro, leaned towards affiliation with Carlotta. But the oidores of the Audiencia favored the Supreme Central Junta. On 25 May 1809, the oidores deposed President García León and established a junta to govern in the name of Ferdinand VII. On 16 July 1809, Pedro Domingo Murillo led another revolt by Criollos and Mestizos in La Paz and proclaimed an independent junta of Upper Peru, which would govern in the name of Ferdinand VII. By November 1809, Cochabamba, Oruro, and Potosí had joined the La Paz junta. Both revolts were put down by forces sent to La Paz by the viceroys of Peru and the Río de La Plata.[10]
During the following seven years, Upper Peru became the battleground for forces of the United Provinces of the River Plate and royalist troops from Peru. Although the royalists repulsed three Argentine invasions, guerrillas controlled parts of the countryside, where they formed six major republiquetas, or zones of insurrection. In these zones, local patriotism would eventually develop into a full fight for independence. By 1817, Upper Peru was relatively quiet and under the control of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Antonio José de Sucre, hero of Ayacucho
After 1820, conservative Criollos supported General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, a Charcas native, who refused to accept the restoration of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812. Olañeta, convinced that these measures threatened royal authority, refused to join either the liberal royalist forces or the rebel armies under the command of Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre. Olañeta did not relinquish his command even after the Peruvian royalists included him and his forces in their capitulation agreement following their defeat in the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824. Olañeta was killed by his own men on 1 April 1825. A constitutional congress declared Bolivia an independent republic on 6 August and named the new republic in honor of Bolívar, because it wanted to gain his support for Bolivian indepenence from Peru.
19th century[edit]
See also: History of Bolivia (1809–1920)
Bolivia during the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
During the presidency of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, Bolivia enjoyed the most successful period of her history with great social and economic advancement. Santa Cruz got involved in internal Peruvian political problems and succeeded in unifying Peru and Bolivia into a confederation, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation. As Santa Cruz openly declared the Inca Empire as a predecessor of his state, this move was perceived as a threat to regional power balance and a menace to countries on former Inca territory. The War of the Confederation broke out and different wars against almost all its neighbors were fought during this period with sound victories against its enemies. Arguably, the turning point took place on the fields of Paucarpata, where the Confederacion Peru-Boliviana, led by Santa Cruz, forced the Chilean and Peruvian rebel armies to sign the peace treaty known as the Paucarpata Treaty, which included their unconditional surrender; later this treaty was discarded by the Chilean parliament. The rebel Peruvians and the Chilean army set off to a new war against Santa Cruz, defeating the Confederation at the Battle of Yungay. This was the turning point in Bolivian history; after this moment, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics for nearly 40 years.
Going through a vicious economic and political crisis, Bolivia's military weakness was demonstrated during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), when it lost its Pacific seacoast and the adjoining nitrate rich fields to Chile. An increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s.
During the early part of the 20th century, about 1907, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of Liberal governments applied laissez-faire policies through the first third of the century.
20th century[edit]
See also: History of Bolivia (1920–1964) and History of Bolivia (1964–1982)
Early 20th century[edit]
Bolivia's territorial losses between the second half of the 19th century and first half of the 20th century
Living conditions of the indigenous peoples, who constitute more than half of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on gigantic estates with vast land with many holdings, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–1935) marked a turning point. Great loss of life and territory discredited the traditional ruling classes, while service in the army produced stirrings of political awareness among the indigenous people. In 1936 the Standard Oil was nationalized and the state-owned firm Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) was created. From the end of the Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, the emergence of contending ideologies and the demands of new groups convulsed Bolivian politics.
Bolivian National Revolution[edit]
Standing alongside the Mexican Revolution, the Bolivian National Revolution is one of the most significant sociopolitical events to occur in Latin America during the 20th century.[dubious – discuss] The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) emerged from the ashes of the Chaco War in 1941 as a middle-class political coalition eschewing Marxism for nationalism. The MNR participated in the military-civilian regime of Gualberto Villarroel (1943–46), but was deposed of in 1946 by the mining oligarchy and the Partido Izquierda Revolucionario (PIR). The party initiated a brief but bloody civil war in October 1949, but was defeated. The MNR emerged victorious in the 1951 elections, but the results were called fraudulent by the opposition, and its right to the presidency was denied.
On 9 April 1952, the MNR led a successful revolt and set into motion the Bolivian National Revolution. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro and later, Hernan Siles, the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, nationalized the country's largest tin mines, carried out a sweeping land reform, and promoted rural education.
What is especially significant about the Revolution is that, for the first time in Republican history, the State attempted to incorporate into national life the Aymara and Quechua peasants that together constituted no less than 65 percent of the total population. Although the policies pursued by the MNR were largely corporatist and assimilationist, it marked a significant turning point in Bolivia's contested history of indigenous-state relations. Following the 1952 revolution, the Bolivian state sought to strengthen its role in rural areas, implementing an extensive public health campaign that specifically included indigenous Bolivians.[11]
Military rule[edit]
Twelve more tumultuous years of national reform left the country bitterly divided and in 1964, a military junta led by vice-president René Barrientos overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term; an event that many assert brought an end to the National Revolution and marked the beginning of nearly 20 years of military rule in Bolivia. Many scholars have looked to the CIA in explaining the November 1964 coup, but an increasing number of declassified U.S. documents refute the claim. Towards the end of Paz's second term, Barrientos — a popular, Quechua-speaking General — had succeeded in co-opting the peasant unions formed in the wake of the 1953 agrarian reform, establishing the Pacto Militar-Campesino (PMC). Throughout the 1960s Barriento leveled the peasant unions against labor unrest in the mines.
The 1969 death of Barrientos in a helicopter accident led to a succession of weak governments. A coup was led by the military, only to see a countercoup led by leftist Juan José Torres. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as President in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during Banzer's presidency, but demands for greater political freedom undercut his support. His call for elections in 1978 plunged Bolivia into turmoil once again.
Elections in 1978, 1979, and 1980 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. Luis García Meza carried out a ruthless and violent coup. His government was notorious for human rights abuses, narcotics trafficking, and economic mismanagement. This led to a breakdown in relations with the U.S., which under both the Carter and Ronald Reagan administrations refused to recognize García's government due to its drug ties. [1] Later convicted in absentia for crimes, including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year sentence in 1995.
Transition to democracy[edit]
After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in 1981, three other military governments within 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allowed it to choose a new chief executive.
1982 to present[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia (1982–present)
In October 1982, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956–60), Hernán Siles Zuazo again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.
In the 1985 elections, the Nationalist Democratic Action Party (ADN) of Gen. Banzer won a plurality of the popular vote, followed by former President Paz Estenssoro's MNR and former Vice President Jaime Paz Zamora's Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR). In the congressional run-off, the MIR sided with MNR, and Paz Estenssoro was chosen for a fourth term as President. When he took office in 1985, he faced a staggering economic crisis. Economic output and exports had been declining for several years.
Hyperinflation had reached an annual rate of 24,000%. Social unrest, chronic strikes, and unchecked drug trafficking were widespread. In 4 years, Paz Estenssoro's administration achieved economic and social stability. The military stayed out of politics, and all major political parties publicly and institutionally committed themselves to democracy. Human rights violations, which badly tainted some governments earlier in the decade, were no longer a problem. However, his remarkable accomplishments were not won without sacrifice. The collapse of tin prices in October 1985, coming just as the government was moving to reassert its control of the mismanaged state mining enterprise, forced the government to lay off over 20,000 miners.
Although the MNR list headed by Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada finished first in the 1989 elections, no candidate received a majority of popular votes and so in accordance with the constitution, a congressional vote determined who would be president. The Patriotic Accord (AP) coalition between Gen. Banzer's ADN and Jaime Paz Zamora's MIR, the second- and third-place finishers, respectively, won out. Paz Zamora assumed the presidency, and the MIR took half the ministries. Banzer's center-right ADN took control of the National Political Council (CONAP) and the other ministries.
Paz Zamora was a moderate, center-left President whose political pragmatism in office outweighed his Marxist origins. Having seen the destructive hyperinflation of the Siles Zuazo administration, he continued the neoliberal economic reforms begun by Paz Estenssoro, codifying some of them. Paz Zamora took a fairly hard line against domestic terrorism, personally ordering the December 1990 attack on terrorists of the Néstor Paz Zamora Committee.
Paz Zamora's regime was less decisive against narcotics trafficking. The government broke up a number of trafficking networks but issued a 1991 surrender decree giving lenient sentences to the biggest narcotics kingpins. Also, his administration was extremely reluctant to pursue coca eradication. It did not agree to an updated extradition treaty with the US, although two traffickers have been extradited to the U.S. since 1992. Beginning in early 1994, the Bolivian Congress investigated Paz Zamora's personal ties to accused major trafficker Isaac Chavarria, who subsequently died in prison while awaiting trial. MIR deputy chief Oscar Eid was jailed in connection with similar ties in 1994; he was found guilty and sentenced to 4 years in prison in November 1996. Technically still under investigation, Paz Zamora became an active presidential candidate in 1996.
The 1993 elections continued the tradition of open, honest elections and peaceful democratic transitions of power. The MNR defeated the ADN/MIR coalition by a 36% to 20% margin, and the MNR's Sánchez de Lozada was selected as president by an MNR/MBL/UCS coalition in the Congress.
Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sanchez de Lozada government was the capitalization program, under which investors acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) oil-corporation, telecommunications system, electric utilities, and others. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent social disturbances, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996.
In the 1997 elections, Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of the ADN, won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which hold a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on 6 August 1997.
2000 Cochabamba protests[edit]
Between January and April 2000, a series of anti-privatization protests took place in Cochabamba against the privatization of the municipal water supply that was being pushed through on the recommendation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The Bolivian government declared martial law, killing several people, arresting protest leaders and shutting down radio stations. After continued disturbances and civic pressure, the government finally rolled back the privatization on 10 April 2000.[12]
In 2001, Bechtel filed suit against the Bolivian government, citing damages of more for $25 million. Bechtel argues that its contract was only to administer the water system, which suffered from terrible internal corruption and poor service, and that the local government raised water prices. The continuing legal battle attracted attention from anti-globalization and anti-capitalist groups. This topic is explored in the 2003 documentary film The Corporation and on Bechtel's website. In January 2006, Bechtel and the other international partners settled the lawsuit against the Bolivian government for a reported $0.30 (thirty cents) after intense protests and a ruling on jurisdiction favorable to Bechtel by the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes.[13]
2002 presidential election[edit]
President Hugo Banzer resigned in August 2001, due to being diagnosed with lung cancer. He was succeeded by his vice-president, Jorge Quiroga. In the 2002 presidential elections, Sánchez de Lozada ran again, and narrowly beat NFR's Manfred Reyes Villa and the cocalero and indigenous leader Evo Morales of the Movement Toward Socialism (MAS) party, in an election claimed[by whom?] to have been tainted by clear signs [example needed] of electoral fraud[citation needed].
Several days before Bolivians went to the voting booths, the U.S. ambassador, Manuel Rocha, warned the Bolivian electorate that, if they voted for Morales, the US would cut off foreign aid and close its markets to the country.[citation needed] Morales nonetheless received nearly 21% of the vote, putting him only a couple points behind Sánchez de Lozada.
Black October[edit]
In recent years, an increasingly divisive conflict has been the Bolivian Gas War; a dispute over the exploitation of Bolivia's large natural gas reserves in the south of the country.
Strikes and blockades first erupted in September 2003, with several deaths and dozens of injuries in confrontations with the armed forces. President Sánchez de Lozada resigned under pressure from protesters, formally handing over the presidency to his vice-president, Carlos Mesa, in order to preserve the Constitutional order. He fled the country to the United States. Mesa was inaugurated and promised to address the demands of the protesting majority. In the face of mounting protests, he resigned on 7 March 2005, claiming he was unable to continue governing the country. With promises of support, he withdrew his resignation.
In May–June 2005, Mesa again tendered his resignation and in a hastily convened session of the Parliament in Sucre, Mr.Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé - the President of the Supreme Court - became President on the night of 9 June 2005. Political agreements were reached to modify the Constitution, and allow the full renewal of Parliament, simultaneously with a Presidential Election, on 4 December 2005.
The 2005 election and the Evo Morales administration[edit]
Main article: Presidency of Evo Morales
The deterioration of the political system contributed towards the rise of a loose confederation of indigenous social movements, the MAS and other parties, with the head of the MAS, Evo Morales, a former cocalero, as leader. In the elections of December 2005 Evo Morales and MAS obtained a comfortable victory reaching 54% of the electorate's votes, becoming the first Indigenous Bolivian president in history.
On 1 May 2006, Evo Morales delivered on his promises to nationalize most of Bolivia's natural gas fields, which many indigenous Bolivians had demanded for years. Troops were sent in to occupy the gas fields and take back control from foreign companies that same day.[14] Many were operated by Petrobras, Brazil's largest energy company, and this political development was expected to strain relations between Morales and Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. On 29 October 2006, the Morales government signed agreements with eight foreign gas firms including Petrobras, to give the Bolivian national gas company a majority stake in the gas fields, bringing the nationalization to completion.[15]
In late August 2007, the MAS purged the Constitutional Tribunal of magistrates that voted earlier in the year against Morales' move to fill Supreme Court vacancies while Congress was in recess.[16] The purge dismantled the outlet for arbitration between branches of government.
On 4 May 2008, autonomy referendums were held in four eastern departments, in which they declared themselves autonomous from the central government. All four referendums passed.[17] Evo Morales deemed this referendum illegal. Turnout was as low as 70%.[18]
In February 2009 a new constitution was enacted by Evo Morales. This gave Bolivians of indigenous descent more economic and political rights.
See also[edit]
Charca people
History of the Americas
History of Latin America
History of South America
Viceroyalty of Peru
Spanish empire
Further reading[edit]
Bakewell, Peter, Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian Labor in Potosí, 1545-1650. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1984.
Bakewell, Peter. Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosí. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1988.
Cole, Jeffrey. The Potosí Mita, 1573-1700: Compulsory Labor in the Andes. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1985.
Hanke, Lewis. The Imperial City of Potosí. The Hague 1956.
Klein, Herbert S., A Concise History of Bolivia. 2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press 2011.
Klein, Herbert S. " Recent Trends in Bolivian Studies," Latin American Research Review 31:1 (1996).
Klein, Herbert S. Haciendas and Ayllus: Rural Society in the Bolivian Andes in the 18th and 19th Centuries. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1993.
Larson, Brooke. "Bolivia Revisited: New Directions in North American Research in History and Anthropology," Latin American Research Review 23:1 (1988).
Lora, Guillermo. History of the Bolivian Labour Movement. New York: Cambridge University Press 1977.
Tandeter, Enrique. Coercion and Market: Silver Mining in Colonial Potosí, 1692-1826. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1993.
Wightman, Ann M. Indigenous Migration and Social Change: The Forasteros of Cuzco, 1520-1720. Durham: Duke University Press 1990.
Zulawski, Ann. "Social Differentiation, Gender, and Ethnicity in Colonial Bolivia, 1640-1725" Latin American Research Review 25:2 (1990).
Zulawski, Ann. They Eat from Their Labor: Work and Social Change in Colonial Bolivia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1995.
References[edit]
Much of the material in this article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website. This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
Jump up ^ Kolata, Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, 1993. p. 145
Jump up ^ Kolata, Alan L. Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara. John Willy and Sons, Hoboken, 1996.
Jump up ^ Isbell, William H. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon'. 731–751.
Jump up ^ McAndrews, Timothy L. et al. "Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia". Journal of Field Archaeology 24 (1997): 67–83.
^ Jump up to: a b Kolata, Alan L. 'The Tiwankau: Portrait of an Andean Civilization'. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, 1993.
Jump up ^ "Rebellions". History Department, Duke University. 22 February 1999. Archived from the original on 31 January 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Arnade, Charles W. (1957). The Emergence of the Republic of Bolivia. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 3-9.
Jump up ^ John Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808-1826 (Second edition) (New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 1986), 50-52, ISBN 0-393-95537-0; and Jaime E. Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 65-66, ISBN 0-521-62673-0.
Jump up ^ Arnade, Charles W. (1970 [1957]). The Emergence of the Republic of Bolivia. New York: Russell and Russell. pp. 1–9. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Lynch, 50-52. Rodríguez, 65-66.
Jump up ^ *Pacino, Nicole. "Prescription for a Nation: Public Health in Post-Revolutionary Bolivia, 1952-1964." PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara 2013.
Jump up ^ See the Cochabamba protests of 2000 for further information
Jump up ^ Bechtel abandons its ICSID claim against Bolivia Opinio Juris, 10 February 2006
Jump up ^ BIF Bulletin No 2
Jump up ^ "Analysis: Bolivia's gas nationalization". UPI. 1 November 2006.
Jump up ^ Lehoucq, Fabrice. "Bolivia's Constitutional Breakdown." Journal of Democracy 19, no. 4 (2008): 110-124.
Jump up ^ BIF Bulletin Special Edition May 2008
Jump up ^ Bolivia's referendum sees low turnout
External links[edit]
U.S. State Department Background Note: Bolivia
Bolivia
Rulers.org — Bolivia List of rulers for Bolivia
Bolivia Information Forum Background and analysis of Bolivian issues
¡Vale un Potosí!. On paradox of poverty in Bolivia.
Aportes críticos. On Bolivian political life
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Bolivia articles
History
To 1809
Spanish colonization
1809–1920
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1920–64
Chaco War
1964–82
1982–present
Cochabamba protests
Gas conflict
Geography
Cities
Climate
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Environmental issues
Extreme points
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Mountains
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Bolivia&oldid=837238629"
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