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Respiratory tract
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Organs involved in transmission of air to and from the point where gases diffuse into tissue
"Airway" redirects here. For an aerial route taken by airplanes, see Airway (aviation). For other uses, see Airway (disambiguation).
Respiratory tract
Conducting passages
Details
System
respiratory system
Identifiers
FMA
265130
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration. Air is breathed in through the nose or the mouth. In the nasal cavity, a layer of mucous membrane acts as a filter and traps pollutants and other harmful substances found in the air. Next, air moves into the pharynx, a passage that contains the intersection between the esophagus and the larynx. The opening of the larynx has a special flap of cartilage, the epiglottis, that opens to allow air to pass through but closes to prevent food from moving into the airway.
From the larynx, air moves into the trachea and down to the intersection that branches to form the right and left primary (main) bronchi. Each of these bronchi branch into secondary (lobar) bronchi that branch into tertiary (segmental) bronchi that branch into smaller airways called bronchioles that eventually connect with tiny specialized structures called alveoli that function in gas exchange.
The lungs which are located in the thoracic cavity, are protected from physical damage by the rib cage. At the base of the lungs is a sheet of skeletal muscle called the diaphragm. The diaphragm separates the lungs from the stomach and intestines. The diaphragm is also the main muscle of respiration involved in breathing, and is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
The lungs are encased in a serous membrane that folds in on itself to form the pleurae – a two-layered protective barrier. The inner visceral pleura covers the surface of the lungs, and the outer parietal pleura is attached to the inner surface of the thoracic cavity. The pleurae enclose a cavity called the pleural cavity that contains pleural fluid. This fluid is used to decrease the amount of friction that lungs experience during breathing.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Upper respiratory tract
1.2 Lower respiratory tract
1.3 Microanatomy
2 Function
2.1 Respiration
2.2 Defences against infection
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Infection
3.2 Lung cancer
3.3 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
3.4 Asthma
4 See also
5 References
Structure[edit]
Complete respiratory system
The respiratory tract is divided into the upper airways and lower airways. The upper airways or upper respiratory tract includes the nose and nasal passages, paranasal sinuses, the pharynx, and the portion of the larynx above the vocal folds (cords). The lower airways or lower respiratory tract includes the portion of the larynx below the vocal folds, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The lungs can be included in the lower respiratory tract or as separate entity and include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.[citation needed]
The respiratory tract can also be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone, based on the distinction of transporting gases or exchanging them.
The conducting zone includes structures outside of the lungs – the nose, pharynx, larynx, and trachea, and structures inside the lungs – the bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles. The conduction zone conducts air breathed in that is filtered, warmed, and moistened, into the lungs. It represents the 1st through the 16th division of the respiratory tract. The conducting zone is most of the respiratory tract that conducts gases into and out of the lungs, but excludes the respiratory zone that exchanges gases. The conducting zone also functions to offer a low resistance pathway for airflow. It provides a major defense role in its filtering abilities.
The respiratory zone includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli, and is the site of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange with the blood. The respiratory bronchioles and the alveolar ducts are responsible for 10% of the gas exchange. The alveoli are responsible for the other 90%. The respiratory zone represents the 16th through the 23rd division of the respiratory tract.
From the bronchi, the dividing tubes become progressively smaller with an estimated 20 to 23 divisions before ending at an alveolus[citation needed].
Upper respiratory tract[edit]
Details of upper respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory tract, can refer to the parts of the respiratory system lying above the sternal angle (outside of the thorax),[1] above the vocal folds, or above the cricoid cartilage.[2][3] The larynx is sometimes included in both the upper and lower airways.[4] The larynx is also called the voice box and has the associated cartilage that produces sound. The tract consists of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx) and sometimes includes the larynx.
Lower respiratory tract[edit]
Trachea
Mainstem bronchus
Lobar bronchus
Segmental bronchus
Bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveolus
The lower respiratory tract or lower airway is derived from the developing foregut and consists of the trachea, bronchi (primary, secondary and tertiary), bronchioles (including terminal and respiratory), and lungs (including alveoli).[5] It also sometimes includes the larynx.
The lower respiratory tract is also called the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree, to describe the branching structure of airways supplying air to the lungs, and includes the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.[6]
trachea
main bronchus (diameter approximately 1 – 1.4 cm in adults)[7]
lobar bronchus (diameter approximately 1 cm)
segmental bronchus (diameter 4.5 to 13 mm)[7]
subsegmental bronchus (diameter 1 to 6 mm)[7]
conducting bronchiole
terminal bronchiole
respiratory bronchiole
alveolar duct
alveolar sac
alveolus
At each division point or generation, one airway branches into two or more smaller airways. The human respiratory tree may consist on average of 23 generations, while the respiratory tree of the mouse has up to 13 generations. Proximal divisions (those closest to the top of the tree, such as the bronchi) mainly function to transmit air to the lower airways. Later divisions including the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts and alveoli, are specialized for gas exchange.
The trachea is the largest tube in the respiratory tract and consists of tracheal rings of hyaline cartilage. It branches off into two bronchial tubes, a left and a right main bronchus. The bronchi branch off into smaller sections inside the lungs, called bronchioles. These bronchioles give rise to the air sacs in the lungs called the alveoli.[8]
The lungs are the largest organs in the lower respiratory tract. The lungs are suspended within the pleural cavity of the thorax. The pleurae are two thin membranes, one cell layer thick, which surround the lungs. The inner (visceral pleura) covers the lungs and the outer (parietal pleura) lines the inner surface of the chest wall. This membrane secretes a small amount of fluid, allowing the lungs to move freely within the pleural cavity while expanding and contracting during breathing. The lungs are divided into different lobes. The right lung is larger in size than the left, because of the heart's being situated to the left of the midline. The right lung has three lobes – upper, middle, and lower (or superior, middle and inferior), and the left lung has two – upper and lower (or superior and inferior), plus a small tongue-shaped portion of the upper lobe known as the lingula. Each lobe is further divided up into segments called bronchopulmonary segments. Each lung has a costal surface, which is adjacent to the ribcage; a diaphragmatic surface, which faces downward toward the diaphragm; and a mediastinal surface, which faces toward the center of the chest, and lies against the heart, great vessels, and the carina where the two mainstem bronchi branch off from the base of the trachea.
The alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. The mean number of alveoli in a human lung is 480 million.[9] When the diaphragm contracts, a negative pressure is generated in the thorax and air rushes in to fill the cavity. When that happens, these sacs fill with air, making the lung expand. The alveoli are rich with capillaries, called alveolor capillaries. Here the red blood cells absorb oxygen from the air and then carry it back in the form of oxyhaemaglobin, to nourish the cells. The red blood cells also carry carbon dioxide (CO2) away from the cells in the form of carboxyhemoglobin and releases it into the alveoli through the alveolor capillaries. When the diaphragm relaxes, a positive pressure is generated in the thorax and air rushes out of the alveoli expelling the carbon dioxide.
Microanatomy[edit]
See also: Respiratory epithelium
Respiratory epithelium
The respiratory tract is covered in epithelium, which varies down the tract. There are glands and mucus produced by goblet cells in parts, as well as smooth muscle, elastin or cartilage. Most of the epithelium (from the nose to the bronchi) is covered in ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, commonly called respiratory epithelium.[10] The cilia beat in one direction, moving mucus towards the throat where it is swallowed. Moving down the bronchioles, the cells get more cuboidal in shape but are still ciliated.
Glands are abundant in the upper respiratory tract, but there are fewer lower down and they are absent starting at the bronchioles. The same goes for goblet cells, although there are scattered ones in the first bronchioles.
Cartilage is present until the small bronchi. In the trachea they are C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage, whereas in the bronchi the cartilage takes the form of interspersed plates. Smooth muscle starts in the trachea, where it joins the C-shaped rings of cartilage. It continues down the bronchi and bronchioles, which it completely encircles. Instead of hard cartilage, the bronchi and bronchioles are composed of elastic tissue.

The lungs are made up of thirteen different kinds of cells, eleven types of epithelial cell and two types of mesenchymal cell.[11] The epithelial cells form the lining of the tracheal, and bronchial tubes, while the mesenchymal cells line the lungs.
Differences in cells along the respiratory tract.
Transverse section of tracheal tissue. Note that image is incorrectly labeled "ciliated stratified epithelium" at upper right.
Function[edit]
Most of the respiratory tract exists merely as a piping system for air to travel in the lungs, and alveoli are the only part of the lung that exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood.
Respiration[edit]
Main article: Breathing
Respiration is the rhythmical process of breathing, in which air is drawn into the alveoli of the lungs via inhalation and subsequently expelled via exhalation. When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs. The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spine, and sternum. In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air is transferred into the blood and circulated throughout the body. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is transferred from returning blood back into gaseous form in the lungs and exhaled through the lower respiratory tract and then the upper, to complete the process of breathing.
Unlike the trachea and bronchi, the upper airway is a collapsible, compliant tube. As such, it has to be able to withstand suction pressures generated by the rhythmic contraction of the diaphragm that sucks air into the lungs. This is accomplished by the rhythmic contraction of upper airway muscles, such as the genioglossus (tongue) and the hyoid muscles. In addition to rhythmic innervation from the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata, the motor neurons controlling the muscles also receive tonic innervation that sets a baseline level of stiffness and size.
The diaphragm is the primary muscle that allows for lung expansion and contraction. Smaller muscles between the ribs, the external intercostals, assist with this process.
Defences against infection[edit]
The epithelial lining of the upper respiratory tract is interspersed with goblet cells that secrete a protective mucus. This helps to filter waste, which is eventually either swallowed into the highly acidic stomach environment or expelled via spitting. The epithelium lining the respiratory tract is covered in small hairs called cilia. These beat rhythmically out from the lungs, moving secreted mucus foreign particles toward the laryngopharynx upwards and outwards, in a process called the mucociliary escalator. In addition to keeping the lower respiratory tract sterile, they prevent mucus accumulation in the lungs. Macrophages in the alveoli are part of the immune system which engulf and digest any inhaled harmful agents.
Hair in the nostrils plays a protective role, trapping particulate matter such as dust.[12] The cough reflex expels all irritants within the mucus membrane to the outside. The airways of the lungs contain rings of muscle. When the passageways are irritated by some allergen, these muscles can constrict.
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Respiratory disease
The respiratory tract is a common site for infections.
Infection[edit]
Main articles: Upper respiratory tract infection, Lower respiratory tract infection, and Pneumonia
Upper respiratory tract infections are probably the most common infections in the world.
The respiratory system is very prone to developing infections in the lungs. Infants and older adults are more likely to develop infections in their lungs, because their lungs are not as strong in fighting off these infections. Most of these infections used to be fatal, but with new research and medicine, they are now treatable. With bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed, while viral infections are harder to treat, but still curable.
The common cold/flu is the most common cause for the upper respiratory tract infection, which can cause more serious illness that can develop in the lower respiratory tract. Pneumonia is the most common, and frequent lower respiratory tract infection. This can be either viral, bacterial, or fungal. This infection is very common, because pneumonia can be airborne, and when you inhale this infection in the air, the particles enter the lungs and move into the air sacs. This infection quickly develops in the lower part of the lung, and fills the lung with fluid, and excess mucus. This causes difficulty in breathing, and coughing as the lower respiratory tract tries to get rid of the fluid in the lungs. You can be more prone to developing this infection if you have asthma, flu, heart disease, or cancer[8][dead link]
Bronchitis is another common infection that takes place in the lower respiratory tract. It is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two forms of this infection: acute bronchitis, which is treatable and can go away without treatment, or chronic bronchitis, which comes and goes, but will always affect one's lungs. Bronchitis increases the amount of mucus that is natural in your respiratory tract. Chronic bronchitis is common in smokers, because the tar from smoking accumulates over time, causing the lungs to work harder to repair themselves.[8][dead link]
Tuberculosis is one of many other infections that occurs in the lower respiratory tract. You can contract this infection from airborne droplets, and if inhaled you are at risk of this disease. This is a bacterial infection which deteriorates the lung tissue resulting in coughing up blood.[8][dead link] This infection is deadly if not treated.
Lung cancer[edit]
Main article: Lung cancer
Some of these cancers have environmental causes such as smoking. When a tobacco product is inhaled, the smoke paralyzes the cilia, causing mucus to enter the lungs. Frequent smoking, over time causes the cilia hairs to die and can no longer filter mucus. Tar from the smoke inhaled enters the lungs, turning the pink-coloured lungs black. The accumulation of this tar could eventually lead to lung cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[5]
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease[edit]
Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common lower respiratory disease that can be caused by exposure to harmful chemicals, or prolonged use of tobacco. This disease is chronic and progressive, the damage to the lungs is irreversible and eventually fatal. COPD destroys the alveoli, and lung tissue which makes breathing very difficult, causing shortness of breath, hyperventilation, and raised chest. The decreased number of alveoli causes loss of oxygen supply to the lungs, and an increased accumulation of carbon dioxide. There are two types of COPD: primary and secondary. Primary COPD can be found in younger adults. This type of COPD deteriorates the air sacs, and lung mass. Secondary COPD can be found in older adults who smoke or have smoked and have a history of bronchitis. Older terms for COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis.[5]
Asthma[edit]
Main article: Asthma
The bronchi are the main passages to the right and left lungs. These airways carry the oxygen to the bronchioles inside the lungs. Inflammation of the bronchii and bronchioles can cause them to swell up, which could lead to an asthma attack. This results in wheezing, tightness of the chest and severe difficulty in breathing. There are different types of asthma that affect the functions of the bronchial tubes. Allergies can also set off an allergic reaction, causing swelling of the bronchial tubes; as a result, the air passage will swell up, or close up completely.[8][dead link]
See also[edit]
Jet ventilation
Nasopharyngeal airway
Oropharyngeal airway
References[edit]
Jump up ^ I. Edward Alcamo; John Bergdahl (29 July 2003). Anatomy Coloring Workbook. The Princeton Review. pp. 238–. ISBN 978-0-375-76342-7. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Ronald M. Perkin; James D Swift; Dale A Newton (1 September 2007). Pediatric hospital medicine: textbook of inpatient management. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 473–. ISBN 978-0-7817-7032-3. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Jeremy P. T. Ward; Jane Ward; Charles M. Wiener (2006). The respiratory system at a glance. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-1-4051-3448-4. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Sabyasachi Sircar (2008). Principles of medical physiology. Thieme. pp. 309–. ISBN 978-3-13-144061-7. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bronchial Anatomy". Retrieved 5 Mar 2014.
Jump up ^ "Tracheobronchial tree | Radiology Reference Article". Radiopaedia. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Page 81 in Robert M. Kacmarek, Steven Dimas & Craig W. Mack (2013). Essentials of Respiratory Care. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-032327778-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Human Respiratory System". Archived from the original on 2008-10-15. Retrieved 5 Oct 2008.
Jump up ^ Ochs, M; et al. (1 January 2004). "The number of alveoli in the human lung". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 169 (1): 120–4. doi:10.1164/rccm.200308-1107OC. PMID 14512270. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Moore EJ, Feliciano DV, Mattox KL (2004). Trauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division. p. 545. ISBN 0-07-137069-2. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Cellular structure, function and organization in the lower respiratory tract". Retrieved 5 Oct 2008.
Jump up ^ Blaivas, Allen J. (29 June 2012). "Anatomy and function of the respiratory system". Penn State Hershey Medical Center. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the lower respiratory tract
Respiratory tree
Trachea
Tracheal rings
Annular ligaments
Carina
Bronchi
Main
left
right
Secondary
eparterial
Tertiary
Lungs
General
Landmarks
Base
Apex
Root
Hilum
Fissures
Horizontal
Oblique
Superior lobe
Lingula of left lung
Middle lobe of right lung
Inferior lobe
BP segment
Bronchiole: Conducting zone (Terminal bronchiole)
Respiratory zone (Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveolus
Blood-air barrier)
Cells
Alveolar cells
Type I
Type II
Club cell
Goblet cell
[show]
v
t
e
Respiratory physiology
Respiration
breath
inhalation
exhalation
respiratory rate
respirometer
pulmonary surfactant
compliance
elastic recoil
hysteresivity
airway resistance
bronchial
hyperresponsiveness
constriction
dilatation
mechanical ventilation
Control
pons
pneumotaxic center
apneustic center
medulla
dorsal respiratory group
ventral respiratory group
chemoreceptors
central
peripheral
pulmonary stretch receptors
Hering–Breuer reflex
Lung volumes
VC
FRC
Vt
dead space
CC
PEF
calculations
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FEV1/FVC ratio
Lung function tests
spirometry
body plethysmography
peak flow meter
nitrogen washout
Circulation
pulmonary circulation
hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
pulmonary shunt
Interactions
ventilation (V)
Perfusion (Q)
Ventilation/perfusion ratio
V/Q scan
zones of the lung
gas exchange
pulmonary gas pressures
alveolar gas equation
alveolar–arterial gradient
hemoglobin
oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve (Oxygen saturation
2,3-BPG
Bohr effect
Haldane effect)
carbonic anhydrase (chloride shift)
oxyhemoglobin
respiratory quotient
arterial blood gas
diffusion capacity (DLCO)
Insufficiency
high altitude
oxygen toxicity
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text:
North Atlantic Deep Water
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North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a deep water mass formed in the North Atlantic Ocean. Thermohaline circulation of the world's oceans involves the flow of warm surface waters from the southern hemisphere into the North Atlantic. Water flowing northward becomes modified through evaporation and mixing with other water masses, leading to increased salinity. When this water reaches the North Atlantic it cools and sinks through convection, due to its decreased temperature and increased salinity resulting in increased density. NADW is the outflow of this thick deep layer, which can be detected by its high salinity, high oxygen content, nutrient minima, high 14C/12C,[1] and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).[2]
CFCs are anthropogenic substances that enter the surface of the ocean from gas exchange with the atmosphere. This distinct composition allows its path to be traced as it mixes with Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW), which in turn fills the deep Indian Ocean and part of the South Pacific. NADW and its formation is essential to the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which is responsible for transporting large amounts of water, heat, salt, carbon, nutrients and other substances from the Tropical Atlantic to the Mid and High Latitude Atlantic.[3]
In the conveyor belt model of thermohaline circulation of the world's oceans, the sinking of NADW pulls the waters of the North Atlantic drift northward. However, this is almost certainly an oversimplification of the actual relationship between NADW formation and the strength of the Gulf Stream/North Atlantic drift.[4]
NADW has a temperature of 2-4 °C with a salinity of 34.9-35.0 psu found at a depth between 1500 and 4000m.
Contents
[hide]
1 Formation and sources
2 Spreading pathways
3 Variability
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Formation and sources[edit]
The NADW is a complex of several water masses formed by deep convection and also by overflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland Ridge.[5]
The circulation patterns in the North Atlantic Ocean. Cold, dense water is shown in blue, flowing south from upper latitudes, while warm, less dense water, shown in red flows north from low latitudes.[6]
The upper layers are formed by deep open ocean convection during winter. Labrador Sea Water (LSW), formed in the Labrador Sea can reach depths of 2000 m as dense water sinks downward. Classical Labrador Sea Water (CLSW) production is dependent on preconditioning of water in the Labrador Sea from the previous year, and the strength of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[5]
During a positive NAO phase, conditions exist for strong winter storms to develop. These storms freshen the surface water, and their winds increase cyclonic flow, which allows denser waters to sink. As a result, the temperature, salinity, and density vary yearly. In some years these conditions do not exist and CLSW is not formed. CLSW has characteristic potential temperature of 3 °C, salinity of 34.88 psu, and density of 34.66.[5]
Another component of LSW is the Upper Labrador Sea Water (ULSW). ULSW forms at a density lower than CLSW and has a CFC maximum between 1200 and 1500 m in the subtropical North Atlantic. Eddies of cold less saline ULSW have similar densities of warmer saltier water and flow along the DWBC, but maintain their high CFCs. The ULSW eddies erode rapidly as they mix laterally with this warmer saltier water.[5]
The lower waters mass of NADW form from overflow of the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland Ridge. They are Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) and Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW). The overflows are a combination of dense Arctic Ocean water (18%), modified Atlantic water (32%), and intermediate water from the Nordic seas (20%), that entrain and mix with other water masses (contributing 30%) as they flow over the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland Ridge.[7]
The formation of both of these waters involves the conversion of warm salty northward flowing surface waters to cold dense deep waters behind the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland Ridge. Water flow from the North Atlantic current enters the Arctic Ocean through the Norwegian Current which splits into the Fram Strait and Barents Sea Branch.[8] Water from the Fram Strait recirculates, reaching a density of DSOW, sinks, and flows towards the Denmark Strait. Water flowing into the Barent Sea feeds ISOW.
ISOW enters the eastern North Atlantic over the Iceland-Scotland Ridge through the Faeroe Bank Channel at a depth of 850 m, with some water flowing over the shallower Iceland-Faeroe Rise. ISOW has a low CFC concentrations and it has been estimated from these concentrations that ISOW resides behind the ridge for 45 years.[5] As the water flows southward at the bottom of the channel, it entrains surrounding water of the eastern North Atlantic, and flows to the western North Atlantic through the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone, entraining with LSW. This water is less dense than (DSOW) and lays above it as it flows cyclonically in the Irminger Basin.
DSOW is the coldest, densest, and freshest water mass of NADW. DSOW formed behind the ridge flows over the Denmark Strait at a depth of 600m. The most significant water mass contributing to DSOW is Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW).[9] Winter cooling and convection allow AIW to sink and pool behind the Denmark Strait. Upper AIW has a high amount of anthropogenic tracers due its exposure to the atmosphere. AIW's tritium and CFC signature is observed in DSOW at the base of the Greenland continental slope. This also showed that the DSOW flowing 450 km to the south was no older than 2 years.[5] Both the DSOW and ISOW flow around the Irminger Basin and Labrador Sea in a deep boundary current. Leaving the Greenland Sea with 2.5 Sv its flow increases to 10 Sv south of Greenland. It is cold and relatively fresh, flowing below 3500 m in the DWBC and spreading inward the deep Atlantic basins.
Spreading pathways[edit]
The NADW flows southward through the Atlantic, approaching the Antarctic Bottom Water past the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
The southward spread of NADW along the Deep Western Boundary current (DWBC) can be traced by its high oxygen content, high CFCs, and density.[10]
ULSW is the major source of upper NADW. ULSW advects southward from the Labrador Sea in small eddies that mix into the DWBC. A CFC maxima associated with ULSW has been observed along 24°N in the DWBC at 1500 m.[10] Some of the upper ULSW recirculates into the Gulf Stream, while some remains in the DWBC. High CFCs in the subtropics indicate recirculation in the subtropics.[5]
ULSW that remains in the DWBC dilutes as it moves equatorward. Deep convection in the Labrador Sea during the late 1980s and early 1990s resulted in CLSW with a lower CFC concentration due to downward mixing. Convection allowed the CFCs to penetrate further downward to 2000m. These minimum could be tracked, and were first observed in the subtropics in the early 1990s.[5]
ISOW and DSOW flow around the Irminger Basin and DSOW entering the DWBC. These are the two lower portions of the NADW. Another CFC maximum is seen at 3500 m in the subtropics from the DSOW contribution to NADW.[10] Some of the NADW recirculates with the northern gyre. To the south of the gyre NADW flows under the Gulf Stream where it continues along the DWBC until it reaches another gyre in the subtropics.
Lower North Atlantic Deep Water (LNADW), originating in the Greenland and Norwegian Seas, brings high salinity, oxygen, and freon concentrations towards to the Romanche Trench, an equatorial fracture zone in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). Found at depths around 3,600–4,000 m (11,800–13,100 ft), LNADW flow east through the trench over AABW, the trench being the only opening in the MAR where inter-basin exchange is possible for these two water masses.[11]
Variability[edit]
It is believed that North Atlantic Deep Water formation has been dramatically reduced at times during the past (such as during the Younger Dryas or during Heinrich events), and that this might correlate with a decrease in the strength of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic drift, in turn cooling the climate of northwestern Europe.
There is concern that global warming might cause this to happen again. It is also hypothesized that during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), NADW was replaced with an analogous watermass that occupied a shallower depth known as Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW).
See also[edit]
Ekman transport
Irminger Current
Sargasso Sea
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Broeker, Wallace (1991). "The great ocean conveyor". Oceanography. 4 (2): 79-89.
Jump up ^ "North Atlantic circulation and thermohaline forcing". Sam.ucsd.edu. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Schmitner, Andreas; et al. (2007). "Introduction: The Ocean's Meridional Overturning Circulation" (PDF). People.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived September 25, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Smethie, William M, et al. "Tracing the flow of North Atlantic Deep Water using chlorofluorocarbons." Journal of Geophysical Research 105.C6 (2000):14297-14323.
Jump up ^ "NASA GISS: Science Briefs: Modeling an Abrupt Climate Change". Giss.nasa.gov. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Tanhua, Toste, K A AOlsson, and Emil Jeansson. "Formation of Denmark Strait overflow water and its hydro-chemical composition." Journal of marine systems 57.3-4 (2005):264-288.
Jump up ^ Schauer, Ursula, et al. "Impact of eastern Arctic shelf waters on the Nansen Basin intermediate layers." Journal of Geophysical Research 102.C2 (1997):3371-3382.
Jump up ^ Swift, James H, KnutAagaard, and Svend-AageMalmberg. "The contribution of the Denmark strait overflow to the deep North Atlantic." Deep-Sea Research Part I 27.1 (1980):29-42.
^ Jump up to: a b c Talley, et al. Physical Oceanography: An Introduction. Academic Press 2011
Jump up ^ Ferron, B.; Mercier, H.; Speer, K.; Gargett, A.; Polzin, K. (1998). "Mixing in the Romanche Fracture Zone". Journal of Physical Oceanography. 28 (10): 1929–1945. doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<1929:MITRFZ>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Dickson, R. R.; Brown, Juan (1994). "The production of North Atlantic Deep Water: Sources, rates, and pathways" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 99 (C6): 12,319–12,341. doi:10.1029/94JC00530. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
External links[edit]
Glossary of Physical Oceanography and Related Disciplines North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW)
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Forbes Celebrity 100
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Celebrity 100 is an annual list compiled and published by Forbes magazine since 1999. The purpose is to list the world's 100 highest-paid celebrities.
Contents
1 Celebrity 100 lists
1.1 1990s
1.2 2000s
1.3 2010s
2 References
3 External links
Celebrity 100 lists[edit]
Below is the top 10 for each year since the list's inception.
1990s[edit]
1999[1]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Michael Jordan Sportsperson (Basketball)
2
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
3
Leonardo DiCaprio Actor
4
Jerry Seinfeld Comedian
5
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
6
Spice Girls Musicians
7
Harrison Ford Actor
8
Robin Williams Comedian
9
Céline Dion Musician
10
The Rolling Stones Musicians
2000s[edit]
2000[2]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Julia Roberts Actor
2
George Lucas Filmmaker
3
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
4
Tom Hanks Actor
5
Michael Jordan Sportsperson (Basketball)
6
The Rolling Stones Musicians
7
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
8
Backstreet Boys Musicians
9
Cher Musician
10
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
2001[3]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Tom Cruise Actor
2
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
3
The Beatles Musicians
4
Britney Spears Musician
5
Bruce Willis Actor
6
Michael Jordan Sportsperson (Basketball)
7
Backstreet Boys Musicians
8
NSYNC Musicians
9
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
10
Mel Gibson Actor
2002[4]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Britney Spears Musicians
2
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
3
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
4
Madonna Musician
5
U2 Musicians
6
NSYNC Musicians
7
Mariah Carey Musicians
8
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
9
Michael Jordan Sportsperson (Basketball)
10
Tom Hanks Actor
2003[5]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Jennifer Aniston Actress
2
Eminem
Dr. Dre Musicians
3
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
4
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
5
Jennifer Lopez Singer / Actress
6
Paul McCartney Musician
7
Ben Affleck Actor
8
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
9
Tom Hanks Actor
10
The Rolling Stones Musicians
2004[6]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Mel Gibson Actor
2
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
3
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
4
Tom Cruise Actor
5
The Rolling Stones Musicians
6
J.K. Rowling Writer
7
Michael Jordan Sportsperson (Basketball)
8
Bruce Springsteen Musician
9
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
10
Johnny Depp Actor
2005[7]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
2
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
3
Mel Gibson Actor
4
George Lucas Filmmaker
5
Shaquille O'Neal Sportsperson (Basketball)
6
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
7
Johnny Depp Actor
8
Madonna Musician
9
Elton John Musician
10
Tom Cruise Actor
2006[8]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Tom Cruise Actor
2
The Rolling Stones Musicians
3
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
4
U2 Musicians
5
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
6
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
7
Howard Stern Radio personality
8
50 Cent Musician
9
Cast of The Sopranos Actors
10
Dan Brown Writer
2007[9]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
2
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
3
Madonna Musician
4
The Rolling Stones Musicians
5
Brad Pitt Actor
6
Johnny Depp Actor
7
Elton John Musician
8
Tom Cruise Actor
9
Jay-Z Musician
10
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
2008[10]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
2
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
3
Angelina Jolie Actress
4
Beyoncé Musician
5
David Beckham Sportsperson (Association football)
6
Johnny Depp Actor
7
Jay-Z Musician
8
The Police Musicians
9
J.K. Rowling Writer
10
Brad Pitt
Paula Deen Actor
Television personality
2009[11]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Angelina Jolie Actress
2
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
3
Madonna Musician
4
Beyoncé Musician
5
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
6
Bruce Springsteen Musician
7
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
8
Jennifer Aniston Actress
9
Brad Pitt Actor
10
Kobe Bryant Sportsperson (Basketball)
2010s[edit]
2010[12]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
2
Beyoncé Musician
3
James Cameron Filmmaker
4
Lady Gaga Musician
5
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
6
Britney Spears Musician
7
U2 Musicians
8
Sandra Bullock Actress
9
Johnny Depp Actor
10
Madonna Musician
2011[13]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Lady Gaga Musician
2
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
3
Justin Bieber Musician
4
U2 Musicians
5
Elton John Musician
6
Tiger Woods Sportsperson (Golf)
7
Taylor Swift Musician
8
Bon Jovi Musician
9
Simon Cowell Television personality
10
LeBron James Sportsperson (Basketball)
2012[14]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Jennifer Lopez Musician / Actress
2
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
3
Justin Bieber Musician
4
Rihanna Musician
5
Lady Gaga Musician
6
Britney Spears Musician
7
Kim Kardashian Television personality
8
Katy Perry Musician
9
Tom Cruise Actor
10
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
2013[15]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
2
Lady Gaga Musician
3
Steven Spielberg Filmmaker
4
Beyoncé Musician
5
Madonna Musician
6
Taylor Swift Musician
7
Bon Jovi Musicians
8
Roger Federer Sportsperson (Tennis)
9
Justin Bieber Musician
10
Ellen DeGeneres Television personality
2014[16]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Beyoncé Musician
2
LeBron James Sportsperson (Basketball)
3
Dr. Dre Musician
4
Oprah Winfrey Television personality
5
Ellen DeGeneres Television personality
6
Jay-Z Musician
7
Floyd Mayweather, Jr. Sportsperson (Boxing)
8
Rihanna Musician
9
Katy Perry Musician
10
Robert Downey, Jr. Actor
2015[17]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Floyd Mayweather, Jr. Sportsperson (Boxing)
2
Manny Pacquiao Sportsperson (Boxing)
3
Katy Perry Musician
4
/ One Direction Musicians
5
Howard Stern Television personality
6
Garth Brooks Musician
7
James Patterson Author
8
Robert Downey, Jr. Actor
8
Taylor Swift Musician
10
Cristiano Ronaldo Sportsperson (Association football)
2016[18]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Taylor Swift Musician
2
/ One Direction Musicians
3
James Patterson Author
4
Cristiano Ronaldo Sportsman (Association Football)
4
Dr. Phil McGraw Television Personality
6
Kevin Hart Comedian
7
Howard Stern Radio Personality
8
Lionel Messi Sportsman (Association Football)
9
Adele Musician
10
Rush Limbaugh Radio Personality
2017[19]
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Sean 'Diddy' Combs Musician
2
Beyoncé Musician
3
J. K. Rowling Author
4
Drake Musician
5
Cristiano Ronaldo Athlete (Association Football)
6
The Weeknd Musician
7
Howard Stern Radio Personality
8
Coldplay Musicians
9
James Patterson Author
10
LeBron James Athlete (Basketball)
2018
No.
Recipient
Career
1
Floyd Mayweather, Jr. Athlete (Boxing)
2
George Clooney Actor
3
Kylie Jenner Personality
4
Judy Sheindlin Personality
5
Dwayne Johnson Actor
6
U2 Musicians
7
Coldplay Musicians
8
Lionel Messi Athlete (Association football)
9
Ed Sheeran Musician
10
Cristiano Ronaldo Athlete (Association football)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "AmIAnnoying.com - Forbes' Celebrity 100 Power Ranking [1999]". amiannoying.com.
Jump up ^ "AmIAnnoying.com - Forbes' Celebrity 100 Power Ranking [2000]". amiannoying.com.
Jump up ^ "AmIAnnoying.com - Forbes' Celebrity 100 Power Ranking [2001]". amiannoying.com.
Jump up ^ "AmIAnnoying.com - Forbes' Celebrity 100 Power Ranking [2002]". amiannoying.com.
Jump up ^ "Forbes.com". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ Peter Kafka (18 June 2004). "The Celebrity 100". Forbes.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrity 100". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrity 100 - Forbes.com". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrity 100 - Forbes.com". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrity 100 - Forbes.com". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrity 100". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ "The Celebrity 100". forbes.com.
Jump up ^ "Celebrity 100 2011". Forbes.
Jump up ^ "Forbes' Celebrity 100: Jennifer Lopez Tops The 2012 List". The Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ Rebecka Schumann (26 June 2013). "Forbes Lists Top 100 Most Powerful Celebrities in 2013: Oprah Winfrey Takes Number One Spot [FULL LIST]". International Business Times.
Jump up ^ Dorothy Pomerantz (30 June 2014). "Beyoncé Knowles Tops The FORBES Celebrity 100 List". Forbes.
Jump up ^ Greenburg, Zack O'Malley (June 29, 2015). "Celebrity 100: The World's Highest-Paid Superstars Of 2015". Forbes. Retrieved September 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ Zack O'Malley Greenburg. "Celebrity 100: The World's Highest-Paid Superstars Of 2016". Forbes.
Jump up ^ Natalie Robehmed. "Celebrity 100: The World's Highest-Paid Celebrities Of 2017". Forbes.
External links[edit]
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Cochineal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the crimson-dye-producing insect of the Dactylopiidae family. It is not to be confused with the crimson-dye-producing insects of the Margarodidae family sometimes called Armenian cochineal and Polish cochineal.
Cochineal
Female (left) and male (right) cochineals
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Dactylopiidae
Genus: Dactylopius
Species: D. coccus
Binomial name
Dactylopius coccus
Costa, 1835
Synonyms
Coccus cacti Linnaeus, 1758
Pseudococcus cacti Burmeister, 1839
The cochineal (/kɒtʃɪˈniːl/ koch-i-NEEL or /ˈkɒtʃɪniːl/ KOCH-i-neel; Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived. A primarily sessile parasite native to tropical and subtropical South America as well as Mexico and Arizona, this insect lives on cacti in the genus Opuntia, feeding on plant moisture and nutrients. These insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, then are brushed off and dried.
The insect produces carminic acid that deters predation by other insects. Carminic acid, typically 17-24% of dried insects' weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal. Today, carmine is primarily used as a colorant in food and in lipstick.
The carmine dye was used in Central America in the 15th century for coloring fabrics and became an important export good during the colonial period. After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, natural-dye production gradually diminished. Health fears over artificial food additives, however, have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again,[1] with Peru being the largest exporter. Some towns in the Mexican state of Oaxaca are still working in handmade textiles using this cochineal.[2]
Other species in the genus Dactylopius can be used to produce cochineal extract, but they are extremely difficult to distinguish from D. coccus, even for expert taxonomists, and the latter scientific name (and the vernacular "cochineal insect") is therefore commonly used when one is actually referring to other biological species. The primary biological distinctions between species are minor differences in host plant preferences, in addition to very different geographic distributions.
Chemical structure of carminic acid, the predator-deterring substance found in high concentration in cochineal insects: The insoluble aluminium and calcium salts of this acid form red and purple dyes called carmine.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Art
4 Biology
4.1 Host cacti
5 Farming
5.1 Farming in Australia
5.2 Farming in Ethiopia
6 Dye
6.1 Uses
6.2 Risks and labeling
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Etymology[edit]
Cochineal is probably from French cochenille, Spanish cochinilla, Latin coccinus, meaning 'scarlet-colored', and Latin coccum, meaning 'berry (actually an insect) yielding scarlet dye'. See also the related word kermes which is the source of a similar but weaker Mediterranean dye also called crimson, which was used to color cloth red before discovery of cochineal in the New World. Some sources identify the Spanish source word for cochineal as cochinilla "wood louse" (a diminutive form of Spanish cochino, cognate with French cochon, meaning "pig")."[3]
History[edit]
Indian Collecting Cochineal with a Deer Tail by José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez (1777)
Cochineal dye was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples of Central and North America. Eleven cities conquered by Montezuma in the 15th century paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each.[4] Production of cochineal is depicted in Codex Osuna. During the colonial period, the production of cochineal (grana fina) grew rapidly. Produced almost exclusively in Oaxaca by indigenous producers, cochineal became Mexico's second-most valued export after silver.[5] Soon after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, it began to be exported to Spain, and by the 17th century was a commodity traded as far away as India.[6] The dyestuff was consumed throughout Europe and was so highly prized, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges. In 1777, French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, presenting himself as a botanizing physician, smuggled the insects and pads of the Opuntia cactus to Saint Domingue. This particular collection failed to thrive and ultimately died out, leaving the Mexican monopoly intact.[7] After the Mexican War of Independence in 1810–1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end. Large-scale production of cochineal emerged, especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands; it was also cultivated in Spain and North Africa.[6]
The demand for cochineal fell sharply with the appearance on the market of alizarin crimson and many other artificial dyes discovered in Europe in the middle of the 19th century, causing a significant financial shock in Spain as a major industry almost ceased to exist.[5] The delicate manual labour required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the modern methods of the new industry, and even less so with the lowering of production costs. The "tuna blood" dye (from the Mexican name for the Opuntia fruit) stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century. The breeding of the cochineal insect has been done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand.[8]
It has become commercially valuable again.[9] One reason for its popularity is that many commercial synthetic red dyes were found to be carcinogenic.[10]
Art[edit]
Moctezuma dead in the waters of the grand canal
The carmine of antiquity also contains carminic acid, and was extracted from a similar insect, Kermes vermilio, which lives on Quercus coccifera oaks native to the Near East and the European side of the Mediterranean Basin. Kermes carmine was used as a dye and a laked pigment in ancient Egypt, Greece, and the Near East and is one of the oldest organic pigments.[11] Recipes for artists' use of carmine appear in many early painting and alchemical handbooks throughout the Middle Ages; the laking process for both pigments was improved in the 19th century. Carmine was not light-fast and was largely abandoned in art.[12]
Spanish influence changed the way in which Aztecs used pigments, particularly in their manuscripts. For example, Cochineal was replaced by Spanish dyes like minium and alizarin crimson.[13] The image of Moctezuma's death (seen to the right) uses both indigenous and Spanish pigments, and is therefore representative of the transition and influence between cultures.
Biology[edit]
A cluster of females
Cochineal insects are soft-bodied, flat, oval-shaped scale insects. The females, wingless and about 5 mm (0.20 in) long, cluster on cactus pads. They penetrate the cactus with their beak-like mouthparts and feed on its juices, remaining immobile unless alarmed. After mating, the fertilised female increases in size and gives birth to tiny nymphs. The nymphs secrete a waxy white substance over their bodies for protection from water loss and excessive sun. This substance makes the cochineal insect appear white or grey from the outside, though the body of the insect and its nymphs produces the red pigment, which makes the insides of the insect look dark purple. Adult males can be distinguished from females in that males have wings, and are much smaller.[14]
The cochineal disperses in the first nymph stage, called the "crawler" stage. The juveniles move to a feeding spot and produce long wax filaments. Later, they move to the edge of the cactus pad, where the wind catches the wax filaments and carries the insects to a new host. These individuals establish feeding sites on the new host and produce a new generation of cochineals.[15] Male nymphs feed on the cactus until they reach sexual maturity. At this time, they can no longer feed at all and live only long enough to fertilise the eggs.[16] They are, therefore, seldom observed.[15] In addition, females typically outnumber males due to environmental factors.[17]
Host cacti[edit]
Cochineals on cacti in La Palma
Dactylopius coccus is native to tropical and subtropical South America and Mexico, where their host cacti grow natively. They have been widely introduced to many regions where their host cacti also grow. About 200 species of Opuntia cacti are known, and while it is possible to cultivate cochineal on almost all of them, the most common is Opuntia ficus-indica.[18] D. coccus has only been noted on Opuntia species, including O. amyclaea, O. atropes, O. cantabrigiensis, O. brasilienis, O. ficus-indica, O. fuliginosa, O. jaliscana, O. leucotricha, O. lindheimeri, O. microdasys, O. megacantha, O. pilifera, O. robusta, O. sarca, O. schikendantzii, O. stricta, O. streptacantha, and O. tomentosa.[1] Feeding cochineals can damage and kill the plant. Other cochineal species feed on many of the same Opuntia, and the wide range of hosts reported for D. coccus likely is because of the difficulty in distinguishing it from other Dactylopius species.[19]
Farming[edit]
A nopal cactus farm for the production of cochineal is traditionally known as a nopalry.[20] The two methods of farming cochineal are traditional and controlled. Cochineals are farmed in the traditional method by planting infected cactus pads or infesting existing cacti with cochineals and harvesting the insects by hand. The controlled method uses small baskets called Zapotec nests placed on host cacti. The baskets contain clean, fertile females that leave the nests and settle on the cactus to await fertilization by the males. In both cases, the cochineals must be protected from predation, cold, and rain. The complete cycle lasts three months, during which time the cacti are kept at a constant temperature of 27 °C (81 °F). At the end of the cycle, the new cochineals are left to reproduce or are collected and dried for dye production.[18]
Zapotec nests on O. ficus-indica
To produce dye from cochineals, the insects are collected when they are around 90 days old. Harvesting the insects is labour-intensive, as they must be individually knocked, brushed, or picked from the cacti and placed into bags. The insects are gathered by small groups of collectors who sell them to local processors or exporters.[21]
Several natural enemies can reduce the population of the insects on hosts. Of all the predators, insects seem to be the most important group. Insects and their larvae such as pyralid moths (order Lepidoptera), which destroy the cactus, and predators such as lady bugs (Coleoptera), various Diptera (such as Syrphidae and Chamaemyiidae), lacewings (Neuroptera), and ants (Hymenoptera) have been identified, as well as numerous parasitic wasps. Many birds, human-commensal rodents (especially rats) and reptiles also prey on cochineal insects. In regions dependent on cochineal production, pest control measures are taken seriously. For small-scale cultivation, manual methods of control have proved to be the safest and most effective. For large-scale cultivation, advanced pest control methods have to be developed, including alternative bioinsecticides or traps with pheromones.[1]
Farming in Australia[edit]
Opuntia species, known commonly as prickly pears, were first brought to Australia in an attempt to start a cochineal dye industry in 1788. Captain Arthur Phillip collected a number of cochineal-infested plants from Brazil on his way to establish the first European settlement at Botany Bay, part of which is now Sydney, New South Wales. At that time, Spain and Portugal had a worldwide cochineal dye monopoly via their New World colonial sources, and the British desired a source under their own control, as the dye was important to their clothing and garment industries; it was used to colour the British soldiers' red coats, for example.[22] The attempt was a failure in two ways: the Brazilian cochineal insects soon died off, but the cactus thrived, eventually overrunning about 100,000 sq mi (259,000 km2) of eastern Australia.[23] The cacti were eventually brought under control in the 1920s by the deliberate introduction of a South American moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, the larvae of which feed on the cactus.[23]
Farming in Ethiopia[edit]
Nopal pear has been traditionally eaten in parts of northern Ethiopia, utilized more than cultivated. Carmine cochineal was introduced into northern Ethiopia early in the 2000s to be cultivated among farming communities. Foodsafe exported 2000 tons of dried carmine cochineal in 3 years. Conflict of interest among communities led to closure of cochineal business in Ethiopia. But the insect spread and became a pest. Cochineal infestation expanded however with closing of cochineal business. Control options did not work and about 16000 ha of cactus land is infested with cochineal.[24]
Dye[edit]
Main article: Carmine
Wool dyed with cochineal
Carminic acid is extracted from the female cochineal insects and is treated to produce carmine, which can yield shades of red such as crimson and scarlet. The body of the insect is 19–22% carminic acid.[9] The insects are processed by immersion in hot water or exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven. Each method produces a different colour that results in the varied appearance of commercial cochineal. The insects must be dried to about 30% of their original body weight before they can be stored without decaying.[21] It takes about 80,000 to 100,000 insects to make one kilogram of cochineal dye.[25]
The two principal forms of cochineal dye are cochineal extract, a colouring made from the raw dried and pulverised bodies of insects, and carmine, a more purified colouring made from the cochineal. To prepare carmine, the powdered insect bodies are boiled in ammonia or a sodium carbonate solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, and alum is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the red aluminium salt. Purity of colour is ensured by the absence of iron. Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum.[4]
As of 2005,[needs update] Peru produced 200 tons of cochineal dye per year and the Canary Islands produced 20 tons per year.[9][21] Chile and Mexico also export cochineal.[1] In Mexico, production and exportation of the dye has been found to lower poverty and improve female literacy.[26] France is believed to be the world's largest importer, and Japan and Italy also import the insect. Much of these imports are processed and re-exported to other developed economies.[21] As of 2005,[needs update] the market price of cochineal was between US$50 and 80 per kilogram,[needs update][18] while synthetic raw food dyes are available at prices as low as $10–20 per kilogram.[27]
Uses[edit]
Cochineal use in histology: Carmine staining of a monogenean (parasitic worm)
Traditionally, cochineal was used for colouring fabrics. During the colonial period, with the introduction of sheep to Latin America, the use of cochineal increased, as it provided the most intense colour and it set more firmly on woolen garments than on clothes made of materials of pre-Hispanic origin such as cotton or agave and yucca fibers. In general, cochineal is more successful on protein-based animal fibres (including silk) than plant-based material. Once the European market discovered the qualities of this product, the demand for it increased dramatically. By the beginning of the 17th century, it was traded internationally.[6] Carmine became strong competition for other colourants such as madder root, kermes, Polish cochineal, Armenian cochineal, brazilwood, and Tyrian purple,[28] as they were used for dyeing the clothes of kings, nobles, and the clergy. For the past several centuries, it was the most important insect dye used in the production of hand-woven oriental rugs, almost completely displacing lac.[6] It was also used for painting, handicrafts, and tapestries.[8] Cochineal-coloured wool and cotton are important materials for Mexican folk art and crafts.[29][30]
Cochineal is used as a fabric and cosmetics dye and as a natural food colouring. It is also used in histology as a preparatory stain for the examination of tissues and carbohydrates.[31] In artists' paints, it has been replaced by synthetic reds and is largely unavailable for purchase due to poor lightfastness. Natural carmine dye used in food and cosmetics can render the product unacceptable to vegetarian or vegan consumers. Many Muslims consider carmine-containing food forbidden (haraam) because the dye is extracted from insects and all insects except the locust are haraam in Islam.[32] Jews also avoid food containing this additive, though it is not treif, and some authorities allow its use because the insect is dried and reduced to powder.[33]
Cochineal is one of the few water-soluble colourants to resist degradation with time. It is one of the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural organic colourants and is even more stable than many synthetic food colours.[34] The water-soluble form is used in alcoholic drinks with calcium carmine; the insoluble form is used in a wide variety of products. Together with ammonium carmine, they can be found in meat, sausages, processed poultry products (meat products cannot be coloured in the United States unless they are labeled as such), surimi, marinades, alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings, cookies, desserts, icings, pie fillings, jams, preserves, gelatin desserts, juice beverages, varieties of cheddar cheese and other dairy products, sauces, and sweets.[34]
Carmine is considered safe enough for cosmetic use in the eye area.[35] A significant proportion of the insoluble carmine pigment produced is used in the cosmetics industry for hair- and skin-care products, lipsticks, face powders, rouges, and blushes.[34] A bright red dye and the stain carmine used in microbiology is often made from the carmine extract, too.[16] The pharmaceutical industry uses cochineal to colour pills and ointments.[21]
Risks and labeling[edit]
Main article: Carmine § Allergy
In spite of the widespread use of carmine-based dyes in food and cosmetic products, a small number of people have been found to experience occupational asthma, food and cosmetic allergies (such as allergic rhinitis and cheilitis), IgE-mediated respiratory hypersensitivity, and in rare cases anaphylactic shock.[36][37][38] In 2009 the FDA ruled that labels of cosmetics and food that include cochineal extract must include that information on their labels (under the name "cochineal extract" or "carmine").[39][40] In 2006 the FDA stated it found no evidence of a "significant hazard" to the general population.[41] In the EU authorities list carmine as additive E 120 in the list of EU-approved food additives.[42] An artificial, non-allergenic cochineal dye is labeled E 124.[36] The directive governing food dyes approves the use of carmine for certain groups of foods only, but is still found in several products particularly alcoholic beverages.[citation needed]
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Baskes, Jeremy (2000). Indians, Merchants and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca, 1750–1821. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3512-3.
Donkin, R. A. (1977). "Spanish Red: An Ethnogeographical Study of Cochineal and the Opuntia Cactus". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 67 (5): 1–84. JSTOR 1006195. doi:10.2307/1006195.
Eiland, Murray L., Jr. & Eiland, Murray L., III (1998). Oriental Carpets. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-8212-2548-0.
Greenfield, Amy Butler (2005). A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire. New York: Harper Collins Press. ISBN 0-06-052276-3.
Hamnett, Brian (1971). Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750–1821. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07860-1.
McCreery, David (1996). Rural Guatemala 1760–1940. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2792-9.
Schiebinger, L. L. (2004). Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01487-1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cochineal.
Look up cochineal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikispecies has information related to: Dactylopius coccus
Felter, Harvey Wickes; Lloyd, John Uri (1898). "Coccus (U.S.P.)—Cochineal". King's American Dispensatory. Retrieved July 14, 2005.
Direction of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (1911). "Coccus, B.P.". The British Pharmaceutical Codex. Retrieved July 14, 2005.
Sayre, Lucius E. (1917). "Coccus.—Cochineal". A Manual of Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy. Retrieved July 14, 2005.
Zhang, Jane (January 27, 2006). "Is There a Bug in Your Juice? New Food Labels Might Say". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on January 12, 2009.
Greig, J. B. "Cochineal extract, carmine, and carminic acid". WHO food additive series 46. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
Dutton, LaVerne M. "Cochineal: A Bright Red Animal Dye". Master's Thesis for Baylor University. Retrieved November 13, 2010.

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