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Cell membrane
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Illustration of a Eukaryotic cell membrane
Comparison of Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space).[1][2] It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles. In this way, it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules.[3] In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.[4][5][6]
Contents
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1 History
2 Composition
2.1 Lipids
2.2 Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles
2.3 Carbohydrates
2.4 Proteins
3 Function
4 Prokaryotes
5 Structures
5.1 Fluid mosaic model
5.2 Lipid bilayer
5.3 Membrane polarity
5.4 Membrane structures
5.5 Cytoskeleton
5.6 Intracellular membranes
5.7 Variations
6 Permeability
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 External links
History
Main article: History of cell membrane theory
While Robert Hooke’s discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the Cell Theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to suggest a universal mechanism for cell protection and development. By the second half of the 19th century, microscopy was still not advanced enough to make a distinction between cell membranes and cell walls. However, some microscopists correctly identified at this time that while invisible, it could be inferred that cell membranes existed in animal cells due to intracellular movement of components internally but not externally and that membranes weren’t the equivalent of a cell wall to plant cell. It was also inferred that cell membranes weren’t vital components to all cells. Many refuted the existence of a cell membrane still towards the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an update to the Cell Theory stated that cell membranes existed, but were merely secondary structures. It wasn’t until later studies with osmosis and permeability that cell membranes gained more recognition.[7]
The lipid bilayer hypothesis, proposed in 1925, created speculation to the description of the cell membrane bilayer structure based on crystallographic studies and soap bubble observations. In an attempt to accept or reject the hypothesis, researchers measured membrane thickness. In 1925 it was determined that the thickness of erythrocyte and yeast cell membranes ranged between 3.3 and 4 nm., a thickness compatible with a lipid monolayer. The choice of the dielectric constant used in these studies was called into question but future tests could not disprove the results of the initial experiment. Independently, the leptoscope was invented in order to measure very thin membranes by comparing the intensity of light reflected from a sample to the intensity of a membrane standard of known thickness. The instrument could resolve thicknesses that depended on pH measurements and the presence of membrane proteins that ranged from 8.6 to 23.2 nm, with the lower measurements supporting the lipid bilayer hypothesis. Later in the 1930s, the membrane structure model developed in general agreement to be the paucimolecular model.This model was based on studies of surface tension between oils and echinoderm eggs. Since the surface tension values appeared to be much lower than would be expected for an oil–water interface, it was assumed that some substance was responsible for lowering the interfacial tensions in the surface of cells. It was suggested that a lipid bilayer was in between two thin protein layers. The paucimolecular model immediately became popular and it dominated cell membrane studies for the following 30 years, until it became rivaled by the fluid mosaic model.[7]
Despite the numerous models of the cell membrane proposed prior to the fluid mosaic model, it remains the primary archetype for the cell membrane long after its inception in the 1970s. Although the fluid mosaic model has been modernized to detail contemporary discoveries, the basics have remained constant: the membrane is a lipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic exterior heads and a hydrophobic interior where proteins can interact with hydrophilic heads through polar interactions, but proteins that span the bilayer fully or partially have hydrophobic amino acids that interact with the non-polar lipid interior. The fluid mosaic model not only provided an accurate representation of membrane mechanics, it enhanced the study of hydrophobic forces, which would later develop into an essential descriptive limitation to describe biological macromolecules. [7]
For many centuries, the scientists cited disagreed with the significance of the structure they were seeing as the cell membrane. For almost 2 centuries, the membranes were seen but mostly disregarded this as an important structure with cellular function. It wasn’t until the 20th century that the significance of the cell membrane as it was acknowledged. Finally, two scientists Gorter and Grendel made the discovery that the membrane is “lipid-based”. From this, they furthered the idea that this structure would have to be in a formation that mimicked layers. Once studied further, it was found by comparing the sum of the cell surfaces and the surfaces of the lipids, a 2:1 ratio was estimated; thus, providing the first basis of the bilayer structure known today. This discovery initiated many new studies that arose globally within various fields of scientific studies, confirming that the structure and functions of the cell membrane are widely accepted.[7]
The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast (de Vries, 1885),[8] Plasmahaut (plasma skin, Pfeffer, 1877, 1891),[9] Hautschicht (skin layer, Pfeffer, 1886; used with a different meaning by Hofmeister, 1867), plasmatic membrane (Pfeffer, 1900),[10] plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane, cell envelope and cell membrane.[11][12] Some authors that did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma (coined by Mast, 1924) for the external region of the cell.[13][14][15]
Composition
Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Composition is not set, but constantly changing for fluidity and changes in the environment, even fluctuating during different stages of cell development. Specifically, the amount of cholesterol in human primary neuron cell membrane changes, and this change in composition affects fluidity throughout development stages. [16]
Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms:
Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (endocytosis).
If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously.
Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases.
Lipids
Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and glycolipids: phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), phosphatidylserine (PtdSer).
The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant, often contributing for over 50% of all lipids in plasma membranes.[17][18] Glycolipids only account for a minute amount of about 2% and sterols make up the rest. In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. However, for the majority of eukaryotic cells, the composition of plasma membranes is about half lipids and half proteins by weight.
The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis". The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity[19] as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation.
The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present. However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell; it behaves as a part of protein complex.
In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane.[3] Additionally, the amount of cholesterol in biological membranes varies between organisms, cell types, and even in individual cells. Cholesterol, a major component of animal plasma membranes, regulates the fluidity of the overall membrane, meaning that cholesterol controls the amount of movement of the various cell membrane components based on its concentrations.[3] In high temperatures, cholesterol inhibits the movement of phospholipid fatty acid chains,causing a reduced permeability to small molecules and reduced membrane fluidity. The opposite is true for the role of cholesterol in cooler temperatures. Cholesterol production, and thus concentration, is up-regulated (increased) in response to cold temperature. At cold temperatures, cholesterol interferes with fatty acid chain interactions. Acting as antifreeze, cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol is more abundant in cold-weather animals than warm-weather animals. In plants, which lack cholesterol, related compounds called sterols perform the same function as cholesterol.[3]
Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles
Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions.
Carbohydrates
Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). Carbohydrates are important in the role of cell-cell recognition in eukaryotes; they are located on the surface of the cell where they recognize host cells and share information, viruses that bind to cells using these receptors cause an infection [20] For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing[20], and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles.
Proteins
Type Description Examples
Integral proteins
or transmembrane proteins Span the membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a combination of α-helices and β sheet protein motifs. Ion channels, proton pumps, G protein-coupled receptor
Lipid anchored proteins Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules; hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor the protein. The protein itself is not in contact with the membrane. G proteins
Peripheral proteins Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes, and once reacted, the molecule dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm. Some enzymes, some hormones
The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50% of membrane volume[19] These proteins are important for cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms.[17] Membrane proteins consist of three main types: Integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid-anchored proteins.[3]
As shown in the adjacent table, integral proteins are amphipathic transmembrane proteins. Examples of integral proteins include ion channels, proton pumps, and g-protein coupled receptors. Ion channels allow inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, or chlorine to diffuse down their electrochemical gradient across the lipid bilayer through hydrophilic pores across the membrane. The electrical behavior of cells (i.e. nerve cells) are controlled by ion channels.[3] Proton Pumps are protein pumps that are embedded in the lipid bilayer that allow protons to travel through the membrane by transferring from one amino acid side chain to another. Processes such as electron transport and generating ATP use proton pumps.[3] A G-protein coupled receptor is a single polypeptide chain that crosses the lipid bilayer seven times responding to signal molecules (i.e. hormones and neurotransmitters). G-protein coupled receptors are used in processes such as cell to cell signaling, the regulation of the production of cAMP, and the regulation of ion channels.[3]
The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell–cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell–cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane.
Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane. For this to occur, an N-terminus "signal sequence" of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.
Function
A detailed diagram of the cell membrane
Illustration depicting cellular diffusion
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to form tissues. Fungi, bacteria, most archaea, and plants also have a cell wall, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive", occurring without the input of cellular energy, or "active", requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:
1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane.[21] Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water. Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases.[22]
2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Transmembrane proteins extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the membrane to transport molecules across it.[23] Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance. Another example of a transmembrane protein is a cell-surface receptor, which allow cell signaling molecules to communicate between cells.[23]
3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured.This invagination is caused by proteins on the outside on the cell membrane, acting as receptors and clustering into depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the cytosolic side of the membrane.[24] The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating" or phagocytosis), small molecules and ions ("cell drinking" or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.
4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are divided into two different groups, Archaea and Bacteria, with bacteria dividing further into gram-positive and gram-negative. Gram-negative bacteria have both a plasma membrane and an outer membrane separated by periplasm, however, other prokaryotes have only a plasma membrane. These two membranes differ in many aspects. The outer membrane of the gram-negative bacteria differ from other prokaryotes due to phospholipids forming the exterior of the bilayer, and lipoproteins and phospholipids forming the interior.[25] The outer membrane typically has a porous quality due to its presence of membrane proteins, such as gram-negative porins, which are pore-forming proteins. The inner, plasma membrane is also generally symmetric whereas the outer membrane is asymmetric because of proteins such as the aforementioned. Also, for the prokaryotic membranes, there are multiple things that can affect the fluidity. One of the major factors that can affect the fluidity is fatty acid composition. For example, when the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus was grown in 37◦C for 24h, the membrane exhibited a more fluid state instead of a gel-like state. This supports the concept that in higher temperatures, the membrane is more fluid than in colder temperatures. When the membrane is becoming more fluid and needs to become more stabilized, it will make longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acid chains in order to help stabilize the membrane.[26] Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars). Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls, but none that are made of peptidoglycan. The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in lipopolysaccharides, which are combined poly- or oligosaccharide and carbohydrate lipid regions that stimulate the cell’s natural immunity.[27] The outer membrane can bleb out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell, and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles.[28] Bacterial cells provide numerous examples of the diverse ways in which prokaryotic cell membranes are adapted with structures that suit the organism’s niche. For example, proteins on the surface of certain bacterial cells aid in their gliding motion.[29] Many gram-negative bacteria have cell membranes which contain ATP-driven protein exporting systems.[29]
Structures
Fluid mosaic model
According to the fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson (1972), which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily.[30] Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two-dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein-protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin-based cytoskeleton, and potentially lipid rafts.
Lipid bilayer
Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer. The yellow polar head groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments.
Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic "head" regions interact with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Hydrophobic interactions (also known as the hydrophobic effect) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers. An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds.
Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane.
Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.
Membrane polarity
See also: Epithelial polarity
Alpha intercalated cell
The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces. It faces outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane" and "lateral (side) membrane", which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent[clarification needed] to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface.
Membrane structures
Diagram of the Cell Membrane's structures and their function.
Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveola, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, focal adhesion, and different types of cell junctions. These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion, communication, endocytosis and exocytosis. They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. They are composed of specific proteins, such as integrins and cadherins.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane.[31] Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface — for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut — and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb.
Intracellular membranes
The content of the cell, inside the cell membrane, is composed of numerous membrane-bound organelles, which contribute to the overall function of the cell. The origin, structure, and function of each organelle leads to a large variation in the cell composition due to the individual uniqueness associated with each organelle.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are considered to have evolved from bacteria, known as the endosymbiotic theory. This theory arose from the idea that Paracoccus and Rhodopseaudomonas, types of bacteria, share similar functions to mitochondria and blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, share similar functions to chloroplasts. The endosymbiotic theory proposes that through the course of evolution, a eukaryotic cell engulfed these 2 types of bacteria, leading to the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts inside eukaryotic cells. This engulfment lead to the 2 membranes systems of these organelles in which the outer membrane originated from the host's plasma membrane and the inner membrane was the endosymbiont's plasma membrane. Considering that mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain their own DNA is further support that both of these organelles evolved from engulfed bacteria that thrived inside a eukaryotic cell.[32]
In eukaryotic cells, the nuclear membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm of the cell.[33] The nuclear membrane is formed by an inner and outer membrane, providing the strict regulation of materials in to and out of the nucleus. Materials move between the cytosol and the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear membrane. If a cell’s nucleus is more active in transcription, its membrane will have more pores. The protein composition of the nucleus can vary greatly from the cytosol as many proteins are unable to cross through pores via diffusion. Within the nuclear membrane, the inner and outer membranes vary in protein composition, and only the outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. Like the ER, the outer membrane also possesses ribosomes responsible for producing and transporting proteins into the space between the two membranes. The nuclear membrane disassembles during the early stages of mitosis and reassembles in later stages of mitosis.[34]
The ER, which is part of the endomembrane system, which makes up a very large portion of the cell's total membrane content. The ER is an enclosed network of tubules and sacs, and its main functions include protein synthesis, and lipid metabolism. There are 2 types of ER, smooth and rough. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it used for protein synthesis, while the smooth ER is used more for the processing of toxins and calcium regulation in the cell.[35]
The Golgi apparatus has two interconnected round Golgi cisternae. Compartments of the apparatus forms multiple tubular-reticular networks responsible for organization, stack connection and cargo transport that display a continuous grape-like stringed vesicles ranging from 50-60 nm. The apparatus consists of three main compartments, a flat disc-shaped cisterna with tubular-reticular networks and vesicles.[36]
Variations
The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct types of cells and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types.
Sarcolemma in myocytes: “Sarcolemma” is the name given to the cell membrane of myocytes (also known as muscle cells).[37] Although the sarcolemma is similar to other cell membranes, it has other functions that set it apart. For instance, the sarcolemma transmits synaptic signals, helps generate action potentials, and is very involved in muscle contractions.[38] Unlike other cell membranes, the sarcolemma makes up small channels called “t-tubules” that pass through the entirety of muscle cells. It has also been found that the average sarcolemma is 10 m thick as opposed to the 4 m thickness of a general cell membrane.[39][37]
Oolemma in oocytes: The oolemma of oocytes, or egg cells, are not consistent with a lipid bilayer as they lack a bilayer and do not consist of lipids.[40] Rather, the structure has an inner layer, the fertilization envelope, and the exterior is made up of the vitelline layer, which is made up of glycoproteins; however, channels and proteins are still present for their functions in the membrane.
Axolemma: The specialized plasma membrane on the axons of nerve cells that is responsible for the generation of the action potential. It consists of a granular, densely packed lipid bilayer that works closely with the cytoskeleton components spectrin and actin. These cytoskeleton components are able to bind to and interact with transmembrane proteins in the axolemma.[41][42]
Permeability
The permeability of a membrane is the rate of passive diffusion of molecules through the membrane. These molecules are known as permeant molecules. Permeability depends mainly on the electric charge and polarity of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule. Due to the cell membrane's hydrophobic nature, small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH partition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body.
See also
Ammonium transporter
Annular lipid shell
AP2 adaptors
Artificial cell
Bacterial cell structure
Bangstad syndrome
Cell cortex
Cell damage, including damage to cell membrane
Cell theory
Cytoneme
Elasticity of cell membranes
Gram-positive bacteria
Membrane models
Membrane nanotubule
History of cell membrane theory
Lipid raft
Trogocytosis
Notes and references
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Jump up ^ Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). "Structure of the Plasma Membrane". The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sinauer Associates.
^ Jump up to: a b Jesse Gray; Shana Groeschler; Tony Le; Zara Gonzalez (2002). "Membrane Structure" (SWF). Davidson College. Retrieved 2007-01-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Brandley, B. K.; Schnaar, R. L. (July 1986). "Cell-surface carbohydrates in cell recognition and response". Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 40 (1): 97–111. ISSN 0741-5400. PMID 3011937.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). "Transport of Small Molecules". The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Eric M.; Myers, David R. "Osmosis is not driven by water dilution". Trends in Plant Science. 18 (4): 195–197. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2012.12.001.
^ Jump up to: a b Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "Membrane Proteins". Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. Garland Science.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "Transport into the Cell from the Plasma Membrane: Endocytosis". Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. Garland Science.
Jump up ^ Salton, Milton R. J.; Kim, Kwang-Shin (1996). Baron, Samuel, ed. Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. ISBN 0963117211. PMID 21413343.
Jump up ^ Mishra, Nagendra N.; Liu, George Y.; Yeaman, Michael R.; Nast, Cynthia C.; Proctor, Richard A.; McKinnell, James; Bayer, Arnold S. (February 2011). "Carotenoid-Related Alteration of Cell Membrane Fluidity Impacts Staphylococcus aureus Susceptibility to Host Defense Peptides". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 55 (2): 526–531. doi:10.1128/AAC.00680-10. ISSN 0066-4804. PMC 3028772  . PMID 21115796.
Jump up ^ Alexander, C.; Rietschel, E. T. (2001). "Bacterial lipopolysaccharides and innate immunity". Journal of Endotoxin Research. 7 (3): 167–202. ISSN 0968-0519. PMID 11581570.
Jump up ^ YashRoy, R.C. (1999). "A structural model for virulence organellae of gram negative organisms with reference to Salmonella pathogenicity in chicken ileum". Indian Journal of Poultry Science. 34 (2): 213–219.
^ Jump up to: a b Saier, Milton H. (2013). "Microcompartments and Protein Machines in Prokaryotes". Journal of molecular microbiology and biotechnology. 23 (0). doi:10.1159/000351625. ISSN 1464-1801. PMC 3832201  . PMID 23920489.
Jump up ^ Singer SJ, Nicolson GL (Feb 1972). "The fluid mosaic model of the structure of cell membranes". Science. 175 (4023): 720–31. doi:10.1126/science.175.4023.720. PMID 4333397.
Jump up ^ Doherty GJ, McMahon HT (2008). "Mediation, Modulation and Consequences of Membrane-Cytoskeleton Interactions". Annual Review of Biophysics. 37: 65–95. doi:10.1146/annurev.biophys.37.032807.125912. PMID 18573073.
Jump up ^ Whatley, Jean M.; John, P.; Whatley, F. R. (1979-04-11). "From Extracellular to Intracellular: The Establishment of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 204 (1155): 165–187. doi:10.1098/rspb.1979.0020. ISSN 0962-8452. PMID 36620.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "The Structure and Function of DNA". Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. Garland Science.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "The Transport of Molecules between the Nucleus and the Cytosol". Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. Garland Science.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). "The Endoplasmic Reticulum". The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Xu, Haijiao; Su, Weiheng; Cai, Mingjun; Jiang, Junguang; Zeng, Xianlu; Wang, Hongda (2013-04-16). "The Asymmetrical Structure of Golgi Apparatus Membranes Revealed by In situ Atomic Force Microscope". PLOS ONE. 8 (4): e61596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061596. ISSN 1932-6203.
^ Jump up to: a b REED, R.; HOUSTON, T. W.; TODD, P. M. (30 July 1966). "Structure and Function of the Sarcolemma of Skeletal Muscle". Nature. 211 (5048): 534–536. doi:10.1038/211534b0.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Kevin P.; Stull, James T. (11 April 2003). "Skeletal Muscle Basement Membrane-Sarcolemma-Cytoskeleton Interaction Minireview Series". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (15): 12599–12600. doi:10.1074/jbc.r300005200.
Jump up ^ Mitra, K.; Ubarretxena-Belandia, I.; Taguchi, T.; Warren, G.; Engelman, D. M. (11 March 2004). "Modulation of the bilayer thickness of exocytic pathway membranes by membrane proteins rather than cholesterol". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (12): 4083–4088. doi:10.1073/pnas.0307332101.
Jump up ^ Wessel, Gary M.; Wong, Julian L. (2009-10-01). "Cell surface changes in the egg at fertilization". Molecular Reproduction and Development. 76 (10): 942–953. doi:10.1002/mrd.21090. ISSN 1098-2795.
Jump up ^ Raine, Cedric S. (1999). "Characteristics of the Neuron". Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th edition. Lippincott-Raven.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, M O (1998). "The role of the axolemma in the initiation of traumatically induced axonal injury" (PDF). Journal of Neurology, Neuroscience & Psychiatry. 68: 285–287.
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text:
Battle of Milliken's Bend
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Battle of Milliken's Bend
Part of the American Civil War

An illustration of the Milliken's Bend battle from the Harper's Weekly periodical, showing black U.S. soldiers battling Confederates.
Date
June 7, 1863 (1863-06-07)
Location
Madison Parish, Louisiana
Result
Union victory
Belligerents
United States (Union) Confederate States (Confederacy)
Commanders and leaders
Hermann Lieb Henry E. McCulloch
Units involved
African Brigade
23rd Iowa Infantry Walker's Texas Division
Casualties and losses
652 185
hide
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t
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Vicksburg Campaign
OPERATIONS AGAINST VICKSBURG
(December 1862 - January 1863):
Sinking of USS Cairo
Chickasaw Bayou
Arkansas Post
Yazoo Pass
Steele's Bayou Expedition
Grierson's Raid
(Battle of Newton's Station)
GRANT'S OPERATIONS AGAINST VICKSBURG
(March 29 - July 4, 1863):
Grand Gulf
Snyder's Bluff
Port Gibson
Raymond
Jackson
Champion Hill
Big Black River Bridge
Milliken's Bend
Young's Point
Lake Providence
Richmond
Goodrich's Landing
Helena
Vicksburg
Jackson Expedition
The Battle of Milliken's Bend, fought June 7, 1863, was part of the Vicksburg Campaign of the American Civil War. Confederate Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton and his army were besieged in Vicksburg, Mississippi, by Union commander Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and the Army of the Tennessee.
In an effort to cut Grant's supply line and relieve the city, the Confederates attacked the Union supply area at Milliken's Bend up the Mississippi. The Milliken's Bend area, 15 miles to the northwest of Vicksburg, had until recently served as a staging area for Grant's Vicksburg Campaign. It was a site of supply depots and hospitals, many of which were manned and guarded by US Colored Troops, some of whom were recently recruited freedmen.
Although a relatively small battle, it was distinguished by the prominent role played by the United States Colored Troops who, despite lacking much military training, fought bravely with inferior weaponry and finally drove off the Confederates with help from gunboats.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 The battle
3 Aftermath
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Background[edit]
Confederate President Jefferson Davis was under heavy political pressure to come to the aid of the besieged Pemberton and his 40,000 troops, bottled up in Vicksburg by Grant's 60,000 troops. Under the belief that Grant's supply lines were vulnerable on the west bank of the Mississippi, on the Louisiana side across from Vicksburg, Davis instructed Trans-Mississippi Department Commander Lt. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith to send troops to break up that supply line. Unknown to either Smith or Davis, Grant had recently shifted his supply lines to the east bank of the Mississippi above Vicksburg.
Smith ordered Maj. Gen. Richard Taylor to mount this attack. He assigned Maj. Gen. John George Walker's Division of Texans, known as Walker's Greyhounds, to Taylor's command for that purpose. Taylor objected, citing the marshy nature of the terrain and the uncertainty that the supply line still existed. He preferred instead to take Walker's troops south to attack a vulnerable New Orleans, poorly defended after the movement of most of Nathaniel P. Banks' Army of the Gulf to Port Hudson. Smith rejected Taylor's plan, and Taylor reluctantly left with Walker and his men, going down the Red River from Alexandria to the Ouachita River, and from there north toward Richmond, Louisiana.
The battle[edit]
Map of the Vicksburg area from Milliken's Bend to Jackson, Mississippi
Map of Milliken's Bend Battlefield core and study areas by the American Battlefield Protection Program.
On the morning of June 6, Union Colonel Hermann Lieb with the African Brigade and two companies of the 10th Illinois Cavalry made a reconnaissance toward Richmond. About three miles from Richmond, Lieb encountered enemy troops at the Tallulah railroad depot and drove them back but then retired, fearing that many more Confederates might be near. While retiring, a squad of Union cavalry appeared, fleeing from a force of Rebels. Lieb got his men into battle line and helped disperse the pursuing enemy. He retired to Milliken's Bend and informed his superior by courier of his actions. The 23rd Iowa Infantry and two gunboats came to his assistance.
Walker proceeded east from Richmond at 7 p.m. June 6. At midnight, he reached Oaklawn Plantation, which was situated about 7 miles from Milliken's Bend to the north and an equal distance from Young's Point to the south. Here, he split his command. Leaving one brigade in reserve at Oaklawn, he sent one brigade under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry E. McCulloch north to Milliken's Bend, and a second brigade under the command of Brig. Gen. James M. Hawes south to Young's Point.
Around 3:00 a.m. on June 7, Confederates appeared in force and drove in the pickets. They continued their movement towards the Union left flank. The Federal forces fired some volleys that caused the Rebel line to pause momentarily, but the Texans soon pushed on to the levee where they received orders to charge. In spite of receiving more volleys, the Rebels came on, and hand-to-hand combat ensued. In this intense fighting, the Confederates succeeded in flanking the Union force and caused tremendous casualties with enfilade fire. The Union force fell back to the river’s bank. About that time Union gunboats Choctaw and Lexington appeared and fired on the Rebels. The Confederates continued firing and began extending to their right to envelop the Federals but failed in their objective. Fighting continued until noon when the Confederates withdrew. The Union pursued, firing many volleys, and the gunboats pounded the Confederates as they retreated to Walnut Bayou.
Aftermath[edit]
The Confederate attempt to help lift the Siege of Vicksburg had failed.
Grant praised the performance of black U.S. soldiers at the battle, observing that "This was the first important engagement of the war in which colored troops were under fire," and despite their inexperience, the black troops had "behaved well."[1] Assistant Secretary of War Charles A. Dana wrote, "the sentiment of this army with regard to the employment of negro troops has been revolutionized by the bravery of the blacks in the recent battle of Milliken's Bend."[2] Having seen how they could fight, many officers were won over to arming them for the Union. Even Confederate commander Henry McCulloch said the former slaves fought with "considerably obstinacy."[3]
U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton also praised the performance of black U.S. soldiers in the battle. He stated that their competent performance in the battle proved wrong those who had opposed their service:
Many persons believed, or pretended to believe, and confidently asserted, that freed slaves would not make good soldiers; they would lack courage, and could not be subjected to military discipline. Facts have shown how groundless were these apprehensions. The slave has proved his manhood, and his capacity as an infantry soldier, at Milliken's Bend, at the assault upon Port Hudson, and the storming of Fort Wagner.
—  Edwin M. Stanton, letter to Abraham Lincoln, (December 5, 1863).[4][5]
See also[edit]
American Civil War portal
Vicksburg Union order of battle
Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Grant, Ulysses S. (1885–86). "Chapter 37". Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant. New York: Charles L. Webster & Co. Retrieved December 10, 2015. On the 7th of June our little force of colored and white troops across the Mississippi, at Milliken's Bend, were attacked by about 3,000 men from Richard Taylor's trans-Mississippi command. With the aid of the gunboats they were speedily repelled. I sent Mower's brigade over with instructions to drive the enemy beyond the Tensas Bayou; and we had no further trouble in that quarter during the siege. This was the first important engagement of the war in which colored troops were under fire. These men were very raw, having all been enlisted since the beginning of the siege, but they behaved well.
Jump up ^ War of the Rebellion: The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I. Vol. XXIV, pt. 1. War Dept. p. 106.
Jump up ^ War of the Rebellion: The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I. Vol. XXIV, pt. 2. War Dept. p. 467.
Jump up ^ The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of War. 1899. p. 1,132.
Jump up ^ Hargrove, Hondon B. Black Union Soldiers in the Civil War. p. 108. Retrieved March 16, 2016.
Bibliography[edit]
Barnickel, Linda (2013). Milliken’s Bend: A Civil War Battle in History and Memory. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
Bigelow, Martha M. "The Significance of Milliken's Bend in the Civil War", Journal of Negro History 45, no. 3 (July 1960): 156-163; via JSTOR.
Blessington, J.P. The Campaigns of Walker's Texas Division. NY: Lange, Little and Co., 1875.
Glatthaar, Joseph T. Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers, NY: Free Press, 1990.
Hollandsworth, James G., Jr. "The Execution of White Officers from Black Units by Confederate Forces during the Civil War", Louisiana History 35, no. 4 (Fall 1994): pp. 475–489; via JSTOR.
Parrish, Michael T., Richard Taylor: Soldier Prince of Dixie, University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
Lowe, Richard G. "Battle on the Levee: The Fight at Milliken's Bend." In Black Soldiers in Blue: African American Troops in the Civil War Era, edited by John David Smith, 107-135. University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
Lowe, Richard G. Walker's Texas Division, C.S.A.: Greyhounds of the Trans-Mississippi, LSU Press, 2004.
Sears, Cyrus. Paper of Cyrus Sears (The Battle of Milliken's Bend), Columbus, OH: F.J. Heer Printing, 1909.
Waldrep, Christopher. Vicksburg's Long Shadow: The Civil War Legacy of Race and Remembrance, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005.
Wearmouth, John, ed. The Cornwell Chronicles: Tales of an American Life... Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1998.
Winschel, Terrence J. "The General's Tour: Grant's March Through Louisiana: Opening Phase of the Vicksburg Campaign." Blue and Gray Magazine 13, no. 5 (June 1996): 51-61.
Winschel, Terrence J. "To Rescue Gibraltar: John Walker's Texas Division and Its Expedition to Relieve Fortress Vicksburg." Civil War Regiments 3, no. 3 (1993): 33-58.
External links[edit]
CWSAC Report Update
National Park Service battle description
National Park Service, Vicksburg
Milliken's Bend: A Civil War Battle in History and Memory
The Battle of Milliken's Bend: The Central Role of Black Troops in the Siege of Vicksburg at the Wayback Machine (archived February 24, 2005)
PBS' Timeline: African Americans in the Civil War; see June 7, 1863: Milliken's Bend-Louisiana
Battle of Milliken's Bend - Pantagraph (Bloomington, IL newspaper)
Coordinates: 32°26′N 91°06′W / 32.44°N 91.10°W / 32.44; -91.10
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List of Back to the Future characters
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The Back to the Future film trilogy and subsequent animated series feature characters created by Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale.
The lead character of the series is Marty McFly. During the course of the trilogy, he travels through time using a DeLorean time machine invented by his friend Emmett Brown and encounters the villain, Biff Tannen, in several different time periods and visits his family ancestors and descendants.
Contents
1 Main characters
1.1 Marty McFly
1.2 Emmett "Doc" Brown
1.3 Biff Tannen
2 McFly family
2.1 George McFly
2.2 Lorraine Baines-McFly
2.3 Dave McFly
2.4 Linda McFly
2.5 Seamus and Maggie McFly
2.6 Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly
3 Brown family
3.1 Clara Clayton
3.2 Jules and Verne Brown
3.3 Copernicus
3.4 Einstein
4 Tannen family
4.1 Irving "Kid" Tannen
4.2 Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen
4.3 Griff
4.4 Biff Tannen, Jr.
5 Strickland family
5.1 Gerald Strickland
5.2 James Strickland
5.3 Edna Strickland
6 Other characters
6.1 Jennifer Parker
6.2 Douglas J. Needles
6.3 Goldie Wilson
6.4 Match, Skinhead, and 3-D
7 See also
8 References
Main characters[edit]
Marty McFly[edit]
Main article: Marty McFly
Martin Seamus "Marty" McFly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox in the films and voiced by David Kaufman in the animated series and AJ LoCascio in Back to the Future: The Game) is the son of George McFly and Lorraine Baines McFly. Marty travels between the past and the future, encountering his ancestors and descendants. Marty and his friend Doc Brown help restore the space-time continuum while encountering Biff Tannen (or members of the Tannen clan) at various points in time.
Emmett "Doc" Brown[edit]
Main article: Emmett Brown
Doctor Emmett Lathrop "Doc" Brown (portrayed by Christopher Lloyd in the films and Back to the Future: The Game, and voiced by Dan Castellaneta in the animated series) is the inventor of the DeLorean time machine. At various points in time, Doc helps Marty restore the space-time continuum and reverse the changes that were caused by time travel.
In 2008, the character was selected by film magazine Empire as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time, ranking at #20.[1]
Biff Tannen[edit]
Main article: Biff Tannen
Biff Howard Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in the films and animated series and voiced by Kid Beyond in Back to the Future: The Game) is the main antagonist of the first 2 films and a local bully who harassed George McFly and has once altered history in the second film. He comes from a long line of bullies in Hill Valley, most of whom harassed members of the McFly family. Biff is also a descendant of Buford Tannen (also portrayed by Wilson), who is one of Hill Valley's outlaws during the 1880s.
McFly family[edit]
George McFly[edit]
George Douglas McFly (portrayed by Crispin Glover in Back to the Future and Back to the Future Part II and by Jeffrey Weissman in Back to the Future Part II(His future self) and Back to the Future Part III and voiced by Michael X. Sommers in Back to the Future: The Game) is the father of Marty, Linda and Dave from the union with his wife Lorraine Baines McFly. Although he is one of the main characters in the first movie, George only makes cameos in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III.
In the first film, George is portrayed as weak and the main target of Biff Tannen's bullying. The novelization of the film expounds on George's history of weakness, describing two incidents in which he is unable to stand up for himself. In 1955, in contrast with Marty, George did not have any friends for support and was targeted not only by Biff and his gang but also other kids in school. He has a penchant for science fiction, and writes some of his own but never allows himself to share them with anyone due to his fear of rejection. In 1955, with Marty's help, he gets the courage to stand up to Biff, knocking him unconscious. As a result, he and Lorraine fall in love and George becomes popular in school for defeating Biff in a fight. In the new future, they are both happily married with George working as a college professor and being a successful writer who orders Biff around. In the alternate timeline in Part II, George was murdered by Biff in 1973.
George's character was greatly reduced in the sequels, and the role was recast to Jeffrey Weissman.[2] Weissman wore prosthetics to resemble Glover and imitated Glover's rendering of McFly, and his scenes were spliced with shots of Glover from Back to the Future.[3] The result was so convincing that many people were fooled by it.[3] Glover did not appreciate this, and sued. The lawsuit resulted in the adoption of stricter rules by the Screen Actors Guild to prevent this situation from occurring again.[3]
Lorraine Baines-McFly[edit]
Lorraine Baines-McFly (portrayed by Lea Thompson and voiced by Aimee Miles in Back to the Future: The Game) is the wife of George McFly and the mother of Marty, Linda and Dave. She is the eldest daughter of Sam (George DiCenzo) and Stella (Frances Lee McCain) Baines, and sister of Milton (Jason Hervey), Sally (Maia Brewton), Toby, and Joey.
In Back to the Future, Lorraine is initially portrayed in 1985 as middle-aged and unhappy. After Marty changes the timeline, she is shown to be fit and happily married to George in 1985. In Part II, she is still happily married to George in 2015, but in the dystopian alternate 1985 timeline she is widowed and married to Biff.
Dave McFly[edit]
David "Dave" McFly (portrayed by Marc McClure) is the eldest child of George and Lorraine McFly. In 1985 before Marty went to 1955, Dave works at Burger King, but in the post-time travel 1985 he wears a suit as a nondescript white-collar worker for an accounting firm. In a deleted scene from Part II, the alternate 1985 timeline shows that Dave is an alcoholic and a gambling addict following George's death and Lorraine's second marriage to Biff.
Linda McFly[edit]
Linda McFly (portrayed by Wendie Jo Sperber) is the middle child and only daughter of George and Lorraine McFly. In 1985 before Marty went to 1955, Linda is having boy trouble and it is unknown if she is in college or has a job. In 1985 after Marty went to 1955, Linda works in a boutique and has gained the attention of many boys.
Seamus and Maggie McFly[edit]
Seamus and Maggie McFly (portrayed by Michael J. Fox and Lea Thompson) are Irish immigrants and the paternal great-great-grandparents of Marty McFly. In Part III, Marty is befriended by Seamus and Maggie. While Maggie does not trust the "strange young man", Seamus has a familiar feeling about him and believes that helping him is the right thing to do. They have a son named William (Marty's great-grandfather). Much like his descendants, Seamus is harassed by a member of the Tannen family, Buford Tannen.
Maggie McFly is played by Lea Thompson, who also plays Marty's mother Lorraine, even though Maggie is not an ancestor of Lorraine; in a DVD commentary track for Part III, Bob Gale states that the creative team considered it important to include Thompson in the film, and he imagines that McFly men are simply "genetically predisposed" to be attracted to women who look like her.
Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly[edit]
Marty Jr. and Marlene McFly (both portrayed by Michael J. Fox) are Marty McFly and Jennifer Parker's future son and daughter in 2015 in Part II.
Originally, 17-year-old Marty Jr. was to be arrested and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for joining a robbery initiated by Griff and his gang. Marlene attempted to help Marty Jr. break out of jail but failed and was sentenced to twenty years in a woman's prison. Doc and Marty prevented the event from ever happening.
Brown family[edit]
Clara Clayton[edit]
Clara Clayton (portrayed by Mary Steenburgen in both Back to the Future Part III and the animated series) is the wife of Doc Brown and mother of Jules and Verne Brown.
Clara moved to Hill Valley and originally died in an accident when her wagon plummeted into Shonash Ravine, which was renamed Clayton Ravine in her memory. The animated series reveals that Clara, along with the rest of the family, moves to the early 1990s and lives in a farmhouse outside of Hill Valley. She then becomes a teacher at Hill Valley Elementary School.
Jules and Verne Brown[edit]
Jules Eratosthenes Brown and Verne Newton Brown (portrayed by Todd Cameron Brown and Daniel Evans in Back to the Future Part III and voiced by Josh Keaton and Troy Davidson in the animated series) are the two children of Doc Brown and his wife, Clara, who named them after their favorite author Jules Verne.
The characters had minor, non-speaking roles in Back to the Future Part III but were further developed in the animated series. Jules, an introvert, mostly imitates his father's interests and mannerisms while Verne appears to be more outgoing and extroverted. Several plot points of the animated series revolve around either Jules or Verne altering history and the steps necessary to correct the damage.
Copernicus[edit]
Copernicus is Doc's dog from 1955. Like his other dogs, Copernicus was used in many of Doc's experiments. When Copernicus died, he was replaced by Einstein.
Einstein[edit]
Einstein (portrayed by Tiger in the first film and Freddie in the other two and voiced by Danny Mann in the animated series) is Doc Brown's pet Catalan sheepdog. He later becomes one of the main characters in the animated series as the Brown family's dog.
In the first film, Doc successfully tests his time machine by placing Einstein in it and sending him one minute into the future. In the animated series, Einstein becomes anthropomorphic and smarter, helping Doc with his inventions for traveling to the past and the future.
Tannen family[edit]
Irving "Kid" Tannen[edit]
Kid Tannen is Biff's father who only appears in the Back to the Future game. Kid is a gangster who runs a local speakeasy in the 1930s Hill Valley. He, like the rest of the Tannen family, bullies the McFly family forcing Marty's grandfather Arthur to do his accounting. Kid is brought down with the help of Marty, a young version of Doc, and Arthur McFly. He later marries Edna Strickland and reforms from his criminal ways with her help.
Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen[edit]
Buford Tannen (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in Back to the Future Part III) is the main antagonist of the third film. He is the great-grandfather of Biff Tannen and the local town outlaw in 1885 Hill Valley. He was nicknamed "Mad Dog" by a newspaper reporter, due to his violent temper and propensity for drooling, a nickname Tannen greatly despises. Buford is cruel, homicidal, rude, and emotionally unstable. He displays a need for control and is brought down to childlike tantrums when he is humiliated or makes mistakes, whether it be something that happens to him or something he says or does. He is often accompanied by his gang (played by Christopher Wynne, Sean Sullivan and Mike Watson), and developed a feud with Marshal James Strickland and his deputies.
Griff[edit]
Griff (portrayed by Thomas F. Wilson in both Back to the Future Part II and in the animated series) is a grandson of Biff. He is part of a gang that also consists of "Data", "Spike", and "Whitey" (portrayed by Ricky Dean Logan, Darlene Vogel, and Jason Scott Lee).
In the animated series, Griff makes a brief cameo appearance in the episode "Solar Sailors" where his grandson, Ziff (also voiced by Wilson), is detained after he attempts to sabotage Marta McFly's space cruiser due to his hatred towards her family.
Griff's last name is never mentioned in the movies, which means he could either be the son of Biff's son Biff Jr, or the son of Biff's daughter, Tiffaney. However, in the animated series, Ziff says that both he and Griff are Tannens.
Biff Tannen, Jr.[edit]
In the animated series, Biff Jr. is the son of Biff Tannen. Like his father and paternal relatives, he likes to bully and steal from children around him including Jules and Verne Brown with whom he developed a feud with. In addition, Biff Jr. delights vandalizing other people's properties. Biff Jr. lives with his father with whom he has an abusive relationship. He is voiced by Benji Gregory.
Strickland family[edit]
Gerald Strickland[edit]
Gerald Strickland[4] (portrayed by James Tolkan) is the strict principal of Hill Valley High School. He is the grandson of Chief Marshal James Strickland of Hill Valley 1885.
There is a reference from Verne Brown that there is another Strickland who works at Hill Valley Elementary School as its vice principal.[episode needed]
James Strickland[edit]
James Strickland (portrayed by James Tolkan in Back to the Future Part III) is the chief marshal of Hill Valley in 1885 and the grandfather of Mr. Strickland. He also has an unnamed son (portrayed by Kaleb Henley), who will become Gerald Strickland's father.
Edna Strickland[edit]
Edna Strickland, in Back to the Future: The Game, is the sister of Gerald Strickland. She is somewhat nicer than her brother, but still set in her ways towards upholding strong morals and abolishing crime and laziness. After Marty alters her original timeline, Edna marries Kid Tannen who becomes the father of Biff Tannen.
Other characters[edit]
Jennifer Parker[edit]
Jennifer Jane Parker is the girlfriend (and, in 2015 in Back to the Future Part II, the wife) of Marty McFly.
The character was played by Claudia Wells in Back to the Future. However, Wells was not available to film the sequels for personal reasons, and the role was recast to Elisabeth Shue although Wells reprised her role as Jennifer in Back to the Future: The Game as a punk rock version of her character. Consequently, the opening scene of Back to the Future Part II was re-shot with Shue taking Wells' place, rather than using the ending of Back to the Future. In the spin-off Back to the Future: the Animated Series, Jennifer was voiced by Cathy Cavadini.
In 1985, Jennifer attends Hill Valley High School, along with her boyfriend Marty. In the animated series, Jennifer is enrolled to Hill Valley College with Marty after graduating high school and working part-time as a tutor. She lives with her family on a ranch, the deed to which was owned by Biff Tannen, after one of his ancestors forced Jennifer's great-great-grandfather to sign it over by holding Jennifer's great-great-grandmother hostage. In the episode "A Friend in Deed", Marty travels back in time to 1875 and sabotages the deal with help from Jules and Verne.[5]
In the future witnessed in Back to the Future Part II, Jennifer and Marty had two children, Marlene and Marty Jr. (both played by Michael J. Fox)
Douglas J. Needles[edit]
Douglas J. Needles (portrayed by Flea in Back to the Future Part II and Back to the Future Part III) is an acquaintance of Marty McFly and Jennifer Parker from Hill Valley High School. Like his school's alumnus, Biff Tannen, Needles also has his own gang (portrayed by Christopher Wynne, J.J. Cohen, and Ricky Dean Logan) and develops a rivalry with Marty. Needles often goads Marty into doing reckless things such as a street race that leads Marty to crash into a Rolls Royce and an illegal transaction which results in his firing in 2015.
Goldie Wilson[edit]
Goldie Wilson (played by Donald Fullilove in part 1) is a young man working at Lou's Cafe in 1955 who goes on to become the first black Mayor of Hill Valley in the 1980s. A campaign poster shows the name Goldie in quotation marks, suggesting Goldie is a nickname, presumably in reference to his gold tooth. He would also have a grandson, Goldie Wilson III (also played by Fullilove) in Part II, who works as a car salesman.
Match, Skinhead, and 3-D[edit]
Match (portrayed by Billy Zane), Skinhead (portrayed by Jeffrey Jay Cohen), and 3-D (portrayed by Casey Siemaszko) are the three high school boys who make up Biff Tannen's gang in 1955. Their nicknames are only given in the films' novels, screenplays, and credits. Only one of their real names is mentioned in the movies – Biff refers to Skinhead as Joey in one of the 1955 scenes in Back to the Future Part II, while outside of the "Enchantment Under the Sea" dance.
In the alternate 1985, the three work in Biff's casino as his bodyguards. Each gets his nickname from a distinctive character trait. Match often has a match sticking out of his mouth; Skinhead has very short, close-cropped hair; 3-D is always wearing a pair of anaglyphic 3-D glasses (a reference to the 3-D movies that were popular in the 1950s).
See also[edit]
Film in the United States portal
Science fiction portal
Fictional characters portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Empire's The 100 Greatest Movie Characters". Empire Magazine. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
Jump up ^ Jeffrey Weissman on IMDb
^ Jump up to: a b c Glover Clarifies “Back to the Future” Squabble at BTTF.com.
Jump up ^ Telltale, Incorporated (December 22, 2010). Back to the Future: The Game - Episode 1: It's About Time. Level/area: May 14, 1986, 6:42 pm - Edna's apartment - "Pictures". Marty McFly: Is that... Vice Principal Strickland? Edna Strickland: Mother never could keep little Gerald out of her clothes...
Jump up ^ A Friend in Deed[permanent dead link] episode recap at TV.com.
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values: Personnages de Retour vers le futur – French

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