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Chapters and verses of the Bible
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The Gospel according to John - a text showing chapter and verse divisions (King James Version)
The Bible is a compilation of many shorter books written at different times by a variety of authors, and later assembled into the biblical canon. Since the early 13th century, most copies and editions of the Bible present all but the shortest of these books with divisions into chapters, generally a page or so in length. Since the mid-16th century editors have further subdivided each chapter into verses - each consisting of a few short lines or sentences. Sometimes a sentence spans more than one verse, as in the case of Ephesians 2:8–9, and sometimes there is more than one sentence in a single verse, as in the case of Genesis 1:2.
As the chapter and verse divisions did not appear in the original texts, they form part of the paratext of the Bible.
The Jewish divisions of the Hebrew text differ at various points from those used by Christians. For instance, in Jewish tradition, the ascriptions to many Psalms are regarded as independent verses or parts of the subsequent verses, making 116 more verses, whereas established Christian practice treats each Psalm ascription as independent and unnumbered. Some chapter divisions also occur in different places, e.g. Hebrew Bibles have 1 Chronicles 5:27–41 where Christian translations have 1 Chronicles 6:1–15.[citation needed]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Chapters
1.2 Verses
2 Jewish tradition
2.1 Verse endings
2.2 Parashiyot
2.3 Sedarim
3 Christian versions
4 Protestant Bible statistics
4.1 Chapters
4.2 Verses
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
"...they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks: Nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more." ~ Isaiah 2:4 KJV (Bible verse across the street from the United Nations Building in New York City)
Chapters[edit]
Early manuscripts of the biblical texts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the numbered form familiar to modern readers. In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs (parashot) that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Peh פ indicated an "open" paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh ס indicated a "closed" paragraph that began on the same line after a small space.[1] These two letters begin the Hebrew words open (patuach) and closed (sagoor), and are, themselves, open פ and closed ס. The earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions.[2] (This is different from the use of consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet to structure certain poetic compositions, known as acrostics, such as several of the Psalms and most of the Book of Lamentations.)
The Hebrew Bible was also divided into some larger sections. In Israel the Torah (its first five books) were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read through aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia it was divided into 53 or 54 sections (Parashat ha-Shavua) so it could be read through in one year.[2] The New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons. Neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions.[3] (See fuller discussions below.)
Chapter divisions, with titles, are also found in the 9th century Tours manuscript, Paris Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat. 3, the so-called Bible of Rorigo.[4]
Archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the modern chapter divisions are based.[5][6][7]
While chapter divisions have become nearly universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them. Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Locke's Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1707),[8] Alexander Campbell's The Sacred Writings (1826),[9] Daniel Berkeley Updike’s fourteen-volume The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, Richard Moulton's The Modern Reader's Bible (1907),[10] Ernest Sutherland Bates's The Bible Designed to Be Read as Living Literature (1936),[11] The Books of the Bible (2007) from the International Bible Society (Biblica), Adam Lewis Greene’s five-volume Bibliotheca (2014),[12][13] and the six-volume ESV Reader's Bible[14] (2016) from Crossway Books.
Verses[edit]
Since at least 916 the Tanakh has contained an extensive system of multiple levels of section, paragraph, and phrasal divisions that were indicated in Masoretic vocalization and cantillation markings. One of the most frequent of these was a special type of punctuation, the sof passuq, symbol for a full stop or sentence break, resembling the colon (:) of English and Latin orthography. With the advent of the printing press and the translation of the Bible into English, Old Testament versifications were made that correspond predominantly with the existing Hebrew full stops, with a few isolated exceptions. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus's work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440.[6]
The first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santi Pagnini (1470–1541), but his system was never widely adopted.[15] His verse divisions in the New Testament were far longer than those known today.[16] Robert Estienne created an alternate numbering in his 1551 edition of the Greek New Testament[17] which was also used in his 1553 publication of the Bible in French. Estienne's system of division was widely adopted, and it is this system which is found in almost all modern Bibles. Estienne produced a 1555 Vulgate that is the first Bible to include the verse numbers integrated into the text. Before this work, they were printed in the margins.[16]
The first English New Testament to use the verse divisions was a 1557 translation by William Whittingham (c. 1524–1579). The first Bible in English to use both chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible published shortly afterwards in 1560. These verse divisions soon gained acceptance as a standard way to notate verses, and have since been used in nearly all English Bibles and the vast majority of those in other languages. (Nevertheless, some Bibles have removed the verse numbering, including the ones noted above that also removed chapter numbers; a recent example of an edition that removed only verses, not chapters, is The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language by Eugene H. Peterson.)[18]
Jewish tradition[edit]
Main article: Tanakh § Chapters and verse numbers, book divisions
The Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible notes several different kinds of subdivisions within the biblical books:
Verse endings[edit]
Main article: Sof passuk
Most important are the verse endings. According to the Talmudic tradition, the division of the text into verses is of ancient origin.[19] In Masoretic versions of the Bible, the end of a verse is indicated by a small mark in its final word called a silluq (which means "stop"). Less formally, verse endings are usually also indicated by two horizontal dots following the word with a silluq.
Parashiyot[edit]
Main article: Parashah
The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashot, which are usually indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section) or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashot is usually thematic. Unlike chapters, the parashot are not numbered, but some of them have special titles.
In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex), an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always start at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line.
Sedarim[edit]
Another division of the biblical books found in the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. For the Torah, this division reflects the triennial cycle of reading that was practiced by the Jews of the Land of Israel.
Christian versions[edit]
The Byzantines also introduced a concept roughly similar to chapter divisions, called kephalaia (singular kephalaion, literally meaning heading).[20] This system, which was in place no later than the 5th century, is not identical to the present chapters. Unlike the modern chapters, which tend to be of roughly similar length, the distance from one kephalaion mark to the next varied greatly in length both within a book and from one book to the next. For example, the Sermon on the Mount, comprising three chapters in the modern system, has but one kephalaion mark, while the single modern chapter 8 of the Gospel of Matthew has several, one per miracle. Moreover, there were far fewer kephalaia in the Gospel of John than in the Gospel of Mark, even though the latter is the shorter text. In the manuscripts, the kephalaia with their numbers, their standard titles (titloi) and their page numbers would be listed at the beginning of each biblical book; in the book's main body, they would be marked only with arrow-shaped or asterisk-like symbols in the margin, not in the text itself.
The titles usually referred to the first event or the first theological point of the section only, and some kephalaia are manifestly incomplete if one stops reading at the point where the next kephalaion begins (for example, the combined accounts of the miracles of the Daughter of Jairus and of the healing of the woman with a haemorrhage gets two marked kephalaia, one titled of the daughter of the synagogue ruler at the beginning when the ruler approaches Jesus and one titled of the woman with the flow of blood where the woman enters the picture – well before the ruler's daughter is healed and the storyline of the previous kephalaion is thus properly concluded). Thus the kephalaia marks are rather more like a system of bookmarks or links into a continuous text, helping a reader to quickly find one of several well-known episodes, than like a true system of chapter divisions.
Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is often given credit for first dividing the Latin Vulgate into chapters in the real sense, but it is the arrangement of his contemporary and fellow cardinal Stephen Langton who in 1205 created the chapter divisions which are used today. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 16th century. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[21]
The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.
Several modern publications of the Bible have eliminated numbering of chapters and verses. Biblica published such a version of the NIV in 2007 and 2011. In 2014, Crossway published the ESV Reader's Bible and Bibliotheca published a modified ASV.[22] Projects such as Icthus[23] also exist which strip chapter and verse numbers from existing translations.
Protestant Bible statistics[edit]
The number of words can vary depending upon aspects such as whether the Hebrew alphabet in Psalm 119, the superscriptions listed in some of the Psalms, and the subscripts traditionally found at the end of the Pauline epistles, are included. Except where stated, the following apply to the King James Version of the Bible in its modern 66-book Protestant form including the New Testament and the protocanonical Old Testament, not the deuterocanonical books.
Chapters[edit]
There are 929 chapters in the Old Testament.
187 chapters in the Pentateuch
249 chapters in the Historical books
243 chapters in the Poetic books ("Wisdom")
183 chapters in the Major prophets
67 chapters in the Minor prophets
There are 260 chapters in the New Testament.
89 chapters in the Gospels
28 chapters in Acts
87 chapters in the Pauline Epistles (excluding Hebrews)
34 chapters in the General Epistles (including Hebrews)
22 chapters in Revelation
This gives a total of 1,189 chapters (on average, 18 per book).
Psalm 117, the shortest chapter, is also the middle chapter of the Bible, being the 595th Chapter.[24]
Psalm 117 is the shortest chapter of the Bible.
Psalm 119 is the longest chapter of the Bible.
Five books are a single chapter: Obadiah, Philemon, 2 & 3 John, Jude. In many printed editions, the chapter number is omitted for these books, and references just use the verse numbers.
Old Testament - 929 chapters[25]
Book / Division
Chapters
Pentateuch (or the Law) 187
Genesis 50
Exodus 40
Leviticus 27
Numbers 36
Deuteronomy 34
Historical Books 249
Joshua 24
Judges 21
Ruth 4
1 Samuel 31
2 Samuel 24
1 Kings 22
2 Kings 25
1 Chronicles 29
2 Chronicles 36
Ezra 10
Nehemiah 13
Esther 10
Books of Wisdom (or "Poetry") 243
Job 42
Psalms 150
Proverbs 31
Ecclesiastes 12
Song of Solomon 8
Major Prophets 183
Isaiah 66
Jeremiah 52
Lamentations 5
Ezekiel 48
Daniel 12
Minor Prophets 67
Hosea 14
Joel 3
Amos 9
Obadiah 1
Jonah 4
Micah 7
Nahum 3
Habakkuk 3
Zephaniah 3
Haggai 2
Zechariah 14
Malachi 4
New Testament - 260 chapters[25]
Book / Division
Chapters
Gospels 89
Matthew 28
Mark 16
Luke 24
John 21
History 28
Acts 28
Pauline Epistles 87
Romans 16
1 Corinthians 16
2 Corinthians 13
Galatians 6
Ephesians 6
Philippians 4
Colossians 4
1 Thessalonians 5
2 Thessalonians 3
1 Timothy 6
2 Timothy 4
Titus 3
Philemon 1
General Epistles 34
Hebrews 13
James 5
1 Peter 5
2 Peter 3
1 John 5
2 John 1
3 John 1
Jude 1
Apocalyptic Writings
(Prophecy)
22
Revelation 22
Verses[edit]
There are 23,145 verses in the Old Testament and 7,957 verses in the New Testament. This gives a total of 31,102 verses,[25] which is an average of a little more than 26 verses per chapter.
Contrary to popular belief, Psalm 118 does not contain the middle verse of the Bible. The King James Version has an even number of verses (31,102), with the two middle verses being Psalm 103:1–2.[26]
John 11:35 ("Jesus wept") is the shortest verse in most English translations. Some translations — including the New International Version, New Living Translation, New Life Version, Holman Christian Standard Bible and New International Reader's Version — render Job 3:2 as "He said". However, that is a translators' condensation of the Hebrew which literally translated is: "And Job answered and said."
The shortest verse in the Greek New Testament is Luke 20:30 ("και ο δευτερος", "And the second") with twelve letters, according to the Westcott and Hort text. In the Textus Receptus, the shortest verse is 1 Thessalonians 5:16 ("παντοτε χαιρετε", "Rejoice always") with fourteen letters,[27] since Stephanus' rendering of Luke 20:30 includes some additional words.[28]
Isaiah 10:8 ("Dicet enim") is the shortest verse in the Latin Vulgate.[29]
Esther 8:9 is the longest verse in the Masoretic Text. The discovery of several manuscripts at Qumran (in the Dead Sea Scrolls) has reopened what is considered the most original text of 1 Samuel 11; if one believes that those manuscripts better preserve the text, several verses in 1 Samuel 11 surpass Esther 8:9 in length.
See also[edit]
Bible portal
Bible
Bible citation
List of omitted Bible verses
Parashah
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ernst Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), p. 20.
^ Jump up to: a b Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testament, n. 28.
Jump up ^ Kurt and Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans and Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989), pp. 252 ff.
Jump up ^ Consortium, Europeana Regia. "Europeana Regia - Paris Bibliothèque nationale de France MSS Latin 3".
Jump up ^ Hebrew Bible article in the Catholic Encyclopedia.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, G.F. The Vulgate Chapters and Numbered Verses in the Hebrew Bible, pages 73–78 at JSTOR. page 75
Jump up ^ Bruce M. Metzger, The early versions of the New Testament: Their origin, transmission and limitations, Oxford University Press (1977), p.347. Cited in Stephen Langton and the modern chapter divisions of the bible by British translator Roger Pearse, 21 June 2013.
Jump up ^ London: Awnsham and John Churchill, 1707
Jump up ^ 1826; repr. Nashville: Gospel Advocate Restoration Reprints, 2001
Jump up ^ New York: Macmillan, 1907
Jump up ^ New York: Simon and Schuster, 1936)
Jump up ^ "Bibliotheca Multivolume Readers' Bible Homepage". BIBLIOTHECA. Retrieved 2017-10-22.
Jump up ^ "The Bible's a mess, but a designer is fixing it". The Verge. Retrieved 2017-10-22.
Jump up ^ https://www.crossway.org/bibles/esv-readers-bible-none-tru/
Jump up ^ Miller, Stephen M.; Huber, Robert V. (2004). The Bible: A History. Good Books. p. 173. ISBN 1-56148-414-8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Pitts Theology Library Exhibit on the Verses of the New Testament".
Jump up ^ "Chapters and Verses: Who Needs Them?," Christopher R. Smith, Bible Study Magazine (July–Aug 2009): 46–47.
Jump up ^ Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2002
Jump up ^ Babylonian Talmud, Nedarim 37b
Jump up ^ Snapp, James (15 April 2016). "Kephalaia: The Ancient Chapters of the Gospels". Retrieved 31 March 2018.
Jump up ^ The Examiner.
Jump up ^ Zylstra, Sarah Eekhof (25 July 2014). "Introducing the Bible! Now with Less!". Christianity Today. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Icthus".
Jump up ^ The Center of the Bible Archived August 28, 2005, at the Wayback Machine. at BreakTheChain.org
^ Jump up to: a b c Study Resources: The Books of the Bible at BlueLetterBible.org
Jump up ^ King James Bible Statistics at BibleBelievers.com
Jump up ^ First Thessalonians 5:12–28, John Walvoord at Bible.org
Jump up ^ Luke 20:30 και ο δευτερος – and the second with interlinear Greek-English and KJV
Luke 20:30, in the 1550 Stephanus New Testament and the 1881 Westcott-Hort New Testament.
Jump up ^ Isaias 10 at LatinVulgate.com
External links[edit]
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This article is about the American definition of SEER. For the European definition, see European seasonal energy efficiency ratio.
"SEER" redirects here. For the cancer epidemiology database, see Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results.
The efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the seasonal energy efficiency Ratio (SEER) which is defined by the Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment.[1] A similar standard is the European seasonal energy efficiency ratio (ESEER).
The SEER rating of a unit is the cooling output during a typical cooling-season divided by the total electric energy input during the same period. The higher the unit's SEER rating the more energy efficient it is. In the U.S., the SEER is the ratio of cooling in British thermal unit (BTU) to the energy consumed in watt-hours. The coefficient of performance (COP), a more universal unit-less measure of efficiency, is discussed in the following section.
For example, consider a 5,000-British-thermal-unit-per-hour (1,500 W) air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10 BTU/W·h, operating for a total of 1000 hours during an annual cooling season (e.g., 8 hours per day for 125 days).
The annual total cooling output would be:
5000 BTU/h × 8 h/day × 125 days/year = 5,000,000 BTU/year
With a SEER of 10 BTU/W·h, the annual electrical energy usage would be about:
5,000,000 BTU/year / 10 BTU/(W·h) = 500,000 W·h/year
The average power usage may also be calculated more simply by:
Average power = (BTU/h) / (SEER) = 5000 / 10 = 500 W
If your electricity cost is 20¢/kW·h, then your cost per operating hour is:
0.5 kW * 20¢/kW·h = 10¢/h
Contents
[hide]
1 Relationship of SEER to EER and COP
2 Theoretical maximum
3 US government SEER standards
3.1 1992
3.2 2006
3.3 2015
4 Calculating the annual cost of electric energy for an air conditioner
5 Maximum SEER ratings
6 Heat pumps
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Relationship of SEER to EER and COP[edit]
The energy efficiency ratio (EER) of a particular cooling device is the ratio of output cooling energy (in BTU) to input electrical energy (in Wh) at a given operating point. EER is generally calculated using a 95 °F outside temp and an inside (actually return air) temp of 80 °F and 50% relative humidity.
The EER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics, with the primary difference being that the COP of a cooling device is unit-less, because the numerator and denominator are expressed in the same units. The EER uses mixed units, so it doesn't have an immediate physical sense and is obtained by multiplying the COP(or EER) by the conversion factor from BTU/h to Watts: EER = 3.41214 × COP (see British thermal unit).
The seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) is also the COP(or EER) expressed in BTU/W·hr, but instead of being evaluated at a single operating condition, it represents the expected overall performance for a typical year's weather in a given location. The SEER is thus calculated with the same indoor temperature, but over a range of outside temperatures from 65 °F (18 °C) to 104 °F (40 °C), with a certain specified percentage of time in each of 8 bins spanning 5 °F (2.8 °C). There is no allowance for different climates in this rating, which is intended to give an indication of how the EER is affected by a range of outside temperatures over the course of a cooling season.
Typical EER for residential central cooling units = 0.875 × SEER. SEER is a higher value than EER for the same equipment.[1]
A more detailed method for converting SEER to EER uses this formula:
EER = -0.02 × SEER² + 1.12 × SEER[2] Note that this method is used for benchmark modeling only and is not appropriate for all climate conditions.[2]
A SEER of 13 is approximately equivalent to an EER of 11, and a COP of 3.2, which means that 3.2 units of heat are removed from indoors per unit of energy used to run the air conditioner.
Theoretical maximum[edit]
The SEER and EER of an air conditioner are limited by the laws of thermodynamics. The refrigeration process with the maximum possible efficiency is the Carnot cycle. The COP of an air conditioner using the Carnot cycle is:
C O P C a r n o t = T C T H − T C {\displaystyle COP_{Carnot}={\frac {T_{C}}{T_{H}-T_{C}}}}
where T C {\displaystyle T_{C}} is the indoor temperature and T H {\displaystyle T_{H}} is the outdoor temperature. Both temperatures must be measured using a thermodynamic temperature scale based at absolute zero such as Kelvin or Rankine. The EER is calculated by multiplying the COP by 3.412 BTU/W⋅h as described above:
E E R C a r n o t = 3.412 T C T H − T C {\displaystyle EER_{Carnot}=3.412{\frac {T_{C}}{T_{H}-T_{C}}}}
Assuming an outdoor temperature of 95 °F (35 °C) and an indoor temperature of 80 °F (27 °C), the above equation gives (when temperatures are converted to Kelvin or Rankine) a COP of 36, or an EER of 120. This is about 10 times more efficient than a typical home air conditioner available today.
The maximum EER decreases as the difference between the inside and outside air temperature increases, and vice versa. In a desert climate where the outdoor temperature is 120 °F (49 °C), the maximum COP drops to 13, or an EER of 46 (for an indoor temperature of 80 °F (27 °C)).
The maximum SEER can be calculated by averaging the maximum EER over the range of expected temperatures for the season.
US government SEER standards[edit]
This section is written like a manual or guidebook. Please help rewrite this section from a descriptive, neutral point of view, and remove advice or instruction. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
SEER rating reflects overall system efficiency on a seasonal basis and EER reflects the system's energy efficiency at one specific operating condition. Both ratings are useful when choosing products, but the same rating must be used for comparisons.
Substantial energy savings can be obtained from more efficient systems. For example, by upgrading from SEER 9 to SEER 13, the power consumption is reduced by 30% (equal to 1 − 9/13). It is claimed that this can result in an energy savings valued at up to US$300 per year depending on the usage rate and the cost of electricity.
With existing units that are still functional and well-maintained, when the time value of money is considered, retaining existing units rather than proactively replacing them may be the most cost effective. However, the efficiency of air conditioners can degrade significantly over time.[3]
But when either replacing equipment, or specifying new installations, a variety of SEERs are available. For most applications, the minimum or near-minimum SEER units are most cost effective, but the longer the cooling seasons, the higher the electricity costs, and the longer the purchasers will own the systems, the more that incrementally higher SEER units are justified. Residential split-system AC units of SEER 20 or more are now available. The higher SEER units typically have larger coils and multiple compressors, with some also having variable refrigerant flow and variable supply air flow.
1992[edit]
In 1987 legislation taking effect in 1992 was passed requiring a minimum SEER rating of 10.[4] It is rare to see systems rated below SEER 9 in the United States because aging, existing units are being replaced with new, higher efficiency units.
2006[edit]
Beginning in January 2006 a minimum SEER 13 was required.[5] The United States requires that residential systems manufactured after 2005 have a minimum SEER rating of 13. ENERGY STAR qualified Central Air Conditioners must have a SEER of at least 14.5. Window units are exempt from this law so their SEERs are still around 10.
2015[edit]
In 2011 the US Department of Energy (DOE) revised energy conservation rules to impose elevated minimum standards and regional standards for residential HVAC systems.[6] The regional approach recognizes the differences in cost-optimization resulting from regional climate differences. For example, there is little cost benefit to having a very high SEER air conditioning unit in Maine, a state in the northeast US.
Starting January 1, 2015, split system central air conditioners installed in the Southeastern Region of the United States of America must be at least 14 SEER. The Southeastern Region includes the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Similarly, split system central air conditioners installed in the Southwestern Region must be a minimum 14 SEER and 12.2 EER beginning on January 1, 2015. The Southwestern Region consists of the states of Arizona, California, Nevada, and New Mexico. Split system central air conditioners installed in all other states outside the Southeastern and Southwestern regions must continue to be a minimum of 13 SEER, which is the current national requirement.[6]
Calculating the annual cost of electric energy for an air conditioner[edit]
Electric power is usually measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). For example, if an electric load that draws 1.5 kW of electric power is operated for 8 hours, it uses 12 kWh of electric energy. In the United States, a residential electric customer is charged based on the amount of electric energy he or she uses. On the customer bill, the electric utility states the amount of electric energy, in kilowatt-hours (kWh), that the customer used since the last bill, and the cost of the energy per kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Air conditioner sizes are often given as "tons" of cooling, where 1 ton of cooling equals 12,000 BTU/h (3.5 kW). 1 ton of cooling equals the amount of power that needs to be applied continuously, over a 24-hour period, to melt 1 ton of ice. The annual cost of electric energy consumed by a 72,000 BTU/h (21 kW) (6 ton) air conditioning unit, operating for 1000 hours per year, with a SEER rating of 10, and an electric energy cost of $0.12 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) is:
unit size, BTU/h × hours per year, h × energy cost, $/kWh ÷ SEER, BTU/Wh ÷ 1000 W/kW
Example 1:
(72,000 BTU/h) × (1000 h/year) × ($0.12/kWh) ÷ (10 BTU/Wh) ÷ (1000 W/kW) = $860/year
Example 2. A residence near Chicago has an air conditioner with a cooling capacity of 4 tons and an SEER rating of 10. The unit is operated 120 days each year for 8 hours per day (960 hours per year), and the electric energy cost is $0.10 per kilowatt-hour. What is the annual cost of the electric energy required to operate the air conditioner? First, we convert tons of cooling to BTU/h:
(4 tons) × (12,000 BTU/h/ton) = 48,000 Btu/h.
The annual cost of the electric energy is:
(48,000 Btu/h) × (960 h/year) × ($0.10/kWh) ÷ (10 BTU/Wh) ÷ (1000 W/kW) = $460/year
Maximum SEER ratings[edit]
Today there are mini-split (ductless) air conditioner units available with SEER ratings up to 33.[7][8] During the 2014 AHR Expo, Mitsubishi unveiled a new mini-split ductless AC unit with a SEER rating of 30.5.[9] GREE also released a 30.5 SEER rating mini split this past year as well.[10] Traditional AC systems with ducts have maximum SEER ratings slightly below these levels. Also, practically, central systems will have an achieved energy efficiency ratio 10–20% lower than the nameplate rating due to the duct-related losses, increasing the relative advantage for ductless.
Additionally, there are ground-source residential AC units with SEER ratings up to 75.[11] However, ground source heat pump effective efficiency is reliant on the temperature of the ground or water source used. Hot climates have a much higher ground or surface water temperature than in cold climates and therefore will not be able to achieve such efficiencies. Moreover, the ARI rating scheme for ground source heat pumps allows them to largely ignore required pump power in their ratings, making the achievable SEER values often practically lower than the highest efficiency air-source equipment—particularly for air cooling. There are a variety of technologies that will allow SEER and EER ratings to increase further in the near future.[12] Some of these technologies include rotary compressors, inverters, DC brushless motors, variable-speed drives and integrated systems.[12]
Heat pumps[edit]
A refrigeration cycle can be operated as a heat pump to move heat from outdoors into a warmer house. A heat pump with a higher SEER rating for cooling mode would also usually be more efficient in heating mode, rated using HSPF. When operated in heating mode, a heat pump is typically more efficient than an electrical resistance heater. This is because a space heater can convert only the input electrical energy directly to output heat energy, while a heat pump also transfers heat from outdoors. In heating mode, the coefficient of performance is the ratio of heat provided to the energy used by the unit. An ideal resistance heater converting 100% of its input electricity to output heat would have COP = 1, equivalent to a 3.4 EER. The heat pump becomes less efficient as the outside temperature decreases, and its performance may become comparable to a resistance heater. For a heat pump with the minimum 13 SEER cooling efficiency, this is typically below −10 °F (−23 °C).[13]
Lower temperatures may cause a heat pump to operate below the efficiency of a resistance heater, so conventional heat pumps often include heater coils or auxiliary heating from LP or natural gas to prevent low efficiency operation of the refrigeration cycle. "Cold climate" heat pumps are designed to optimize efficiency below 0 °F (−18 °C). In the case of cold climates, water or ground source heat pumps are the most efficient solution. They use the relatively constant temperature of ground water or of water in a large buried loop to moderate the temperature differences in summer and winter and improve performance year round. The heat pump cycle is reversed in the summer to act as an air conditioner
See also[edit]
Air conditioner
Air conditioning
Annual fuel use efficiency (AFUE)
Coefficient of performance
Energy star
Heat pump
HSPF
HVAC
Thermal efficiency
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "ANSI/AHRI 210/240-2008: 2008 Standard for Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning & Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment" (PDF). Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute. 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "U.S. DOE Building America House Simulation Protocols, Revised October 2010" (PDF). 2010.
Jump up ^ US Department of Energy Framework Public Meeting for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps (June 12, 2008) at 35– 36 (transcript) [1].
Jump up ^ http://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-air-conditioner-efficiency-standards-seer-13-vs.-seer-12
Jump up ^ http://www.mikesheatingandairconditioning.com/13seermandate.htm
^ Jump up to: a b "DOE Finalizes New Energy Conservation Standards for Residential HVAC Appliances". October 26, 2011. Retrieved 2014-05-22.
Jump up ^ Energy Star.gov https://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=most_efficient.me_cac_ashp. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "GREE Crown Ductless Mini Split Heat Pump Systems". 2015.
Jump up ^ "Most Energy-efficient Ductless Model on Market Provides Significant Heating Capacity in Extreme Cold Climates". February 4, 2014. >
Jump up ^ "GREE Crown Mini Split". March 20, 2015. >
Jump up ^ "Inverter Smart Source Unit Just Released up to 62.5 EER that's up to 75 SEER". 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "How High Will SEER Go?". 2006.
Jump up ^ Goodman GSH13 Product Specifications
External links[edit]
A new measure for the energy efficiency of heating and cooling devices – Information from Daikin on seasonal efficiency
Climate Impacts on Heating Seasonal Performance Factor (HSPF) and Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) for Air Source Heat Pumps
What is SEER Rating in HVAC
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seasonal_energy_efficiency_ratio&oldid=808403315"
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