text:
Cognitive development
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology compared to an adult's point of view. In other words, cognitive development is the emergence of the ability to think and understand. Cognitive development can also be called intellectual development [1] A large portion of research has gone into understanding how a child imagines the world. Jean Piaget was a major force in the establishment of this field, forming his "theory of cognitive development". Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period.[2] Many of his theoretical claims have since fallen out of favor. However, his description of the more prominent changes in cognition with age (e.g., that it moves from being dependent on actions and perception in infancy to an understanding of the more observable aspects of reality in childhood to capturing the underlying abstract rules and principles in adolescence) is generally still accepted today. Perhaps equally importantly, Piaget identified and described many cognitive changes that must be explained, such as object permanence in infancy and the understanding of logical relations and cause-effect reasoning in school age children. The many phenomena he described still attract the interest of many current researchers.
In recent years however, alternative models have been advanced, including information-processing theory, neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, which aim to integrate Piaget's ideas with more recent models and concepts in developmental and cognitive science, theoretical cognitive neuroscience, and social-constructivist approaches.
A major controversy in cognitive development has been "nature versus nurture", that is, the question if cognitive development is mainly determined by an individual's innate qualities ("nature"), or by their personal experiences ("nurture"). However, it is now recognized by most experts that this is a false dichotomy: there is overwhelming evidence from biological and behavioral sciences that from the earliest points in development, gene activity interacts with events and experiences in the environment.[3]
Cognitive development and motor development may also be closely interrelated. When a person experience a neurodevelopmental disorder and their cognitive development is disturbed, we often see adverse effects in motor development as well. Cerebellum, which is the part of brain that is most responsible for motor skills, has been shown to have significant importance in cognitive functions in the same way that prefrontal cortex has important duties in not only cognitive abilities but also development of motor skills. To support this, there is evidence of close co-activation of neocerebellum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in functional neuroimaging as well as abnormalities seen in both cerebellum and prefrontal cortex in the same developmental disorder. In this way, we see close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and they cannot operate in their full capacity when either of them are impaired or delayed. [4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical origins: The history and theory of cognitive development.
1.1 Piaget's theory of cognitive development
1.1.1 Sensorimotor stage
1.1.2 Birth to one month
1.1.3 1–4 months
1.1.4 5–8 months
1.1.5 8–12 months
1.1.6 12–18 months
1.1.7 18–24 months
1.1.8 Preoperational stage
1.1.9 Concrete operational stage
1.1.10 Formal operational stage
1.1.11 Criticism
2 Other theoretical perspectives on cognitive development
2.1 Speculated core systems of cognition
2.1.1 Number
2.1.2 Space
2.1.3 Visual perception
2.1.4 Essentialism
2.1.5 Language acquisition
2.1.6 Bilingualism
2.2 Whorf's hypothesis
2.3 Quine's bootstrapping hypothesis
2.4 Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
3 Neuroscience
3.1 Cultural influences
3.1.1 Figure-line task (Hedden et al., 2008)
3.1.2 Kobayashi et al., 2007
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Historical origins: The history and theory of cognitive development.[edit]
Jean Piaget is inexorably linked to cognitive development. It is clear that in Piaget's writings that there are influences from many historical predecessors. A few that are worth mentioning are included in the following Historical Origins chart. It is intended to be a more inclusive list of researchers who have studied the processes of acquiring more complex ways of thinking as people grow and develop:

DOB/Death
Contribution to Cognitive Development
Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 Wrote Emile, or On Education,[5] (1762). He discusses childhood development as happening in three stages. First stage, up to age 12, the child is guided by their emotions and impulses. The second stage, ages 12–16, the child's reason starts to develop. The third and final stage, age 16 and up, the child develops into an adult.
James Sully 1842-1923 Wrote several books on childhood development, including "Studies of Childhood[6]" (1895) and "Children's Ways[7]" (1897). He used a detailed observational study method with the children. Contemporary research in child development actually repeats observations, and observational methods, summarized by Sully in his 1895 work "Studies of Childhood", such as the mirror technique.
Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934 Area of specialty was developmental psychology. Main contribution is the somewhat controversial "Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD) which states that 'play' of young children should be their main activity as this is their main source of development in terms of emotional, volitional, and cognitive development. ZPD is the link between children's learning and cognitive development.
Maria Montessori 1870-1952 Began her career working with mentally disabled children in 1897, then she conducted observation and experimental research in elementary schools. Wrote The Discovery of the Child[8] (1948). Discussed the Four Planes of Development. Birth - 6, 6 -12, 12 -18, and 18 -24. The Montessori Method now has three developmentally-meaningful age groups. 2 - 2.5, 2.5 - 6, and 6 - 12. She was working on human behavior in older children but only published lecture notes on the subject.
Jean Piaget 1896-1980 Piaget was the first psychologist and philosopher to brand this type of study as "cognitive development". Other researchers, in multiple disciplines, had studied development in children before, but Piaget is often credited as being the first one to make a systematic study of cognitive development and gave it its name. His main contribution is the stage theory of child cognitive development. He also published his observational studies of cognition in children, and created a series of simple tests to reveal different cognitive abilities in children.
Lawrence Kohlberg 1927-1987 Wrote the theory of stages of moral development which extended Piaget's findings of cognitive development and showed that they continue through the lifespan. Kohlberg's 6 stages follow Piaget's constructivist requirements in that stages can not be skipped and it is very rare to regress in stages. Notable works: Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Development Approach[9] (1976) and Essays on Moral Development[10] (1981)
Piaget's theory of cognitive development[edit]
Main article: Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) believed that people move through stages of development that allow them to think in new, more complex ways.
Sensorimotor stage[edit]
The first stage in Piaget's stages of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage. This stage lasts from birth to two years old. During this stage, behaviors lack a sense of thought and logic. Behaviors gradually move from acting upon inherited reflexes to interacting with the environment with a goal in mind and being able to represent the external world at the end.
The sensorimotor stage has been broken down into six sub stages that explain the gradual development of infants from birth to age 2. Once the child gains the ability to mentally represent reality, the child begins the transition to the preoperational stage of development.[11]
Birth to one month[edit]
Each child is born with inherited reflexes that they use to gain knowledge and understanding about their environment. Examples of these reflexes include grasping and sucking.[12]
1–4 months[edit]
Children repeat behaviors that happen unexpectedly because of their reflexes. For example, a child's finger comes in contact with the mouth and the child starts sucking on it. If the sensation is pleasurable to the child, then the child will attempt to recreate the behavior.[12] Infants use their initial reflexes (grasping and sucking) to explore their environment and create schemes. Schemes are groups of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment.[13] Once a child begins to create schemes they use accommodation and assimilation to become progressively adapted to the world.[14] Assimilation is when a child responds to a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing schema. For example, an infant may assimilate a new teddy bear into their putting things in their mouth scheme and use their reflexes to make the teddy bear go into their mouth.[13] Accommodation is when a child either modifies an existing scheme or forms an entirely new schema to deal with a new object or event. For example, an infant may have to open his or her mouth wider than usual to accommodate the teddy bear's paw.[13]
5–8 months[edit]
Child has an experience with an external stimulus that they find pleasurable, so they try to recreate that experience. For example, a child accidentally hits the mobile above the crib and likes to watch it spin. When it stops the child begins to grab at the object to make it spin again. In this stage habits are formed from general schemes that the infant has created but there is not yet, from the child's point of view, any differentiation between means and ends.[15] Children cannot also focus on multiple tasks at once, and only focus on the task at hand.[13] The child may create a habit of spinning the mobile in its crib, but they are still trying to find out methods to reach the mobile in order to get it to spin in the way that they find pleasurable. Once there is another distraction (say the parent walks in the room) the baby will no longer focus on the mobile. Toys should be given to infants that respond to a child's actions to help foster their investigative instincts.[16] For example, a toy plays a song when you push one button, and then a picture pops up if you push another button.
8–12 months[edit]
Behaviors will be displayed for a reason rather than by chance. They begin to understand that one action can cause a reaction.[12] They also begin to understand object permanence, which is the realization that objects continue to exist when removed form view. For example: The baby wants a rattle but the blanket is in the way. The baby moves the blanket to get the rattle. Now that the infant can understand that the object still exists, they can differentiate between the object, and the experience of the object. According to psychologist David Elkind, "An internal representation of the absent object is the earliest manifestation of the symbolic function which develops gradually during the second year of life whose activities dominate the next stage of mental growth."[17]
12–18 months[edit]
Actions occur deliberately with some variation. For example a baby drums on a pot with a wooden spoon, then drums on the floor, then on the table.[12]
18–24 months[edit]
Children begin to build mental symbols and start to participate in pretend play. For example, a child is mixing ingredients together but doesn't have a spoon so they pretend to use one or use another object the replace the spoon.[12] Symbolic thought is a representation of objects and events as mental entities or symbols which helps foster cognitive development and the formation of imagination.[18] According to Piaget, the infant begins to act upon intelligence rather than habit at this point. The end product is established after the infant has pursued for the appropriate means. The means are formed from the schemes that are known by the child.[15] The child is starting to learn how to use what it has learned in the first two years to develop and further explore their environment.
Preoperational stage[edit]
Lasts from 2 years of age until 6 or 7. It can be characterized in two somewhat different ways. In his early work, before he had developed his structuralist theory of cognition, Piaget described the child's thought during this period as being governed by principles such as egocentrism, animism and other similar constructs. Egocentrism is when a child can only see a certain situation his or her own way. One can not comprehend that other people have other views and perceptions of scenarios. Animism is when an individual gives a lifeless object human like qualities. An individual usually believes that this object has human emotions, thoughts and intentions. Once he had proposed his structuralist theory, Piaget characterized the preoperational child as lacking the cognitive structures possessed by the concrete operational child. The absence of these structures explains, in part, the behaviors Piaget had previously described as egocentric and animistic, for example an inability to comprehend that another individual may have different emotional responses to similar experiences.[11][19] During this stage children also become increasingly adept at using symbols as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending.
Concrete operational stage[edit]
Lasts from 6 or 7 years until about 12 or 13. During this stage the child's cognitive structures can be characterized by reality. Piaget argues that the same general principles can be discerned in a wide range of behaviors. One of the best-known achievements of this stage is that of conservation. In a typical conservation experiment a child is asked to judge whether or not two quantities are the same – such as two equal quantities of liquid in a short and tall glass. A preoperational child will typically judge the taller, thinner glass to contain more, while a concrete operational child will judge the amounts still to be the same. The ability to reason in this way reflects the development of a principle of conservation.[11]
Formal operational stage[edit]
Lasts from 12 or 13 until adulthood and are advancing from logical reasoning with concrete examples to abstract examples. The need for concrete examples is no longer necessary because abstract thinking can be used instead. In this stage adolescents are also able to view themselves in the future and can picture the ideal life they would like to pursue. Some theorists believe the formal operational stage can be divided into two sub-categories: early formal operational and late formal operation thought. Early formal operational thoughts may be just fantasies, but as adolescents advance to late formal operational thought the life experiences they have encountered changes those fantasy thoughts to realistic thoughts.[11]
Criticism[edit]
Many of his claims have fallen out of favor. For example, he claimed that young children cannot conserve numbers. However, further experiments showed that children did not really understand what was being asked of them. When the experiment is done with candies, and the children are asked which set they want rather than having to tell an adult which is more, they show no confusion about which group has more items.[citation needed]
Other theoretical perspectives on cognitive development[edit]
Speculated core systems of cognition[edit]
Empiricists study how these skills may be learned in such a short time. The debate is over whether these systems are learned by general-purpose learning devices, or domain-specific cognition. Moreover, many modern cognitive developmental psychologists, recognizing that the term "innate" does not square with modern knowledge about epigenesis, neurobiological development, or learning, favor a non-nativist framework. Researchers who discuss "core systems" often speculate about differences in thinking and learning between proposed domains. Researchers who posit a set of so-called "core domains" suggest that children have innate sensitivity to specific kinds of patterns of information. Those commonly cited include:
Number[edit]
Infants appear to have two systems for dealing with numbers. One deals with small numbers, often called subitizing. Another deals with larger numbers in an approximate fashion.[20]
Space[edit]
Very young children appear to have some skill in navigation. This basic ability to infer the direction and distance of unseen locations develops in ways that are not entirely clear. However, there is some evidence that it involves the development of complex language skills between 3 and 5 years.[21] Also, there is evidence that this skill depends importantly on visual experience, because congenitally blind individuals have been found to have impaired abilities to infer new paths between familiar locations.
Visual perception[edit]
One of the original nativist versus empiricist debates was over depth perception. There is some evidence that children less than 72 hours old can perceive such complex things as biological motion.[22] However, it is unclear how visual experience in the first few days contributes to this perception. There are far more elaborate aspects of visual perception that develop during infancy and beyond.
Essentialism[edit]
Young children seem to be predisposed to think of biological entities (e.g., animals and plants) in an essentialistic way.[23] This means that they expect such entities (as opposed to, e.g., artifacts) to have many traits such as internal properties that are caused by some "essence" (such as, in our modern Western conceptual framework, the genome).
Language acquisition[edit]
A major, well-studied process and consequence of cognitive development is language acquisition. The traditional view was that this is the result of deterministic, human-specific genetic structures and processes. Other traditions, however, have emphasized the role of social experience in language learning. However, the relation of gene activity, experience, and language development is now recognized as incredibly complex and difficult to specify. Language development is sometimes separated into learning of phonology (systematic organization of sounds), morphology (structure of linguistic units—root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation, etc.), syntax (rules of grammar within sentence structure), semantics (study of meaning), and discourse or pragmatics (relation between sentences). However, all of these aspects of language knowledge—which were originally posited by the linguist Noam Chomsky to be autonomous or separate—are now recognized to interact in complex ways.
Bilingualism[edit]
It wasn’t until recently that bilingualism had really been accepted as a contributing factor to cognitive development. Ellen Bialystok, was, and is a big game changer in this field. Bialystok has done years of research on the effects bilingualism has on cognitive development. There have been a number of studies showing how bilingualism contributes to the executive function of the brain, which is the main center at which cognitive development happens.According Bialystok in “Bilingualism and the Development of Executive Function: The Role of Attention”, children who are bilingual, have to actively filter through the two different languages to select the one they need to use, which in turn makes the development stronger in that center.[24]
Whorf's hypothesis[edit]
Main article: Linguistic relativity
Benjamin Whorf (1897 – 1941), while working as a student of Edward Sapir, posited that a person's thinking depends on the structure and content of their social group's language. In other words, it is the belief that language determines our thoughts and perceptions. For example, it used to be thought that Greeks, who wrote left to right, thought differently than Egyptians since the Egyptians wrote right to left. Whorf's theory was so strict that he believed if a word is absent in a language, then the individual is unaware of the object's existence.[25] This theory was played out in George Orwell's book, Animal Farm; the pig leaders slowly eliminated words from the citizen's vocabulary so that they were incapable of realizing what they were missing.[26] The Whorfian hypothesis failed to recognize that people can still be aware of the concept or item, even though they lack efficient coding to quickly identify the target information.[25]
Quine's bootstrapping hypothesis[edit]
Willard Van Orman Quine (1908-2000) argued that there are innate conceptual biases that enable the acquisition of language, concepts, and beliefs. Quine's theory follows nativist philosophical traditions, such as the European rationalist philosophers, for example Immanuel Kant.
Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development[edit]
Main article: Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development emphasized the role of information processing mechanisms in cognitive development, such as attention control and working memory. They suggested that progression along Piagetian stages or other levels of cognitive development is a function of strengthening of control mechanisms and enhancement of working memory storage capacity.
Neuroscience[edit]
During development, especially the first few years of life, children show interesting patterns of neural development and a high degree of neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity, as explained by The World Health Organization, can be summed in three points. 1.) Any adaptive mechanism used by the nervous system to repair itself after injury. 2.) Any means by which the nervous system can repair individually damaged central circuits. 3.) Any means by which the capacity of the central nervous system can adapt to new physiological conditions and environment. The relation of brain development and cognitive development is extremely complex and, since the 1990s, has been a growing area of research.
Cultural influences[edit]
From cultural psychologists' view, minds and culture shape each other. In other words, culture can influence brain structures which then influence our interpretation of the culture. These examples reveal cultural variations in neural responses:
Figure-line task (Hedden et al., 2008)[edit]
Behavioral research has shown that one's strength in independent or interdependent tasks differ based on their cultural context. In general, East Asian cultures are more interdependent whereas Western cultures are more independent.[clarification needed] Hedden et al. assessed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) responses of East Asians and Americans while they performed independent (absolute) or interdependent (relative) tasks. The study showed that participants used regions of the brain associated with attentional control when they had to perform culturally incongruent tasks. In other words, neural paths used for the same task were different for Americans and East Asians (Hedden et al., 2008).[27]
Kobayashi et al., 2007[edit]
Kobayashi et al. compared American-English monolingual and Japanese-English bilingual children's brain responses in understanding others' intentions through false-belief story and cartoon tasks. They found universal activation of the region bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex in theory of mind tasks. However, American children showed greater activity in the left inferior frontal gyrus during the tasks whereas Japanese children had greater activity in right inferior frontal gyrus during the Japanese Theory of Mind tasks. In conclusion, these examples suggest that the brain's neural activities are not universal but are culture dependent.[28]
See also[edit]
Reuven Feuerstein
Developmental psychology
Child development stages
Infant cognitive development
Human behavior genetics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Schacter, Daniel L (2009). PSYCHOLOGY. Catherine Woods. p. 429. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.
Jump up ^ Schacter, Daniel L (2009). PSYCHOLOGY. Catherine Woods. p. 430. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2.
Jump up ^ Carlson, N.R. et al.. (2005) Psychology: the science of behaviour (3rd Canadian ed) Pearson Ed. ISBN 0-205-45769-X
Jump up ^ "Shibboleth Authentication Request". www.jstor.org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1762). Emile: On Education.
Jump up ^ Sully, James (1895). Studies of Childhood.
Jump up ^ Sully, James (1897). Children's Ways.
Jump up ^ Montessori, Maria (1948). The Discovery of the Child.
Jump up ^ Kohlberg, Lawrence (1976). Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive Development Approach.
Jump up ^ Kohlberg, Lawrence (1981). Essays on Moral Development.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McShane, John. "Cognitive Development: an information processing approach". 1991
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Freyder, C., & Jackson, M. (2008). Sensorimotor Period. Retrieved November 20, 2012, from "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2012-12-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ormrod, J.E. (2012). Essentials of Educational Psychology: Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.
Jump up ^ McLeod, S. A. (2010). Sensorimotor Stage — Object Permanence. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html
^ Jump up to: a b Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1972). The Psychology of the Child (Vol. 5001). Basic Books.
Jump up ^ Buckleitner, W. (2008). So Young, and So Gadgeted. Retrieved November 20, 2012, from https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/12/technology/personaltech/12basics.html
Jump up ^ Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in Adolescence. Child Development, 34, 1025–1034.
Jump up ^ Ormrod, J.E. (2012). Essentials of Educational Psychology: Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.
Jump up ^ Ann Hurley."Cognitive Development: Overview." pp. 2 [1] Retrieved May 29, 2012
Jump up ^ Feigenson, L., Dehaene, S., Spelke, E. (2004). Core Systems of Number. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8. 307-314.
Jump up ^ Ness, Daniel and Stephen J. Farenga. (2007). Knowledge under Construction: The Importance of Play in Developing Children's Spatial and Geometric Thinking. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Jump up ^ Simion, F., Regolin, L. & Bulf, H. (2008). A predisposition for biological motion in the newborn baby. PNAS 105(2), 809-813.
Jump up ^ Gelman, S (2003). The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-518198-0.
Jump up ^ Bialystok, Ellen. "Bilingualism And The Development Of Executive Function: The Role Of Attention." Child Development Perspectives 9.2 (2015): 117-121. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Hunt, E., & Agnoli, F. (1991). The Whorfian hypothesis: A cognitive psychology perspective. Psychological Review, 98(3), 377-389. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.3.377
Jump up ^ Mosenthal, P. (1975). Language and thought. Theory Into Practice, 14(5), 306-311. doi:10.1080/00405847509542592
Jump up ^ Hedden, T., Ketay, S., Aron, A., Markus, H. R., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2008). Cultural influences on neural substrates of attentional control. Psychological Science, 19(1), 12-17. Retrieved from www.scopus.com
Jump up ^ Kobayashi, C., Glover, G. H., & Temple, E. (2007). Cultural and linguistic effects on neural bases of 'theory of mind' in american and japanese children. Brain Research, 1164(1), 95-107. Retrieved from www.scopus.com
Further reading[edit]
Klausmeier, J. Herbert & Patricia, S. Allen. "Cognitive Development of Children and Youth: A Longitudinal Study". 1978. pp. 3, 4, 5, 83, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96
McShane, John. "Cognitive Development: an information processing approach". 1991. pp. 22–24, 140, 141, 156, 157
Begley, Sharon. (1996) Your Child's Brain. Newsweek. Record: 005510CCB734C89244420. http://www.creativekids.com.au/Site/Ideas/4A97BE71-CFBB-405E-9C46-B78EC8F92238_files/NewsWeek-YourChildsBrain-2.pdf
Cherry, Kendra. (2012). Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development. Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm
Freud, Lisa (10/05/2010). Developmental Cognitive Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, and Psychobiology Program. Eunice Kennedy Shiver: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/about/org/crmc/cdb/prog_dcpbnp/index.cfm
Davies, Kevin. (4/17/2001). Nature vs. Nurture Revisited. NOVA. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/nature-versus-nurture-revisited.html
Walkerdine, Valerie (1990). The Mastery of Reason: Cognitive Development and the Production of Rationality. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-05233-7.
[hide]
v
t
e
Human biological and psychological development
Before birth
Embryo
Fetus
After birth
Infant
Toddler
Early childhood
Childhood
Child
Preadolescence
Adolescence
Adulthood
Middle age
Old age
Definitions
Minor
Age of majority
Events and phases
Gestational age
Prenatal development
Birth
Child development
stages
Cognitive development of infants
Human development
Adult development
Puberty
Ageing
Senescence
Death
Developmental psychology
Antenatal
Positive youth development
Young adult
Positive adult development
Maturity
Theorists and
theories
Freud (1856–1939) (Psychosexual development)
Piaget (1896–1980) (Theory of cognitive development)
Vygotsky (1896–1934) (Cultural-historical psychology)
Erikson (1902–1994) (Psychosocial development)
Bowlby (1907–1990) (Attachment theory)
Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) (Ecological systems theory)
Kohlberg (1927–1987) (Stages of moral development)
Commons (b. 1939), Fischer (b. 1943), Kegan (b. 1946), Demetriou (b. 1950), and others (Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development)
Evolutionary developmental psychology
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_development&oldid=815272591"
Categories:
Cognitive psychology
Neuroscience
Developmental psychology
Cognitive development
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2012
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2013
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Català
Español
Euskara
हिन्दी
עברית
Norsk nynorsk
Português
Русский
Edit links
This page was last edited on 13 December 2017, at 21:20.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

values:
/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development
mw-redirect
Theory of cognitive development

values:
/wiki/Information-processing_theory
mw-redirect
Information-processing theory

values:
/wiki/False_dichotomy
mw-redirect
False dichotomy

values: Edit section: Historical origins: The history and theory of cognitive development.

values: Edit section: Piaget's theory of cognitive development

values: Edit section: Concrete operational stage

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Other theoretical perspectives on cognitive development

values: Edit section: Speculated core systems of cognition

values:
/wiki/Subitizing_and_counting
mw-redirect
Subitizing and counting

values:
/wiki/Benjamin_Whorf
mw-redirect
Benjamin Whorf

values: Edit section: Quine's bootstrapping hypothesis

values: Edit section: Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development

values: Edit section: Figure-line task (Hedden et al., 2008)

values: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Human_behavior_genetics
mw-redirect
Human behavior genetics

values: International Standard Book Number (identifier)

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

values: Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2012

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2013

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Cognitive_development
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: نمو معرفي – Arabic

values: संज्ञानात्मक विकास – Hindi

values: התפתחות קוגניטיבית – Hebrew

values: Когнитивное развитие – Russian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cognitive_development rootpage-Cognitive_development skin-vector action-view


text:
IEEE Computer Society
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
IEEE Computer Society
Founded
1946[1]
Type
Professional organization
Focus
Computer and information processing science and technology
Headquarters
Washington, D.C., United States
Origins
Formation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) Subcommittee on Large-Scale Computing
Area served
Worldwide
Method
Publications, conferences, technical councils, industry standards, certification and training
Key people
Roger Fuji (Current President)
Employees
80
Website
www.computer.org
IEEE Computer Society (sometimes abbreviated Computer Society or CS) is a professional society of IEEE. Its purpose and scope is "to advance the theory, practice, and application of computer and information processing science and technology" and the "professional standing of its members."[2] The CS is the largest of 39 technical societies organized under the IEEE Technical Activities Board.[3]
The Computer Society sponsors workshops and conferences, publishes a variety of peer-reviewed literature, operates technical committees, and develops IEEE computing standards.[4] It supports more than 200 chapters worldwide[5] and participates in educational activities at all levels of the profession, including distance learning, accreditation of higher education programs in computer science, and professional certification in software engineering.[3]
The IEEE Computer Society is also a member organization of the Federation of Enterprise Architecture Professional Organizations (a worldwide association of professional organizations which have come together to provide a forum to standardize, professionalize, and otherwise advance the discipline of Enterprise Architecture).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Main activities
2.1 Education and professional development
2.2 Publications
2.3 Technical conferences and activities
2.4 Technical committees
2.5 Awards
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
IEEE Computer Society headquarters Office in Washington, D.C.
IEEE Computer Society traces its origins to the Subcommittee on Large-Scale Computing, established in 1946 by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE),[6] and to the Professional Group on Electronic Computers (PGEC), established in 1951 by the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE).[7] When the AIEE merged with the IRE in 1963 to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), these two committees became the IEEE Computer Group.[8] The group established its own constitution and bylaws in 1971 to become the IEEE Computer Society.[1]
The CS maintains its headquarters in Washington, D.C. and additional offices in California and Japan.[9]
Main activities[edit]
IEEE Computer Society publications office in Los Alamitos, California
The Computer Society maintains volunteer boards in six program areas: education, membership, professional activities, publications, standards, and technical and conference activities. In addition, 12 standing committees administer activities such as the CS elections and its awards programs to recognize professional excellence.[10]
Education and professional development[edit]
The Computer Society participates in ongoing development of college computing curricula, jointly with the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).[11] Other educational activities include software development certification programs[12] and online access to e-learning courseware and books.[13]
Publications[edit]
The Computer Society is a leading publisher of technical material in computing.[14] Its publications include 13 peer-reviewed technical magazines and 20 scholarly journals called Transactions, as well as conference proceedings, books, and a variety of digital products.[15]
The Computer Society Digital Library (CSDL) provides subscriber access to all CS publications.[16] In 2008, the Computer Society launched Computing Now, a Web portal featuring free access to a rotation of CSDL articles, along with technical news, CS blogs, and multimedia content.[17]
As most publications were delivered digitally in 2014, the Computer Society launched the complementary monthly digest Computing Edge magazine, which consists of curated articles from its magazines.[18]
Technical conferences and activities[edit]
Steve Wozniak relating tales of his television jammer hijinks from college at the first TechIgnite conference
The Computer Society sponsors more than 170 technical conferences each year[19] and coordinates the operation of several technical committees, councils, and task forces.[20]
The CS also maintains 12 standards committees to develop IEEE standards in various areas of computer and software engineering (e.g., the Design Automation Standards Committee and the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee).[21]
In 2010 the CS introduced Special Technical Communities (STCs) as a new way for members to develop communities focusing on selected technical areas.[22] Current topics include broadening participation, cloud computing, education, eGov, haptics, multicore, operating systems, smart grids, social networking, sustainable computing, systems engineering, and wearable and ubiquitous technologies.[23]
Technical committees[edit]
IEEE-CS currently has 26 technical committees and two technical councils.[24] A technical committee (TC) is an international network of professionals with common interests in computer hardware, software, its applications, and interdisciplinary fields within the umbrella of IEEE-CS. A technical council is essentially a very large technical committee, and a task force is an emerging technical committee. A TC serves as the focal point of the various technical activities within a technical discipline which influences the standards development, conferences, publications, and educational activities of IEEE-CS. Following are the current technical committees and councils:
Technical Committee on Business Informatics and Systems (TCBIS)
Technical Committee on Computer Architecture (TCCA)
Technical Committee on Computational LIfe Sciences (TCCLS)
Technical Committee on Computer Communications (TCCC)
Technical Committee on Data Engineering (TCDE)
Technical Committee on Dependable Computing and Fault Tolerance (TCFT)
Technical Committee on Digital Libraries (TCDL)
Technical Committee on Distributed Processing (TCDP)
Technical Committee on Intelligent Informatics (TCII)
Technical Committee on Internet (TCI)
Technical Committee on Learning Technology (TCLT)
Technical Committee on Mathematical Foundations of Computing (TCMF)
Technical Committee on Microprocessors and Microcomputers (TCMM)
Technical Committee on Microprogramming and Microarchitecture (TCuARCH)
Technical Committee on Multimedia Computing (TCMC)
Technical Committee on Multiple-Valued Logic (TCMVL)
Technical Committee on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TCPAMI)
Technical Committee on Parallel Processing (TCPP)
Technical Committee on Real-Time Systems (TCRTS)
Technical Committee on Scalable Computing (TCSC)
Technical Committee on Security and Privacy (TCSP)
Technical Committee on Semantic Computing (TCSEM)
Technical Committee on Services Computing (TCSVC)
Technical Committee on Simulation (TCSIM)
Technical Committee on Visualization and Graphics (VGTC)
Technical Committee on VLSI[25]
Technical Council on Software Engineering (TCSE)
Technical Council on Test Technology (TTTC)
Awards[edit]
The IEEE Computer Society recognizes outstanding work by computer professionals who advance the field in three areas of achievement: Technical Awards (e.g., the Seymour Cray Computer Engineering Award or the IEEE Computer Pioneer Award), Education Awards (e.g., Taylor L. Booth Education Award), and Service Awards (e.g., Richard E. Merwin Distinguished Service Award).[26]
See also[edit]
Association for Computing Machinery
Association of Information Technology Professionals
Australian Computer Society
British Computer Society
Canadian Information Processing Society
Computer Society of India
IEEE Technical Activities Board
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Institution of Analysts and Programmers
ISCA Influential Paper Award
New Zealand Computer Society
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wood, Helen: "Computer Society Celebrates 50 Years," IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 17(4):6, 1996
Jump up ^ IEEE Computer Society Constitution & Bylaws, art. 1, Sec. 2, 1971
^ Jump up to: a b "About the IEEE Computer Society". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Weiss, Eric A., "Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers--Computer Society (IEEE-CS)," Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2003, p. 881–882
Jump up ^ "Professional Chapters". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Concordia, Charles: "In the Beginning There Was the AIEE Committee on Computing Devices," Computer, 9(12):42–44 December 1976
Jump up ^ Astrahan, Morton M., "In the Beginning There Was the IRE Professional Group on Electronic Computers," Computer, 9(12):43–44, December 1976
Jump up ^ Weiss, Eric A., "Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers--Computer Society (IEEE-CS)," Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2003, p. 881
Jump up ^ "IEEE Computer Society Offices". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ IEEE Computer Society Bylaws, Article VI–XII, 2011
Jump up ^ "Computing Curriculum: Computer Science 2013 (CS2013)". ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Task Force. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Professional and Educational Activities Board". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "e-Learning Campus". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Weiss, Eric A., "Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers--Computer Society (IEEE-CS)," Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 4th ed., Nature Publishing Group, 2000, p. 882–883
Jump up ^ "IEEE Computer Society Publications". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Digital Library". IEEE Computer Society.
Jump up ^ "One Online Source for 14 Technical Magazines" (Press release). IEEE Computer Society. 5 May 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "IEEE Computer Society Introduces Computing Edge". 1888pressrelease.com. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Conference Calendar". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Technical Activities". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Standards Activities Board". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Dejan S. Milojicic, Phil Laplante, "Special Technical Communities," IEEE Computer, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 84-88, June, 2011.
Jump up ^ IEEE CS STC Web site
Jump up ^ Technical Committees of IEEE-CS
Jump up ^ TCVLSI
Jump up ^ "IEEE Computer Society Awards". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
External links[edit]
Official website
[show]
v
t
e
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Subsidiaries
GlobalSpec
IEEE Standards Association
Predecessors
American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Institute of Radio Engineers
Technical councils
Biometrics Council
Council on Electronic Design Automation
Council on Superconductivity
Nanotechnology Council
Sensors Council
Systems Council
Committee on Earth Observation
Technical Activities Board
Technical Societies
Aerospace and Electronic Systems
Antennas and Propagation
Broadcast Technology
Circuits and Systems
Communications
Components Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology
Computational Intelligence
Computer
Consumer Electronics
Control Systems
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
Education
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Electron Devices
Engineering in Medicine and Biology
Geoscience and Remote Sensing
Industrial Electronics
Industry Applications
Information Theory
Instrumentation and Measurement
Intelligent Transportation Systems
Magnetics
Microwave Theory and Techniques
Nuclear and Plasma Sciences
Oceanic Engineering
Photonics
Power and Energy
Power Electronics
Product Safety Engineering
Professional Communication
Reliability
Robotics and Automation
Signal Processing
Social Implications of Technology
Solid-State Circuits
Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
Technology Management
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
Vehicular Technology
Related
Certified Software Development Professional
Computer-Aided Design Technical Committee
District University IEEE Student Branch
Engineering and Technology History Wiki
Engineering for Change
Eta Kappa Nu
ICDSC
IEEE Access
IEEE Cloud Computing
IEEE conferences
IEEEXtreme
IEEE GRS South Italy Chapter
IEEEmadC
IEEE Rebooting Computing
IEEE Xplore
International Society for Quality Electronic Design
Internet Technical Committee
Italian Chapter of the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society
IEEE Life Sciences
List of IEEE awards
List of IEEE milestones
List of IEEE publications
NGSN
IEEE Registration Authority
IEEE Smart Grid
IEEE style
Technical Committee on VLSI
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 145122972
LCCN: n79043202
ISNI: 0000 0001 2177 0782
GND: 25694-8
SUDOC: 029994187
BNF: cb121501912 (data)
NLA: 35218046
NDL: 01006155
NKC: stk2009457982
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IEEE_Computer_Society&oldid=806892957"
Categories:
IEEE societies
Computer science organizations
Hidden categories:
Pages using deprecated image syntax
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Deutsch
Français
Italiano
Magyar
日本語
Português
ไทย
Українська
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 October 2017, at 20:08.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: caption

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: th

attrs: scope style

value: sup

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.computer.org

values:
/wiki/Enterprise_Architecture
mw-redirect
Enterprise Architecture

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values: American Institute of Electrical Engineers

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Edit section: Education and professional development

values:
/wiki/Scholarly_journal
mw-redirect
Scholarly journal

values:
/wiki/IEEE_Computing_Edge_(Magazine)
mw-redirect
IEEE Computing Edge (Magazine)

values: Edit section: Technical conferences and activities

values:
/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Pioneer_Award
mw-redirect
IEEE Computer Pioneer Award

values:
/wiki/Taylor_L._Booth_Education_Award
mw-redirect
Taylor L. Booth Education Award

values:
/wiki/ISCA_Influential_Paper_Award
mw-redirect
ISCA Influential Paper Award

values:
/wiki/New_Zealand_Computer_Society
mw-redirect
New Zealand Computer Society

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.computer.org/web/about

values:
nofollow
https://www.computer.org/web/chapters/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.computer.org/web/peb

values:
nofollow
https://www.computer.org/web/education/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.computer.org/csdl

values:
nofollow
https://www.computer.org/web/standards/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.computer.org/web/tandc/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.tcvlsi.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.computer.org/web/awards

values:
nofollow
http://www.computer.org/
external text

values: Template:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

values: Template talk:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

values: IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation

values: IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society

values: IEEE Components, Packaging & Manufacturing Technology Society

values: IEEE Dielectrics & Electrical Insulation Society

values: IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society

values: IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society

values: IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society

values: IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Society

values: IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society

values: IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society

values: IEEE Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society

values: IEEE Society on Social Implications of Technology

values: IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society

values: IEEE Technology and Engineering Management Society

values: IEEE Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control Society

values: Certified Software Development Professional

values: Computer-Aided Design Technical Committee

values: International Society for Quality Electronic Design (page does not exist)

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/145122972

values:
nofollow
external text
http://isni.org/isni/0000000121770782

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/25694-8

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.idref.fr/029994187

values:
nofollow
external text
https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35218046

values: Category:Pages using deprecated image syntax

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: สมาคมคอมพิวเตอร์ สถาบันวิชาชีพวิศวกรไฟฟ้าและอิเล็กทรอนิกส์ – Thai

values: Комп'ютерне товариство ІЕЕЕ – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-IEEE_Computer_Society rootpage-IEEE_Computer_Society skin-vector action-view


text:
Cockatiel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Cockatiel
Male cockatiel
Female cockatiel
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Tetrapodomorpha
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Cacatuidae
Subfamily: Nymphicinae
Genus: Nymphicus
Wagler, 1832
Species: N. hollandicus
Binomial name
Nymphicus hollandicus
(Kerr, 1792)
Cockatiel range (in red; all-year resident)
Synonyms
Psittacus hollandicus Kerr, 1792
Leptolophus hollandicus
The cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), is a bird that is a member of the cockatoo family endemic to Australia. They are prized as household pets and companion parrots throughout the world and are relatively easy to breed. As a caged bird, cockatiels are second in popularity only to the budgerigar.[2]
The cockatiel is the only member of the genus Nymphicus. It was previously considered a crested parrot or small cockatoo; however, more recent molecular studies have assigned it to its own subfamily, Nymphicinae. It is, therefore, now classified as the smallest of the Cacatuidae (cockatoo family). Cockatiels are native to Australia, and favour the Australian wetlands, scrublands, and bush lands.
Contents
1 Taxonomy and etymology
2 Description
2.1 Sexual dimorphism
2.2 Colour mutations
3 Distribution and habitat
4 Life span
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Taxonomy and etymology[edit]
Originally described by Scottish writer and naturalist Robert Kerr in 1793 as Psittacus hollandicus, the cockatiel (or cockateel) was moved to its own genus, Nymphicus, by Wagler in 1832.[citation needed] Its genus name reflects the experience of one of the earliest groups of Europeans to see the birds in their native habitat; the travellers thought the birds were so beautiful that they named them after mythical nymphs. The specific name hollandicus refers to New Holland, a historic name for Australia.
Its biological relationship had long been argued; it is now classified into a monotypic subfamily Nymphicinae but had sometimes in the past been misclassified among the Platycercinae, the broad-tailed parrots. This issue has now been settled with molecular studies. A 1984 study of protein allozymes signalled its closer relationship to cockatoos than to parrots,[3] and Mitochondrial 12S rRNA sequence data[4] places it amongst the Calyptorhynchinae (dark cockatoos) subfamily. The unique, parakeet (meaning long-tailed parrot) morphological feature is a consequence of the decrease in size and accompanying change of ecological niche.
Sequence analysis of intron 7 of the nuclear ?-fibrinogen gene, on the other hand, indicates that it may yet be distinct enough as to warrant recognition of the Nymphicinae rather than inclusion of the genus in the Calyptorhynchinae.[5]
The cockatiel is now biologically classified as a genuine member of Cacatuidae on account of sharing all of the cockatoo family's biological features, namely, the erectile crest, a gallbladder, powder down, suppressed cloudy-layer (which precludes the display of blue and green structural colours), and facial feathers covering the sides of the beak, all of which are rarely found outside the family Cacatuidae.
Description[edit]
1927 Brehms Tierleben painting
The cockatiel's distinctive erectile crest expresses the animal's emotional state. The crest is dramatically vertical when the cockatiel is startled or excited, gently oblique in its neutral or relaxed state, and flattened close to the head when the animal is angry or defensive. The crest is also held flat but protrudes outward in the back when the cockatiel is trying to appear alluring or flirtatious. In contrast to most cockatoos, the cockatiel has long tail feathers roughly making up half of its total length. At 30 to 33 cm (12 to 13 in), the cockatiel is the smallest of the cockatoos which are generally larger at between 30 and 60 cm (12 and 23.5 in).
Wild cockatiels, Australia
The "normal grey" or "wild-type" cockatiel's plumage is primarily grey with prominent white flashes on the outer edges of each wing. The face of the male is yellow or white, while the face of the female is primarily grey or light grey, and both sexes feature a round orange area on both ears, often referred to as "cheddar cheeks". This orange colouration is generally vibrant in adult males, and often quite muted in females. Visual sexing is often possible with this variant of the bird.
Cockatiels are relatively vocal birds, the calls of the male being more varied than that of the female. Cockatiels can be taught to sing specific melodies and speak many words and phrases.
Sexual dimorphism[edit]
All wild cockatiel chicks and juveniles look female, and are virtually indistinguishable from the time of hatching until their first moulting. They display horizontal yellow stripes or bars on the ventral surface of their tail feathers, yellow spots on the ventral surface of the primary flight feathers of their wings, a grey coloured crest and face, and a dull orange patch on each of their cheeks.
Adult cockatiels are sexually dimorphic, though to a lesser degree than many other avian species. This is only evident after the first moulting, typically occurring about six to nine months after hatching: the male loses the white or yellow barring and spots on the underside of his tail feathers and wings. The grey feathers on his cheeks and crest are replaced by bright yellow feathers, while the orange cheek patch becomes brighter and more distinct. The face and crest of the female will typically remain mostly grey, though also with an orange cheek patch. Additionally, the female commonly retains the horizontal barring on the underside of her tail feathers.
The colour in cockatiels is derived from two pigments: melanin (which provides the grey colour in the feathers, eyes, beak, and feet), and lipochromes (which provide the yellow colour on the face and tail and the orange colour of the cheek patch). The grey colour of the melanin overrides the yellow and orange of the lipochromes when both are present.
The melanin content decreases in the face of the males as they mature, allowing the yellow and orange lipochromes to be more visible, while an increase in melanin content in the tail causes the disappearance of the horizontal yellow tail bars.
In addition to these visible characteristics, the vocalisation of adult males is typically louder and more complex than that of females.
Colour mutations[edit]
Main article: Cockatiel colour genetics
Two different-coloured male cockatiels
Female Lutino cockatiel
Worldwide there are currently twenty two (22) cockatiel colour mutations established in aviculture with eight being exclusive to Australia. Mutations in captivity have emerged in various colours, some quite different from those observed in nature. Wild cockatiels are grey with visible differences between males and females. Male grey cockatiels typically have yellow heads while the female has a grey head. Juveniles tend to look like females with pinker beaks. The pied mutation first appeared in California in 1949. This mutation is a blotch of colour on an otherwise solid-coloured bird. For example, this may appear as a grey blotch on a yellow cockatiel.
Lutino coloration was first seen in 1958. These birds lack the grey of their wild counterparts and are white to soft yellow. This is a popular colour; due to inbreeding, these cockatiels often have a small bald patch behind their crests. The cinnamon mutation, first seen in the 1950s, is very similar in appearance to the grey; however, these birds have a warmer, browner colouring. Pearling was first seen in 1967. This is seen as a feather of one colour with a different coloured edge, such as grey feathers with yellow tips. This distinctive pattern is on a bird's wings or back. The albino colour mutation is a lack of pigment. These birds are white with red eyes. Fallow cockatiels first appeared sometime in the 1970s. This mutation shows as a bird with cinnamon colouring with yellow sections. Other mutations include: emerald/olive, dominant and recessive silver as well as mutations exclusive to Australia. These are: Australian fallow, faded (west coast silver), dilute/pastel silver (east coast silver) silver spangle (edged dilute), platinum, suffused (Australian olive) and pewter. Other mutations such as face altering mutations include; whiteface, pastelface, dominant yellow cheek, sex-linked yellow cheek, gold cheek, creamface and the Australian yellow cheek.
Cockatiel colour mutations can become even more complex as one bird can have multiple colour mutations. For example, a yellow lutino cockatiel may have pearling – white spots on its back and wings. This is a double mutation. An example of a quadruple mutation would be cinnamon cockatiel with yellowface colouring with pearling and pied markings.[6]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden
Cockatiel calling
Recording of a cockatiel
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Cockatiels are native to Australia, where they are found largely in arid or semi-arid country, but always close to water. Largely nomadic, the species will move to where food and water is available.[2] They are typically seen in pairs or small flocks.[2] Sometimes, hundreds will flock around a single body of water. To many farmers' dismay, they often eat cultivated crops. They are absent from the most fertile south west and south east corners of the country, the deepest Western Australian deserts, and Cape York Peninsula. They are the only cockatoo species which can sometimes reproduce in the end of their first year.
Life span[edit]
One-day-old cockatiel chick
The cockatiel's lifespan in captivity is generally given as 16 to 25 years,[7] though it is sometimes given as short as 10 to 15 years, and there are reports of cockatiels living as long as 32 years, the oldest confirmed specimen reported being 36 years old.[8] Diet and exercise are major determining factors.
See also[edit]
Cockatiel (aviculture)
Cockatiel colour genetics
Companion parrot
Pied cockatiel
Lutino cockatiel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Nymphicus hollandicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Factsheets:Cockatiel". Australian Museum. Retrieved 2008-08-30.
Jump up ^ Adams, M; Baverstock, PR; Saunders, DA; Schodde, R; Smith, GT (1984). "Biochemical systematics of the Australian cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuinae)". Australian Journal of Zoology. 32 (3): 363–77. doi:10.1071/ZO9840363.
Jump up ^ Brown, D.M. & Toft, C.A. (1999): Molecular systematics and biogeography of the cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae). Auk 116(1): 141-157. JSTOR 4089461
Jump up ^ Astuti, Dwi (2004): A phylogeny of Cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) inferred from DNA sequences of the seventh intron of Nuclear ?-fibrinogen gene. Doctoral work, Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Japan.
Jump up ^ Grindol, Diane (1998-07-20). The Complete Book of Cockatiels. ISBN 978-0-87605-178-8.
Jump up ^ Eleanor McCaffrey. "Cockatiels 101". cockatielcottage.net.
Jump up ^ Brouwer, K.; Jones, M.L.; King, C.E. & Schifter, H. (2000). "Longevity records for Psittaciformes in captivity". International Zoo Yearbook. 37 (1): 299–316. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2000.tb00735.x.
Further reading[edit]
Astuti, Dwi (2004?): A phylogeny of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) inferred from DNA sequences of the seventh intron of nuclear β-fibrinogen gene. Doctoral work, Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Japan. PDF fulltext
Dwi Astuti (2011). "Phylogenetic relationships within Cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) Based on DNA Sequences of The Seventh intron of Nuclear β-fibrinogen gene" (PDF). Jurnal Biologi Indonesia. 7 (1): 1–11. ISSN 0854-4425.
Flegg, Jim (2002): Photographic Field Guide: Birds of Australia. Reed New Holland, Sydney & London. ISBN 1-876334-78-9
Martin, Terry (2002). A Guide To Colour Mutations and Genetics in Parrots. ABK Publications. ISBN 978-0-9577024-6-2.
Hayward, Jim (1992). The Manual of Colour Breeding. The Aviculturist Publications. ISBN 978-0-9519098-0-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nymphicus hollandicus.
Wikispecies has information related to Nymphicus hollandicus
Cockatiels at Curlie
Inte Onsman's MUTAVI Research & Advice Group
Cockatiels – National Cockatiel Society
Cockatiel Information Forum and Bulletin Board – Talk Cockatiels
Videos, images and sounds – Internet Bird Collection
show
v
t
e
Cockatoos (family: Cacatuidae)
Appearance
Genus
Species
Small
Nymphicus
Cockatiel
Cockatiels in aviculture
Cockatiel colour genetics
Black
Calyptorhynchus
Calyptorhynchus
(subgenus)
Red-tailed black cockatoo
Glossy black cockatoo
Zanda
(subgenus)
Yellow-tailed black cockatoo
Carnaby's black cockatoo
Baudin's black cockatoo
Probosciger
Palm cockatoo
Pink or grey
Callocephalon
Gang-gang cockatoo
Eolophus
Galah (or rose-breasted cockatoo)
Lophochroa
Major Mitchell's cockatoo (or Leadbeater's cockatoo)
White
Cacatua
Cacatua
(subgenus)
Yellow-crested cockatoo (or lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo)
Citron-crested cockatoo
Sulphur-crested cockatoo
Eleonora cockatoo
Greater sulphur-crested cockatoo
Blue-eyed cockatoo
White cockatoo (or umbrella cockatoo)
Salmon-crested cockatoo (or Moluccan cockatoo)
Licmetis
(subgenus)
Long-billed corella
Western corella
Muir's corella
Butler's corella
Little corella
Tanimbar corella (or Goffin's cockatoo)
Solomons cockatoo
Red-vented cockatoo
Cookie
Snowball
Crest
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q514809
Wikispecies: Nymphicus hollandicus
ADW: Nymphicus_hollandicus
ARKive: nymphicus-hollandicus
BirdLife: 22684828
eBird: cockat
EoL: 1177835
EPPO: NYMKHO
GBIF: 2479977
iNaturalist: 116993
IRMNG: 10193499
ITIS: 177497
IUCN: 22684828
NBN: NHMSYS0000533151
NCBI: 13180
TSA: 12148
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cockatiel&oldid=865455247"
Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species
Cockatiel
Calyptorhynchinae
Endemic birds of Australia
Domesticated birds
Parrots of Oceania
Talking birds
Birds described in 1792
Hidden categories:
Use British English from April 2016
Articles with 'species' microformats
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015
Articles with hAudio microformats
Articles with Curlie links
Articles containing video clips
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikispecies
Languages
Afrikaans
Ænglisc
العربية
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Беларуская
Български
Català
Cebuano
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Hrvatski
Interlingua
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Қазақша
Кырык мары
Latina
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
پنجابی
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
Zazaki
中文
45 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 October 2018, at 02:14 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: p

values:
/wiki/Least_Concern
mw-redirect
Least Concern

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;

values: min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)

values: text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%

values:
/wiki/Endemism_in_birds
mw-redirect
Endemism in birds

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)
mw-redirect
Habitat (ecology)

values:
/wiki/DNA_sequence
mw-redirect
DNA sequence

values:
/wiki/Powder_down
mw-redirect
Powder down

values: position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 110px; right: 0px; bottom: 0px; height: 0px; width: 0px;

values: left: 50%; top: 50%; margin-left: -35px; margin-top: -27.5px;

values: width:220px width: 220px; position: relative;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1071%2FZO9840363

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4089461

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0854-4425

values:
nofollow
http://www.euronet.nl/users/hnl/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.cockatiels.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://talkcockatiels.com/
external text

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values:
Taxon_identifiers
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: left;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://ebird.org/species/cockat

values:
nofollow
external text
http://eol.org/pages/1177835/overview

values:
nofollow
external text
https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/NYMKHO

values: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.gbif.org/species/2479977

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/116993

values: National Center for Biotechnology Information

values: Category:IUCN Red List least concern species

values: Category:Use British English from April 2016

values: Category:Articles with 'species' microformats

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015

values: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

values: Category:Articles containing video clips

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Cockatiel
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokketiel
Kokketiel – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ang
display: none;

values: كوكاتيل – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-azb
display: none;

values: ককাটিয়েল – Bangla

values: Карэла-німфа – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: عروس هلندی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: נימפית מצויצת – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Нимф тотықұсы – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockatiel
Cockatiel – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: ဩစတြေးလျကြက်တူရွေး – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Корелла – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korela
Korela – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Нимфа (птица) – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: นกคอกคาทีล – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Cockatiel rootpage-Cockatiel skin-vector action-view


text:
Wayang kulit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Wayang Kulit in Indonesia
Wayang kulit is a traditional puppet-shadow play found in the culture of Java, Bali, and Lombok, Indonesia and Kelantan, Malaysia.[1] In a wayang kulit performance, the puppet figures are rear-projected on a taut linen screen with a coconut-oil (or electric) light. The Dalang (shadow artist) manipulates carved leather figures between the lamp and the screen to bring the shadows to life.
Wayang kulit is one of the many different forms of wayang theatre found in Indonesia, the other being wayang beber, wayang klitik, wayang golek, wayang topeng, and wayang wong. Wayang kulit is among the best known, offering a unique combination of ritual, lesson and entertainment. On November 7, 2003, UNESCO designated wayang kulit from Indonesia as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Wayang puppet figures
4 Performance
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term wayang is the Javanese word for shadow,[3] or bayang in standard Indonesian; the word also means "imagination".
In modern daily Javanese and Indonesian vocabulary, wayang can refer to the puppet itself or the whole puppet theatre performance. While kulit means skin or leather, the material from which the figures are carved.
History[edit]
Hinduism arrived in Indonesia from India before the Christian era. Sanskrit became the literary and court language of Java and later of Bali.
The Hindus changed the Wayang (as did the Muslims, later) to spread their religion, mostly telling stories from the Mahabharata or the Ramayana. This mixture of religion and wayang play was later praised as harmony between Hinduism and traditional Indonesian culture.
When Islam began spreading in Indonesia, the display of God or gods in human form was prohibited, and thus this style of painting and shadow play was suppressed. King Raden Patah of Demak, Java, wanted to see the wayang in its traditional form, but failed to obtain permission from Muslim religious leaders.
Religious leaders attempted to skirt the Muslim prohibition by converting the wayang golek into wayang purwa made from leather and displayed only the shadow instead of the puppets themselves[4].
Wayang puppet figures[edit]
The puppet figures of a Javanese wayang kulit.
The wayang comes in sizes from 25 cm to 75 cm. The important characters are usually represented by several puppets each. The wayang is usually made out of water buffalo and goat hide and mounted on bamboo sticks. However, the best wayang is typically made from young female buffalo parchment, cured for up to ten years. The carving and punching of the rawhide, which is most responsible for the character's image and the shadows that are cast, are guided by this sketch. A mallet is used to tap special tools, called tatah, to punch the holes through the rawhide. Making the wayang sticks from horn is a complicated process of sawing, heating, hand-molding, and sanding until the desired effect is achieved. When the materials are ready, the artist attaches the handle by precisely molding the ends of the horn around the individual wayang figure and securing it with thread. A large character may take months to produce.
There are important differences, between the 3 Islands where Wayang Kulit is played (due to local religious canon) : [5] [6]
in Java (where Islam is predominant), the puppets (named "ringgit") are elongated, the play lasts all night and the lamp (named blencong) is, nowadays, almost always electric. A full Gamelan with (pe)sinden is typically used.[7]
In Bali (where Hinduism is predominant), the puppets look more real, the play last a few hours and, if at night, the lamp uses coconut oil. Music is mainly by the four "Gender" wayang, with drums only if the story is from the Ramayana . There are no sinden. The Dalang does the singing.
Balinese dalangs are often also priests (amangku dalang). As such, they may also perform during daylight, for religious purposes (exorcism), without lamp and without screen (wayang sakral, or "lemah")[8]
In Lombok (where Islam is predominant and Bali's influence is strong), vernacular Wayang Kulit is known as Wayang Sasak, with puppets similar than Javanese ringgits, a small orchestre with no sinden, but flutes, metallophones and drums. The repertoire is unique to the Island and is based on the Muslim Menak Cycle (adventures of Amir Hamzah).
See the gallery below, where the Mahabharata character shown is Kresna (all pictures, except the last one)
Central Java ringgit
Carving the leather, in a Jogyakarta factory
Painting the Ringgit, in a Jogyakarta factory
All stages of the making of a ringgit
Bali ringgit
In the specialized village of Sukawati, Bali
Performance[edit]
Wayang kulit Grup Indra Swara Mexico in Spanish language
The stage of a wayang performance includes several components. A stretched linen canvas (kelir) acted as a canvas, dividing the dalang (puppeteer) and the spectator. A coconut-oil lamp (Javanese blencong or Balinese damar) – which in modern time usually replaced with electric light – casts shadow onto the screen. A banana trunk (Javanese gedebog, Balinese gedebong) lies on the ground between the screen and the dalang, where the figures are stuck to hold them in place. To the right of the dalang sits the puppet chest, which the dalang uses as a drum during the performance, hitting it with a wooden mallet. In a Javanese wayang kulit performance, the dalang may use a cymbal-like percussion instrument at his feet to cue the musicians. The musicians sit behind the dalang in a gamelan orchestra setting. Gamelan orchestra is an integral part of the Javanese wayang kulit performance. The performance are accompanied with female singers (pesinden) and male singers (wirasuara).
The setting of the banana trunk on the ground and canvas on the sky symbolizes each the earth and the sky, the whole composition symbolizes the entire cosmos. When the dalang animates the puppet figures and moves it across the screen, divine forces are acting in his hands with which he directs the happening. The lamp is a symbol of the sun as well as the eye of the dalang.[9]
A traditional wayang kulit performance begins after dark. The first of the three phases, in which the characters are introduced and the conflict is launched, lasts until midnight. The battles and intrigues of the second phase are about three hours. The third phase of reconciliation and friendship is finished at dawn.[10]
Wayang shadow plays are usually tales from the two major Hindu epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The puppet master contextualizes stories from the plays, making them relevant to current community, national or global issues. Gamelan players respond to the direction of the Dalang.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wayang kulit.
Wayang
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ness, Edward C. Van; Prawirohardjo, Shita (1980). Javanese Wayang Kulit: an introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195804140.
Jump up ^ "Wayang puppet theatre - intangible heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO". ich.unesco.org. Retrieved 2017-11-09.
Jump up ^ Mair, Victor H. Painting and Performance: Picture Recitation and Its Indian Genesis. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988. p. 58.
Jump up ^ Inna Solomonik. Wayang Purwa Puppets: the Language of the Silhouette - in: “Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde”, 136 (1980), no: 4, Leiden, hlm. 482-497
Jump up ^ Art in Indonesia, Continuities and Changes - Claire Holt - Cornell University Press
Jump up ^ Das Indonesische Schattenspiel - Guenter Spitzing- Dumont Taschenbuecher
Jump up ^ On thrones of Gold, Javanese Shadow Plays - James R. Brandon - Harvad University Press
Jump up ^ Religion in Bali, by C. Hooykaas, University of Leiden
Jump up ^ Kathy Foley: My Bodies: The Performer in West. In: TDR (1988-), Bd. 34, Nr. 2, Sommer 1990, S. 62–80, hier S. 75f
Jump up ^ Constantine Korsovitis: Ways of the Wayang. In: India International Centre Quarterly, Bd. 28, Nr. 2 (The Everyday The Familiar and the Bizarre) Sommer 2001, S. 59–68, hier S. 60
External links[edit]
"Bali & Beyond Educational Resources". www.balibeyond.com. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
"About wayang kulit". Kanda Buwana: Wayang Kulit Puppet Theatre. 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
"Wayang Kulit - a shadow play". minyos.its.rmit.edu.au. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
"History of Wayang Kulit - Wayang". shadowtheatre-ika.blogspot.co.id. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
Shadow Music of Java CD with thirteen-page booklet. Rounder CD 5060.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wayang_kulit&oldid=832128002"
Categories:
Puppetry
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Basa Banyumasan
Bahasa Indonesia
Basa Jawa
Basa Sunda
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 March 2018, at 00:37.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

attrs: href title

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Shadow_puppetry
mw-redirect
Shadow puppetry

values:
/wiki/Wayang_Beber#Wayang_beber
mw-redirect
Wayang Beber

values:
/wiki/Wayang_golek
mw-redirect
Wayang golek

values:
/wiki/Wayang_Golek
mw-redirect
Wayang Golek

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.balibeyond.com/wayang.html

values:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Wayang_kulit
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayang
Wayang – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Wayang_kulit rootpage-Wayang_kulit skin-vector action-view