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Order of the British Empire
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"GBE", "KBE", "DBE", "CBE", "OBE", and "MBE" redirect here. For other uses, see GBE (disambiguation), KBE (disambiguation), DBE (disambiguation), CBE (disambiguation), OBE (disambiguation), and MBE (disambiguation).
Most Excellent
Order of the British Empire
CBE neck decoration (in civil division)
Awarded by the sovereign of the United Kingdom
Type
Order of chivalry
Established
1917
Motto
For God and the Empire
Eligibility
British nationals, or anyone who has made a significant achievement for the United Kingdom
Awarded for
Prominent national or regional achievements[1]
Status
Currently constituted
Sovereign
Queen Elizabeth II
Grand Master
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
Grades
Knight/Dame Grand Cross (GBE)
Knight/Dame Commander (KBE/DBE)
Commander (CBE)
Officer (OBE)
Member (MBE)
Former grades
Medal of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry
Medal of the Order of the British Empire for Meritorious Service
Precedence
Next (higher)
Royal Victorian Order
Next (lower)
Varies, depending on rank

Military ribbon

Civil ribbon
MBE as awarded in 1918
Grand Cross star of the Order of the British Empire
Close-up of an MBE from 1945 showing the "For God and the Empire"
Lieutenant General Sir Robert Fulton, KBE
The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations, and public service outside the Civil service.[2] It was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, and comprises five classes across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male or dame if female.[3] There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order.
Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire (later Commonwealth) and the Viceroy of India. Nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British (Imperial) honours. Most Commonwealth countries, such as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria, ceased recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire when they created their own honours. Some countries, such as Canada and Australia, were still recommending appointments to the Order months or years after the creation of their own national orders of chivalry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Current classes
2 Styles and honorary knighthoods
3 History
4 Composition
5 Gallantry
6 Vestments and accoutrements
7 Chapel
8 Precedence and privileges
9 Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross
9.1 Knights and Dames Grand Cross
9.2 Honorary
10 Recommendations by Commonwealth countries
11 Criticism
12 See also
13 Footnotes
13.1 Notes
13.2 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Current classes[edit]
The five classes of appointment to the Order are, in descending order of precedence:
Knight Grand Cross or Dame Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (GBE)[a]
Knight Commander or Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE or DBE)
Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE)
Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE)
Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE)
Styles and honorary knighthoods[edit]
The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross, and Knight or Dame Commander, entitle their members to use the title of Sir for men and Dame for women before their forename. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards.
Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, and may permit use of post-nominal letters but not the title of Sir or Dame. Occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bob Geldof, for example. Honorary appointees who later become a citizen of a Commonwealth realm can convert their appointment from honorary to substantive, then enjoy all privileges of membership of the order, including use of the title of Sir and Dame for the senior two ranks of the Order. An example is Irish broadcaster Terry Wogan, who was appointed an honorary Knight Commander of the Order in 2005, and on successful application for British citizenship, held alongside his Irish citizenship, was made a substantive member and subsequently styled as Sir Terry Wogan.[4][5]
History[edit]
King George V founded the Order to fill gaps in the British honours system:
The Most Noble Order of the Garter, Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle and the Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick honoured members of royal families, peers, statesmen, and eminent military commanders;
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath honoured senior military officers and civil servants;
The Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George honoured diplomats and colonial officials;
The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India and the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire honoured Indian rulers and British and Indian officials of the British Indian Empire; and
The Royal Victorian Order, in the personal gift of the monarch, honoured those who had personally served the Royal Family.
In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War. When first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was formally divided into Military and Civil Divisions.[6] The Order's motto is For God and the Empire.[2]
At the foundation of the Order, the 'Medal of the Order of the British Empire' was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the 'British Empire Medal' (BEM). It stopped being awarded by the United Kingdom as part of the 1993 reforms to the honours system, but was again awarded beginning in 2012, starting with 293 BEMs awarded for Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee.[7] In addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. In 2004, a report entitled "A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System" by a Commons committee recommended to phase out the Order of the British Empire, as its title was "now considered to be unacceptable, being thought to embody values that are no longer shared by many of the country's population".[8]
Composition[edit]
The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all other members of the Order (by convention, on the advice of the governments of the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth realms). The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three: Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales (1917–1936); Queen Mary (1936–1953); and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh (since 1953).
The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross, 845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the total number of members of the fourth and fifth classes, but no more than 858 Officers and 1,464 Members may be appointed per year. Foreign appointees, as honorary members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Although the Order of the British Empire has by far the highest number of members of the British Orders of Chivalry, with over 100,000 living members worldwide, there are fewer appointments to knighthoods than in other orders.[2]
Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood (above Knights Bachelor). Because of this, an appointment as Dame Commander is made in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor. For example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor.
The Order has six officials: the Prelate; the Dean; the Secretary; the Registrar; the King of Arms; and the Usher. The Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Order's Prelate. The Dean of St Paul's is ex officio the Dean of the Order. The Order's King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. The Usher of the Order is known as the Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod; he does not – unlike his Order of the Garter equivalent, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod – perform any duties related to the House of Lords.
From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters.
Gallantry[edit]
From 1940, the Sovereign could appoint a person as a Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire for gallantry for acts of bravery (not in the face of the enemy) below the level required for the George Medal. The grade was determined by the same criteria as usual, and not by the level of gallantry (and with more junior people instead receiving the British Empire Medal). Oddly, this meant that it was awarded for lesser acts of gallantry than the George Medal, but, as an Order, was worn before it and listed before it in post-nominal initials. From 14 January 1958, these awards were designated the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry.[9]
Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry could wear an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same riband, ribbon or bow as the badge. It could not be awarded posthumously, and was effectively replaced in 1974 with the Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM). If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the Order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to wear also the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves.[10] However, they only used the post-nominal letters of the higher grade.
Vestments and accoutrements[edit]
Members of the Order wear elaborate vestments on important occasions (such as quadrennial services and coronations), which vary by rank (the designs underwent major changes in 1937):
The mantle, worn by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross, was originally made of yellow satin lined with blue silk, but is now made of rose pink satin lined with pearl-grey silk. On the left side is a representation of the star (see below).
The collar, also worn by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of gold. It consists of six medallions depicting the Royal Arms, alternating with six medallions depicting the Royal and Imperial Cypher of George V (GRI, which stands for "Georgius Rex Imperator"). The medallions are linked with gold cables depicting lions and crowns.
Knight/Dame Grand Cross insignia
Mantle worn by Knights and Dames Grand Cross (GBE)
Close-up of the star on the mantle
Collar and star of a Knight or Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
On certain "collar days" designated by the Sovereign, members attending formal events may wear the Order's collar over their military uniform, formal day dress, or evening wear. When collars are worn (either on collar days or on formal occasions such as coronations), the badge is suspended from the collar. Collars are returned upon the death of their owners, but other insignia may be retained.
At less important occasions, simpler insignia are used:
The star is an eight-pointed silver star used by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander. It is worn pinned to the left breast. Varying in size depending on class, it bears a crimson ring with the motto of the Order inscribed. Within the ring, a figure of Britannia was originally shown. Since 1937, however, the effigies of George V and Mary of Teck have been shown instead.
The badge is the only insignia used by all members of the Order. Until 1937, it was suspended on a purple ribbon, with a red central stripe for the military division; since then, the ribbon has been rose-pink with pearl-grey edges, with the addition of a pearl-grey central stripe for the military division. Knights and Dames Grand Cross wear it on a riband or sash, passing from the right shoulder to the left hip. Knights Commander and male Commanders wear the badge from a ribbon around the neck; male Officers and Members wear the badge from a ribbon on the left chest; all females other than Dames Grand Cross wear it from a bow on the left shoulder. The badge is in the form of a cross patonce (having the arms growing broader and floriated toward the end), the obverse of which bears the same field as the star (that is, either Britannia or George V and Queen Mary); the reverse bears George V's Royal and Imperial Cypher. Both are within a ring bearing the motto of the Order. The size of the badges varies according to rank: the higher classes have slightly larger badges. The badges of Knights and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames Commander and Commanders are enamelled with pale blue crosses and crimson rings; those of Officers are plain gold; those of Members are plain silver.
The British Empire Medal is made of silver. On the obverse is an image of Britannia surrounded by the motto, with the words "For Meritorious Service" at the bottom; on the reverse is George V's Imperial and Royal Cypher, with the words "Instituted by King George V" at the bottom. The name of the recipient is engraved on the rim. This medal is nicknamed 'the Gong', and comes in both a full-sized and miniature versions – the latter for formal white-tie and informal black-tie occasions.
A lapel pin for everyday wear was first announced at the end of December 2006, and is available to recipients of all levels of the Order, as well as to holders of the British Empire Medal. The pin design is not unique to any level. The pin features the badge of the Order, enclosed in a circle of ribbon of its colours of pink and grey. Lapel pins must be purchased separately by a member of the Order.[11] The creation of such a pin was recommended in Sir Hayden Phillips' review of the honours system in 2004.[12]
Order of the British Empire ribbon bars
Civil
Military
1917–1935
Since 1936
Chapel[edit]
Chapel of the Order in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral
The chapel of the Order is in the far eastern end of the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, but it holds its great services upstairs in the main body of the Cathedral. (The Cathedral also serves as the home of the chapel of The Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George.) Religious services for the whole Order are held every four years; new Knights and Dames Grand Cross are installed at these services. The chapel was dedicated in 1960.
Precedence and privileges[edit]
Knights, Dames and Commanders may display the circlet of the Order on the coat of arms, with the badge of the Order suspended from it.[b]
Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix Sir, and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix Dame, to their forenames.[c] Wives of Knights may prefix Lady to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Knights or spouses of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland do not use the title Sir or Dame as they do not receive the accolade (i.e., they are not dubbed "knight" with a sword), although they do append the post-nominal letters.
Knights and Dames Grand Cross use the post-nominal, GBE; Knights Commander, KBE; Dames Commander, DBE; Commanders, CBE; Officers, OBE; and Members, MBE. The post-nominal for the British Empire Medal is BEM.
Members of all classes of the Order are assigned positions in the order of precedence. Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of Ladies of the Order, however, are not assigned any special precedence. As a general rule, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives (see order of precedence in England and Wales for the exact positions).
Knights and Dames Grand Cross are also entitled to be granted heraldic supporters. They may, furthermore, encircle their arms with a depiction of the circlet (a circle bearing the motto) and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. Knights and Dames Commander and Commanders may display the circlet, but not the collar, surrounding their arms. The badge is depicted suspended from the collar or circlet.
Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross[edit]
Sovereign: Queen Elizabeth II
Grand Master: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
King of Arms: Lieutenant General Sir Robert Fulton, KBE
Knights and Dames Grand Cross[edit]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Military ranks listed denotes the awarded being in the military division.
Military rank
Name
Post-nominals
Year appointed
Admiral of the Fleet The Duke of Edinburgh KG KT OM ONZ GBE AK QSO GCL CC CMM PC CD ADC(P) 1953
Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Le Cheminant GBE KCB DFC* 1978
General Sir Hugh Beach GBE KCB MC 1985
General Sir Frank Kitson GBE KCB MC* DL 1985
Sir Sze Yuen Chung GBE GBM 1989
Sir Thomas Eichelbaum GBE PC QC 1989
Air Chief Marshal Sir David Harcourt-Smith GBE KCB DFC 1989
Field Marshal The Lord Vincent of Coleshill GBE KCB DSO 1990
Sir Alexander Graham GBE 1990
Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine GCB GBE 1991
Sir Brian Jenkins GBE 1991
Sir Francis McWilliams GBE 1992
Air Chief Marshal Sir Anthony Skingsley GBE KCB 1992
Admiral Sir Kenneth Eaton GBE KCB 1994
Air Chief Marshal Sir Bill Wratten GBE CB AFC 1998
The Lord Rothschild OM GBE 1998
Sir Stephen Brown GBE 1999
Air Chief Marshal Sir Anthony Bagnall GBE KCB 2002
Sir Michael Sydney Perry GBE 2002
Sir Ronnie Flanagan GBE QPM 2002
Sir Cyril Taylor GBE 2004
The Baroness Butler-Sloss GBE PC 2005
Sir David Cooksey GBE 2007
General Sir Timothy Granville-Chapman GBE KCB 2011
The Lord King of Lothbury KG GBE 2011
The Earl of Selborne GBE DL 2011
Sir John Parker GBE 2012
The Baroness Hayman GBE PC 2012
Sir Keith Mills GBE DL 2013
Sir Alan Budd GBE 2013
Sir John Bell GBE FRS 2015
Air Chief Marshal Sir Stuart Peach GBE KCB ADC DL 2016
Sir Ian Wood GBE 2016
Sir Cyril Chantler GBE 2017
Sir Michael Rawlins GBE 2017
Sir David Weatherall GBE FRS 2017
Honorary[edit]
Name
Post-nominal
Country
Year appointed
George J. Mitchell GBE United States 1999
Ratan Tata GBE India 2014
Recommendations by Commonwealth countries[edit]
Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire continue to be made by some Commonwealth realms. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu all included Order of the British Empire awards in their New Year and/or Queen's Birthday honours lists.[13][14] Since the Second World War, most Commonwealth realms have established their own national system of honours and awards and have created their own unique orders, decorations and medals. Canada seldom made recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire except for the Second World War and Korea but continued to recommend gallantry awards for both military and civilians until after the creation of the Order of Canada.[15] Australia continued to recommend the Order of the British Empire until the 1989 Queen's Birthday Honours, nearly 15 years after the creation of the Order of Australia.[16]
Criticism[edit]
See also: List of people who have declined a British honour
The Order has attracted some criticism for its naming having connection with the idea of the now-extinct British Empire.[17] Benjamin Zephaniah, a British Jamaican poet, publicly rejected appointment as an Officer in 2003 because, he asserted, it reminded him of "thousands of years of brutality". He also said that "It reminds me of how my foremothers were raped and my forefathers brutalised".[18]
In 2004, a House of Commons Select Committee recommended changing the name of the award to the Order of British Excellence, and changing the rank of Commander to Companion; as the former was said to have a "militaristic ring".[17][19]
A notable person to decline the offer of membership was the author C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), who had been named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951. Despite being a monarchist, he declined so as to avoid association with any political issues.[20][21]
The members of The Beatles were appointed as Members in 1965. John Lennon justified the comparative merits of his investiture by comparing military membership in the Order: "Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE [status] received theirs for heroism in the war – for killing people ... We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more". Lennon later returned his MBE insignia on 25 November 1969, as part of his ongoing peace protests.[22] Other criticism centres on the claim that many recipients of the Order are being rewarded with honours for simply doing their jobs; critics claim that the Civil Service and Judiciary receive far more orders and honours than leaders of other professions.[17]
Chin Peng, long-time leader of the Malayan Communist Party, was appointed as an Officer for his share in fighting against the Japanese during World War II, in close co-operation with the British commando Force 136. His membership was withdrawn by the British government (and became undesirable for Chin Peng himself) when the Communist leader headed his party's guerrilla insurgency against the British in the Malayan Emergency after the War.[23]
See also[edit]
Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom – the British honours system
List of Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
List of Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
List of honorary British knights and dames
United Kingdom order of precedence
Honours Committee
Footnotes[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ It is common, but incorrect,[citation needed] to omit "of the Most Excellent Order" and other important words not implied by the initials.
Jump up ^ In the image provided, the recipient has also been received into the Venerable Order of Saint John, and so that badge is shown also, on the black ribbon to the right.
Jump up ^ Never surnames – thus Sir Antony Sher may be shortened to Sir Antony, but not to Sir Sher
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Guide to the Honours". BBC News. BBC. 10 June 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Order of the British Empire". The Official Website of the British Monarchy. The Royal Household. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "No. 30250". The London Gazette (2nd supplement). 24 August 1917. pp. 8791–8999.
Jump up ^ "No. 57855". The London Gazette (1st supplement). 31 December 2005. p. 26.
Jump up ^ "Radio's Wogan becomes Sir Terry". BBC News. BBC. 6 December 2005. Retrieved 7 February 2009.
Jump up ^ "No. 31084". The London Gazette. 27 December 1918. p. 15135.
Jump up ^ "Birthday Honours: 'Working class' British Empire Medal revived". BBC News. BBC. 16 June 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System" (pdf). House of Commons Public Administration Select Committee. Parliament.uk. 13 July 2004. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "No. 41285". The London Gazette (Supplement). 14 January 1958. p. 365.
Jump up ^ "No. 56878". The London Gazette (Supplement). 17 March 2003. p. 3353.
Jump up ^ "Emblem for honours (Archived 4 April 2012)". The National Archives. DirectGov (UK). Archived from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "BEM Recipients Entitled to New Emblem". The Berwickshire News. 12 November 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
Jump up ^ London Gazette 61450, Thu, 31 December 2015, p. N40
Jump up ^ London Gazette 61608, Sat 11 June 2016, p. B40
Jump up ^ https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/44630/page/1
Jump up ^ London Gazette 51778, Sat, 17 June 1989, p. 45
^ Jump up to: a b c A reformed Honours system, Select Committee on Public Administration, 7 July 2004, Retrieved 13 May 2012
Jump up ^ Mills, Merope (27 November 2003). "Rasta poet publicly rejects his OBE". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Honours system outdated, say MPs", BBC News, 13 July 2004, Retrieved 28 February 2007
Jump up ^ "Chronology of the Life of C.S. Lewis". Archived from the original on 6 February 2012.
Jump up ^ C.S., Lewis (1994). W. H. Lewis, Walter Hooper, ed. Letters of C.S. Lewis. New York: Mariner Books. p. 528. ISBN 0-15-650871-0.
Jump up ^ Brian Roylance; George Harrison; John Lennon; Paul McCartney; Ringo Starr (2000). The Beatles Anthology. Chronicle Books. p. 183. ISBN 0-8118-2684-8.
Jump up ^ Dead or Alive,(subscription required) TIME Magazine, 12 May 1952
Further reading[edit]
Galloway, Peter (1996). The Order of the British Empire. Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood. ISBN 0-907605-65-6.
Hood, Frederic (1967). The Chapel of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, with a foreword by Prince Philip.
"Knighthood and Chivalry" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., London: Cambridge University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Order of the British Empire.
Order of the British Empire – official website of the British Monarchy
The Honours system – UK Government
Queen's Birthday and New Year honours – The London Gazette, lists recipients of honours
"The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire" (2002) – Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society
"Order of Precedence in England and Wales", Velde, F. R. (2003) – Heraldica.org
Search recommendations for the Order of the British Empire on the UK National Archives' website
The Chapel of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire – OBE Chapel Exterior detail – jpg image, IanMcGrawPhotos.co.uk
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Order_of_the_British_Empire&oldid=808304178"
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Calendar (New Style) Act 1750
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Gregorian calendar and Julian calendar
Calendar (New Style) Act 1750
Parliament of Great Britain
Long title
An Act for Regulating the Commencement of the Year; and for Correcting the Calendar now in Use
Citation
24 Geo. 2 c. 23
Introduced by
Lord Chesterfield
Territorial extent
"In and throughout all his Majesty’s dominions and countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America"
Territorial extent of (original) subsequent repeals (to (i.e., after) the Anniversary Days Observance Act 1859): England and Wales, Scotland
Dates
Commencement
1 January 1752
Other legislation
Amended by
Calendar Act 1751, Anniversary Days Observance Act 1859, Statute Law Revision Act 1948, Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1971, Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1986
Status: Spent
Text of statute as originally enacted
Text of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk
Main article: Old Style and New Style dates
The Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 (c.23) (also known as Chesterfield's Act after Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain. The Act had two parts: first, it reformed the calendar of England[a] and the British Dominions so that the new legal year began on 1 January rather than 25 March (Lady Day); and, second, Great Britain and its Dominions adopted (in effect)[b] the Gregorian calendar, as already used in most of western Europe.
Contents
[hide]
1 Reasons for change
2 Great Britain and the British Colonies
2.1 Scotland
2.2 Ireland
3 Reaction and effect
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
Reasons for change[edit]
The Parliament held that the Julian calendar then in use, and the start of the year on 25 March, were
“ attended with divers inconveniences, not only as it differs from the usage of neighbouring nations, but also from the legal method of computation in Scotland, and from the common usage throughout the whole kingdom, and thereby frequent mistakes are occasioned in the dates of deeds and other writings, and disputes arise therefrom.[1] ”
Great Britain and the British Colonies[edit]
In England and Wales, the legal year 1751 was a short year of 282 days, running from 25 March to 31 December. 1752 began on 1 January. To align the calendar in use in England to that on the continent, the Gregorian calendar was adopted: and the calendar was advanced by 11 days: Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752.[c] The year 1752 was thus a short year (355 days) as well.
As well as adopting the Gregorian rule for leap years, Pope Gregory's rules for the date of Easter were also adopted. However, with religious strife still on their minds, the British could not bring themselves to adopt the Catholic system explicitly: the Annexe to the Act established a computation for the date of Easter that achieved the same result as Gregory's rules, without actually referring to him.[2] The algorithm, set out in the Book of Common Prayer as required by the Act, includes calculation of the Golden Number and the Sunday Letter, which (in the Easter section of the Book) were presumed to be already known. The Annexe to the Act includes the definition: "Easter-day (on which the rest depend) is always the first Sunday after the Full Moon, which happens upon, or next after the Twenty-first Day of March. And if the Full Moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday after." The Annexe subsequently uses the terms "Paschal Full Moon" and "Ecclesiastical Full Moon", making it clear that they only approximate to the real Full Moon.[3]
Scotland[edit]
Scotland had already partly made the change: its calendar year had begun on 1 January since 1600.[4] The remainder of the act applied equally to Scotland, a part of the Kingdom of Great Britain since the Acts of Union 1707.
Ireland[edit]
At the time Ireland was an Independent kingdom in a personal union with the Crown of Great Britain. So that the calendar in Ireland would remain harmonised with Great Britain, the Parliament of Ireland passed similarly worded legislation as the "Calendar (New Style) Act, 1750".[5]
Reaction and effect[edit]
An Election Entertainment (c. 1755), a painting by William Hogarth, which is the main source for "Give us our Eleven Days".
Some history books say that some people rioted after the calendar change, asking that their "eleven days" be returned. However this is very likely a myth, based on only two primary sources: The World, a satirical journal of Lord Chesterfield; and a painting by William Hogarth.[6]
Chesterfield was behind the Act. He wrote to his son, "Every numerous assembly is a mob, let the individuals who compose it be what they will. Mere sense is never to be talked to a mob; their passions, their sentiments, their senses and their seeming interests alone are to be applied to. Understanding have they collectively none." Here, he was boasting of his skill in having the Bill passed through the Lords; the 'mob' in question was his fellow peers.[citation needed]
When the son of the Earl of Macclesfield (who had been influential in passing the Act) stood for Parliament in Oxfordshire as a Whig in 1754, dissatisfaction with the calendar reform was one of a number of issues raised by his Tory opponents. In 1755, William Hogarth produced a painting (and an engraved print from the painting) loosely based on these elections, entitled An Election Entertainment, which shows a placard carrying the slogan "Give us our Eleven Days" (on floor at lower right). An example of the resulting incorrect history is by Ronald Paulson, author of Hogarth, His Life, Art and Times, who wrote that "...the Oxfordshire people...are specifically rioting, as historically the London crowd did, to preserve the 'Eleven Days' the government stole from them in September 1752 by changing the calendar".[6]
Thus the "calendar riot" fiction was born. The election campaign depicted concluded in 1754, after a very lengthy contest between Court Whigs and Jacobite Tories. Every issue between the two factions was brought up, including the question of calendar reform. The Tories attacked the Whigs for every deviation, including their alleged favouritism towards foreign Jews and the "Popish" calendar. Hogarth's placard, part of a satire on the character of the debate, was not an observation of actual crowd behaviour.[6]
There were, however, legitimate concerns about tax and other payments under the new calendar. Provision 6 (Times of Payment of Rents, Annuities) of the Act stipulated that monthly or yearly payments would not become due until the dates that they originally would have in the Julian calendar, or in the words of the Act "[Times of Payment of Rents, Annuities] at and upon the same respective natural days and times as the same should and ought to have been payable or made or would have happened in case this Act had not been made".[1]
Several theories have been proposed for the odd beginning of the British tax year on 6 April.[7] One is that from 1753 until 1799, the tax year began on 5 April, which corresponded to 25 March Old Style. After the twelfth skipped Julian leap day in 1800, it was changed to 6 April, which still corresponded to 25 March Old Style. However it was not changed when a thirteenth Julian leap day was skipped in 1900, so the tax year in the United Kingdom still begins on 6 April.[8][9] However Poole thought that quarter days, such as Lady Day on 25 March, marked the end of the quarters of the financial year.[10] Thus, although 25 March Old Style marked the beginning of the civil year, the next day, 26 March Old Style was until 1752 the beginning of the tax year. After removing eleven days in 1752, this corresponded to 6 April New Style, where it remains today. Although Poole's theory is supported by one dictionary,[11] the Oxford English Dictionary as well as other sources state that quarter days mark the beginning of their respective quarters.[d][12]
In Appalachia, some Scots-Irish settlers resisted the changeover mandated by the Calendar Act by continuing to celebrate Christmas on January 6 (N.S.), referring to the day as Old Christmas.[13]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Scotland had changed to a 1 January start in 1600.
Jump up ^ The Act makes no reference to Gregory, since to do so might imply recognition of Papal primacy. It acknowledges the inconvenience of having a differing system from neighbouring countries and recognises the error in the Julian calendar. It defined a calendar identical to the Gregorian system, from first principles.
Jump up ^ "An unusual calendar is printed for September 1752. That is the month 11 days were skipped to make up for lack of leap year adjustments" (Solaris manual and Cal (Unix)#Features).
Jump up ^ "Each of the four days fixed by custom as marking off the quarters of the year, ... the payment of rent and other quarterly charges fall due, ... In England ... the quarter days are traditionally Lady Day (March 25),..." Oxford English Dictionary quarter day, n.
^ Jump up to: a b Text of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk
Jump up ^ 24 Geo. II Ch. 23, § 3.
Jump up ^ 24 Geo. II Ch. 23, Annexe.
Jump up ^ Bond 1875, See footnote on pages xvii–xviii: original text of the Scottish decree.
Jump up ^ Parliament of Ireland 1750.
^ Jump up to: a b c Poole 1995; Steel 2000, p. 249
Jump up ^ HMRC 2008.
Jump up ^ Philip 1921, p. 24.
Jump up ^ Legislation.gov.uk 2017.
Jump up ^ Poole 1995, note 77.
Jump up ^ Webster's Dictionary 1913.
Jump up ^ Frecknall-Hughes 2016.
Jump up ^ Blair 2013.
References[edit]
Blair, Tony (25 December 2013), "Appalachians once celebrated 'Old Christmas'", The Mountain Eagle, Whitesburg, Kentucky
Frecknall-Hughes, Jane (6 April 2016), "Why the UK tax year begins on April 6 (it’s a very strange tale)", The Independent
Bond, John James (1875), Handy-book of rules and tables, London: George Bell & Sons, pp. xvii–xviii
HMRC (2008), HM Revenue & Customs: Frequently Asked Questions: Why does the tax year start on April 6?], HM Revenue & Customs, archived from the original on 2 February 2010
"Income Tax Act 2007, s. 4(3)", Legislation.gov.uk, 5 August 2017, retrieved 13 September 2017
Philip, Alexander (1921), The calendar; its history, structure and improvement, Cambridge: University Press, p. 24
Poole, Robert (November 1995), "'Give us our eleven days!': calendar reform in eighteenth-century England", Past & Present, 149 (1): 95–139, archived from the original on 5 December 2014
Steel, Duncan (2000), Marking Time: The Epic Quest to Invent the Perfect Calendar, Wiley, p. 249, ISBN 978-0-471-40421-7
"Quarter: 3. Quarter day", Webster's 1913 dictionary, Webster-dictionary.org, retrieved 14 September 2010
Primary sources
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
British Calendar Act of 1751
Text of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750/51 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk
Text of the Calendar Act 1751/52 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk
Parliament of Great Britain (1765), "An act for regulating the commencement of the year; and for correcting the calendar now in use", The Statutes at Large: From the Magna Charta, to the End of the Eleventh Parliament of Great Britain, Anno 1761 [continued to 1806], 20, J. Bentham, p. 186 — The original 1750/51 Act.
Parliament of Great Britain (1813), The Parliamentary History of England from the Earliest Period to the Year 1803, 14, p. 474 cols 979–992. First and second readings of the bill before the House of Lords on 25 February and 18 March (Old Style) 1750/51. Passed Lords without debate.
Parliament of Great Britain (1765), "An act to amend an act made in the last session of parliament, (intituled, An act for regulating the commencement of the year, and for correcting the calendar now in use.)", The Statutes at Large: From the Magna Charta, to the End of the Eleventh Parliament of Great Britain, Anno 1761 [continued to 1806], 20, J. Bentham, p. 368 — First amendment (1751/52) to the original Act.
Parliament of Ireland (1750), Calendar (New Style) Act, 1750, Government of Ireland, retrieved 13 September 2017 — Sister legislation passed by the Irish Parliament
Further reading[edit]
Healton, Gilbert Year, Date, and Time Information How people and computers use dates and times
Nørby, Toke. The Perpetual Calendar: What about England
Poole, Robert (1998), Time's alteration: Calendar reform in early modern England, London: UCL Press, p. 100 — Bill amended in House of Commons. Received royal assent 22 May (OS) 1751.
Stockton, J.R. Date Miscellany I: The Old and New Styles
Staff. Guide to the Quaker Calendar, website of the Quakers. Accessed 28 December 2007
Staff. Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, WebExhibits (N.B.: enacted in civil year 1751); (Source: Adapted from Gilbert Healton – see above). Accessed 28 December 2007
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Osmosis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Osmosis (disambiguation).
The process of osmosis over a semi-permeable membrane. The blue dots represent particles driving the osmotic gradient.
Osmosis (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/)[1] is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.[2][3][4] It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a semipermeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.[5][6] Osmosis can be made to do work.[7]
Osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity.
Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane (vacuole) or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those responsible for facilitated diffusion and ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Mechanism
3 Factors
3.1 Osmotic pressure
3.2 Osmotic gradient
4 Variation
4.1 Reverse osmosis
4.2 Forward osmosis
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History
Jean-Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748.[8] The word "osmosis" descends from the words "endosmose" and "exosmose", which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) from the Greek words ἔνδον (éndon “within”), ἔξω (éxō “outer, external”), and ὠσμός (ōsmós "push, impulsion").[9]
Mechanism
Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher concentration of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is typically water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids, and even gases.[10][11]
When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell.
Water passing through a semi-permeable membrane
When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane.
The mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute (resulting in lower concentration of water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore a diffusion of water along a concentration gradient) or by a solute's attraction to water (resulting in less free water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore net movement of water toward the solute). Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted.
The diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water.[12] The "bound water" model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property[13]—or how hydrophilic they are.
Effect of different solutions on blood cells
Micrographs of osmotic pressure on red blood cells(RBC)
Plant cell under different environments.
It is hard to describe osmosis without a mechanical or thermodynamic explanation, but basically, there is an interaction between the solute and water that counteracts the pressure that otherwise free solute molecules would exert. One fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy (water rising).
Many thermodynamic explanations go into the concept of chemical potential and how the function of the water on the solution side differs from that of pure water due to the higher pressure and the presence of the solute counteracting such that the chemical potential remains unchanged. The virial theorem demonstrates that attraction between the molecules (water and solute) reduces the pressure, and thus the pressure exerted by water molecules on each other in solution is less than in pure water, allowing pure water to "force" the solution until the pressure reaches equilibrium.[14]
Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants. The osmotic entry of water raises the turgor pressure exerted against the cell wall, until it equals the osmotic pressure, creating a steady state.
When a plant cell is placed in a solution that is hypertonic relative to the cytoplasm, water moves out of the cell and the cell shrinks. In doing so, the cell becomes flaccid. In extreme cases, the cell becomes plasmolyzed – the cell membrane disengages with the cell wall due to lack of water pressure on it.
When a plant cell is placed in a solution that is hypotonic relative to the cytoplasm, water moves into the cell and the cell swells to become turgid.
Osmosis is responsible for the ability of plant roots to draw water from the soil. Plants concentrate solutes in their root cells by active transport, and water enters the roots by osmosis. Osmosis is also responsible for controlling the movement of guard cells.
Osmosis can be demonstrated when potato slices are added to a high salt solution. The water from inside the potato moves out to the solution, causing the potato to shrink and to lose its 'turgor pressure'. The more concentrated the salt solution, the bigger the difference in size and weight of the potato slice.
In unusual environments, osmosis can be very harmful to organisms. For example, freshwater and saltwater aquarium fish placed in water of a different salinity than that to which they are adapted to will die quickly, and in the case of saltwater fish, dramatically. Another example of a harmful osmotic effect is the use of table salt to kill leeches and slugs.
Suppose an animal or a plant cell is placed in a solution of sugar or salt in water.
If the medium is hypotonic relative to the cell cytoplasm — the cell will gain water through osmosis.
If the medium is isotonic — there will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane.
If the medium is hypertonic relative to the cell cytoplasm — the cell will lose water by osmosis.
Essentially, this means that if a cell is put in a solution which has a solute concentration higher than its own, it will shrivel, and if it is put in a solution with a lower solute concentration than its own, the cell will swell and may even burst.
Chemical gardens demonstrate the effect of osmosis in inorganic chemistry.
Factors
Osmotic pressure
Main article: Osmotic pressure
As mentioned before, osmosis may be opposed by increasing the pressure in the region of high solute concentration with respect to that in the low solute concentration region. The force per unit area, or pressure, required to prevent the passage of water through a selectively permeable membrane and into a solution of greater concentration is equivalent to the osmotic pressure of the solution, or turgor. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the property depends on the concentration of the solute, but not on its identity. It also is involved in facilitated diffusion.
Osmotic gradient
The osmotic gradient is the difference in concentration between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane, and is used to tell the difference in percentages of the concentration of a specific particle dissolved in a solution.
Usually the osmotic gradient is used while comparing solutions that have a semipermeable membrane between them allowing water to diffuse between the two solutions, toward the hypertonic solution (the solution with the higher concentration). Eventually, the force of the column of water on the hypertonic side of the semipermeable membrane will equal the force of diffusion on the hypotonic (the side with a lesser concentration) side, creating equilibrium. When equilibrium is reached, water continues to flow, but it flows both ways in equal amounts as well as force, therefore stabilizing the solution.
Variation
Reverse osmosis
Main article: Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solvent through a semi-permeable membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side, forcing it from a region of high solute concentration through a membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.
Forward osmosis
Main article: Forward osmosis
Osmosis may be used directly to achieve separation of water from a solution containing unwanted solutes. A "draw" solution of higher osmotic pressure than the feed solution is used to induce a net flow of water through a semi-permeable membrane, such that the feed solution becomes concentrated as the draw solution becomes dilute. The diluted draw solution may then be used directly (as with an ingestible solute like glucose), or sent to a secondary separation process for the removal of the draw solute. This secondary separation can be more efficient than a reverse osmosis process would be alone, depending on the draw solute used and the feedwater treated. Forward osmosis is an area of ongoing research, focusing on applications in desalination, water purification, water treatment, food processing, etc.
See also
Active transport
Brining
Diffusion
Homeostasis
Osmoregulation
Osmotic shock
Osmotic power
Plasmolysis
Reverse osmosis plant
Salinity gradient power
Water potential
References
Jump up ^ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/osmosis
Jump up ^ "Osmosis". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ Osmosis, Encyclopædia Britannica on-line
Jump up ^ Haynie, Donald T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 130–136. ISBN 0-521-79549-4.
Jump up ^ Waugh, A.; Grant, A. (2007). Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness. Edinburgh: Elsevier. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-443-10101-9.
Jump up ^ Osmosis. University of Hamburg. last change: 31 July 2003
Jump up ^ "Statkraft to build the world's first prototype osmotic power plant". Statkraft. 2007-10-03. Archived from the original on 2009-02-27.
Jump up ^ L’Abbé Nollet (June 1748) “Recherches sur les causes du bouillonnement des liquides” (Researches on the causes of the boiling of liquids) Mémoires de Mathématique et de Physique, tirés des registres de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de l’année 1748, pp. 57–104; especially pp. 101–103. The Mémoires (1748) were printed in: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences Année 1748, which was published in 1752 and which contains a condensed version of Nollet's article on pages 10–19.
Original text : Avant que de finir ce Mémoire, je crois devoir rendre compte d'un fait que je dois au hasard, & qui me parut d'abord … singulier … j'en avois rempli une fiole cylindrique, longue de cinq pouces, & d'un pouce de diamètre ou environ ; & l'ayant couverte d'un morceau de vessie mouillée & ficelée au col du vaisseau, je l'avois plongée dans un grand vase plein d'eau, afin d'être sûr qu'il ne rentrât aucun air dans l'esprit de vin. Au bout de cinq ou six heures, je fus tout surpris de voir que la fiole étoit plus pleine qu'au moment de son immersion, quoiqu'elle le fût alors autant que ses bords pouvoient le permettre ; la vessie qui lui servoit de bouchon, étoit devenue convexe & si tendue, qu’en la piquant avec une épingle, il en sortit un jet de liqueur qui s'éleva à plus d'un pied de hauteur.
Translation : Before finishing this memoir, I think I should report an event that I owe to chance and which at first seemed to me … strange … I filled [with alcohol] a cylindrical vial, five inches long and about one inch in diameter; and [after] having covered it with piece of damp bladder [which was] tied to the neck of the vial, I immersed it in a large bowl full of water, in order to be sure that no air re-entered the alcohol. At the end of 5 or 6 hours, I was very surprised to see that the vial was fuller than at the moment of its immersion, although it [had been filled] as far as its sides would allow ; the bladder that served as its cap, bulged and had become so stretched that on pricking it with a needle, there came from it a jet of alcohol that rose more than a foot high.
Jump up ^ Etymology of "osmosis" :
Henri Dutrochet, L'Agent Immédiat du Movement Vital Dévoilé dans sa Nature et dans son Mode d'Action chez les Végétaux et chez les Animaux [The immediate agent of living movement, its nature and mode of action revealed in plants and animals] (Paris, France: Dentu, 1826), pp. 115 and 126.
The intermediate word "osmose" and the word "osmotic" were coined by Scottish chemist Thomas Graham. See: Thomas Graham (1854) "VII. The Bakerian Lecture – On Osmotic Force," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London), vol. 144, pp. 177–288; see especially pp. 177, 178, and 227. See also: Thomas Graham and Henry Watts, Elements of Chemistry: Including the Applications of the Sciences in the Arts, 2nd ed. (London, England: Hippolyte Bailliere, 1858), vol. 2, p. 616.
The word "osmosis" first appeared in: Jabez Hogg, The Microscope: Its History, Construction, and Application..., 6th ed. (London, England: George Routledge and Sons, 1867), p. 226.
The etymology of the word "osmosis" is discussed in: Homer W. Smith (1960). "I. Theory of Solutions: A knowledge of the laws of solutions" (PDF). Circulation. 21: 808–817 (810). doi:10.1161/01.CIR.21.5.808.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Eric; David Myers. "Osmosis is not driven by water dilution". Trends in Plant Science. 18 (4): 195–197. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2012.12.001.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Eric; David Myers. "Five popular misconceptions of osmosis". American Journal of Physics. 80 (694). Bibcode:2012AmJPh..80..694K. doi:10.1119/1.4722325.
Jump up ^ Kosinski, R. J.; C. K. Morlok (2008). "Challenging misconceptions about osmosis". Association for Biology Laboratory Education. 30: 63–87.
Jump up ^ Borg, Frank (2003). "What is osmosis? Explanation and understanding of a physical phenomenon". arXiv:physics/0305011  .
Jump up ^ Borg, Frank (2003). "What is osmosis? Explanation and understanding of a physical phenomenon". arXiv:physics/0305011  .
External links
Look up osmosis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Wikibook School Science has a page on the topic of: Osmosis demonstration
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Osmosis.
Osmosis simulation in Java
NetLogo Osmosis simulation for educational use
An Osmosis Experiment
Authority control
NDL: 00571168
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osmosis&oldid=828115199"
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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoza
Osmoza – Bosnian
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Osmosis – Welsh
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Osmose – Danish
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Osmoos – Estonian
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Osmozo – Esperanto
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Osmosi – Basque
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Osmose – Galician
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Osmoza – Croatian
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Osmoso – Ido
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Osmosis – Indonesian
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Osmosi – Italian
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Osmoz – Haitian Creole
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Osmosis – Latin
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Osmoze – Latvian
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Osmosis – Malay
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Osmose – Dutch
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Osmose – Norwegian
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Osmose – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Osmoza – Polish
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Osmose – Portuguese
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Osmosis – Scots
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Osmoza – Serbo-Croatian
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Osmosis – Sundanese
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Osmos – Swedish
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Osmosis – Tagalog
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Osmoz – Turkish
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