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Lake Superior
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For other uses, see Lake Superior (disambiguation).
Lake Superior
Lac Supérieur (French)
ᑭᑦᒉᐁ-ᑲᒣᐁ, Gitchi-Gami (Ojibwe)
Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes
Location
North America
Group
Great Lakes
Coordinates
47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.7°N 87.5°W / 47.7; -87.5 (Lake Superior)Coordinates: 47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.7°N 87.5°W / 47.7; -87.5 (Lake Superior)
Lake type
Glacial
Primary inflows
Nipigon, St. Louis, Pigeon, Pic, White, Michipicoten, Kaministiquia Rivers
Primary outflows
St. Marys River
Catchment area
49,300 sq mi (127,700 km2)[1]
Basin countries
United States
Canada
Max. length
350 mi (560 km)[2]
Max. width
160 mi (260 km)[2]
Surface area
31,700 sq mi (82,100 km2)[1]
Average depth
483 ft (147 m)[1]
Max. depth
1,333 ft (406 m)[1][3]
Water volume
2,900 cu mi (12,000 km3)[1]
Residence time
191 years
Shore length1
1,729 mi (2,783 km) plus 997 mi (1,605 km) for islands[4]
Surface elevation
601.71 ft (183 m) (2013 average)[5]
Islands
Isle Royale, Apostle Islands, Michipicoten Island, Slate Islands
Settlements
Thunder Bay, Ontario
Duluth, Minnesota
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Marquette, Michigan
Superior, Wisconsin
Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure.
Lake Superior (French: Lac Supérieur; Ojibwe: ᑭᑦᒉᐁ-ᑲᒣᐁ, Gitchi-Gami) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America. The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north, the U.S. state of Minnesota to the west, and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south. It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area. It is the world's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America.[6] The furthest north and west of the Great Lakes chain, Superior has the highest elevation of all five great lakes and drains into the St. Mary's River.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Hydrography
2.1 Tributaries and outlet
2.2 Water levels
2.3 Climate change
3 Geography
3.1 Great Lakes Circle Tour
4 Climate
5 Geology
6 History
6.1 Shipping
6.2 Shipwrecks
7 Ecology
8 See also
8.1 General
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Name[edit]
The Ojibwe name for the lake is gichi-gami (pronounced as gitchi-gami and kitchi-gami in other dialects),[7] meaning "great sea." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote the name as "Gitche Gumee" in The Song of Hiawatha, as did Gordon Lightfoot in his song, "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". According to other sources, the actual Ojibwe name is Ojibwe Gichigami ("Ojibwe's Great Sea") or Anishinaabe Gichigami ("Anishinaabe's Great Sea").[8] The 1878 dictionary by Father Frederic Baraga, the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name as Otchipwe-kitchi-gami (reflecting Ojibwe Gichigami).[7]
The first French explorers approaching the great inland sea by way of the Ottawa River and Lake Huron during the 17th century referred to their discovery as le lac supérieur. Properly translated, the expression means "Upper Lake," that is, the lake above Lake Huron. The lake was also called Lac Tracy (named for Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy) by 17th century Jesuit missionaries.[9] The British, upon taking control of the region from the French in the 1760s following the French and Indian War, anglicized the lake's name to Superior, "on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent."[10]
Hydrography[edit]
Lake Superior bathymetric map.[11][12][13] The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×".[14] The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from tunnel valleys.[15][16]
Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the Soo Locks. Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world in area (if Lakes Michigan and Huron are taken separately; see Lake Michigan–Huron), and the third largest in volume, behind Lake Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish; though presently isolated, prehistorically the Caspian has been repeatedly connected to and isolated from the Mediterranean via the Black Sea.
Lake Superior deepest point[14] on the bathymetric map.[11]
Lake Superior has a surface area of 31,700 square miles (82,103 km2),[1] which is approximately the size of South Carolina or Austria. It has a maximum length of 350 statute miles (560 km; 300 nmi) and maximum breadth of 160 statute miles (257 km; 139 nmi).[2] Its average depth is 80.5 fathoms (483 ft; 147 m) with a maximum depth of 222.17 fathoms (1,333 ft; 406 m).[1][2][3] Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km³) of water.[1] There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire land mass of North and South America to a depth of 30 centimetres (12 in).[a] The shoreline of the lake stretches 2,726 miles (4,387 km) (including islands).[1]
American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot (733 ft or 223 m) below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after Iliamna Lake in Alaska (942 feet [287 m] below sea level) and Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada at (1,503 feet [458 m] below sea level). (Though Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is 4,229 feet (1,289 m) above sea level.)
While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below 110 fathoms (660 ft; 200 m) is an almost constant 39 °F (4 °C).[citation needed] This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonally stratigraphic. Twice per year, however, the water column reaches a uniform temperature of 39 °F (4 °C) from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This feature makes the lake dimictic. Because of its volume, Lake Superior has a retention time of 191 years.[17][18]
Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over 20 feet (6 m).[19] Waves well over 30 feet (9 m) have been recorded.[20]
Tributaries and outlet[edit]
Lake Superior basin
The lake is fed by over 200 rivers. The largest include the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River, the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and the Kaministiquia River. Lake Superior drains into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River. There are rapids at the river's upper (Lake Superior) end where the river bed has a relatively steep gradient. The Soo Locks were built to enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the 25-foot (8 m) height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.
Water levels[edit]
Lake Superior in winter, as seen from Duluth, Minnesota in December 2004
A frozen Duluth Harbor Entrance
The lake's average surface elevation is 600 feet (183 m)[2][17] above sea level. Until approximately 1887 the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined outflow from Lake Superior. By 1921 development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A. Water levels, including diversions of water from the Hudson Bay watershed, are regulated by the International Lake Superior Board of Control which was established in 1914 by the International Joint Commission.
Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926.[21] However, the water levels returned within a few days.[22]
Historic high water The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is 1.17 feet (0.36 m) above datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at 2.33 feet (0.71 m) above datum.[23] The winter of 1986 set new high-water records through the winter and spring months (January to June), ranging from 1.33 feet (0.41 m) to 1.833 feet (0.559 m) above Chart Datum.[23]
Historic low water The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April. The normal low-water mark is 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the winter of 1926 Lake Superior reached its lowest recorded level at 1.58 feet (0.48 m) below datum.[23] Additionally, the entire first half of the year (January to June) included record low months. The low water was a continuation of the dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through December. During the nine-month period October 1925 to June 1926 water levels ranged from 1.58 feet (0.48 m) to 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below Chart Datum.[23] In the summer of 2007 monthly historic lows were set; August at 0.66 feet (0.20 m), September at 0.58 feet (0.18 m).[23]
Climate change[edit]
According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding area.[24] Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased by about 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) since 1979, compared with an approximately 2.7 °F (1.5 °C) increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake's surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows more solar radiation to penetrate and warm the water. If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040.[25] This would be a significant departure from historical records as, according to Hubert Lamb, Samuel Champlain reported ice along the shores of Lake Superior in June 1608.[26] Warmer temperatures could actually lead to more snow in the lake effect snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. However, two recent consecutive winters (2013–2014 and 2014–2015) brought unusually high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014 overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%, the second-highest in recorded history.[27]
Geography[edit]
Brooklyn Museum, Lake Superior, Walter Shirlaw
The largest island in Lake Superior is Isle Royale in the state of Michigan. Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other well-known islands include Madeline Island in the state of Wisconsin, Michipicoten Island in the province of Ontario, and Grand Island (the location of the Grand Island National Recreation Area) in the state of Michigan.
The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin; Thunder Bay, Ontario; Marquette, Michigan; and the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Duluth-Superior, at the western end of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on the St. Lawrence Seaway and the most inland port in the world.
Among the scenic places on the lake are Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, Isle Royale National Park, Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park, Pukaskwa National Park, Lake Superior Provincial Park, Grand Island National Recreation Area, Sleeping Giant (Ontario) and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.
Great Lakes Circle Tour[edit]
The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[28]
Climate[edit]
Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of its humid continental climate (more typically seen in locations like Nova Scotia).[29] The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between 32 and 55 °F (0–13 °C) around 1970,[30] helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer and winter, and creates lake effect snow in colder months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall.
The lake's surface temperature has risen by 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) since 1979.[31]
Bedrock geologic map of the U.S. area bordering Lake Superior: Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
North American cratons and basement rock, showing the formation of the Midcontinent Rift containing today's Lake Superior
Geology[edit]
The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth. During the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago) magma forcing its way to the surface created the intrusive granites of the Canadian Shield.[32] These ancient granites can be seen on the North Shore today. It was during the Penokean orogeny, part of the process that created the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone, that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals. Copper, iron, silver, gold and nickel are or were the most frequently mined. Examples include the Hemlo gold mine near Marathon, copper at Point Mamainse, silver at Silver Islet and uranium at Theano Point.
The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of sediments that compacted and became limestone, dolostone, taconite and the shale at Kakabeka Falls.
The continent was later riven, creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.[33] The lake lies in this long-extinct Mesoproterozoic rift valley, the Midcontinent Rift. Magma was injected between layers of sedimentary rock, forming diabase sills. This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the Thunder Bay area.
Amethyst formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.[34]
Basaltic columns along Lake Superior
Lava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, and St. Ignace Island.
During the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of 1.25 miles (2 km). The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the ice sheet. The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creating Lake Minong, a precursor to Lake Superior.[35] Without the immense weight of the ice, the land rebounded, and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, which would become known as St. Mary's River.
History[edit]
Pictographs at Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario
The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in the last Ice Age. They are known as the Plano, and they used stone-tipped spears to hunt caribou on the northwestern side of Lake Minong.
The next documented people are known as the Shield Archaic (c. 5000–500 BC). Evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and arrows, dugout canoes, fished, hunted, mined copper for tools and weapons, and established trading networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and Cree.[36]
The Laurel people (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed seine net fishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten.
Another culture known as the Terminal Woodland Indians (c. AD 900–1650) has been found. They were Algonkian people who hunted, fished and gathered berries. They used snow shoes, birch bark canoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered. Most of the Pukaskwa Pits were likely made during this time.[36]
The Anishinaabe, which includes the Ojibwe or Chippewa, have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by the Dakota, Fox, Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet and Gros Ventres. They called Lake Superior either Ojibwe Gichigami ("the Ojibwe's Great Sea") or Anishnaabe Gichgamiing ("the Anishinaabe's Great Sea"). After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves the middle-men between the French fur traders and other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Native American nation in the region: they forced out the Sioux and Fox and won a victory against the Iroquois west of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.[37]
Reconstructed Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota
In the 18th century, the fur trade in the region was booming, with the Hudson's Bay Company having a virtual monopoly. In 1783, however, the North West Company was formed to rival the Hudson's Bay Company. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at Grand Portage, Fort William, Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with competition taking too great a toll on both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name.
Many towns around the lake are either current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry; the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts tourists and adventurers.
Shipping[edit]
Vintage stereoscopic photo titled, "Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873
Lake Superior has been an important link in the Great Lakes Waterway, providing a route for the transportation of iron ore as well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going freighters, transport these commodities across Lake Superior.
Because of ice, the Lake is closed to shipping from mid-January to late March. Exact dates for the shipping season vary each year,[38] depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.
Shipwrecks[edit]
See also: Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes, List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale, and Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
According to shipwreck historian Frederick Stonehouse, the southern shore of Lake Superior between Grand Marais, Michigan, and Whitefish Point is known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes" and more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.[39] These shipwrecks are now protected by the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve.
Storms that claimed multiple ships include the Mataafa Storm in 1905 and the Great Lakes Storm of 1913.
Wreckage of SS Cyprus—a 420-foot (130 m) ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms (460 ft or 140 m) of water—was located in August 2007. All but Charles G. Pitz of Cyprus's 23 crew perished . The ore carrier sank in Lake Superior on her second voyage, while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. Built in Lorain, Ohio, Cyprus was launched August 17, 1907.[40]
In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles, vanished in a Lake Superior storm. With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest loss of life on Lake Superior to date.
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was the latest major shipwreck on Lake Superior, sinking 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975. The wreck was immortalized by Gordon Lightfoot in his ballad "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". All 29 crew members perished when the ship sank, and no bodies were ever recovered. Edmund Fitzgerald was swallowed up so intensely by Lake Superior that the 729-foot (222 m) ship split in half; her two pieces are approximately 170 feet (52 m) apart in a depth of 91 fathoms 4 feet (550 ft or 170 m).
According to legend, "Lake Superior seldom gives up her dead".[41] This is because of the unusually low temperature of the water, estimated at under 36 °F (2 °C) on average around 1970.[30] Normally, bacteria feeding on a sunken decaying body will generate gas inside the body, causing it to float to the surface after a few days. However, Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to inhibit bacterial growth, and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.[42] This is alluded to in Lightfoot's "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" ballad. Fitzgerald adventurer Joe MacInnis reported that, in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck of Edmund Fitzgerald discovered and filmed a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment."[43]
Ecology[edit]
Bedrock shoreline, Neys Provincial Park, Ontario
Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan
Over 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior. Species native to the lake include: banded killifish, bloater, brook trout, burbot, cisco, lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, longnose sucker, muskellunge, northern pike, pumpkinseed, rock bass, round whitefish, smallmouth bass, walleye, white sucker and yellow perch. In addition, many fish species have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior: Atlantic salmon, brown trout, carp, chinook salmon, coho salmon, freshwater drum, pink salmon, rainbow smelt, rainbow trout, round goby, ruffe, sea lamprey and white perch.[44][45]
Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is an oligotrophic lake. This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.[17] However, nitrate concentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional nitrogen cycle, but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.[46]
As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and Eurasian ruffe. Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes. Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations.[6]
See also[edit]
North Shore of Lake Superior
South Shore of Lake Superior
General[edit]
Great Lakes
Great Lakes Areas of Concern
Great Lakes census statistical areas
Great Lakes Commission
Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal
Great Lakes Storm of 1913
International Boundary Waters Treaty
List of cities along the Great Lakes
Seiche
Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm
Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes
Third Coast
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ North America (2.47×107 km²) and South America (1.78×107 km²) combined cover 4.26×107 km². Lake Superior's volume (1.20×104 km³) over 4.26×107 km² gives a depth of 0.282 m.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts". U.S. Government. May 25, 2011. Archived from the original on October 29, 2010. Retrieved November 9, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1". United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 11, 2011. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, John W., ed. (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. p. 64. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
Jump up ^ "Shorelines of the Great Lakes". Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes Water Levels" (PDF). US Army Corps of Engineers. The link also has daily elevations for the current month.
^ Jump up to: a b "Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake—Minnesota Sea Grant". University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Kitchi-Gami Almanac: The Name". lakesuperior.com. January 1, 2006.
Jump up ^ Chisholm, Barbara & Gutsche, Andrea (1998). Under the Shadow of the Gods: A Guide to the History of the Canadian Shore of Lake Superior (1st ed.). Transcontinental Printing.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes Atlas". Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1995.
Jump up ^ Stewart, George R. (1945). Names on the Land, A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. p. 83.
^ Jump up to: a b National Geophysical Data Center (1999). "Bathymetry of Lake Superior". National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
(the general reference to NGDC because this lake was never published, compilation of Great Lakes Bathymetry at NGDC has been suspended).
Jump up ^ National Geophysical Data Center (1999). "Bathymetry of Lake Huron". National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5G15XS5. Retrieved March 23, 2015. (only small portion of this map)
Jump up ^ Hastings, D. & Dunbar, P.K. (1999). "Global Land One-Kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1". National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS. Retrieved March 16, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "About Our Great Lakes: Tour". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL). Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Wright, H. E., Jr. (1973). Black, Robert Foster; Goldthwait, Richard Parker; Willman, Harold, eds. "Tunnel Valleys, Glacial Surges, and Subglacial Hydrology of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota". Geological Society of America Memoirs. Geological Society of America Memoirs. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Inc. 136: 251–276. doi:10.1130/MEM136-p251. ISBN 0813711363. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Regis, Robert S.; Jennings-Patterson, Carrie; Wattrus, Nigel & Rausch, Deborah (March 24–25, 2003). Relationship of deep troughs in the eastern Lake Superior basin and large-scale glaciofluvial landforms in the central upper peninsula of Michigan. North-Central Section 37th Annual Meeting. Kansas City, Missouri: The Geological Society of America. Paper No. 19-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Lake Superior". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lake Superior's Natural Processes | Minnesota Sea Grant. Seagrant.umn.edu (October 15, 2014). Retrieved on 2015-11-17.
Jump up ^ "The fall storm season." (Website.) National Weather Service, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved on September 25, 2007
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xiii.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior hits record lows". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Associated Press. October 1, 2007. Archived from the original on June 10, 2008. Retrieved 2007-10-06.
Jump up ^ Current Great Lakes Water Levels. Great Lakes Information Network. Retrieved on October 23, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Monthly bulletin of Lake Levels for The Great Lakes; September 2009; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit District
Jump up ^ Marshall, Jessica (May 30, 2007). "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes". New Scientist. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior warming faster than surrounding climate". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Associated Press. June 4, 2007. Archived from the original on April 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-25. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Lamb, Hubert H. (1995). "The little ice age". Climate, history and the modern world. London: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 0-415-12734-3.
Jump up ^ Extensive Great Lakes Ice Coverage to Limit Severe Weather, Pose Challenges to Shipping Industry. Accuweather.com. Retrieved on November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes Circle Tour". Great-lakes.net. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Highway 17: A Scenic Route along the northern Lake Superior shore". Thekingshighway.ca. February 18, 2012. Retrieved 2015-11-17. [self-published source]
^ Jump up to: a b Derecki, J. A. (July 1980). "NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake Superior" (PDF). Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 37. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes". New Scientist. September 25, 2007. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.
Jump up ^ Geology of National Parks, Second Edition, Ann G. Harris, Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa, 1977, p. 200
Jump up ^ Linder, Douglas O. (2006). "'Simply Superior: The World's Greatest Lake' Lake Superior facts". Law.umkc.edu. Archived from the original on November 5, 2005. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem". Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. Archived from the original on August 12, 2007. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xv.
^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xvi.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xvii.
Jump up ^ "Paul R. Treggurtha: Last trip for the Tregurtha this year". Duluth Shipping News. January 12, 2015. Retrieved January 21, 2015. Another trip here was planned but has apparently been canceled, making this her last and 41st visit this season. Last year, without a late start due to ice, the Tregurtha was here 49 times.
Jump up ^ Stonehouse, Frederick (1998) [1985]. Lake Superior's Shipwreck Coast. Gwinn, MI: Avery Color Studios. p. 267. ISBN 0-932212-43-3.
Jump up ^ "Century-old shipwreck discovered: Ore carrier went down in Lake Superior on its second voyage". MSNBC. Associated Press. September 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Kohl, Cris (1998). The 100 Best Great Lakes Shipwrecks. Vol. II. Seawolf Communications. p. 430. ISBN 0-9681437-3-3.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xxxiv.
Jump up ^ MacInnis, Joseph (1998). Fitzgerald's Storm: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald. Berkeley, CA, USA: Thunder Bay Press. p. 101. ISBN 1-882376-53-6.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior Fish Species". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations, p. 23
Jump up ^ Sterner, Robert W.; Anagnostou, Eleni; Brovold, Sandra; Bullerjahn, George S.; Finlay, Jacques C.; Kumar, Sanjeev; McKay, R. Michael L.; Sherrell, Robert M. (2007). "Increasing stoichiometric imbalance in North America's largest lake: Nitrification in Lake Superior". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (10): L10406. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410406S. doi:10.1029/2006GL028861.
Further reading[edit]
Burt, Williams A., and Hubbard, Bela Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior (Buffalo: L. Danforth, 1846), 113 pages.
Grady, Wayne. The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a Changing Region.Greystone Books, D&M Publishers INC, 2007
Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8143-2554-8 ISBN 9780814325544.
Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0.
Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 978-0-942618-78-5 ISBN 9781893624238
Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN 0-923756-03-5 ISBN 9780923756031
Sims, P.K. and L.M.H. Carter, eds. Archean and Proterozoic Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993 [U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1556]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1996.
Splake, T. Kilgore. Superior Land Lights. Battle Creek, MI: Angst Productions, 1984
Stonehouse, Frederick. Marquette Shipwrecks. Marquette, MI: Harboridge Press, 1974
Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN 1-880311-01-1 ISBN 9781880311011
Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1-55046-399-3
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. "[ Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior]." August 2007
Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. "Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models." NOAA, 2006
"America"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; Vol. 29; June 8, 1928
Stonehouse, Frederick; Isle Royale Shipwrecks; Marquette, Michigan; Arery Color Studios; 1977
"Cumberland" & "Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland"; Detroit, Michigan; Detroit Free Press; January 29, 1974
"S.S.George M. Cox Wrecked"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; May 28, 1933
Holdon, Thom "Reef of the Three C's"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 2, #4; July/August 1977
Holdon, Thom; "Above and Below: Steamer America"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 3, #3 & #4; May/June & July/August 1978
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lake Superior.
Geographic data related to Lake Superior at OpenStreetMap
Lake Superior NOAA nautical chart #14961 online
International Lake Superior Board of Control
EPA's Great Lakes Atlas
EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1
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Parks Canada - Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area
Minnesota Sea Grant Lake Superior Page
Lake Superior Bathymetry
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text:
Igloo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Igloo (disambiguation).
Community of igloos (Illustration from Charles Francis Hall's Arctic Researches and Life Among the Esquimaux, 1865)
An Inuk inside an igloo, early-20th century.
An igloo (Inuit language: iglu,[1] Inuktitut syllabics ᐃᒡᓗ [iɣˈlu] (plural: igluit ᐃᒡᓗᐃᑦ [iɣluˈit])), also known as a snow house or snow hut, is a type of shelter built of snow, typically built when the snow can be easily compacted.
Although igloos are stereotypically associated with all Eskimo peoples,[2] they were traditionally associated with people of Canada's Central Arctic and Greenland's Thule area. Other Inuit people tended to use snow to insulate their houses, which were constructed from whalebone and hides. Snow is used because the air pockets trapped in it makes it an insulator. On the outside, temperatures may be as low as −45 °C (−49 °F), but on the inside the temperature may range from −7 °C (19 °F) to 16 °C (61 °F) when warmed by body heat alone.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Nomenclature
2 Types
3 Construction
4 Building methods
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Nomenclature[edit]
Inuit building an igloo
The Inuit language word iglu (plural igluit) can be used for a house or home built of any material,[1] and is not restricted exclusively to snowhouses (called specifically igluvijaq, plural igluvijait), but includes traditional tents, sod houses, homes constructed of driftwood and modern buildings.[4][5] Several dialects throughout the Canadian Arctic (Siglitun, Inuinnaqtun, Natsilingmiutut, Kivalliq, North Baffin) use iglu for all buildings, including snowhouses, and it is the term used by the Government of Nunavut.[1][6][7] An exception to this is the dialect used in the Igloolik region. Iglu is used for other buildings, while igluvijaq,[8] (plural igluvijait, Inuktitut syllabics: ᐃᒡᓗᕕᔭᖅ) is specifically used for a snowhouse. Outside Inuit culture, however, igloo refers exclusively to shelters constructed from blocks of compacted snow, generally in the form of a dome.
Types[edit]
There are three traditional types of igloos, all of different sizes and used for different purposes.[9]
The smallest were constructed as temporary shelters, usually only used for one or two nights. These were built and used during hunting trips, often on open sea ice.
Intermediate-sized igloos were for semi-permanent, family dwelling. This was usually a single room dwelling that housed one or two families. Often there were several of these in a small area, which formed an Inuit village.
The largest igloos were normally built in groups of two. One of the buildings was a temporary structure built for special occasions, the other built nearby for living. These might have had up to five rooms and housed up to 20 people. A large igloo might have been constructed from several smaller igloos attached by their tunnels, giving common access to the outside. These were used to hold community feasts and traditional dances.
Construction[edit]
Snow igloos are not spherical, but are built in a shape more closely resembling a paraboloid. Using this shape, the stresses of snow as it ages and compresses are less likely to cause it to buckle because in an inverted paraboloid or catenoid the pressures are nearer to being exclusively compressive.[10]
If the walls are of uniform thickness and density, the maximum compressive stress at the base of a paraboloid is S α = γ d 2 24 h ⋅ 1 + cos  α + cos 2  α ( 1 + cos  α ) cos 2  α {\displaystyle \mathrm {S} \alpha ={\frac {\gamma \mathrm {d} ^{2}}{24h}}\cdot {\frac {1+\cos \alpha +\cos ^{2}\alpha }{(1+\cos \alpha )\cos ^{2}\alpha }}}
where d is the diameter at the base, h is the height, γ {\displaystyle \mathrm {\gamma } \ } is the unit weight of the snow, and α = arctan (4h/d).[11]
Since stress is a force per unit area, if the walls are of uniform thickness the compressive stress is independent of wall thickness; thicker walls provide better insulation but do not strengthen the structure because of added weight.[12]
The maximum compressive stress at the base of the igloo can be obtained by multiplying S,/yd times the snow unit weight y and the mean igloo base diameter.
Igloos gradually become shorter with time due to the compressive creep of the snow.[10]
Building methods[edit]
The snow used to build an igloo must have enough structural strength to be cut and stacked appropriately. The best snow to use for this purpose is snow which has been blown by wind, which can serve to compact and interlock the ice crystals. The hole left in the snow where the blocks are cut is usually used as the lower half of the shelter. Sometimes, a short tunnel is constructed at the entrance to reduce wind and heat loss when the door is opened. Snow's effective insulating properties enable the inside of the igloo to remain relatively warm. In some cases, a single block of clear ice is inserted to allow light into the igloo. Animal skins were used as door flaps to keep warm air in. Igloos used as winter shelters had beds made of ice and caribou furs. These 'ice beds' are unique to the region and Inuit culture.
Architecturally, the igloo is unique in that it is a dome that can be raised out of independent blocks leaning on each other and polished to fit without an additional supporting structure during construction. An igloo that is built correctly will support the weight of a person standing on the roof. In the traditional Inuit igloo, the heat from the kudlik (qulliq, stone lamp) causes the interior to melt slightly. This melting and refreezing builds up a layer of ice that contributes to the strength of the igloo.[13]
Igloo construction
An igloo side view diagram; opening to the right, the optional window may be composed of an ice block
An igloo's snowbrick laying method
The sleeping platform is a raised area. Because warmer air rises and cooler air settles, the entrance area acts as a cold trap whereas the sleeping area will hold whatever heat is generated by a stove, lamp, body heat, or other device.
The Central Inuit, especially those around the Davis Strait, lined the living area with skin, which could increase the temperature within from around 2 °C (36 °F) to 10–20 °C (50–68 °F).
Igloos
Process of building an igloo with snowbrick method in mid-way
A nearly complete, medium-sized igloo, with excavation under the door and the exterior unfinished
Interior of an igloo, facing the passageway leading to the entrance
See also[edit]
Arctic portal
Architecture portal
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal
Greenland portal
Glacier cave – a natural hollow space within a glacier
Quinzhee – a shelter made by hollowing out a pile of settled snow
Snow cave – a shelter constructed in snow
Snow fort – a usually open-topped temporary structure made of snow walls that is usually used for recreational purposes
Vernacular architecture – a category of architecture based on local needs, construction materials and reflecting local traditions
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Iglu". Asuilaak Living Dictionary. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
Jump up ^ Steckley, John L. (2008). White lies about the Inuit. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press. p. 19. ISBN 1551118750.
Jump up ^ "How Warm is an Igloo?, BEE453 Spring 2003 (PDF)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
Jump up ^ "The Mackenzie Inuit Winter House" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-04-01. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Reconstructing traditional Inuit house forms using three-dimensional interactive computer modelling" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
Jump up ^ "About the Flag and Coat of Arms". Gov.nu.ca. 1999-04-01. Archived from the original on 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
Jump up ^ Inuinnaqtun English Dictionary. Cambridge Bay, Nunavut: Nunavut Arctic College, 1996.
Jump up ^ "Igluvijaq". Asuilaak Living Dictionary. Retrieved 2011-06-29.
Jump up ^ Simon, Kathryn. "The science of igloos". Retrieved January 29, 2016. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Handy, Richard L. (Dec 1973). "The Igloo and the Natural Bridge as Ultimate Structures" (PDF). Arctic. Arctic Institute of North America. 26 (4): 276–277. doi:10.14430/arctic2926. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-04.
Jump up ^ Fischer, Ladislav (1968). "Theory and practice of shell structures". Berlin, Ernst & Sohn: 541. OCLC 459828. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Jumikis, Alfreds R (1966). Thermal Soil Mechanics. Rutgers University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780813505244. OCLC 562325. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "What house-builders can learn from igloos, 2008, Dan Cruickshank, BBC". BBC News. 2008-04-02. Archived from the original on 2009-03-11. Retrieved 2012-07-10.
Further reading[edit]
Richard Gv. Condon, Julia Ogina and the Holman Elders, The Northern Copper Inuit (ISBN 0-8020-0849-6)
Igloo – the Traditional Arctic Snow Dome
An article on igloos from The Canadian Encyclopedia
Watch How to Build an Igloo (National Film Board of Canada)
Field Manual for the U.S. Antarctic Program, Chapter 11: "Snow Shelters", pp. 140-145
Traditional Dwellings: Igloos (1) (Interview; Library and Archives Canada)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Igloo.
Look up igloo in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Building an Igloo, by Hugh McManners
How to Build an Igloo (wikiHow)
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pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iglu
Iglu – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iglu
Iglu – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igloo
Igloo – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iglu
Iglu – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iglu
Iglu – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igloo
Igloo – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-su
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iglu
Iglu – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igloo
Igloo – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: பனிக் கட்டிக் குடில் – Tamil

values: ఇగ్లూ – Telugu

values: อิกลู – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0glo
İglo – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Igloo rootpage-Igloo skin-vector action-view