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State of emergency
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For other uses, see State of emergency (disambiguation).
Members of the Royal Malay Regiment during the Malayan Emergency in 1949, inspecting equipment captured in a raid.
A state of emergency is a situation in which a government is empowered to perform actions that it would normally not be permitted. A government can declare such state during a disaster, civil unrest, or armed conflict. Such declaration alerts citizens to change their normal behavior and orders government agencies to implement emergency plans. Justitium is its equivalent in Roman law—a concept in which the senate could put forward a final decree (senatus consultum ultimum) that was not subject to dispute.
States of emergency can also be used as a rationale or pretext for suspending rights and freedoms guaranteed under a country's constitution or basic law. The procedure for and legality of doing so vary by country.
Contents
1 Relationship with international law
2 Use and viewpoints
2.1 Abuse
3 Law in selected countries
3.1 Argentina
3.2 Australia
3.3 Brazil
3.4 Canada
3.5 Denmark
3.6 Egypt
3.7 France
3.8 Germany
3.9 Hong Kong
3.10 Hungary
3.11 Iceland
3.12 India
3.13 Ireland
3.14 Israel and Palestine
3.15 Macau
3.16 Malaysia
3.17 Maldives
3.18 New Zealand
3.19 Nigeria
3.20 Pakistan
3.21 Romania
3.22 South Africa
3.23 Spain
3.24 Sri Lanka
3.25 Switzerland
3.26 Syria
3.27 Trinidad and Tobago
3.28 Turkey
3.29 United Kingdom
3.30 United States
4 Examples
4.1 Ongoing
4.2 Past states of emergency
5 Notes
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Relationship with international law[edit]
Under international law, rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency; for example, a government can detain persons and hold them without trial. All rights that can be derogated from are listed in the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights. Non-derogable rights cannot be suspended.[1] Non-derogable rights are listed in Article 4 of the ICCPR, they include right to life, the rights to freedom from arbitrary deprivation of liberty, freedom of slavery and to freedom from torture and/or ill-treatment.[2]
Some countries have made it illegal to modify emergency law or the constitution during the emergency; other countries have the freedom to change any legislation or rights based constitutional frameworks at any time that the legislative chooses to do so. Constitutions are contracts between the government and the private individuals of that country. The International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is an international law document signed by states. Therefore, the Covenant applies to only those persons acting in an official capacity, not private individuals. However, signatories to the Covenant are expected to integrate it into national legislation. The state of emergency (within the ICCPR framework) must be publicly declared and the Secretary-General of the United Nations must be contacted immediately, to declare the reason for the emergency, the date on which the emergency is to start, the derogations that may take place, with the timeframe of the emergency and the date in which the emergency is expected to finish. Although this is common protocol stipulated by the ICCPR, this is often not strictly followed; enforcement is better regulated by European Convention of human rights.[3]
Use and viewpoints[edit]
Though fairly uncommon in democracies, dictatorial regimes often declare a state of emergency that is prolonged indefinitely for the life of the regime, or for extended periods of time so that derogations can be used to override human rights of their citizens usually protected by the International Covenant on Civil and political rights.[4] In some situations, martial law is also declared, allowing the military greater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government. Ms. Nicole Questiaux (France) and Mr. Leandro Despouy (Argentina), two consecutive United Nations Special Rapporteurs, have recommended to the international community to adopt the following "principles" to be observed during a state or de facto situation of emergency : Principles of Legality, Proclamation, Notification, Time Limitation, Exceptional Threat, Proportionality, Non-Discrimination, Compatibility, Concordance and Complementarity of the Various Norms of International Law (cf. "Question of Human Rights and State of Emergency", E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/19, at Chapter II; see also état d'exception).
Article 4 to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), permits states to derogate from certain rights guaranteed by the ICCPR in "time of public emergency". Any measures derogating from obligations under the Covenant, however, must be to only the extent required by the exigencies of the situation, and must be announced by the State Party to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The European Convention on Human Rights[5] and American Convention on Human Rights[6] have similar derogatory provisions. No derogation is permitted to the International Labour Conventions.
Some political theorists, such as Carl Schmitt, have argued that the power to decide the initiation of the state of emergency defines sovereignty itself. In State of Exception (2005), Giorgio Agamben criticized this idea, arguing that the mechanism of the state of emergency deprives certain people of their civil and political rights, producing his interpretation of homo sacer.[7]
Abuse[edit]
The state of emergency can be, and often has been, abused by being invoked. An example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respect human rights. An example was the August 1991 attempted coup in the Soviet Union (USSR) where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency; the failure of the coup led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Derogations by states having ratified or acceded to binding international agreements such as the ICCPR, the American and European Conventions on Human Rights and the International Labour Conventions are monitored by independent expert committees, regional Courts and other State Parties.[8]
Law in selected countries[edit]
Argentina[edit]
The Constitution, which has been amended several times, has always allowed for a state of emergency (literally estado de sitio, state of siege), to be declared if the constitution or the authorities it creates are endangered by internal unrest or foreign attack. This provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition (as of 2010[update] state of emergencies had been declared 52 times by democratic and dictatorial governments, starting in 1854 shortly after the constitution came into force[9]). The American Convention on Human Rights (Pacto de San José de Costa Rica), adopted in 1969 but ratified by Argentina only in 1984 immediately after the end of the National Reorganization Process, restricts abuse of the state of emergency by requiring any signatory nation declaring such a state to inform the other signatories of its circumstances and duration, and what rights are affected.
Australia[edit]
State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia.
In Victoria, the premier can declare a state of emergency if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order.[citation needed] The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House of Parliament may revoke it earlier. Under the Public Safety Preservation Act, a declared state of emergency allows the premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. However, these regulations expire if Parliament does not agree to continue them within 7 days. Also, under the Essential Services Act, the premier (or delegate) may operate or prohibit operation of, as desired, any essential service (e.g., transport, fuel, power, water, gas).
In regards to Emergency Management, regions (usually on a local government area basis) that have been affected by a natural disaster are the responsibility of the state, until that state declares a State of Emergency where access to the Federal Emergency Fund becomes available to help respond to and recover from natural disasters. A State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted.
See also, Exceptional circumstances; a term most commonly used in Australia with regard to emergency relief payments.
Brazil[edit]
Extreme act that, in Brazil (Estado de Sítio or Estado de Exceção, in Portuguese), can be declared on the following circumstances:
Serious disturbance with national impact;
Inefficiency on the Defense State previously decreed;
Declaration of war;
Response to foreign armed aggression.
The state of emergency could last for 30 days, being possible to extend it for more days in case of persistence of the reasons of exceptionality.
Only the President is able to declare or prorogate this State; after receiving formal authorization from National Congress and after consultation with the National Security Council or the Council of the Republic.
Canada[edit]
The federal government of Canada can use the Emergencies Act to invoke a state of emergency. A national state of emergency automatically expires after 90 days, unless extended by the Governor-in-Council.[10] There are different levels of emergencies: Public Welfare Emergency, Public Order Emergency, International Emergency, and War Emergency.[11]
The Emergencies Act replaced the War Measures Act in 1988. The War Measures Act was invoked three times in Canadian history, most controversially during the 1970 October Crisis, and also during World War I (from 1914 to 1920, against threat of Communism) and World War II (from 1942 to 1945, against perceived threat from Japanese Canadians following Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor).
Under the current Emergency Act a state of emergency can also be declared by provincial, territorial, and municipal governments.[12] In addition Canada's federal government and any of its provincial governments can suspend, for five years at a time, Charter rights to fundamental freedoms in section 2, to legal rights in sections 7 through 14, and to equality rights in section 15 by legislation which invokes the notwithstanding clause, section 33, and therefore emergency powers can effectively be created even without using the Emergency Act.
Denmark[edit]
The police chief in a district can impose a zone in which people can be body searched without a specific suspicion. Such an order must be issued in writing, published, and imposed for a limited period. The police law (article 6) regulates this area.[13] The normal procedure calls for assisting the suspect to a private area and stripping them.[14]
If the police feel that a situation involving a crowd of people can get out of hand, they can order the assembly to be dissolved and "pass the street" in the name of the king. People that after three such warnings are still part of the crowd can then without further warning be subjugated to mass arrest. All people arrested can then be detained for 24 hours without charging them or taking them for a judge. This is called a precluding arrest.
Egypt[edit]
Main article: Emergency law in Egypt
Egyptians lived under an Emergency Law (Law No. 162 of 1958)[15] from 1967 to 2012, except for an 18-month break in 1980 and 1981. The emergency was imposed during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, and reimposed following the assassination of President Anwar Sadat. The law continuously extended every three years since 1981. Under the law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship was legalized.[16] The law sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned. Some 17,000 people were detained under the law, and estimates of political prisoners run as high as 30,000.[17] The emergency rule expired on May 31, 2012, and was put back in place in January 2013.[18][19] Egypt declared a month-long national emergency on 14 August 2013.[20]
The Egyptian presidency announced a one-month state of emergency across the country on August 14, 2013 and ordered the armed forces to help the Interior Ministry enforce security. The announcement made on state TV followed deadly countrywide clashes between supporters of deposed President Mohammed Morsi and the security forces.[21]
France[edit]
State of emergency in Paris, November 2015
Main article: States of emergency in France
Three main provisions concern various kind of "state of emergency" in France: Article 16 of the Constitution of 1958 allows, in time of crisis, "extraordinary powers" to the president. Article 36 of the same constitution regulates "state of siege" (état de siège). Finally, the Act of 3 April 1955 allows the proclamation, by the Council of Ministers, of the "state of emergency" (état d'urgence).[22] The distinction between article 16 and the 1955 Act concerns mainly the distribution of powers: whereas in article 16, the executive power basically suspend the regular procedures of the Republic, the 1955 Act permits a twelve-day state of emergency, after which a new law extending the emergency must be voted by the Parliament. These dispositions have been used at various times, in 1955, 1958, 1961, 1988, 2005, and 2015.
Germany[edit]
The Weimar Republic constitution (1919–1933)[23] allowed states of emergency under Article 48 to deal with rebellions. Article 48 was often invoked during the 14-year life of the Republic, sometimes for no reason other than to allow the government to act when it was unable to obtain a parliamentary majority.
After the February 27, 1933, Reichstag fire, an attack blamed on the communists, Adolf Hitler declared a state of emergency using Article 48, and then had President von Hindenburg sign the Reichstag Fire Decree, which suspended the Weimar Constitution for the whole duration of the Third Reich: the Weimar Constitution was never actually repealed by Nazi Germany, but "indefinitely suspended". After the prohibition of the Communist Party of Germany on March 1, 1933,[citation needed] the Nazi Party was free to vote in the March 23, 1933 Enabling Act, which enabled Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his cabinet to enact laws without the participation of the Reichstag. These two laws implemented the Gleichschaltung, the Nazis' institution of totalitarianism.
In the postwar Federal Republic of Germany the Emergency Acts state that some of the basic constitutional rights of the Basic Law may be limited in case of a state of defence, a state of tension, or an internal state of emergency or disaster (catastrophe). These amendments to the constitution were passed on May 30, 1968, despite fierce opposition by the so-called extra-parliamentary opposition (see German student movement for details).
Hong Kong[edit]
The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress can declare a state of emergency and deploy troops from the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison under the Law of the People's Republic of China on the garrisoning of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
The Chief Executive of Hong Kong along with the Executive Council can prohibit public gatherings, issue curfew orders, prohibit the movement of vessels or aircraft and appoint special constable all under Chapter 245 ("Public Order Ordinance") of Hong Kong Law.
Since 1997, no emergency measures have been enacted. Prior to that date, emergency measures were used for four major incidents:
Hong Kong 1956 riots – with involvement of British Armed Forces and Hong Kong Police
Hong Kong 1966 riots – with involvement of British Forces and Hong Kong Police
Hong Kong 1967 Leftist Riots – with involvement of British Forces and Hong Kong Police
Hong Kong 1981 riots – with involvement of Hong Kong Police
Hungary[edit]
According to the Hungarian Constitution, the National Assembly of Hungary can declare state of emergency in case of armed rebellion or natural or industrial disaster. It expires after 30 days, but can be extended. Most civil rights can be suspended, but basic human rights (such as the right to life, the ban of torture, and freedom of religion) cannot.
During state of emergency, the Parliament cannot be disbanded.
Iceland[edit]
The Icelandic constitution provides no mechanism for state of emergency nor martial law.
India[edit]
Main article: State of Emergency in India
In India, an external state of emergency was declared two times during wars:
In 1962 Sino-Indian War
In 1971 Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
In 1975, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of internal emergency after she was indicted in a corruption scandal and ordered to vacate her seat in the Indian Parliament, allowing herself to rule by decree until 1977. It all started after Raj Narain, who had been defeated in parliamentary election by Indira Gandhi, lodged cases of election fraud and use of state machinery for election purposes against Gandhi in the Allahabad High Court. While some serious charges such as bribing voters and election malpractices were dropped, on 12 June 1975, Justice Jagmohanlal Sinha of the Allahabad High Court found the Prime Minister guilty on the charge of misuse of government machinery for her election campaign, such as using the state police to build a dais, availing the services of a government officer, Yashpal Kapoor (IAS), during the elections before he had resigned from his position, and use of electricity from the state electricity department. The court declared her election null and void and unseated her from her seat in the Lok Sabha. The court also banned her from contesting any election for an additional six years.
Protests led by J.P.Narayan, Raj Narain, Satyendra Narayan Sinha and Morarji Desai flooded the streets of Delhi close to the Parliament building and the Prime Minister's residence, and in response, Mrs Gandhi declared a state of emergency, suspending civil liberties. Political opposition was heavily suppressed during the emergency. The Government used police forces across the country to arrest thousands of protestors and strike leaders. J.P. Narayan, Raj Narain, Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, Jivatram Kripalani, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, L.K. Advani, Satyendra Narayan Sinha and other protest leaders were immediately arrested. Organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, along with some opposition political parties were banned. Nearly two years later, confident about her chances of getting re-elected, Indira Gandhi relaxed the emergency, released dissidents and announced elections.
In the ensuing election, Raj Narain and his colleagues rode a popular wave of unrest to defeat her and her Government. Raj Narain won decisively in the Prime Minister's home constituency of Rae Bareli, and for the first time a non-Congress government took office in Republic of India
Ireland[edit]
In Ireland declaring a state of "national emergency" involves Article 28.3.3° of the 1937 Constitution of Ireland, which states that:[24]
Nothing in this Constitution [...] shall be invoked to invalidate any law enacted by the Oireachtas [parliament] which is expressed to be for the purpose of securing the public safety and the preservation of the State in time of war or armed rebellion, or to nullify any act done or purporting to be done in time of war or armed rebellion in pursuance of any such law.
In addition, during a "war or armed rebellion", military tribunals may try civilians,[25] and the Defence Forces are not bound by habeas corpus.[26]
The First Amendment of the Constitution of 1939 allows an emergency to be declared during wars in which the state is a non-belligerent, subject to resolutions by the houses of the Oireachtas.[27] By the 2nd Amendment of 1941, an emergency ends, not automatically when the war does, but only by Oireachtas resolutions.[28] The 21st Amendment of 2002 prevents the reintroduction of capital punishment during an emergency.[29]
The first amendment was rushed through the Oireachtas after the outbreak of the Second World War, in which the state remained neutral. Immediately after, the required resolution was passed, in turn enabling the passage of the Emergency Powers Act 1939 (EPA), which granted the government and its ministers sweeping powers to issue statutory orders termed "Emergency Powers Orders" (EPOs).[30][31] (The period in Ireland was and is referred to as "The Emergency".) The EPA expired in 1946, although some EPOs were continued under the Supplies and Services (Temporary Provisions) Act 1946 until as late as 1957.[32][33] Rationing continued until 1951.
The 1939 state of emergency was not formally ended until a 1976 resolution, which also declared a new state of emergency in relation to the Troubles in Northern Ireland and in particular the recent assassination of the British ambassador to Ireland, Christopher Ewart Biggs.[34] The Emergency Powers Act 1976 was then passed to increase the Garda Síochána powers to arrest, detain, and question those suspected of offences against the state.[35] President Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh referred the bill under Article 26 of the Constitution to the Supreme Court, which upheld its constitutionality.[36] The referral was condemned by minister Paddy Donegan as a "thundering disgrace", causing Ó Dálaigh to resign in protest. The 1976 EPA expired after one year, but the state of emergency persisted until 1995, when as part of the Northern Ireland peace process it was rescinded as a "confidence building measure" to satisfy physical force republicans after the Provisional IRA's 1994 ceasefire.[37]
The Offences against the State Act does not require a state of emergency under Article 28.3.3°.[38][39] Part V of the Act, which provides for a non-jury Special Criminal Court (SCC), is permitted under Article 38.3.1°.[40][41] Part V is activated by a declaration from the government that it is "necessary to secure the preservation of public peace and order", and it can be rescinded by vote of Dáil Éireann. Provision for internment is similarly activated and rescinded (originally by Part VI of the 1939 act, later by Part II of a 1940 amending act).[38][42][43] Parts V and VI were both activated during the Second World War and the IRA's late 1950s Border Campaign; Part V has been continually active since 1972.[44][45]
Several official reviews of the Constitution and the Offences Against the State Acts have recommended a time limit within which the operation of Article 28.3.3° or Article 38.3.1° must either be explicitly renewed by resolution or else lapse.[46][47][48]
Israel and Palestine[edit]
Israel's Emergency Defence Regulations are older than the state itself, having been passed under the British Mandate for Palestine in 1945. A repeal was briefly considered in 1967 but cancelled following the Six-Day War. The regulations allow Israel, through its military, to control movements and prosecute suspected terrorists in occupied territories, and to censor publications that are deemed prejudicial to national defense.
Macau[edit]
The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress can declare a state of emergency and deploy troops from the People's Liberation Army Macau Garrison under the Article 14 of Macau's Basic Law on the defence of the Macau Special Administrative Region.
The Chief Executive of Macau can use the Macau national security law to prohibit public gatherings, issue curfew orders, prohibit other activities perceived to be a threat against the Region or China.
Since 1999 no emergency measure have been enacted. Prior to 1999 emergency measures have been used for 1 major incident:
12-3 incident (1966) – with martial law invoked and involvement of Portuguese troops
Malaysia[edit]
Main article: Malayan Emergency
In Malaysia, if the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Monarch) is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security, or the economic life, or public order in the Federation or any part thereof is threatened, he may issue a Proclamation of Emergency making therein a declaration to that effect.[49]
In the history of Malaysia, a state of emergency was declared by the then-colonial government of Britain. The state of emergency lasted from 1948 until 1960 to deal with the communists led by Chin Peng.
States of emergency were also declared during the Konfrontasi in 1962, the 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis and 1977 Kelantan Emergency.
When a race riot broke out on May 13, 1969, a state of emergency was declared.
On August 11, 2005 a state of emergency was announced for the world's 13th largest port, Port Klang and the district of Kuala Selangor after air pollution there reached dangerous levels (defined as a value greater than 500 on the Air Pollution Index or API).
Thiery Rommel, the European Commission's envoy to Malaysia, told Reuters by telephone on November 13, 2007 (the last day of his mission) that, "Today, this country still lives under (a state of) emergency."[50] Although not officially proclaimed as a state of emergency, the Emergency Ordinance and the Internal Security Act had allowed detention for years without trial.
On June 23, 2013 a state of emergency was declared by Prime Minister Najib Abdul Razak for Muar and Ledang, Johor as smoke from land-clearing fires in Indonesia pushed air pollution index to above 750. This is the first time in years that air quality has dipped to hazardous level with conditions worsening in as dry weather persists and fires rage in Sumatra.[51]
Maldives[edit]
On February 5, 2018, a state of emergency was declared by Maldives's President Abdulla Yameen for 15 days and ordered security forces into the supreme court and arrested a former president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom and the Chief Justice of Honorable Supreme court of Maldives. [52]
New Zealand[edit]
The Civil Defence Emergency Management Act 2002 gives the government and local city council the power to issue a state of emergency, either over the entire country or within a specific region.[53] This may suspend ordinary work and essential services if need be. The state of emergency in New Zealand expires on the commencement of the seventh day after the date on which it was declared, unless it is extended. However, the minister of civil defence or local mayor may lift the state of emergency after an initial review of the region's status.
On 23 February 2011 at 11.28 am Minister of Civil Defence John Carter declared the first National State Of Emergency (for a civil defence emergency) in New Zealand's history in response to the February 22, 2011 Christchurch earthquake.[54] A local state of emergency was declared following the September 4, 2010 Canterbury earthquake.
A state of emergency was declared previously during the 1951 waterfront dispute.
Nigeria[edit]
In Nigeria, a state of emergency is usually declared in times of great civil unrest. In recent years, it has specifically been implemented in reaction to terrorist attacks on Nigerians by the Islamic jihadist group Boko Haram.
On 14 May 2013, Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency for the entire northeastern states of Borno, Yobe and Adamawa.[55] A more limited state of emergency had been declared on 31 December 2011 in parts of Yobe, Borno, Plateau and Niger states. This earlier declaration included the temporary shutdown of the international borders in those regions.[56]
Pakistan[edit]
Further information: International reaction to the 2007 Pakistani state of emergency
In Pakistan, a state of emergency was declared five times in its history:
In 1958 by President Iskander Mirza
In 1969 by President General Yahya Khan
In 1977 by President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq
In 1998 by President Muhammad Rafiq Tarar
In 2007 by President General Pervez Musharraf
The first three were regarded as the imposition of direct martial law.
Romania[edit]
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In Romania, there are two types of states of emergency, each designed for a different type of situation.[citation needed]
State of alert (Stare de alertă in Romanian): Non-military, can be enforced by a prefect. Roadblocks are enforced. Any utilitarian vehicle or equipment can be temporarily used by the state, without any restriction. Evacuation is not mandatory, unless extreme circumstances apply. Only EMS, Police and firefighting personnel are required to intervene. This situation can be enforced in case of natural disasters or civil unrest.
State of emergency (stare de urgentă in Romanian): Can only be enforced by the President of Romania with approval from Parliament. The military becomes the upper form of control in the country (under the rule of the president).[citation needed] The civilian population is subject to strict regulations, imposed by the type of emergency.[citation needed] All private and public non-crucial activities are suspended.[citation needed] Essential services might be disrupted. This situation can be enforced in case of extreme circumstances, such as a war.
Special zone of public safety (Zonă specială de siguranță publică in Romanian): Administrative, can be enforced by local police. This implies installation of road check-points and higher numbers in police and gendarmes/ riot police presence, patrolling the area. There is also a ban that restricts the right to travel for people in the area; any vehicle and individual transiting the zone are subject to screening.[57][58]
The most well-known event in which the state of emergency has been enforced was because of 1977 Vrancea earthquake.[citation needed]
The last instance in which the special zone of public safety was enforced was in December 8, 2013-ongoing, in Pungești, Vaslui following civil unrest in Pungești from Chevron's plans to begin exploring shale-gas in the village.[59] According to police officials, the special security zone will be maintained as long as there is conflict in the area that poses a threat to Chevron’s operations.[57] This special security zone has faced domestic and international criticism for alleged human-rights abuses.
South Africa[edit]
Further information: State of Emergency Act, 1997
States of emergency in South Africa are governed by section 37 of the Constitution and by the State of Emergency Act, 1997. The President may declare a state of emergency only when "the life of the nation is threatened by war, invasion, general insurrection, disorder, natural disaster or other public emergency" and if the ordinary laws and government powers are not sufficient to restore peace and order. The declaration is made by proclamation in the Government Gazette and may only apply from the time of publication, not retroactively. It can only continue for 21 days unless the National Assembly grants an extension, which may be for at most three months at a time. The High Courts have the power, subject to confirmation by the Constitutional Court, to determine the validity of the declaration of a state of emergency.[60]
During a state of emergency the President has the power to make emergency regulations "necessary or expedient" to restore peace and order and end the emergency. This power can be delegated to other authorities. Emergency measures can violate the Bill of Rights, but only to a limited extent. Some rights are inviolable, including amongst others the rights to life and to human dignity; the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex or religion; the prohibition of torture or inhuman punishment; and the right of accused people to a fair trial. Any violation of a constitutional right must be strictly required by the emergency. Emergency measures may not indemnify the government or individuals for illegal actions. They may impose criminal penalties, but not exceeding three years' imprisonment. They may not require military service beyond that required by the ordinary laws governing the defence force. An emergency measure may be disapproved by the National Assembly, in which case it lapses, and no emergency measure may interfere with the elections, powers or sittings of Parliament or the provincial legislatures. The courts have the power to determine the validity of any emergency measure.
The constitution places strict limits on any detention without trial during a state of emergency. A friend or family member of the detainee must be informed, and the name and place of detention must be published in the Government Gazette. The detainee must have access to a doctor and a legal representative. He or she must be brought before a court within at most ten days, for the court to determine whether the detention is necessary, and if not released may demand repeated review every ten days. At the court review the detainee must be allowed legal representation and must be allowed to appear in person. The provisions on detention without trial do not apply to prisoners of war in an international conflict; instead they must be treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions and other international law.
Spain[edit]
In Spain, there are three degrees of state of emergency (estado de emergencia in Spanish): alarma (alarm or alert), excepción (exception[al circumstance]) and sitio (siege). They are named by the constitution, which limits which rights may be suspended, but regulated by the "Ley Orgánica 4/1981" (Organic Law).
On December 4, 2010, the first state of alert was declared following the air traffic controllers strike. It was the first time since the Francisco Franco's regime that a state of emergency was declared.[61]
Sri Lanka[edit]
In Sri Lanka, the President is able to proclaim emergency regulations under the Public Security Ordinance in the constitution in order to preserve public security and public order; suppression of mutiny, riot or civil commotion; or maintenance of supplies and services essential to the life of the community. These regulations last for one month unless confirmed otherwise by Parliament.[62]
Switzerland[edit]
According to Art. 185 of the Swiss Federal Constitution The Federal Council (Bundesrat) can call up in their own competence military personnel of maximum 4000 militia for three weeks to safeguard inner or outer security (called Federal Intervention or Federal Execution, respectively). A larger number of soldiers or of a longer duration is subject to parliamentary decision. For deployments within Switzerland the principle of subsidiarity rules: as a first step, unrest has to be overcome with the aid of cantonal police units.
Syria[edit]
An emergency prevailed in Syria from 1962 to 2011. Originally predicated on the conflict with Israel, the emergency acted to centralize authority in the presidency and the national security apparatus while silencing public dissent. The emergency was terminated in response to protests that preceded the Syrian Civil War. Under the 2012 constitution, the president may pass an emergency decree with a 2/3 concurrence of his ministers, provided that he presents it to the legislature for constitutional review.
Trinidad and Tobago[edit]
A state of emergency was declared in 1970 during the Black Power Revolution by then Prime Minister Eric Williams. During the attempted state coup by the Jamaat al Muslimeen against the NAR government of the then Prime Minister A. N. R. Robinson,[63][64] a state of emergency was declared during the coup attempt and for a period after the coup.
On August 4, 1995, a state of emergency was declared to remove the Speaker of the House Occah Seepaul by Prime Minister Patrick Manning during a constitutional crisis.[65] The government had attempted to remove the speaker via a no-confidence motion, which failed. The state of emergency was used to remove the speaker using the emergency powers granted.[66]
The Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar announced a state of emergency on 22 August 2011 at 8:00 pm in an attempt to crack down on the trafficking of illegal drugs and firearms, in addition to gangs. The decision of the President, George Maxwell Richards, to issue the proclamation for the state of emergency was debated in the country's Parliament as required by the Constitution on September 2, 2011 and passed by the required simple majority of the House of Representatives. On September 4 the Parliament extended the state of emergency for a further 3 months. It ended in December 2011.
Turkey[edit]
Main article: Martial law and state of emergency in Turkey
Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 the military conducted three coups d'état and announced martial law. Martial law between 1978 and 1983 was replaced by a state of emergency that lasted until November 2002. The latest state of emergency was declared by President Erdogan on 20 July 2016 following a failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016 by a faction of the country's armed forces.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, only the British Sovereign, on the advice of the Privy Council is able to proclaim emergency regulations under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 in case of any seriously fatal threats to their human welfare, their human society, and their environment, such as warfare or terrorism. These regulations last for seven days unless confirmed otherwise by Parliament. A state of emergency was last invoked in 1974 by Prime Minister Edward Heath in response to increasing industrial action.
United States[edit]
Further information: Senate Report 93-549, Insurrection Act, and National Emergencies Act
The Constitution explicitly provides some emergency powers:
Congress may authorize the government to call forth the militia to execute the laws, suppress an insurrection or repel an invasion.
Congress may authorize the government to suspend consideration of writs of habeas corpus "when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it."
Felony charges may be brought without presentment or grand jury indictment in cases arising "in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger."
A state government may engage in war without Congress's approval if "actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay."
Aside from these, many provisions of law exist in various jurisdictions, which take effect only upon an executive declaration of emergency; some 500 federal laws take effect upon a presidential declaration of emergency. The National Emergencies Act regulates this process at the federal level. It requires the President to specifically identify the provisions activated and to renew the declaration annually so as to prevent an arbitrarily broad or open-ended emergency. Presidents have occasionally taken action justified as necessary or prudent because of a state of emergency, only to have the action struck down in court as unconstitutional.[67]
A state governor or local mayor may declare a state of emergency within his or her jurisdiction. This is common at the state level in response to natural disasters. The Federal Emergency Management Agency maintains a system of assets, personnel and training to respond to such incidents. For example, on December 10, 2015, Washington state Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency due to flooding and landslides caused by heavy rains.[68]
The 1977 International Emergency Economic Powers Act allows the government to freeze assets, limit trade and confiscate property in response to an "unusual and extraordinary threat" to the United States that originates substantially outside of it. As of 2015 more than twenty emergencies under the IEEPA remain active regarding various subjects, the oldest of which was declared in 1979 with regard to the government of Iran. Another ongoing national emergency, declared after the September 11 attacks, authorizes the president to retain or reactivate military personnel beyond their normal term of service.[69]
Examples[edit]
Ongoing[edit]
In July 2018, Greece has declared a state of emergency following the ongoing Attica wildfires. [70]
In February 2018 Ethiopia has declared a 6 months long state of emergency following the resignation of Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn.[71]
On February 5, 2018, a state of emergency was declared by Maldives's President Abdulla Yameen for 15 days and ordered security forces into the supreme court and arrested a former president and supreme court Judge. The emergency was later extended by 30 days.[72]
Due to flooding/ice jam in Kent, Connecticut, a state of emergency was declared in the Town of Kent on 15 January 2018.[73]
Due to winter pollution in NCR Delhi, India, Delhi government declared a state of public emergency on 7 November 2017.
Due to Winter Storm Grayson, on January 3, 2018, the North Carolina Governor, Roy Cooper, Georgia Governor, Nathan Deal, and Virginia Governor, Terry McAuliffe all declared state of emergencies for their states.
Due to Winter Storm Grayson, on January 4, 2018, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie declared a state of emergency for New Jersey.
Due to ongoing wildfires in the Columbia River Gorge in Oregon, Multnomah County, has declared a state of emergency and parts of eastern Multnomah County have been evacuated due to the situation.
Following the 2017 Palm Sunday church bombings in Egypt, President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi declared a nationwide three-month-long state of emergency.[74]
The United States declared a national emergency on September 14, 2001 in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks that remains in effect.[75] This emergency proclamation suspends certain provisions of law that limit the size of the military and the duration of military service. Former Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama, and current President Donald Trump, have chosen to extend the duration of the proclamation each year following its original declaration. Currently, the proclamation will remain in effect until September 14, 2018, unless it is extended again by President Trump.[76]
Myanmar declared a state of emergency in Meiktila due to ongoing sectarian violence.[77]
Crimea declared a state of emergency after pylons in Ukraine were blown up leaving 1,896,000 people without power.
In 2016, Venezuela declared a state of emergency due to the mass protests, further fueled by the impeachment process against Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff which President Nicolas Maduro believes is the result of an American conspiracy to overthrow him.[78][79][80]
Since 1948, Israel has been subject to a State of Emergency. Despite the conditions leading to its impositions having vanished, provisions of Israeli law, including those that impact on the day-to-day lives of Israeli citizens (such as allowing employers to allow work beyond normal hours outside certain sectors) have depended on the State of Emergency being in force.
Past states of emergency[edit]
In March a state of emergency was imposed in Sri Lanka in the city of Kandy for a period of 10 days following clashes between Sinhalese and Muslims.[81]
On September 9, 2017, a state of emergency was declared by Alabama's governor in preparation for Hurricane Irma.
On September 4, 2017, a state of emergency was declared for 67 counties in the U.S. state of Florida in advance of Hurricane Irma.
On August 23, 2017, a state of emergency was declared for 30 counties in the U.S state of Texas in advance of Hurricane Harvey.
On August 12, 2017, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S state of Virginia due to escalating tensions amid protesters and counter-protesters in Charlottesville.[82]
On September 22, 2016, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico after an islandwide blackout that begun on September 21, 2016.
On September 21, 2016, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S state of North Carolina for riots in Charlotte after a police shooting of a black male.
On September 4, 2016, a state of emergency was declared in the Philippines by President Rodrigo Duterte following the September 2 bombings in Davao City that killed 14 people and seriously wounded at least 60 others.
On September 2, 2016, State of Emergency was declared for parts of Florida and Georgia in advance of Hurricane Hermine.
On 12 June 2016, following the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting in which at least 50 people were killed (including the shooter), the Governor of Florida declared a state of emergency in the immediate Orlando area.[83]
France declared a state of emergency in response to the November 2015 Paris attacks which after five extensions ended in November 2017.[84]
The U.S state of Maryland declared a state of emergency and activated the National Guard of the United States on April 27, 2015, as a direct result of the rioting and widespread physical violence during protesting in Baltimore due to the Death of Freddie Gray.
Egypt had been under a nearly-continuous state of emergency since 1967 (interrupted for 18 months in 1980–81); the People's Assembly renews it every two to three years.[15][17][85] The state of emergency, expired May 31, 2012.[86]
Tunisia declared state of emergency January 2011, following unrest from economic issues.[87]
November 28, 2011 – Slovakia declared a state of emergency for numerous hospitals, due to mass medicare workers resignation.[88]
March 15, 2011 – Bahrain declared a state of emergency on 15 March 2011 and asked the military to reassert its control over the capital, Manama, as clashes between Shia and Sunni groups spread across the country. Bahrain has been gripped by deepening political unrest and widespread protests for over a month, with the Shia majority and some Sunni liberals calling for democracy and an end to discrimination.[89]
September 30, 2010 – A state of emergency was declared in Ecuador due to a coup by armed forces.
April 11, 2009 – Thailand's Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva declared a state of emergency in the areas of Pattaya and Chonburi, in response to anti-government protestors breaking into the conference center of a hotel complex in the sea-side resort city of Pattaya, in the then-venue site of the ASEAN was being held, immediately resulting in its cancellation.[90] Another state of emergency on April 12, 2009, was announced in Bangkok and the surrounding areas, due to an heightened escalation of tension between the government and anti-government protesters, but was later lifted.[91]
January 2009 – Slovakia was in a state of emergency due to natural gas supply shortage.
January 11, 2007 – Bangladesh was in a state of emergency due to electoral violence. This ended on December 16, 2008, when new parliamentary elections were organized.
November 26, 2008 - In Maharashtra state, India, Maharashtra Government declared a state of Emergency following the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
September 2, 2008 – A state of emergency was declared in Bangkok by Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej following civil unrest; it was lifted on September 14, 2008.
July 1, 2008 – Mongolian president Nambaryn Enkhbayar declared a state of emergency in the capital Ulaanbaatar for four days after violent protests against the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP had claimed a majority of seats in the 2008 parliamentary elections, but was accused of fraud and vote rigging by the less-successful parties.[92]
March 2008 – Armenia was in a state of emergency from March 2, 2008 to March 20, 2008, declared by President Robert Kocharyan in response to protests over the 2008 Armenian presidential elections.[93]
November 3, 2007 – Pakistan was in a state of emergency from November 3, 2007 to December 15, 2007. President Pervez Musharraf declared emergency "to stop Pakistan from committing suicide". He lifted the state of emergency after he resigned from the army and took the oath of office as a civilian President of Pakistan.
February 24, 2006 – the Philippines declared a state of emergency via Philippine Proclamation 1017 for one week until Philippine Proclamation 1021, in response to a supposed coup against President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo's government in the midst of the 20th anniversary of the 1986 People Power Revolution that toppled the rule of Ferdinand Marcos.
Main article: 2006 state of emergency in the Philippines
Mid-August 2005 – Sucumbios and Orellana, two provinces of Ecuador, because of indigenous protests against oil firms
April 15, 2005 – Quito, capital of Ecuador due to protests; lifted less than a day later, on April 17, 2005.
December 2004 – Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Maldives because of the tsunami.
November 2003 – Georgia, following weeks of civil unrest.
August 2003 – Michigan, Ohio, New York, United States, and Ontario, Canada, in response to the 2003 North America blackout.
March 2003 – Serbia after assassination of Zoran Đinđić (vanredno stanje).
July 2002 – Paraguay, in response to public unrest.
November 2001 – Nepal, in response to increased guerrilla activity.
November 30, 1999 – The U.S city of Seattle, Washington, stemming from protest of the WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 and police reaction to it.
Main article: 1999 Seattle WTO protests
May–June 1998 – Indonesia declares state of emergency, due to May 1998 riots of Indonesia.
March 2, 1997 – The 1997 unrest in Albania, also known as the Lottery Uprising or Anarchy in Albania, was an uprising sparked by Ponzi scheme failures. Albania descended into anarchy and violence in which the government was toppled and some 2,000 people were killed. On March 1, Prime Minister Aleksandër Meksi resigned and on March 2 President Sali Berisha declared a state of emergency.
Main article: 1997 rebellion in Albania
August 5, 1995 – Trinidad and Tobago to remove Speaker of the House Occah Seapaul who refused to resign.[94]
Winter 1995 – The U.S city of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan after a severe snowstorm buried the city in 6 feet (1.8 m) of snow.
April–May 1992 – California, United States. State of Emergency was declared in response of the 1992 Los Angeles riots. After Rodney King was video taped being beaten by White police men, that was acquitted by jury at trial.
March 1992 – Republic of Moldova, in response to War of Transnistria
1992 to 2011 – Algeria endures a 19-year state of emergency enacted at the beginning of the 1992 coup. The state of emergency, which suspended citizens' rights in lieu of military power, was lifted after the Algerian Government gave in to protestor demands during the 2011 Arab Spring.[8]
August 1991 – Soviet Union, enemies of Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms evoked the state of emergency because Gorbachev, according to them, was destroying both communism and the state itself. The leader of the coup was Gennady Yanayev.
July–August 1990 – Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency when a group stormed Parliament and a TV Station holding government officials, including the Prime Minister at ransom. See Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt
July 1985 to February 1990 – South Africa, in response to increasing civil unrest and township violence opposing apartheid rule.
1975 to 1977 – India, Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency in 1975 in response to political opposition and her own conviction on charges of electoral fraud. The Emergency lasted for 19 months
1972 to 1976 – Mauritius, due to ethnic and labor-related unrest. Elections were suspended during this period, and political rights were broadly circumscribed.
1971 – Queensland, Australia in response to fears over increasing protest over the 1971 Springbok tour
1970 to 1972 – Trinidad and Tobago a state of emergency was declared to deal with the Black Power Revolution which also included a mutiny in the Military.
1972 – the United Kingdom in response to increasingly militant industrial action.
October 1970 – Quebec in response to the October Crisis kidnappings of government officials.
July 1967 – Detroit, United States in response to the 12th Street riot started on Sunday morning during a blind pig raid.
October 1962 – United States in response to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
1963 to 2011 – Syria during the Arab–Israeli conflict.
1948 to 1960 – Malayan Emergency in Malaysia and Singapore
1958 – Malta due to riots against the British colonial government following Prime Minister Dom Mintoff's resignation.
1950 to 1978 – United States due to the Cold War, specifically the threat of "world conquest by communist imperialism."[95]
1939 to 1952 – United States due to World War II
1941 to 1942 – Moscow due to the German advance to within 19 miles (31 km) of the city
March 18, 1907 – Moldavia and Wallachia in Romania during the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ (in French) D. Prémont, C. Stenersen, I. Oseredczuk, Bruylant, Brussels, Droits intangibles et états d'exception[fr.] 1996, 644p., ISBN 2-8027-0766-3, Éditions Bruylant
Jump up ^ Article 4, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Jump up ^ (in Italian) Declaratoria dello stato di emergenza e Consiglio supremo di difesa Nuovi studi politici, gennaio-giugno 2005, n. 1/2, p. 107.
Jump up ^ See Judson, 2012, "Where is R2P grounded in international law[permanent dead link]".
Jump up ^ European Convention on Human Rights, Article 15
Jump up ^ American Convention on Human Rights, Article 27
Jump up ^ Agamben 2005
^ Jump up to: a b "Algeria's state of emergency to be lifted 'imminently'". BBC News. 2011-02-22. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "State of emergency in Argentina and other Spanish-speaking countries (in Spanish)". Derecho.laguia2000.com. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "Emergencies Act". Laws.justice.gc.ca. Archived from the original on January 5, 2011. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "Emergencies Act". Laws.justice.gc.ca. Archived from the original on January 5, 2011. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "State of Emergency FAQ". Cbc.ca. 2003-08-07. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "The Danish police law — law number 444 of June 9, 2004". Retsinformation.dk. 2004-09-21. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ Politi: De unge klager over racistiske betjente (The police: Youth complain over racist cops), by Andreas Lindqvist, Politiken, February 18, 2008
^ Jump up to: a b Law 1958/162 (Emergency Law) (in Arabic) at EMERglobal Lex, part of the Edinburgh Middle East Report. Retrieved 2010-04-02. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2010-04-02. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Shehata, Samer (March 26, 2004). "Egypt After 9/11: Perceptions of the United States". Contemporary Conflicts. Social Science Research Council. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Al-Ahram Weekly | Egypt | Enough is still enough". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. 2005-09-14. Archived from the original on 2014-09-19. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "Violence flares in Egypt after emergency law imposed". Reuters. 2013-01-28.
Jump up ^ "Egypt lifts unpopular emergency law". CNN. 2012-05-31. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
Jump up ^ "Egypt declares national emergency". BBC News. 2013-08-14.
Jump up ^ "Egypt in state of emergency as clashes leave 278 dead". CBC News. 2013-08-14.
Jump up ^ "Loi n°55-385 du 3 avril 1955 instituant un état d'urgence et en déclarant l'application en Algérie" (in French). Legifrance.gouv.fr. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ Weimar constitution technically remained in effect throughout the Nazi era (1933–1945).
Jump up ^ "Article 28.3.3°". Constitution of Ireland. Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Article 38.4.1°". Constitution of Ireland. Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 2 Jan 2018.
Jump up ^ "Article 40.4.5°". Constitution of Ireland. Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 2 Jan 2018.
Jump up ^ "First Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1939., Section 1". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Second Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1941., Schedule". Irish Statute Book. Ref No.22. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution Act, 2001, Schedule, Part ii". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 31 March 2017. In Article 28.3.3°, to insert "other than Article 15.5.2°" after "Constitution";
Jump up ^ "Proceedings of 2 September 1939". Dáil Éireann debates. pp. Vol.77 cc.1–190. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Emergency Powers Act, 1939". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Supplies and Services (Temporary Provisions) Bill, 1946—Second Stage". Dáil Éireann Debates. 18 June 1946. pp. Vol.101 No.15 p.19 cc.2063–94. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Supplies and Services (Temporary Provisions) Act, 1946 (Continuance) Act, 1957, Section 2". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "National Emergency: Motion". Dáil debates. 31 August 1976. Retrieved 31 March 2017. ; "National Emergency: Motion (Resumed)". Dáil debates. 1 September 1976. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Emergency Powers Act, 1976, Section 2". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
Jump up ^ In re Article 26 and the Emergency Powers Bill 1976 Supreme Court
Jump up ^ "Cessation of State of Emergency: Motion". Dáil debates. 7 February 1995. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Offences Against the State Act, 1939". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 1 April 2017. ; "Offences Against the State (Amendment) Act, 1940". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Longaigh, Seosamh Ó (2006). Emergency Law in Independent Ireland, 1922–1948. Four Courts Press. ISBN 9781851829224.
Jump up ^ "Article 38.3.1°". Constitution of Ireland. Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
Jump up ^ O'Mahony, Paul (2002). Criminal Justice in Ireland. Institute of Public Administration. pp. 7–8. ISBN 9781902448718. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Hederman Report 2002, Chapter 5 generally, especially §§5.28–33
Jump up ^ Davis, Fergal Francis (2007). The History and Development of the Special Criminal Court 1922–2005. Dublin: Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1-84682-013-7.
Jump up ^ "S.I. No. 147/1972 – Offences Against The State Act, 1939 (No. 13 of 1939) Special Criminal Court Rules, 1972". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Davis, Fergal (15 February 2016). "Special Criminal Court is necessary in flawed justice system". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ All-Party Oireachtas Committee on the Constitution (2003). "Article 28.3.3°: state of emergency and time-limit" (PDF). Eighth Progress Report: Government (PDF)|format= requires |url= (help). Official publications. Pn 3795. Dublin: Stationery Office. pp. 16–18. ISBN 0707638585.
Jump up ^ Constitution Review Group (1996). "Report" (PDF). "The Government, §3: whether Article 28.3 should be amended to provide for a limit on the period during which a law enacting a state of emergency continues to have effect and for preserving certain rights during that period" and "Trial of Offences, §4: special courts". Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Hederman Report 2002, Chapter 9 generally, especially §9.44
Jump up ^ Clause 1(A), Article 150, Constitution of Malaysia
Jump up ^ "Malaysia lives under state of emergency — EU envoy". Reuters. November 13, 2007.
Jump up ^ "PM declares haze emergency in Muar and Ledang". theSundaily. 2013-06-23. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
Jump up ^ "Maldives Chief Justice Abdulla Saeed Arrested As President Abdulla Yameen declares state of emergency". NDTV news. 2018-02-06. Retrieved 2018-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Civil Defense Emergency Management Act 2002". Legislation.govt.nz. 2008-10-01. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ "Death toll at 75, national emergency declared". Television New Zealand. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nigeria declares emergency in areas hit by Islamists". Reuters. May 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Boko Haram attacks prompt Nigeria state of emergency". BBC News. January 1, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Silviu Molnar, Security Zone in Pungesti Heavily Criticized by European Greens, Natural Gas Europe, 19 December 2013, Retrieved 23-12-2013
Jump up ^ (in Romanian)Comuna Pungești, declarată „zonă specială de siguranță publică, Adevărul, 19 December 2013, Retrieved 23-12-2013
Jump up ^ Gabriel Petrescu, Chevron Moves Forward in Romania Following Establishment of Special Security Zone, Natural Gas Europe, 14 December 2013, Retrieved 23-12-2013
Jump up ^ Currie, Iain; de Waal, Johan (2005). "Chapter Thirty-three: States of Emergency". The Bill of Rights Handbook (5th ed.). Cape Town: Juta & Company Ltd. pp. 798–806. ISBN 9780702159237.
Jump up ^ "Striking Spain air traffic controllers return to work". BBC. December 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of Sri Lanka" (PDF).
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ "Trinidad and Tobago's Newsday : newsday.co.tt :". Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "World News Briefs; Trinidad House Speaker Put Under House Arrest". Reuters. 5 August 1995. Retrieved 13 May 2016 – via The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1953)
Jump up ^ "Washington gov. declares weather emergency". USA Today. 10 December 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2015.
Jump up ^ US Presidential Proclamation 7463
Jump up ^ https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-44941934
Jump up ^ "Why has Ethiopia imposed a state of emergency?". 21 February 2018 – via www.bbc.com.
Jump up ^ "'Deeply dismayed' over extension of Emergency in Maldives: India - Times of India".
Jump up ^ Rep. Brian M. Ohler (15 January 2018). "Official Release". Instagram. Retrieved 2018-01-19. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Joe Sterling, Sarah Sirgany and Ian Lee (10 April 2017). "Egypt Cabinet OKs state of emergency after Palm Sunday church bombings". CNN. Retrieved 2017-05-26. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "George W. Bush: Proclamation 7463—Declaration of National Emergency by Reason of Certain Terrorist Attacks". www.presidency.ucsb.edu.
Jump up ^ "A permanent emergency: Trump becomes third president to renew extraordinary post-9/11 powers".
Jump up ^ "Burma: State of emergency imposed in Meiktila". BBC News. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Buitrago, Deisy; Ulmer, Alexandra (13 May 2016). "Venezuela president declares emergency, cites U.S., domestic 'threats'". Reuters. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Venezuela president declares 60-day state of emergency, blaming US for instability". The Guardian. 14 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Venezuela president declares emergency, citing U.S. domestic 'threats'". The Telegraph. 14 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
Jump up ^ CNN, Iqbal Amas, Manveena Suri and Steve George,. "Sri Lanka declares state of emergency in wake of communal violence".
Jump up ^ Astor, Maggie; Caron, Christina; Victor, Daniel (13 August 2017). "A Guide to the Charlottesville Aftermath" – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ "State of Florida: Executive order number 16-142" (PDF). Flgov.com. June 12, 2016. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ "France's Macron seeks to extend state of emergency to November - France 24". 24 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Egypt renews tough emergency laws". BBC News. 12 May 2010. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Egypt state of emergency lifted after 31 years". BBC News. May 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Tunisia: Ex-President Ben Ali flees to Saudi Arabia". BBC News. January 15, 2011. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Vláda schválila núdzový stav". Petit Press a.s. 28 November 2011. Retrieved 28 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bahrain Declares State of Emergency". FT. March 15, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Thai protests force Asia summit cancellation". Reuters. April 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ Thai govt declares state of emergency in Bangkok. Reuters. April 12, 2009
Jump up ^ "Mongolia under state of emergency". Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Wikinews:Armenian President Kocharyan declares state of emergency
Jump up ^ "Trinidad House Speaker Put Under House Arrest". Trinidad And Tobago: New York Times. 1995-08-05. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
Jump up ^ Espinoza-Castro v. I.N.S. , 242 F.3d 1181, 30 (2001).
See also[edit]
Law portal
Philosophy portal
Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)
Arbitrary arrest and detention
Continuity of Government Plan
Due process
International humanitarian law
Martial law
Search and seizure
Senate Report 93-549
State of exception
Unitary executive theory
References[edit]
Agamben, Giorgio (2005). State of Exception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-00925-4. . Excerpt online: "A Brief History of the State of Exception".
Barzilai, Gad (1996). Wars, Internal Conflicts, and Political Order. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2943-1. .
Walter Benjamin, Zur Kritik der Gewalt ("Critique of Violence")
Fabbri, Lorenzo. "Chronotopologies of the Exception. Agamben and Derrida before the Camps", "Diacritics," Volume 39, Number 3 (2009): 77–95.
Hederman, Anthony J.; Committee to Review the Offences against the State Acts 1939 to 1998 (August 2002). "Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Carl Schmitt, On Dictatorship and Political Theology
Wolf, Conradin (2005). Ausnahmezustand und Menschenrecht. .
Hussein, Nassar (2003). The Jurisprudence of Emergency. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. .
External links[edit]
United Nations Human Rights Committee, General Comment 29, States of Emergency (article 4), U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11 (2001)
The protection of human rights in emergency situations, PACE report (2009)
Opinion on the protection of human rights in emergency situations, Venice Commission (2006)
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