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Copper
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For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation).
Copper, 29Cu
General properties
Pronunciation
/ˈkɒpər/
KOP-ər
Appearance
red-orange metallic luster
Standard atomic weight (Ar, std)
7001635460000000000♠63.546(3)[1]
Copper in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Cu
↓
Ag
nickel ← copper → zinc
Atomic number (Z)
29
Group, period
group 11, period 4
Block
d-block
Element category
transition metal
Electron configuration
[Ar] 3d10 4s1
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase (at STP)
solid
Melting point
1357.77 K (1084.62 °C, 1984.32 °F)
Boiling point
2835 K (2562 °C, 4643 °F)
Density (near r.t.)
8.96 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)
8.02 g/cm3
Heat of fusion
13.26 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
300.4 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
24.440 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at T (K)
1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
−2, +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.90
Ionization energies
1st: 745.5 kJ/mol
2nd: 1957.9 kJ/mol
3rd: 3555 kJ/mol
(more)
Atomic radius
empirical: 128 pm
Covalent radius
132±4 pm
Van der Waals radius
140 pm
Spectral lines
Miscellanea
Crystal structure
face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod
(annealed)
3810 m/s (at r.t.)
Thermal expansion
16.5 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity
401 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity
16.78 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering
diamagnetic[2]
Magnetic susceptibility
−5.46·10−6 cm3/mol[3]
Young's modulus
110–128 GPa
Shear modulus
48 GPa
Bulk modulus
140 GPa
Poisson ratio
0.34
Mohs hardness
3.0
Vickers hardness
343–369 MPa
Brinell hardness
235–878 MPa
CAS Number
7440-50-8
History
Naming
after Cyprus, principal mining place in Roman era (Cyprium)
Discovery
Middle East (9000 BC)
Main isotopes of copper
Isotope
Abundance
Half-life (t1/2)
Decay mode
Product
63Cu
69.15% stable
64Cu
syn 12.70 h ε 64Ni
β− 64Zn
65Cu
30.85% stable
67Cu
syn 61.83 h β− 67Zn
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.
Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form (native metals) as opposed to needing extraction from an ore. This led to very early human use, from c. 8000 BC. It was the first metal to be smelted from its ore, c. 5000 BC, the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC and the first metal to be purposefully alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC.[4]
In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, the origin of the name of the metal, from aes сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted to сuprum, from which the words copper (English), cuivre (French), Koper (Dutch) and Kupfer (German) are all derived.[5] The commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite, malachite, and turquoise, and have been used widely and historically as pigments. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris (or patina). Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives.
Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, and bone.[6] The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
1.1 Physical
1.2 Chemical
1.3 Isotopes
1.4 Occurrence
2 Production
2.1 Reserves
2.2 Methods
2.3 Recycling
3 Alloys
4 Compounds
4.1 Binary compounds
4.2 Coordination chemistry
4.3 Organocopper chemistry
4.4 Copper(III) and copper(IV)
5 History
5.1 Copper Age
5.2 Bronze Age
5.3 Antiquity and Middle Ages
5.4 Modern period
6 Applications
6.1 Wire and cable
6.2 Electronics and related devices
6.3 Electric motors
6.4 Architecture
6.5 Antibiofouling applications
6.6 Antimicrobial applications
6.7 Folk medicine
6.7.1 Compression clothing
6.8 Other uses
7 Degradation
8 Biological role
8.1 Dietary needs
8.2 Dietary recommendations
8.3 Copper-based disorders
8.4 Human exposure
9 See also
10 References
11 Notes
12 Further reading
13 External links
Characteristics
Physical
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by continuous casting; etched to reveal crystallites.
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange incandescence color.
Copper, silver, and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-electron shell and are characterized by high ductility, and electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper.[8] At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms.[9]
The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity (59.6×106 S/m) and high thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room temperature.[10] This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak in a soft metal.[8] The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, above which it begins to heat excessively.[11]
Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver.[12] Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells corresponds to orange light.
As with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.[13]
Chemical
Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).
The East Tower of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. The contrast between the refurbished copper installed in 2010 and the green color of the original 1894 copper is clearly seen.
Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion (passivation). A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings[14] and the Statue of Liberty.[15] Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides.[16]
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of copper
There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have a spin of 3⁄2.[17] The other isotopes are radioactive, with the most stable being 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours.[17] Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized; 68mCu is the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β−, whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β+. 64Cu, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.[18]
62Cu and 64Cu have significant applications. 62Cu is used in 62Cu-PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography.[19]
Occurrence
Native copper from the Keweenaw Peninsula Michigan about 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) long
Copper is produced in massive stars[20] and is present in the Earth's crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million (ppm).[21] It occurs as native copper, in the copper sulfides chalcopyrite and chalcocite, in the copper carbonates azurite and malachite, and in the copper(I) oxide mineral cuprite.[10] The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US.[21] Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4.4×3.2×3.2 cm.[22]
Production
Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the world's largest open pit copper mines.
World production trend
Copper prices 2003–2011 in USD per tonne
See also: List of countries by copper production
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah, United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico, United States. According to the British Geological Survey in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru.[10] Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method.[23] The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.[24]
Reserves
See also: Peak copper § Reserves
Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900,[25] and more than half was extracted the last 24 years. As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast, with around 1014 tons in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, which is about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction. However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present-day prices and technologies. Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.[26] Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world.[25] Because of these and other factors, the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate, including the concept of peak copper, analogous to peak oil.
The price of copper has historically been unstable,[27] and it sextupled from the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped to US$2.40/lb (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded to US$3.50/lb (US$7.71/kg) in April 2007.[28][better source needed] In February 2009, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs left copper prices at US$1.51/lb (US$3.32/kg).[29]
Methods
Main article: Copper extraction techniques
Scheme of flash smelting process
The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most commercial ores are sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and to a lesser extent chalcocite (Cu2S).[30] These minerals are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 10–15% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching.[31] Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into oxides, which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag that floats on top of the heated mass. The resulting copper matte, consisting of Cu2S, is roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides:[30]
2 Cu2S + 3 O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2
The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating:
2 Cu2O → 4 Cu + O2
The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of the sulfur as oxide. It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold it contained. This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper:[32]
Cu2+ + 2 e− → Cu
Flowchart of copper refining (Anode casting plant of Uralelektromed)
Blister copper
Smelting
Reverberatory furnace
Slag removal
Copper casting of anodes
Casting wheel
Anodes removal machine
Anodes take-off
Rail cars
Transportation to the tank house
Recycling
Like aluminium,[33] copper is recyclable without any loss of quality, both from raw state and from manufactured products.[34] In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium.[35] An estimated 80% of all copper ever mined is still in use today.[36] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita).
The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High-purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots; lower-purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.[37]
Alloys
See also: List of copper alloys
Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the most important constituents of silver and carat gold and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.[38] Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals.[39]
The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US 5-cent coin (currently called a nickel) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in homogeneous composition. The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel, remarkable for its resistance to corrosion, is used for various objects exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries.[40] Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in decorations.[21] Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be patinated to a dark blue or black color.[41]
Compounds
A sample of copper(I) oxide.
See also: Category:Copper compounds
Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric, respectively.[42]
Binary compounds
As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides. Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, important examples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.
Cuprous halides (with chlorine, bromine, and iodine) are known, as are cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide yield only cuprous iodide and iodine.[42]
2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → 2 CuI + I2
Coordination chemistry
Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in the presence of ammonia ligands. The one used here is tetramminecopper(II) sulfate.
Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands. In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H2O)6]2+. This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex. Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplified equation is:
Pourbaix diagram for copper in uncomplexed media (anions not other than OH- considered). Ion concentration 0.001 m (mol/kg water). Temperature 25 °C.
Cu2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(OH)2
Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II):
Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 → [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ + 2 H2O + 2 OH−
Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture.[43]
Ball-and-stick model of the complex [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+, illustrating the octahedral coordination geometry common for copper(II).
Polyols, compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group, generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars. Specifically, using Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of the sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide.[44] Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose.[45] Amino acids form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II). Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper(II) salts.
Organocopper chemistry
Main article: Organocopper compound
Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents;[46] in particular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling[47] and the Sonogashira coupling.[48] Conjugate addition to enones[49] and carbocupration of alkynes[50] can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.[51]
Copper(III) and copper(IV)
Copper(III) is most often found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate, KCuO2, a blue-black solid.[52] The most extensively studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors. Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride is a highly basic anion[53] and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known, K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6, respectively.[42]
Some copper proteins form oxo complexes, which also feature copper(III).[54] With tetrapeptides, purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.[55]
Complexes of copper(III) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds.[56] For example, in the Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction.
History
Copper Age
Main article: Copper Age
A corroded copper ingot from Zakros, Crete, shaped in the form of an animal skin typical in that era.
Many tools during the Chalcolithic Era included copper, such as the blade of this replica of Ötzi's axe
Copper ore (chrysocolla) in Cambrian sandstone from Chalcolithic mines in the Timna Valley, southern Israel.
Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record. The history of copper use dates to 9000 BC in the Middle East;[57] a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC.[58] Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron (but not iron smelting) were the only metals used by humans before copper.[59] The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence: First, cold working of native copper, then annealing, smelting, and, finally, lost-wax casting. In southeastern Anatolia, all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic c. 7500 BC.[60]
Copper smelting was independently invented in different places. It was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD.[61] Investment casting was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia[57] and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire, UK, at 2280 to 1890 BC.[62] Ötzi the Iceman, a male dated from 3300–3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting.[63] Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.[63] Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC.[64][65] Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC.[citation needed]
Bronze Age
Main article: Bronze Age
Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use.[citation needed] Bronze artifacts from the Vinča culture date to 4500 BC.[66] Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC.[67] The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000 BC in the Near East, and 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), when copper tools were used with stone tools. The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world, the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.[67]
Antiquity and Middle Ages
In alchemy the symbol for copper was also the symbol for the goddess and planet Venus.
Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel.
In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (χαλκός). It was an important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where much copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the English copper. Aphrodite (Venus in Rome) represented copper in mythology and alchemy because of its lustrous beauty and its ancient use in producing mirrors; Cyprus was sacred to the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.[68]
Copper was first used in ancient Britain in about the 3rd or 2nd Century BC. In North America, copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.[69] Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around 1000 AD. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early 20th century.
The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.[70][71]
The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze treated with depletion gilding.[clarification needed][citation needed] The process was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun.[72] In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later to treat headaches, burns, and itching.
Modern period
Acid mine drainage affecting the stream running from the disused Parys Mountain copper mines
The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that operated from the 10th century to 1992. It satisfied two thirds of Europe's copper consumption in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden's wars during that time.[73] It was referred to as the nation's treasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.[74]
Copper is used in roofing,[14] currency, and for photographic technology known as the daguerreotype. Copper was used in Renaissance sculpture, and was used to construct the Statue of Liberty; copper continues to be used in construction of various types. Copper plating and copper sheathing were widely used to protect the under-water hulls of ships, a technique pioneered by the British Admiralty in the 18th century.[75] The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant, starting its production in 1876.[76] The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic mass; around then it was discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g., tin) to copper would affect bell tones. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficient process accounts for 50% of the world's primary copper production.[77]
The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 by Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia, operated in the copper market as OPEC does in oil, though it never achieved the same influence, particularly because the second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.[78]
Applications
See also: Copper in renewable energy
Assorted copper fittings
The major applications of copper are electrical wire (60%), roofing and plumbing (20%), and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is used mostly as a pure metal, but when greater hardness is required, it is put into such alloys as brass and bronze (5% of total use).[21] For more than two centuries, copper paint has been used on boat hulls to control the growth of plants and shellfish.[79] A small part of the copper supply is used for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture.[43][80] Machining of copper is possible, although alloys are preferred for good machinability in creating intricate parts.
Wire and cable
Main article: Copper wire and cable
Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead electric power transmission where aluminium is often preferred.[81][82] Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment.[83] Electrical wiring is the most important market for the copper industry.[84] This includes structural power wiring, power distribution cable, appliance wire, communications cable, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors.[85] Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, ease of soldering, malleability, and ease of installation.
For a short period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s, copper wiring was replaced by aluminium wiring in many housing construction projects in America. The new wiring was implicated in a number of house fires and the industry returned to copper.[86][87]
Electronics and related devices
Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a large building
Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity; heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper because of its superior heat dissipation properties. Electromagnets, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper, as do waveguides for microwave radiation.[88]
Electric motors
Copper's superior conductivity enhances the efficiency of electrical motors.[89] This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for 43%–46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.[90] Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the efficiency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives,[91][92] are enabling general-purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency standards.[93]
Architecture
Main article: Copper in architecture
Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coated with patina
Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant
Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable, corrosion resistant, and weatherproof architectural material.[94][95][96][97] Roofs, flashings, rain gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, and doors have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years. Copper's architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding, building expansion joints, radio frequency shielding, and antimicrobial and decorative indoor products such as attractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some of copper's other important benefits as an architectural material include low thermal movement, light weight, lightning protection, and recyclability.
The metal's distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers. The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering.[98][99][100] It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.[101][102][103][104] Architectural copper and its alloys can also be 'finished' to embark a particular look, feel, and/or color. Finishes include mechanical surface treatments, chemical coloring, and coatings.[105]
Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can be welded; the best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.[106]
Antibiofouling applications
Main articles: Copper alloys in aquaculture and Copper sheathing
Copper is biostatic, meaning bacteria and many other forms of life will not grow on it. For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels. It was originally used pure, but has since been superseded by Muntz metal and copper-based paint. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become important netting materials in the aquaculture industry because they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions[107] and have strong structural and corrosion-resistant[108] properties in marine environments.
Antimicrobial applications
Main articles: Antimicrobial properties of copper and Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces
Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural properties that destroy a wide range of microorganisms (e.g., E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi).[109] Some 355 copper alloys[clarification needed] were proven to kill more than 99.9% of disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly.[110] The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as "antimicrobial materials with public health benefits";[110] that approval allows manufacturers to make legal claims to the public health benefits of products made of registered alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys, such as bedrails, handrails, over-bed tables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware, computer keyboards, health club equipment, and shopping cart handles (for a comprehensive list, see: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approved products). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems.[111] Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil[citation needed] and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 2011 and 2014.[112][113][114]
Folk medicine
Copper is commonly used in jewelry, and according to some folklore, copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms.[115] In one trial for osteoarthritis and one trial for rheumatoid arthritis no differences is found between copper bracelet and control (non-copper) bracelet.[116][117] No evidence shows that copper can be absorbed through the skin. If it were, it might lead to copper poisoning.[118]
Compression clothing
Recently, some compression clothing with inter-woven copper has been marketed with health claims similar to the folk medicine claims. Because compression clothing is a valid treatment for some ailments, the clothing may have that benefit, but the added copper may have no benefit beyond a placebo effect.[119]
Other uses
This section may contain content that is repetitive or redundant of text elsewhere in the article. Please help improve it by merging similar text or removing repeated statements. (June 2017)
Solutions of copper compounds are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating the original portion of structures during restoration of dry rot damage. Together with zinc, copper wires may be installed over non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss.[citation needed] Textile fibers are blended with copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics.[120][121] Copper alloys are used in musical instruments, particularly: the body of brass instruments; circuitry for all those that are electronically amplified; the bodies of brass percussion such as gongs, bells, and kettle drums; tuning heads on guitars and other string instruments; string windings on harps, pianos, harpsichords, and string instruments; and the frame elements of pianos and harps. Copper is commonly used as a base on which other metals such as nickel are electroplated.
Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver, used in the museum materials testing procedure called the Oddy test to detect chlorides, oxides, and sulfur compounds.
Copper is used as the printing plate in etching, engraving and other forms of intaglio printmaking.
Copper oxide and carbonate are used add color in stain glass works, in glassmaking, and in ceramic glazes to impart turquoise blue, green, and brown colors.
Copper is used to create stills for distilling spirits, for example to make whisky. It's malleability makes it easy to bend into the various shapes required and allows considerable flexibility in the shaping of the still and associated pipework; the metal also reacts with undesirable sulfur-containing components in the vapor and distillate making for a cleaner product.
Degradation
Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas fluorescens can both mobilize solid copper as a cyanide compound.[122] The ericoid mycorrhizal fungi associated with Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in metalliferous soils containing copper.[122] The ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity. A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution and was found to contain cyano complexes of such metals as gold, silver, copper, iron, and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides.[123]
Biological role
Main article: Copper in health
Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados, and wheat bran.
Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport and oxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy interconversion of Cu(I) and Cu(II).[124][125][126] [127] The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in earth's atmosphere.[128]
Copper is essential in the aerobic respiration of all eukaryotes. In mitochondria, it is found in cytochrome c oxidase, which is the last protein in oxidative phosphorylation. Cytochrome c oxidase is the protein that binds the O2 between a copper and an iron; the protein transfers 8 electrons to the O2 molecule to reduce it to two molecules of water.
Copper is also found in many superoxide dismutases, proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides by converting it (by disproportionation) to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide:
2 HO2 → H2O2 + O2
The protein hemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).[129] Because hemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood rather than the red blood of iron-based hemoglobin. Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases. Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylate substrates, illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers.[127]
Several copper proteins, such as the "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates, hence they are not enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer.[127]
Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoid membrane. A central link in this chain is plastocyanin, a blue copper protein.
A unique tetranuclear copper center has been found in nitrous-oxide reductase.[130]
Dietary needs
Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals, but not all microorganisms. The human body contains copper at a level of about 1.4 to 2.1 mg per kg of body mass.[131] Copper is absorbed in the gut, then transported to the liver bound to albumin.[132] After processing in the liver, copper is distributed to other tissues in a second phase, which involves the protein ceruloplasmin, carrying the majority of copper in blood. Ceruloplasmin also carries the copper that is excreted in milk, and is particularly well-absorbed as a copper source.[133] Copper in the body normally undergoes enterohepatic circulation (about 5 mg a day, vs. about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body), and the body is able to excrete some excess copper, if needed, via bile, which carries some copper out of the liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine.[134][135]
Dietary recommendations
The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated the estimated average requirements (EARs) and recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for copper in 2001. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EAR for copper for people age 14 and older is 0.7 mg/day. The RDA is 0.9 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. The RDA for pregnancy is 1.0 mg/day. RDA for lactation is 1.3 mg/day. For infants up to 12 months, AI is 0.22 mg/day. For children age 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 0.34 to 0.7 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM also sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of copper the UL is set at 10 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes.[136]
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women and men ages 18 and older the AIs are set at 1.3 and 1.6 mg/day, respectively. AIs for pregnancy and lactation is 1.5 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years the AIs increase with age from 0.7 tp 1.3 mg/day. These AIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs.[137] The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 5 mg/day, which is half the U.S. value.[138]
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For copper labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 2.0 mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 0.9 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA.[139] A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017 the FDA released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies.[140]
Copper-based disorders
Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia, bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, hyperthyroidism, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism. Conversely, Wilson's disease causes an accumulation of copper in body tissues.
Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The "cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets" has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but the results have not been confirmed by replication.[141]
NFPA 704
fire diamond
0
2
0
Fire diamond for copper metal
Main article: Copper toxicity
Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA.[142][143] Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals.[144] A minimum dietary value for healthy growth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet.[145] However, higher concentrations of copper (100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growth rates, and carcass dressing percentages.[146]
Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson's disease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes.[131]
Elevated copper levels have also been linked to worsening symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.[147][148]
Human exposure
In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for copper dust and fumes in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 1 mg/m3. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1 mg/m3, time-weighted average. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 100 mg/m3.[149]
Copper is a constituent of tobacco smoke.[150][151] The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals, such as copper from the surrounding soil into its leaves. These are readily absorbed into the user's body following smoke inhalation.[152] The health implications are not clear.[153]
See also
Copper nanoparticle
Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes
Cold water pitting of copper tube
List of countries by copper production
Metal theft
Operation Tremor
Smelter
Peak copper
Anaconda Copper
Antofagasta PLC
Bingham Canyon Mine
Codelco
Grasberg mine
El Boleo mine
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Jump up ^ Joseph, Günter, 1999, Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, edited by Kundig, Konrad J.A., ASM International, p.348
Jump up ^ "Aluminum Wiring Hazards and Pre-Purchase Inspections.". www.heimer.com. Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Electrical Wiring FAQ (Part 2 of 2)Section - Aluminum wiring". www.faqs.org. Retrieved 2016-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Accelerator: Waveguides (SLAC VVC)". SLAC Virtual Visitor Center. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
Jump up ^ IE3 energy-saving motors, Engineer Live, http://www.engineerlive.com/Design-Engineer/Motors_and_Drives/IE3_energy-saving_motors/22687/
Jump up ^ Energy‐efficiency policy opportunities for electric motor‐driven systems, International Energy Agency, 2011 Working Paper in the Energy Efficiency Series, by Paul Waide and Conrad U. Brunner, OECD/IEA 2011
Jump up ^ Fuchsloch, J. and E.F. Brush, (2007), "Systematic Design Approach for a New Series of Ultra‐NEMA Premium Copper Rotor Motors", in EEMODS 2007 Conference Proceedings, 10–15 June, Beijing.
Jump up ^ Copper motor rotor project; Copper Development Association; "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
Jump up ^ NEMA Premium Motors, The Association of Electrical Equipment and Medical Imaging Manufacturers; "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2 April 2010. Retrieved 2009-10-12.
Jump up ^ Seale, Wayne (2007). The role of copper, brass, and bronze in architecture and design; Metal Architecture, May 2007
Jump up ^ Copper roofing in detail; Copper in Architecture; Copper Development Association, U.K., www.cda.org.uk/arch
Jump up ^ Architecture, European Copper Institute; http://eurocopper.org/copper/copper-architecture.html
Jump up ^ Kronborg completed; Agency for Palaces and Cultural Properties, København, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
Jump up ^ Berg, Jan. "Why did we paint the library's roof?". Archived from the original on 25 June 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Architectural considerations; Copper in Architecture Design Handbook, http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_dhb/fundamentals/arch_considerations.htm
Jump up ^ Peters, Larry E. (2004). Preventing corrosion on copper roofing systems; Professional Roofing, October 2004, http://www.professionalroofing.net
Jump up ^ Oxidation Reaction: Why is the Statue of Liberty Blue-Green? Engage Students in Engineering; www.EngageEngineering.org; Chun Wu, Ph.D., Mount Marty College; Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant No. 083306. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-25.
Jump up ^ Fitzgerald, K. P.; Nairn, J.; Atrens, A. (1998). "The chemistry of copper patination". Corrosion Science. 40 (12): 2029–50. doi:10.1016/S0010-938X(98)00093-6.
Jump up ^ Application Areas: Architecture – Finishes – patina; http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/finishes.html
Jump up ^ Glossary of copper terms, Copper Development Association (UK): "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 20 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-14.
Jump up ^ Finishes – natural weathering; Copper in Architecture Design Handbook, Copper Development Association Inc., "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
Jump up ^ Davis, Joseph R. (2001). Copper and Copper Alloys. ASM International. pp. 3–6, 266. ISBN 0-87170-726-8.
Jump up ^ Edding, Mario E., Flores, Hector, and Miranda, Claudio, (1995), Experimental Usage of Copper-Nickel Alloy Mesh in Mariculture. Part 1: Feasibility of usage in a temperate zone; Part 2: Demonstration of usage in a cold zone; Final report to the International Copper Association Ltd.
Jump up ^ Corrosion Behaviour of Copper Alloys used in Marine Aquaculture. (PDF) . copper.org. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Copper Touch Surfaces. Copper Touch Surfaces. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b EPA registers copper-containing alloy products, May 2008
Jump up ^ Biurrun, Amaya; Caballero, Luis; Pelaz, Carmen; León, Elena; Gago, Alberto (1999). "Treatment of a Legionella pneumophila‐Colonized Water Distribution System Using Copper‐Silver Ionization and Continuous Chlorination". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 20 (6): 426–428. JSTOR 30141645. PMID 10395146. doi:10.1086/501645.
Jump up ^ Chilean subway protected with Antimicrobial Copper – Rail News from Archived 24 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. rail.co. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Codelco to provide antimicrobial copper for new metro lines (Chile)[dead link]. Construpages.com.ve. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.
Jump up ^ PR 811 Chilean Subway Installs Antimicrobial Copper Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. (PDF). antimicrobialcopper.com. Retrieved on 8 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Walker, W. R.; Keats, D. M. (1976). "An investigation of the therapeutic value of the 'copper bracelet'-dermal assimilation of copper in arthritic/rheumatoid conditions". Agents and actions. 6 (4): 454–9. PMID 961545.
Jump up ^ Richmond SJ, Gunadasa S, Bland M, Macpherson H (2013). "Copper bracelets and magnetic wrist straps for rheumatoid arthritis--analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects: a randomised double-blind placebo controlled crossover trial". PLoS ONE. 8 (9): e71529. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...871529R. PMC 3774818  . PMID 24066023. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071529.
Jump up ^ Richmond, Stewart J.; Brown, Sally R.; Campion, Peter D.; Porter, Amanda J. L.; Moffett, Jennifer A. Klaber; Jackson, David A.; Featherstone, Valerie A.; Taylor, Andrew J. (2009). "Therapeutic effects of magnetic and copper bracelets in osteoarthritis: A randomised placebo-controlled crossover trial". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 17 (5–6): 249–256. ISSN 0965-2299. PMID 19942103. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2009.07.002.
Jump up ^ University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences:
Find the Truth Behind Medical Myths Archived 6 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine.

While it's never been proven that copper can be absorbed through the skin by wearing a bracelet, research has shown that excessive copper can result in poisoning, causing vomiting and, in severe cases, liver damage.
Jump up ^ Truth in Advertising
Tommie Copper
Jump up ^ "Copper and Cupron". Cupron. [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Ergowear, Copper antimicrobial yarn technology used in male underwear[unreliable source?]
^ Jump up to: a b Geoffrey Michael Gadd (March 2010). "Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation". Microbiology. 156 (3): 609–643. PMID 20019082. doi:10.1099/mic.0.037143-0.
Jump up ^ Harbhajan Singh (2006-11-17). Mycoremediation: Fungal Bioremediation. p. 509. ISBN 978-0-470-05058-3.
Jump up ^ Vest, Katherine E.; Hashemi, Hayaa F.; Cobine, Paul A. (2013). "Chapter 13 The Copper Metallome in Eukaryotic Cells". In Banci, Lucia. Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 12. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-5560-4. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-10_12. electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1 ISSN 1559-0836 electronic-ISSN 1868-0402
Jump up ^ Vest, Katherine E.; Hashemi, Hayaa F.; Cobine, Paul A. (2013). "Chapter 12 The Copper Metallome in Prokaryotic Cells". In Banci, Lucia. Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 12. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-5560-4. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-10_13. electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1 ISSN 1559-0836 electronic-ISSN 1868-0402
Jump up ^ Yee, Gereon M.; Tolman, William B. (2015). "Chapter 5, Section 4 Dioxygen Activation by Copper Complexes". In Peter M.H. Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres. Sustaining Life on Planet Earth: Metalloenzymes Mastering Dioxygen and Other Chewy Gases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 15. Springer. pp. 175–192. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-12415-5_5.
^ Jump up to: a b c S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg "Principles of bioinorganic chemistry" University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA; 1994. ISBN 0-935702-73-3.
Jump up ^ Decker, H. & Terwilliger, N. (2000). "COPs and Robbers: Putative evolution of copper oxygen-binding proteins". Journal of Experimental Biology. 203 (Pt 12): 1777–1782. PMID 10821735.
Jump up ^ "Fun facts". Horseshoe crab. University of Delaware. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Lisa K.; Wüst, Anja; Pomowski, Anja; Zhang, Lin; Einsle, Oliver (2014). "Chapter 8. No Laughing Matter: The Unmaking of the Greenhouse Gas Dinitrogen Monoxide by Nitrous Oxide Reductase". In Peter M.H. Kroneck; Martha E. Sosa Torres. The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14. Springer. pp. 177–210. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Amount of copper in the normal human body, and other nutritional copper facts". Retrieved 3 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Adelstein, S. J.; Vallee, B. L. (1961). "Copper metabolism in man". New England Journal of Medicine. 265 (18): 892–897. doi:10.1056/NEJM196111022651806.
Jump up ^ M C Linder; Wooten, L.; Cerveza, P.; Cotton, S.; Shulze, R.; Lomeli, N. (1 May 1998). "Copper transport". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 67 (5): 965S–971S. PMID 9587137.
Jump up ^ Frieden, E.; Hsieh, H. S. (1976). "Ceruloplasmin: The copper transport protein with essential oxidase activity". Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology. Advances in Enzymology - and Related Areas of Molecular Biology. 44: 187–236. ISBN 978-0-470-12289-1. JSTOR 20170553. PMID 775938. doi:10.1002/9780470122891.ch6.
Jump up ^ S. S. Percival; Harris, E. D. (1 January 1990). "Copper transport from ceruloplasmin: Characterization of the cellular uptake mechanism". American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology. 258 (1): C140–6. PMID 2301561.
Jump up ^ Copper. IN: Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Copper. National Academy Press. 2001, PP. 224–257.
Jump up ^ "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" (PDF). 2017.
Jump up ^ Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals (PDF), European Food Safety Authority, 2006
Jump up ^ "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982." (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Changes to the Nutrition Facts Panel - Compliance Date"
Jump up ^ Bonham, Maxine; O'Connor, Jacqueline M.; Hannigan, Bernadette M.; Strain, J. J. (2002). "The immune system as a physiological indicator of marginal copper status?". British Journal of Nutrition. 87 (5): 393–403. PMID 12010579. doi:10.1079/BJN2002558.
Jump up ^ Li, Yunbo; Trush, Michael; Yager, James (1994). "DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species originating from a copper-dependent oxidation of the 2-hydroxy catechol of estradiol". Carcinogenesis. 15 (7): 1421–1427. PMID 8033320. doi:10.1093/carcin/15.7.1421.
Jump up ^ Gordon, Starkebaum; John, M. Harlan (April 1986). "Endothelial cell injury due to copper-catalyzed hydrogen peroxide generation from homocysteine". J. Clin. Invest. 77 (4): 1370–6. PMC 424498  . PMID 3514679. doi:10.1172/JCI112442.
Jump up ^ "Pesticide Information Profile for Copper Sulfate". Cornell University. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Hunt, Charles E. & William W. Carlton (1965). "Cardiovascular Lesions Associated with Experimental Copper Deficiency in the Rabbit". Journal of Nutrition. 87 (4): 385–394. PMID 5841854.
Jump up ^ Ayyat M.S.; Marai I.F.M.; Alazab A.M. (1995). "Copper-Protein Nutrition of New Zealand White Rabbits under Egyptian Conditions". World Rabbit Science. 3 (3): 113–118. doi:10.4995/wrs.1995.249.
Jump up ^ Brewer GJ. Copper excess, zinc deficiency, and cognition loss in Alzheimer's disease. BioFactors (Oxford, England). March 2012;38(2):107–113. doi:10.1002/biof.1005. PMID 22438177.
Jump up ^ "Copper: Alzheimer's Disease". Examine.com. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0150". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Jump up ^ OEHHA Copper
Jump up ^ Talhout, Reinskje; Schulz, Thomas; Florek, Ewa; Van Benthem, Jan; Wester, Piet; Opperhuizen, Antoon (2011). "Hazardous Compounds in Tobacco Smoke". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 8 (12): 613–628. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 3084482  . PMID 21556207. doi:10.3390/ijerph8020613.
Jump up ^ Alireza Pourkhabbaz, Hamidreza Pourkhabbaz Investigation of Toxic Metals in the Tobacco of Different Iranian Cigarette Brands and Related Health Issues, Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2012 Jan-Feb; 15(1): 636–644. PMC 3586865
Jump up ^ David Bernhard, Andrea Rossmann, and Georg Wick Metals in Cigarette Smoke, IUBMB Life, 57(12): 805–809, December 2005
Notes
Pourbaix diagrams for copper
in pure water, or acidic or alkali conditions. Copper in neutral water is more noble than hydrogen. in water containing sulfide in 10 M ammonia solution in a chloride solution
Further reading
Massaro, Edward J., ed. (2002). Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press. ISBN 0-89603-943-9.
"Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary) Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology" (PDF). Office of Technology Assessment. 2005.
Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp. 1161–1208(48) Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress
William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction (6th ed.). Wiley, New York. Table 6.1, p. 137. ISBN 0-471-73696-1.
Material: Copper (Cu), bulk, MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse.
Kim BE; Nevitt T; Thiele DJ (2008). "Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and regulation". Nat. Chem. Biol. 4 (3): 176–85. PMID 18277979. doi:10.1038/nchembio.72.
Copper transport disorders: an Instant insight from the Royal Society of Chemistry
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Copper
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Copper.
Look up copper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Copper
Copper at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Copper and compounds fact sheet from the National Pollutant Inventory of Australia
CDC–NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Copper (dusts and mists) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
CDC–NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Copper fume from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Copper.org - official website of the Copper Development Association with an extensive site of properties and uses of copper
Brass.org - also operated by the Copper Development Association; dedicated to brass, a copper alloy.
Price history of copper, according to the IMF
[hide]
v
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Periodic table
(Large cells)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
H He
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
chemical
properties
[show]
v
t
e
Copper compounds
Cu(0,I)
Cu5Si
Cu(I)
CuBr
CuCN
CuCl
CuF
CuH
CuI
Cu2C2
Cu2Cr2O5
Cu2O
CuOH
CuNO3
Cu3P
Cu2S
CuSCN
Cu(II)
Cu(BF4)2
CuBr2
CuC2
Cu(CN)2
CuCO3
CuCl2
CuF2
Cu(NO3)2
Cu3(PO4)2
CuN6
CuO
CuO2
Cu(OH)2
CuI2
CuS
CuSO4
Cu3(AsO4)2
Cu(III)
K3CuF6
Cu2O3
Cu(IV)
Cs2CuF6
Rb2CuF6
[show]
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Native copper (~4 cm in size)

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interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambang
Gambang – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembaga
Tembaga – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupro
Cupro – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopar
Kopar – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rame
Rame – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: נחושת – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembaga
Tembaga – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: სპილენძი – Georgian

values:
https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kober
Kober – Cornish
kw
kw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaba
Shaba – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ыргӧн – Komi

values:
https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutako
Mutako – Kongo
kg
kg
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwiv
Kwiv – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mis
Mis – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values: Дувсси – Lak

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuprum
Cuprum – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var%C5%A1
Varš – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koffer
Koffer – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varis
Varis – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koper
Koper – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaski
Vaski – Livvi-Karelian
olo
olo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/tunka
tunka – Lojban
jbo
jbo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9z
Réz – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konukura
Konukura – Maori
mi
mi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembaga
Tembaga – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: ကြေးနီ – Burmese

values:
https://na.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eborage
Eborage – Nauru
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%85
銅 – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramma
Ramma – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobber
Kobber – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopar
Kopar – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coire
Coire – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values: ତମ୍ବା – Odia

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mis
Mis – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koper
Koper – Papiamento
pap
pap
interlanguage-link-target

values: تامبه – Pashto

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapa
Kapa – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram
Aram – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopper
Kopper – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobre
Cobre – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupru
Cupru – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anta
Anta – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Мідь – Rusyn

values: Алтан (химия элэмиэнэ) – Sakha

values: ताम्रम् – Sanskrit

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capper
Capper – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kooper
Kooper – Saterland Frisian
stq
stq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakri
Bakri – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramu
Ramu – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C4%8F
Meď – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker
Baker – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kober
Kober – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakar
Bakar – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tambaga
Tambaga – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupari
Kupari – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koppar
Koppar – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanso
Tanso – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: செப்பு – Tamil

values: Бакыр – Tatar

values: ทองแดง – Thai

values: تانبا – Urdu

values:
https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doengz
Doengz – Zhuang
za
za
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rame
Rame – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vas%27k
Vas'k – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vask
Vask – Võro
fiu-vro
fiu-vro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbaga
Tumbaga – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%93%9C
铜 – Chinese
zh
zh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwivri
Kwivri – Kabiye
kbp
kbp
interlanguage-link-target

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Copper rootpage-Copper vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view