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Revenue management
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Revenue management is the application of disciplined analytics that predict consumer behaviour at the micro-market level and optimize product availability and price to maximize revenue growth. The primary aim of revenue management is selling the right product to the right customer at the right time for the right price and with the right pack. The essence of this discipline is in understanding customers' perception of product value and accurately aligning product prices, placement and availability with each customer segment.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
2.1 Revenue Management Society ("RMS")
3 Levers
3.1 Pricing
3.2 Inventory
3.3 Marketing
3.4 Channels
4 Process
4.1 Data collection
4.2 Segmentation
4.3 Forecasting
4.4 Optimization
4.5 Dynamic re-evaluation
5 In an organization
6 Developing industries
7 See also
8 References
Overview[edit]
Businesses face important decisions regarding what to sell, when to sell, to whom to sell, and for how much. Revenue management uses data-driven tactics and strategy to answer these questions in order to increase revenue.[2] The discipline of revenue management combines data mining and operations research with strategy, understanding of customer behavior, and partnering with the sales force. Today, the revenue management practitioner must be analytical and detail oriented, yet capable of thinking strategically and managing the relationship with sales.[3]
History[edit]
Before the emergence of revenue management, BOAC (now British Airways) experimented with differentiated fare products by offering capacity controlled "Earlybird" discounts to stimulate demand for seats that would otherwise fly empty.[4] Taking it a step further, Robert Crandall, former Chairman and CEO of American Airlines, pioneered a practice he called yield management, which focused primarily on maximizing revenue through analytics-based inventory control. Under Crandall's leadership, American continued to invest in yield management's forecasting, inventory control and overbooking capabilities. By the early 1980s, the combination of a mild recession and new competition spawned by airline deregulation act (1978) posed an additional threat. Low-cost, low-fare airlines like People Express were growing rapidly because of their ability to charge even less than American's Super Saver fares. After investing millions in the next generation capability which they would call DINAMO (Dynamic Inventory Optimization and Maintenance Optimizer), American announced Ultimate Super Saver Fares in 1985 that were priced lower than the PeoplExpress. These fares were non-refundable in addition to being advance-purchase restricted and capacity controlled. This yield management system targeted those discounts to only those situations where they had a surplus of empty seats. The system and analysts engaged in continual re-evaluation of the placement of the discounts to maximize their use. Over the next year, American's revenue increased 14.5% and its profits were up 47.8%.[1]
Other industries took note of American's success and implemented similar systems. Robert Crandall discussed his success with yield management with J. W. "Bill" Marriott, Jr., CEO of Marriott International. Marriott International had many of the same issues that airlines did: perishable inventory, customers booking in advance, lower cost competition and wide swings with regard to balancing supply and demand. Since "yield" was an airline term and did not necessarily pertain to hotels, Marriott International and others began calling the practice Revenue Management.[1] The company created a Revenue Management organization and invested in automated Revenue Management systems that would provide daily forecasts of demand and make inventory recommendations for each of its 160,000 rooms at its Marriott, Courtyard Marriott and Residence Inn brands.[5] They also created "fenced rate" logic similar to airlines, which would allow them to offer targeted discounts to price sensitive market segments based on demand.[6] To address the additional complexity created by variable lengths-of-stay, Marriott's Demand Forecast System (DFS) was built to forecast guest booking patterns and optimize room availability by price and length of stay. By the mid-1990s, Marriott's successful execution of revenue management was adding between $150 million and $200 million in annual revenue.[5]
A natural extension of hotel revenue management was to rental car firms, which experienced similar issues of discount availability and duration control. In 1994, revenue management saved National Car Rental from bankruptcy. Their revival from near collapse to making profits served as an indicator of revenue management's potential.[7]
Up to this point, revenue management had focused on driving revenue from Business to Consumer (B2C) relationships. In the early 1990s UPS developed revenue management further by revitalizing their Business to Business (B2B) pricing strategy.[8] Faced with the need for volume growth in a competitive market, UPS began building a pricing organization that focused on discounting. Prices began to erode rapidly, however, as they began offering greater discounts to win business. The executive team at UPS prioritized specific targeting of their discounts but could not strictly follow the example set by airlines and hotels. Rather than optimizing the revenue for a discrete event such as the purchase of an airline seat or a hotel room, UPS was negotiating annual rates for large-volume customers using a multitude of services over the course of a year. To alleviate the discounting issue, they formulated the problem as a customized bid-response model, which used historical data to predict the probability of winning at different price points. They called the system Target Pricing. With this system, they were able to forecast the outcomes of any contractual bid at various net prices and identify where they could command a price premium over competitors and where deeper discounts were required to land deals. In the first year of this revenue management system, UPS reported increased profits of over $100 million.[9]
The concept of maximizing revenue on negotiated deals found its way back to the hospitality industry. Marriott's original application of revenue management was limited to individual bookings, not groups or other negotiated deals. In 2007, Marriott introduced a "Group Price Optimizer" that used a competitive bid-response model to predict the probability of winning at any price point, thus providing accurate price guidance to the sales force. The initial system generated an incremental $46 million in profit. This led to an Honorable Mention for the Franz Edelman Award for Achievement in Operations Research and the Management Sciences in 2009.[10]
By the early 1990s revenue management also began to influence television ad sales. Companies like Canadian Broadcast Corporation, ABC,[11] and NBC[12] developed systems that automated the placement of ads in proposals based on total forecasted demand and forecasted ratings by program. Today, many television networks around the globe have revenue management systems.[13]
Revenue management to this point had been utilized in the pricing of perishable products. In the 1990s, however, the Ford Motor Company began adopting revenue management to maximize profitability of its vehicles by segmenting customers into micro-markets and creating a differentiated and targeted price structure.[14] Pricing for vehicles and options packages had been set based upon annual volume estimates and profitability projections. The company found that certain products were overpriced and some were underpriced.[15] Understanding the range of customer preferences across a product line and geographical market, Ford leadership created a Revenue management organization to measure the price-responsiveness of different customer segments for each incentive type and to develop an approach that would target the optimal incentive by product and region. By the end of the decade, Ford estimated that roughly $3 billion in additional profits came from revenue management initiatives.[16]
The public success of Pricing and Revenue Management at Ford solidified the ability of the discipline to address the revenue generation issues of virtually any company. Many auto manufacturers have adopted the practice for both vehicle sales and the sale of parts. Retailers have leveraged the concepts pioneered at Ford to create more dynamic, targeted pricing in the form of discounts and promotions to more accurately match supply with demand. Promotions planning and optimization assisted retailers with the timing and prediction of the incremental lift of a promotion for targeted products and customer sets. Companies have rapidly adopted price markdown optimization to maximize revenue from end-of-season or end-of-life items. Furthermore, strategies driving promotion roll-offs and discount expirations have allowed companies to increase revenue from newly acquired customers.[17]
By 2000, virtually all major airlines, hotel firms, cruise lines and rental car firms had implemented revenue management systems to predict customer demand and optimize available price. These revenue management systems had limited "optimize" to imply managing the availability of pre-defined prices in pre-established price categories. The objective function was to select the best blends of predicted demand given existing prices. The sophisticated technology and optimization algorithms had been focused on selling the right amount of inventory at a given price, not on the price itself. Realizing that controlling inventory was no longer sufficient, InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) launched an initiative to better understand the price sensitivity of customer demand. IHG determined that calculating price elasticity at very granular levels to a high degree of accuracy still was not enough. Rate transparency had elevated the importance of incorporating market positioning against substitutable alternatives. IHG recognized that when a competitor changes its rate, the consumer's perception of IHG's rate also changes.[18] Working with third party competitive data, the IHG team was able to analyze historical price, volume and share data to accurately measure price elasticity in every local market for multiple lengths of stay. These elements were incorporated into a system that also measured differences in customer elasticity based upon how far in advance the booking is being made relative to the arrival date. The incremental revenue from the system was significant as this new Price Optimization capability increased Revenue per Available Room (RevPAR) by 2.7%.[19] IHG and Revenue Analytics, a pricing and revenue management consulting firm, were selected as finalists for the Franz Edelman Award for Achievement in Operations Research and the Management Sciences for their joint effort in implementing Price Optimization at IHG.[20]
Revenue Management Society ("RMS")[edit]
The Revenue Management Society is the industry body representing companies and practitioners working in this area. The Society traces its roots back to 2002 when Steve Marchant gathered a group of clients and colleagues to discuss revenue management issues of common interest. Initially the club was financed by Consultecom but in 2007 became a Society fully funded by the membership. Membership initially comprised companies in the travel and leisure sector. There are now over 60 corporate members from across Europe and from many industries. The Society's Mission Statement is "To define and promote best practice in the use of revenue and yield management techniques, through discussion and communication between the key users of these techniques within the Travel, Transportation and Leisure industries." To this end the Society organises member conferences, newsletters and supports University research projects
Levers[edit]
Whereas yield management involves specific actions to generate yield through perishable inventory management, revenue management encompasses a wide range of opportunities to increase revenue. A company can utilize these different categories like a series of levers in the sense that all are usually available, but only one or two may drive revenue in a given situation. The primary levers are:
Pricing[edit]
This category of revenue management involves redefining pricing strategy and developing disciplined pricing tactics. The key objective of a pricing strategy is anticipating the value created for customers and then setting specific prices to capture that value. A company may decide to price against their competitors or even their own products, but the most value comes from pricing strategies that closely follow market conditions and demand, especially at a segment level. Once a pricing strategy dictates what a company wants to do, pricing tactics determine how a company actually captures the value. Tactics involve creating pricing tools that change dynamically, in order to react to changes and continually capture value and gain revenue. Price Optimization, for example, involves constantly optimizing multiple variables such as price sensitivity, price ratios, and inventory to maximize revenues. A successful pricing strategy, supported by analytically-based pricing tactics, can drastically improve a firm's profitability.[21]
Inventory[edit]
When focused on controlling inventory, revenue management is mainly concerned with how best to price or allocate capacity. First, a company can discount products in order to increase volume. By lowering prices on products, a company can overcome weak demand and gain market share, which ultimately increases revenue. On the other hand, in situations where demand is strong for a product but the threat of cancellations looms (e.g. hotel rooms or airline seats), firms often overbook in order to maximize revenue from full capacity. Overbooking's focus is increasing the total volume of sales in the presence of cancellations rather than optimizing customer mix.[4]
Marketing[edit]
Price promotion allow companies to sell higher volumes by temporarily decreasing the price of their products. Revenue management techniques measure customer responsiveness to promotions in order to strike a balance between volume growth and profitability. An effective promotion helps maximize revenue when there is uncertainty about the distribution of customer willingness to pay. When a company's products are sold in the form of long-term commitments, such as internet or telephone service, promotions help attract customers who will then commit to contracts and produce revenue over a long time horizon. When this occurs, companies must also strategize their promotion roll-off policies; they must decide when to begin increasing the contract fees and by what magnitude to raise the fees in order to avoid losing customers. Revenue management optimization proves useful in balancing promotion roll-off variables in order to maximize revenue while minimizing churn.[17]
Channels[edit]
Revenue management through channels involves strategically driving revenue through different distribution channels. Different channels may represent customers with different price sensitivities. For example, customers who shop online are usually more price sensitive than customers who shop in a physical store. Different channels often have different costs and margins associated with those channels. When faced with multiple channels to retailers and distributors, revenue management techniques can calculate appropriate levels of discounts for companies to offer distributors through opaque channels to push more products without losing integrity with respect to public perception of quality.[17]
Since the advent of the Internet the distribution network and control has become a major concern for service providers. When the producer collaborates with a powerful provider, sacrifices may be necessary, particularly concerning the selling price/commission rate, in exchange for the capacity to reach a certain clientele and sales volumes [22]
Process[edit]
Data collection[edit]
The revenue management process begins with data collection. Relevant data is paramount to a revenue management system's capability to provide accurate, actionable information. A system must collect and store historical data for inventory, prices, demand, and other causal factors. Any data that reflects the details of products offered, their prices, competition, and customer behavior must be collected, stored, and analyzed. In some markets, specialized data collection methods have rapidly emerged to service their relevant sector, and sometimes have even become a norm. In the European Union for example, the European Commission makes sure businesses and governments stick to EU rules on fair competition, while still leaving space for innovation, unified standards, and the development of small businesses.[23] To support this, third party sources are utilized to collect data and make only averages available for commercial purposes, such as is the case with the hotel sector – in Europe [24] and the Middle East & North Africa region,[25] where key operating indicators are monitored, such as Occupancy Rate (OR), Average Daily Rate (ADR) and Revenue per Available Room (RevPAR). Data is supplied directly by hotel chains and groups (as well as independent properties) and benchmark averages are produced by direct market (competitive set) or wider macro market. This data is also utilized for financial reporting, forecasting trends and development purposes. Information about customer behavior is a valuable asset that can reveal consumer behavioral patterns, the impact of competitors' actions, and other important market information. This information is crucial to starting the revenue management process.[1]
Segmentation[edit]
After collecting the relevant data, market segmentation is the key to market-based pricing and revenue maximization. Airlines, for example, employed this tactic in differentiating between price-sensitive leisure customers and price-insensitive business customers. Leisure customers tend to book earlier and are flexible about when they fly and are willing to sit in coach seats to save more money for their destination, whereas business customers tend to book closer to departure and are typically less price sensitive. Success hinges on the ability to segment customers into similar groups based on a calculation of price responsiveness of customers to certain products based upon the circumstances of time and place. Revenue management strives to determine the value of a product to a very narrow micro-market at a specific moment in time and then chart customer behavior at the margin to determine the maximum obtainable revenue from those micro-markets.[1] Micro-markets can be derived qualitatively by conducting a dimensional analysis. Business customers and leisure customers are two segments, but business customers could be further segmented by the time they fly (those who book late and fly in the morning etc.). Useful tools such as Cluster Analysis allow Revenue Managers to create a set of data-driven partitioning techniques that gather interpretable groups of objects together for consideration. Market segmentation based upon customer behavior is essential to the next step, which is forecasting demand associated with the clustered segments.
Forecasting[edit]
Revenue management requires forecasting various elements such as demand, inventory availability, market share, and total market. Its performance depends critically on the quality of these forecasts. Forecasting is a critical task of revenue management and takes much time to develop, maintain, and implement. Quantity-based forecasts, which use time-series models, booking curves, cancellation curves, etc., project future quantities of demand, such as reservations or products bought. Price-based forecasts seek to forecast demand as a function of marketing variables, such as price or promotion. These involve building specialized forecasts such as market response models or cross price elasticity of demand estimates to predict customer behavior at certain price points.[4] By combining these forecasts with calculated price sensitivities and price ratios, a revenue management system can then quantify these benefits and develop price optimization strategies to maximize revenue.
Optimization[edit]
While forecasting suggests what customers are likely to do, optimization suggests how a firm should respond. Often considered the pinnacle of the revenue management process, optimization is about evaluating multiple options on how to sell your product and to whom to sell your product.[1] Optimization involves solving two important problems in order to achieve the highest possible revenue. The first is determining which objective function to optimize. A business must decide between optimizing prices, total sales, contribution margins, or even customer lifetime values. Secondly, the business must decide which optimization technique to utilize. For example, many firms utilize linear programming, a complex technique for determining the best outcome from a set of linear relationships, to set prices in order to maximize revenue. Regression analysis, another statistical tool, involves finding the ideal relationship between several variables through complex models and analysis. Discrete choice models can serve to predict customer behavior in order to target them with the right products for the right price.[17] Tools such as these allow a firm to optimize its product offerings, inventory levels, and pricing points in order to achieve the highest revenue possible.
Dynamic re-evaluation[edit]
Revenue management requires that a firm must continually re-evaluate their prices, products, and processes in order to maximize revenue. In a dynamic market, an effective revenue management system constantly re-evaluates the variables involved in order to move dynamically with the market. As micro-markets evolve, so must the strategy and tactics of revenue management adjust.[1]
In an organization[edit]
Revenue management's fit within the organizational structure depends on the type of industry and the company itself. Some companies place revenue management teams within Marketing because marketing initiatives typically focus on attracting and selling to customers. Other firms dedicate a section of Finance to handle revenue management responsibilities because of the tremendous bottom line implications. Some companies have elevated the position of chief revenue officer, or CRO, to the senior management level. This position typically oversees functions like sales, pricing, new product development, and advertising and promotions. A CRO in this sense would be responsible for all activities that generate revenue and directing the company to become more "revenue-focused".[1]
Supply chain management and revenue management have many natural synergies. Supply chain management (SCM) is a vital process in many companies today and several are integrating this process with a revenue management system. On one hand, supply chain management often focuses on filling current and anticipated orders at the lowest cost, while assuming that demand is primarily exogenous. Conversely, revenue management generally assumes costs and sometimes capacity are fixed and instead looks to set prices and customer allocations that maximize revenue given these constraints. A company that has achieved excellence in supply chain management and revenue management individually may have many opportunities to increase profitability by linking their respective operational focus and customer-facing focus together.[17]
Business Intelligence platforms have also become increasingly integrated with the Revenue Management process. These platforms, driven by data mining processes, offer a centralized data and technology environment that delivers business intelligence by combining historical reporting and advanced analytics to explain and evaluate past events, deliver recommended actions and eventually optimize decision-making. Not synonymous with Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Business intelligence generates proactive forecasts, whereas CRM strategies track and document a company's current and past interactions with customers. Data mining this CRM information, however, can help drive a business intelligence platform and provide actionable information to aid decision-making.
Developing industries[edit]
The ability for revenue management to optimize price based on forecasted demand, price elasticity and competitive rates has incredible benefits, and many companies are rushing to develop their own revenue management capabilities.[26] Many industries are beginning to embrace revenue management and apply its principles to their business processes:
Financial Services – offer a wide range of products to a wide range of customers. Banks have applied segmented pricing tactics to loan holders, often utilizing heavy amounts of data and modeling to project interest rates based on how much a customer is willing to pay.[27]
Media/Telecom – a promotion-driven industry often focused on attracting customers with discounted plans and then retaining them at higher price points. Businesses in this industry often face regulatory constraints, demand volatility, and sales through multiple channels to both business and consumer segments. Revenue management can help these companies understand micro-markets and forecast demand in order to optimize advertising sales and long-term contracts.[28] By leveraging advanced analytics, revenue management services are used to target precise demographics through media advertising and improve scheduling capabilities through optimizing advertising channels.[29]
Distributors – face a complex environment that often includes thousands of individual SKUs with several different product lifecycles. Each distributor must account for factors such as channel conflict, cross-product cannibalization, and competitive actions. Revenue Management has proved useful to distributors in promotion analysis and negotiated contracts.[30]
Medical Products and Services – deal with large fluctuations in demand depending on time of day and day of week. Hospital surgeries are often overflowing on weekday mornings but sit empty and underutilized on the weekend. Hospitals may experiment with optimizing their inventory of services and products based on different demand points. Additionally, revenue management techniques allow hospitals to mitigate claim underpayments and denials, thus preventing significant revenue leakage.[31]
MKG Group's HotelCompSet performance indicators in Europe
Hotel and Hospitality services – daily revenue or yield management strategies are a popular practice within the hotel sector, particularly prominent in mature and large hotel markets such as in Western Europe and the North America. Key operating indicators Occupancy Rate (OR), Average Daily Rate (ADR) and Revenue per Available Room (RevPAR) are tracked using third party sources to follow direct competitor set averages in demand and price, thereby indicating penetration rate and performance index.[32] Wider or macro market averages are also monitored. Since the hotel industry is cyclic, revenue managers can confidently maneuver supply and demand statistics to reach optimal results.[33]
Car Rental Industry Mainly used by leading groups such as AVIS, HERTZ, BUDGET, revenue management is today important for independents and franchisees too. Using piloting tools like WeYield apps, independent can now also easily set up a revenue management strategy to leverage their position and drive RevCAR; check their rate parity and be aware of demand scenarios so that they can take corrective actions. Car Rental independent that adopt an advanced revenue management system can generally expect a revenue uplift between 2-4% annually. In addition to enhancing revenue, those solutions are really great time saver for business analysts and yield managers.
See also[edit]
Forecasting
Inventory theory
Linear programming
Operations research
Optimization
Regression analysis
Yield management
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Cross, R. (1997) Revenue Management: Hard-Core Tactics for Market Domination. New York, NY: Broadway Books.
Jump up ^ Talluri, K., and van Ryzin, G. (1999) Revenue Management: Research Overview and Prospects. Transportation Science 33:233-256.
Jump up ^ Chase, Nicole. 2007. Revenue management redefined. Hotels, February 1, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c McGill, J. and van Ryzin, G. (1999) Revenue management: research overview and prospects. Transportation Science 33: 233–256.
^ Jump up to: a b Marriott, Jr., J. and Cross, R. (2000) Room at the revenue inn. In Book of Management Wisdom: Classic Writings by Legendary Managers, ed., Peter Krass, 199-208, New York, NY: Wiley.
Jump up ^ Hanks, R., Cross, R. and Noland, R. (1992) Discounting in the hotel industry: a new approach. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 33(1): 15–23.
Jump up ^ Geraghty, M. and Johnson, E. (1997) Revenue management saves national car rental. Interfaces 27(1): 107–127.
Jump up ^ Cross, R., Higbie, J. and Cross, Z. (2010) Milestones in the Application of Analytical Pricing and Revenue Management. Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management
Jump up ^ Agrawal, V. and Ferguson, M. (2007) Optimal customized pricing in competitive settings. Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management 6: 212-228.
Jump up ^ Hormby, S., Morrison, J., Prashant, D, Meyers, M. and Tensa, T. (2010) Marriott International increases revenue by implementing a group pricing optimizer. Interfaces 40(1): 47-57.
Jump up ^ Mandese, J. (1998). Taking hint from travel world, ABC goes up against ritual: Aeronomics system expected to help troubled net set prices to fill seats. Advertising Age, 11 May.
Jump up ^ Bollapragada, S., Cheng, H., Phillips, M. and Garbiras. M. (2002) NBC's optimization systems increase revenues and productivity. Interfaces 32(1): 47-60.
Jump up ^ Bell, P. (2005) Revenue Management. Plenary presentation at Vision 2020, Ahmedabad, India. 8 January. Retrieved September 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hansen, L. (2005) Follow the money: high margin growth focused on the customer. Presentation to Revenue Management & Price Optimization Conference; 21 April, Atlanta, GA.
Jump up ^ Coy, P. (2000) The power of smart pricing, BusinessWeek, 10 April pp.160-163.
Jump up ^ Leibs, S. (2000) Ford heeds the profits. CFO Magazine, August.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Phillips, R. (2005) Pricing and Revenue Optimization, Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books.
Jump up ^ Cross, R., Higbie, J. and Cross, D. (2009) Revenue management's renaissance: a rebirth of the art and science of profitable revenue generation. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 50: 56-81.
Jump up ^ InterContinental Hotels Group (2009) Annual Review and Summary Financial Statement, accessed 22 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Eister, C., Higbie, J.,Koushik, D. (2012) Retail Price Optimization at InterContinental Hotels Group. Informs, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 45-47.
Jump up ^ Hogan, J. and Nagel, T. The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing: A Guide to Growing More Profitably.
Jump up ^ Legoherel, Patick. Revenue Management for Hospitality and Tourism. Oxford,UK: Goodfelow Publishers Ltd. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-908999-48-1.
Jump up ^ European Union Competition Retrieved on 14 December 2012, Europa.eu, Competition
Jump up ^ Europe HIT Report Retrieved on October 2012, MKG Group
Jump up ^ MEA HIT Report Retrieved on October 2012, MKG Group
Jump up ^ Peyton, J. (2009) Mobilizing global resources to transform the revenue management discipline. Presentation to 5th Annual Revenue Management & Price Optimization Conference; 6 October, Atlanta, GA.
Jump up ^ Kadet, A. (2008) Price Profiling. SmartMoney 17(5): 80-85.
Jump up ^ Kimms, A. and Müller-Bungart, M. (2006) 'Revenue management for broadcasting commercials: the channel's problem of selecting and scheduling ads to be aired', Int. J. Revenue Management, Vol. 1.
Jump up ^ "Media Industry - Revenue Analytics". revenueanalytics.com. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
Jump up ^ Bippert, D. (2009) Simultaneously maximizing consumer value and company profit from beginning to end. Presentation to 5th Annual Revenue Management & Price Optimization Conference; 6 October, Atlanta, GA.Shikander
Jump up ^ Lieberman, W.H. (2004b) 'Revenue management in the health care industry', In I. Yeoman and U. Mcmahon-Beattie (Eds), Revenue Management and Pricing: Case Studies and Applications (pp.137–142). London: Thomson.
Jump up ^ Mauri, A.G. (2013), Hotel Revenue Management: Principles and Practices, Pearson.
Jump up ^ "Hospitality And Cruise Industry - Revenue Analytics". revenueanalytics.com. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
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Organization development
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Organization development (OD) is the study of successful organizational change and performance. OD emerged from human relations studies in the 1930s, during which psychologists realized that organizational structures and processes influence worker behavior and motivation. More recently, work on OD has expanded to focus on aligning organizations with their rapidly changing and complex environments through organizational learning, knowledge management and transformation of organizational norms and values. Key concepts of OD theory include: organizational climate (the mood or unique “personality” of an organization, which includes attitudes and beliefs that influence members’ collective behavior), organizational culture (the deeply-seated norms, values and behaviors that members share) and organizational strategies (how an organization identifies problems, plans action, negotiates change and evaluates progress).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 History
1.2 Core values
1.2.1 Objectives
1.3 Change agent
1.4 Sponsoring organization
1.5 Applied behavioral science
1.6 Systems context
1.7 The holistic and futuristic view of organization
2 Improved organizational performance
2.1 Organizational self-renewal
3 Understanding organizations
3.1 Modern development
4 Action research
5 OD interventions
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Overview[edit]
Organization development as a practice involves an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective organizational change. OD is known[by whom?] both as a field of applied science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, particularly industrial and organizational psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. Experts in systems thinking, in organizational learning, in the structure of intuition in decision-making, and in coaching (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but in a much more multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach[citation needed], have emerged as OD catalysts or tools.[citation needed]
Organization development, as a growing field, is responsive to many new approaches.[citation needed]
History[edit]
Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is widely recognized[by whom?] as the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept became mainstream in the mid-1950s.[2] From Lewin came the ideas of group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-groups and group-based OD emerged.
Kurt Lewin played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known today. As early as World War II (1939-1945), Lewin experimented with a collaborative change-process (involving himself as consultant and a client group) based on a three-step process of planning, taking action, and measuring results. This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of OD, which will be discussed later. Lewin then participated in the beginnings of laboratory training, or T-groups. After Lewin's death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey-research methods at the University of Michigan. These procedures became important parts of OD as developments in this field continued at the National Training Laboratories and in growing numbers of universities and private consulting-firms across the country[which?]. Leading universities offering doctoral-level[3] degrees in OD include Benedictine University and the Fielding Graduate University.
Douglas and Richard Beckhard, while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950s [...] coined the term organization development (OD) to describe an innovative bottom-up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112).[4]
The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from a person's "here and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such groups usually meet without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their spontaneous "here and now" responses to an ambiguous hypothetical situation. Problems of leadership, structure, status, communication, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members.[5] Herbert A. Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development in the late fifties.[6] He also founded the first doctoral program in organizational behavior at Case Western State University, and his colleague, Robert Blake, was also influential in making the term "organizational development" a more widely recognized field of psychological research. [7]
As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory training was conducted in "stranger groups" - groups composed of individuals from different organizations, situations, and backgrounds. A major difficulty developed, however, in transferring knowledge gained from these "stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home". This required a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected environment of the T-group (or training group) and the give-and-take of the organizational environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to begin to apply it to "family groups" — that is, groups located within an organization. From this shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an important factor in influencing group members (along with some other[which?] developments in the behavioral sciences) emerged the concept of organization development.[5]
Core values[edit]
Underlying Organization Development are humanistic values. Margulies and Raia (1972) articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows:
providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as resources in the productive process
providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the organization itself, to develop to their full potential
seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its goals
attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting and challenging work
providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in which they relate to work, the organization, and the environment
treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which are important to their work and their life[8]
This is a separate concept from change efforts known as:
Operation management
Training and Development
Technological innovations....etc.
Objectives[edit]
The objectives of OD are:
to increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees
to increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment
to confront problems instead of neglecting them
to effectively manage conflict
to increase cooperation and collaboration among employees
to increase organizational problem-solving
to put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of an organization on a continuous basis
As objectives of organizational development are framed[by whom?] keeping in view specific situations, they vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs[which?] are tailored to meet the requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all organizational development programs try to achieve the following objectives:
making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization. Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision of the organization
encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them
strengthening inter-personal trust, cooperation, and communication for the successful achievement of organizational goals
encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus making them feel responsible for the implementation of the plan
creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged[by whom?] to work and participate enthusiastically
replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill
preparing members to align with changes and to break stereotypes
creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change
According to organizational-development thinking, organization development provides managers with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organizational effectiveness.
Change agent[edit]
A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed later). The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD. Beckhard reports several cases in which line people have been trained in OD and have returned to their organizations to engage in successful change-assignments.[9] In the natural evolution of change mechanisms in organizations, this would seem to approach the ideal arrangement.[citation needed]
Researchers at the University of Oxford found that leaders can be effective change-agents within their own organizations if they are strongly committed to "knowledge leadership" targeted towards organizational development. In their three-year study of UK healthcare organizations, the researchers identified three different mechanisms through which knowledge leaders actively "transposed", "appropriated" or "contended" change concepts, effectively translating and embedding these in organizational practice.[10]
The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organization who is schooled in OD theory and technique. In such a case, the "contractual relationship" is an in-house agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions involved except the fee.
Sponsoring organization[edit]
The initiative for OD programs often comes from an organization that has a problem or anticipates facing a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures the organization that management is actively concerned.[11]
Applied behavioral science[edit]
One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship". Some believe that the change agent is not a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine the "patient", make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does s/he try to teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences as industrial/organizational psychology, industrial sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organizational behavior, economics, and political science, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data, and taking action.[12]
Systems context[edit]
The holistic and futuristic view of organization[edit]
OD deals with a total system — the organization as a whole, including its relevant environment — or with a subsystem or systems — departments or work groups — in the context of the total system. Parts of systems — for example, individuals, cliques, structures, norms, values, and products — are not considered in isolation; the principle of interdependency — that change in one part of a system affects the other parts — is fully recognized. Thus OD interventions focus on the total cultures and cultural processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant behavior of individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of the influences of groups rather than of personalities.[11]
Improved organizational performance[edit]
The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. This includes improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, and enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds. It also involves more effective decision processes, more appropriate leadership styles, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, as well as developing improved levels of trust and cooperation among organizational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of man — that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization development and effectiveness is the scientific method — inquiry, a rigorous search for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.
Self-managing work groups allows the members of a work team to manage, control, and monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to deciding when to take rest breaks. An early analysis of the first-self-managing work groups yielded the following behavioral characteristics (Hackman, 1986):
Employees assume personal responsibility and accountability for outcomes of their work.
Employees monitor their own performance and seek feedback on how well they are accomplishing their goals.
Employees manage their performance and take corrective action when necessary to improve their and the performance of other group members.
Employees seek guidance, assistance, and resources from the organization when they do not have what they need to do the job.
Employees help members of their work group and employees in other groups to improve job performance and raise productivity for the organization as a whole.
Organizational self-renewal[edit]
The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving the client organization with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a regulatory and corrective mechanism.[11] To this end, OD scholars and practitioners use tools such as simulations with their clients, to be used in workshops and classroom settings. One example of a self-renewal simulation, authored by researchers from Cornell University and Indiana University, can be found here (see citation).[13]
Understanding organizations[edit]
Weisbord presents a six-box model for understanding organizations:
Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organization's mission and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization's purpose.
Structure: How is the organization's work divided up? The question is whether there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.
Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs.
Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the organization formally rewarded or punished members for.
Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance among them.
Helpful mechanism: What must the organization attend to in order to survive and thrive - procedures such as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems.[14]
Modern development[edit]
In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.[15]
With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organization development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007)[16] writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. deKlerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss its meaning..
The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of organization development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools. Bob Aubrey (2015)[17] introduced KDIs (Key Development Indicators) to help organisations go beyond performance and align strategy, organisations and individuals and argued that fundamental challenges such as robotics, artificial intelligence and genetics prefigure a regeneration of the field.
Action research[edit]
Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point as "organization improvement through action research".[12] If one idea can be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of action".[18]
Figure 1: Systems Model of Action-Research Process
Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps:[18]
"Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change.
"Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and tested.
"Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforced, adopted.
Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.
The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage.[5]
The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see Figure 1). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first, or planning, stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness.[18] The action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.
Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.[5]
OD interventions[edit]
"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see Figure 1) of organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health, or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention.[19]
There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:
The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.
An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative condition.
Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.
Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial strategy.
One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication, mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.
People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change.[9]
Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice.[20]
One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new behavior, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited in organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization may also be constrained because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority, specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also discourage experimentation.[19]
The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of the things which will help him are:
A real need in the client system to change
Genuine support from management
Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior
A sound background in the behavioral sciences
A working knowledge of systems theory
A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better ways to do things.[19]
A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership development.
See also[edit]
This "see also" section may contain an excessive number of suggestions. Please ensure that only the most relevant links are given, that they are not red links, and that any links are not already in this article. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
OD Topics
Action research
Ambidextrous organization
Appreciative inquiry
Activity Based Working
Business acumen
Chaos theory in organizational development
Collaboration
Collaborative method
Corporate Education
Decision Engineering
Employee research
Employeeship
Executive development
Executive education
Georges Romme (involved in designing OD education)
Group dynamics
Group development
Groupthink
Knowledge Management
Large-group capacitation
Leadership development
Managing change
Organizational communication
Organizational climate
Organizational culture
Organizational diagnostics
Organizational engineering
Organizational learning
Organizational performance
Performance improvement
Positive adult development
Process improvement
Social network
Sociomapping
Strategic planning
Succession planning
Systems theory
Systems thinking
Team building
Team composition
T-groups
Value network
Workplace democracy
Workplace spirituality
Workforce planning
Milestones
Appreciative inquiry
Hawthorne effect
Human Relations Movement
OD in context
Change management
Coaching
Facilitation
Human resources
Industrial and organizational psychology
Training and development
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Organizational Development Theory". Retrieved 2016-01-20.
Jump up ^ Child, John: 'Organization Contemporary Principles and Practice',292. Blackwell Publishing,2005>
Jump up ^ exampl_OD
Jump up ^ Weisbord, Marvin. (1987). Productive Workplace: Organizing and managing for dignity, meaning and community. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems, and society : an introduction. Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co. pp. 223–229. ISBN 0-87620-540-6. OCLC 2299496. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Johnson" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Herbert Shepard Foundation. About the Author Herbert Allen Shepard, Essence of a Proactive Life shepard.pdf
Jump up ^ Cameron, Kim S, and Gretchen M Spreitzer. “The Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship.” Google Books, Oxford University Press, 22 Aug. 2011, books.google.com/books?id=xPIVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA738&lpg=PA738&dq=shepard%2Bblake%2Borganizational%2Bdevelopment&source=bl&ots=pJanaNldpl&sig=bqcxO5ROjlajtncztbigJ2qlMuM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFkqi3kYPYAhUF3mMKHSHODegQ6AEISTAI#v=onepage&q=shepard%20blake%20organizational%20development&f=false.
Jump up ^ Newton Margulies (1972). Organizational Development: Values, Process, and Technology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co. p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Beckhard (1969). Organization development: strategies and models. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. p. 114. ISBN 0-87620-540-6. OCLC 39328. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Beckhard" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Fischer M.D. Dopson, S. Fitzgerald, L. Bennett, C. Ferlie, E. Ledger, J. & McGivern, G. (2015) "Knowledge leadership: Mobilizing management research by becoming the knowledge object" Human Relations, doi:10.1177/0018726715619686
^ Jump up to: a b c Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems, and society : an introduction. Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co. pp. 219–222. ISBN 9780876205402. OCLC 2299496.
^ Jump up to: a b Wendell L French; Cecil Bell. Organization development: behavioral science interventions for organization improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Wendell" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Lyles, M. A., Near, J. P., & Enz, C. A. (1992). A simulation for teaching skills relating to organizational self-renewal [Electronic version]. Retrieved [12/11/2017] from Cornell University, School of Hotel Administration site: http://scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/articles/638.
Jump up ^ Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W. eds, (2005). Organization Development. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Jump up ^ Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W.(eds), 2005, Reinventing Organization Development. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Jump up ^ deKler, M. (2007). Healing emotional trauma in organizations: An O.D. Framework and case study. Organizational Development Journal, 25(2), 49-56.
Jump up ^ Aubrey, Bob (September 2015). The Measure of Man: Leading Human Development. McGraw Hill Education.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kurt Lewin (1958). Group Decision and Social Change. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. 201.
^ Jump up to: a b c Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems, and society: an introduction. Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co. pp. 224–226. ISBN 0-87620-540-6. OCLC 2299496.
Jump up ^ Wendell L French; Cecil Bell (1973). Organization development: behavioral science interventions for organization improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. chapter 8. ISBN 0-13-641662-4. OCLC 314258.
Further reading[edit]
Argyris, C.; Schon, D. (1978), Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective, Reading MA: Addison-Wesley, ASIN 0201001748, ISBN 0-201-00174-8 CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Carter, Louis L. (2004), Best Practices in Leadership Development and Organization Change, Jossey Bass, ASIN 0787976253, ISBN 0-7879-7625-3 CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Nonaka, I.; Takeuchi, H. (1995), The Knowledge Creating Company, New York: New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-509269-4
Sullivan, Roland (2010), Practicing Organization Development: A Guide for Leading Change, Jossey Bass, ASIN 0470405449, ISBN 0-470-40544-9 CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Western, S. (2010), What do we mean by Organizational Development, Krakow: Krakow: Advisio Press
Rother, Mike (2009), Toyota Kata, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-163523-8
Senge, Peter M. (1990), The Fifth Discipline, Doubleday/Currency, ISBN 0-385-26094-6 see also: The Fifth Discipline
Cummings, Thomas G.; Worley, Christopher G., Organization Development & Change, Thomson South-Western, ASIN 0324260601, ISBN 81-315-0287-2 CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Schultz, Diane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2006) Psychology and work today: and introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (9th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice Hall p262. ISBN 0-13-193212-8
External links[edit]
Organization Development Network An international, professional association of educators and practitioners.
[1] [2] online certification programs for OD professionals.
www.instituteod.com The Institute of Organization Development: Online certification programs
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Nancy Valen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nancy Valen
Born
(1965-12-16) December 16, 1965 (age 52)
Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
Other names
Nancy Valin
Nancy Van Patten
Occupation
Actress, producer, host
Years active
1985–present
Height
5' 6 1/2" (169cm)
Weight
128 lb (58 kg)
Spouse(s)
Nels Van Patten (m. 1994)
Website
http://www.nancyvalen.com/
Nancy Valen (born December 16, 1965) is an American actress and television producer. She is best known for portraying Captain Samantha Thomas on Baywatch.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Acting
2.2 Producing
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
Nancy Valen was born in Brooklyn, New York and raised in Hallandale, Florida. By the time she was 12 years old, she was spending summers modeling in New York City and studied acting at Uta Hagen's HB Studios. After graduating from a performing arts high school in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, Valen won a theatrical scholarship to the University of Florida. She ultimately declined the scholarship in favor of continuing her professional career in Miami. Meanwhile, she attended Broward Community College, where she studied theatre and paid for her tuition by modeling and acting, appearing in two episodes of Miami Vice.
After one year of college, Valen went to New York City to pursue a theatrical career. Within one month of being in New York, she landed a series regular role on the daytime drama Ryan's Hope. Valen stayed with Ryan's Hope for two years before moving to Los Angeles to pursue other interests.
Career[edit]
Acting[edit]
Valen made her film debut in Porky's Revenge (1985), followed by a role in The Heavenly Kid with Richard Mulligan and Jane Kaczmarek. In 1989, Valen co-starred alongside Patrick Dempsey in the film, Loverboy. She also had a small role opposite Kirk Cameron in the film Listen to Me. Her other film appearances include Seven Sundays alongside Molly Ringwald; directed by Academy Award-winning director, Jean-Charles Tacchella.
In addition to films, Valen has also appeared in various television series. In 1990, she guest starred in an episode of Saved by the Bell as the brand new school nurse at Bayside High, Jennifer. That same year, she co-starred in NBC's short-lived musical series Hull High under the direction of Kenny Ortega. After the series premiere, TV Guide proclaimed her "the most agreeably watchable new star on TV". Valen has also guest starred on 23 series including Hardball, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Friends, Spin City, Boy Meets World, Miami Vice, and Murder She Wrote.
Valen has also hosted several infomercials for the Bun and Thigh Roller, Slam man, Thin 'n Sexy Body Wrap, Kevin Trudeau's Debt Cures "They" Don't Want You To Know About, Time Life The Heart of Classic Rock, and the Instyler. Valen has also starred in commercials for John Deere and Washington Mutual [1]
Valen has appeared as a guest on Leno, The Oprah Winfrey Show, Good Day L.A. and on the covers and pages of magazines and newspapers including American Women, FHM, Cosmopolitan, Entertainment Weekly, and The Los Angeles Times Calendar.
Producing[edit]
Valen, alongside Craig J. Nevius, formed Windmill Entertainment. Among the television programs she has produced include Living in TV Land, Chasing Farrah, William Shatner in Concert, and Let's Kill Scott Baio.
As an Executive Producer/reality series creator, Valen has partnered with a wide variety of companies including Whoop Inc., Renegade83, 44 Blue, Target, and Intuitive Entertainment. Currently Nancy is partnered with Authentic Entertainment on the series WHEN STAMIE MET TRACY. The series follows two former The Real L Word stars as they raise their three children with their extended modern family. In addition, Valen works with Jarrett Creative Group in partnership with the Biography Channel for the networks’ highest rated series, Celebrity Ghost Stories and the hit series, Celebrity Close Calls.
In the scripted world, Valen has partnered with VH1, ABC, FOX Television and Emmy award winning producer, Tony To. Valen is in development and is a Co-Executive Producer on ACTION HEROES INC. for ABC/Fox Studios. The action-comedy movie franchise stars William Shatner, Robert Wagner and Lee Majors as three former TV heroes turned real life detectives.
Personal life[edit]
Since October 1994, Valen has been married to Nels Van Patten (son of actor Dick Van Patten).[2][3] Valen is a distributor of Isagenix International products.[4]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1985 Porky's Revenge! Ginger
1985 Heavenly Kid, TheThe Heavenly Kid Melissa
1989 Big Picture, TheThe Big Picture Young Sharon
1989 Loverboy Jenny Gordon
1989 Listen to Me Mia
1992 Final Embrace Candy Vale / Laurel Parrish
1993 Little Devils: The Birth Lynn
1994 Seven Sundays Nicky
1998 Black Thunder Mela
2003 Written in Blood Mary Ramson
2007 Wager, TheThe Wager Tanya Steele
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1985 Miami Vice Lana Episode: "The Home Invaders"
1986–1987 Ryan's Hope Melinda Weaver
1988 Charles in Charge Tammy Episode: "Barbelles"
1989 Murder, She Wrote Selina Williams Waverly Episode: "Night of the Tarantula"
1989 Baywatch Hallie Episode: "Panic at Malibu Pier"
1990 Hull High Donna Breedlove Main role (8 episodes)
1990 Saved by the Bell Jennifer Episode: "From Nurse to Worse"
1991 Young Riders, TheThe Young Riders Samantha Edgars Episode: "Color Blind"
1991 Full House Lisa Green Episode: "Take My Sister, Please"
1992 Murder, She Wrote Lily Roland Episode: "Danse Diabolique"
1992 Perry Mason: The Case of the Fatal Framing Mala Sikorski TV film
1993 Silk Stalkings Sylvia DeCastro Episode: "Team Spirit"
1994 Silk Stalkings Dr. Jillian Dupree Episodes: "Natural Selection: Parts 1 & 2"
1994 Fortune Hunter Madison Reynolds Episode: "The Cursed Dagger"
1994 Walker, Texas Ranger Laura Episodes: "Something in the Shadows: Parts 1 & 2"
1994 Hardball Jennifer Episode: "Pilot"
1994 Boy Meets World Ms. Kelly Episode: "Pairing Off"
1995 Friends Lorraine Episode: "The One with the Candy Hearts"
1996–1997 Baywatch Samantha Thomas Main role (22 episodes)
1997 Viper Bianca Carson Episode: "Whistle Blower"
1998 Dune 2000 Fremen Kari (voice) Video game
1999 Love Boat: The Next Wave, TheThe Love Boat: The Next Wave Leslie Episode: "Other People's Business"
2001 Black Scorpion Det. Angela Archer / Angel of Death Episode: "Kiss of Death"
2002 Spin City Ashley Episode: "Sex, Lies and Video Date"
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.nancyvalen.com/commercial_reel
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0887697/bio?ref_=nm_ov_bio_sm
Jump up ^ http://www.hollywood.com/celebrities/nels-van-patten-57788359/
Jump up ^ http://superfoodcleanse.com/
External links[edit]
Nancy Valen on IMDb
Official website
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nancy_Valen&oldid=812599055"
Categories:
Actresses from Florida
Female models from New York (state)
American film actresses
American soap opera actresses
American television actresses
American television producers
1965 births
Living people
Hallandale High School alumni
People from Hallandale Beach, Florida
Female models from Florida
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
People from Brooklyn
Actresses from New York City
Models from New York City
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This page was last edited on 28 November 2017, at 19:43.
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