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Baffin Bay
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Not to be confused with Baffin Bay (Texas).
Baffin Bay
Coordinates
73°N 67°W / 73°N 67°W / 73; -67 (Baffin Bay)Coordinates: 73°N 67°W / 73°N 67°W / 73; -67 (Baffin Bay)
Max. length
1,450 km (901 mi)
Max. width
110–650 km (68–404 mi)
Surface area
689,000 km2 (266,000 sq mi)
Average depth
861 m (2,825 ft)
Max. depth
2,136 m (7,008 ft)
Water volume
593,000 km3 (142,300 cu mi)
References
[1][2]
Baffin Bay (Inuktitut: Saknirutiak Imanga;[3] Greenlandic: Avannaata Imaa;[4] French: Baie de Baffin),[a] located between Baffin Island and the southwest coast of Greenland, is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean.[1][2][6] It is connected to the Atlantic via Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea. The narrower Nares Strait connects Baffin Bay with the Arctic Ocean. The bay is not navigable most of the year because of the ice cover and high density of floating ice and icebergs in the open areas. However, a polynya of about 80,000 km2 (31,000 sq mi), known as the North Water, opens in summer on the north near Smith Sound.[7] Most of the aquatic life of the bay is concentrated near that region.
Contents
[hide]
1 Extent
2 History
3 Geography and geology
4 Climate, hydrology and hydrochemistry
5 North Water
6 Wildlife
7 Oil and gas
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
Extent[edit]
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of Baffin Bay as follows:[8]
On the North. A line from Cape Sheridan, Grant Land (82°35′N 60°45′W / 82.583°N 60.750°W / 82.583; -60.750) to Cape Bryant, Greenland.
On the East. The West Coast of Greenland.
On the South. The parallel of 70° North between Greenland and Baffin Land.
On the West. The Eastern limits of the North-West Passages [The East Coast of Ellesmere Island between C. Sheridan and Cape Norton Shaw (76°29′N 78°30′W / 76.483°N 78.500°W / 76.483; -78.500), thence across to Phillips Point (Coburg Island) through this Island to Marina Peninsula (75°55′N 79°10′W / 75.917°N 79.167°W / 75.917; -79.167) and across to Cape Fitz Roy (Devon Island) down the East Coast to Cape Sherard (Cape Osborn) (74°35′N 80°30′W / 74.583°N 80.500°W / 74.583; -80.500) and across to Cape Liverpool, Bylot Island (73°44′N 77°50′W / 73.733°N 77.833°W / 73.733; -77.833); down the East coast of this island to Cape Graham Moore, its southeastern point, and thence across to Cape Macculloch (72°29′N 75°08′W / 72.483°N 75.133°W / 72.483; -75.133) and down the East coast of Baffin Island to East Bluff, its Southeastern extremity, and thence the Eastern limit of Hudson Strait].
—  International Hydrographic Organization, Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition
History[edit]
The area of the bay has been inhabited since c. 500 BC. Around AD 1200, the initial Dorset settlers were replaced by the Thule (the later Inuit) peoples. Recent excavations also suggest that the Norse colonization of the Americas reached the shores of Baffin Bay sometime between the 10th and 14th centuries. The English explorer John Davis was the first recorded European to enter the bay, arriving in 1585.[9] In 1612, a group of English merchants formed the "Company of Merchants of London, Discoverers of the North-West Passage". Their governor Thomas Smythe organized five expeditions to explore the northern coasts of Canada in search of a maritime passage to the Far East. Henry Hudson and Thomas Button's explored Hudson Bay, William Gibbons Labrador, and Robert Bylot Hudson Strait and the area which became known as Baffin's Bay after his pilot William Baffin.[10] Aboard the Discovery, Baffin charted the area and named Lancaster, Smith, and Jones Sounds after members of his company.[11] By the completion of his 1616 voyage, Baffin held out no hope of an ice-free passage and the area remained unexplored for another two centuries.[11][12] Over time, his account came to be doubted until it was confirmed by John Ross's 1818 voyage.[13] More advanced scientific studies followed in 1928, in the 1930s and after World War II by Danish, American and Canadian expeditions.[2]
Currently, there are a few Inuit settlements on the Canadian coast of the bay, including Arctic Bay (population 690), Pond Inlet (1,315) and Clyde River (820). Those settlements are accessed and supplied by air and annual sealifts. In 1975, a town was built at Nanisivik to support lead and zinc production at the Nanisivik Mine—the first Canadian mine in the Arctic. The mine was closed in 2002 due to declining resources and metal prices. Whereas the town still has a functional seaport and an airport, as of the 2006 census, it has an official population of zero.[14][15][16]
Baffin Bay was the epicenter of a 7.3 magnitude earthquake in 1933. This is the largest known earthquake north of the Arctic Circle. It caused no damage because of its offshore location and the small number of the nearby onshore communities. The northwestern part of the bay remains one of the most seismically active regions in eastern Canada. Five earthquakes of magnitude 6 have occurred here since 1933. The latest strong earthquake occurred on 15 April 2010 and had the magnitude of 5.1.[17]
Robeson Channel, Hall Basin, Kennedy Channel, Kane Basin, and Nares Strait are all south of the northern limit of Baffin Bay between Cape Sheridan and Cape Bryant (unmarked).
Geography and geology[edit]
See also: Jakobshavn Isbræ
Major North Atlantic currents.
Baffin Bay is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by the Baffin Island in the west, Greenland in the east, and Ellesmere Island in the north. It connects to the Atlantic through the Davis Strait, and to the Arctic through several narrow channels of Nares Strait. It is a northwestern extension of the North Atlantic and Labrador Sea. It can also be viewed as a long strait separating Baffin Island and Greenland.[2][18]
The bay is less than 1,000 m (3,300 ft) deep near the coast, where the sea bottom is covered with gravel, crushed stone and sand. In the center, there is a deep pit called Baffin Hollow reaching 2,136 m (7,008 ft) (see depth map), which is mostly covered in silt. Currents form a cyclonic circulation. On the eastern periphery, in summer, the West Greenland Current transports water from the Atlantic Ocean to the North. In its western part, the Baffin Island Current brings the Arctic waters to the south.[1]
Climate, hydrology and hydrochemistry[edit]
An iceberg at the edge of the Baffin Bay's sea ice.
The climate is Arctic with frequent storms, especially in winter. Average January temperatures are −20 °C (−4 °F) in the south and −28 °C (−18 °F) on the north. In July, the average temperature is 7 °C (45 °F). The annual precipitation is 100–250 mm (3.9–9.8 in) on the Greenland side and about twice as much near Baffin Island.[2]
The water temperature at the surface is below −1 °C (30 °F) in winter. In summer, it varies from 4–5 °C (39–41 °F) in the south-east to 0 °C (32 °F) and below at north-west. The salinity exceeds 34‰ (parts per thousand) in winter. In summer, it is 32‰ on the east and 30–31‰ on the west. Deep waters are formed as a result of mixing of Arctic and Atlantic waters; their temperature is about −0.5 °C (31.1 °F) and salinity is 34.5 ‰. In winter, 80% of the bay is covered with continuous ice, floating ice and fast ice. In some winters, the continuous ice stretches from shore to shore. The ice is most abundant in March and least in August–September. In summer, drifting ice remains in the central and western parts of the bay. Numerous icebergs are formed in this period and are brought, together with ice, to the Atlantic Ocean near Newfoundland.[1][19]
The tides are semidiurnal, with an average height of 4 m (13 ft) and the maximum of 9 m (30 ft). Their speed varies between 1 and 3.7 km/h (0.62 and 2.30 mph) hour and the direction by as much as 180°. This variability results in the collision and crushing of fresh, old, and pack ice.[2] Winds are predominantly north-western through the whole year. South-eastern and eastern winds are common in July and August.[1][19]
North Water[edit]
Main article: North Water Polynya
Between May and July (sometimes April), a significant portion of navigable open water (polynya) forms at the extreme north of the bay, presumably due to the relatively warm Greenland Current.[2] With an area of about 80,000 km2 (31,000 sq mi) in summer, it is the largest polynya of the Canadian Arctic and covers the Smith Sound between the Ellesmere Island and Greenland. This polynya has a stable position and existed for at least 9,000 years. It was first described in 1616 by William Baffin and was named North Water by whalers of the 18–19th centuries.[19][20]
Wildlife[edit]
Fog over Baffin Bay
The North Water provides air to ice algae and zooplankton and is characterized by abundant fauna. Of about 20,000 beluga whales living in the Baffin Bay, some 15,000 are concentrated at the North Water.[21] Other abundant animals of the region include walrus, narwhal, harp seal, bearded seal, ringed seal, bowhead whale, rorquals and polar bear. All aquatic mammals crucially depend on the availability of open water; they have very limited ability to maintain breathing holes in ice and are all vulnerable to attacks by the polar bear when breathing at the holes. The seals and walrus occupy areas of fast ice, which is essential for giving birth and raising the pups. Bearded seals feed near the bottom of the bay and therefore are restricted to the shallow waters. Ringed seal is the most common meal of the polar bear. It is also an occasional prey of the walrus and Arctic fox.[22] Most large animals of the bay are being traditionally hunted, but the hunting has been restricted in the 20th century in order to preserve the wildlife population. For example, the quota for polar bears in the bay area is 105 per year.[23]
There are about 400 plant and tree species on the bay shores, including birch, willow, alder and plants adapted to salty soils, as well as lyme grass, mosses, and lichens. These serve as food for caribou and rodents, such as lemming. Resident fish species include polar cod, Arctic flounder (Pleuronectidae, Liopsetta), four-horned sculpin and capelin, whereas cod, haddock, herring, halibut, and rattail migrate from the Atlantic. The birds are represented by the little auk, snowy owl, willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan, gyrfalcon, Arctic redpoll and guillemots. Most of them migrate to the south during the winter.[2][24][25]
Oil and gas[edit]
Main article: Petroleum exploration in the Arctic
The US Geological Survey has estimated that at least 13% of the world's undiscovered oil deposits and 30% of the world's undiscovered gas pockets are located in the Arctic, with the seas around Greenland potentially holding large amounts of natural gas and lesser amounts of crude oil and natural-gas liquids.[26][27] Accordingly, the Greenland authorities have offered a large number of off-shore concessions for potential hydrocarbon (oil and gas) extraction. The largest concession-areas are located in seas west of Greenland; primarily in Baffin Bay and the Davis Strait, but with several smaller concessions in the Greenland Sea in the east also.[28][29][30][31]
See also[edit]
Geography portal
1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Former names include Baffin's Bay and Baffin's Sea.[5]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Baffin Bay, Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Baffin Bay, Encyclopædia Britannica on-line
Jump up ^ Baffin Bay. Wissenladen.de. Retrieved on 2013-03-22.
Jump up ^ Den grønlandske Lods - Geodatastyrelsen
Jump up ^ EB (1878).
Jump up ^ Reddy, M. P. M. (2001). Descriptive Physical Oceanography. Taylor & Francis. p. 8. ISBN 978-90-5410-706-4. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Circulation and generation of the North Water Polynya, Northern Baffin Bay. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2013-03-22.
Jump up ^ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 6 February 2010.
Jump up ^ John Davis, Encyclopædia Britannica on-line
Jump up ^ Markham (1881).
^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Baffin, William", Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 192
Jump up ^ W. S. Wallace, "Discovery and Exploration of Canada", The Encyclopedia of Canada, Vol. II, Toronto, University Associates of Canada, 1948, pp. 307–310.
Jump up ^ Farley Mowat (1967). The Polar Passion: The Quest for the North Pole. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited, p. 43
Jump up ^ "Government will continue seeking positive legacy from Nanisivik mine closure, minister says". Archived from the original on 13 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
Jump up ^ Canadian Mines Handbook 2003–2004. Toronto, Ontario: Business Information Group. 2003. ISBN 0-919336-60-4.
Jump up ^ Statistics Canada. 2.statcan.ca (6 December 2010). Retrieved on 2013-03-22.
Jump up ^ The 1933 Baffin Bay earthquake
Jump up ^ EB (1911).
^ Jump up to: a b c National Geospatial-intelligence Agency (January 2005). Prostar Sailing Directions 2005 Greenland and Iceland Enroute. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-57785-753-2.
Jump up ^ Elisabeth Levac; Anne De Vernal & Weston Blake, Jr (2001). "Sea-surface conditions in northernmost Baffin Bay during the Holocene: palynological evidence" (PDF). Journal of Quaternary Science. 16 (4): 353. doi:10.1002/jqs.614.
Jump up ^ COSEWIC Assessment and Update Status Report on the Beluga Whale. Dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca (31 July 2012). Retrieved on 2013-03-22.
Jump up ^ K. J. Finley & W. E. Renaud (1980). "Marine Mammals Inhabiting the Baffin Bay North Water in Winter" (PDF). Arctic. 33 (4): 724–738. doi:10.14430/arctic2592.
Jump up ^ Proposed Baffin Bay polar bear quota rejected, CBC News, 28 January 2010
Jump up ^ E. C. Pielou (1 November 1994). A naturalist's guide to the Arctic. pp. 235, 292. ISBN 978-0-226-66814-7.
Jump up ^ Maurice L. Schwartz (2005). Encyclopedia of coastal science. p. 48. ISBN 1-4020-1903-3.
Jump up ^ "90 Billion Barrels of Oil and 1,670 Trillion Cubic Feet of Natural Gas Assessed in the Arctic". US Geological Survey (USGS). 23 July 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Resources of the West Greenland" (PDF). US Geological Survey (USGS). May 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Lisa Gregoire (15 May 2014). "Greenland pushing ahead with oil and gas development". Nunatsiaq Online. Nunatsiaq News. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Current Licences". Bureau of Mineral and Petroleum (Greenland). Retrieved 17 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Map of exclusive hydrocarbon licences" (PDF). Bureau of Mineral and Petroleum (Greenland). February 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Approved Hydrocarbon Activities". Bureau of Mineral and Petroleum (Greenland). 31 October 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
References[edit]
Baffin, William (1881), Markham, Clements R., ed., The Voyages of William Baffin, 1612–1622, Hakluyt Society .
Baynes, T.S., ed. (1878), "Baffin's Bay", Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 229
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Baffin Bay and Baffin Land", Encyclopædia Britannica, 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 192–193
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Widget (beer)
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Guinness floating widget
Guinness beer bottle widget
A widget is a device placed in a container of beer to manage the characteristics of the beer's head. The original widget was patented in Ireland by Guinness. The "floating widget" is found in cans of beer as a hollow plastic sphere, approximately 3 cm in diameter (similar in appearance to table tennis ball, but smaller) with at least one small hole and a seam. The "rocket widget" is found in bottles, 7 cm in length with the small hole at the bottom.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Method
3 Development
4 Beer glass widget
5 References
6 Bibliography
Background[edit]
Draught Guinness, as it is known today, was first produced in 1964. With Guinness keen to produce draught beer packaged for consumers to drink at home, Bottled Draught Guinness was formulated in 1978 and launched into the Irish market in 1979. It was never actively marketed internationally as it required an "initiator" device, which looked rather like a syringe, to make it work.
Method[edit]
Some canned beers are pressurized by adding liquid nitrogen, which vaporises and expands in volume after the can is sealed, forcing gas and beer into the widget's hollow interior through a tiny hole—the less beer the better for subsequent head quality. In addition, some nitrogen dissolves in the beer which also contains dissolved carbon dioxide. Oxygen is generally excluded as its presence can cause flavour deterioration.
The presence of dissolved nitrogen allows smaller bubbles to be formed, which increases the creaminess of the head. This is because the smaller bubbles need a higher internal pressure to balance the greater surface tension, which is inversely proportional to the radius of the bubbles. Achieving this higher pressure would not be possible with just dissolved carbon dioxide, as the greater solubility of this gas compared to nitrogen would create an unacceptably large head.
When the can is opened, the pressure in the can quickly drops, causing the pressurised gas and beer inside the widget to jet out from the hole. This agitation on the surrounding beer causes a chain reaction of bubble formation throughout the beer. The result, when the can is then poured out, is a surging mixture in the glass of very small gas bubbles and liquid.
This is the case with certain types of draught beer such as draught stouts. In the case of these draught beers, which before dispensing also contain a mixture of dissolved nitrogen and carbon dioxide, the agitation is caused by forcing the beer under pressure through small holes in a restrictor in the tap. The surging mixture gradually settles to produce a very creamy head.
Development[edit]
Expired British Patent No 1266351, filed 27 January 1969
Diagram of Acorn Can
In 1969 two Guinness brewers at Guinness's St James's Gate brewery in Dublin, Tony Carey and Sammy Hildebrand, developed a system for producing draught type Guinness from cans or bottles through the discharge of gas from an internal compartment. It was patented in British Patent No 1266351, filed 27 January 1969, with a complete specification published 8 March 1972.
Development work on a can system under Project ACORN (Advanced Cans Of Rich Nectar) focused on an arrangement whereby a false lid underneath the main lid formed the gas chamber (see diagram below right).
Technical difficulties led to this approach being put on hold, and Guinness instead concentrated on bottles using external initiators. Subsequently, Guinness allowed this patent to lapse and it was not until Ernest Saunders centralised the company's research and development in 1984 that work restarted on this invention, under the direction of Alan Forage.
Development sequence for canned draught Guinness
Development sequence for bottled draught Guinness
The design of an internal compartment that could be readily inserted during the canning process was devised by Alan Forage and William Byrne, and work started on the widget during the period 1984–85. The plan was to introduce a plastic capsule into the can, pressurise it during the filling process and then allow it to release this pressure in a controlled manner when the can was opened. This would be sufficient to initiate the product and give it the characteristic creamy head. However, Tony Carey observed that this resulted in beer being forced into the widget during pressurisation, which reduced the quality of the head. He suggested overcoming this by rapidly inverting the can after the lid was seamed on. This extra innovation proved successful.
The first samples sent to Dublin were labelled "Project Dynamite", which caused some delay before customs and excise would release the samples.[citation needed] Because of this the name was changed to Oaktree in recognition of the earlier ACORN project. Another name that changed was "inserts"; the operators called them "widgets" almost immediately after they arrived on site, a name that has now stuck with the industry.[citation needed]
The development of ideas continued and more than one hundred alternatives were considered. The blow-moulded widget was to be pierced with a laser and a blower was then necessary to blow away the plume created by the laser burning through the polypropylene. This was abandoned and instead it was decided to gas-exchange air for nitrogen on the filler,[2] and produce the inserts with a hole in place using straightforward and cheaper injection-moulding techniques.
Commissioning began January 1988, with a national launch date of March 1989. This first-generation widget was a plastic disc held in place by friction in the bottom of the can. This method worked fine if the beer was served cold; when served warm the can would overflow when opened. The floating widget, which Guinness calls the "Smoothifier", was launched in 1997 and does not have this problem.
The diagrams on the left show the development sequences for canned and bottled draught Guinness from 1969 to 1988.
The idea for the widget soon became popular. John Smith's started to include widgets in their cans in 1994 and many beer brands in the UK now use widgets, often alongside regular carbonated products.
Although patented by Guinness, the widget was actually invented by John Lunn, MD of Mclennons of Birmingham, who went on to invent a second for Whitbread and Heineken, so that Whitbread could launch Draught Boddingtons in a can and Murphy's. Lunn then later invented a third widget, the floating one, with two one-way valves, which is the widget that all brewers use now.
Beer glass widget[edit]
Circular widget etched in the base of a standard pint glass
Comparison of bubbles formed in a glass containing a widget (left) and one with a smooth base (right).
The term widget glass can be used to refer to a laser-etched pattern at the bottom of a beer glass which aids the release of carbon dioxide bubbles.[3] The pattern of the etching can be anything from a simple circular or chequered design to a logo or text.
The widget in the base of a beer glass works by creating a nucleation point, allowing the CO2 to be released from the liquid which comes into contact with it, thus assisting in maintaining head on the beer. This has become increasingly popular with Fosters, Estrella and others using them in public houses in the UK.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Daithí Ó hAnluain (17 December 2001). "Foaming Over Guinness in a Bottle". Wired. Cork, Ireland. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Nicholas; John Kuzniarski (3 August 1993). "CA Patent 1320934 - Gas Dissolving Method". Retrieved 2009-11-15.
Jump up ^ "Widget Glass". www.probertencyclopaedia.com. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
Bibliography[edit]
Carey & Hildebrand,Improved method of and means for dispensing carbonated liquids from containers, UK Patent 1266351, published 8 March 1972 — the original invention behind the modern widget.
Forage, et al., "Beverage package and a method of packaging a beverage containing gas in solution". United States Patent 4,832,968. 23 May 1989.
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State of matter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Phase (matter).
The four fundamental states of matter. Clockwise from top left, they are solid, liquid, plasma, and gas, represented by an ice sculpture, a drop of water, electrical arcing from a tesla coil, and the air around clouds, respectively.
In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many other states are known to exist, such as glass or liquid crystal, and some only exist under extreme conditions, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark-gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, extreme density, and extremely high-energy. Some other states are believed to be possible but remain theoretical for now. For a complete list of all exotic states of matter, see the list of states of matter.
Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are still close together but move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely.
The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but a system can contain several immiscible phases of the same state of matter.
Contents
[hide]
1 The four fundamental states
1.1 Solid
1.2 Liquid
1.3 Gas
1.4 Plasma
2 Phase transitions
3 Non-classical states
3.1 Glass
3.2 Crystals with some degree of disorder
3.3 Liquid crystal states
3.4 Magnetically ordered
3.5 Microphase-separated
4 Low-temperature states
4.1 Superfluid
4.2 Bose–Einstein condensate
4.3 Fermionic condensate
4.4 Rydberg molecule
4.5 Quantum Hall state
4.6 Photonic matter
4.7 Dropleton
5 High-energy states
5.1 Degenerate matter
5.2 Quark matter
5.3 Color-glass condensate
6 Very high energy states
7 Other proposed states
7.1 Supersolid
7.2 String-net liquid
7.3 Superglass
7.4 Dark matter
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 External links
The four fundamental states
Solid
A crystalline solid: atomic resolution image of strontium titanate. Brighter atoms are Sr and darker ones are Ti.
Main article: Solid
In a solid, constituent particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces between particles are so strong that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are various different crystal structures, and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-centred cubic structure at temperatures below 912 °C, and a face-centred cubic structure between 912 and 1394 °C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at various temperatures and pressures.[1]
Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter.
Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can likewise change directly into solids through deposition.
Liquid
Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is present.
Main article: Liquid
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water, H2O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.[2]
Gas
The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak or no bonds at all. The molecules in "gas" can move freely and fast.
Main article: Gas
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling point, or else by reducing the pressure at constant temperature.
At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).
A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the manufacture of decaffeinated coffee.[3]
Plasma
In a plasma, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming an electron "sea". This gives it the ability to conduct electricity.
Main article: Plasma (physics)
Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron "sea" allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.
A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways. e.g. Either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-called partially ionised plasma. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionised plasma.
The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma televisions. Also plasma appears in some types of flame, the Sun's corona, and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state.
Phase transitions
Main article: Phase transitions
This diagram illustrates transitions between the four fundamental states of matter.
A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states.[4] The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology. [5][6]
The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms.
Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples.
In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used in plasma is symbolized as (p).
Non-classical states
Glass
Main article: Glass
Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (left) and ordered crystalline lattice (right) of identical chemical composition.
Glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous solid material that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of silicate plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. Thermodynamically, a glass is in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero.
Crystals with some degree of disorder
A plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degree of freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered state.
Similarly, in a spin glass magnetic disorder is frozen.
Liquid crystal states
Main article: Liquid crystal
Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid, but exhibiting long-range order. For example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole, which is nematic in the temperature range 118–136 °C.[7] In this state the molecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely. Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized light.
Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays.
Magnetically ordered
Transition metal atoms often have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.
In a ferromagnet—for instance, solid iron—the magnetic moment on each atom is aligned in the same direction (within a magnetic domain). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent magnet, which is magnetic even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated to the Curie point, which for iron is 768 °C.
An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(II) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction.
In a ferrimagnet, the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, so that cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An example is magnetite (Fe3O4), which contains Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions with different magnetic moments.
A quantum spin liquid (QSL) is a disordered state in a system of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, unlike other disordered states. It is not a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic order is inherently disordered. The name "liquid" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a ferromagnet, where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an antiferromagnet, where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This can be realized e.g. by geometrically frustrated magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a state, the domain must "choose" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one will be chosen randomly. Consequently, despite strong short-range order, there is no long-range magnetic order.
Microphase-separated
Main article: Copolymer
SBS block copolymer in TEM
Copolymers can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form nanometer-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.
Ionic liquids also display microphase separation. The anion and cation are not necessarily compatible and would demix otherwise, but electric charge attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid.[8]
Low-temperature states
Superfluid
Liquid helium in a superfluid phase creeps up on the walls of the cup in a Rollin film, eventually dripping out from the cup.
Main article: Superfluid
Close to absolute zero, some liquids form a second liquid state described as superfluid because it has zero viscosity (or infinite fluidity; i.e., flowing without friction). This was discovered in 1937 for helium, which forms a superfluid below the lambda temperature of 2.17 K. In this state it will attempt to "climb" out of its container.[9] It also has infinite thermal conductivity so that no temperature gradient can form in a superfluid. Placing a superfluid in a spinning container will result in quantized vortices.
These properties are explained by the theory that the common isotope helium-4 forms a Bose–Einstein condensate (see next section) in the superfluid state. More recently, Fermionic condensate superfluids have been formed at even lower temperatures by the rare isotope helium-3 and by lithium-6.[10]
Bose–Einstein condensate
Velocity in a gas of rubidium as it is cooled: the starting material is on the left, and Bose–Einstein condensate is on the right.
Main article: Bose–Einstein condensate
In 1924, Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose predicted the "Bose–Einstein condensate" (BEC), sometimes referred to as the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matter stops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single quantum state that can be described with a single, uniform wavefunction.
In the gas phase, the Bose–Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. In 1995, the research groups of Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, of JILA at the University of Colorado at Boulder, produced the first such condensate experimentally. A Bose–Einstein condensate is "colder" than a solid. It may occur when atoms have very similar (or the same) quantum levels, at temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 °C).
Fermionic condensate
Main article: Fermionic condensate
A fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate but composed of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle prevents fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction.
Rydberg molecule
One of the metastable states of strongly non-ideal plasma is Rydberg matter, which forms upon condensation of excited atoms. These atoms can also turn into ions and electrons if they reach a certain temperature. In April 2009, Nature reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and a ground state atom,[11] confirming that such a state of matter could exist.[12] The experiment was performed using ultracold rubidium atoms.
Quantum Hall state
Main article: Quantum Hall effect
A quantum Hall state gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A quantum spin Hall state is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.
Photonic matter
Main article: Photonic matter
Photonic matter is a phenomenon where photons interacting with a gas develop apparent mass, and can interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which have no rest mass, and cannot interact.
Dropleton
Main article: Dropleton
A "quantum fog" of electrons and holes that flow around each other and even ripple like a liquid, rather than existing as discrete pairs.[13]
High-energy states
Degenerate matter
Main article: Degenerate matter
Under extremely high pressure, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter, which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, "degenerate" refers to two states that have the same energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate matter is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle, which prevents two fermionic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because there are simply no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, but pressure does not increase proportionally.
Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is found in neutron stars. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half life of just under 15 minutes, but in a neutron star, the decay is overtaken by inverse decay. Cold degenerate matter is also present in planets such as Jupiter and in the even more massive brown dwarfs, which are expected to have a core with metallic hydrogen. Because of the degeneracy, more massive brown dwarfs are not significantly larger. In metals, the electrons can be modeled as a degenerate gas moving in a lattice of non-degenerate positive ions.
Quark matter
Main article: QCD matter
In regular cold matter, quarks, fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined by the strong force into hadrons that consist of 2–4 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark matter or quantum chromodynanamical (QCD) matter is a group of phases where the strong force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and there are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary conditions, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactive decay.
Strange matter is a type of quark matter that is suspected to exist inside some neutron stars close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately 2–3 solar masses), although there is no direct evidence of its existence. In strange matter, part of the energy available manifests as strange quarks, a heavier analogue of the common down quark. It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is not known.
Quark–gluon plasma is a very high-temperature phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a sea of gluons, subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This state is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in particle accelerators, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks, and not just theorize. Quark–gluon plasma was discovered at CERN in 2000. Unlike plasma, which flows like a gas, interactions within QGP are strong and it flows like a liquid.
At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is presently unknown. It forms a distinct color-flavor locked (CFL) phase at even higher densities. This phase is superconductive for color charge. These phases may occur in neutron stars but they are presently theoretical.
Color-glass condensate
Main article: Color-glass condensate
Color-glass condensate is a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a high-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. As a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer as a "gluonic wall" traveling near the speed of light. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Unlike the quark–gluon plasma produced in the collision of such walls, the color-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can only be observed under high-energy conditions such as those at RHIC and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider as well.
Very high energy states
Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown state has created the baryon asymmetry in the universe, but little is known about it. In string theory, a Hagedorn temperature is predicted for superstrings at about 1030 K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At Planck temperature (1032 K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory can describe these states and they cannot be produced with any foreseeable experiment. However, these states are important in cosmology because the universe may have passed through these states in the Big Bang.
The gravitational singularity predicted by general relativity to exist at the center of a black hole is not a phase of matter; it is not a material object at all (although the mass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a property of spacetime at a location. It could be argued, of course, that all particles are properties of spacetime at a location,[14] leaving a half-note of controversy on the subject.
Other proposed states
Supersolid
Main article: Supersolid
A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter.[15]
String-net liquid
Main article: String-net liquid
In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself.
Superglass
Main article: Superglass
A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by superfluidity and a frozen amorphous structure.
Dark matter
Main article: Dark matter
While dark matter is estimated to comprise 83% of the mass of matter in the universe, most of its properties remain a mystery due to the fact that it neither absorbs nor emits electromagnetic radiation, and there are many competing theories regarding what dark matter is actually made of. Thus, while it is hypothesized to exist and comprise the vast majority of matter in the universe, almost all of its properties are unknown and a matter of speculation, because it has only been observed through its gravitational effects.[16][17]
See also
Hidden states of matter
Classical element
Condensed matter physics
Cooling curve
Phase (matter)
Supercooling
Superheating
Notes and references
Jump up ^ M.A. Wahab (2005). Solid State Physics: Structure and Properties of Materials. Alpha Science. pp. 1–3. ISBN 1-84265-218-4.
Jump up ^ F. White (2003). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. p. 4. ISBN 0-07-240217-2.
Jump up ^ G. Turrell (1997). Gas Dynamics: Theory and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–5. ISBN 0-471-97573-7.
Jump up ^ M. Chaplin (20 August 2009). "Water phase Diagram". Water Structure and Science. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ D.L. Goodstein (1985). States of Matter. Dover Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-486-49506-4.
Jump up ^ A.P. Sutton (1993). Electronic Structure of Materials. Oxford Science Publications. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-0-19-851754-2.
Jump up ^ Shao, Y.; Zerda, T. W. (1998). "Phase Transitions of Liquid Crystal PAA in Confined Geometries". Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 102 (18): 3387–3394. doi:10.1021/jp9734437.
Jump up ^ Álvarez, V. H.; Dosil, N.; Gonzalez-Cabaleiro, R.; Mattedi, S.; Martin-Pastor, M.; Iglesias, M. & Navaza, J. M.: Brønsted Ionic Liquids for Sustainable Processes: Synthesis and Physical Properties. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data 55 (2010), Nr. 2, S. 625-632. doi: 10.1021/je900550v
Jump up ^ J.R. Minkel (20 February 2009). "Strange but True: Superfluid Helium Can Climb Walls". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ L. Valigra (22 June 2005). "MIT physicists create new form of matter". MIT News. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ V. Bendkowsky; et al. (2009). "Observation of Ultralong-Range Rydberg Molecules". Nature. 458 (7241): 1005–8. Bibcode:2009Natur.458.1005B. doi:10.1038/nature07945. PMID 19396141.
Jump up ^ V. Gill (23 April 2009). "World First for Strange Molecule". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Luntz, Stephen (3 January 2014). "New State of Matter Discovered". IFLScience. Archived from the original on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ David Chalmers; David Manley; Ryan Wasserman (2009). Metametaphysics: New Essays on the Foundations of Ontology. Oxford University Press. pp. 378–. ISBN 978-0-19-954604-6. Archived from the original on 17 September 2014.
Jump up ^ G. Murthy; et al. (1997). "Superfluids and Supersolids on Frustrated Two-Dimensional Lattices". Physical Review B. 55 (5): 3104. arXiv:cond-mat/9607217  . Bibcode:1997PhRvB..55.3104M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.55.3104.
Jump up ^ Trimble, Virginia (1987). "Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 25: 425–472. Bibcode:1987ARA&A..25..425T. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233.
Jump up ^ Hinshaw, Gary F. (29 January 2010). "What is the universe made of?". Universe 101. NASA website. Archived from the original on 26 July 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to States of aggregation.
2005-06-22, MIT News: MIT physicists create new form of matter Citat: "... They have become the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity."
2003-10-10, Science Daily: Metallic Phase For Bosons Implies New State Of Matter
2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter Citat: "...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..."
2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate
Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex
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display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Агрегатний стан – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: مادے کی حالت – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vls
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values: צושטאנד פון מאטעריע – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-State_of_matter rootpage-State_of_matter skin-vector action-view