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Mute swan
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Mute swan
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Genus: Cygnus
Species: C. olor
Binomial name
Cygnus olor
(Gmelin, 1789)
Global range Year-Round Range Summer Range Winter Range
Synonyms
Anas olor Gmelin, 1789
Sthenelides olor (Gmelin, 1789)
Cygnus immutabilis Yarrell,1838
The mute swan (Cygnus olor) is a species of swan and a member of the waterfowl family Anatidae. It is native to much of Eurasia, and (as a rare winter visitor) the far north of Africa. It is an introduced species in North America, Australasia and southern Africa. The name 'mute' derives from it being less vocal than other swan species.[2][3][4] Measuring 125 to 170 cm (49 to 67 in) in length, this large swan is wholly white in plumage with an orange beak bordered with black. It is recognisable by its pronounced knob atop the beak, which is larger in males.
Contents
[hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Evolution
3 Description
4 Behavior
5 Breeding
6 Distribution and habitat
6.1 World population
6.1.1 Native populations
6.1.2 Introduced populations
6.1.2.1 North America
6.1.2.2 Oceania
7 In popular culture
8 Gallery
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
The mute swan was first formally described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin as Anas olor in 1789, and was transferred by Johann Matthäus Bechstein to the new genus Cygnus in 1803. Both cygnus and olor mean "swan" in Latin; cygnus is a variant form of cycnus, a borrowing from Greek κύκνος kyknos, a word of the same meaning.[5][6][7][8]
Despite its Eurasian origin, its closest relatives are the black swan of Australia and the black-necked swan of South America, not the other Northern Hemisphere swans.[2] The species is monotypic with no living subspecies.[2][4]
Evolution[edit]
Mute swan subfossils, 6,000 years old, have been found in post-glacial peat beds of East Anglia, Great Britain.[9] They have been recorded from Ireland east to Portugal and Italy,[10] and from France, 13,000 BP (Desbrosse and Mourer-Chauvire 1972–1973).[full citation needed] The paleosubspecies Cygnus olor bergmanni, which differed only in size from the living bird, is known from fossils found in Azerbaijan.[citation needed]
Fossils of swan ancestors more distantly allied to the mute swan have been found in four U.S. states: California, Arizona, Idaho and Oregon.[11] The timeline runs from the Miocene to the late Pleistocene, or 10,000 BP. The latest find was in Anza Borrego Desert, a state park in California.[11] Fossils from the Pleistocene include Cygnus paloregonus from Fossil Lake, Oregon, Froman's Ferry, Idaho, and Arizona, referred to by Howard in The Waterfowl of the World as "probably the mute type swan".[12]
Description[edit]
Two mute swan cygnets a few weeks old. The cygnet on the right is of the "Polish swan" colour morph, and carries a gene responsible for leucism.
Adults of this large swan typically range from 140 to 160 cm (55 to 63 in) long, although can range in extreme cases from 125 to 170 cm (49 to 67 in), with a 200 to 240 cm (79 to 94 in) wingspan.[13][14] Males are larger than females and have a larger knob on their bill. On average, this is the second largest waterfowl species after the trumpeter swan, although male mute swans can easily match or even exceed a male trumpeter in mass.[4][15] Among standard measurements of the mute swan, the wing chord measures 53–62.3 cm (20.9–24.5 in), the tarsus is 10–11.8 cm (3.9–4.6 in) and the bill is 6.9–9 cm (2.7–3.5 in).[4]
The mute swan is one of the heaviest flying birds. In several studies from Great Britain, males (known as cobs) were found to average from about 10.6 to 11.87 kg (23.4 to 26.2 lb), with a weight range of 9.2–14.3 kg (20–32 lb) while the slightly smaller females (known as pens) averaged about 8.5 to 9.67 kg (18.7 to 21.3 lb), with a weight range of 7.6–10.6 kg (17–23 lb).[4][16][17][18][19] While the top normal weight for a big cob is roughly 15 kg (33 lb), one unusually big Polish cob weighed almost 23 kg (51 lb) and this counts as the largest weight ever verified for a flying bird, although it has been questioned whether this heavyweight could still take flight.[20]
Young birds, called cygnets, are not the bright white of mature adults, and their bill is dull greyish-black, not orange, for the first year. The down may range from pure white to grey to buff, with grey/buff the most common. The white cygnets have a leucistic gene. Cygnets grow quickly, reaching a size close to their adult size in approximately three months after hatching. Cygnets typically retain their grey feathers until they are at least one year old, with the down on their wings having been replaced by Flight feathers earlier that year.
All mute swans are white at maturity, though the feathers (particularly on the head and neck) are often stained orange-brown by iron and tannins in the water.[21]
The morph immutabilis ("Polish swan") has pinkish (not dark grey) legs and dull white cygnets; as with white domestic geese, it is only found in populations with a history of domestication.[22] Polish swans carry a copy of a gene responsible for leucism.
Behavior[edit]
Nest in Drilon, Albania. The cob (male) is patrolling the area close to the nest to protect his mate.
Mute swans nest on large mounds that they build with waterside vegetation in shallow water on islands in the middle or at the very edge of a lake. They are monogamous and often reuse the same nest each year, restoring or rebuilding it as needed. Male and female swans share the care of the nest, and once the cygnets are fledged it is not uncommon to see whole families looking for food.They feed on a wide range of vegetation, both submerged aquatic plants which they reach with their long necks, and by grazing on land. The food commonly includes agricultural crop plants such as oilseed rape and wheat, and feeding flocks in the winter may cause significant crop damage, often as much through trampling with their large webbed feet, as through direct consumption.[23]
Unlike black swans, mute swans are usually strongly territorial with just a single pair on smaller lakes, though in a few locations where a large area of suitable feeding habitat is found they can be colonial. The largest colonies have over 100 pairs, such as at the colony at Abbotsbury Swannery in southern England, and at the southern tip of Öland Island, Ottenby Preserve, in the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea, and can have nests spaced as little as 2 m (7 ft) apart.[22][24] Non-mated juveniles up to 3–4 years old commonly form larger flocks, which can total several hundred birds, often at regular traditional sites.[25] A notable flock of non-breeding birds is found on the River Tweed estuary at Berwick-upon-Tweed in northeastern England, with a maximum count of 787 birds.[26] A large population exists near the Swan Lifeline Station in Windsor, and live on the Thames in the shadow of Windsor Castle. Once the adults are mated they seek out their own territories and often live close to ducks and gulls, which may take advantage of the swan's ability to reach deep water weeds, which tend to spread out on the water surface.[citation needed]
The mute swan is less vocal than the noisy whooper and Bewick's swans; they do, however, make a variety of grunting, hoarse whistling, and snorting noises, especially in communicating with their cygnets, and usually hiss at competitors or intruders trying to enter their territory.[27] The most familiar sound associated with mute swan is the vibrant throbbing of the wings in flight which is unique to the species, and can be heard from a range of 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1 mi), indicating its value as a contact sound between birds in flight.[22] Cygnets are especially vocal, and communicate through a variety of whistling and chirping sounds when content, as well as a harsh squawking noise when distressed or lost.
Nesting in spring, Cologne, Germany
Mute swans can be very aggressive in defence of their nests and are highly protective of their mate and offspring. Most defensive attacks from a mute swan begin with a loud hiss and, if this is not sufficient to drive off the predator, are followed by a physical attack. Swans attack by smashing at their enemy with bony spurs in the wings, accompanied by biting with their large bill. The wings of the swan are very powerful, though not strong enough to break an adult man's leg, as said anecdotally.[28] Large waterfowl, such as Canada geese, (more likely out of competition than in response to potential predation) may be aggressively driven off, and mute swans regularly attack people who enter their territory.[29] The cob is responsible for defending the cygnets while on the water, and will sometimes attack small watercraft, such as canoes, that it feels are a threat to its young. The cob will additionally try and chase the predator out of his family territory, and will keep animals such as foxes and raptors at bay. In New York (outside its native range), the most common predators of cygnets are common snapping turtles.[29] Healthy adults are rarely preyed upon, though canids such as coyotes, felids such as lynxes, and bears can pose a threat to infirm ones (healthy adults can usually swim away from danger unless defending nests) and there are a few cases of healthy adults falling prey to golden eagles.[30][31] In England, there has been an increased rate of attacks on swans by out-of-control dogs, especially in parks where the birds are less territorial. This is considered criminal in British law, and the birds are placed under the highest protection due to their association with the Monarch.[32]
The familiar pose with neck curved back and wings half raised, known as busking, is a threat display. Both feet are paddled in unison during this display, resulting in more jerky movement.[33] The swans may also use the busking posture for wind-assisted transportation over several hundred meters, so-called windsurfing.[34][35]
Breeding[edit]
Nest of Mute swan in Sweden
Mute swans lay from four to ten eggs, and the female broods for around 36 days. The cygnets do not reach the ability of flight before an age of 120 to 150 days: this limits the distribution of the species in the northern edge of its range, as the cygnets must learn to fly before the waters freeze.[citation needed]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The mute swan is found naturally mainly in temperate areas of Europe across western Asia, as far east as the Russian Maritimes, near Sidemi.[36]
It is partially migratory throughout northern latitudes in Europe and Asia, as far south as north Africa and the Mediterranean. It is known and recorded to have nested in Iceland and is a vagrant to that area, as well as to Bermuda, according to the UN Environment Programme chart of international status chart of bird species, which places it in 70 countries, breeding in 49 countries, and vagrant in 16 countries.[citation needed] While most of the current population in Japan is introduced, mute swans are depicted on scrolls more than a thousand years old, and wild birds from the mainland Asian population still occur rarely in winter. Natural migrants to Japan usually occur along with whooper and sometimes Bewick's swans.[citation needed]
The mute swan is protected in most of its range, but this has not prevented illegal hunting and poaching. It is often kept in captivity outside its natural range, as a decoration for parks and ponds, and escapes have happened. The descendants of such birds have become naturalised in the eastern United States and Great Lakes, much as the Canada goose has done in Europe.[citation needed]
World population[edit]
Native populations[edit]
Mute swans with cygnets in Oxfordshire
Mute swan cygnet in Vanhankaupunginlahti, Finland
The total native population of mute swans is about 500,000 birds at the end of the breeding season (adults plus young), of which 350,000 are in the former Soviet Union.[2] The largest single breeding concentration is 11,000 pairs in the Volga Delta.[3]
The population in the United Kingdom is about 22,000 birds, as of the 2006–2007 winter,[37] a slight decline from the peak of about 26,000-27,000 birds in 1990.[3] This includes about 5,300 breeding pairs, the remainder being immatures.[38] Other significant populations in Europe include 6,800-8,300 breeding pairs in Germany, 4,500 pairs in Denmark, 4,000-4,200 pairs in Poland, 3,000-4,000 pairs in the Netherlands, about 2,500 pairs in Ireland, and 1,200-1,700 pairs in Ukraine.[3]
For many centuries, mute swans in Britain were domesticated for food, with individuals being marked by nicks on their webs (feet) or beaks to indicate ownership. These marks were registered with the Crown and a Royal Swanherd was appointed. Any birds not so marked became Crown property, hence the swan becoming known as the "Royal Bird". It is quite possible that this domestication saved the swan from being hunted to extinction in Britain.[39][40][40]
Populations in western Europe were largely exterminated by hunting pressure in the 13th–19th centuries, with the exception of semi-domesticated birds maintained as poultry by large landowners. Better protection in the late 19th and early 20th centuries allowed birds to return to most or all of their former range.[41][42] More recently in the period from about 1960 up to the early 1980s, numbers declined significantly again in many areas, primarily due to lead poisoning from birds swallowing discarded fishing sinkers made from lead. After lead weights were replaced by other less toxic alternatives, mute swan numbers increased again rapidly.[3]
Introduced populations[edit]
Since being introduced into North America, the mute swan has increased greatly in number, to the extent that it is considered as an invasive species. Populations introduced into other areas remain small, with around 200 in Japan, fewer than 200 in New Zealand and Australia, and about 120 in South Africa.[2]
North America[edit]
The mute swan was introduced to North America in the late 19th century. Recently, it has been widely viewed as an invasive species because of its rapidly increasing numbers and its adverse effects on other waterfowl and native ecosystems. For example, a study of population sizes in the lower Great Lakes from 1971 to 2000 found that mute swan numbers were increasing at an average rate of at least 10% per year, doubling the population every seven to eight years.[43] Several studies have concluded that mute swans severely reduce densities of submerged vegetation where they occur.[44]
In 2003, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to "minimize environmental damages attributed to Mute Swans" by reducing their numbers in the Atlantic Flyway to pre-1986 levels, a 67% reduction at the time. According to a report published in the Federal Register of 2003[45] the proposal was supported by all thirteen state wildlife agencies which submitted comments, as well as by 43 bird conservation, wildlife conservation and wildlife management organisations. Ten animal rights organisations and the vast majority of comments from individuals were opposed. At this time mute swans were protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act due to a court order, but in 2005 the United States Department of the Interior officially declared them a non-native, unprotected species.[46] Mute swans are protected in some areas of the U.S. by local laws, as for example in Connecticut.[47]
The status of the mute swan as an introduced species in North America is disputed by the interest group "Save the Mute Swans".[48] They assert that mute swans are native in the region and therefore deserving of protection. They claim that mute swans had origins from Russia and cite historical sightings and fossil records. These claims have been rejected as specious by the U.S. Department of the Interior.[46]
Oceania[edit]
The mute swan had absolute protection in New Zealand under the Wildlife Act 1953 but this was changed in June 2010 to a lower level of protection. It still has protection, but is now allowed to be killed or held in captivity at the discretion of the Minister of Conservation.[49]
A small feral population exists in the vicinity of Perth, Australia, however is believed to number less than 100 individuals.
In popular culture[edit]
The Threatened Swan (c. 1650) by Jan Asselijn
A mute swan was shown on the 2004 commemorative Irish Euro coin to mark the accession of the 10 new member states which occurred during the Irish Presidency of the European Union.
The mute swan has been the national bird of Denmark since 1984. Prior to that, the skylark was considered Denmark's national bird (since 1960).
The fairy tale "The Ugly Duckling" by Hans Christian Andersen tells the story of a cygnet ostracised by his fellow barnyard fowl because of his perceived homeliness. To his delight (and to the surprise of others), he matures into a graceful swan, the most beautiful bird of all.
In the famous ballet Swan Lake, the main character, Princess Odette and her companions are turned into swans by a wicked spell.
Today, the British Monarch retains the right to ownership of all unmarked mute swans in open water, but Queen Elizabeth II only exercises her ownership on certain stretches of the Thames and its surrounding tributaries. This ownership is shared with the Vintners' and Dyers' Companies, who were granted rights of ownership by the Crown in the 15th century.[50]
The mute swans in the moat at the Bishops Palace at Wells Cathedral in Wells, England have for centuries been trained to ring bells via strings attached to them to beg for food. Two swans are still able to ring for lunch.[51]
The pair of swans in the Boston Public Garden are named Romeo and Juliet after the Shakespearean couple; however, it was found that both are female.[52]
Camille Saint-Saëns composed a movement called Le cygne in The Carnival of the Animals. It is played by solo cello and two pianos and represents a swan gliding over the water (cello) and the ripples it creates (pianos). Led Zeppelin's Jimmy Page also wrote an instrumental song called Swan Song in 1974.
Gallery[edit]
Finding food underwater
Mute swan in flight
Flock in flight
Landing on water
Mute swan egg
1956 Finnish stamp with a mute swan
Four mute swans along the bank of the Etobicoke Creek.
A family of Mute Swans on a small lake in Southern Michigan, USA.
See also[edit]
Swan Upping
The Bird of Peace (statue)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Cygnus olor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2012: e.T22679839A40128183. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T22679839A40128183.en. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1992). Handbook of the Birds of the World. 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 577–78. ISBN 84-87334-10-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Concise ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Madge, S.; Burn, H. (1987). Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World. A & C Black. ISBN 0-7470-2201-1.
Jump up ^ cycnus, olor. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
Jump up ^ κύκνος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
Jump up ^ Simpson, D. P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "cygnet". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Northcote, E. M. (1981). "Size difference between limb bones of recent and subfossil Mute Swans (Cygnus olor)". J. Archaeol. Sci. 8 (1): 89–98. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(81)90014-5.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Ralph S., ed. (1976). Handbook of North American Birds. 2. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300019025.
^ Jump up to: a b Jefferson, George T.; Lindsay, Lowell, eds. (2005). Fossil Treasures of the Anza-Borrego Desert. Sunbelt Publications. p. 153. ISBN 9780932653505.
Jump up ^ The Waterfowl of the World. pp. 262–265.
Jump up ^ Madge, Steve, Waterfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese, and Swans of the World. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (1992), ISBN 978-0-395-46726-8
Jump up ^ Mullarney, K., Svensson, L, Zetterstrom, D., & Grant, P.J. (1999) Collins Bird Guide. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd., London p. 14
Jump up ^ del Hoyo, et al., Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks (Handbooks of the Birds of the World). Lynx Edicions (1992), ISBN 978-84-87334-10-8
Jump up ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.
Jump up ^ Sears, J. (1989). Feeding activity and body condition of mute swans Cygnus olor in rural and urban areas of a lowland river system. Wildfowl, 40(40), 88-98.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, C. M. (1972). Mute Swan weights in relation to breeding. Wildfowl, 23(23), 8.
Jump up ^ Bacon, P. J., & Coleman, A. E. (1986). An analysis of weight changes in the Mute Swan Cygnus olor. Bird Study, 33(3), 145-158.
Jump up ^ Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
Jump up ^ "The Mute Swan | Birds of Eden". Birds of Eden. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cramp, S., ed. (1977). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-857358-8.
Jump up ^ Parrott, D.; McKay, H. V. (2001). "Mute swan grazing on winter crops: Estimation of yield loss in oilseed rape and wheat. Mute swans occasionally eat insects, amphibians and smaller birds". J. Crop Protection. 20: 913–919. doi:10.1016/s0261-2194(01)00041-2.
Jump up ^ Hogan, C. M. (2006). Environmental Database for Oland, Sweden. Lumina Press.
Jump up ^ Scott, P.; Wildfowl Trust (1972). Behavioral patterns of juvenile Mute Swans.
Jump up ^ "The Berwick Swan and Wildlife Trust".
Jump up ^ "Mute Swan". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Classroom Resources - Argonne National Laboratory". anl.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mute Swan". New York Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "ADW: Cygnus olor: INFORMATION". Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Watson, Jeff (2011). The Golden Eagle (Second ed.). ISBN 978-0-30017-019-1.
Jump up ^ https://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/protection_of_swans_from_attack
Jump up ^ "Topic: Busking". Bird On! Bird Care. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Terenius, Olle (2016-09-01). "Windsurfing in Mute Swans (Cygnus olor)". The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 128 (3): 628–631. doi:10.1676/1559-4491-128.3.628. ISSN 1559-4491.
Jump up ^ "Windsurfing Mute Swan".
Jump up ^ Dement'ev, G. P.; Gladkov, N. A. (1967). Birds of the Soviet Union. IV. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Translation.
Jump up ^ Austin, G.; Collier, M.; Calbrade, N.; Hall, C.; Musgrove, A. (2008). Waterbirds in the UK 2006/07. Thetford: Wetland Bird Survey. ISBN 978-1-906204-33-4.
Jump up ^ Baker, Helen; Stroud, David A.; Aebischer, Nicholas J.; Cranswick, Peter A.; Gregory, Richard D.; McSorley, Claire A.; Noble, David G.; Rehfisch, Mark M. (January 2006). "Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom" (PDF). British Birds. 99: 25–44.
Jump up ^ "About Mute Swans". northwestswanstudy.org.uk.
^ Jump up to: a b "Swan Upping on the River Thames - History by The Royal Windsor Web Site". thamesweb.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Ticehurst, N. E. (1957). The Mute Swan in England. London: Cleaver-Hume Press.
Jump up ^ Holloway, S. (1996). The Historical Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland 1875–1900. London: Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-094-1.
Jump up ^ Petrie, Scott A.; Francis, Charles M. (2010). "Rapid increase in the lower Great Lakes population of feral mute swans: a review and a recommendation". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 31 (2): 407.
Jump up ^ Allin, Charles C.; Husband, Thomas P. (September 2003). "Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) impact on submerged aquatic vegetation and macroinvertebrates in a Rhode Island coastal pond". Northeastern Naturalist. 10 (3): 305–318. doi:10.1656/1092-6194(2003)010[0305:MSCOIO]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1092-6194.
Jump up ^ Williams, Steve. "Finding of No Significant Impact and Final Environmental Assessment for the Management of Mute Swans in the Atlantic Flyway" (PDF). Federal Register. 68 (152): 47085.
^ Jump up to: a b "Final List of Bird Species to Which the Migratory Bird Treaty Act Does Not Apply" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Bird lovers, Conn. are at odds on swans". Boston Globe. 24 December 2007. Retrieved 7 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Mute Swan Advocacy". Mute Swan Advocacy. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Protection status changes to Wildlife Act". New Zealand Government. 10 June 2010.
Jump up ^ British Monarchy website regarding swan upping and the Crown's ownership of Mute Swans.
Jump up ^ "Swan Watch: The Bishop's Swans". Retrieved 4 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Slack, Donovan (12 August 2005). "Thou art no Romeo". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to the mute swan.
Wikispecies has information related to: Cygnus olor
Mute swan media at ARKive
"Mute swan media". Internet Bird Collection.
mtDNA Mute Swan video The mitochondrial DNA sequence of 'Cygnus olor' translated into music.
Mute swan photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
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SI base unit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The seven SI base units and the interdependency of their definitions: for example, to extract the definition of the metre from the speed of light, the definition of the second must be known while the ampere and candela are both dependent on the definition of energy which in turn is defined in terms of length, mass and time.
The International System of Units (SI) defines seven units of measure as a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived. The SI base units and their physical quantities are the metre for measurement of length, the kilogram for mass, the second for time, the ampere for electric current, the kelvin for temperature, the candela for luminous intensity, and the mole for amount of substance.
The SI base units form a set of mutually independent dimensions as required by dimensional analysis commonly employed in science and technology.
The names and symbols of SI base units are written in lowercase, except the symbols of those named after a person, which are written with an initial capital letter. For example, the metre (US English: meter) has the symbol m, but the kelvin has symbol K, because it is named after Lord Kelvin and the ampere with symbol A is named after André-Marie Ampère.
Several other units, such as the litre (US English: liter), are formally not part of the SI, but are accepted for use with SI.
Contents
[hide]
1 Seven SI base units
2 Proposed redefinitions
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Seven SI base units[edit]
SI base units
Name
Symbol
Measure
Current (2005) formal definition[1]
Historical origin / justification
Dimension
symbol
metre m length "The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 ⁄ 7008299792458000000♠299792458 of a second."
17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1, CR, 97) 1 ⁄ 10,000,000 of the distance from the Earth's equator to the North Pole measured on the circumference through Paris. L
kilogram kg mass "The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram."
3rd CGPM (1901, CR, 70) The mass of one litre of water at the temperature of melting ice. A litre is one thousandth of a cubic metre. M
second s time "The second is the duration of 7009919263177000000♠9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom."
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 1; CR, 103)
"This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."
(Added by CIPM in 1997) The day is divided in 24 hours, each hour divided in 60 minutes, each minute divided in 60 seconds.
A second is 1 ⁄ (24 × 60 × 60) of the day. T
ampere A electric current "The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length."
9th CGPM (1948) The original "International Ampere" was defined electrochemically as the current required to deposit 1.118 milligrams of silver per second from a solution of silver nitrate. Compared to the SI ampere, the difference is 0.015%. I
kelvin K thermodynamic temperature "The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1 ⁄ 7002273160000000000♠273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 4; CR, 104)
"This definition refers to water having the isotopic composition defined exactly by the following amount of substance ratios: 0.000 155 76 mole of 2H per mole of 1H, 0.000 379 9 mole of 17O per mole of 16O, and 0.002 005 2 mole of 18O per mole of 16O."
(Added by CIPM in 2005) The Celsius scale: the Kelvin scale uses the degree Celsius for its unit increment, but is a thermodynamic scale (0 K is absolute zero). Θ
mole mol amount of substance "1. The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is 'mol'.
2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles."
14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78)
"In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred to."
(Added by CIPM in 1980)
Atomic weight or molecular weight divided by the molar mass constant, 1 g/mol. N
candela cd luminous intensity "The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 7014540000000000000♠540×1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian."
16th CGPM (1979, Resolution 3; CR, 100) The candlepower, which is based on the light emitted from a burning candle of standard properties. J
Name
Symbol
Measure
Current (2005) formal definition[1]
Historical origin / justification
Dimension
symbol
Proposed redefinitions[edit]
Main article: Proposed redefinition of SI base units
Proposed SI System: Dependence of base unit definitions on physical constants with fixed numerical values and on other base units that are derived from the same set of constants.
The definitions of the base units have been modified several times since the Metre Convention in 1875, and new additions of base units have occurred. Since the redefinition of the metre in 1960, the kilogram is the only unit that is directly defined in terms of a physical artifact, rather than a property of nature. However, the mole, the ampere, and the candela are linked through their definitions to the mass of the platinum–iridium cylinder stored in a vault near Paris.
It has long been an objective in metrology to define the kilogram in terms of a fundamental constant, in the same way that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The 21st General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, 1999) placed these efforts on an official footing, and recommended "that national laboratories continue their efforts to refine experiments that link the unit of mass to fundamental or atomic constants with a view to a future redefinition of the kilogram." Two possibilities have attracted particular attention: the Planck constant and the Avogadro constant.
In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved preparation of new definitions for the kilogram, the ampere, and the kelvin and it noted the possibility of a new definition of the mole based on the Avogadro constant.[2] The 23rd CGPM (2007) decided to postpone any formal change until the next General Conference in 2011.[3][needs update]
In a note to the CIPM in October 2009,[4] Ian Mills, the President of the CIPM Consultative Committee - Units (CCU) catalogued the uncertainties of the fundamental constants of physics according to the current definitions and their values under the proposed new definition. He urged the CIPM to accept the proposed changes in the definition of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole so that they are referenced to the values of the fundamental constants, namely the Planck constant (h), the electron charge (e), the Boltzmann constant (k), and the Avogadro constant (NA).[5]
See also[edit]
International vocabulary of metrology
International System of Quantities
Non-SI units mentioned in the SI
Metric prefix
Physical constant
Electric constant
Magnetic constant
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (8th ed.), ISBN 92-822-2213-6, archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-14
Jump up ^ 94th Meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005). Recommendation 1: Preparative steps towards new definitions of the kilogram, the ampere, the kelvin and the mole in terms of fundamental constants
Jump up ^ 23rd General Conference on Weights and Measures (2007). Resolution 12: On the possible redefinition of certain base units of the International System of Units (SI).
Jump up ^ Ian Mills, President of the CCU (October 2009). "Thoughts about the timing of the change from the Current SI to the New SI" (PDF). CIPM. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
Jump up ^ Ian Mills (29 September 2010). "Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units" (PDF). CCU. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
External links[edit]
International Bureau of Weights and Measures
National Physical Laboratory
NIST -SI
[show]
v
t
e
SI units
Authority: International System of Units (BIPM)
Base units
ampere
candela
kelvin
kilogram
metre
mole
second
Derived units with special names
becquerel
coulomb
degree Celsius
farad
gray
henry
hertz
joule
katal
lumen
lux
newton
ohm
pascal
radian
siemens
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weber
Other accepted units
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dalton
day
decibel
degree of arc
electronvolt
hectare
hour
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minute of arc
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second of arc
tonne
atomic units
natural units
See also
Conversion of units
Metric prefixes
Proposed redefinitions
Systems of measurement
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
SI base quantities
Base quantity
Quantity
SI unit
Name
Symbol
Dimension
symbol
Unit name
(symbol)
Example
length l, x, r, (etc.) L metre (m) r = 10 m
mass m M kilogram (kg) m = 10 kg
time, duration t T second (s) t = 10 s
electric current I , i I  ampere (A) I = 10 A
thermodynamic temperature T Θ kelvin (K) T = 10 K
amount of substance n N mole (mol) n = 10 mol
luminous intensity Iv J candela (cd) Iv = 10 cd
Specification
The quantity (not the unit) can have a specification: Tmax = 300 K
Derived quantity
Definition
A quantity Q is expressed in the base quantities: Q = f ( l , m , t , I , T , n , I v ) {\displaystyle Q=f\left({\mathit {l,m,t,I,T,n,I}}\mathrm {_{v}} \right)}
Derived dimension
dim Q = La · Mb · Tc · Id · Θe · Nf · Jg (Superscripts a–g are algebraic exponents, usually a positive, negative or zero integer.)
Example
Quantity acceleration = l1 · t−2, dim acceleration = L1 · T−2
possible units: m1 · s−2, km1 · Ms−2, etc.
See also
History of the metric system
International System of Quantities
Proposed redefinitions
Systems of measurement
Book
Category
Outline
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SI_base_unit&oldid=809327482"
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Ages of consent in Oceania
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Main article: Age of consent
The ages of consent for sexual activity vary by jurisdiction across Australia, New Zealand and Oceania, ranging from age 15 to age 18. The specific activity engaged in or the gender of its participants can also be affected by the law. Below is a discussion of the various laws dealing with this subject. The highlighted age refers to an age at or above which an individual can engage in unfettered sexual relations with another who is also at or above that age. Close in age exceptions may exist and are noted when relevant. In Vanuatu the homosexual age of consent is set higher at 18, while the heterosexual age of consent is 15. Same sex sexual activity is illegal at any age for males in Papua New Guinea, Kiribati, the Cook Islands, Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu; it is outlawed for both men and women in the Solomon Islands. In all other places the age of consent is equal, regardless of sexual orientation or gender.
The below is a list of all jurisdictions in Oceania as listed in List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania.
Contents
1 Australia
1.1 Regulations by state
1.2 Federal laws
1.3 Australian Capital Territory
1.4 Coral Sea Islands Territory
1.5 New South Wales
1.6 Norfolk Island
1.7 Northern Territory
1.8 Queensland
1.9 South Australia
1.10 Tasmania
1.11 Victoria
1.12 Western Australia
2 Clipperton Island (France)
3 Cook Islands
4 Easter Island (Chile)
5 Federated States of Micronesia
6 Fiji
7 French Polynesia (France)
8 Juan Fernández Islands (Chile)
9 Kiribati
10 Marcus Island (Japan)
11 Marshall Islands
12 Nauru
13 New Caledonia (France)
14 New Zealand
14.1 Tokelau
15 Niue
16 Okinotori Islands (Japan)
17 Palau
18 Papua (Indonesia)
19 Papua New Guinea
20 Pitcairn Island (United Kingdom)
21 Samoa
22 Solomon Islands
23 Tonga
24 Tuvalu
25 United States (Hawaii and Pacific Territories)
25.1 Hawaii
25.2 American Samoa
25.3 Guam
25.4 Northern Mariana Islands
25.5 Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument
25.6 Midway Atoll
26 Vanuatu
27 Wallis and Futuna (France)
28 See also
29 References
Australia[edit]
Age of consent in Australia:
16
17
Australia is a federation of States and Territories, with each State and Territory having the primary jurisdiction over age of consent issues within its territory. However, as a result of the international affairs power under Australia's constitution, a 1997 United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling has resulted in States repealing rules that differentiated between homosexual and heterosexual people on age of consent issues.
Regulations by state[edit]
State
Minimum age of consent
New South Wales 16
Queensland 16
South Australia 17
Tasmania 17
Victoria 16
Western Australia 16
Northern Territory 16
Australian Capital Territory 16
Federal laws[edit]
Under federal legislation that applies to all Australians, it is an offence for an Australian citizen, resident or body corporate[1] while outside of Australia to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16[1] or to induce a child under the age of 16 to have sexual intercourse,[1] or be somehow involved in a similar sexual act.[1]
Sex between consenting adults (18 or over) in private, regardless of gender or sexual orientation can not be outlawed under section 4 of the Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994.[2][3]
Australian Capital Territory[edit]
It is an offence in the Australian Capital Territory to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16.[4] However, it is a defence if the younger party was aged 10 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger party.[5] It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[6]
Coral Sea Islands Territory[edit]
The laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply to the Coral Sea Islands Territory.[7]
New South Wales[edit]
It is an offence in New South Wales to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16[8] or attempt such an offence.[9] It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[10]
Norfolk Island[edit]
It is an offence in Norfolk Island for a person to have sexual intercourse or commit an act of indecency with a person under the age of 16.[11][12][13] The Australian Government has proposed to introduce a new offence of sexual intercourse with a young person under special care based on the law in the Australian Capital Territory.[14]
Northern Territory[edit]
It is an offence in the Northern Territory to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16,[15]:s 127 or attempt such an offence.[15]:s 131 It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[15]:s 128
Queensland[edit]
It is an offence in Queensland to have carnal knowledge of a person under the age of 16. "Carnal knowledge" includes all types of sexual activity.[16] Legislation in September 2016 lowered and equalised the age of consent for anal sex to 16.[17]
South Australia[edit]
It is an offence in South Australia to engage in any activity which involves fellatio, cunnilingus or placing any part of the body within the labia majora, vagina or anus of a person under the age of 17 unless they are lawful spouses.[18] The Australian Marriage Act can permit someone who is 18 or over to marry a 16-year-old.[19] But, it is a defence if the person is 16 at the time of the offence and either the offender is under 17 years of age or believe on reasonable grounds that the other person is 17 or older.[20] It is also an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 18 if that person is under the care of the offender (guardian, teacher etc.).[21]
Tasmania[edit]
It is an offence in Tasmania to have sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 17.[22] However, it is a defence if the younger person was aged 12 years or older and the older was not more than 3 years their senior or, if the younger person was of or above 15 years and the older was not more than 5 years their senior.[22][23]
Victoria[edit]
It is an offence in Victoria to sexually penetrate a person under the age of 16.[24] However, it is a defence if the younger party was aged 12 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger person, or they were married.[25] It is also an offence for a person having the care of a person under the age of 18 (guardian, teacher etc.) to sexually penetrate that person.[26] A person under the age of 18 is not allowed to work as a prostitute nor to be in a brothel.[27]
Western Australia[edit]
It is an offence in Western Australia to sexually penetrate a person under the age of 16.[28] It is also an offence for a person in a position of authority over a person under the age of 18 to have sex with that person.[29]
Clipperton Island (France)[edit]
The laws of France where applicable apply.[30] (These specify a general age of consent of 15.) See Ages of consent in Europe#France.
Cook Islands[edit]
It is an offence in the Cook Islands to have sexual intercourse with a girl under the age of 16,[31] (ss146 and 147). If the girl consented and is aged 12 or more, it is a defence if the offender is younger than the girl, or if he is under 21 of age and "had reasonable cause to believe, and did believe" that the girl was aged 16 or older. (These defenses do not apply if consent was obtained fraudulently.)
There is no minimum age of consent for boys with women, although sodomy is illegal at any age (s155) and also exist the sodomy crimes that apply we criminal codes (S154, S159)
154. Indecency between males - (1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years who, bring a male,-
(a) Indecently assaults any other male; or
(b) Does any indecent act with or upon any other male; or
(c) Induces or permits any other male to do any indecent act with or upon him.
(2) No boy under the age of fifteen years shall be charged with committing or being a party to an offence against paragraph (b) or paragraph (c) of subsection (1) of this section, unless the other male was under the age of twenty-one years.
(3) It is not defence to a charge under this section that the other party consented.
155. Sodomy - (1) Every one who commits sodomy is liable-
(a) Where the act of sodomy is committed on a female, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding fourteen years;
(b) Where the act of sodomy is committed on a male, and at the time of the act that male is under the age of fifteen years and the offender is of over the age of twenty-one years, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding fourteen years;
(c) In any other case, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years.
(2) This offence is complete upon penetration.
(3) Where sodomy is committed on any person under the age of fifteen years he shall not be charged with being a party to that offence, but he may be charged with being a party to an offence against section 154 of this Act in say case to which that section is applicable.
(4) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the other party consented.
159. Keeping Place of resort for homosexual acts -Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years who-
(a) Keeps or manages, or acts or assists in the management of, say premises used as a place of resort for the commission of indecent acts between males; or
(b) Being the tenant, lessee, or occupier of any promises, knowingly permits the premises or any part thereof to be used as a place of resort for the commission of indecent acts between males; or
(c) Being the lessor or landlord of any premises, or the agent of the lessor or landlord, lets the premises or any part thereof with the knowledge that the premises are to be used as a place of resort for the commission of indecent acts between males, or that dome part thereof is to be so used, or is wilfully a party to the continued use of the premises or any part thereof as a place of resort for the commission of such acts as aforesaid.
More in line with the Criminal Code sections 152 and 153, the age of consent for same-sex men and women is begins, starting at 15 years
152. Indecent act between woman and girl - (1) Every woman of or over the age of twenty-one years is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding seven years who-
(a) Does any indecent act with or upon any girl under the age of fifteen years; or
(b) Induces or permits any girl under the age of fifteen years to do say indecent act with or upon her.
(2) The girl shall not be charged as a party to an offence committed with or upon her against this section.
(3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the girl consented.
153. Indecency between man and boy - (1) Every one is liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years who, being a male-
(a) Indecently assaults any boy under the age of fifteen years; or
(b) Does any indecent act with or upon any boy under the age of fifteen years; or
(c) Induces or permits any boy under the age of fifteen years to do any indecent act with or upon him.
(2) No person under the age of twenty-one years shall be charged with committing or being a party to an offence against this section.
(3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the boy consented.
Easter Island (Chile)[edit]
For this section, see Ages of consent in South America § Chile.
Federated States of Micronesia[edit]
The states’ statutory rape laws apply to children age 13 and below in Yap and Kosrae and age 15 and below in Pohnpei.[32] The age of consent in Chuuk state is 18.[33]
Fiji[edit]
Under the Crimes Act 2010 effective since 1 February 2010, the age of consent in Fiji is 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender.
French Polynesia (France)[edit]
The laws of France where applicable apply.[30] (These specify a general age of consent of 15.) See Ages of consent in Europe#France.
Juan Fernández Islands (Chile)[edit]
For this section, see Ages of consent in South America § Chile.
Kiribati[edit]
The age of consent in Kiribati is 15 (sections 133, 134 & 135), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 153, 154 & 155). Furthermore, section 132 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 136 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.[34]
Marcus Island (Japan)[edit]
Marcus Island is administratively under the government of Tokyo. See Age of Consent in Japan.
Marshall Islands[edit]
The age of consent in Marshall Islands is 16. Section 152(A) of the Criminal Code provides that anyone engaging in sexual penetration with a person under 16 is liable to imprisonment for up to 25 years.[35]
Nauru[edit]
In Nauru it is an offence under the Crimes Act 2016, Division 7.3 to engage in sexual intercourse with a person under the age of 16.[36] Consent is not a defence unless the younger party was aged 13 years or older and the offender was not more than 2 years older than the younger person.[36]
New Caledonia (France)[edit]
New Caledonia has a civil law system based on French law; the 1988 Matignon Accords grant substantial autonomy to the islands.[30]
New Zealand[edit]
It is an offence in New Zealand to have a sexual connection with a person under the age of 16.[37] It is a defence if due diligence had been undertaken by the defendant to ascertain the victim's age, had reasonable grounds to believe the victim was aged 16 or over and consent was given.[38] Further it is an offence for a person to have a sexual connection with a person under the age of 18 if the defendant is in a guardianship role (parent, stepparent, foster parent, guardian, uncle, aunt or other members of extended family, whanau or other power or authority or responsibility for care or upbringing).[39] The age of consent for girls had earlier been 12 years, and was progressively raised to 16 years in the late 19th century.
The age of consent for prostitution in New Zealand is higher. Although prostitution is legal, under the Prostitution Reform Act 2003 it is illegal to procure or receive sexual services from any person under 18.[40]
New Zealand has had a uniform and equal age of consent of 16, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender since the passage of the Homosexual Law Reform Act in 1986. All territories of New Zealand have legalized homosexuality in 2007 (except for the Cook Islands as shown below) LGBT rights in New Zealand under the Niue Amendment Act 2007.[41]
. Contraceptives in New Zealand are not age restricted and are available to people under 16. A teen 12 years or older can be prosecuted for a consensual relationship with a teen under 16 (both parties if both are 12 years or older), although this is extremely rare. Even with a complaint, it is still up to police discretion and if the age difference is small it is rarely prosecuted, with family group conferences being the more likely option.[42] There was an attempt to formalise this under law in 2004, however this was abandoned after a public outcry. Before 2005, there was no law in New Zealand prohibiting any form of sexual relationship between adult women and male minors.[43]
The sexual abuse of boys of any age, including rape, by adult women was fully legal in New Zealand until around 2007. This is despite New Zealand having been party to international conventions against the exploitation of children since the 1980s. In 2003, swimming instructor Stacey Margaret Friel, 21, was reported to have had sex with a 13-year-old boy, but faced no charges at the time due to the lack of laws against sexual abuse of boys by women. Since the loophole in the laws was closed there have been a number of cases of women being prosecuted for sexual abuse of young boys, including a woman who gave birth to the child of an 11-year-old boy whom she had allegedly raped.[44]
Tokelau[edit]
The age of consent is 16. Section 19 of the Crimes, Procedures and Evidence Rules, 2003 (CPER) reads: "1) A person who has carnal knowledge of another— [..] (i)(II)if the victim is under the age of 16 years, whether the victim consented or not [...] commits an offence." Section 21 reads: "(1) A person who indecently assaults another commits an offence. (2) Where the victim is a mental defective or under the age of 16 years it is no defence to a charge under this rule that the person consented to the offence, or that the person charged believed that the person assaulted was sane or not under the age of 16 years as the case may be."[45]
Niue[edit]
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The age of consent in Niue is 16.
Okinotori Islands (Japan)[edit]
The Okinotori Islands are administratively under the government of Tokyo. See Age of Consent in Japan.
Palau[edit]
The age of consent in Palau is 17.[46] There is a close in age exemption allowing 15 and 16 year-olds to have sex with partners less than 5 years older. Article § 1602 reads: a) A person commits the offense of sexual assault in the first degree if: (...) (3) The person knowingly engages in sexual penetration with a person who is at least fifteen years old but less than seventeen years old; provided that: (A) The person is not less than five years older than the minor; and (B) The person is not legally married to the minor".[47]
Papua (Indonesia)[edit]
The age of consent in Indonesia Ages of consent in Asia.
Papua New Guinea[edit]
In Papua New Guinea it is unlawful to have carnal knowledge of a girl under the age of 16.[48] If the victim is aged 12 or more, it is a defence if the defendant "believed, on reasonable grounds" that the girl was aged 16 or older. It is a crime for any person to indecently deal with a boy under the age of 14 (section 211), and boys under the age of 17 are not deemed able to consent to acts by another male that, but for their consent, would be indecent assaults (section 243). Also having or allowing carnal knowledge "against the order of nature" is illegal at any age, as are acts of "gross indecency" between males (sections 210 and 212).
Pitcairn Island (United Kingdom)[edit]
The current age of consent appears to be 16, as a 1999 case involved a New Zealand tourist convicted of "unlawful carnal knowledge" of a girl of 15 (this will be confirmed once The Pitcairn Constitution Order 2010 comes into effect). However the Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004 involved mostly charges of rape or sexual assault, not "underage sex" (and some "gross indecency with a child under 14" charges), although it was claimed during the trial that (presumably consensual) "underage sex" with girls from the age of 12 was normal on Pitcairn.
Samoa[edit]
The age of consent in Samoa is 16, per Section 59. Sexual conduct with young person under 16, of the Crime Act 2013.[49] Homosexual acts are illegal regardless of age (Section 67. Sodomy).[49]
Solomon Islands[edit]
The age of consent in the Solomon Islands is 15 (sections 141, 142 & 143), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 160, 161 & 162). Further, section 140 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 144 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.[50]
Tonga[edit]
The age of consent in Tonga is 15.[51]
Section 121
Carnal knowledge of child or young person
[...]
(2) Any person who carnally knows any young person under the age of 15 years shall be liable on conviction thereof to imprisonment for 5 years
Section 124
Indecent assault
[...]
(5) A young person under the age of 15 years cannot in law give any consent which would prevent an act being an indecent assault for the purposes of this section.
Tuvalu[edit]
The age of consent in Tuvalu is 15 (sections 133, 134 & 135), but homosexual sex is illegal at all ages (sections 153, 154 & 155). Further, section 132 prohibits taking a girl under 18 out of the care of her parents or guardian for the purpose of sexual intercourse, while section 136 prohibits procuring a girl under 18 for sexual intercourse.[52]
United States (Hawaii and Pacific Territories)[edit]
Main article: Ages of consent in the United States
Ages of consent in the United States, including Hawaii and the following Oceania territories: Guam, CNMI, and American Samoa
16
17
18
No data available / other
Hawaii[edit]
The age of consent in Hawaii is 16 years old. There is however a close in age exemption, which allows those aged 14 and 15 to consent to sex with those less than five years older.[53]
American Samoa[edit]
It is an offence in American Samoa to engage in sexual acts with a person under the age of 16.[54]
Guam[edit]
The age of consent in Guam is 16.
§ 25.25. Third Degree Criminal Sexual Conduct.[55]
(a) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct in the third degree if the person engages in sexual penetration with another person and if any of the following circumstances exists:
(1) that other person is at least fourteen (14) years of age and under sixteen (16) years of age
(...)
Northern Mariana Islands[edit]
The age of consent in the Northern Mariana Islands is 16, according to Sections 1306-1309 of the Commonwealth Code.[56] There a close-in-age exemption permitting minors aged 13–15 to engage in sexual activity with those less than three years older. Under the same provisions, it is also illegal for any person aged 16 or older to aid, encourage, induce or causes minors under 13 to engage in any sexual activity, or minors aged 13–15 to engage in sexual activity with persons older than them by three years or more.
The age of consent rises to 18 when the older partner - being age 18 or older - is the parent, stepparent, adopted parent, or legal guardian of the younger person, or when the older partner has or occupies a position of authority over the younger person. This does not apply for minors aged 16 or 17 as long as the older partner is less than three years older and is not the younger person's parent, stepparent, adopted parent or legal guardian. According to section 1317, a position of authority "means an employer, youth leader, scout leader, coach, teacher, counselor, school administrator, religious leader, doctor, nurse, psychologist, guardian ad litem, babysitter, or a substantially similar position, and a police officer or probation officer other than when the officer is exercising custodial control" over a person under 18.
According to Section 1310, affirmative defenses for the crimes outlined in Sections 1306-1309 exists for consensual activity between legal spouses and for cases where the defendant reasonably believed that a minor age 13 or older was of legal age.
Sections 1303 and 1304 of the Commonwealth Code also criminalize sexual activity with persons aged 18 or 19, if they are "committed to the custody of the Department of Public Health and Environmental Services under the Commonwealth’s civil or criminal laws, and the offender is the legal guardian of the person".
Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument[edit]
Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island, are under the jurisdiction of the US Federal Government Department of the Interior, as part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. As such, all US Federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.
Midway Atoll[edit]
Midway Atoll is under the jurisdiction of the US Federal Government Department of the Interior (administered as a National Wildlife Refuge). As such, all US Federal laws regarding age of consent would be applicable.
Vanuatu[edit]
Since 1 January 2007 under the Criminal Consolidation Act 2006, the age of consent on Vanuatu is 15 for heterosexual conduct and 18 for homosexual conduct.[57][58] Article 97 reads: (...) (2) No person shall have sexual intercourse with any child under the age of 15 years but of or over the age of 13 years. (3) It is no defence to a charge under this section that the child consented or that the person charged believed that the child was of or over the age in question. [59] Article 99 reads: No person shall commit any homosexual act with a person of the same sex under 18 years of age, whether or not that person consents. [59]
Wallis and Futuna (France)[edit]
The laws of France where applicable apply.[30] See Ages of consent in Europe#France.
See also[edit]
Sexuality portal
Law portal
Age of consent
Age of consent reform
Ages of consent in Africa
Ages of consent in Asia
Ages of consent in Europe
Ages of consent in North America
Ages of consent in South America
Sex education
Comprehensive sex education
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ {Part 7 Section 134A}
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