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TRIPS Agreement
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"TRIPS" redirects here. For the microprocessor, see TRIPS architecture. For the German racing driver, see Wolfgang von Trips. For other uses, see Trip.
TRIP Agreement
Annex 1C to the Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
WTO members (where the TRIPS agreement applies)
Parties to the Agreement where also the membership of the European Union applies
Type
Annex to the Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization
Effective
1 January 1995[1]
Parties
162 (All WTO members)[2]
Languages
English, French and Spanish
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights at Wikisource
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It sets down minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of many forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations.[3] TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994 and is administered by the WTO.
The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive international agreement on intellectual property to date. In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all."
Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering content producers including performers, producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations; geographical indications, including appellations of origin; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade dress; and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. Protection and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.
Contents
1 Background and history
2 The requirements of TRIPS
2.1 Access to essential medicines
2.2 Software and business method patents
3 Implementation in developing countries
4 Post-TRIPS expansion
5 Panel reports
6 Criticism
7 See also
7.1 Related treaties and laws
7.2 Related organizations
7.3 Other
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
Background and history[edit]
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TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994. Its inclusion was the culmination of a program of intense lobbying by the United States, supported by the European Union, Japan and other developed nations. Campaigns of unilateral economic encouragement under the Generalized System of Preferences and coercion under Section 301 of the Trade Act played an important role in defeating competing policy positions that were favored by developing countries like Brazil, but also including Thailand, India and Caribbean Basin states. In turn, the United States strategy of linking trade policy to intellectual property standards can be traced back to the entrepreneurship of senior management at Pfizer in the early 1980s, who mobilized corporations in the United States and made maximizing intellectual property privileges the number one priority of trade policy in the United States (Braithwaite and Drahos, 2000, Chapter 7).
After the Uruguay round, the GATT became the basis for the establishment of the World Trade Organization. Because ratification of TRIPS is a compulsory requirement of World Trade Organization membership, any country seeking to obtain hard access to the numerous international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must enact the strict intellectual property laws mandated by TRIPS. For this reason, TRIPS is the most important multilateral instrument for the globalization of intellectual property laws. States like Russia and China [4] that were very unlikely to join the Berne Convention have found the prospect of WTO membership a powerful enticement.
Furthermore, unlike other agreements on intellectual property, TRIPS has a powerful enforcement mechanism. States can be disciplined through the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism.
The requirements of TRIPS[edit]
TRIPS requires member states to provide strong protection for intellectual property rights. For example, under TRIPS:
Copyright terms must extend at least 50 years, unless based on the life of the author. (Art. 12 and 14)[5]
Copyright must be granted automatically, and not based upon any "formality," such as registrations, as specified in the Berne Convention. (Art. 9)
Computer programs must be regarded as "literary works" under copyright law and receive the same terms of protection.
National exceptions to copyright (such as "fair use" in the United States) are constrained by the Berne three-step test
Patents must be granted for "inventions" in all "fields of technology" provided they meet all other patentability requirements (although exceptions for certain public interests are allowed (Art. 27.2 and 27.3)[6] and must be enforceable for at least 20 years (Art 33).
Exceptions to exclusive rights must be limited, provided that a normal exploitation of the work (Art. 13) and normal exploitation of the patent (Art 30) is not in conflict.
No unreasonable prejudice to the legitimate interests of the right holders of computer programs and patents is allowed.
Legitimate interests of third parties have to be taken into account by patent rights (Art 30).
In each state, intellectual property laws may not offer any benefits to local citizens which are not available to citizens of other TRIPS signatories under the principle of national treatment (with certain limited exceptions, Art. 3 and 5).[7] TRIPS also has a most favored nation clause.
Many of the TRIPS provisions on copyright were copied from the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and many of its trademark and patent provisions were modeled on the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. It is the case of the protection of software and database.
Article 10 of the treaty stipulates:
"1. Computer programs, whether in source or object code, shall be protected as literary works under the Berne Convention (1971). 2. Compilations of data or other material, whether in machine readable or other form, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such. Such protection, which shall not extend to the data or material itself, shall be without prejudice to any copyright subsisting in the data or material itself."
Access to essential medicines[edit]
The most visible conflict has been over AIDS drugs in Africa. Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement, the Doha Declaration, was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises. After Doha, PhRMA, the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration.[8]
A 2003 agreement loosened the domestic market requirement, and allows developing countries to export to other countries where there is a national health problem as long as drugs exported are not part of a commercial or industrial policy.[9] Drugs exported under such a regime may be packaged or colored differently in order to prevent them from prejudicing markets in the developed world.
In 2003, the Bush administration also changed its position, concluding that generic treatments might in fact be a component of an effective strategy to combat HIV. Bush created the PEPFAR program, which received $15 billion from 2003–2007, and was reauthorized in 2008 for $48 billion over the next five years. Despite wavering on the issue of [compulsory licensing], PEPFAR began to distribute generic drugs in 2004-5.
Software and business method patents[edit]
Main article: Software_patents_under_TRIPs_Agreement
Another controversy has been over the TRIPS Article 27 requirements for patentability "in all fields of technology", and whether or not this necessitates the granting of software and business method patents.
According to article 10 of the TRIPS Agreement the appropriate instrument to protect software protection is author right. The importance of this instrument has recently been confirmed by the US Supreme Court (Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.).
Implementation in developing countries[edit]
The obligations under TRIPS apply equally to all member states, however developing countries were allowed extra time to implement the applicable changes to their national laws, in two tiers of transition according to their level of development. The transition period for developing countries expired in 2005. The transition period for least developed countries to implement TRIPS was extended to 2013, and until 1 January 2016 for pharmaceutical patents, with the possibility of further extension.[10]
It has therefore been argued that the TRIPS standard of requiring all countries to create strict intellectual property systems will be detrimental to poorer countries' development.[11][12] It has been argued that it is, prima facie, in the strategic interest of most if not all underdeveloped nations to use the flexibility available in TRIPS to legislate the weakest IP laws possible.[13]
This has not happened in most cases. A 2005 report by the WHO found that many developing countries have not incorporated TRIPS flexibilities (compulsory licensing, parallel importation, limits on data protection, use of broad research and other exceptions to patentability, etc.) into their legislation to the extent authorized under Doha.[14]
This is likely caused by the lack of legal and technical expertise needed to draft legislation that implements flexibilities, which has often led to developing countries directly copying developed country IP legislation,[15][16] or relying on technical assistance from the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which, according to critics such as Cory Doctorow, encourages them to implement stronger intellectual property monopolies.
Banerjee and Nayak[17] shows that TRIPS has a positive effect on R&D expenditure of Indian pharmaceutical firms.
Post-TRIPS expansion[edit]
In addition to the baseline intellectual property standards created by the TRIPS agreement, many nations have engaged in bilateral agreements to adopt a higher standard of protection. These collection of standards, known as TRIPS+ or TRIPS-Plus, can take many forms.[18] General objectives of these agreements include:
The creation of anti-circumvention laws to protect Digital Rights Management systems. This was achieved through the 1996 World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty (WIPO Treaty) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty.
More stringent restrictions on compulsory licenses for patents.
More aggressive patent enforcement. This effort has been observed more broadly in proposals for WIPO and European Union rules on intellectual property enforcement. The 2001 EU Copyright Directive was to implement the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty.
The campaign for the creation of a WIPO Broadcasting Treaty that would give broadcasters (and possibly webcasters) exclusive rights over the copies of works they have distributed.
Panel reports[edit]
According to WTO 10th Anniversary, Highlights of the first decade, Annual Report 2005 page 142,[19] in the first ten years, 25 complaints have been lodged leading to the panel reports and appellate body reports on TRIPS listed below.
The WTO website has a gateway to all TRIPS disputes (including those that did not lead to panel reports) here [1].
2005 Panel Report:[20]
European Communities - Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs.
2000 Panel Report:[21] Part 2[22] and 2000 Appellate Body Report[23]
Canada - Term of Patent Protection.
2000 Panel Report, Part 1:[24] and Part 2[25]
United States - Section 110(5) of the US Copyright Act.
2000 Panel Report:[26]
Canada - Patent Protection of Pharmaceutical Products.
2001 Panel Report:[27] and 2002 Appellate Body Report[28]
United States - Section 211 Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1998.
1998 Panel Report:[29]
India - Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Chemical Products.
1998 Panel Report:[30]
Indonesia - Certain Measures Affecting the Automobile Industry.
Criticism[edit]
Since TRIPS came into force, it has been subject to criticism from developing countries, academics, and non-governmental organizations. Though some of this criticism is against the WTO generally, many advocates of trade liberalisation also regard TRIPS as poor policy. TRIPS's wealth concentration effects (moving money from people in developing countries to copyright and patent owners in developed countries) and its imposition of artificial scarcity on the citizens of countries that would otherwise have had weaker intellectual property laws, are common bases for such criticisms. Other criticism has focused on the failure of TRIPS to accelerate investment and technology flows to low-income countries, a benefit advanced by WTO members in the lead-up to the agreement's formation. Statements by the World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low-income countries, though it may have done so for middle-income countries.[31] Lengthy patent periods under TRIPs have been scrutinised for unduly slowing the entry of generic substitutes and competition to the market. In particular, the illegality of pre-clinical trials or submission of samples for approval until a patent expires have been blamed for driving the growth of a few multinationals, rather than developing country producers.
Daniele Archibugi and Andrea Filippetti[32] argue that the importance of TRIPS in the process of generation and diffusion of knowledge and innovation has been overestimated by its supporters. This point has been supported by United Nations findings indicating many countries with weak protection routinely benefit from strong levels of foreign direct investment (FDI).[33] Analysis of OECD countries in the 1980s and 1990s (during which the patent life of drugs was extended by 6 years) showed that while total number of products registered increased slightly, the mean innovation index remained unchanged.[34] In contrast to that, Jörg Baten, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser(2017)[35] find historical evidence that under certain circumstances compulsory licensing – a key mechanism to weaken intellectual property rights that is covered by Article 31 of the TRIPS – may indeed be effective in promoting invention by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition. They argue, however, that the benefits from weakening intellectual property rights strongly depend on whether the governments can credibly commit to using it only in exceptional cases of emergencies since firms may invest less in R&D if they expect repeated episodes of compulsory licensing.
The 2002 Doha Declaration affirmed that the TRIPS agreement should not prevent members from taking measures necessary to protect public health. Despite this recognition, less-developed countries have argued that TRIPS's flexible provisions, such as compulsory licensing, are near-on impossible to exercise. In particular, less developed countries have cited their infant domestic manufacturing and technology industries as evidence of the policy's bluntness.
TRIPS-plus conditions mandating standards beyond TRIPS have also been the subject of scrutiny.[36] These FTA agreements contain conditions that limit the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. In particular, the United States has been criticised for advancing protection well beyond the standards mandated by TRIPS. The United States Free Trade Agreements with Australia, Morocco and Bahrain have extended patentability by requiring patents be available for new uses of known products.[37] The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation’s discretion. TRIPS-plus conditions in the United States FTA’s with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted the application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use.[37]
See also[edit]
List of parties to the TRIPS Agreement
Related treaties and laws[edit]
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA)
EU Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRED)
Patent Law Treaty (PLT)
Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT)
Uruguay Round Agreement Act of the United States (URAA)
Related organizations[edit]
Intellectual Property Committee
World Trade Organization
Other[edit]
Confusing similarity
Geographical Indication
Intellectual property in the People's Republic of China
List of international trade topics
List of parties to international copyright agreements
World Trade Organization Dispute 160
Japanese Sound Recording Trade Disputes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Overview: the TRIPS Agreement". Retrieved 23 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "WTO TRIPS implementation". International Intellectual Property Alliance. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
Jump up ^ See TRIPS Art. 1(3).
Jump up ^ Farah, Paolo Davide & Cima, Elena (2010) 'SSRN.com China’s Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues" in Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.), El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia (Spain) 2010, pp. 85–121. ISBN 978-84-8456-981-7.
Jump up ^ "intellectual property (TRIPS) - agreement text - standards". WTO. 1994-04-15. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
Jump up ^ World Trade Organization, "Part II — Standards concerning the availability, scope and use of Intellectual Property Rights; Sections 5 and 6", Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Jump up ^ World Trade Organization, "Part I — General Provisions and Basic Principles", Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Jump up ^ cf. Timmermann, Cristian, and Henk van den Belt. 2013. Intellectual property and global health: from corporate social responsibility to the access to knowledge movement. Liverpool Law Review 34 (1):47-73. also available at http://edepot.wur.nl/252885
Jump up ^ World Trade Organization (1 September 2003), Implementation of paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and public health
Jump up ^ World Trade Organisation, IP - http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/tripfq_e.htm
Jump up ^ IP Justice policy paper for the WIPO development agenda, IP Justice, archived from the original on 8 January 2013
Jump up ^ See also, J.-F. Morin and R. Gold, An Integrated Model of Legal Transplantation: The Diffusion of Intellectual Property Law in Developing Countries, International Studies Quarterly (2014) 58, 781–792, http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_gold_2014.pdf
Jump up ^ Blouin, Heymann & Drager (2007). Trade and Health. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 33.
Jump up ^ Musungu, Sisule F.; Oh, Cecilia (August 2005), The use of flexibilities in TRIPS by developing countries: can they promote access to medicines?, Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation and Public Health (CIPIH)
Jump up ^ Finger, J. Michael (2000). "The WTO's special burden on less developed countries" (PDF). Cato Journal. 19 (3). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2006.
Jump up ^ J.-F. Morin and M. Bourassa, Pharmaceutical patent policy in developing countries: learning from the Canadian experience, in K. Shadlen, S. Guennif, A. Guzman and N. Lalitha, Intellectual Property, Pharmaceuticals and Public Health, Edward Elgar, https://www.academia.edu/3809795/Morin_J-F_and_M._Bourassa_Forcier_2011_Pharmaceutical_Patent_Policy_in_Developing_Countries_Learning_from_the_Canadian_Experience_in_Intellectual_Property_Pharmaceuticals_and_Public_Health_edited_by._Shadlen_S._Guennif_A._Guzman_and_N._Lalitha_Edward_Elgar
Jump up ^ Banerjee and Nayak, Effects of Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights on the R&D Expenditure of Indian Pharmaceutical Industry,2014 'Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research.
Jump up ^ "Overview of "TRIPS-Plus" Standards - Oxford Scholarship".
Jump up ^ World Trade Organization (2005). "Annual Report 2005" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "2005 News items - Panel reports out on geographical indications disputes". WTO. 2005-03-15. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/1391da.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/1391db.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/170abr_e.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news00_e/1234da.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news00_e/1234db.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/wtopanelsfull/canada-pharmaceuticals(panel)(full).pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/176r_e.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/176abr_e.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/wtopanelsfull/india-patents(panel)(ec)(full).pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/wtopanelsfull/indonesia-autos(panel)(full).pdf
Jump up ^ Ping Xiong ‘Patents in TRIPS-Plus Provisions and the Approaches to Interpretation of Free Trade Agreements and TRIPS: Do They Affect Public Health?’ (2012) 46(1) Journal of World Trade 155
Jump up ^ Archibugi, D. and Filippetti, A. (2010) 'The globalization of intellectual property rights: Four learned lessons and four thesis Archived 25 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.', Journal of Global Policy, 1: 137-49.
Jump up ^ Collins-Chase, Charles (Spring 2008). "The Case Against TRIPS-plus protection in developing countries facing AIDs epidemics". University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law. 29 (3). Retrieved 23 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Patrice Troullier et al 'Drug Development for Neglected Diseases: A Deficient Market and a Public Health Policy Failure' (2002) 360 The Lancet, 2188
Jump up ^ Baten, Jörg; Bianchi, Nicola; Moser, Petra (2017). "Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI". Journal of Development Economics. 126: 231–242.
Jump up ^ Jean-Frederic Morin, 'Tripping up TRIPs Debate: IP and Health', International Journal of Intellectual Property Management 1(1/2), 2006:37-53.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Newfarmer, Trade, Doha, and Development (The World Bank, 1st ed, 2006) 292
Sources[edit]
Braithwaite and Drahos, Global Business Regulation, Cambridge University Press, 2000
Westkamp, 'TRIPS Principles, Reciprocity and the Creation of Sui-Generis-Type Intellectual Property Rights for New Forms of Technology' [2003] 6(6) The Journal of World Intellectual Property 827-859, ISSN 1422-2213
Banerjee and Nayak, 'Effects of trade related intellectual property rights on the research and development expenditure of Indian pharmaceutical industry' [2014] 5 Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research 89-94.
Azam, M. (2016). Intellectual Property and Public Health in the Developing World. Open Book Publishers. A free textbook for download.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
TRIPS agreement (PDF version)
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (html version)
World Trade Organization links
World Trade Organization - Official Text
World Trade Organization - TRIPs gateway
Audio presentation by Professor Susan Sell, George Washington University, on intellectual property rights in the global context.
WTO TRIPS Agreement profile on database of Market Governance Mechanisms
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Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
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Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA)
स्वच्छ भारत अभियान
India + Cleanliness
Slogan
एक कदम स्वच्छता की ओर
One step towards cleanliness
Country
India
Prime Minister(s)
Narendra Modi
Launched
Raj Ghat, 2 October 2014; 3 years ago (2014-10-02)
Status
Passive
Website
swachhbharat.mygov.in
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA) (or Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) or Clean India Mission in English) is a campaign in India that aims to clean up the streets, roads and infrastructure of India's cities, smaller towns, and rural areas. The objectives of Swachh Bharat include eliminating open defecation through the construction of household-owned and community-owned toilets and establishing an accountable mechanism of monitoring toilet use. Run by the Government of India, the mission aims to achieve an Open-Defecation Free (ODF) India by 2 October 2019, the 150th anniversary of the birth of Mahatma Gandhi, by constructing 12 million toilets in rural India at a projected cost of ₹1.96 lakh crore (US$30 billion).[1]
The campaign was officially launched on 2 October 2014 at Rajghat, New Delhi by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It is India's largest cleanliness drive to date with 3 million government employees, school students, and college students from all parts of India participating in 4,041 statutory cities, towns and associated rural areas.
The mission contains two sub-missions: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan ("Gramin" or rural), which operates under the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation; and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Urban), which operates under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.[2][3][4][5] The mission includes ambassadors and activities such as national real-time monitoring and updates from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that are working towards its goals.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Finance
3 Ambassadors
3.1 Selected public figures
3.2 Brand ambassadors
4 Performance
5 Plans
6 Other activities
6.1 Run
6.2 Real-time monitoring
6.3 Updates from NGOs
7 List of cities
7.1 2017
7.2 2016
8 Similar campaigns
9 History
9.1 Previous sanitation campaigns
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Background[edit]
India's prime minister Modi at a rally to promote Swachh Bharat Mission in 2014
Further information: Sanitation in India
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is a campaign that was launched on 2 October 2014 and aims to eradicate open defecation by 2019.[6] The national campaign spans 4,041 statutory cities and towns.[7][8] It is the current of a few prior campaigns, including Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan and the Total Sanitation Campaign, which had similar goals (see history section below).
The Times of India reported that the idea for Swachh Bharat was developed in March 2014 at a sanitation conference organised by UNICEF India and the Indian Institute of Technology as part of the larger Total Sanitation Campaign, which the Indian government launched in 1999.[9]
The Indian government aims to achieve an Open-Defecation Free (ODF) India by 2 October 2019, the 150th anniversary of the birth of Mahatma Gandhi, by constructing 12 million toilets in rural India at a projected cost of ₹1.96 lakh crore (US$31 billion).[1][10] Prime Minister Narendra Modi spoke of the need for toilets in his 2014 Independence Day speech:
Has it ever pained us that our mothers and sisters have to defecate in open? Poor womenfolk of the village wait for the night; until darkness descends, they can't go out to defecate. What bodily torture they must be feeling, how many diseases that act might engender. Can't we just make arrangements for toilets for the dignity of our mothers and sisters?
Modi also spoke of the need for toilets in schools during the 2014 Jammu and Kashmir state elections campaign stating:
Swachh Sarvekshan 2017 was an extensive sanitation survey across 500 cities in India. The Ministry of Urban Development, commissioned Quality Council of India to conduct this survey; to check the progress and impact of Swachh Bharat Abhiyanlaunched in 2014. It aims to foster a spirit of competition among the cities and offers a comprehensive assessment of their sanitation status.
The performance of each city was evaluated on five key thematic parameters-
• Municipal solid waste - sweeping, collection and transportation
• Municipal solid waste - processing and disposal of solid waste
• Open defecation free/toilets
• Capacity building and eLearning
• Provision of public & community toilet seats
• Information, education and communication, and behaviour change
Swachh Sarvekshan 2017 was conducted between 4 January 2017 and 7 February 2017. The results of top 25 cities are as follows:
Swachh Sarvekshan
Rank
City
State/Union Territory
1 Indore Madhya Pradesh
2 Bhopal Madhya Pradesh
3 Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh
4 Surat Gujarat
5 Mysore Karnataka
6 Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu
7 New Delhi Municipal Council Delhi
8 Navi Mumbai Maharashtra
9 Tirupati Andhra Pradesh
10 Vadodara Gujarat
11 Chandigarh Chandigarh
12 Ujjain Madhya Pradesh
13 Pune Maharashtra
14 Ahmedabad Gujarat
15 Ambikapur Chhattisgarh
16 Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
17 Khargone Madhya Pradesh
18 Rajkot Gujarat
19 Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh
20 Gandhinagar Gujarat
21 Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh
22 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Telangana
23 Sagar Madhya Pradesh
24 Murwara Madhya Pradesh
25 Navsari Gujarat
As of May 2015, 14 companies including Tata Consulting Services, Mahindra Group and Rotary International have pledged to construct 3,195 new toilets. As of the same month, 71 public sector undertakings in India supported the construction of 86,781 new toilets.[11]
Most of these toilets are a type of pit latrine, mostly the twin pit pour flush type.[citation needed]
Hundreds of thousands of Indian people are still employed as manual scavengers in emptying buckets and pit latrines.[12][13][14]
Finance[edit]
The programme has also received funds and technical support from the World Bank, corporations as part of corporate social responsibility initiatives, and by state governments under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan schemes.[10] Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is expected to cost over ₹620 billion (US$9.7 billion).[5][15] The government provides an incentive of ₹15,000 (US$230) for each toilet constructed by a BPL family.[1] Total fund mobilised under Swachh Bharat Kosh (SBK) as of 31 January 2016 stood at ₹3.69 billion (US$58 million).[16] An amount of ₹90 billion (US$1.4 billion) was allocated for the mission in the 2016 Union budget of India.[7]
Government and the International Monetary Fund signed a US$1.5 billion loan agreement on 30 March 2016 for the Swachh Bharat Mission to support India's universal sanitation initiative. The International Monetary Funds will also provide a parallel $25 million in technical assistance to build the capacity of select states in implementing community-led behavioural change programmes targeting social norms to help ensure widespread usage of toilets by rural households.[6]
Ambassadors[edit]
Manisha Koirala at Swachh Bharat Abhiyan in November 2014
Selected public figures[edit]
Modi selected 12 public figures to propagate this campaign.[17][18] They are:
Shilpa Shetty
Sachin Tendulkar
Priyanka Chopra
Baba Ramdev
Shah Rukh Khan
Vidya Balan
Shashi Tharoor
Team of Tarak mehta ka ooltah chashmah
Amitabh Bacchan
Mridula Sinha
Kamal Hasan
Virat Kohli
Mahendra Singh Dhoni
All the Citizens Of India
Indian vice president M. Venkaiah Naidu picked up a broom to help clean the cyclone-hit port city of Visakhapatnam in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, as part of the cleanliness campaign.[19][20]
Brand ambassadors[edit]
Venkaiah Naidu listed brand ambassadors in various fields:[21][22][when?][citation needed]
Rajyogini Brahmakumari Dadi Jankiji
Pawan Kalyan[23]
S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
Amala (actress)
K. Kavitha[23]
Gunupati Venkata Krishna Reddy
Suddala Ashok Teja
Pullela Gopichand
Humpy Koneru
Galla Jayadev
Nithin
V. V. S. Laxman
J. Rameshwar Rao
Shivlal Yadav
B. V. R. Mohan Reddy
Akshay kumar
Lakshmi Manchu[24]
On 2 October 2014, Prime Minister Modi nominated nine people, including:
Comedian Kapil Sharma,
Former captain of Indian cricket team Sourav Ganguly
Former IPS officer Kiran Bedi for taking forward her 'Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan'
Padmanabha Acharya, Nagaland Governor
Sonal Mansingh, classical dancer
Ramoji Rao of Eenadu group
Aroon Purie of the India Today group
Er. Dilkeshvar Kumar, Civil Engineer
He also nominated a number of organisations, including the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Eenadu and India Today as well as the dabbawala of Mumbai, who deliver home-made food to lakhs of people in the city.[clarification needed]More than 3 million government employees and school and college students participated in the drive on the occasion.[25][26]
On 8 November 2014, Modi carried the message to Uttar Pradesh and nominated another set of nine people for that state.[27][28]
Akhilesh Yadav
Swami Rambhadracharya
Manoj Tiwari
Mohammad Kaif
Deviprasad Dwivedi
Raju Srivastava
Suresh Raina
Kailash Kher
Shilpa Shetty was made a part of the mission from February 2017.
Performance[edit]
A door-to-door garbage collection van in the city of Indore
Between April 2014 and January 2015, 3,183,000 toilets were built. Karnataka led all States in construction of toilets under the programme.[10] As of August 2015, 8 million toilets have been constructed under the program.[29] As of 27 October 2016, 56 districts in India were ODF.[1] In January 2017, Indore city as well as rural areas were announced open defecation free by the central government.[30][31]
The national sanitation coverage rose from 42 per cent in 2014 to 65 per cent in 2017. Five states, 149 districts and 2.08 lakh villages were declared Open Defecation Free (ODF) till August 2017. The cities and towns which have been declared ODF stood at 22 per cent and the urban wards which have achieved 100 per cent door-to-door solid waste collection stood at 50 per cent. The number of Swachhagrahi volunteers working across urban local bodies rose to 20,000, and those working in rural India rose to more than a lakh. The number of schools with separate toilet facilities for girls rose from 0.4 million (37 per cent) to almost one million (91 per cent).[32]
As per an independent survey released by Quality Council of India in August 2017, overall national rural "household access to toilet" coverage increased to 62.45 per cent and usage of 91.29 per cent, with Haryana topping the national ranking with 99 per cent of households in rural areas covered and usage of 100 per cent.[33]
Plans[edit]
The Ministry of Railways is planning to have the facility of cleaning on demand, clean bed-rolls from automatic laundries, bio-toilets, dustbins in all non-AC coaches.[34] The Centre may use its Digital India project in conjunction with the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan to have solar-powered trash cans, such as those in many US cities, which send alerts to sanitation crew once they are full.[35]
The Government has appointed PWD with the responsibility to dispose off waste from Government offices.[36]
Other activities[edit]
Run[edit]
A Swachh Bharat Run was organized at the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official home of the President of India, located Rajpath, New Delhi, on 2 October 2014. According to a statement from the Rashtrapati Bhavan around 1500 people participated and the event was flagged off by President Pranab Mukherjee. Participants in the run included officers[vague] and their families.[37]
The Times of India published an article on how "Desi companies beat Facebook in 'Swachh' apps race".[38]
Real-time monitoring[edit]
The government will be launching a nationwide real-time monitoring system for toilets constructed under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. For this the government of India is bringing awareness to the people through advertisements. With this system, the government aims to attain a fully open defecation free India by 2019.[39]
As of 30 November 2016, Total Sanitation Coverage throughout India has risen to 57.56% up from 42.02% in 2 October 2014, the day Swachh Bharat Abhiyan was launched.[40]
Updates from NGOs[edit]
With growing interest in the progress of the mission, both private companies[citation needed] as well as government started releasing progress reports. The Swachh Bharat app Tumblr feed[41] provides updates from individual groups, corporations and Twitter users in general about group cleaning events, the status of cleanliness across India, and opinions on the objectives of the Clean India mission.[original research?] A recent study by the Public Affairs Centre finds that participation of beneficiaries in their toilet construction ensures better usage.[42]
List of cities[edit]
2017[edit]
Swachh Sarvekshan 2017 was conducted between 4 January 2017 and 7 February 2017.[43] The results of top 25 cities are as follows:
Swachh Sarvekshan
Rank
City
State/Union Territory
1 Indore Madhya Pradesh
2 Bhopal Madhya Pradesh
3 Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh
4 Surat Gujarat
5 Mysore Karnataka
6 Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu
7 New Delhi Municipal Council New Delhi
8 Navi Mumbai Maharashtra
9 Tirupati Andhra Pradesh
10 Vadodara Gujarat
11 Chandigarh Chandigarh
12 Ujjain Madhya Pradesh
13 Pune Maharashtra
14 Ahmedabad Gujarat
15 Ambikapur Chhattisgarh
16 Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
17 Khargone Madhya Pradesh
18 Rajkot Gujarat
19 Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh
20 Gandhinagar Gujarat
21 Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh
22 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Telangana
23 Sagar Madhya Pradesh
24 Murwara Madhya Pradesh
25 Navsari Gujarat
Source: Ministry of Urban Development[44]
2016[edit]
The Government of India released a Cleanliness Ranking on 15 February 2016.[45][46][47]
The Swachh Sarvekshan-2016 ranks 73 cities on cleanliness and sanitation. Cities with over 10 lakh population were surveyed to check how clean or filthy they were. [1]
Cleanest ten cities:
Mysore (Karnataka)
Chandigarh
Tiruchirappalli (Tamil Nadu)
New Delhi
Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)
Surat (Gujarat)
Rajkot (Gujarat)
Gangtok (Sikkim)
Pimpri-Chinchwad (Maharashtra)
Greater Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Ten least clean cities (at the bottom of the list):
64. Kalyan Dombivili (Maharashtra)
65. Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
66. Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)
67. Ghaziabad (Uttar Pradesh)
68. Raipur (Chhattisgarh)
69. Meerut (Uttar Pradesh)
70. Patna (Bihar)
71. Itanagar (Arunachal Pradesh)
72. Asansol (West Bengal)
73. Dhanbad (Jharkhand)
Similar campaigns[edit]
The Swachh Bharat Swachh Vidyalaya campaign was launched by Smriti Irani, of the Minister of Human Resource Development, Government of India by participating in the cleanliness drive along with the school's teachers and students.[48][49]
History[edit]
Previous sanitation campaigns[edit]
Officially starting as of 1 April 1999, The Government of India restructured the Comprehensive Rural Sanitation Programme and launched the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) which was later (on 1 April 2012) renamed "Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan", or NBA (Hindi: निर्मल भारत अभियान, Nirmal Bhārat Abhiyān) by then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.[50][51] It was a programme following - to some extent - the principles of community-led total sanitation (CLTS). Villages that achieved this status received monetary rewards and high publicity under a program called Nirmal Gram Puraskar.[52][53][54]
Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan was restructured by Cabinet approval on 24 September 2014 as Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.[8]
Major activities covered under Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan were:[55][51]
Construction of individual household latrines for which the enhanced incentive for individual household latrine units has been extended to all Below Poverty Line (BPL) Households and Above Poverty Line Households (APL) restricted to SCs/STs, small and marginal farmers, landless labourers with homestead, physically handicapped and women headed households.
Convergence with Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme for additional financial assistance.Provision of sanitation facilities in Government Schools and Anganwadis in Government buildings.
Assistance to Production Centres of sanitary materials and Rural Sanitary Marts, Provision of construction of Community Sanitary Complexes.
Solid and Liquid Waste management (SLWM) to be taken up in project mode for each Gram Panchayat (GP) with financial assistance capped for a GP on the basis of number of household to enable all Panchayats to implement sustainable SLWM projects.
Information Education Communication (IEC) activities for sustainable demand generation for sanitation facility.
Provision of extensive capacity building of the stake holders like Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) and field functionaries for sustainable sanitation.
A randomized study of eighty villages in rural (Madhya Pradesh) was conducted to determine if India's Total Sanitation Campaign's (TSC) effort to eliminate open defecation was effective in reducing diarrhea and other gastrointestinal diseases in children. Results showed that the TSC programme did modestly increase the number of households with latrines, and had a small effect in reducing open defecation. However, there was no improvement in the health of children. Although the authors point out that their results are limited as to place (rural Madhya Pradesh), type of intervention (TSC), and type of measures (self-reported open defecation and child health), they conclude: "these findings highlight the challenges associated with achieving large enough improvement in access to sanitation and correspondingly large reductions in the practice of open defecation to deliver health benefits within large-scale rural sanitation programs."[56] However, this study may not be used to judge the effectiveness of community-led total sanitation (CLTS) overall, as the presence of subsidies may fundamentally change the effectiveness of the process.[57]
See also[edit]
Cleanest cities in India
Digital India
India.gov.in
MyGov.in
Water supply and sanitation in India
Community-led total sanitation
Toilet: Ek Prem Katha
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "MDWS Intensifies Efforts with States to Implement Swachh Bharat Mission", Business Standard, 18 March 2016 (press release)
Jump up ^ {http://sbm.gov.in/sbmcms/index.htm}{http://www.swachhbharaturban.in/sbm/home/#/SBM}
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat campaign should become mass movement: Narendra Modi". The Economic Times. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "PM reviews preparations for launch of Mission Swachh Bharat". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Swachh Bharat: PM Narendra Modi launches 'Clean India' mission". Zee News. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "India, World Bank sign $1.5 billion loan pact for Swachh Bharat Mission", The Economic Times, 30 March 2016
^ Jump up to: a b "Budget 2016: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan gets Rs 9,000 crore", The Economic Times, 29 February 2016
^ Jump up to: a b "Restructuring of the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan into Swachh Bharat Mission". pib.nic.in. Retrieved 2017-06-12.
Jump up ^ Poo2Loo to break open defecation taboo
^ Jump up to: a b c "Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan: Government builds 7.1 lakh toilets in January". timesofindia-economictimes.
Jump up ^ "Saffron Agenda for Green Capitalism? - Swarajya". Swarajya.
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat Abhiyan should aim to stamp out manual scavenging".
Jump up ^ Umesh IsalkarUmesh Isalkar, TNN (30 April 2013). "Census raises stink over manual scavenging". The Times of India. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Manual scavenging still a reality". The Hindu. 9 July 2015. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "PM Modi's 'Swachh Bharat Abhiyan' set for mega launch Thursday; schools, offices gear up for event". Zee News.
Jump up ^ "Modi government mobilises Rs 370 crore under Swachh Bharat Kosh", The Economic Times, 11 March 2016
Jump up ^ "PM Modi's Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Anil Ambani dedicates himself to the movement". 2 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "PM launches Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan". 2 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Venkaiah Naidu picked up the broom to clean cyclone-hit port city of Visakhapatnam - indtoday.com - indtoday.com". indtoday.com. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Naidu picked up the broom to clean cyclone-hit port city of Visakhapatnam
Jump up ^ "18 Telugu icons named ambassadors for Swachh Bharat". indiatoday.intoday.in. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
Jump up ^ "18 Telugu People as Swachh Bharat Ambassadors | 9 people each in AP and Telangana as Swachh Bharat Ambassadors". Andhra Pradesh Political News, Telugu Cinema News - APToday. 2015-01-05. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
^ Jump up to: a b admin. "swachh bharat brand ambassador List". Telangana State Portal - Latest News Updates.
Jump up ^ "Lakshmi Manchu Is Telangana Swachh Bharat's Brand Ambassador" MovieNewz.in, Retrieved 04.09.2015
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: PM Narendra Modi to wield broom to give India a new image". The Times of India. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat campaign is beyond politics, PM Narendra Modi says". The Times of India. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "PM India". Prime Minister's Office. 8 November 2014. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Press Information Bureau". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 8 November 2014. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "PM Modi fulfils promise of 80 lakh toilets, but not many takers in rural India".
Jump up ^ "Indore city declared open defecation free: Mayor". Times of India. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "After rural areas, Indore city declared open defecation free". Indian Express. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "At The Half-way Mark", The Indian Express, 31 July 2017
Jump up ^ "Kerala, Haryana top sanitation survey", The Hindu, 9 August 2017
Jump up ^ "'Railway Budget Aligned to PM Modi's Vision for Digital India'", The New Indian Express, 5 March 2016
Jump up ^ "When Swachh Bharat met Digital India: Now solar-powered trash cans to send alerts when full", The Economic Times, 18 March 2016
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat: CPWD begins lifting ‘zero-value goods’ from government offices and buildings", The Economic Times, 17 May 2016
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat Run organized at Rashtrapati Bhavan". The Times of India.
Jump up ^ "Desi companies beat Facebook in 'Swachh' apps race". The Times of India.
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat goes hi-tech, govt to track toilet use with iPads". The Hindu. 31 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Swachh Bharat Abhiyan Report Stats, 18 November 2016
Jump up ^ "Swachh Bharat App - News, Videos, Songs & Opinions on Clean India".
Jump up ^ "PAC • Benchmarking Citizen Report Card On NBA/SBM". pacindia.org. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
Jump up ^ "State-wise assessment schedule - Swachh Sarvekshan 2017" (PDF). 10 Jan 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Swachh Survekshan -2017 – ranks of 434 cities" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Cleanliness ranking for 73 cities is out. Mysuru cleanest, Modi's Varanasi among dirtiest", India Today, 15 February 2016
Jump up ^ "Chandigarh Declared Second Cleanest City of India in 2016 Swachh Bharat Survey", Chandigarh Metro
Jump up ^ Nagaon topped 8th cleanest city in India
Jump up ^ Swachch Bharat Swachch Vidhalaya
Jump up ^ Swachh Bharat-Swachh Vidyalaya Campaign
Jump up ^ "Time to clean up your act", Hindustan Times
^ Jump up to: a b "Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan failed to achieve its desired targets: CAG jdjgjfi", Mint, 16 December 2015
Jump up ^ IRC:India: Unrealistic approach hampers rural sanitation programme, 1 June 2007
Jump up ^ Institute of Development Studies:Community-led total sanitation:India
Jump up ^ Benny George:Nirmal Gram Puraskar: A Unique Experiment in Incentivising Sanitation Coverage in Rural India, International Journal of Rural Studies (IJRS), Vol. 16, No. 1, April 2009
Jump up ^ "Salient Features of Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan". Biharprabha News. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Patil, Sumeet; Arnold, Benjamin; Salvatore, Alicia; Briceno, Bertha; Ganguly, Sandipan; Colford Jr., John; Gertler, Paul (26 August 2014). "The Effect of India's Total Sanitation Campaign on Defecation Behaviors and Child Health in Rural Madhya Pradesh: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial". PLOS Medicine. 11: e1001709. PMC 4144850  . PMID 25157929. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001709.
Jump up ^ "An Open Letter in response to the World Development Report 2015". Retrieved 23 March 2015.
External links[edit]
Media related to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan at Wikimedia Commons
"Ministry of Urban Development (MOUD)".
"PM India Official".
"Swachh Bharat Gramin".
"Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation".
"Ministry of External Affairs".
"Swachh Bharat Website".
"Nirmal Bharat - Swachh Bharat".
"Toilet Beneficiary".
"Swachh Bharat - How to Donate".
"Swachh Bharat Mission Gramin Dhamtari-Chhattisgarh India Directed by Raju Hhirwani".
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Swachh_Bharat_Abhiyan.
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Gastrocnemius muscle
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Gastrocnemius muscle
Details
Origin
superior to articular surfaces of lateral condyle of femur and medial condyle of femur
Insertion
tendo calcaneus (achilles tendon) into mid-posterior calcaneus
Artery
sural arteries
Nerve
tibial nerve from the sciatic, specifically, nerve roots S1–S2
Actions
plantar flexes foot, flexes knee
Antagonist
Tibialis anterior muscle
Identifiers
TA
A04.7.02.044
FMA
22541
Anatomical terms of muscle
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In humans, the gastrocnemius muscle (/ˌɡæstrɒkˈniːmiəs/ or /ˌɡæstrəkˈniːmiəs/; plural gastrocnemii; Latin, from Greek γαστήρ "stomach" and κνήμη (knḗmē) "leg"; meaning "stomach of leg" (referring to the bulging shape of the calf) is a very powerful superficial bipennate muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg. It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel, a two joint muscle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Variation
2 Function
3 Motor pathway
4 Clinical significance
5 History
6 Additional images
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
The gastrocnemius is located with the soleus in the posterior (back) compartment of the leg. The lateral head originates from the lateral condyle of the femur, while the medial head originates from the medial condyle of the femur. Its other end forms a common tendon with the soleus muscle; this tendon is known as the calcaneal tendon or Achilles Tendon and inserts onto the posterior surface of the calcaneus, or heel bone.
Deep to the gastrocnemius (farther from the skin) is the soleus muscle. Some anatomists consider both to be a single muscle, the triceps surae or "three-headed [muscle] of the calf", since they share a common insertion via the Achilles tendon. The plantaris muscle and a portion of its tendon run between the two muscles, which is involved in "locking" the knee from the standing position. Since the anterior compartment of the leg is lateral to the tibia, the bulge of muscle medial to the tibia on the anterior side is actually the posterior compartment. The soleus is superficial to the mid-shaft of the tibia.
Variation[edit]
10% to 30% of individuals have a sesamoid bone called the "fabella" in the lateral (outer) head of gastrocnemius muscle.
Function[edit]
Along with the soleus muscle, the gastrocnemius forms half of the calf muscle. Its function is plantar flexing the foot at the ankle joint and flexing the leg at the knee joint.
The gastrocnemius is primarily involved in running, jumping and other "fast" movements of leg, and to a lesser degree in walking and standing. This specialization is connected to the predominance of white muscle fibers (type II fast twitch) present in the gastrocnemius, as opposed to the soleus, which has more red muscle fibers (type I slow twitch) and is the primary active muscle when standing still, as determined by EMG studies.[1][2]
Motor pathway[edit]
The plan to use the gastrocnemius in running, jumping, knee and plantar flexing is created in the precentral gyrus in the cerebrum of the brain.[3] Once a plan is produced, the signal is sent to and down an upper motor neuron. The signal is passed through the internal capsule and decussates, or crosses, in the medulla oblongata, specifically in the lateral corticospinal tract.[4] The signal continues down through the anterior horn of the spinal cord where the upper motor neuron synapses with the lower motor neuron. Signal propagation continues down the anterior rami (Lumbar 4-5 and Sacral 1-5) of the sacral plexus. The sciatic nerve branches off of the sacral plexus in which the tibial and common fibular nerves are wrapped in one sheath. The tibial nerve eventually separates from the sciatic nerve and innervates the gastrocnemius muscle. Thus, completing the plan the brain had originally started with, so that the actions of running, standing, and jumping could be executed.
Clinical significance[edit]
The gastrocnemius muscle is prone to spasms, which are painful, involuntary contractions of the muscle that may last several minutes.[5]
A severe ankle dorsiflexion force may result in an injury of the muscle, commonly referred to as a "torn" or "strained" calf muscle, which is acutely painful and disabling.
Ultrasound of medial gastrocnemius strain
The gastrocnemius muscle may also become inflamed due to overuse. Anti-inflammatory medications and physical therapy (heat, massage, and stretching) may be useful.
Anatomical abnormalities involving the medial head of gastrocnemius muscle result in popliteal artery entrapment syndrome.
History[edit]
In a 1967 EMG study, Herman and Bragin concluded that its most important role was plantar flexing in large contractions and in rapid development of tension.[2]
Additional images[edit]
Nerves, arteries and veins surrounding the gastrocnemius and soleus.
Muscle layer under the gastrocnemius
Cross section of the lower leg
Right femur. Posterior surface.
Back of left lower extremity.
Gastrocnemius muscle
Gastrocnemius muscle
Lateral aspect of right leg.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clinically Oriented Anatomy. pp. 598–600. ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Hamilton, Nancy; Luttgens, Kathryn (2001). Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-248910-1.
Jump up ^ Freberg, Laura (2015-01-01). Discovering Behavioral Neuroscience: An Introduction to Biological Psychology. Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781305687738.
Jump up ^ Saladin, Kenneth (2015). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. McGraw-Hill Education.
Jump up ^ "Nighttime Leg Cramps". WebMD. August 19, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastrocnemius muscle.
Anatomy photo:14:st-0405 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center
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Iliac region
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psoas major/psoas minor
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Buttocks
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maximus
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minimus
tensor fasciae latae
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plantaris
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flexor hallucis longus
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quadratus plantae
lumbrical muscle
3rd layer
flexor hallucis brevis
adductor hallucis
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4th layer
dorsal interossei
plantar interossei
Fascia
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retinacula
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Flexor
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