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Beverage can
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"Beer can" redirects here. For other uses, see Beercan (disambiguation).
"Pop cap" and "Pop top" redirect here. For the software companies, see PopCap Games and PopTop Software.
The stay-tab opening mechanism characteristic of most drinking cans since the mid-1980s. The 'wide-mouth' version, seen here, was introduced in the late 1990s.
A beverage can is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Beverage cans are made of aluminum (75% of worldwide production)[1] or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all beverage cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Standard sizes
2.1 Capacity in countries
3 Composition
4 Filling cans
5 Fabrication process
6 Opening mechanisms
6.1 Pop-tab
6.2 Stay-on-tab
6.3 Wide Mouth
6.4 Sustainable Beverage Ends
6.5 Press button can
6.6 Full Aperture End
6.7 Re-Sealable Lid
7 Collecting
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
See also: Tin can § History
The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia.[2] Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for storing beverages in cans was the interior liner, typically plastic or sometimes a waxy substance, that helped to keep the product's flavor from being ruined by a chemical reaction with the metal. Another major factor for the timing was the repeal of Prohibition in the United States at the end of 1933.
In 1935,[3] the small brewery at Felinfoel was the first brewery outside the USA to commercially can beer. Prior to this time, beer was only available in barrels or in glass bottles. From this time, lightweight tin cans could be used. Felinfoel Brewery was a major supplier to British armed forces abroad in the Second World War - cans saved a great deal of space and weight for wartime exports compared to glass bottles, and did not have to be returned for refilling. These early cans did not have a 'pull tab', instead they had a 'crown cork' (beer bottle top). All modern UK canned beer is descended from these small, early cans which helped change the drinking and beer-buying habits of the British public. From the 18th century until the early 20th century Wales dominated world tinplate production, peaking in the early 1890s when 80% of the world's tinplate was produced in south Wales.
Canned beverages were factory-sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom. They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a "church key", that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.
In the mid-1930s, some cans were developed with caps so that they could be opened and poured more like a bottle. These were called "cone tops", as their tops had a conical taper up to the smaller diameter of the cap. Cone top cans were sealed by the same crimped caps that were put on bottles, and could be opened with the same bottle-opener tool. There were three types of conetops: high profile, low profile, and j-spout. The low profile and j-spout were the earliest, dating from about 1935. The "crowntainer" was a different type of can that was drawn steel with a bottom cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading beverage packaging and beverage can producer. Various breweries used crowntainers and conetops until the late 1950s, but many breweries kept using the simple cylindrical cans.
The popularity of canned beverages was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas. Cans had two advantages over glass bottles. First for the distributors, flat-top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles. Second for consumers, they did not require the deposit typically paid for bottles, as they were discarded after use. Glass-bottle deposits were reimbursed when consumers took the empties back to the store.
By the time the United States entered World War II, cans had gained only about ten percent of the beverage container market; this was drastically reduced during the war to accommodate strategic needs for metal.
A pop tab from the 1970s
In 1959, Ermal Fraze devised a can-opening method that would come to dominate the canned beverage market. His invention was the "pull-tab". This eliminated the need for a separate opener tool by attaching an aluminum pull-ring lever with a rivet to a pre-scored wedge-shaped tab section of the can top. The ring was riveted to the center of the top, which created an elongated opening large enough that one hole simultaneously served to let the beverage flow out while air flowed in. In 1959, while on a family picnic, Mr. Fraze had forgotten to bring a can opener and was forced to use a car bumper to open a can of beer. Thinking there must be an easier way, he later stayed up all night until he came up with the pull tab.[4] Pull-tab cans, or the discarded tabs from them, were also called "pop-tops" colloquially. In Australia these were colloquially known as "ring-pull". Into the 1970s, the pull-tab was widely popular, but its popularity came with a significant problem, as people would frequently discard the pull-tabs on the ground as litter, or drop them into the can and risk choking on them. These problems were both addressed by the invention of the "push-tab". Used primarily on Coors Beer cans in the mid-1970s, the push-tab was a raised circular scored area used in place of the pull-tab. It needed no ring to pull up. Instead, the raised aluminum blister was pushed down into the can, with a small unscored piece that kept the tab connected after being pushed inside. Push-tabs never gained wide popularity because while they had solved the litter problem of the pull-tab, they created a safety hazard where the person's finger upon pushing the tab into the can was immediately exposed to the sharp edges of the opening. An unusual feature of the push-tab Coors Beer cans was that they had a second, smaller, push-tab at the top as an airflow vent — a convenience that was lost with the switch from can opener to pull-tab. The "push-tab" was introduced into Australia in the early 1980s and was locally known as "pop-tops".
The safety and litter problems were both eventually solved later in the 1970s with Daniel F. Cudzik's invention of the non-removing "Stay-Tab". The pull-ring was replaced with a stiff aluminum lever, and the removable tab was replaced with a pre-scored round tab that functioned similarly to the push-tab, but the raised blister was no longer needed, as the riveted lever would now do the job of pushing the tab open and into the interior of the can.
In 2008, an aluminum version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca-Cola's Caribou Coffee beverage. In 2004, Anheuser-Busch adopted an all-aluminum bottle for use with Budweiser and Bud Light beers.
Standard sizes[edit]
Comparison chart of various standards
ml
imp fl oz
US fl oz
1,000 35.2 33.8
568 20[nb 1] 19.2
500 17.6 16.9
473 16.6 16[nb 2]
440 15.5 14.9
375 13.2 12.7
355 12.5 12
350 12.3 11.8
341 12.0 11.5
330 11.6 11.2
250 8.8 8.5
237 8.3 8.0
222 7.8 7.5
200 7.0 6.8
150 5.3 5.1
Jump up ^ one imp pint
Jump up ^ one US pint
Capacity in countries[edit]
Various standard capacities are used throughout the world.
Australia
In Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks are commonly served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes.
Brazil
In Brazil the standard can size is 355 ml.
New Zealand
In New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml.
China
In China the most common size is 330 ml.
Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units. Imperial dimensions for canmaking are written as inches+sixteenths of an inch (e.g. "202" = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).[5]
Europe
In Europe the standard can used to be 330 ml but since the 1990s the 250 ml size has slowly become about just as common. In European countries the 500 ml can size is second standard. It's often used for beer, cider and energy drinks.
In the UK 440 ml is commonly used for lager and cider.
In Austria energy drinks are usually sold in sizes 200 to 300 ml. In 2014 for beverage cans in general, already much more aluminum is used than steel. There are even steel cans with alu-lids and vice versa.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong most cans are 330 ml.
India
In India standard cans are 330 ml.
Japan
In Japan the most common sizes are 350 ml and 500 ml. Larger and smaller cans are also sold.
South Korea
In South Korea 250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks. However, when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper. Finally, beer cans also come in 500 ml forms.
Malaysia and Singapore
In both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.
Pakistan
In Pakistan the most common sizes are 250 ml and 330 ml. 200 ml cans are also sold.
North America
In North America, the standard can size is 12 US fl oz or 355 ml. The US standard can is 4.83 inches high, 2.13 inches in diameter at the lid, and 2.60 inches in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are 16oz cans known as pounders, and 24oz cans or larger are referred to as tall boys.[citation needed]
In Canada, the standard size was previously 10 Imperial fluid ounces (284 ml), later redefined and labeled as 280 ml in around 1980. This size was commonly used with steel beverage cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s, upon the conversion from steel to aluminum. Some beverage such as Nestea are sold in 341 ml cans. In Quebec by the year 2015, a new standard for carbonated drink have been added as many important grocery store now only sell 6-packs (with plastic holds) with 222 ml cans instead of the original 341 ml (for the same price) and that from every major carbonated drinks. Many convenience stores began selling "slim cans" with a 310ml capacity as of late 2015
South Africa
South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for "mixers" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans.
Middle East
In the Middle East standard cans are 330 ml.
Composition[edit]
Aluminum cans pressed into blocks for recycling
Most metal beverage cans manufactured in the United States are made of aluminum,[6] whereas in some parts of Europe and Asia approximately 55 percent are made of steel and 45 percent are aluminum alloy. Steel cans often have a top made of aluminum. The aluminum used in United States and Canada are alloys containing 92.5% to 97% aluminum, <5.5% magnesium, <1.6% manganese, <0.15% chromium and some trace amounts of iron, silicon and copper according to MSDS from aluminum producer Alcoa.[7] Alloys used include 3004, 3105, or other 3xxx/5xxx series aluminum.[8]
An empty aluminum can weighs approximately half an ounce (14.2 grams). There are 34 empty 12 ounce aluminum cans to a pound or 70 to a kilogram.[9]
In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminum containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminum cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminum is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminum requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.
Aluminum cans are coated internally to protect the aluminum from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminum can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition.[10][11] Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.[12]
In order to achieve primary aluminum for manufacturing, bauxite is converted to alumina through the Bayer process.[13] After this process, aluminum can be extracted from alumina. Subsequently, it goes through a process called aluminum smelting and ingot casting. Simply, these two stages require alumina to undergo an extremely hot temperature and high-energy bath. Following this process is hot rolling and cold rolling. This is ultimately done to cast the aluminum can into shape for further processing. Finally, the process of “ironing” is performed which forms the shape of the can.
Filling cans[edit]
Cans are filled before the top is crimped on. The filling and sealing operations need to be extremely fast and precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the beverage flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling.
Fabrication process[edit]
Modern cans are generally produced through a mechanical cold forming process that starts with punching a flat blank from very stiff cold-rolled sheet. This sheet is typically alloy 3104-H19 or 3004-H19, which is aluminum with about 1% manganese and 1% magnesium to give it strength and formability. The flat blank is first formed into a cup about three inches in diameter. This cup is then pushed through a different forming process called "ironing" which forms the can. The bottom of the can is also shaped at this time. The malleable metal deforms into the shape of an open-top can. With the sophisticated technology of the dies and the forming machines, the side of the can is significantly thinner than either the top and bottom areas, where stiffness is required.
Plain lids (known as shells) are stamped from a coil of aluminum, typically alloy 5182-H48, and transferred to another press that converts them to easy-open ends. This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening, while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminum.
Opening mechanisms[edit]
Old beer can showing punches from a churchkey
Beer can pop-top display at a Budweiser Brewery
Early metal beverage cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can-piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid—a large one for drinking, and a second (smaller) one to admit air.
As early as 1922, inventors were applying for patents on cans with tab tops, but the technology of the time made these inventions impractical.[14] Later advancements saw the ends of the can made out of aluminum instead of steel.
Cans are usually in sealed paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, or trays covered with plastic film. The entire distribution system and packaging need to be controlled to ensure freshness.[15]
Pop-tab[edit]
Old style pull-tab in use on a can of Tsingtao beer in Beijing, China in 2009
Mikola Kondakow of Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, invented the pull tab version for bottles in 1956 (Canadian patent 476789). Then, in 1962, Ermal Cleon Fraze (1913–1989)[16] of Dayton, Ohio, United States, invented the similar integral rivet and pull-tab version (also known as ring pull in British English), which had a ring attached at the rivet for pulling, and which would come off completely to be discarded. He received US Patent No. 3,349,949 for his pull-top can design in 1963 and licensed his invention to Alcoa and Pittsburgh Brewing Company, the latter of which first introduced the design on Iron City Beer cans. The first soft drinks to be sold in all-aluminum cans were R.C. Cola and Diet-Rite Cola, both made by the Royal Crown Cola company, in 1964.
The early pull-tabs detached easily. In 1976 the Journal of the American Medical Association noted cases of children ingesting pull-tabs that had broken off and dropped into the can.[17]
Full-top pull-tabs were also used in some oil cans and are currently used in some soup, pet food, tennis ball, nuts and other cans.
Stay-on-tab[edit]
A "standard" size can opening, once common in American soft drinks.
In 1975, Daniel F. Cudzik, an engineer with Reynolds Metals, filed a design patent application for a "End closure for a container."[18] This later became known as a "Sta-Tab." When the Sta-Tab launched in 1975, on Falls City beer and, quickly, other beverages, there was an initial period of consumer testing and education. Cudzik later received patents for this "Easy Open Wall" (US 3967752, issued 1976-07-06 US 3967753, issued 1976-07-06 ). The validity of these patents was upheld in subsequent litigation.[19]
The similarly designed "Easy-open ecology end" was invented by Ermal Fraze and Omar Brown. Its patent application was also filed in 1975. This design, like Cudzik's, uses a separate tab attached to the upper surface as a lever to depress a scored part of the lid, which folds underneath the top of the can and out of the way of the resulting opening, thus reducing injuries and roadside litter caused by removable tabs.[20]
Such "retained ring-pull" cans supplanted pull-off tabs in the United Kingdom in 1989 for soft drinks and 1990 for alcoholic beverages.[21]
Wide Mouth[edit]
One of the more recent modifications to can design was the introduction of the "wide mouth" can in the late 1990s.[22] The American Can Company, now a part of Rexam,[23] and Coors Brewing Company have owned wide mouth design patent (number D385,192)[24] since 1997. Other companies have similar designs for the wide mouth. Ball Corporation's from 2008 has a vent tube to allow direct airflow into the can reducing the amount of gulps during the pour.[25]
Sustainable Beverage Ends[edit]
The SuperEnd[26] from Crown Holdings launched in 2000 was designed to use 10% less metal in production than standard beverage ends.[27]
Press button can[edit]
One variation was the press button can,[28] which featured two pre-cut buttons—one small and one large—in the top of the can sealed with a plastic membrane. These buttons were held closed by the outward pressure of the carbonated beverage. The consumer would open the can by depressing both buttons, which would result in two holes. The small hole would act as a vent to relieve internal pressure so the larger button could then be pressed down to create the hole used for drinking the beverage. Consumers could also easily cut themselves on the edges of the holes or get their fingers stuck.
Press button cans were used by Pepsi in Canada from the 1970s to 1980s and Coors in the 1970s. They have since been replaced with pull tabs. Used in Australia, locally known as "pop-tops", for soft drinks during the early 1980s.
Full Aperture End[edit]
A recent innovation to the beverage can is the full aperture end, where the entire lid is removed turning the aluminum can into a cup. Crown Holdings first designed the "360 End"[29] for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.[26] It has been used by Anheuser-Busch InBev in China[30] and Brazil[31] and most recently by Sly Fox Brewing Company[32] in the United States.
Re-Sealable Lid[edit]
The latest innovation to the beverage can is the re-sealable lid. A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.
Collecting[edit]
Beer can collecting was a minor fad in the late 1970s and 1990s. However, the hobby waned rapidly in popularity. The Beer Can Collectors of America (BCCA), founded in 1970, was an organization supporting the hobby, but has now renamed itself Brewery Collectibles Club of America to be more modern.[33]
As of late 2009, membership in the Brewery Collectibles Club of America was 3,570, down from a peak of 11,954 in 1978. Just 19 of the members were under the age of 30, and the members' average age had increased to 59.[34]
A collection of beverage cans in Dunsmuir, California
See also[edit]
Beer Can Museum
Beer Can Printing
Beer koozie
Beverage-can stove
Self-heating can
Six pack rings
Widget (beer)
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Canmaker FAQ". Canmaker.com. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ Maxwell, DBS (1993). "Beer Cans: A Guide for the Archaeologist". Historical Archaeology. 27 (1). doi:10.2307/25616219.
Jump up ^ Neil Prior (2015-07-12). "Llanelli's Felinfoel brewery pioneered beer in cans". BBC News (South West Wales). Retrieved 2017-04-09.
Jump up ^ Narvaez, Alfonso A. (1989-10-28). "E. C. Fraze, 76 - Devised Pull Tab". NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2017-04-09.
Jump up ^ "2-piece DWI Can Dimensions". Sencon.com. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ Turner, Terence (2001). Canmaking For Can Fillers. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-8493-9787-1.
Jump up ^ "Alcoa Inc. - primary aluminum (aluminium) and fabricated aluminum products". Alcoa.com. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ "ALCOA - RIGID PACKAGING DIVISION SPECIFICATION FOR PURCHASE OF RECLAIMED SCRAP INGOT (RSI) INGOT/SOW" (PDF). Alcoa. Retrieved 2014-01-24.
Jump up ^ "Amount Of Empty 12 OZ Cans In A Pound - Scrap, Junk & Salvage Yard Search Engine". Junkmetal.com. 2010-11-02. Retrieved 2017-04-09.
Jump up ^ Vela, M.; Toma, R. B.; Reiboldt, W.; Pierri, A. (1998). "Detection of aluminum residue in fresh and stored canned beer". Food Chemistry. 63 (2): 235–037. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(97)00236-7.
Jump up ^ Lopez, F.; Cabrera, C.; Lorenzo, M. L.; López, M. C. (2002). "Aluminium content of drinking waters, fruit juices and soft drinks: contribution to dietary intake". The Science of the Total Environment. 292 (3): 205–213. PMID 12146520. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01122-6.
Jump up ^ "Precoating of aluminium can sheet - Patent 3832962". www.freepatentsonline.com. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
Jump up ^ Bungardean, C.; Soporan, V.; Salanta, O. (2013). "Considerations on the life cycle and recoiling of aluminum beverage cans.". Advances in Environmental Sciences. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Keglined.com". Pssht.com. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ Singh, S. P.; Gorzynski (July 1989). "Effect of Vibration as a Cause of Leakage in aluminium Beer Cans in Palletized Loads". J. Testing and Evaluation. 26 (4).
Jump up ^ Find A Grave
Jump up ^ Burrington, JD. "Aluminum "pop tops". A hazard to child health.". JAMA. 235: 2614–7. PMID 946866. doi:10.1001/jama.1976.03260500030022.
Jump up ^ "Patent US D244915 - End closure for a container - Google Patents". Google.com. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Reynolds Metals Co. v. Continental Group, Inc., 525 F. Supp. 950, July 6, 1981
Jump up ^ "Patent US4030631 - Easy-open ecology end - Google Patents". Google.com. Retrieved 2014-01-24.
Jump up ^ "History of the can" (PDF). Can Makers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-22. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ Patton, Phil (1997-11-27). "Public Eye; Wide-mouth design: less glug in beer, more chug in Mountain Dew". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Cowell, Alan (2000-04-04). "COMPANY NEWS; REXAM TO BUY AMERICAN NATIONAL CAN GROUP". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "United States Patent: D385192". Patft.uspto.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ paywalled page
^ Jump up to: a b "Crown History | Crown Holdings, Inc". Crowncork.com. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ Elisabeth Skoda. "Packaging Europe News - Beverage Trends and Innovations". Packagingeurope.com. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ "Press Button Can — A Brief History of Flat Top Beer Cans". Complex. 2012-06-27. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ "360 end".
Jump up ^ "AB InBev and Crown Say "Gan Bei!" to a New Packaging Format | Crown Holdings, Inc". Crowncork.com. 2012-10-09. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Jim. "Brazil Transforms Beer Can into Beer Cup". Beer Universe. Beer Universe, Inc. Retrieved 18 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sly Fox Beer Opens Up Flavor and Aroma with the 360 Lid | Sly Fox Beer Phoenixville & Pottstown Pennsylvania". Slyfoxbeer.com. 2013-03-25. Archived from the original on 2013-10-12. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
Jump up ^ "Brewery Collectibles Club of America - Club History". Archived from the original on 2011-08-26.
Jump up ^ David Kesmodel (December 9, 2009). "Behold the Beer Can, Its Beauty Faded in the Eyes of the Young". The Wall Street Journal.
References[edit]
Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6
Soroka, W., Fundamentals of Packaging Technology, IoPP, 2002, ISBN 1-930268-25-4
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beverage cans.
Beer can history
Pull tab fundraiser myth
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Drey
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"Squirrel's nest" redirects here. For information about the television program named "The Squirrel's Nest", see Johnny Carson § Squirrel's Nest.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) drey
A drey – or dray – is a nest of a tree squirrel or a flying squirrel. Dreys are usually built of twigs, dry leaves, and grass, and typically assembled in the forks of a tall tree.[1] They are sometimes referred to as "drey nests" to distinguish them from squirrel "cavity nests" (also termed "dens"). In temperate regions, dreys become much more visible in the autumn, when leaf-fall reveals new nests built the previous summer or in early fall.
A favoured site for a drey is a tree crotch about 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 m) above ground level. Squirrels may also nest in attics or exterior walls of buildings, where a drey may be regarded as a fire hazard, as some squirrels have a habit of gnawing on electrical cables. At other times, squirrels may inhabit a permanent tree den in the hollow of a trunk or large branch.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Construction
3 Occupation
4 References
Etymology[edit]
Sign for the redundantly named "Squirrel's Drey" pub in Sporle, King's Lynn, Norfolk, UK
The origin of the word "drey" is unknown, but has been traced in English to the early 17th century.[2]
Construction[edit]
In North America, dreys begin as a collection of small, gnawed-off branches bearing green leaves. The habit of harvesting these branches well before autumn (when the leaves would naturally fall) allows the leaves – though they turn brown – to adhere tightly throughout the winter.[3] A finished drey is a hollow sphere, about a foot or more in diameter, with branches and other rough-hewn materials loosely woven on the outside and an inner surface lined with a variety of finer materials, such as grass, moss, leaves, shredded bark or pine needles. There may be one, or occasionally two, entrance/exit holes in a drey, usually close to the bottom and oriented toward the trunk, which keeps rain out. A second hole is used for an escape route. The incomplete or flat dreys sometimes seen may be hot-weather sleeping platforms, or abandoned efforts built by very young, inexperienced squirrels.
Drey construction materials and sizes differ according to squirrel species and region. Eastern gray squirrels, for example, tend to use the leaves, bark and twigs of deciduous trees such as beech, elm, and oak. Southern flying squirrels will often employ fungal rhizomorphs, deciduous leaves, bark and twigs in their nests, while northern flying squirrels often use shredded cedar bark (among other types of bark), lichens, mosses, leaves and twigs in their dreys. In the Pacific Northwest, the northern flying squirrel employs the common Bryoria lichen as the primary material.[4] A drey is almost always at least 20 feet (6.1 m) above the ground, and flying squirrels build much higher.
Sometimes squirrels build their own dreys and sometimes they occupy a vacant drey that was previously constructed by another tree squirrel, often of a different species. Dreys must protect against the environment, and require constant upkeep to remain water and predator-resistant. Squirrels often build more than one in a season, as reserve nests, lest the primary drey be disturbed by predators or overrun by fleas or lice. Some dreys have been observed in use for more than a decade by multiple generations of squirrels, although the average drey may be used only a year or two before being abandoned. If used repeatedly, squirrels must constantly maintain their drey, replenishing twigs and leaves as necessary. Remnants of an abandoned nest may be visible for years.
Occupation[edit]
Male and female squirrels may share the same nest for short times during a breeding season, and during cold winter spells squirrels may share a drey to stay warm. However, females nest alone when pregnant. In North America, squirrels produce broods of about three "pups" twice a year. (After leaving the drey, a young squirrel is termed a "juvenile" for its first year of life.) The June broods are sometimes born in dreys, but January broods are usually born and raised in tree cavities, which are much safer. Drey broods are about 40% less likely to survive than tree cavity broods, so long as the cavity entrance hole is no wider than about four inches, which can keep out hungry raccoons.[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lawniczak, M. (2002)."Sciurus carolinensis", Animal Diversity Web.
Jump up ^ meaning and origin of the word "drey" from Oxforddictionaries.com Accessed online September 29, 2015
^ Jump up to: a b Clark, Patterson (11 December 2012). "Squirrel nests: A night in a drey". Urban Jungle: The changing natural world at our doorsteps. The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ "Drey nests". Shelter. Steve Patterson, FlyingSquirrels.com. Archived from the original on November 5, 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drey&oldid=812223567"
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List of universities in Nigeria
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of universities in Nigeria. Nigeria is organised into 36 states and a federal capital territory (FCT) in Abuja. As a result of the oil boom years of the 1970s, tertiary level of education was expanded to reach every sub-region of Nigeria. The federal government and the state governments were previously the only bodies licensed to operate ScholarsJoint universities. Recently, licenses have been granted to individuals, corporate bodies and religious bodies to establish private universities in the country.
The National Universities Commission (NUC) is the major accreditation and regulatory body that enforces uniform standard and sets admissions capacity of every university in Nigeria.[1]
Name
State
Abbreviation
Location
Funding
Founded
Abia State University Abia ABSU Uturu State 1981
Adekunle Ajasin University Ondo AAUA Akungba-Akoko State 1999
Joseph Ayo Babalola University Osun JABU Ikeji-Arakeji Private 2006
Redeemer's University Nigeria Osun RUN EDE Private 2005
Afe Babalola University Ekiti ABUAD Ado-Ekiti Private 2009
Akwa Ibom State University (formerly Akwa Ibom State University of Science and Technology) Akwa Ibom AKSU Uyo State 2010
American University of Nigeria Adamawa AUN Yola Private 2005
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi ATBU Bauchi Federal 1980
Adamawa State University Adamawa ADSU Mubi State 2002
Achievers University Ondo AC Owo Private 2007
Ahmadu Bello University Kaduna ABU Zaria Federal 1962
Al-Hikmah University Kwara AHU Ilorin Private 2005
Ambrose Alli University Edo AAU Ekpoma State 1981
Anambra State University formerly Anambra State University Of Science And Technology Anambra ANSU Uli State 2000
Ajayi Crowther University Oyo ACU Oyo Private 1853 (1)
Bayero University Kano BUK Kano Federal 1977
Babcock University Ogun BU Ilishan-Remo Private 1959
Bells University of Technology Ogun BUT Ota Private 2004
Benson Idahosa University Edo BIU Benin City Private 2002
Benue State University Benue BSU Makurdi State 1992
ECWA Bingham University Nassarawa BU New Karu Private 2005
Bowen University Osun BU Iwo Private 2002
Bukar Abba Ibrahim University Yobe YSU Damaturu State 2006
CETEP City University Lagos CU Lagos Private 2005
Caleb University Lagos CUl Ikorodu Private 2008
Caritas University Enugu CU Enugu Private 2004
City University Lagos CU Yaba Private
National Open University of Nigeria Lagos NOUN Victoria Island Federal 1983
City University of Technology Kaduna CUT Kaduna Private 1956
Covenant University Ogun CU Ota Private 2002
Crawford University Ogun CU Faith City, Igbesa Private 2005
Crawford University Ekiti CU Oye-Ekiti Campus Private 2005
Crescent University Ogun CU Abeokuta Private 2005
Cross River University of Technology Cross River CRUTECH Ekpo-Abasi, Calabar State 2002
Delta State University, Abraka Delta DELSU Abraka State 1992
Ebonyi State University Ebonyi EBSU Abakaliki State 1996
Elizade University Ondo Ilara-Mokin Private 2012
Fountain University, Osogbo Osun FUO Osun Private 2007
Federal University, Dutsin-Ma Katsina FUDM Katsina Federal 2011
Federal University of Technology Akure Ondo FUTA Akura Federal 1981
Federal University Ndufe Alike, Ikwo Ikwo FUNAI Ikwo Federal 2011
Gregory University Abia Uturu Private 2012
Godfrey Okoye University Enugu GOU Enugu Private 2009
Igbinedion University Edo IUO Okada Private 1999
koladaisi University Oyo KU Ibadan, Oyo State 2015
Oduduwa University Osun OUI Ipetumodu, Ile-Ife State 2009
Landmark University Kwara LU Omu-Aran Private 2011
Michael and Cecilia Ibru University Delta MCIU Agbara-Otor, Ughelli North Private 2015
Lagos State University Lagos LASU Ojo State 1983
Nigerian Turkish Nile University FCT NTNU Abuja Private 1998
Taraba State University Taraba Jalingo State 2011
University of Benin Edo UNIBEN Benin City Federal 1970
University of Calabar Cross River UNICAL Calabar Federal 1975
University of Ibadan Oyo UI Ibadan Federal 1948
Umaru Musa Yar'adua University Katsina Katsina UMYU Katsina State 2006
University of Lagos Lagos UNILAG Lagos Federal 1962
University of Port Harcourt Rivers UNIPORT Port Harcourt Federal 1975
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu UNN Enugu Federal 1955
Veritas University (Catholic University of Nigeria) Abuja Abuja VUNA Bwari Private 2007
^Note 1 - as CMS Training Institution in Abeokuta prior to its relocation to Lagos from 1868 to 1896. It was retrospectively established at Oyo in March 1920.
Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko
Caritas University, Enugu
City University, Yaba, Lagos State
Citygate University, Ibadan
Cross River University of Technology, Calabar
Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu
Federal University, Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State
Federal University Gashua, Yobe State
Federal University Gusau, Zamfara State
Federal University of Dutse (FUD)
Federal University of Petroleum Resource Effurun
Federal University of Technology Minna
Federal University of Technology Owerri
Free University of Nigeria (FUN), Proposed online, first 100% tuition-free university in the world. Lagos. Nigeria
Gombe State University, Gombe
Ibrahim Babangida University, Lapai
Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Niger State, Lapai
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education (Rivers State University of Education), Port Harcourt
Imo State University, Owerri
Institute of Management and Technology, Enugu
Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji
Kaduna State University, Kaduna Kaduna State
Kano State University of Science and Technology, Wudil
Kebbi State University of Technology Aliero
Kogi State University, Ayigba, Kogi State
Kwara State University, Malete, Kwara State
koladaisi University Ibadan, Oyo state
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso
Lagos Business School, Lagos
Lead City University, Ibadan
Madonna University (Ihiala), Okija
Michael Okpara Federal University of Agriculture, Umudike
Modibbo Adama University of Technology Yola
Michael and Cecilia Ibru University, Agbara-Otor, Ughelli North, Delta State
Nasarawa State University, Keffi
National Open University of Nigeria, Lagos
Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State
Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
Northwest University, Kano
Novena University, Ogume, Delta State
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife
Obong University, Obong Ntak, Akwa Ibom
Oduduwa University, Ipetumodu, Osun State
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State
Ondo State University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa
Osun State University, Osogbo
Pan-Atlantic University, Lagos
Paul University, Awka Anambra
Ritman University, Ikot Ekpene, Akwa Ibom State
Rivers State University, Port Harcourt
Redeemer's University, Off, Gbongan – Oshogbo Rd, Ede
Renaissance University, Agbani
Rhema University, Aba Abia State
Salem University, Lokoja Kogi State
Samuel Adegboyega University, Ogwa Edo State
Sokoto State University, Sokoto
Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State
The University on Idemili, Alor, Anambra State
University of Abuja, Gwagwalada
University of Ado Ekiti, Ado Ekiti
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Abeokuta
University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Makurdi, Benue State
University of Ibadan, Ibadan
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
University of Jos, Jos
University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
University of Mkar, Mkar-Gboko, Benue State
University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State
Usman Dan Fodio University, Sokoto, Sokoto State
Wesley University, Ondo
Western Delta University, Oghara, Delta State
Sule Lamido University, Kaffin Hausa, Jigawa State
Mountain Top University, Ogun State [2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Departments – Tertiary". Ministry of Education (Nigeria). Retrieved 2010-03-17.
Jump up ^ http://www.mtu.edu.ng/
[show]
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[show]
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Private
Achievers University
Afe Babalola University
Ajayi Crowther University
Al-Hikmah University
American University of Nigeria
Augustine University Ilara
Babcock University
Baze University
Bells University of Technology
Benson Idahosa University
ECWA Bingham University
Bowen University
Bukar Abba Ibrahim University
Caleb University
Caritas University
CETEP City University
Chrisland University
Christopher University
Coal City University
Covenant University
Crawford University
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Elizade University
Fountain University
Gregory University
Godfrey Okoye University
Hezekiah University
Kwararafa University
Landmark University
Lead City University
Madonna University
McPherson University
Igbinedion University
Joseph Ayo Babalola University
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Niger Delta University
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Novena University
Obong University
Oduduwa University
Pan-Atlantic University
Renaissance University
Redeemer's University
Rhema University
Ritman University
Salem University
Samuel Adegboyega University
St. Paul's University College
Tansian University
Veritas University
Wellspring University
Wesley University
Western Delta University
State
Adamawa State University
Adekunle Ajasin University
Abia State University
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University
Bayero University
Akwa Ibom State University of Science and Technology
Ambrose Alli University
Anambra State University
Bauchi State University
Benue State University
Cross River University of Technology
Delta State University
Ebonyi State University
Edo University, Iyamho
Enugu State University of Science and Technology
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Kogi State University
Kwara State University
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Plateau State University
Rivers State University of Science and Technology
Sokoto State University
Sule Lamido University
Taraba State University
Umaru Musa Yar'adua University
Usman Dan Fodio University
Tai Solarin University of Education
Yobe State University
Federal
Ahmadu Bello University
Federal University Dutse
Federal University Gusau
Federal University of Technology Akure
Federal University of Technology Minna
Federal University of Technology Owerri
Federal University of Technology Yola
Federal University, Otuoke
Federal University Oye Ekiti
National Open University of Nigeria
Nigerian Defence Academy
Nnamdi Azikiwe University
Obafemi Awolowo University
University of Abuja
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
University of Agriculture, Makurdi
University of Ado Ekiti
University of Benin
University of Calabar
University of Ibadan
University of Ilorin
University of Jos
University of Lagos
University of Maiduguri
University of Mkar
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
University of Port Harcourt
University of Uyo
Michael Okpara Federal University of Agriculture
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_universities_in_Nigeria&oldid=804870762"
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