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Blair Waldorf
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Blair Waldorf
Gossip Girl character
Blair as portrayed on the cover of It Had To Be You
First appearance
Novel:
Gossip Girl
Television:
"Pilot"
(episode 1.01)
Last appearance
Novel:
I Will Always Love You
Television:
"New York, I Love You XOXO"
(episode 6.10)
Created by
Character
Cecily von Ziegesar
Television producers
Josh Schwartz
Stephanie Savage
Portrayed by
Leighton Meester
Information
Full name
Blair Cornelia Waldorf
Aliases
B, Queen B
Title
Television:
Princess Blair of Monaco
(during her marriage to Louis)
Family
Harold and Eleanor Waldorf
(parents)
Cyrus Rose
(stepfather)
Aaron Rose
(stepbrother)
Novels:
Tyler Waldorf
(younger brother)
Ying and Yang Waldorf
(adoptive sister and brother)
Yale Waldorf-Rose
(half-sister)
Spouse(s)
Television:
Charles "Chuck" Bass
(husband)
Prince Louis Grimaldi
(ex-husband)
Children
Television:
Henry Bass
(son, with Chuck; flash-forward)
Blair Cornelia Waldorf[1] is the lead character of Gossip Girl,[2] introduced in the original series of novels and also appearing in the television and manga adaptations. Described as "a girl of extremes" by creator Cecily von Ziegesar,[3] she is a New York City socialite and a comical overachiever who possesses both snobbish and sensitive sides. Due to her position as queen bee of Manhattan's social scene, Blair's actions and relations are under constant scrutiny from the mysterious Gossip Girl, a popular blogger.
Leighton Meester, who portrayed the character in the television drama, has described Blair as being insecure about her social status.[4] At times, this anxiety creates flaws and complexities which contribute to character development. In Meester's view, the true Blair is ultimately a good girl at heart.[5]
Blair has been compared to vintage film and literary figures, including Becky Sharp and Lizzie Eustace. Meester's portrayal has also drawn comparisons to roles played by Joan Collins and Audrey Hepburn. She is the most critically acclaimed character of the franchise, while the television character has drawn real-life attention surrounding fashion and her love life.
Contents
1 Character in print
1.1 Novel series
1.1.1 Story lines
1.2 Manga series
2 Television series
2.1 Casting
2.2 Season 1
2.3 Season 2
2.4 Season 3
2.5 Season 4
2.5.1 Reaction to triangle
2.5.2 Controversy
2.6 Season 5
2.7 Season 6
3 Reception
3.1 In print
3.2 On screen
4 References
Character in print[edit]
Gossip Girl is a series of novels about socially prominent young adults in New York City. The story primarily follows Blair Waldorf and her best friend Serena van der Woodsen during their years in high school and college. Due to her fame on the Upper East Side, Blair is featured on the website of "Gossip Girl," an anonymous gossip blogger whose posts appear occasionally throughout the story.
Novel series[edit]
In the first book, Blair is introduced as a privileged, comically vain overachiever.[6] She is described as an alluring brunette,[7] and occasionally models her appearance and demeanor after famous actresses, including Marilyn Monroe and, most often, Audrey Hepburn.[8] In early novels, the character is also written as bulimic.
Blair is largely motivated by matters surrounding family, romance, and ambition. However, her tendency to overachieve can lead to feelings of paranoia, with dramatic or comical results. In a review for The New Yorker, Janet Malcolm remarked that Blair's issues made her "both a broader caricature and a more real person" than the other Gossip Girl characters.[6] In a 2009 interview, Gossip Girl creator Cecily von Ziegesar claimed to identify with Blair the most, stating, "She is so unpredictable and dramatic. Such a bitch, but we understand why she is a bitch and we like her anyway".[9]
Story lines[edit]
Throughout most of the series' run, Blair grapples with a number of changes within her family. Two years prior to the opening novel, Blair's parents divorced after her father ran off with another man. When her mother remarries, and her father leaves the country, Blair has difficulty accepting her stepfather, Cyrus Rose. In addition, her stress over these matters occasionally affects her other relationships.[10] However, Blair ultimately remains close to her father Harold, who she often turns to for comfort.[11] By contrast, she maintains a somewhat tenser relationship with her mother Eleanor. It is also revealed that Blair has struggled with bulimia.[12]
In the opening novel, Blair learns of an affair between her friend Serena and her boyfriend Nate. This marks the beginning of the story's primary love triangle, which recurs throughout the series.[13] Blair's romantic life has various effects on her character development. After Nate repeatedly hurts her, she eventually refuses to take him back until she believes in his ability to commit to her.[14] In pursuing Nate, however, Blair herself cheats on her new boyfriend Pete, which results in her losing both of them.[15] She eventually begins to acknowledge her mistakes, with her father's help.[16] She later grows closer to Chuck Bass (which initially occurred in the series' television adaptation), who she'd previously known for years, which leads them to briefly date one another.[16]
Blair is noted for an over-achieving nature, which often appears in humorous scenes. In a review for New York magazine, Emily Nussbaum lauded one of Blair's fantasies, which involves "joining the Peace Corps, getting a killer tan, winning the Nobel Peace Prize, and having dinner with the president, 'who would then write her a recommendation to Yale, and then Yale would fall all over themselves to accept her.' "[17] The New Yorker's Janet Malcolm remarked that unlike some of her forerunners in film and literature, "Blair already has all the money and position anyone could want. She is pure naked striving, restlessly seeking an object, any object, and never knowing when enough is enough."[6]
Blair encounters a setback during her interview at Yale by revealing the recent stress in her life, and then kissing her interviewer on the cheek upon dismissal. Her father then makes a donation to the school, though Blair is still wait-listed.[18] In the twelfth book, I Will Always Love You, it is revealed that she has been admitted to the university.[19]
In addition to her feelings for Nate, Blair is sometimes said to feel competitive with Serena in other areas, including matters of beauty and popularity.[20] This also leads to an occasional envy on Blair's part.[17] It is unclear how much of Blair's perception of Serena is in line with reality; the narrative describes both characters as "hands down the two hottest girls on the Upper East Side, and maybe all of Manhattan, or even the whole world."[7]
Manga series[edit]
Blair as she appears in the manga.
In 2010, Yen Press began publishing a manga adaptation titled Gossip Girl: For Your Eyes Only, written and illustrated by HyeKyung Baek. This series adapts notable scenarios from the novel—including the triangle with Nate and Serena—but also features new material.
After losing her position as queen bee, Blair attempts to regain her former status while adjusting to a less privileged lifestyle.[21] In addition to this series, Blair also appears in a manga adaptation of the novel Gossip Girl: Psycho Killer, a parody of horror stories.[22]
Television series[edit]
In 2007, Gossip Girl was adapted for television. According to Cecily von Ziegesar, the television character is largely faithful to the original.[9] Among the aspects to be maintained are her admiration for Audrey Hepburn and her interest in Yale University. However, the series is also noted for its deviations from the source material,[6] including the exclusion of Blair's brother Tyler. The show also explores romances between Blair and multiple male leads, resulting in occasional love triangles. In the fifth season, Blair is revealed to be pregnant with Prince of Monaco, Louis Grimaldi's child. However the child later dies before birth after a car crash Blair and Chuck were in.[23]
Among fans and the media, Blair's bond with Chuck Bass was commonly known by the portmanteau "Chair", while her relationship with Dan Humphrey was referred to as "Dair". The nicknames and viewer interest in these relationships were recognized by the show's producers.[24]
Casting[edit]
They were like, 'Be bitchy and nice, ugly and pretty, young and old, stupid and smart, innocent and slutty, blond and brunette. Can you be all those things?'
—  Leighton Meester [25]
To prepare for the part of Blair, actress Leighton Meester, a natural blonde, dyed her hair brown before auditioning, and also studied the first novel.[26][27] She has described the character as multi-faceted, labeling her "a little bit of everything which is pretty amazing."[27] Like von Ziegesar, Meester has also claimed to relate to Blair on certain levels. Prior to the show's debut in 2007, the actress stated that, "The only way to play Blair, or any character, and make her human, is to find what she is inside me. And I know I have my insecurities, too." She went on to say that, "The way Blair and I are not alike when it comes to insecurities is: She pays so much attention to hers!"[28] Meester's casting was described by Yahoo! as a star-making role which moved her "into the pop culture vanguard,"[29] while Cecily von Ziegesar has called her a perfect choice.[30]
In December 2010, Meester revealed plans to leave the show in 2012. E! Online and other outlets speculated that her departure would possibly mark the end of the series.[31]
Season 1[edit]
Main article: List of Gossip Girl episodes
Blair as she appears in the TV adaptation, portrayed by Leighton Meester.
In Season 1 of Gossip Girl, Blair is introduced as the Upper East Side's beautiful and popular queen bee. She is the daughter of Eleanor Waldorf, a famous fashion designer. She is dating Nate Archibald, and is best friends with Serena van der Woodsen. She also finds a close companion in Nate's best friend and her childhood friend Chuck Bass, who becomes a partner for her schemes. When Serena returns home from boarding school, Blair learns from Nate that he lost his virginity to a drunken Serena over a year ago.[32] Blair retaliates by publicly revealing Serena's connection to a rehab hospital. She then learns that the actual patient is Serena's younger brother, Eric, who had been committed after a suicide attempt. Afterward, a remorseful Blair reconciles with Serena.[33][34]
After learning that Nate no longer loves her, Blair sleeps with Chuck, eventually falling for him. This leads to a heated affair and an eventual love triangle. Her inability to choose creates much of the first season's story line.[35] There are brief mentions of Blair's past struggle with anorexia-bulimia that are never mentioned again past the first season.
She also begins a brief power struggle with freshman Jenny Humphrey. After she unites with Chuck and Nate in order to save Serena from the scheming Georgina Sparks, Chuck realizes that his feelings for Blair are real and suggests that they spend the summer together in Tuscany. However, he is discouraged by his father at the last minute, and stands Blair up.[36]
Season 2[edit]
At the launch of the second season, Blair was described by creators as the queen at the center of the Gossip Girl chess game.[37] A large portion of her story line in Season 2 revolves around her love-hate relationship with Chuck Bass, which was labeled "the heart of GG" by People magazine.[26] While competing with Serena, Blair forms an unexpected friendship with Jenny, who states that they each work for everything they achieve, while Serena often glides through life. During their interviews at Yale University, Blair and Serena apologize for their ill feelings and resume their friendship.[38]
In the episode "O Brother, Where Bart Thou?", Chuck is devastated by news of his father's death, prompting Blair to offer her support while telling Chuck that she loves him. He initially shuns her advances, but later turns to her for comfort.[39] However, the two stop seeing each other due to Chuck's uncle, Jack Bass, convincing him he has an inability to commit to a relationship.[40] After being rejected by Yale, Blair finds unexpected encouragement from Nate.[41] She is later accepted into New York University, and her competitive relationship with Georgina is eventually renewed.
As the season ends, Blair crowns Jenny the new queen of Constance Billard School. In the season finale, it is discovered that Blair slept with Chuck's uncle Jack and that Chuck had slept with Vanessa Abrams. Chuck then departs for Europe. He later returns to New York and reconciles with Blair while declaring his love for her, and the two finally begin a committed relationship.[42]
Season 3[edit]
In the third season, Blair joins Vanessa, Georgina, and Jenny's brother Dan at NYU.[43] Much of her story line concerns her inability to attain her previous status at her new school. She finds emotional support from her mother, as well as Chuck. However, she and Chuck separate once again when Blair feels that he manipulated her while competing with his uncle (Chuck made a deal with Jack that Blair could sleep with him and in exchange, Chuck gets his hotel back that Jack initially stole to 'destroy Chuck').
She later transfers to Columbia University, and learns that an emotionally reformed Chuck was responsible for her enrollment.[44] They later team up as part of a role-playing scheme to help Serena's mother and Chuck's adopted mother, Lily. In the season finale, Chuck attempts to propose to Blair, but is interrupted by Dan, who reveals that Chuck had slept with Jenny. Two weeks later, Blair and Serena depart for Paris intending to spend the summer together.[45]
Season 4[edit]
In Season 4, Blair and Chuck become competitive once again, but eventually resume their sexual relations before recognizing their love for one another. When the relationship interferes with their business interests, she and Chuck break up once more. Chuck promises he'll wait for her, and both affirm their belief that their love will reunite them in the end.[46]
Blair then teams up with Dan when the two share common goals. They also end up working together at W. magazine, where friction develops between the two.[47] On Valentine's Day, she discovers that Chuck has romantic feelings for Raina Thorpe, the daughter of his business rival. Later, she and Dan spend the evening talking on their cell phones while watching Rosemary's Baby.[48] Blair later quits W. and is shown asleep with Dan in his Brooklyn flat. Later, upon growing curious of their feelings for one another, Blair and Dan share a kiss before the mid-season hiatus.
Blair eventually decides that she wants to be with Chuck, but shuns him once again after he tries to humiliate Dan.[49] She is later courted by a prince from Monaco named Louis. During a private confrontation, a drunken Chuck punches a window after he finds out Prince Louis has proposed to Blair, which cuts Blair's face as it shatters. Afterward, Blair chooses to accept a proposal from Louis.[50] Blair later attempts to warn Chuck about potential trouble in his family. She is then abducted by an enemy of the Basses, Raina's father Russell Thorpe. Chuck later rescues Blair and apologizes for his violent actions. Following a night out together, the two have sex before Chuck advises Blair to return to Louis, believing that she will be happier with him. However, the season ends with the revelation that Blair may be pregnant.[51]
Reaction to triangle[edit]
Chuck and Blair are always going to be connected in their way, and Dan and Serena are always going to be connected in their way. But that doesn't mean that there won't be new roads to go down that might be different than what we initially anticipated.
—Joshua Safran, producer[52]
Amidst the fourth season, the romance between Dan and Blair became a polarizing topic among viewers[47] which also drew significant media interest. Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post applauded the development, feeling that Blair had "more chemistry" with Dan than with Chuck.[53] New York magazine's Chris Rovzar called Blair and Dan's story line "believable", citing their common ground in education and taste. Rovzar further stated, "Since they live in a world where both only seem to have half a dozen real friends (if that), is it so crazy they'd end up together?"[54] An article from The Huffington Post declared that "Dan and Blair together are like Harry Burns and Sally Albright reincarnated — the couple was obviously inspired by When Harry Met Sally." It further commented that the couple paralleled Pacey and Joey's relationship from Dawson's Creek and concluded that Dan and Blair were "the most inspired storyline and couple of the show".[55] Entertainment Weekly stated that Dan and Blair were like stars in an "updated version of You've Got Mail".[56] Tierney Bricker of E! ranked all 25 Gossip Girl couples placing 'Dair' as the third best couple after Blair and Serena (#1) and 'Chair' (#2). Bricker stated that "[Dan and Blair], out of all the main characters, were the most well-suited for each other. In real life, they would've been 'endgame'."[57]
Dawn Fallik of The Wall Street Journal was less positive, asserting that "both characters have been so Blandified that there's no fun left in the show."[58] A writer for E! Online's Team WWK labeled the Dan/Blair relationship "nomance nonsense".[59]
With regard to Chuck and Blair, Meester stated, "I can really relate to it—not necessarily because it's this dramatic, tumultuous relationship, but because the way they love each other is very real, and not for the sake of being dramatic. It's actual love. There's nobody for each other but them."[60] Meester also expressed fondness for Dan and Blair, however, stating, "I think they're good for each other in a lot of ways, in a way that Chuck and Blair aren't."[47] Badgley claimed that he thought "Blair [was] Dan's soul mate"[61] and further stated that he thought the Blair and Dan storyline was "the most exciting for Dan as a person".[62] When Hollywoodlife.com asked Ed Westwick, who played Chuck Bass, which character he thought loved Blair more, Chuck or Dan, Westwick pointed to Badgley, saying "definitely him."[63]
Producers initially noticed chemistry between Blair and Dan in the Season 1 episode "Bad News Blair". According to producer Joshua Safran, the creators planned to revisit their relationship once the timing was right. Safran also stated that the outcome wasn't necessarily decided ahead of time. "One thing we are very conscious of—and I know some fans get upset about this—is we really try to treat the characters as living, breathing, well-rounded individuals. And we're often surprised by where their journeys take them; they open new doors for us all the time," he said.[52]
Controversy[edit]
Following the twentieth episode of Season 4, Safran spoke on behalf of the series regarding the scene in which Chuck became violent with Blair.[64]
The way we viewed it, I think it's very clear that Blair is not afraid in those moments, for herself. They have a volatile relationship, they always have, but I do not believe—or I should say we do not believe—that it is abuse when it's the two of them. Chuck does not try to hurt Blair. He punches the glass because he has rage, but he has never, and will never, hurt Blair. He knows it and she knows it, and I feel it's very important to know that she is not scared—if anything, she is scared for Chuck—and what he might do to himself, but she is never afraid of what he might do to her. Leighton and I were very clear about that.
In response to these comments, Carina MacKenzie of Zap2it stated, "We're left wondering if Safran missed the part where she went home bleeding because Chuck was using physical intimidation to release his own emotions."[65] While reviewing the episode, Tierney Bricker of Zap2it felt that there were "really no excuses for Chuck Bass anymore."[66] MacKenzie concluded that Chuck's behavior throughout Season 4 fit the signs of an abusive relationship, citing examples from HelpGuide.org, a non-profit health resource. She noted Chuck's public humiliation of Blair, his attempt to pawn her during a business deal, and his use of physical intimidation. MacKenzie also called the show's explanation "disturbing, particularly given the young, female target demographic of Gossip Girl and The CW."[65]
In a review for the Los Angeles Times, Judy Berman addressed Safran's description of Blair during the scene. "Considering how terrified Blair looked at the end of their encounter, and how quickly she got out of there, the show is sending a mixed message at best." She went on to state, "We have no right to expect Gossip Girl to be a paragon of morality, or even realism, but the idea that true love requires taking a shard of glass to the face is disturbing even in this alternate, soap-opera dimension."[67]
Season 5[edit]
In the fifth season premiere, Blair continues to plan her wedding, but begins to encounter problems in her relationship with Louis. It is later revealed that she is pregnant.[23] Blair tells Chuck that the child is Louis', and states that part of her wanted Chuck to be the father.[68] Dan becomes Blair's confidante and is shown to be in love with her, though she remains oblivious to his feelings and states that there is nothing more than friendship between them.
Though she insists that she is in love with Louis, Blair begins to seek Chuck out as the season progresses. The two eventually declare their love for each other prior to a car accident in her limousine while being chased by paparazzi. Though both recover, Blair suffers a miscarriage from the crash. After the crash Blair decides that she must commit herself to Louis, converting to Catholicism and cutting off any connection with Chuck. At the wedding, Gossip Girl releases a recording of Blair confessing her love for Chuck. Nevertheless, Louis and Blair get married, making Blair a Princess of Monaco, though Louis informs her that they will have a loveless marriage of convenience.[69] She then receives support from Dan, leading them to share a kiss on Valentine's Day. Amidst these developments, Blair grows conflicted between her feelings for Dan and Chuck.[70] After taking steps to end her marriage, she chooses to begin a romantic relationship with Dan.[71] By the end of the season, however, after a debate about which love is the best—with Dan she feels safe, with Chuck she feels vulnerable—Blair declares that she is still in love with Chuck, and chooses to pursue him.[72]
Season 6[edit]
In the final season, Blair resumes her romantic relationship with Chuck, while Chuck and his father Bart—who is revealed to be alive in the previous season—become bitter rivals. Blair pursues her career as head of Waldorf Designs, with several mishaps, before staging a successful line.[73] In the penultimate episode, Bart falls to his death while trying to attack Chuck atop a building. Afterward, Blair and Chuck depart together. In the series finale, Blair marries Chuck which results in her not having to testify against him in his father's murder case. Five years later, Blair is shown to be running her mother's successful fashion line and she works with Jenny in a line called "J for Waldorf", and she and Chuck are shown to have a son named Henry.[74]
Reception[edit]
In print[edit]
While covering the book series, Janet Malcolm of The New Yorker labeled the character "an antiheroine of the first rank," and asserted that "the series belongs to awful Blair, who inspires von Ziegesar's highest flights of comic fancy." She also compared Blair to vintage film and literary figures such as Becky Sharp of Vanity Fair, and Lizzie Eustace of The Eustace Diamonds.[6] In addition, the character has drawn comparisons to notable contemporaries, including Lila Fowler of the Sweet Valley High series.[75]
In the 2007 book Children's Literature and Culture, writer Harry Edwin Eiss chastised the depiction of Blair's bulimia. "If handled properly, the inclusion of her illness could have provided a powerful lesson for young adult readers who worry about their weight and food consumption. Unfortunately, Cecily von Ziegesar, the author of the series, presents a seriously flawed treatment of the problem. In a failed attempt at humor, the writer regards Blair's sickness as just another source of gossip," he said.[76] Emily Nussbaum of New York magazine had similar comments, calling the bulimia "more of an icky weakness than a full-fledged pathology." However, she went on to commend Blair as "hilariously self-centered".[17]
Julie Opipari of Manga Maniac Cafe gave the initial Gossip Girl manga a negative review, citing displeasure with the characters and plot. However, she acknowledged that this gave her a greater appreciation for Blair in the second volume, noting that Blair "really had to learn how to rough it" after losing her privileged lifestyle. She went on to state that "Blair is one character that is fun to hate on. So imagine my surprise when I actually started to like her by the end of the book".[77]
On screen[edit]
Meester's portrayal of Blair has been met with critical acclaim. The actress prepared by reading Gossip Girl.[27]
The show's breakout character,[78] Blair Waldorf has garnered much media recognition. Yahoo! proclaims Blair a member of "television's pantheon of razor-witted, solipsistic high school Alpha females."[29] While commenting on Meester, New York magazine's 2008 cover story of the series states, "Her villain-you-want-to-root-for is the most sophisticated performance on the show."[79] In another 2008 article, People magazine commented that "Meester has burst out of this ensemble to stardom."[80] Variety described her performance as similar to that of "a predatory junior Joan Collins who practically breathes fire out of her pinched, perfectly WASP-ish nostrils."[80] FHM Online ranked the actress the "Hottest TV Star" of autumn 2008, stating that as Blair Waldorf, "Leighton Meester has stolen the spotlight with her mind-blowing good looks and amazing performance."[81] OK! magazine likened her character to Audrey Hepburn's portrayal of Holly Golightly.[82] The physical similarity was also noted by USA Today.[83]
In its 2009 "Hot List", Rolling Stone cited Blair as "the reason we love the back-stabby soap most."[84] Regarding the fictional fame of Blair's friend Serena, Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly asserted that "Serena may be the star of the media but Blair is quickly becoming the star of this show."[85] While citing Serena's long-revered allure, Glamour and its readers compared the two characters in 2008, with Blair being recognized as more beautiful than Serena.[86] In a review from The Atlantic, Blair and Serena's friendship was praised as "it offered a relationship whose depth and complexity approached Rory and Paris' [from Gilmore Girls]."[87]
In May 2009, Blair received attention from Forbes, which interviewed her via the series' writers.[88] Television Without Pity listed Meester in their "Golden Globes 2009: Overlooked TV Shows and Performances" article, labeling Blair "so multi-faceted, well-dressed and beautifully played that she elevates this teen soap to something we don't even feel guilty about admitting we love."[89] Meester won the Teen Choice Award for "Choice TV Actress Drama" in 2009,[90] and again in 2010.[91] In 2009, she was voted the "Best Mean Girl" in Zap2it's first poll of the best television characters in the 2000s.[92] In February 2012, Zap2it held another poll to determine TV's Most Crushworthy. Blair was elected TV's Most Crushworthy 1% Female over Temperance "Bones" Brennan.[93] The 1 percenters are people that "have everything going for them with their fantastic good looks and their opulent lifestyle".[94] Her relationship with Chuck Bass was included in TV Guide's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time"[95] as well as Entertainment Weekly's "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples".[96]
The character's wardrobe—credited to designers Abigail Lorick and Eric Daman[97][98]—was popular, earning mentions from periodicals such as InStyle[99] and New York,[100] along with recognition from websites.[101] TV Guide listed Blair among its "Best Dressed TV Characters of 2007".[102] Entertainment Weekly named Blair Waldorf and Chuck Bass the "Most Stylish" characters of 2008.[103] Lifetime television ranks Blair first in its listing of "The Top 10 Best-Dressed TV Characters",[104] while Glamour has named her among its best-dressed TV characters of all time.[105] In a Vanity Fair interview, costume designers Eric Daman and Meredith Markworth-Pollack named Audrey Hepburn and Vogue editor-in-chief Anna Wintour as their inspirations when dressing Meester as Blair. The designers also cited New York socialites Tinsley Mortimer and Arden Wohl as influences.[106] TV Guide named her the sixth most fashionable TV character.[107]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl Recap: Episode 18, "Much 'I Do' About Nothing"". buzzsugar.com. May 20, 2008. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Scene Stealers: The TV Stars We Had to Watch". People. November 25, 2008. Retrieved September 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "New Haven Can Wait"". Zap2it. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "O Brother, Where Bart Thou?"". Zap2it. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "Gone with the Will"". Zap2it. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "The Grandfather"". Zap2it. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "The Goodbye Gossip Girl"". TV Guide. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "Reversals of Fortune"". Zap2it. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Sandra, Gonzalez (May 4, 2010). "Gossip Girl recap: Chuck and Blair save each other". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved August 25, 2009.
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Jump up ^ Busis, Hillary (November 16, 2010). "Gossip Girl Season 4, Episode 9 'The Witches of Bushwick'". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bricker, Tierney (February 1, 2011). "Gossip Girl's Leighton Meester talks Dan and Blair: 'I think they're good for each other'". Zap2it. Archived from the original on April 8, 2011. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (February 15, 2011). "Gossip Girl's 'It-Girl Happened One Night': A Valentine's Day 'Dair'". Zap2it. Archived from the original on March 24, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (April 18, 2011). "The aftermath of Dan and Blair's kiss". Zap2it. Archived from the original on April 23, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Ostlie, Ashley (May 3, 2011). "Gossip Girl Episode Recap: "The Princesses and the Frog"". TV Guide. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Fallik, Dawn (May 16, 2011). "Gossip Girl, 'The Wrong Goodbye,' Recap". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved May 17, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Ausiello, Michael (March 1, 2011). "Gossip Girl Boss on the Big Dan/Blair Smooch: 'It Was a Long Time Coming'". TV Line. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Wieselman, Jarett (March 1, 2011). "IM-ing about Gossip Girl". New York Post. Archived from the original on March 6, 2011. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rovzar, Chris (March 8, 2011). "How the Writers of Gossip Girl Sold Us on the Show's Most Unbelievable Couple". New York. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Espina, Alfonso (December 19, 2012). "The End of Gossip Girl: Chair vs. Dair". The Huffington Post. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (February 15, 2011). "Gossip Girl recap: Dair to Get Closer". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (November 28, 2015). "We Ranked All the Gossip Girl Couples and No. 1 May Surprise You". E!. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Fallik, Dawn (February 28, 2011). "Gossip Girl Season 4, Episode 17 'Empire of the Son': TV Recap". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Spoiler Chat: Get Sweeps Scoop on Your Fave Gossip Girl, Glee and Grey's Anatomy Couples". E!. May 11, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ Hall, Katy (December 14, 2010). "Leighton Meester In Allure". The Huffington Post. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
Jump up ^ Nicole, Karlis (October 14, 2011). "Penn Badgley Reveals: 'Blair Is Dan's Soul Mate'!". Hollywoodlife.com. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ross, Robyn (November 20, 2011). "Gossip Girl's Leighton Meester: I Want the Blair and Dan Relationship to Play Out". TV Guide. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nicole, Karlis (February 13, 2012). "'Gossip Girl' Stars Ed Westick & Penn Badgley Reveal Who Loves Blair More". Hollywoodlife.com. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Arrow, Jennifer (May 3, 2011). "Gossip Girl Boss: "Chuck Has Never, and Will Never, Hurt Blair"". E! Online. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b MacKenzie, Carina (May 3, 2011). "Gossip Girl: Is Chuck Bass abusive? E.P. says no; we beg to differ". Zap2it. Archived from the original on May 7, 2011. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
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Jump up ^ Berman, Judy (May 10, 2011). "Gossip Girl recap: They tried to make Chuck go to rehab". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ Fallik, Dawn (October 10, 2011). "Gossip Girl, Season 5, Episode 3, 'The Jewel of Denial': TV Recap". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl's 100th Episode Shocker". Entertainment Weekly. January 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ Prudom, Laura (February 21, 2012). "Gossip Girl Recap: Dan And Blair Confront Their Feelings In 'Cross Rhodes'". Huffington Post. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ Wightman, Catriona (February 28, 2012). "Gossip Girl: 'The Princess Dowry' recap". DigitalSpy.com. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (May 14, 2012). "Gossip Girl Finale Redux: Blair Chooses Her Man! So What Comes Next?". E!. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ricketts, Whitney (November 27, 2012). "Gossip Girl Recap of Season 6, Episode 7: Chuck Tells Blair It's Over". Wetpaint. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fallik, Dawn (December 10, 2012). "Gossip Girl, Season 6, Episode 9, 'The Revengers': TV Recap". E!. Retrieved December 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ McDonell-Parry, Amelia (September 24, 2009). "Casting The Sweet Valley High Movie". The Frisky (website). Retrieved October 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Eiss, Harry (2007). "Children's Literature and Culture". Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 133. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Review: Gossip Girl: For Your Eyes Only V 2". Manga Maniac Cafe. December 22, 2011. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Widdicombe, Ben (April 9, 2008). "A Gossip Girl dropout". Daily News (New York). Retrieved October 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Genius of Gossip Girl". New York. Retrieved July 24, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Leighton Meester". People. Retrieved October 9, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl Meester TV's Hottest star". Reuters. September 22, 2008. Archived from the original on September 25, 2008. Retrieved October 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "OK! Interview: Leighton Meester". OK!. September 18, 2008. Archived from the original on December 4, 2010. Retrieved October 4, 2009.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Craig (October 28, 2008). "Here's A Toast To 'Tiffany's' On Landmark Novel's 50th Birthday". USA Today. Retrieved November 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Gay, Jason. "Gossip Girl's Leighton Meester; our 2009 hot list leader". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on September 29, 2011. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (October 14, 2008). "Gossip Girl: Yale and Hearty". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ Guglielmetti, Petra (October 14, 2008). "Who's Prettier: Blair or Serena?". Glamour. Retrieved July 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ Li, Shirley (October 1, 2014). "When Paris Met Rory: TV's Last Great Teenage-Girl Friendship". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Broek, Anna (May 13, 2009). "The Forbes Fictional Interview: Blair Waldorf". Forbes. Retrieved July 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Golden Globes 2009: Overlooked TV Shows and Performances". Television Without Pity. Archived from the original on 2009-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Teen Choice Award Winners". CBS. August 10, 2009. Retrieved August 26, 2009.
Jump up ^ Finn, Natalie (August 8, 2010). "Teens Deem Kardashians Choice Reality TV". E!. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
Jump up ^ Grieser, Andy (August 25, 2009). "The decade's best television characters, according to you". Zap2it. Tribune Media Services. Archived from the original on September 18, 2010. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ MacKenzie, Carina Adly. "TV's Most Crushworthy 1% (Female)". Zap2it. Tribune Media Services. Archived from the original on May 11, 2012. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Eckstein, David (February 23, 2012). "TV's Most Crushworthy - The 1 percenters: 'Gossip Girl' stars Ed Westwick and Leighton Meester take on Emily Deschanel and Justin Hartley". Zap2it. Archived from the original on May 12, 2012. Retrieved May 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Couples Pictures, Gossip Girl Photos - Photo Gallery: The Best TV Couples of All Time". TV Guide. Archived from the original on September 25, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bierly, Mandi; Fog, Henning (May 13, 2012). "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples | Photo 21 of 30". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved July 7, 2012.
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Jump up ^ "Blair Waldorf's Wardrobe Does Not Go Home With Her". New York. March 19, 2008. Retrieved October 9, 2008.
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Jump up ^ Lomrantz, Tracey (September 26, 2008). "Meet The 9 Best Dressed TV Characters Of All Time". Glamour. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Welcome Back, Gossip Girl". Vanity Fair. March 17, 2011. Archived from the original on March 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Blair Waldorf Pictures - Photo Gallery: Who Are the Most Fashionable TV Characters?". TV Guide. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
Books
von Ziegesar, Cecily (2003). Gossip Girl: Because I'm Worth It. Poppy (Little, Brown and Company). ISBN 978-0-316-90968-6.
von Ziegesar, Cecily (2002). You Know You Love Me: A Gossip Girl Novel. Poppy (Little, Brown and Company). ISBN 978-0-316-91148-1.
von Ziegesar, Cecily (2009). Gossip Girl: I Will Always Love You. Poppy (Little, Brown and Company). ISBN 978-0-316-04361-8.
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"Summer, Kind of Wonderful"
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"The Dark Night"
"The Ex Files"
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"Seder Anything"
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"The Goodbye Gossip Girl"
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"Reversals of Fortune"
"The Freshman"
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"Enough About Eve"
"They Shoot Humphreys, Don't They?"
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"Belles de Jour"
"Double Identity"
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"Touch of Eva"
"Easy J"
"Gaslit"
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"Petty in Pink"
"The Princesses and the Frog"
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"Yes, Then Zero"
"All the Pretty Sources"
"Rhodes to Perdition"
"Riding in Town Cars with Boys"
"The End of the Affair?"
"Father and the Bride"
"G.G."
"The Backup Dan"
Season 6
"Gone Maybe Gone"
"New York, I Love You XOXO"
Characters
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Blair Waldorf
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Jenny Humphrey
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Related
Gossip Girl novel series
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OMFGG – Original Music Featured on Gossip Girl No. 1
Gossip Girl: Acapulco
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text:
Thames Tunnel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Coordinates: 51°30′11″N 0°03′07″W / 51.503°N 0.052°W / 51.503; -0.052
"Thames foot tunnel" redirects here. For other tunnels, see Tunnels underneath the River Thames.
Interior of the Thames Tunnel, mid-19th century
The Thames Tunnel is an underwater tunnel, built beneath the River Thames in London, connecting Rotherhithe and Wapping. It measures 35 feet (11 m) wide by 20 feet (6 m) high and is 1,300 feet (396 m) long, running at a depth of 75 feet (23 m) below the river surface measured at high tide. It was the first tunnel known to have been constructed successfully underneath a navigable river[1] and was built between 1825 and 1843 using Marc Isambard Brunel's and Thomas Cochrane's newly invented tunnelling shield technology, by Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
The tunnel was originally designed for horse-drawn carriages, but was never used for that purpose. Since 2010 it forms part of the London Overground railway network under ownership of Transport for London.
Contents
[hide]
1 History and development
1.1 Construction
1.1.1 1828
1.1.2 Re-opening
1.2 Pedestrian usage
1.3 Use as a railway tunnel
1.4 Influence
2 Visiting
2.1 Entrance shaft
3 References
4 External links
History and development[edit]
Construction[edit]
Inside the Thames Tunnel during construction, 1830
At the start of the 19th century, there was a pressing need for a new land connection between the north and south banks of the Thames to link the expanding docks on each side of the river. The engineer Ralph Dodd tried, but failed, to build a tunnel between Gravesend and Tilbury in 1799.[2]
In 1805–09 a group of Cornish miners, including Richard Trevithick, tried to dig a tunnel farther upriver between Rotherhithe and Wapping/Limehouse but failed because of the difficult conditions of the ground. The Cornish miners were used to hard rock and did not modify their methods for soft clay and quicksand. This Thames Archway project was abandoned after the initial pilot tunnel (a 'driftway') flooded twice when 1,000 feet (305 m) of a total of 1,200 feet (366 m) had been dug.[3] It only measured 2–3 feet by 5 feet (61–91 cm by 1.5 m), and was intended as the drain for a larger tunnel for passenger use.[4] The failure of the Thames Archway project led engineers to conclude that "an underground tunnel is impracticable".[5]
However, the Anglo-French engineer Marc Brunel refused to accept this conclusion. In 1814 he proposed to Emperor Alexander I of Russia a plan to build a tunnel under the river Neva in St Petersburg. This scheme was turned down (a bridge was built instead) but Brunel continued to develop ideas for new methods of tunnelling.[2]
Brunel patented the tunnelling shield, a revolutionary advance in tunnelling technology, in January 1818. In 1823 Brunel produced a plan for a tunnel between Rotherhithe and Wapping, which would be dug using his new shield. Financing was soon found from private investors, including the Duke of Wellington, and a Thames Tunnel Company was formed in 1824, the project beginning in February 1825.[3]
The first step was the construction of a large shaft on the south bank at Rotherhithe, 150 feet (46 m) back from the river bank. It was dug by assembling an iron ring 50 feet (15 m) in diameter above ground. A brick wall 40 feet (12 m) high and 3 feet (91 cm) thick was built on top of this, with a powerful steam engine surmounting it to drive the excavation's pumps. The whole apparatus was estimated to weigh 1,000 tons.[2] The soil below the ring's sharp lower edge was removed manually by Brunel's workers. The whole shaft thus gradually sank under its own weight, slicing through the soft ground rather like an enormous pastry cutter. The shaft became stuck at one point during its sinking as the pressure of the earth around it held it firmly in position. Extra weight was required to make it continue its descent; 50,000 bricks were added as temporary weights. It was realised that the problem was caused because the shaft's sides were parallel; years later when the Wapping shaft was built, it was slightly wider at the bottom than the top. This non-cylindrical tapering design ensured it did not get stuck. By November 1825 the Rotherhithe shaft was in place and tunnelling work could begin.[3]
The tunnelling shield, built at Henry Maudslay's Lambeth works and assembled in the Rotherhithe shaft, was the key to Brunel's construction of the Thames Tunnel. The Illustrated London News described how it worked:
Diagram of the tunnelling shield used to construct the Thames Tunnel
A scale model of the tunnelling shield at the Brunel Museum at Rotherhithe
The mode in which this great excavation was accomplished was by means of a powerful apparatus termed a shield, consisting of twelve great frames, lying close to each other like as many volumes on the shelf of a book-case, and divided into three stages or stories, thus presenting 36 chambers of cells, each for one workman, and open to the rear, but closed in the front with moveable boards. The front was placed against the earth to be removed, and the workman, having removed one board, excavated the earth behind it to the depth directed, and placed the board against the new surface exposed. The board was then in advance of the cell, and was kept in its place by props; and having thus proceeded with all the boards, each cell was advanced by two screws, one at its head and the other at its foot, which, resting against the finished brickwork and turned, impelled it forward into the vacant space. The other set of divisions then advanced. As the miners worked at one end of the cell, so the bricklayers formed at the other the top, sides and bottom.[6]
Each of the twelve frames of the shield weighed over seven tons.[7] The key innovation of the tunnelling shield was its support for the unlined ground in front and around it to reduce the risk of collapses. However, many workers, including Brunel himself, soon fell ill from the poor conditions caused by filthy sewage-laden water seeping through from the river above. This sewage gave off methane gas which was ignited by the miner's oil lamps. When the resident engineer, John Armstrong of Ingram Northumberland [8], fell ill in April 1826 Marc's son Isambard Kingdom Brunel took over at the age of 20.
Work was slow, progressing at only 8–12 feet a week (3–4 m). To earn some income from the tunnel, the company directors allowed sightseers to view the shield in operation. They charged a shilling for the adventure and an estimated 600–800 visitors took advantage of the opportunity every day.
The excavation was also hazardous. The tunnel flooded suddenly on 18 May 1827 after 549 feet (167 m) had been dug.[3] Isambard Kingdom Brunel lowered a diving bell from a boat to repair the hole at the bottom of the river, throwing bags filled with clay into the breach in the tunnel's roof. Following the repairs and the drainage of the tunnel, he held a banquet inside it.
1828[edit]
The tunnel flooded again the following year, on 12 January 1828, when six men died. Isambard was extremely lucky to survive this; the six men had made their way to the main stairwell, as the emergency exit was known to be locked. Isambard instead made for the locked exit. A contractor named Beamish heard him there and broke the door down, and an unconscious Isambard was pulled out and revived.[citation needed] He was sent to Brislington, near Bristol, to recuperate; there he heard about the competition to build what became the Clifton Suspension Bridge.
Financial problems followed, leading in August to the tunnel being walled off just behind the shield and then abandoned for seven years.
Re-opening[edit]
In December 1834 Marc Brunel succeeded in raising enough money (including a loan of £247,000 from the Treasury) to continue construction.[3]
Starting in August 1835 the old rusted shield was dismantled and removed. By March 1836 the new shield, improved and heavier, was assembled in place and boring resumed.[4]
Impeded by further floods, (23 August and 3 November 1837, 20 March 1838, 3 April 1840)[4] fires and leaks of methane and hydrogen sulphide gas, the remainder of the tunnelling was completed in November 1841, after another five and a half years. The extensive delays and repeated flooding made the tunnel the butt of metropolitan humour:
Cutaway illustration of the Thames Tunnel excavation as it was probably around 1840
Good Monsieur Brunel
Let misanthropy tell
That your work, half complete, is begun ill;
Heed them not, bore away
Through gravel and clay,
Nor doubt the success of your Tunnel.
That very mishap,
When the Thames forced a gap,
And made it fit haunt for an otter,
Has proved that your scheme
Is no catchpenny dream;—
They can't say "'twill never hold water."[9]
The Thames Tunnel was fitted out with lighting, roadways and spiral staircases during 1841–1842. An engine house on the Rotherhithe side, which now houses the Brunel Museum, was also constructed to house machinery for draining the tunnel. The tunnel was finally opened to the public on 25 March 1843.[3]
Pedestrian usage[edit]
Although it was a triumph of civil engineering, the Thames Tunnel was not a financial success. It had cost £454,000 to dig and another £180,000 to fit out – far exceeding its initial cost estimates.[2] Proposals to extend the entrance to accommodate wheeled vehicles failed owing to cost, and it was used only by pedestrians. It became a major tourist attraction, attracting about two million people a year, each paying a penny to pass through,[10] and became the subject of popular songs. The American traveller William Allen Drew commented that "No one goes to London without visiting the Tunnel" and described it as the "eighth wonder of the world".[10] When he saw it for himself in 1851, he pronounced himself "somewhat disappointed in it" but still left a vivid description of its interior, which was more like an underground marketplace than a transport artery:
Entrance shaft to the Thames Tunnel
Amongst the blocks of buildings [in Wapping] that separate the street from the river, we notice an octagonal edifice of marble. We enter by one of several great doors, and find ourselves in a rotunda of fifty feet diameter, and the floor laid in mosaic work of blue and white marble. The walls are stuccoed, around which are stands for the sale of papers, pamphlets, books, confectioners, beer, &c. A sort of watch-house stands on the side of the rotunda next the river, in which is a fat publican, or tax gatherer. Before him is a brass turnstile, through which you are permitted to pass, on paying him a penny, and, entering a door, you begin to descend the shaft, by a flight of very long marble steps that descend to a wide platform, from which the next series of steps descends in an opposite direction. The walls of the shaft are circular, finished in stucco, and hung with paintings and other curious objects. You halt a few moments on the first platform and listen to the notes of a huge organ that occupies a part of it, discoursing excellent music.
You resume your downward journey till you reach the next story, or marble platform, where you find other objects of curiosity to engage your attention whilst you stop to rest. And thus you go down – down – to the bottom of the shaft eighty feet; the walls meanwhile, being studded with pictures, statues, or figures in plaster, &c. Arrived at the bottom, you find yourself in a rotunda corresponding to that you entered from the street, a round room, with marble floor, fifty feet in diameter. There are alcoves near the walls in which are all sorts of contrivances to get your money, from Egyptian necromancers and fortune-tellers to dancing monkeys. The room is lighted with gas, and is brilliant.
Now look into the Thames Tunnel before you. It consists of two beautiful Arches, extending to the opposite side of the river. These Arches contain each a roadsted, fourteen feet wide and twenty-two feet high, and pathways for pedestrians, three feet wide. The Tunnel appears to be well ventilated, as the air seemed neither damp nor close. The partition between these Arches, running the whole length of the Tunnel, is cut into transverse arches, leading through from one roadsted to the other. There may be fifty of them in all, and these are finished into fancy and toy shops in the richest manner – with polished marble counters, tapestry linings gilded shelves, and mirrors that make everything appear double. Ladies, in fashionable dresses and with smiling faces, wait within and allow no gentleman to pass without giving him an opportunity to purchase some pretty thing to carry home as a remembrancer of the Thames Tunnel. The Arches are lighted with gas burners, that make it as bright as the sun; and the avenues are always crowded with a moving throng of men, women and children, examining the structure of the Tunnel, or inspecting the fancy wares, toys, &c., displayed by the arch-looking girls of these arches ... It is impossible to pass through without purchasing some curiosity. Most of the articles are labelled – "Bought in the Thames Tunnel" – "a present from the Thames Tunnel".[10]
Drew was perhaps charitable in his view of the tunnel, which came to be regarded as the haunt of prostitutes and "tunnel thieves" who lurked under its arches and mugged passers-by.[11] The American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne, writing in 1855, took a much more negative view of the tunnel when he visited it a few years after Drew:
It consisted of an arched corridor of apparently interminable length, gloomily lighted with jets of gas at regular intervals ... There are people who spend their lives there, seldom or never, I presume, seeing any daylight, except perhaps a little in the morning. All along the extent of this corridor, in little alcoves, there are stalls of shops, kept principally by women, who, as you approach, are seen through the dusk offering for sale ... multifarious trumpery ... So far as any present use is concerned, the tunnel is an entire failure.
Use as a railway tunnel[edit]
1870 view of a train exiting the Thames Tunnel at Wapping
Inside the tunnel, 2010
The tunnel was purchased in September 1865 by the East London Railway Company, a consortium of six mainline railways which sought to use the tunnel to provide a rail link for goods and passengers between Wapping (and later Liverpool Street) and the South London Line. The tunnel's generous headroom, resulting from the architects' original intention of accommodating horse-drawn carriages, provided a sufficient loading gauge for trains as well.
The line's engineer was Sir John Hawkshaw who was also noted, with W. H. Barlow, for the major re-design and completion of Isambard Brunel's long abandoned Clifton Suspension Bridge at Bristol, which was completed in 1864. [12]
The first train ran through the tunnel on 7 December 1869.[3] In 1884, the tunnel's disused construction shaft to the north of the river was repurposed to serve as Wapping station.
The East London Railway was later absorbed into the London Underground, where it became the East London Line. It continued to be used for goods services as late as 1962. During the Underground days, the Thames Tunnel was the oldest piece of the Underground's infrastructure.
It was planned to construct an intersection between the East London Line and the Jubilee Line extension at Canada Water tube station. As construction would require the temporary closure of the East London Line, it was decided to take this opportunity to perform long-term maintenance on the tunnel and so in 1995 the East London Line was closed to allow construction and maintenance to take place. The proposed repair method for the tunnel was to seal it against leaks by "shotcreting" it with concrete, obliterating its original appearance, causing a controversy that led to a bitter conflict between London Underground who wished to complete the work as quickly and cheaply as possible and architectural interests wishing to preserve the tunnel's appearance. The architectural interests won with the Grade II* listing of the tunnel on 24 March 1995 (the day London Underground had scheduled the start of the long-term maintenance work).[13][14][15]
Following an agreement to leave a short section at one end of the tunnel untreated, and more sympathetic treatment of the rest of the tunnel, the work went ahead and the route reopened – much later than originally anticipated – in 1998. The tunnel closed again from 23 December 2007 to permit tracklaying and resignalling for the East London Line extension. The extension work resulted in the tunnel becoming part of the new London Overground. After its reopening on 27 April 2010, it was used by mainline trains again.
Influence[edit]
Commemorative plaque at Rotherhithe underground station before the East London line was closed in 2007
The construction of the Thames Tunnel showed that it was indeed possible to build underwater tunnels, despite the previous scepticism of many engineers. Several new underwater tunnels were built in the UK in the following decades: the Tower Subway in London; the Severn Tunnel under the River Severn; and the Mersey Railway Tunnel under the River Mersey. Brunel's tunnelling shield was later refined, with James Henry Greathead playing a particularly important role in developing the technology.
The historic importance of the Thames Tunnel was recognised on 24 March 1995, when the structure was listed Grade II* in recognition of its architectural importance.[3][14] A plaque could be seen above the stairs descending to the Rotherhithe platforms before the temporary closure. The plaque was removed for safe keeping for the duration of the works, but is now reinstated on the tunnel wall and can be seen from the passenger staircase into the station platforms.
In 1835, the Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi parodied the construction of the Thames Tunnel in lines 126–129 of the poem "Palinodia al Marchese Gino Capponi".[16]
Visiting[edit]
Interior of the northwest shaft in September 2013
Nearby in Rotherhithe, the original Brunel Engine House is open to visitors as the Brunel Museum. It was built to house the drainage pumps for the tunnel and has now been restored. Until the East London Line was closed in 2007 for major refurbishment and upgrade, the museum organised tours through the tunnel by train.
It is still possible to take a walking tour through the tunnel to Wapping from Rotherhithe and back, but these are infrequent and on an ad-hoc basis as they can only take place when that section of the line is closed for maintenance.[17][18][19]
Entrance shaft[edit]
In the 1860s, when trains started running through the tunnel, the shaft was used for ventilation. The staircase was removed to reduce the risk of fire. In 2011, a concrete raft was built near the bottom of the shaft, above the tracks, when the tunnel was upgraded for the London Overground network. This space, with walls blackened with smoke from steam trains, is accessible from Railway Avenue, and functions at times as a concert venue and occasional bar. A rooftop garden has been built on top of the shaft.[20][21] In 2016 the entrance hall opened as an exhibition space, with a staircase providing easy access to the shaft for the first time in over 150 years.[22]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Thames Tunnel". Brunel Museum. Retrieved 26 November 2012. ; although the Babylonians may have built the Euphrates Tunnel nearly 4,000 years earlier ( Browne, Malcomn W. (December 2, 1990). "Tunnel Drilling, Old as Babylon, Now Becomes Safer". New York Times. )
^ Jump up to: a b c d John Timbs, Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts, p. 287, Kent, 1860
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Denis Smith, "London and the Thames Valley", p. 17, Thomas Telford, 2001
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Brunels' Tunnel" 2006, ISBN 0-9504361-2-7
Jump up ^ Nathan Aaseng, Construction: Building the Impossible, p. 28, The Oliver Press, Inc., 1999
Jump up ^ Illustrated London News, 25 March 1843
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference http:.2F.2Fr.search.yahoo.com.2F_ylt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference Institute_of_Civil_Engineering_-_Obituaries was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ James Smith, "The Thames Tunnel", in Memoirs, Letters, and Comic Miscellanies in Prose and Verse, of the Late James Smith, p. 185, H. Colburn, 1840
^ Jump up to: a b c William Allen Drew, Glimpses and Gatherings During a Voyage and Visit to London and the Great Exhibition in the Summer of 1851, pp. 242–249. Homan & Manley, 1852
Jump up ^ Susan Sellers / Sue Roe, The Cambridge Companion to Virginia Woolf, p. 195. Cambridge University Press, 2000
Jump up ^ Beaumont, Martin (2015). Sir John Hawkshaw 1811-1891. The Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway Society. pp. 68–69, 108–111. ISBN 978-0-9559467-7-6.
Jump up ^ Cruickshank, Dan (22 March 1995), "The Great Bore in its time – a forgotten gem in ours", The Independent
^ Jump up to: a b Historic England. "Details from image database (441472)". Images of England. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Doyle, N. (1995), "Last minute listing for Thames Tunnel", New Civil Engineer (NCE) (1122): 4–5, archived from the original on 21 May 2014
Jump up ^ Leopardi, Giacomo (1835). Canti.
Jump up ^ "The guide – things to do in London this weekend". Subterranean London – The Thames Tunnel. BBC News. 11 March 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Thames Tunnel Walkthrough and Fancy Fair". Visit London. March 2010. Archived from the original on 11 March 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Thames Tunnel Reopens!". Creative Boom London. 12 March 2010. Archived from the original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Inside The Brunel Tunnel Shaft | Londonist
Jump up ^ Inside Brunel’s Thames Tunnel Shaft : London Blog
Jump up ^ "Brunel's Thames tunnel (and accidental brothel) becomes new arts space". The Guardian. 15 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Thames Tunnel.
"Brief history during the Snow era" UCLA School of Public Health
The Brunel Museum – Based in Rotherhithe, London, the museum is housed in the building that contained the pumps to keep the Thames Tunnel dry
Brunel's Thames Tunnel BBC News – Slideshow of Thames Tunnel images
London's Oldest Underwater Tunnel – slideshow by Life magazine
The Thames Tunnel: a tunnel book Flickr, 23 May 2006 – Photos of a promotional book commemorating the opening of the tunnel
Thames Tunnel Brunel portal
Wapping map, published in 1882, actually marks the tunnel Old-Maps
Thames Tunnel photoset Flickr, 12–13 March 2010
Photos of the East London Line and Thames Tunnel while still London Underground
Thames Tunnel: Rare access to 'eighth wonder of world' – BBC News (26 May 2014) – A brief 'potted history' (a 2-minute video filmed in the tunnel)
Thames Tunnel Company (1836) An explanation of the works of the tunnel under the Thames from Rotherhithe to Wapping - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
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Indian Trade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about Native American trade. For the country of India, see List of the largest trading partners of India.
Fur trading at Fort Nez Percés in 1841.
The Native American Trade refers to historic trade between Europeans and their North American descendants and the Indigenous people of North America (today known as Native Americans in the United States, and First Nations in Canada, but formerly as "Indians"), beginning before the colonial period and continuing through the 19th century, although declining it around 1937.
The term Indian Trade describes the people involved in the trade. The products involved varied by region and era. In most of Canada the term is synonymous with the fur trade, since fur for making beaver hats was by far the most valuable product of the trade, from the European point of view. Demand for other products resulted in trade in those items: Europeans asked for deerskin in the Southeast coast of the United States, and for buffalo skins and meat, and pemmican on the Great Plains. In turn, Native American demand influenced the trade goods brought by Europeans.
Economic contact between Native Americans and European colonists began in the 16th century and lasted until the late 19th century. Although the relationship between Europeans and Indians was often marred by conflicts, many tribes established peaceful trade relations with the new colonists during the early stages of European settlement. From the 17th to the 19th century, the English and French mainly traded for animal pelts and fur with Native Americans.[1] On the other hand, trading between the Spanish and Native Americans was sporadic and lasted only for a couple of decades.[2] Eventually, wars, the dwindling of Native American populations and the westward expansion of the United States led to the confinement of tribes to reservations and the end of this kind of economic relations between Indians and European Americans.
Other economic relations continued, especially in the alcohol trade around many reservations, and for Native arts and crafts. Today, many Native Americans satisfy a different kind of demand with the associated trades of their gaming casinos on sovereign land. These have been developed as entertainment and conference resorts, serving a wide market of customers, and generating substantial revenues for tribes to use for economic development, as well as welfare and education of their people.

The first explorers to conduct trade with Native Americans were Giovanni da Verrazano and Jacques Cartier in the 1520s-1540s. Verrazano noted in his book, “If we wanted to trade with them for some of their things, they would come to the seashore on some rocks where the breakers were most violent while we remained on the little boat, and they sent us what they wanted to give on a rope, continually shouting to us not to approach the land.” [3] As visits from Europeans became more frequent and some Europeans began to settle in North America, Indians began to establish regular trade relations with these new colonists. The ideal locations for fur trading were near harbors where ships could come in.
Contents
[hide]
1 Trade with early European settlers
2 Late 19th century to present
3 Notes
4 References
Trade with early European settlers[edit]
Plymouth and Jamestown
In order to set up a thriving colony, settlers in the New World needed the five factors of production that contribute to the creation of wealth: land (natural resources), labor, capital, entrepreneurship and knowledge. Often, trading with Native Americans resulted in colonists gaining needed knowledge and natural resources. Examples of this can be seen in the English settlements of Plymouth Bay and Jamestown. Chief Massasoit, a Wampanoag, and Squanto, a Patuxet Indian, helped the Pilgrims of Plymouth Bay establish their colony by teaching them skills in cultivating this land and hunting.[4] In return for weapons and tools, these Native Americans provided the colonists with important natural resources, including food.[5] In 1621 Chief Massasoit established one of the earliest trading pacts between Europeans and Indians by signing a treaty with Plymouth Colony to engage in peaceful trade.[6] As the number of English colonists in the New England area began to grow, the Wampanoag became uneasy of losing their land to these new settlers. Gradually, tensions escalated, leading to King Philip's War, an armed conflict between the Pilgrims and the Native Americans in the area. The war ended with the defeat of the Indian tribe, causing a serious fracture amongst relations between the Pilgrims and Native Americans.[7]
Relations between settlers in the Jamestown area and Native Americans ended similarly. Initially, the Powahatan aided the English settlers with food and clothing, helping them survive the early difficult years. However, relations between the two groups deteriorated after three years, resulting in a war.
Fur trading posts
Fur trading was one of the main economic activities in Northern America from the late 16th century to the mid-19th century. At the time, demand for fur was surging in Europe as it was used to make cloth and fancy hats. Data collected from England in the 18th century highlights that the years from 1746 to 1763 saw an increase of 12 shillings per pelt. It has been calculated that over 20 million beaver hats were exported from England alone from 1700 to 1770.[8] Both trading partners, Native Americans and Europeans, provided the other a comparative advantage in the fur trade industry. The opportunity cost of hunting beavers in Europe was extremely high: by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Eurasian beaver was near extinction in England and France.[9] On the other hand, traders and trappers thought the wildlife in the New World was essentially limitless. Native Americans made use of the trade goods received, particularly knives, axes, and guns. The fur trade provided a stable source of income for many Native Americans until the mid-19th century, when changing fashion trends in Europe and a decline in the beaver population in North America brought about a collapse in demand for fur.[10]
Trade with the Spanish Trading between Spanish settlers and Native Americans was rare and occurred in parts of New Mexico and California. The Spanish mainly intended to spread the Christian faith to Indians and to use them as slaves for work. The most significant effect of trading with the Spanish was the introduction of the horse to the Ute in New Mexico. Gradually, horses bred and their use was adopted across the Great Plains, dramatically altering the lifestyles and customs of many Native American tribes. Many Indians switched from a hunter- gatherer economy to a nomadic lifestyle after they began using horses for transportation. They had a greater range for hunting bison and trading with other tribes.[11]
Relationship between Europeans and Indians It took time for Europeans and Native Americans to learn the customs of the other side. When Europeans first encountered a tribe, they would often be offered fur, food or other items as gifts. The Europeans did not understand they were supposed to take on an alliance with the natives, including helping them against their enemies. Native American tribes regularly practice gift giving as part of their social relations. Because the Europeans did not (or most of them), they were considered to be rude and crude.
After observing that Europeans wanted to trade goods for the skins and other items, Native Americans entered into that. Both sides became involved in the conflicts of the other. In New France, in Carolina, Virginia, and New England and in New Netherland, the Europeans became drawn into the endemic warfare of their trading partners. As Native Americans were pressed into alliances by the Europeans for Queen Anne's War, the Seven Years' War, the Nine Years' War, and other standing competitions among the European powers: France, Great Britain and Spain, with whom they were dealing in North America, they felt drawn into the Europeans' endemic warfare.
Practical within their own cultures, decorative baskets were also important trade items for many tribes. Photo: Edward Curtis.
Late 19th century to present[edit]
After the United States became independent, it enacted legislation to regulate trading with the Indians/Native Americans, under the Trade and Intercourse Act, first passed on July 22, 1790. Later the Indian Office, which was then part of the War Department, issued licenses to traders in the Indian Territory. Under removal, the largest tribes from the Southeast and north of the Ohio were moved west of the Mississippi river. By 1834 Indian Territory had been designated as what was then most of the United States west of the Mississippi, primarily what became Arkansas, Kansas and Oklahoma. Territories of the upper West were still occupied by native tribes as well. Mountain men and traders from Mexico freely operated there independently of the US.
After the formation of the United States, the commerce clause of the constitution gave Congress the power to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes.” In the 19th century, the American government passed legislation to support relocation of tribes to reservations in order to extinguish their title to lands that could be sold to European Americans. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced tribes such as the Cherokee and the Choctaw to move out of their homelands.[12] Resistance by Native Americans to relocate resulted in conflicts such as the Second Seminole War, that caused the deaths of 3000 Native Americans. Forcing tribes to relocate and to adjust to isolated reservations often unsuitable for the subsistence farming they were encouraged to undertake, made many of them dependent on the U.S. government for annuities and supplies. They had difficulty trying to develop economic systems of their own.[13]
As outlined by Kalt and Cornell in their book, What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development, on reservations, tribes lacked access to capital, were assigned to areas with poor natural resources (or had their resources stolen or kept from their control), and did not possess skilled labor.
Today, many programs, such as the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, exist to foster conditions that will help reservations become independent and financially stable communities. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have established gaming casinos. The most successful ones use part of the revenues for economic development of their nations, as well as for welfare and education for all their tribal members.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Vaughan 1929, p.215
Jump up ^ Pritzker 1998, p.102
Jump up ^ Dolin 2010, p.9
Jump up ^ Vaughan 1929, p.68
Jump up ^ Vaughan 1929, p.68
Jump up ^ Vaughan 1929, p.73
Jump up ^ Vaughan 1929, p.320
Jump up ^ Carlos
Jump up ^ Carlos
Jump up ^ Carlos
Jump up ^ Pritzker, 88
Jump up ^ Perdue
Jump up ^ Perdue
References[edit]
Vaughan, A. T. (2010). New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620-1675. University of Oklahoma Press.
Dolin, Eric J. Fur, Fortune, and Empire: The Epic History of the Fur Trade in America.
N.p.: W.W. Norton &, 2011. Print.
Pritzker, Barry. Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Peoples. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1998. Print
Perdue, Theda. "The Legacy of Indian Removal." The Journal of Southern History 78.1 (2012): n. pag. Print
Carlos, Ann and Frank Lewis. "Fur Trade (1670-1870)". EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples. March 16, 2008.
Cornell, Stephen E., and Joseph P. Kalt. What Can Tribes Do?: Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development. Los Angeles: American Indian Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1992. Print the items that the native american traded were surger rice and indig
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