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History of wind power
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Charles Brush's windmill of 1888, used for generating electricity.
Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in arid regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for livestock and steam engines.
With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind plants suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power. Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny plants for battery charging at isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to national electrical networks.
By 2014, over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world, producing 4% of the world's electricity.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Antiquity
2 Early Middle Ages
3 Late Middle Ages
4 18th century
5 19th century
6 20th century
6.1 1900–1973
6.1.1 Danish development
6.1.2 Farm power and isolated plants
6.1.3 Utility-scale turbines
6.1.4 Fuel-saving turbines
6.2 1973–2000
6.2.1 US development
6.2.2 Danish development
6.2.3 Self-sufficiency and back-to-the-land
7 21st century
7.1 Floating wind turbine technology
7.2 Airborne turbines
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Antiquity[edit]
Heron's wind-powered organ, the earliest machine powered by a windwheel[3]
Sailboats and sailing ships have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years,[citation needed] and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat later in antiquity.
The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious irrigation project in the 17th century BC.[4]
The windwheel of the engineer Heron of Alexandria in 1st-century AD Roman Egypt is the earliest known instance of using a wind-driven wheel to power a machine.[3][5] Another early example of a wind-driven wheel was the prayer wheel, which has been used in ancient India, Tibet, and China since the 4th century.[6]
Early Middle Ages[edit]
The Persian, horizontal windmill
Medieval depiction of a windmill
The first practical windmills were in use in Sistan, a region in Iran and bordering Afghanistan, at least by the 9th century and possibly as early as the 7th century. These "Panemone windmills" were horizontal windmills,[note 1] which had long vertical driveshafts with six to twelve rectangular sails covered in reed matting or cloth.[7] These windmills were used to pump water, and in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[8] The use of windmills became widespread across the Middle East and Central Asia, and later spread to China and India.[9] Vertical windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many examples still exist.[10] By 1000 AD, windmills were used to pump seawater for salt-making in China and Sicily.[11]
Wind-powered automata are known from the mid-8th century: wind-powered statues that "turned with the wind over the domes of the four gates and the palace complex of the Round City of Baghdad". The "Green Dome of the palace was surmounted by the statue of a horseman carrying a lance that was believed to point toward the enemy. This public spectacle of wind-powered statues had its private counterpart in the 'Abbasid palaces where automata of various types were predominantly displayed."[12]
Late Middle Ages[edit]
The vertical windmills of Campo de Criptana were immortalized in chapter VIII of Don Quixote.
The first windmills in Europe appear in sources dating to the twelfth century. These early European windmills were sunk post mills. The earliest certain reference to a windmill dates from 1185, in Weedley, Yorkshire, although a number of earlier but less certainly dated twelfth-century European sources referring to windmills have also been adduced.[13] While it is sometimes argued that crusaders may have been inspired by windmills in the Middle East, this is unlikely since the European vertical windmills were of significantly different design than the horizontal windmills of Afghanistan. Lynn White Jr., a specialist in medieval European technology, asserts that the European windmill was an "independent invention;" he argues that it is unlikely that the Afghanistan-style horizontal windmill had spread as far west as the Levant during the Crusader period.[14] In medieval England rights to waterpower sites were often confined to nobility and clergy, so wind power was an important resource to a new middle class.[15] In addition, windmills, unlike water mills, were not rendered inoperable by the freezing of water in the winter.
By the 14th century Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine River delta.
18th century[edit]
Windmills were used to pump water for salt making on the island of Bermuda, and on Cape Cod during the American revolution.[11] In Mykonos and in other islands of Greece windmills were used to mill flour and remained in use until the early 20th century.[16] Many of them are now refurbished to be inhabited.[17]
19th century[edit]
Blyth's windmill at his cottage in Marykirk in 1891
Wind powered generators were used on ships by the end of the 19th century, as seen on the New Zealand sailing ship "Chance" (1902).
The first wind turbine used for the production of electricity was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde University).[18] Blyth's 10 m high, cloth-sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his holiday cottage at Marykirk in Kincardineshire and was used to charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille Alphonse Faure, to power the lighting in the cottage,[18] thus making it the first house in the world to have its electricity supplied by wind power.[19] Blyth offered the surplus electricity to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street, however, they turned down the offer as they thought electricity was "the work of the devil."[18] Although he later built a wind turbine to supply emergency power to the local Lunatic Asylum, Infirmary and Dispensary of Montrose, the invention never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically viable.[18]
Across the Atlantic, in Cleveland, Ohio a larger and heavily engineered machine was designed and constructed in the winter of 1887-1888 by Charles F. Brush,[20] this was built by his engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900.[21] The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 m (56 foot) in diameter and was mounted on an 18 m (60 foot) tower. Although large by today's standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW; it turned relatively slowly since it had 144 blades. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, three arc lamps, and various motors in Brush's laboratory. The machine fell into disuse after 1900 when electricity became available from Cleveland's central stations, and was abandoned in 1908.[22]
In 1891 Danish scientist, Poul la Cour, constructed a wind turbine to generate electricity, which was used to produce hydrogen[18] by electrolysis to be stored for use in experiments and to light the Askov High school. He later solved the problem of producing a steady supply of power by inventing a regulator, the Kratostate, and in 1895 converted his windmill into a prototype electrical power plant that was used to light the village of Askov.[23]
In Denmark there were about 2,500 windmills by 1900, used for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW.
In the American midwest between 1850 and 1900, a large number of small windmills, perhaps six million, were installed on farms to operate irrigation pumps.[24] Firms such as Star, Eclipse, Fairbanks-Morse, and Aeromotor became famed suppliers in North and South America.
20th century[edit]
Development in the 20th century might be usefully divided into the periods:
1900–1973, when widespread use of individual wind generators competed against fossil fuel plants and centrally-generated electricity
1973–onward, when the oil price crisis spurred investigation of non-petroleum energy sources.
1900–1973[edit]
Danish development[edit]
In Denmark wind power was an important part of a decentralized electrification in the first quarter of the 20th century, partly because of Poul la Cour from his first practical development in 1891 at Askov. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators from 5 kW to 25 kW. The largest machines were on 24 m (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23 m (75 ft) diameter rotors.[25] In 1957 Johannes Juul installed a 24 m diameter wind turbine at Gedser, which ran from 1957 until 1967. This was a three-bladed, horizontal-axis, upwind, stall-regulated turbine similar to those now used for commercial wind power development.[25]
Farm power and isolated plants[edit]
In 1927 the brothers Joe Jacobs and Marcellus Jacobs opened a factory, Jacobs Wind in Minneapolis to produce wind turbine generators for farm use. These would typically be used for lighting or battery charging, on farms out of reach of central-station electricity and distribution lines. In 30 years the firm produced about 30,000 small wind turbines, some of which ran for many years in remote locations in Africa and on the Richard Evelyn Byrd expedition to Antarctica.[26] Many other manufacturers produced small wind turbine sets for the same market, including companies called Wincharger, Miller Airlite, Universal Aeroelectric, Paris-Dunn, Airline and Winpower.
In 1931 the Darrieus wind turbine was invented, with its vertical axis providing a different mix of design tradeoffs from the conventional horizontal-axis wind turbine. The vertical orientation accepts wind from any direction with no need for adjustments, and the heavy generator and gearbox equipment can rest on the ground instead of atop a tower.
By the 1930s windmills were widely used to generate electricity on farms in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. Used to replenish battery storage banks, these machines typically had generating capacities of a few hundred watts to several kilowatts. Beside providing farm power, they were also used for isolated applications such as electrifying bridge structures to prevent corrosion. In this period, high tensile steel was cheap, and windmills were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
The most widely used small wind generator produced for American farms in the 1930s was a two-bladed horizontal-axis machine manufactured by the Wincharger Corporation. It had a peak output of 200 watts. Blade speed was regulated by curved air brakes near the hub that deployed at excessive rotational velocities. These machines were still being manufactured in the United States during the 1980s. In 1936, the U.S. started a rural electrification project that killed the natural market for wind-generated power, since network power distribution provided a farm with more dependable usable energy for a given amount of capital investment.
In Australia, the Dunlite Corporation built hundreds of small wind generators to provide power at isolated postal service stations and farms. These machines were manufactured from 1936 until 1970.[27]
Utility-scale turbines[edit]
The world's first megawatt-sized wind turbine near Grandpa's Knob Summit,, Castleton, Vermont.[28]
Experimental wind turbine at Nogent-le-Roi, France, 1955.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis utility-scale wind generators was the WIME D-30 in service in Balaklava, near Yalta, USSR from 1931 until 1942. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30 m (100 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It had a three-bladed 30 metre rotor on a steel lattice tower.[29] It was reported to have an annual load factor of 32 per cent,[30] not much different from current wind machines.[31]
In 1941 the world's first megawatt-size wind turbine was connected to the local electrical distribution system on the mountain known as Grandpa's Knob in Castleton, Vermont, United States. It was designed by Palmer Cosslett Putnam and manufactured by the S. Morgan Smith Company. This 1.25 MW Smith-Putnam turbine operated for 1100 hours before a blade failed at a known weak point, which had not been reinforced due to war-time material shortages. No similar-sized unit was to repeat this "bold experiment" for about forty years.[28]
Fuel-saving turbines[edit]
During the Second World War, small wind generators were used on German U-boats to recharge submarine batteries as a fuel-conserving measure. In 1946 the lighthouse and residences on the island of Neuwerk were partly powered by an 18 kW wind turbine 15 metres in diameter, to economize on diesel fuel. This installation ran for around 20 years before being replaced by a submarine cable to the mainland.[32]
The Station d'Etude de l'Energie du Vent at Nogent-le-Roi in France operated an experimental 800 KVA wind turbine from 1956 to 1966.[33]

The NASA/DOE 7.5 megawatt Mod-2 three turbine cluster in Goodnoe Hills, Washington in 1981.
Comparison of NASA wind turbines
1973–2000[edit]
US development[edit]
From 1974 through the mid-1980s the United States government worked with industry to advance the technology and enable large commercial wind turbines. The NASA wind turbines were developed under a program to create a utility-scale wind turbine industry in the U.S. With funding from the National Science Foundation and later the United States Department of Energy (DOE), a total of 13 experimental wind turbines were put into operation, in four major wind turbine designs. This research and development program pioneered many of the multi-megawatt turbine technologies in use today, including: steel tube towers, variable-speed generators, composite blade materials, partial-span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design capabilities. The large wind turbines developed under this effort set several world records for diameter and power output. The MOD-2 wind turbine cluster of three turbines produced 7.5 megawatts of power in 1981. In 1987, the MOD-5B was the largest single wind turbine operating in the world with a rotor diameter of nearly 100 meters and a rated power of 3.2 megawatts. It demonstrated an availability of 95 percent, an unparalleled level for a new first-unit wind turbine. The MOD-5B had the first large-scale variable speed drive train and a sectioned, two-blade rotor that enabled easy transport of the blades. The 4 megawatt WTS-4 held the world record for power output for over 20 years. Although the later units were sold commercially, none of these two-bladed machines were ever put into mass production. When oil prices declined by a factor of three from 1980 through the early 1990s,[34] many turbine manufacturers, both large and small, left the business. The commercial sales of the NASA/Boeing Mod-5B, for example, came to an end in 1987 when Boeing Engineering and Construction announced they were "planning to leave the market because low oil prices are keeping windmills for electricity generation uneconomical."[35]
Later, in the 1980s, California provided tax rebates for wind power. These rebates funded the first major use of wind power for utility electricity. These machines, gathered in large wind parks such as at Altamont Pass would be considered small and un-economic by modern wind power development standards.
Danish development[edit]
A giant change took place in 1978 when the world's first multi-megawatt wind turbine was constructed. It pioneered many technologies used in modern wind turbines and allowed Vestas, Siemens and others to get the parts they needed. Especially important was the novel wing construction using help from German aeronautics specialists. The power plant was capable of delivering 2MW, had a tubular tower, pitch controlled wings and three blades. It was built by the teachers and students of the Tvind school. Before completion these "amateurs" were much ridiculed. The turbine still runs today and looks almost identical to the newest most modern mills.
Danish commercial wind power development stressed incremental improvements in capacity and efficiency based on extensive serial production of turbines, in contrast with development models requiring extensive steps in unit size based primarily on theoretical extrapolation. A practical consequence is that all commercial wind turbines resemble the Danish model, a light-weight three-blade upwind design.[36]
All major horizontal axis turbines today rotate the same way (clockwise) to present a coherent view. However, early turbines rotated counter-clockwise like the old windmills, but a shift occurred from 1978 and on. The individualist-minded blade supplier Økær made the decision to change direction in order to be distinguished from the collective Tvind and their small wind turbines. Some of the blade customers were companies that later evolved into Vestas, Siemens, Enercon and Nordex. Public demand required that all turbines rotate the same way, and the success of these companies made clockwise the new standard.[37]
Self-sufficiency and back-to-the-land[edit]
In the 1970s many people began to desire a self-sufficient life-style. Solar cells were too expensive for small-scale electrical generation, so some turned to windmills. At first they built ad-hoc designs using wood and automobile parts. Most people discovered that a reliable wind generator is a moderately complex engineering project, well beyond the ability of most amateurs. Some began to search for and rebuild farm wind generators from the 1930s, of which Jacobs Wind Electric Company machines were especially sought after. Hundreds of Jacobs machines were reconditioned and sold during the 1970s.[citation needed]
Following experience with reconditioned 1930s wind turbines, a new generation of American manufacturers started building and selling small wind turbines not only for battery-charging but also for interconnection to electricity networks. An early example would be Enertech Corporation of Norwich, Vermont, which began building 1.8 kW models in the early 1980s.
In the 1990s, as aesthetics and durability became more important, turbines were placed atop tubular steel or reinforced concrete towers. Small generators are connected to the tower on the ground, then the tower is raised into position. Larger generators are hoisted into position atop the tower and there is a ladder or staircase inside the tower to allow technicians to reach and maintain the generator, while protected from the weather.
21st century[edit]
Size comparison of modern wind turbines
As the 21st century began, fossil fuel was still relatively cheap, but rising concerns over energy security, global warming, and eventual fossil fuel depletion led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of renewable energy. The fledgling commercial wind power industry began expanding at a robust growth rate of about 25% per year, driven by the ready availability of large wind resources, and falling costs due to improved technology and wind farm management.[38]
The steady run-up in oil prices after 2003 led to increasing fears that peak oil was imminent, further increasing interest in commercial wind power. Even though wind power generates electricity rather than liquid fuels, and thus is not an immediate substitute for petroleum in most applications (especially transport), fears over petroleum shortages only added to the urgency to expand wind power. Earlier oil crises had already caused many utility and industrial users of petroleum to shift to coal or natural gas. Wind power showed potential for replacing natural gas in electricity generation on a cost basis.
Technological innovations, enabled by advances in computer aided engineering,[39] continue to drive new developments in the application of wind power.[40][41] By 2015, the largest wind turbine were 8MW capacity Vestas V164 for offshore use. By 2014, over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world, producing 4% of the world's electricity.[1][2] Total installed capacity exceeded 336GW in 2014 with China, the U.S., Germany, Spain and Italy leading in installations.
Floating wind turbine technology[edit]
Offshore wind power began to expand beyond fixed-bottom, shallow-water turbines beginning late in the first decade of the 2000s. The world's first operational deep-water large-capacity floating wind turbine, Hywind, became operational in the North Sea off Norway in late 2009[42] [43] at a cost of some 400 million kroner (around US$62 million) to build and deploy.[44]
These floating turbines are a very different construction technology—closer to floating oil rigs rather—than traditional fixed-bottom, shallow-water monopile foundations that are used in the other large offshore wind farms to date.
By late 2011, Japan announced plans to build a multiple-unit floating wind farm, with six 2-megawatt turbines, off the Fukushima coast of northeast Japan where the 2011 tsunami and nuclear disaster has created a scarcity of electric power.[45] After the evaluation phase is complete in 2016, "Japan plans to build as many as 80 floating wind turbines off Fukushima by 2020"[45] at a cost of some 10-20 billion Yen.[46]
Airborne turbines[edit]
See also: High altitude wind power
Airborne wind energy systems use airfoils or turbines supported in the air by buoyancy or by aerodynamic lift. The purpose is to eliminate the expense of tower construction, and allow extraction of wind energy from steadier, faster, winds higher in the atmosphere. As yet no grid-scale plants have been constructed. Many design concepts have been demonstrated.[47][48][49]
See also[edit]
Wind power in Ohio –History
Growian - 1980s experimental turbine, at the time the largest ever built
Notes[edit]
^ The terms "horizontal" and "vertical" refer to the plane of rotation of the sails. Modern wind turbines are generally referred to by the plane of rotation of the main axle (windshaft). Thus a horizontal mill may also be described as a "vertical-axis windmill" and a vertical mill may also be described as a "horizontal-axis windmill".
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wind in numbers, Global Wind Energy Council
^ Jump up to: a b The World Wind Energy Association (2014). 2014 Half-year Report. WWEA. pp. 1–8.
^ Jump up to: a b Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)
Jump up ^ Sathyajith, Mathew (2006). Wind Energy: Fundamentals, Resource Analysis and Economics. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1–9. ISBN 978-3-540-30905-5.
Jump up ^ A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145-151
Jump up ^ Lucas, Adam (2006). Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology. Brill Publishers. p. 105. ISBN 90-04-14649-0.
Jump up ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
Jump up ^ Lucas, Adam (2006). Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology. Brill Publishers. p. 65. ISBN 90-04-14649-0.
Jump up ^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.)
Jump up ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (18ff.)
^ Jump up to: a b Mark Kurlansky, Salt: a world history,Penguin Books, London 2002 ISBN 0-14-200161-9, pg. 419
Jump up ^ Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. 2. Routledge. p. 711. ISBN 0-415-96690-6.
Jump up ^ Lynn White Jr., Medieval technology and social change (Oxford, 1962) p. 87.
Jump up ^ Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change (Oxford, 1962) p. 86-87, 161-162.
Jump up ^ History of Wind Energy in Energy Encyclopedia Vol. 6, page 420
Jump up ^ Administrator. "Μύκονος Ανεμόμυλοι". mymykonos.eu. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ανεμόμυλοι Μυκόνου". mykonos-tours.gr. Retrieved 8 February 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Price, Trevor J (3 May 2005). "James Blyth - Britain's First Modern Wind Power Engineer". Wind Engineering. 29 (3): 191–200. doi:10.1260/030952405774354921. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Shackleton, Jonathan. "World First for Scotland Gives Engineering Student a History Lesson". The Robert Gordon University. Archived from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
Jump up ^ [Anon, 1890, 'Mr. Brush's Windmill Dynamo', Scientific American, vol 63 no. 25, 20 December, p. 54]
Jump up ^ A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush Archived 8 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Danish Wind Industry Association. Accessed 2 May 2007.
Jump up ^ History of Wind Energy in Cutler J. Cleveland,(ed) Encyclopedia of Energy Vol.6, Elsevier, ISBN 978-1-60119-433-6, 2007, pp. 421-422
Jump up ^ Warnes, Kathy. "Poul la Cour Pioneered Wind Mill Power in Denmark". History, because it's there. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
Jump up ^ History of Wind Energy in Encyclopedia of Energy,pg. 421
^ Jump up to: a b History of Wind Energy in Encyclopedia of Energy Vol. 6, page 426
Jump up ^ History of Wind Energy in Energy Encyclopedia vol. 6, page 422
Jump up ^ http://www.pearen.ca/dunlite/Dunlite.htm Dunlite history page Retrieved 28 November 2009
^ Jump up to: a b The Return of Windpower to Grandpa's Knob and Rutland County Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Noble Environmental Power, LLC, 12 November 2007. Retrieved from Noblepower.com website 10 January 2010. Comment: this is the real name for the mountain the turbine was built, in case you wondered.
Jump up ^ Erich Hau, Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics, Birkhäuser, 2006 ISBN 3-540-24240-6, page 32, with a photo
Jump up ^ Alan Wyatt, Electric Power: Challenges and Choices,(1986),Book Press Ltd., Toronto, ISBN 0-920650-00-7 , page NN
Jump up ^ See also Robert W. Righter Wind energy in America: a history page 127 which gives a slightly different description.
Jump up ^ Dimitri R. Stein, Pioneer in the North Sea: 1946 Insel Neuwerk Turbine, in IEEE Power and Energy Magazine, September/October 2009, pp. 62-68
Jump up ^ Cavey, Jean-Luc (2004). "The 800 KVA BEST - Romani Aerogenerator". Retrieved 26 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Price of petroleum,
Jump up ^ http://www.seattlepi.com/archives/1987/8701230009.asp[permanent dead link] Hawaiians get Boeing's Last Wind Machine Makani Ho'Olapa will Bring Power to 1,140 Residences 1987
Jump up ^ Paul Gipe Wind Energy Comes of Age, John Wiley and Sons, 1995 ISBN 0-471-10924-X, Chapter 3
Jump up ^ Grove-Nielsen, Erik. Økær Vind Energi 1977 - 1981 Winds of Change. Retrieved: 1 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "BTM Forecasts 340-GW of Wind Energy by 2013". Renewableenergyworld.com. 27 March 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Hewitt, Sam; Margetts, Lee & Revell, Alistair (18 April 2017). "Building a digital wind farm". Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Clive, P. J. M., Windpower 2.0: technology rises to the challenge Environmental Research Web, 2008. Retrieved: 9 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Clive, P. J. M., The emergence of eolics[permanent dead link], TEDx University of Strathclyde (2014). Retrieved 9 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Madslien, Jorn (8 September 2009). "Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine". BBC News. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Ramsey Cox (February–March 2010). "Water Power + Wind Power = Win!". Mother Earth News. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Statoil Draws On Offshore Oil Expertise To Develop World's First Floating Wind Turbine". NewTechnology magazine. 8 September 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2009. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "Japan Plans Floating Wind Power Plant". Breakbulk. 16 September 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Yoko Kubota Japan plans floating wind power for Fukushima coast Reuters, 13 September 2011. Accessed: 19 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Griffith, Saul. "High-altitude wind energy from kites! (video)". Retrieved 5 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, Leo. "Why Airborne Wind Energy". Retrieved 5 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Energy Kite Systems http://www.energykitesystems.net
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text:
New Apostolic Reformation
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This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The New Apostolic Reformation (NAR) is a title used to describe a movement which seeks to establish a fifth house within Christendom, distinct from Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Eastern Orthodoxy. The movement is largely associated with the Pentecostal and the Charismatic movements and advocates the restoration of the lost offices of church governance, namely the offices of prophet and apostle.[1] Inspired by the G12 movement, it grows by recruiting pastors of independent congregations and nondenominational churches, by assimilating members from other churches through cell group meetings, and by frequent Church planting and rapid expansion, including foreign missions around the globe.
Contents
[hide]
1 Beliefs
2 History
3 Controversy
4 See also
5 Further reading
6 References
7 External links
Beliefs[edit]
The New Apostolic Reformation is a title originally used by C. Peter Wagner to describe a movement within Pentecostal and charismatic churches. The title New Apostolic Reformation is descriptive of a theological movement and is not an organization and therefore does not have formal membership. Among those in the movement that inspired the title NAR, there is a wide range of variance on specific beliefs. Those within the movement hold to their denominational interpretations of the ongoing ministry of the Holy Spirit within each believer. Unlike some parts of Protestant Christianity, these include the direct revelation of Christ to each believer, prophecy, and the performance of miracles such as healing. This movement has also been given the descriptive title "Third Wave of the Holy Spirit".[2]
Although the movement regards the church as the true body of saved believers, as does most of evangelical Protestantism, it differs from the broader Protestant tradition in its view on the nature of church leadership, specifically the doctrine of Five-Fold Ministry, which is based upon a non-traditional interpretation of Ephesians 4:11. C. Peter Wagner wrote that most of the churches in this movement have active ministries of spiritual warfare.[3] As an example of this warfare he claimed that God acted through him to end mad-cow disease in Germany. In an article responding to criticism of the NAR, Wagner noted that those who affiliate themselves with the movement believe the Apostles’ Creed and all the orthodoxy of Christian doctrine, so that the movement is therefore not heretical.
Wagner has listed the differences between the NAR and traditional Protestantism as follows:[1]
Apostolic governance – The Apostle Paul's assertion that Jesus appoints apostles within his church continues to this day.
The office of the prophet – There is within the church a role and function for present-day prophets.
Dominionism – "When Jesus came, He brought the kingdom of God and He expects His kingdom-minded people to take whatever action is needed to push back the long-standing kingdom of Satan and bring the peace and prosperity of His kingdom here on earth."[2]
Theocracy – Not to be confused with theocratic government but rather the goal to have "kingdom-minded people" in all areas of society. There are seven areas identified specifically: religion, family, education, government, media, arts & entertainment, and business.[1]
Extra-biblical revelation – There is available to all believers the ability to hear from God. "The one major rule governing any new revelation from God is that it cannot contradict what has already been written in the Bible. It may supplement it, however."
Supernatural signs and wonders – Signs and wonders such as healing, demonic deliverance, and confirmed prophecies accompany the move of God.
Relational structures – church governance has no formal structure but rather is by relational and voluntary alignment to apostles.[4]
History[edit]
The term "New Apostolic Reformation" traces its historical roots to late-twentieth-century American charismatic churches, and the earliest use of the moniker was by C. Peter Wagner,[1] which unintentionally prompted journalists to perceive him as spiritual god-father of the movement.[5]
Though few, if any, organizations publicly espouse connection to the NAR, there are several individuals often associated with this movement including:
Lou Engle, founder of The Call[6]
Bill Johnson, head pastor of Bethel Church "critics believe Bethel to be instrumental in leading some Christians to embrace tenets of the New Apostolic Reformation (NAR), a movement known for dominion theology and a belief in the continuing ministries of apostles and prophets alongside those of evangelists, pastors, and teachers. Bill Johnson is regularly listed as an NAR leader. He believes in the apostolic and prophetic ministries, but says the church does not have any official ties to the NAR."[7]
Rick Joyner, founder of MorningStar Ministries -"there will likewise be a horde of false apostles released. Our team received two very specific dreams warning about false 'apostolic movements' that were built more on organization than relationship. The dreams indicated that these were trying to bring forth apostles that were really more like corporate CEOs, and the movement that they led had the potential to do great damage to the church. The enemy's intent with this false apostolic movement was to have the church develop a deep revulsion to anything that was called apostolic."[8]
John P. Kelly, founder of John P. Kelly Ministries and Convening Apostle
C. Peter Wagner, founder of Global Harvest Ministries[1]
Wagner considers 2001 the beginning of the second apostolic age, for the movement holds that the lost offices of prophet and apostle were restored in that year.[9]
Controversy[edit]
Forrest Wilder, an environmental-issues writer for the Texas Observer, describes the New Apostolic Reformation as having "taken Pentecostalism, with its emphasis on ecstatic worship and the supernatural, and given it an adrenaline shot."[2] Wilder adds that beliefs of people associated with the movement "can tend toward the bizarre" and that it has "taken biblical literalism to an extreme."
Al Jazeera called the NAR "America's Own Taliban" in an article highlighting NAR's dominionism as bearing resemblance to Islamic extremism as seen in groups such as the Taliban because of the NAR's language concerning spiritual warfare.[10]
National Public Radio brought the discussion about the political influence of the NAR to a national audience with a 2011 article. Lou Engle and Don Finto, who are considered to be leaders within the NAR, participated in a prayer event called "The Response," hosted by 2012 presidential nominee Rick Perry, on August 6, 2011, in Houston, Texas. This event is cited as a sign of the influence of NAR beliefs on Rick Perry's political viewpoints.[2][11] Other politicians that have been cited as supposedly having connections to the NAR are Sarah Palin, Michele Bachmann, Sam Brownback,[2] and Ted Cruz.[12]
See also[edit]
Book of Revelation
End time
Third Wave of the Holy Spirit
Further reading[edit]
Churchquake: The Explosive Dynamics of the New Apostolic Revolution ISBN 0-8307-1918-0
The New Apostolic Churches ISBN 0-8307-2136-3
The Apostolic Revelation – The Reformation of the Church ISBN 0-646-41849-1
God's Super-Apostles: Encountering the Worldwide Prophets and Apostles Movement ISBN 1-941-33708-2
A New Apostolic Reformation?: A Biblical Response to a Worldwide Movement ISBN 1-941-33703-1
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wagner, Peter (24 Aug 2011). "The New Apostolic Reformation Is Not a Cult". Charisma News. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wilder, Forrest (2 August 2011). "Rick Perry's Army of God". Texas Observer. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Wagner, Peter (2000). "Renewal Journal #15, The New Apostolic Reformation". Renewal Journal. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Wilder, Forrest (12 August 2011). "As Texas Gov. Rick Perry Enters GOP Race, New Exposé Reveals His Close Ties to Radical Evangelicals". Democracy Now. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Jump up ^ C Peter Wagner, The New Apostolic Churches (Ventura CA; Regal, 1998), p. 18.
Jump up ^ Tabachnick, Rachel (19 August 2011). "The Evangelicals Engaged In Spiritual Warfare". National Public Radio. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2016/may/cover-story-inside-popular-controversial-bethel-church.html?TB_iframe=true&width=369.9&height=657.9&start=2
Jump up ^ https://www.morningstarministries.org/resources/prophetic-bulletins/2000/revolution#.WWmOqITytEY
Jump up ^ The "New Apostolic" church movement – Let Us Reason Ministries – (C. Peter Wagner Arise Prophetic Conference Gateway Church San Jose, CA 10/10/2004) Retrieved 11 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Paul (28 July 2011). "America's Own Taliban". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Posner, Sarah (15 Jul 2011). "Rick Perry and the New Apostolic Reformation". Religion Dispatches. Retrieved 2013-03-01.
Jump up ^ Kuns, Karoli (2013-07-23). "Rafael Cruz Declares Son Ted Cruz 'The Anointed One'". Crooks and Liars. Retrieved 2017-10-17. Rafael Cruz has some deep connections to the current movement known as the New Apostolic Reformation.
External links[edit]
The Call Official Website
Wagner Leadership Institute
International Coalition of Apostles
International Coalition of Apostolic Leaders
European Coalition of Apostolic Leaders
What does Mike Bickle and the International House of Prayer believe about NAR?
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text:
The Story of My Experiments with Truth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Story of My Experiments with Truth
Cover page of 1993 reprint by Beacon Press.
Author
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
Original title
સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા
Translator
Mahadev Desai
Cover artist
Beacon PressMone
Country
India
Language
Gujarati
Series
None
ISBN
81-7229-008-X (India)
ISBN 0-8070-5909-9 (United States – authorised edition with forward by Sissela Bok, Beacon Press 1993 reprint)
ISBN 0-486-24593-4 (Dover Publications 1983 reprint of 1948 Public Affairs Press edition)
Translation
The Story of My Experiments with Truth at Wikisource
The Story of My Experiments with Truth is the autobiography of Mohandas K. Gandhi, covering his life from early childhood through to 1921. It was written in weekly instalments and published in his journal Navjivan from 1925 to 1929. Its English translation also appeared in installments in his other journal Young India.[1] It was initiated at the insistence of Swami Anand and other close co-workers of Gandhi, who encouraged him to explain the background of his public campaigns. In 1999, the book was designated as one of the "100 Best Spiritual Books of the 20th Century" by a committee of global spiritual and religious authorities.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Contents
1.1 Translator's preface
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Part I
1.4 Part II
1.5 Part III
1.6 Part IV
1.7 Part V
2 First publication and later editions
3 Influences
3.1 Editions in print
3.2 Online editions
4 References
Contents[edit]
Translator's preface[edit]
This section is written by Mahadev Desai who translated the book from Gujarati to English in 1940. In this preface Desai notes that the book was originally published in two volumes, the first in 1927 and second in 1929. He also mentions that the original was priced at ₹1 (1.5¢ US) and had a run of five editions by the time of the writing of his preface. 50,000 copies had been sold in Gujarati but since the English edition was expensive it prevented Indians from purchasing it. Desai notes the need to bring out a cheaper English version. He also mentions that the translation has been revised by an English scholar who did not want his name to be published. Chapters XXIX-XLIII of Part V were translated by Desai's friend and colleague Pyarelal.[3]
Introduction[edit]
The introduction is written by Gandhi himself mentioning how he has resumed writing his autobiography at the insistence of Jeramdas, a fellow prisoner in Yerwada Central Jail with him. He mulls over the question a friend asked him about writing an autobiography, deeming it a Western practice, something "nobody does in the east".[1] Gandhi himself agrees that his thoughts might change later in life but the purpose of his story is just to narrate his experiments with truth in life.[3] He also says that through this book he wishes to narrate his spiritual and moral experiments rather than political.
Part I[edit]
The first part narrates incidents of Gandhi's childhood, his experiments with eating meat, smoking, drinking, stealing and subsequent atonement.[4] There are two texts that had a lasting influence on Gandhi, both of which he read in childhood. He records the profound impact of the play Harishchandra and says,"I read it with intense interest...It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number."[5] Another text he mentions reading that deeply affected him was Shravana Pitrabhakti Nataka, a play about Shravana's devotion to his parents. Gandhi got married at the age of 13.[3] In his words, "It is my painful duty to have to record here my marriage at the age of thirteen...I can see no moral argument in support of such a preposterously early marriage." Another important event documented in this part is the demise of Gandhi's father Karamchand Gandhi. Gandhi wrote the book to deal with his experiment for truth. His disdain for physical training at school, particularly gymnastics has also been written about in this part.[6]
Part II[edit]
After a long history of antagonism, the British and the Dutch shared power in South Africa, with Britain ruling the regions of Natal and Cape Colony, while the Dutch settlers known as the Boers taking charge in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, two independent republics. The white settler and the independent Boer states continued to engage in volatile interactions with the British, so a threat of violent eruptions always loomed large. In order to placate both the Boer and other white settlers, the British adopted a number of racist policies, and while the Indians, most of them working on sugar and coffee plantations, did not suffer as much as the black population, they clearly experienced a treatment as second-class citizens. The initial story of Gandhi’s travails in South Africa and of his systematic struggle against oppression is well known. Gandhi repeatedly experienced the sting of humiliation during his long African sojourn. The incident at Maritzburg, where Gandhi was thrown off the train has become justly famous. When Gandhi, as a matter of principle, refused to leave the first class compartment, he was thrown off the train.[7] Later, Gandhi also had difficulty being admitted to hotels, and saw that his fellow-Indians, who were mostly manual laborers, experienced even more unjust treatment.
Very soon after his arrival, Gandhi's initial bafflement and indignation at racist policies turned into a growing sense of outrage and propelled him into assuming a position as a public figure at the assembly of Transvaal Indians, where he delivered his first speech urging Indians not to accept inequality but instead to unite, work hard, learn English and observe clean living habits. Although Gandhi's legal work soon start to keep him busy, he found time to read some of Tolstoy's work, which greatly influenced his understanding of peace and justice and eventually inspired him to write to Tolstoy, setting the beginning of a prolific correspondence. Both Tolstoy and Gandhi shared a philosophy of non-violence and Tolstoy's harsh critique of human society resonated with Gandhi's outrage at racism in South Africa.
Both Tolstoy and Gandhi considered themselves followers of the Sermon on the Mount from the New Testament, in which Jesus Christ expressed the idea of complete self-denial for the sake of his fellow men. Gandhi also continued to seek moral guidance in the Bhagavad-Gita, which inspired him to view his work not as self-denial at all, but as a higher form of self-fulfillment. Adopting a philosophy of selflessness even as a public man, Gandhi refused to accept any payment for his work on behalf of the Indian population, preferring to support himself with his law practice alone.
But Gandhi's personal quest to define his own philosophy with respect to religion did not rely solely on sacred texts. At the time, he also engaged in active correspondence with a highly educated and spiritual Jain from Bombay, his friend Raychandra, who was deeply religious, yet well versed in a number of topics, from Hinduism to Christianity. The more Gandhi communicated with Raychandra, the more deeply he began to appreciate Hinduism as a non violent faith and its related scriptures. Yet, such deep appreciation also gave birth to a desire to seek inner purity and illumination, without solely relying on external sources, or on the dogma within every faith. Thus, although Gandhi sought God within his own tradition, he espoused the idea that other faiths remained worthy of study and contained their own truths.
Not surprisingly, even after his work assignment concluded, Gandhi soon found a reason to remain in South Africa. This pivotal reason involved the "Indian Franchise Bill", with which the Natal legislature intended to deprive Indians of the right to vote. No opposition existed against this bill, except among some of Gandhi's friends who asked him to stay in South Africa and work with them against this new injustice against Indians, who white South Africans disparagingly called "coolies." He found that racist attitudes had become deeply entrenched, especially in the Dutch-ruled regions, where they lived in the worst urban slums and could not own property or manage agricultural land. Even in Natal, where Indians had more influence, they were not allowed to go out after 9 p.m. without a pass, while in Cape Colony, another British territory, they were not allowed to walk on the sidewalk. The new bill which prohibited Indians from voting in Natal only codified existing injustice in writing.
Although a last-minute petition drive failed to the Indian Franchise Bill from passing, Gandhi remained active and organized a much larger petition, which he sent to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London, and distributed to the press in South Africa, Britain and India. The petition raised awareness of the plight of Indians and generating discussions in all three continents to the point where both the Times of London and the Times of India published editorials in support of the Indian right to the vote. Gandhi also formed a new political organization called the Natal Indian Congress (a clear reference to the Indian National Congress), which held regular meetings and soon, after some struggles with financing, started its own library and debating society. They also issued two major pamphlets, An Appeal to Every Briton in South Africa, and The Indian Franchise–An Appeal, which offered a logical argument against racial discrimination. He was also thrown of the Train when he didn't agree to move from his first class seat which he paid for.
Though, at first, Gandhi intended to remain in South Africa for a month, or a year at most, he ended up working in South Africa for about twenty years. After his initial assignment was over, he succeeded in growing his own practice to about twenty Indian merchants who contracted manage their affairs. This work allowed him to both earn a living while also finding time to devote to his mission as a public figure. During his struggle against inequality and racial discrimination in South Africa, Gandhi became known among Indians all around the world as "Mahatma," or "Great Soul."
Part III[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2012)
In South Africa with the Family, the Boer War, Bombay and South Africa Again.
In 1896, Gandhi made a brief return to India and returned with his wife and children. In India, he published another pamphlet, known as the Green Pamphlet, on the plight of Indians in South Africa. For the first time, Gandhi realized that Indians had come to admire his work greatly and experienced a taste of his own popularity among the people, when he visited Madras, an Indian province, where most manual laborers had originated. Although his fellow-Indians greeted him in large crowds with applause and adulation, he sailed back to South Africa with his family in December 1896.
Gandhi had become very well known in South Africa as well, to the point where a crowd of rioters awaited him at Port Natal, determined that he should not be allowed to enter. Many of them also mistakenly believed that all the dark-skinned passenger on the ship that took Gandhi to Natal were poor Indian immigrants he had decided to bring along with him, when, in reality, these passengers were mostly returning Indian residents of Natal. Fortunately, Gandhi was able to establish a friendly relationship with the British in South Africa so the Natal port's police superintendent and his wife escorted him to safety. After this incident, local white residents began to actually regard him with greater respect.
As Gandhi resumed his work at the Natal Indian Congress, his loyalty to the British guided him to assist them in the Boer War, which started three years later. Because Gandhi remained a passionate pacifist, he wanted to participate in the Boer War without actually engaging in violence so he organized and led an Indian Medical Corps which served the British in a number of battles, including the important battle of Spion Kop in January 1900.
At the time, Gandhi believed that the British Empire shared the values of liberty and equality that he himself embraced and that, by virtue of defending those principles, the British constitution deserved the loyalty of all British subjects, including Indians. He viewed racist policy in South Africa as a temporary characteristic aberration, rather than a permanent tendency. With respect to the British in India, at this point in his life, Gandhi considered their rule beneficial and benevolent.
The armed conflict between the British and Dutch raged on for over three years of often brutal fighting with the British conquering the Transvaal and Orange Free state territories. Gandhi expected that the British victory would establish justice in South Africa and present him with an opportunity to return to India. He wanted to attend the 1901 meeting of the Indian National Congress, whose mission was to provide a social and political forum for the Indian upper class. Founded in 1885 by the British, the Congress had no real political power and expressed pro-British positions. Gandhi wanted to attend its meeting nevertheless, as he was hoping to pass a resolution in support of the Indian population in South Africa. Before he left for Bombay, Gandhi promised the Natal Indian Congress that he would return to support their efforts, should they need his help.
As Gandhi attended the 1901 Indian National Congress, his hopes came true. G.K. Gokhale, one of the most prominent Indian politicians of the time, supported the resolution for the rights of Indians in South Africa and the resolution passed. Through Gokhale, in whose house Gandhi stayed for a month, Gandhi met many political connections that would serve him later in life.
However, his promise to always aid his friends in Natal soon prompted him to return to South Africa, when he received an urgent telegram informing him that the British and Boers had now formed a peaceful relationship and often acted together to the detriment of the Indian population, as Britain was planning to live local white individuals in power in South Africa, much like it had done in Canada and Australia.
Gandhi travelled back to South Africa immediately and met with Joseph Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, and presented him with a paper on the injustice against the Indian population but Chamberlain indicated that the Indians would have to obey the new rulers of South Africa, now called the "Afrikaners," which included both Dutch and British local settlers.
Gandhi began to organize a fast response to this new South African political configuration. Instead of working in Natal, he now established a camp in the newly conquered Transvaal region and began helping Indians who had escaped from the war in that region, and now had to purchase overly expensive re-entry passes. He also represented poor Indians whose dwellings in a shantytown the authorities had dispossessed. Gandhi also started a new magazine, Indian Opinion, that advocated for political liberty and equal rights in South Africa. The magazine, which initially included several young women from Europe, expanded its staff around the country, increasing both Gandhi's popularity and the public support for his ideas.
At round same time, Gandhi read John Ruskin's book Unto This Last, which maintained that the life of manual labor was superior to all other ways of living. As he adopted this belief, Gandhi chose to abandon Western dress and habits, and he moved his family and staff to a Transvaal farm called the Phoenix, where he even gave renounced the use of an oil-powered engine and printed Indian Opinion by hand-wheel, and performed agriculture labor using old, manual farming equipment. He began to conceive of his public work as a mission to restore old Indian virtue and civilization, rather than fall prey to modern Western influence, which included electricity and technology.
Between 1901 and 1906, he also changed another aspect of his personal life by achieving Brahmacharya, or the voluntary abstention from sexual relations. He made this choice as part of his philosophy of selflessness and self-restraint. Finally, he also formulated his own philosophy of political protest, called Satyagraha, which literally meant "truth-force" in Sanskrit. In practice, this practice meant protesting injustice steadfastly, but in a non-violent manner.
He put this theory into practice on September 8, 1906, when, at a large gathering of the Indian community in Transvaal, he asked the whole community to take a vow of disobedience to the law, as the Transvaal government had started an effort to register every Indian child over the age of eight, which would make them an official part of the South African population.
Setting a personal example, Gandhi became the first Indian to appear before a magistrate for his refusal to register, and he was sentenced to two months in prison. He actually asked for a heavier sentence, a request, consistent with his philosophy of self-denial. After his release, Gandhi continued his campaign and thousands of Indians burned their registration cards, crossing the Transvaal-Natal border without passes. Many went to jail, including Gandhi, who went to jail again in 1908.
Gandhi did not waiver when a South African General by the name of Jan Christiaan Smuts promised to eliminate the registration law, but broke his word. Gandhi went all the way to London in 1909 and gathered enough support among the British to convince Smuts to eliminate the law in 1913. Yet, the Transvaal Prime Minister continued to regard Indians as second-class citizens while the Cape Colony government passed another discriminatory law making all non-Christian marriages illegal, which meant that all Indian children would be considered born out of wedlock. In addition, the government in Natal continued to impose crippling poll tax for entering Natal only upon Indians.
In response to these strikingly unjust rules, Gandhi organized a large-scale satyagraha, which involved women crossing the Natal-Transvaal border illegally. When they were arrested, five thousand Indian coal miners also went on strike and Gandhi himself led them across the Natalese border, where they expected arrest.
Although Smuts and Gandhi did not agree on many points, they had respect for each other. In 1913, Smuts relented due to the sheer number of Indians involved in protest and negotiated a settlement which provided for the legality of Indian marriages and abolished the poll tax. Further, the import of indentured laborers from India was to be phased out by 1920. In July 1914, Gandhi sailed for Britain, now admired as "Mahatma," and known throughout the world for the success of satyagraha.
Part IV[edit]
Part IV. Mahatma in the Midst of World Turmoil
Gandhi was in England when World War I started and he immediately began organizing a medical corps similar to the force he had led in the Boer War, but he also faced health problems that caused him to return to India, where he met the applauding crowds with enthusiasm once again. Indians continued to refer to him as "Mahatma" or "Great Soul," an appellation reserved only for the holiest men of Hinduism. While Gandhi accepted the love and admiration of the crowds, he also insisted that all souls were equal and did not accept the implication of religious sacredness that his new name carried.
In order to retreat into a life of humility and restraint, as his personal principles mandated, he decided to withdraw from public life for a while spending his first year in India focusing on his personal quest for purity and healing. He also lived in a communal space with untouchables, a choice which many of his financial supporters resented, because they believed that the very presence of untouchables defiled higher-caste Indians. Gandhi even considered moving to a district in Ahmedabad inhabited entirely by the untouchables when a generous Muslim merchant donated enough money to keep up his current living space for another year. By that time, Gandhi's communal life with the untouchables had become more acceptable.
Although Gandhi had withdrawn from public life, he briefly met with the British Governor of Bombay (and future Viceroy of India), Lord Willington, whom Gandhi promised to consult before he launched any political campaigns. Gandhi also felt the impact of another event, the passing of G.K. Gokhale, who had become his supporter and political mentor. He stayed away from the political trend of Indian nationalism, which many of the members of the Indian National Congress embraced. Instead, he stayed busy resettling his family and the inhabitants of the Phoenix Settlement in South Africa, as well as the Tolstoy Settlement he had founded near Johannesburg. For this purpose, on May 25, 1915, he created a new settlement, which came to be known as the Satyagraha ashram (from the Indian word for "communal") near the town of Ahmedabad and close to his place of birth in the western Indian province of Gujarati. All the inhabitants of the ashram, which included one family of untouchables, swore to poverty and chastity.
After a while, Gandhi became influenced by the idea of Indian independence from the British, but he dreaded the possibility that a westernized Indian elite would replace the British government. He developed a strong conviction that Indian independence should take place as a large-scale sociopolitical reform, which would remove the old plagues of extreme poverty and caste restrictions. In fact, he believed that Indians could not become worthy of self-government unless they all shared a concern for the poor.
As Gandhi resumed his public life in India in 1916, he delivered a speech at the opening of the new Hindu University in the city of Benares, where he discussed his understanding of independence and reform. He also provided specific examples of the abhorrent living conditions of the lower classes that he had observed during his travels around India and focused specifically on sanitation.
Although the Indians of the higher-castes did not readily embrace the ideas in the speech, Gandhi had now returned to public life and he felt ready to convert these ideas to actions. Facing the possibility of arrest, just like he always did in South Africa, Gandhi first spoke for the rights of impoverished indigo-cultivators in the Champaran district. His efforts eventually led to the appointment of a government commission to investigate abuses by the indigo planters.
He also interefered whenever he saw violence. When a group of Ahmedabad mill workers went on strike and became violent, he resolved to fast until they returned to peace. Though some political commentators condemned Gandhi's behavior as a form of blackmail, the fast only lasted three days before the workers and their employers negotiated an agreement. Through this situation, Gandhi discovered the fast as one of his most effective weapons in late years and set a precedent for later action as part of satyagraha.
As the First World War continued, Gandhi also became involved in recruiting men for the British Army, an involvement which his followers had a difficult time accepting, after listening to his passionate speeches about resisting injustice in a non-violent manner. Not surprisingly, at this point, although Gandhi still remained loyal to Britain and enamored with the ideals of the British constitution, his desire to support and independent home rule became stronger. As time passed, Gandhi became exhausted from his long journey around the country and fell ill with dysentery. He refused conventional treatment and chose to practice his own healing methods, relying on diet and spending a long time bedridden, while in recovery in his ashram.
In the meantime, India’s unrest was overwhelming at the prospect of the British destroying the world's only Muslim power, the Ottoman Empire. While the British alleged that they fought to protect the rights of small states and independent peoples from tyranny, in India, an increasing number of people found this alleged commitment less than genuine.
After the end of the war, the British government decided to follow the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee, which advocated the retention of various wartime restrictions in India, including curfews and measures to suppress free speech. Gandhi was still sick when these events took place and, although he could not protest actively, he felt his loyalty to the British Empire weaken significantly.
Later, when the Rowlatt Act actually became law, Gandhi proposed that the entire country observe a day of prayer, fasting, and abstention from physical labor as a peaceful protest against the injustice of the oppressive law. Gandhi's plea generated an overwhelming response as millions of Indians did not go to work on April 6, 1919.
As the entire country stood still, the British arrested Gandhi, which provoked angry crowds to fill the streets of India's cities and, much to Gandhi's dislike, violence erupted everywhere. Gandhi could not tolerate violence so he called off his campaign and asked that everyone return to their homes. He acted in accordance with his firm belief that if satyagraha could not be carried out without violence, it should not take place at all.
Unfortunately, not all protesters shared Gandhi's conviction as ardently. In Amritsar, capital of the region known as the Punjab, where the alarmed British authorities had deported the local Hindu and Muslim members of the Congress, the street mobs became very violent and the British summoned Brigadier-General Reginald E.H. Dyer to restore order. Dyer prohibited all public meetings and instituted public whippings for Indians who approached British policemen. Despite these new regulations, a crowd of over ten thousand protesters gathered in the center of Armitsar, and Dyer responded with bringing his troops there and opening fire without warning. Tightly packed together, the protesters had nowhere to run from the fire, even when they threw themselves down on the ground the fire was then directed on the ground, ceasing only when the British troops no longer had ammunition. Hundreds died and many more were wounded.
This unfortunate occurrence became known as the Amritsar Massacre, it outraged the British public almost as much as Indian society. The authorities in London eventually condemned Dyer's conduct, forcing him to resign in disgrace. The effect the massacre had on Indian society became even more profound as more moderate politicians, like Gandhi, now began to wholeheartedly support the idea of Indian independence, creating an intense climate of mutual hostility. After the massacre, Gandhi eventually obtained permission to travel to Amritsar and conduct his own investigation. He produced a report months later and his work on the report motivated him to contact a number of Indian politicians, who advocated for the idea of independence from British rule.
After Amritsar, Gandhi attended the Muslim Conference being held in Delhi, where Indian Muslims discussed their fears that the British would suppress Caliphs of Turkey. Muslims considered the Caliphs as heirs of Mohammed and spiritual heads of Islam. While the British considered such suppression a necessary effort to restore order after World War I, the Muslim populations viewed it as slap in the face. Gandhi urged them not to accept the actions of the British. He proposed a boycott of British goods, and stated that if the British continued to insist on the elimination of the Caliphate, Indian Muslims should take even more drastic measures of non-cooperation, involving areas such as government employment and taxes.
During the months that followed, Gandhi continued to advocate for peace and caution, however, since Britain and Turkey were still negotiating their peace terms. Unlike more nationalistic politicians, he also supported the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms for India, as they laid the foundation for constitutional self-government. Eventually, other politicians who thought the reforms did not go far enough had to agree with Gandhi simply because his popularity and influence had become so great that the Congress could accomplish little without him.
As the British remained determined to put an end to the Muslim Caliphate, they enforced the Rowlatt Act resolutely. Even Gandhi became less tolerant towards British practices and in April 1920, he urged all Indians, Muslim and Hindu, to begin a "non-cooperation" protest against the British rule by giving up their Western clothing and British jobs. As a personal example, on August 1, he returned the medals for valor that he had received in the Boer War in South Africa. He also became the first president of the Home Rule League, a largely symbolic position which confirmed his position as an advocate for Indian Independence.
In September 1920, Gandhi also passed an official constitution for the Congress, which created a system of two national committees and numerous local units, all working to mobilize a spirit of non-cooperation across India. Gandhi and other volunteers traveled around India further establishing this new grass roots organization, which achieved great success. The new British Viceory in India, Lord Reading, did not dare to interfere because of Gandhi's immense popularity.
By 1922, Gandhi decided that the initiative of non-cooperation had to transform into open civil disobedience, but in March 1922, Lord Reading finally ordered Gandhi's arrest after a crowd in the city of Chauri Chaura attacked and killed the local representatives of British authority. Gandhi, who had never encouraged or sanctioned this type of conduct, condemned the actions of the violent crowds and retreated into a period of fasting and prayer as a response to this violent outburst. However, the British saw the event as a trigger point and a reason for his arrest.
Part V[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2012)
The British authorities placed Gandhi on trial for sedition and sentenced him to six years in prison, marking the first time that he faced prosecution in India. Because of Gandhi's fame, the judge, C.N. Broomfield, hesitated to impose a harsher punishment. He considered Gandhi clearly guilty as charged, despite the fact that Gandhi admitted his guilt and even went as far as requesting the heaviest possible sentence. Such willingness to accept imprisonment conformed to his philosophy of satyagraha, so Gandhi felt that his time in prison only furthered his commitment and goals. The authorities allowed him to use a spinning wheel and receive reading materials while in prison, so he felt content. He also wrote most of his autobiography while serving his sentence.
However, in Gandhi's absence, Indians returned to their British jobs and their every day routines. Even worse, the unity between Muslims and Hindu, which Gandhi advocated so passionately, had already begun to fall apart to the point where the threat of violence loomed large over many communities with mixed population. The fight for Indian independence could not continue while Indians themselves suffered disunity and conflict, all the more difficult to overcome in a huge country like India, which had always suffered religious divisions, as well as divisions by language, and even caste.
Gandhi realized that Independence and that the British had lost the will and power to sustain their empire, but he always acknowledged that Indians could not rely simply on the weakening of Britain in order to achieve independence. He believed that Indians had to become morally ready for Independence. He planned to contribute to such readiness through his speeches and writing, advocating humility, restraint, good sanitation, as well as an end to child marriages. He acknowledged that he had changed his position on many issues, like child marriages, and that he had not always managed to discern the most moral course of action in his life.
After his imprisonment ended, he resumed his personal quest for purification and truth. He ends his autobiography by admitting that he continues to experience and fight with "the dormant passion" that lie within his own soul. He felt ready to continue the long and difficult path of taming those passions and putting himself last among his fellow human beings, the only way to achieve salvation, according to him.
"That is why the worlds' praise fails to move me; indeed it very often stings me. To conquer the subtle passions is far harder than the physical conquest of the world by the force of arms,"
Gandhi writes in his "Farewell" to the readers, a suitable conclusion for an autobiography that he never intended to be an autobiography, but a tale of experiments with life, and with truth.
First publication and later editions[edit]
After its initiation, The Story of My Experiments with Truth remained in the making for 4–5 years (including the time while Gandhi was imprisoned at Yerwada Central Jail near Pune, Maharashtra), and then it first appeared as a series in the weekly Gujarati magazine Navjivan during 1925–28, which was published from Ahmedabad, India.
Influences[edit]
Gandhi wrote in his autobiography that the three most important modern influences in his life were Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You, John Ruskin's Unto This Last and the poet Shrimad Rajchandra (Raychandbhai).[8][9]
Book Reviews
Development in Action (UK): Book Review by Joni Hillman
South Asian Women's Forum: Book Review
Editions in print[edit]
India – ISBN 81-7229-008-X
United States – authorized edition with forward by Sissela Bok, Beacon Press 1993 reprint: ISBN 0-8070-5909-9
Dover Publications 1983 reprint of 1948 Public Affairs Press edition: ISBN 0-486-24593-4
Online editions[edit]
The Story of My Experiments with Truth – Google books
National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode: Nalanda Digital Lib.
An Autobiography or The Story of my Experiments with Truth, full text
Read online The Story of My Experiments with Truth - Gandhi Heritage Portal
Mahatma Gandhi Autobiography
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, edited by Richard L. (2006). Gandhi's experiments with truth : essential writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. p. 388. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Spiritual books of the century". USA Today. 2 December 1999.
^ Jump up to: a b c Desai, M. K. Gandhi. Transl. from the original Gujarati by Mahadev (1987). An autobiography : or the story of my experiments with truth (reprint. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-14-006626-5.
Jump up ^ Men of Turmoil – Biographies by Leading Authorities of the Dominating Personalities of Our Day. Hesperides Press. 2007. p. 384. ISBN 1-4067-3625-2.
Jump up ^ Post, Pitirim A. Sorokin ; introduction by Stephen G. (2002). The ways and power of love : types, factors, and techniques of moral transformation (Timeless classic pbk. ed.). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-1-890151-86-7.
Jump up ^ Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber; R, Lloyd I. (1983). Gandhi : the traditional roots of charisma ([Pbk. ed.]. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-226-73136-0.
Jump up ^ Narrain, Arvind (April 1, 2013). " """MY EXPERIMENTS WITH LAW": GANDHI'S EXPLORATION OF LAW'S POTENTIAL". NUJS Law Review. Retrieved January 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Singh, Purnima (2004). Indian cultural nationalism (Ed. 1st. ed.). New Delhi: India First Foundation. p. 290. ISBN 978-81-89072-03-2.
Jump up ^ editor, Wendy Doniger, consulting (1999). Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions ; Wendy Doniger, consulting editor. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster. p. 1181. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
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