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Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
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Theodore R. Davis's illustration of President Johnson's impeachment trial in the Senate, published in Harper's Weekly.
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson occurred in 1868, when the United States House of Representatives resolved to impeach President Andrew Johnson, adopting eleven articles of impeachment detailing his "high crimes and misdemeanors,"[1] in accordance with Article Two of the United States Constitution. The House's primary charge against Johnson was with violation of the Tenure of Office Act, passed by Congress the previous year. Specifically, he had removed from office Edwin McMasters Stanton, the Secretary of War—whom the Tenure of Office Act was largely designed to protect—and attempted to replace him with Brevet Major General Lorenzo Thomas. Contrary to popular belief, Johnson was not impeached for temporarily replacing Stanton with General Ulysses Grant earlier while Congress was not in session.[2]
The House formally agreed to the articles of impeachment on March 2, 1868, and forwarded them to the Senate. The trial in the Senate began three days later, with Chief Justice of the United States Salmon P. Chase presiding. The first vote on one of the eleven impeachment articles concluded on May 16 with a failure to convict Johnson. A ten-day recess was called before attempting to convict him on additional articles, but that effort failed on May 26. The 35-to-19 votes on the three articles actually voted on were all one short of the required two-thirds needed for conviction.
This was the first impeachment of a President since creation of the office in 1789. The culmination of a lengthy political battle between Johnson and the Republican majority in Congress over how best to deal with the defeated Southern states following the conclusion of the American Civil War, the impeachment, and the subsequent trial (and acquittal) of Johnson were among the most dramatic events in the political life of the nation during the Reconstruction Era. Together, they have gained a historical reputation as an act of political expedience, rather than necessity, which was based on Johnson's defiance of an unconstitutional piece of legislation, and which was conducted with little regard for the will of a general public which, despite the unpopularity of Johnson, opposed the impeachment. There would not be another serious attempt to impeach a President for 106 years when, during the Watergate scandal, the House Judiciary Committee approved three articles of impeachment of President Nixon and sent them to the full House for consideration; Nixon then resigned from office, rather than face impeachment and trial, which his advisors told him he would lose. The only other actual impeachment trial of a President would occur 131 years after Johnson's with the impeachment of Bill Clinton, who was also acquitted by the Senate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Tenure of Office Act
2 Impeachment
3 Trial
3.1 Acquittal
3.2 Senate votes
3.3 Proposed abolition of the Presidency
4 Later review of Johnson's impeachment
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Background[edit]
Tension between the executive and legislative branches had been high since shortly after Johnson's ascension to the White House upon the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Though a Southerner himself, Johnson had been a fierce and unrelenting critic of the Southern secession that had sparked the Civil War in the first place. Prior to his murder, Lincoln had favored a very moderate and lenient plan for Reconstruction. Although the Radical Republicans had vehemently opposed Lincoln's Reconstruction policies, the 16th President was immensely popular in the North and thus able to deprive the Radicals of the political capital they would need to successfully oppose his agenda.[3]
Radical Republicans were convinced that President Johnson would enact their hardline Reconstruction policies of protection for newly freed slaves and punishment for former slave owners, government, and military officials. Instead, Johnson unexpectedly switched course, rejecting the Radicals. Within six weeks of taking office, Johnson had offered proclamations of general amnesty for most former Confederates, and his initially stricter plans for high-ranking government and military officers quickly dissolved. Johnson also vetoed legislation that extended civil rights and financial support for the former slaves. Congress was able to override only a few of his vetoes, setting the stage for a confrontation between Congress and the president.[4]
In August and September 1866, Johnson destroyed his own political support on a speaking tour of Northern states that became known as the Swing Around the Circle. Meant to establish a coalition of voters who would support Johnson in the upcoming midterm congressional elections, the tour instead destroyed his reputation when reports of his undisciplined, vitriolic speeches and ill-advised confrontations with hecklers swept the nation. Contrary to Johnson's hopes, the midterm elections led to veto-proof Republican majorities in Congress. The Radicals were not only able to pass civil rights legislation, but wrested control of Reconstruction from the president and took the reins themselves by carving the old Confederacy into five military districts.[5]
Tenure of Office Act[edit]
Congress's control of the military Reconstruction policy was mitigated by Johnson's command of the military as president; however, Johnson had inherited, as Secretary of War, Lincoln's appointee Edwin M. Stanton, a staunch Radical Republican, who as long as he remained in office would comply with Congressional Reconstruction policies. To ensure that Stanton would not be replaced, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 over Johnson's veto. The act required the President to seek the Senate's advice and consent before relieving or dismissing any member of his Cabinet or, indeed, any federal official whose initial appointment had previously required its advice and consent.[6] However, the act was written specifically with Stanton in mind.[7]
Because the Tenure of Office Act did permit the President to suspend such officials when Congress was out of session, when Johnson failed to obtain Stanton's resignation, he instead suspended Stanton on August 5, 1867, which gave him the opportunity to appoint General Ulysses S. Grant, then serving as Commanding General of the Army, Secretary of War ad interim. Johnson and Grant would later disagree on an understanding between the two of them. If the Senate later failed to concur with Johnson's removal of Stanton, the President claimed that Grant agreed to either remain in office or pre-notify Johnson that he would resign so that Johnson could replace him. Johnson's purpose was to create a court case to test the constitutionality of the Tenure Act. Grant later claimed there was no such agreement.[8]
On January 7, 1868, the Senate passed a resolution (35-to-6) of non-concurrence with Stanton's dismissal. Grant wrote his resignation letter that same day and vacated the office, but he did not notify Johnson of this. Consequently, Stanton re-occupied the office of the Secretary of War. At a cabinet meeting the following day, Grant made stammering, unintelligible excuses for failing to pre-notify Johnson.[9] Believing the Tenure of Office Act unconstitutional, Johnson ignored the Senate's reinstatement of Stanton until, on January 28, he offered the post to Lorenzo Thomas, a brevet major general in the Army, who first turned it down, saying that he would like to stay in office as Adjutant General until his retirement. (The President originally wanted the position for General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was an enemy of Stanton's, but Sherman turned the President down, saying he hated politics.) Johnson later convinced Thomas to help him make a test case, however, and on February 21, 1868, the President appointed Lorenzo Thomas Secretary of War and ordered the removal of Stanton from office. Thomas personally delivered the President's dismissal notice to Stanton, but the Secretary refused either to accept its legitimacy or to vacate the premises. Instead, Stanton had barricaded himself in his office and ordered Thomas arrested for violating the Tenure of Office Act.[10]
Thomas asked if he could be brought to the White House to let the President know that he had been placed under arrest. When Stanton realized, however, that the arrest would allow the courts to review the law, he had the charges dropped. Stanton then claimed that Johnson had broken the recently instituted Tenure of Office Act by removing a Cabinet member without Senate approval.
The political rhetoric escalated. On February 22, 1868, Representative William D. Kelley of Philadelphia orated:
Sir, the bloody and untilled fields of the ten unreconstructed States, the unsheeted ghosts of the two thousand murdered negroes in Texas, cry, if the dead ever evoke vengeance, for the punishment of Andrew Johnson.[11]
Impeachment[edit]
Johnson Impeachment Committee from a photograph by Mathew Brady in the Signal Corps, War Department, Washington. Left to right, Seated: Benjamin F. Butler, Thaddeus Stevens, Thomas Williams, John A. Bingham. Standing: James F. Wilson, George S. Boutwell, John A. Logan.
President Andrew Johnson.
On February 24, 1868 three days after Johnson's dismissal of Stanton, the House of Representatives voted 126 to 47 in favor of a resolution to impeach the President for high crimes and misdemeanors. The two sponsors of the resolution, Thaddeus Stevens and John A. Bingham, were immediately dispatched to inform the Senate that the House had officially voted for impeachment.
One week later, the House adopted eleven articles of impeachment against the President. The articles charged Johnson with:
Dismissing Edwin Stanton from office after the Senate had voted not to concur with his dismissal and had ordered him reinstated.
Appointing Thomas Secretary of War ad interim despite the lack of vacancy in the office, since the dismissal of Stanton had been invalid.
Appointing Thomas without the required advice and consent of the Senate.
Conspiring, with Thomas and "other persons to the House of Representatives unknown," to unlawfully prevent Stanton from continuing in office.
Conspiring to unlawfully curtail faithful execution of the Tenure of Office Act.
Conspiring to "seize, take, and possess the property of the United States in the Department of War."
Conspiring to "seize, take, and possess the property of the United States in the Department of War" with specific intent to violate the Tenure of Office Act.
Issuing to Thomas the authority of the office of Secretary of War with unlawful intent to "control the disbursements of the moneys appropriated for the military service and for the Department of War."
Issuing to Major General William H. Emory orders with unlawful intent to violate the Tenure of Office Act.
Making three speeches with intent to show [or "sow"?] disrespect for the Congress among the citizens of the United States.
The eleventh article was a summation of the first ten.
Trial[edit]
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The impeachment resolution signed by the House of Representatives.
John A. Bingham and Thaddeus Stevens before the Senate addressing the vote on the president's impeachment by the House.
A trial started in the Senate, presided by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, and committees were organized to represent the prosecution and defense. The impeachment committee was made up of Thaddeus Stevens, Benjamin F. Butler, John A. Bingham, John A. Logan, George S. Boutwell, Thomas Williams and James F. Wilson. Johnson's defense team was made up of Alexander Morgan, Henry Stanbery, William M. Evarts, Benjamin R. Curtis, Thomas A. R. Nelson and Jeremiah S. Black (who resigned before the trial began). The trial began on March 13, 1868.[12]
A Vice President is only permitted to vote in the case of a tie vote. Since an impeachment conviction requires a two-thirds vote from the Senators present, a Vice President will either not be voting or will cast an inconsequential vote. During Johnson's trial, there was no Vice President. However, the Senate President pro tempore, Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio, who was among the Radical Republican leaders, would, under the Presidential succession act then in force and effect, become President if Johnson was convicted. Indiana Senator Thomas Hendricks questioned Wade's impartiality and suggested that Wade abstain from voting. But Hendricks was persuaded to withdraw his objection a day later and leave the matter to Wade's own conscience. Subsequently, Wade voted for conviction.[13]
Chief Justice Chase, who was himself a Radical Republican, ruled that Johnson should be permitted to present evidence that Thomas's appointment to replace Secretary of War Edwin Stanton was intended to provide a test case to challenge the constitutionality of the Tenure of Office Act. The Senate, however, overruled Chase by a simple majority vote.[14]
A Harper's Weekly cartoon gives a humorous breakdown of "the situation." Secretary of War Edwin Stanton aims a cannon labeled "Congress" on the side at President Andrew Johnson and Lorenzo Thomas to show how Stanton was using Congress to defeat the President and his unsuccessful replacement. He also holds a rammer marked "Tenure of Office Bill," and cannonballs on the floor are marked "Justice."
Before the trial started Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio made a surprise attempt on 28 February to add two reliably Radical members to the senate by gaining the admission of Colorado, over Johnson's anticipated veto, as a state. But Wade could not corral the necessary two-thirds majority to override Johnson's expected veto. The attempt, therefore, failed. A separate attempt was made just before the scheduled verdict vote in May to admit senators from selected Reconstruction states in order to add more reliably Radical members to the vote, but it was also unsuccessful.[15]
On the first day, Johnson's defense committee asked for forty days to collect evidence and witnesses since the prosecution had had a longer amount of time to do so, but only ten days were granted. The proceedings began on March 23. Senator Garrett Davis argued that because not all states were represented in the Senate the trial could not be held and that it should therefore be adjourned. The motion was voted down. After the charges against the president were made, Henry Stanbery asked for another thirty days to assemble evidence and summon witnesses, saying that in the ten days previously granted there had only been enough time to prepare the president's reply. John A. Logan argued that the trial should begin immediately and that Stanberry was only trying to stall for time. The request was turned down in a vote 41 to 12. However, the Senate voted the next day to give the defense six more days to prepare evidence, which was accepted.[16]
The trial commenced again on March 30. Benjamin F. Butler opened for the prosecution with a three-hour speech reviewing historical impeachment trials, dating from King John of England. For days Butler spoke out against Johnson's violations of the Tenure of Office Act and further charged that the president had issued orders directly to Army officers without sending them through General Grant. The defense argued that Johnson had not violated the Tenure of Office Act because President Lincoln did not reappoint Stanton as Secretary of War at the beginning of his second term in 1865 and that he was therefore a leftover appointment from the 1860 cabinet, which removed his protection by the Tenure of Office Act. The prosecution called several witnesses in the course of the proceedings until April 9, when they rested their case.[17]
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
Benjamin R. Curtis called attention to the fact that after the House passed the Tenure of Office Act, the Senate had amended it, meaning that it had to return it to a Senate–House conference committee to resolve the differences. He followed up by quoting the minutes of those meetings, which revealed that while the House members made no notes about the fact, their sole purpose was to keep Stanton in office, and the Senate had disagreed. The defense then called their first witness, Adjutant General Lorenzo Thomas. He did not provide adequate information in the defense's cause and Butler made attempts to use his information to the prosecution's advantage. The next witness was General William T. Sherman, who testified that President Johnson had offered to appoint Sherman to succeed Stanton as Secretary of War in order to ensure that the department was effectively administered. This testimony damaged the prosecution, which expected Sherman to testify that Johnson offered to appoint Sherman for the purpose of obstructing the operation, or overthrow, of the government. Sherman essentially affirmed that Johnson only wanted him to manage the department and not to execute directions to the military that would be contrary to the will of Congress.[18]
Acquittal[edit]
The Senate then had fifty-four members representing the twenty-seven states whose legislatures could then elect Senators; of these, thirty-six "guilty" votes were required to remove Johnson from office. On all three occasions, 35 Senators voted "guilty" and 19 "not guilty." As the Constitution requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted.
Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence. Senators William Pitt Fessenden (Maine), Joseph S. Fowler (Tennessee), James W. Grimes (Iowa), John B. Henderson (Missouri), Lyman Trumbull (Illinois), Peter G. Van Winkle (West Virginia),[19] and Edmund G. Ross (Kansas), who provided the decisive vote,[20] defied their party by voting against conviction. In addition to the above seven, three more Republicans James Dixon (Connecticut), James Doolittle (Wisconsin), and Daniel Norton (Minnesota) and all nine Democratic Senators voted not guilty.
On decision day, before the first vote was taken, Samuel Pomeroy, who was the senior senator from Kansas, told the junior Kansas Senator Ross that if Ross voted for acquittal that Ross would become the subject of an investigation for bribery.[21]
The first 35-to-19 vote was taken on 16 May for the eleventh article. In hopes of persuading at least one of the seven Republican acquittal senators to change his vote, the Senate adjourned for ten days to take a second vote on 26 May on the other articles. During the hiatus, under Butler's leadership, the House put through a resolution to investigate alleged "improper or corrupt means used to influence the determination of the Senate". But the pressure did not change any of the acquittal votes, with the result that the vote on 26 May was the same. After the trial, Ben Butler conducted hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. In Butler's hearings, and in subsequent inquiries, there was increasing evidence that some acquittal votes were acquired by promises of patronage jobs and cash cards. Nonetheless, the investigations never resulted in charges, much less convictions, against anyone.[22]
Moreover, there is evidence that the prosecution attempted to bribe the senators voting for acquittal to switch their votes to conviction. Maine Senator Fessenden was offered the Ministership to Great Britain. Prosecutor Butler said, "Tell [Kansas Senator Ross] that if he wants money there is a bushel of it here to be had."[23] Butler's investigation also boomeranged when it was discovered that Kansas Senator Pomeroy, who voted for conviction, had written a letter to Johnson's Postmaster General seeking a $40,000 bribe for Pomeroy's acquittal vote along with three or four others in his caucus.[24] Benjamin Butler was himself told by Ben Wade that Wade would appoint Butler as Secretary of State when Wade assumed the Presidency after a Johnson conviction.[25] An opinion that Senator Ross was mercilessly persecuted for his courageous vote to sustain the independence of the Presidency as a branch of the Federal Government is the subject of an entire chapter in President John F. Kennedy's book, Profiles in Courage.[26] That opinion has been rejected by some scholars, such as Ralph Roske, and endorsed by others, such as Avery Craven.[27][28]
Not one of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elective office.[29] Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds .[30][31][32]
Senate votes[edit]
State
Senator
Party
Article XI
May 16, 1868
Article II
May 26, 1868
Article III
May 26, 1868
Rhode Island Anthony R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Delaware Bayard D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Pennsylvania Buckalew D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Pennsylvania Cameron R Guilty Guilty Guilty
New Jersey Cattell R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Michigan Chandler R Guilty Guilty Guilty
California Cole R Guilty Guilty Guilty
New York Conkling R Guilty Guilty Guilty
California Conness R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Oregon Corbett R Guilty Guilty Guilty
New Hampshire Cragin R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Kentucky Davis D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Connecticut Dixon R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Wisconsin Doolittle R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Missouri Drake R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Vermont Edmunds R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Connecticut Ferry R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Maine Fessenden R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Tennessee Fowler R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
New Jersey Frelinghuysen R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Iowa Grimes R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Iowa Harlan R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Missouri Henderson R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Indiana Hendricks D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Michigan Howard R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Wisconsin Howe R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Maryland Johnson D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Kentucky McCreery D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
New York Morgan R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Vermont Morrill, J R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Maine Morrill, L R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Indiana Morton R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Minnesota Norton R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Nevada Nye R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Tennessee Patterson, D D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
New Hampshire Patterson, J R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Kansas Pomeroy R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Minnesota Ramsey R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Kansas Ross R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Delaware Saulsbury D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Ohio Sherman R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Rhode Island Sprague R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Nevada Stewart R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Massachusetts Sumner R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Nebraska Thayer R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Nebraska Tipton R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Illinois Trumbull R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
West Virginia Van Winkle R Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Maryland Vickers D Not Guilty Not Guilty Not Guilty
Ohio Wade R Guilty Guilty Guilty
West Virginia Willey R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Oregon Williams R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Massachusetts Wilson R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Illinois Yates R Guilty Guilty Guilty
Total Votes: Not Guilty: 19; Guilty: 35 Not Guilty: 19; Guilty: 35 Not Guilty: 19; Guilty: 35
Proposed abolition of the Presidency[edit]
Johnson's acquittal impelled some citizens of Boston and Roxbury, Massachusetts to submit a petition to Congress calling for the complete abolition of the Presidency. In it, the petitioners argued that only two forms of government exist: absolute monarchy and absolute democracy. They claimed that President Johnson had abused the powers of the Presidency, to which impeachment was the only corrective; the failure of impeachment in Johnson's case proved to the petitioners that the Presidency had grown too powerful and the only remaining solution was the abolition of the office. The petitioners proposed an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that abolished the Presidency and transferred the powers of the executive office to a body composed of members of Congress or "other competent citizens," chosen by Congress and supervised by a standing committee.[33]
Later review of Johnson's impeachment[edit]
In 1887, the Tenure of Office Act was repealed by Congress, and subsequent rulings by the United States Supreme Court seemed to support Johnson's position that he was entitled to fire Stanton without Congressional approval. The Supreme Court's ruling on a similar piece of later legislation in the 1926 Myers v. United States affirmed the ability of the president to remove a postmaster without Congressional approval, and stated in its majority opinion "that the Tenure of Office Act of 1867...was invalid."[34]
Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, one of the seven Republican Senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office, noted, in the speech he gave explaining his vote for acquittal, that had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the President's political power—the freedom not to agree with the Congress without consequences—would have been destroyed, and the Constitution's system of checks and balances along with it:
Once set the example of impeaching a President for what, when the excitement of the hour shall have subsided, will be regarded as insufficient causes, as several of those now alleged against the President were decided to be by the House of Representatives only a few months since, and no future President will be safe who happens to differ with a majority of the House and two thirds of the Senate on any measure deemed by them important, particularly if of a political character. Blinded by partisan zeal, with such an example before them, they will not scruple to remove out of the way any obstacle to the accomplishment of their purposes, and what then becomes of the checks and balances of the Constitution, so carefully devised and so vital to its perpetuity? They are all gone.
See also[edit]
Impeachment of Bill Clinton
Impeachment process against Richard Nixon
List of federal political scandals in the United States
40th United States Congress
References[edit]
Jump up ^ THE TRIAL OF ANDREW JOHNSON. On Articles of Impeachment exhibited by the House of Representatives Archived 2010-11-04 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved on January 17, 2009
Jump up ^ Proceedings of the Senate for the Trial of Andrew Johnson http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/impeach/articles.html
Jump up ^ Eric McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1960) ch 1
Jump up ^ Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989) ch 11
Jump up ^ Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989) ch 13
Jump up ^ see text
Jump up ^ Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography, 1989, pp. 275–99.
Jump up ^ Gene Davis, "High Crimes and Misdemeanors," pp. 220–2.
Jump up ^ Gene Davis, "High Crimes and Misdemeanors," p. 222.
Jump up ^ Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography, 1989, p. 306.
Jump up ^ Brockett, L. P., Men of Our Day: or Biographical Sketches of Patriots, Orators, Statesmen, Generals, Reformers, Financiers and Merchants, Now on the state of Action: Including Those Who in Military, Political, Business and Social Life, are the Prominent Leaders of the Time in This Country, Ziegler and McCurdy, Publishers, Philadelphia, Springfield (MA), Cincinnati, St. Louis, 1872. No ISBN. P. 501.
Jump up ^ "President Andrew Johnson impeached - Feb 24, 1868 - HISTORY.com". Retrieved 2016-06-23.
Jump up ^ Gene Davis "High Crimes and Misdemeanors" (New York: Morrow, 1977), 242; Curt Anders "Powerlust: Radicalism in the Civil War Era" p. 494; Eric Foner "Reconstruction,"p. 336
Jump up ^ Neal Q. Herrick (2009). After Patrick Henry: A Second American Revolution. p. 207.
Jump up ^ Elmer Ellis, "Colorado's First Fight for Statehood, 1865–1868," The Colorado Magazine, 8 (January, 1931), 23–30
Jump up ^ Committee on the Judiciary; House of Representatives; Ninety-third Congress; Second Session (1974). Impeachment: Selected Materials on Procedure. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 104–5.
Jump up ^ David O. Stewart (2009). Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy. Simon and Schuster. pp. 207–12.
Jump up ^ Stewart. Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy. p. 231.
Jump up ^ "Andrew Johnson Trial: The Consciences of Seven Republicans Save Johnson."
Jump up ^ "The Trial of Andrew Johnson, 1868."
Jump up ^ Curt Anders "Powerlust: Radicalism in the Civil War Era" p. 531
Jump up ^ Stewart, Impeached (2009), pp. 240–249, 284–299.
Jump up ^ Gene Davis High Crimes and Misdemeanors (New York: William Morrow & Company, 1977), 266–7, 290–1
Jump up ^ Curt Anders "Powerlust: Radicalism in the Civil War Era," p. 532-3
Jump up ^ Eric McKitrick "Andrew Johnson" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 507–8
Jump up ^ John F. Kennedy "Profiles in Courage" (New York: Harper Brothers, 1961), 115–39
Jump up ^ Avery Craven "Reconstruction" (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 221
Jump up ^ Ralph J. Roske, "The Seven Martyrs?." American Historical Review 64.2 (1959): 323–330. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Hodding Carter "The Angry Scar" (New York: Doubleday, 1959), 143
Jump up ^ Kenneth Stampp "Reconstruction" (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), 153
Jump up ^ Chester Hearn "The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson" (Jefferson, N. C.: McFarland, 2000), 202
Jump up ^ Avery Craven "Reconstruction" (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), 221
Jump up ^ "Memorial Regarding the Abolition of the Presidency". National Archives Catalog. Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and Records Administration.
Jump up ^ MYERS v. UNITED STATES, Findlaw | Cases and Codes
Further reading[edit]
Benedict, Michael Les. "A New Look at the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson," Political Science Quarterly, Sep 1973, Vol. 88 Issue 3, pp 349–367 in JSTOR
Benedict, Michael Les. The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson (1973), 212pp; the standard scholarly history online edition
DeWitt, David M. The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson (1903), old monograph online edition
McKitrick, Eric L. Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1960) influential analysis
Rable, George C. "Forces of Darkness, Forces of Light: The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson and the Paranoid Style," Southern Studies 1978, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp 151–173
Sefton, James E. "The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson: A Century of Writing," Civil War History, June 1968, Vol. 14 Issue 2, pp 120–147
Sigelman, Lee, Christopher J. Deering, and Burdett A. Loomis. "Wading Knee Deep in Words, Words, Words": Senatorial Rhetoric in the Johnson and Clinton Impeachment Trials." Congress & the Presidency 28#2 (2001) pp 119–139.
Stathis, Stephen W. "Impeachment and Trial of President Andrew Johnson: A View from the Iowa Congressional Delegation," Presidential Studies Quarterly Vol. 24, No. 1, (Winter, 1994), pp. 29–47 in JSTOR
Stewart, David O. Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy (2009)
Trefousse, Hans L. "The Acquittal of Andrew Johnson and the Decline of the Radicals," Civil War History, June 1968, Vol. 14 Issue 2, pp 148–161
Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson: A Biography (1989) major scholarly biography excerpt and text search
Trefousse, Hans L. Impeachment of a President: Andrew Johnson, the Blacks, and Reconstruction (1999)
External links[edit]
Finding Precedent: The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
The Impeachment Trial of Andrew Johnson Impeachment
Booknotes interview with William Rehnquist on Grand Inquests: The Historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson, July 5, 1992.
"The Impeachment trial of President Johnson", Harper's Monthly Magazine, April 1868
Articles of Impeachment
Series of Harper's Weekly articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial
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Tom Brady–Peyton Manning rivalry
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Tom Brady (left) and Peyton Manning (right)
The Tom Brady–Peyton Manning rivalry is a series of games that took place between 2001 and 2015, involving two quarterbacks in the National Football League (NFL): Tom Brady and Peyton Manning.[1][2][3] Brady has played for the New England Patriots since 2000, when he was the 199th selection in the sixth round of the 2000 NFL Draft.[4] He has been the starter since 2001, after Drew Bledsoe was injured early in the season, and has been so since, with the exception of 2008, when he tore his ACL in the opening game.[5] Manning was drafted by the Indianapolis Colts in the 1998 NFL Draft with the number 1 pick, and played for the Colts until a neck injury caused him to miss the entire 2011 season.[6] Prior to the 2012 season, Manning signed with the Denver Broncos, whom he played for up to his retirement following the 2015 season.[7][8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Rivalry
2 Results
2.1 Colts vs. Patriots
2.2 Broncos vs. Patriots
3 Career statistics
4 References
Rivalry[edit]
Manning and Brady played each other seventeen times.[9] Brady led the head-to-head series 11–6, though Manning went 6–5 in their last 11 meetings. From 2001–2015, the two quarterbacks met at least once every season, with the following exceptions: the Colts and Patriots, longtime AFC East division rivals from 1970–2001, did not meet in 2002 following the NFL's divisional re-alignment; Brady suffered a season-ending knee injury in Week 1 of the 2008 season; Manning missed the entire 2011 season due to recovery from multiple neck surgeries, as well as the 2015 regular-season meeting due to recovery from a torn plantar fascia. Brady led the Colts–Patriots series 8–4[10] and also led the Broncos–Patriots series 3–2,[11] though Manning's two wins with the Broncos both occurred in the AFC Championships in 2013 and 2015. Brady led the series in Foxborough 8–2 (7–2 at Gillette Stadium), while Manning led the series in Indianapolis/Denver 4–3.[11] The home team won each of the final seven games, with the last road win for either quarterback in the rivalry coming in Brady's 2007 win at Indianapolis.
The two quarterbacks met five times in the NFL Playoffs, in which Manning led the playoff series 3–2. Each of the five games was won by the home team. Brady led 2–1 vs. Manning's Colts' teams, while Manning's Broncos' teams led 2–0. Four of the five matchups were in the AFC Championship Game, with Manning winning three out of four, one with the Colts and two with the Broncos. The winner of those games went on to be the eventual Super Bowl winner, with the exception of the 2013 matchup.[11]
Results[edit]
Brady Regular-Season Win Brady Playoff Win Manning Regular-Season Win Manning Playoff Win
Colts vs. Patriots[edit]
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location
Playoff Round
Record (playoff)
(Brady-Manning)
2001[11] September 30 New England Patriots 44–13 Indianapolis Colts Foxboro Stadium - 1–0
October 21 New England Patriots 38–17 Indianapolis Colts RCA Dome - 2–0
2003[11] November 30 New England Patriots 38–34 Indianapolis Colts RCA Dome - 3–0
2004[11] January 18 New England Patriots 24–14 Indianapolis Colts Gillette Stadium AFC Championship 4–0 (1–0)
2004[11] September 9 New England Patriots 27–24 Indianapolis Colts Gillette Stadium - 5–0 (1–0)
2005[11] January 16 New England Patriots 20–3 Indianapolis Colts Gillette Stadium AFC Divisional Round 6–0 (2–0)
2005[11] November 7 Indianapolis Colts 40–21 New England Patriots Gillette Stadium - 6–1 (2–0)
2006[11] November 5 Indianapolis Colts 27–20 New England Patriots Gillette Stadium - 6–2 (2–0)
2007[11] January 21 Indianapolis Colts 38–34 New England Patriots RCA Dome AFC Championship 6–3 (2–1)
2007[11] November 4 New England Patriots 24–20 Indianapolis Colts RCA Dome - 7–3 (2–1)
2009[11] November 15 Indianapolis Colts 35–34 New England Patriots Lucas Oil Stadium - 7–4 (2–1)
2010[11] November 21 New England Patriots 31–28 Indianapolis Colts Gillette Stadium - 8–4 (2–1)
Broncos vs. Patriots[edit]
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location
Playoff Round
Record (playoff)
(Brady-Manning)
2012[11] October 7 New England Patriots 31–21 Denver Broncos Gillette Stadium - 9–4 (2–1)
2013[11] November 24 New England Patriots 34–31 (OT) Denver Broncos Gillette Stadium - 10–4 (2–1)
2014[11] January 19 Denver Broncos 26–16 New England Patriots Sports Authority Field at Mile High AFC Championship 10–5 (2–2)
2014[12] November 2 New England Patriots 43–21 Denver Broncos Gillette Stadium - 11–5 (2–2)
2016 January 24 Denver Broncos 20–18 New England Patriots Sports Authority Field at Mile High AFC Championship 11–6 (2–3)
Career statistics[edit]
Note: Brady's statistics are updated as of September 28, 2017, while Manning's statistics are final.
Player
G
ATT
COMP
PCT
ATT/G
YDS
AVG
YDS/G
TD
INT
LNG
SCK
RATE
RSH YDS
RSH ATT
RSH TD
SB Wins
NFL MVPs
SB MVPs
Peyton Manning[13] 266 9,380 6,125 65.3 35.2 71,940 7.7 272.1 539 251 86 299 96.5 667 431 18 2 5 1
Tom Brady[14] 240 8,334 5,315 63.8 34.7 62,674 7.5 261.1 464 152 99 427 97.5 955 537 17 5 2 4
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Armour, Nancy (January 17, 2014). "With other QB rivalries 'not even close,' Manning and Brady square off again". USA Today. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
Jump up ^ Hochman, Benjamin (January 19, 2014). "Peyton Manning-Tom Brady ranks among greatest sports rivalries of all time". The Denver Post. Retrieved January 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Reineking, Jim (January 21, 2016). "Top Tom Brady vs. Peyton Manning games". National Football League. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Full Draft - 2000
Jump up ^ Springer, Shira (September 11, 2008). "Brady has both ACL and MCL tears". The Boston Globe. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kelley, Craig (September 7, 2011). "COLLINS TO START". Indianapolis Colts. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Caldwell, Gray; Zaas, Stuart (March 21, 2012). "Peyton Manning a Denver Bronco". Denver Broncos. Retrieved March 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Broncos Sign Peyton Manning". ESPN.com. March 21, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ Battista, Judy (October 31, 2014). "Peyton Manning vs. Tom Brady: One for the ages -- and ageless". National Football League. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Donaldson, Jim (January 12, 2014). "Jim Donaldson: Brady-Manning – As good as it gets". Providence Journal. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Bender, Bill (October 30, 2014). "By the Numbers: Tom Brady vs. Peyton Manning". The Sporting News. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Watanabe, Ben (November 2, 2014). "Peyton Manning Admits 'I Stunk' After Tom Brady Claims Rivalry Victory". New England Sports Network. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Peyton Manning: Career Stats
Jump up ^ Tom Brady: Career Stats
[show]
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2010
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1968
1970
1975
1976
1977
1987
1999
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2009
2010
2013
2014
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1958
1959
1964
1968
1970
2006
2009
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1958
1959
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Retired numbers
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19
22
24
70
77
82
89
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Conference: American Football Conference
Division: South Division
Seasons (65)
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
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1978
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1982
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1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
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2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
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Championship seasons in bold
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1978
1984
1986
1987
1989
1991
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1998
2005
2011
2012
2013
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2015
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1986
1987
1989
1997
1998
2013
2015
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1997 (XXXII)
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2015 (50)
Media
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TV: KUSA 9News
Radio: 850 KOA (AM)
Current league affiliations
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Division: West Division
Former league affiliation
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Seasons (58)
1960
1961
1962
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Class ring
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A class ring in a ring case. This ring is made of white ultrium and contains a synthetic sapphire gemstone.[1]
Damavand College class ring of 1975
A class ring (also known as a graduation, graduate, senior, or grad ring) is a ring worn by students and alumni to commemorate their graduation, generally for a high school, college, or university.
Today class rings can be customized, from the material and style that the ring is made of to the color and cut of the gem in the center. There is a wide selection of emblems, pictures, and words that can be added to the sides of the rings and even inside the center gem.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 How to wear
3 Ring melt
4 In fiction
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The tradition of class rings originated with the class of 1835 at the United States Military Academy at West Point.[2]
How to wear[edit]
The Complete Book of Etiquette by Amy Vanderbilt indicates the following protocol for wearing of a class ring. For as long as the wearer is in school, the insignia should face the wearer to remind him/her of the goal of graduation. Upon graduation, the class ring gains the status of a "badge of honor" similar to a diploma, with the effect that graduation entitles the wearer to display the insignia facing outward so that it faces other viewers. An additional justification for this practice is the rationale that the ring also symbolizes the graduate him/herself: During the wearer's time in school, he or she focuses on self-development and goals specific to the insular academic environment; upon graduation, the wearer enters the wider world and puts what he or she has learned to work in shaping it.[3]
A notable exception to this protocol is the custom followed by older graduating classes of the United States Military Academy at West Point. Today, as in years past, Academy graduates frequently wear their rings on the left hand in observance of the ancient belief, which also underlay the Anglo-American custom of wearing wedding bands on the left hand, that a vein connects the left ring finger to the heart. Prior to graduation, these classes wore the USMA Class Ring with the Class Crest closest to the heart, signifying a given cadet's bond to his class within the Academy. Following graduation, members of these classes wore (and, for surviving members, still wear) the ring with the Academy Crest closest to the heart, signifying their bond with the Academy as a whole.[4]
Ring melt[edit]
At the United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, and at The Citadel each cadet's class ring contains melted gold from rings donated to the respective school from deceased alumni.[5][6][7]
In fiction[edit]
The Lords of Discipline. "I wear the ring. I wear the ring and I return often to the city of Charleston, South Carolina, to study the history of my becoming a man." Author Pat Conroy attended and graduated from The Citadel and wrote the fictional account of a cadet's journey at a military school set in Charleston, South Carolina.
See also[edit]
Aggie Ring
Doctoral ring
Iron ring
MIT class ring
X-Ring
The Citadel Ring[8]
United States Military Academy class ring
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Custom class rings". CR. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ring melt ceremony bonds past with the future". United States Military Academy.
Jump up ^ Complete Book of Etiquette, Amy Vanderbilt, p. 156
Jump up ^ CLASS RINGS, MINIATURES, AND A-PINS The traditional Jewish custom is to wear a wedding ring on the right index finger, and only women wore them originally. However, most Jewish people will move rings to reflect the national custom of where they live.
Jump up ^ The Citadel Band of Gold. "The Citadel Band of Gold". www.citadel.edu. The Citadel. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ West Point Association. "Class Ring Memorial Program". www.westpoint.org. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ United States Naval Academy Alumni Association and Foundation. "Bonds of Gold". www.usna.com. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Citadel Alumni Association, Our Ring". http://www.citadelalumni.org/. The Citadel Alumni. Retrieved 2015-11-13. External link in |website= (help)
External links[edit]
Media related to Class rings at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Class_ring&oldid=802985562"
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