text:
Curiosity killed the cat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the proverb. For other uses, see Curiosity killed the cat (disambiguation).
"Curiosity killed the cat" is a proverb used to warn of the dangers of unnecessary investigation or experimentation. A less frequently-seen rejoinder to "curiosity killed the cat" is "but satisfaction brought it back".[1]
The original form of the proverb, now little used, was "Care killed the cat". In this instance, "care" was defined as "worry" or "sorrow."
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 Transformation
3 References
4 External links
Origin[edit]
The earliest printed reference to the original proverb is attributed to the British playwright Ben Jonson in his 1598 play, Every Man in His Humour, which was performed first by William Shakespeare.
...Helter skelter, hang sorrow, care will kill a cat, up-tails all, and a pox on the hangman.
Shakespeare used a similar quote in his circa 1599 play, Much Ado About Nothing:
What, courage man! what though care killed a cat, thou hast mettle enough in thee to kill care.
The proverb remained the same until at least 1898. Ebenezer Cobham Brewer included this definition in his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable:
Care killed the Cat.
It is said that "a cat has nine lives," yet care would wear them all out.
Transformation[edit]
The origin of the modern variation is unknown. The earliest known printed reference to the actual phrase "Curiosity killed the cat" is in James Allan Mair's 1873 compendium A handbook of proverbs: English, Scottish, Irish, American, Shakesperean, and scriptural; and family mottoes, where it is listed as an Irish proverb on page 34.
In the 1902 edition of Proverbs: Maxims and Phrases, by John Hendricks Bechtel, the phrase "Curiosity killed the cat" is the lone entry under the topic "Curiosity" on page 100.
O. Henry's 1909 short story "Schools and Schools" includes a mention that suggests knowledge of the proverb had become widespread by that time:
Curiosity can do more things than kill a cat; and if emotions, well recognized as feminine, are inimical to feline life, then jealousy would soon leave the whole world catless.
The actual phrase appeared as the headline to a story in The Washington Post on 4 March 1916 (page 6):
CURIOSITY KILLED THE CAT.

Four Departments of New York City Government Summoned to Rescue Feline.

From the New York World.

Curiosity, as you may recall—

On the fifth floor of the apartment house at 203 West 130th street lives Miss Mable Godfrey. When she came to the house about seven months ago she brought Blackie, a cat of several years' experience of life.

The cat seldom left the apartment. He was a hearth cat, not a fence cat, and did not dearly love to sing. In other respects he was normal and hence curious.

Last Tuesday afternoon when Miss Godfrey was out Blackie skipped into the grate fireplace in a rear room. He had done this many times before. But he had not climbed up the flue to the chimney. This he did Tuesday. Blackie there remained, perched on the top of the screen separating the apartment flue from the main chimney, crying for assistance. Miss Godfrey, returning, tried to induce her pet to come down. If you are experienced in felinity, you know that Blackie didn't come down.

On Wednesday the cat, curiosity unsatisfied, tried to climb higher—and fell to the first floor. His cries could still be heard by Miss Godfrey; who, to effect Blackie's rescue, communicated with the following departments:

1. Police department.
2. Fire department.
3. Health department.
4. Building department.
5. Washington Heights court.

Among them they lowered a rope to Blackie. But it availed neither the cat nor them anything.

Thursday morning, just before noon, a plumber opened the rear wall back of the chimney. Blackie was taken out. His fall had injured his back. Ten minutes later Blackie died.
Despite these earlier appearances, the proverb has been wrongly attributed to Eugene O'Neill, who included the variation, "Curiosity killed a cat!" in his play Diff'rent from 1920:
BENNY—(with a wink) Curiosity killed a cat! Ask me no questions and I'll tell you no lies.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Curiosity killed the cat". Gary Martin. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
External links[edit]
Look up curiosity killed the cat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"Curiosity Killed The Cat" at GoEnglish.com (with illustration)
Henry, O. Schools and Schools. (Gutenberg text)
Jonson, Ben. Every Man in His Humour. (Gutenberg text)
O'Neill, Eugene. Diff'rent. (Gutenberg text)
Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. (Gutenberg text)
Brewer, E. Cobham. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable.
Mair, J.A. (ed.). A handbook of proverbs: English, Scottish, Irish, American, Shakesperean, and scriptural; and family mottoes.
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text:
Elbow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Elbow (disambiguation).
Elbow
Anatomy of the elbow.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
articulatio cubiti
MeSH
D004550
TA
A01.1.00.023
FMA
24901
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The elbow is the visible joint between the upper and lower parts of the arm. It includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the elbow pit, the lateral and medial epicondyles, and the elbow joint. The elbow joint[1] is the synovial hinge joint[2] between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body.[3]
The elbow is specific to humans and other primates.[4]
The name for the elbow in Latin is cubitus, and so the word cubital is used in some elbow-related terms, as in cubital nodes for example.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Joint
1.1.1 Joint capsule
1.1.2 Synovial membrane
1.1.3 Ligaments
1.2 Muscles
1.2.1 Flexion
1.2.2 Extension
1.3 Blood supply
1.4 Nerve supply
1.5 Development
2 Function
2.1 Carrying angle
3 Pathology
3.1 Tendonitis
3.2 Fractures
3.3 Dislocation
3.4 Infection
3.5 Arthritis
3.6 Bursitis
4 Pain management for common problems in the radioulnar and elbow joints
4.1 Tennis elbow
4.2 Golfer’s elbow
4.3 Distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) rheumatoid arthritis
4.4 Cubital tunnel syndrome
5 Society and culture
6 Other primates
7 Notes
8 References
Structure[edit]
Joint[edit]
The elbow joint has three different portions surrounded by a common joint capsule. These are joints between the three bones of the elbow, the humerus of the upper arm, and the radius and the ulna of the forearm.
Joint
From
To
Description
Humeroulnar joint trochlear notch of the ulna trochlea of humerus Is a simple hinge-joint, and allows for movements of flexion and extension only.
Humeroradial joint head of the radius capitulum of the humerus Is a ball-and-socket joint.
Proximal radioulnar joint head of the radius radial notch of the ulna In any position of flexion or extension, the radius, carrying the hand with it, can be rotated in it. This movement includes pronation and supination.
When in anatomical position there are four main bony landmarks of the elbow. At the lower part of the humerus are the medial and lateral epicondyles, on the side closest to the body (medial) and on the side away from the body (lateral) surfaces. The third landmark is the olecranon found at the head of the ulna. These lie on a horizontal line called the Hueter line. When the elbow is flexed, they form an equilateral triangle called the Hueter triangle.[5]
Left elbow extended and flexed
At the surface of the humerus where it faces the joint is the trochlea. The groove running across the trochlea is, in most people, vertical on the anterior side but spirals off on the posterior side. This results in the forearm being aligned to the upper arm during flexion, but forming an angle to the upper arm during extension — an angle known as the carrying angle.[6]
The superior radioulnar joint shares the joint capsule with the elbow joint but plays no functional role at the elbow.[7]
Joint capsule[edit]
Capsule of elbow-joint (distended). Anterior and posterior aspects.
The elbow joint and the superior radioulnar joint are enclosed by a single fibrous capsule. The capsule is strengthened by ligaments at the sides but relatively weak in front and behind.[8]
On the anterior side the capsule consists mainly of longitudinal fibres. However, some bundles among these fibers run obliquely, thicken and strengthen the capsule, and are referred to as the capsular ligament. Deep fibres of the brachialis muscle insert anteriorly into the capsule and act to pull it and the underlying membrane during flexion in order to prevent them from being pinched.[8]
On the posterior side the capsule is thin and mainly composed of transverse fibres. A few of these fibres stretch across the olecranon fossa without attaching to it and form a transverse band with a free upper border. On the ulnar side, the capsule reaches down to the posterior part of the annular ligament. The posterior capsule is attached to the triceps tendon which prevents the capsule from being pinched during extension.[8]
Synovial membrane[edit]
The synovial membrane of the elbow joint is very extensive. On the humerus, it extends up from the articular margins and covers the coronoid and radial fossae anteriorly and the olecranon fossa posteriorly. Distally, it is prolonged down to the neck of the radius and the superior radioulnar joint. It is supported by the quadrate ligament below the annular ligament where it also forms a fold which gives the head of the radius freedom of movement.[8]
Several synovial folds project into the recesses of the joint.[8] These folds or plicae are remnants of normal embryonic development and can be categorized as either anterior (anterior humeral recess) or posterior (olecranon recess).[9] A crescent-shaped fold is commonly present between the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus.[8]
On the humerus there are extrasynovial fat pads adjacent to the three articular fossae. These pads fill the radial and coronoid fossa anteriorly during extension, and the olecranon fossa posteriorly during flexion. They are displaced when the fossae are occupied by the bony projections of the ulna and radius.[8]
Ligaments[edit]
Left elbow-joint
Left: anterior and ulnar collateral ligaments
Right: posterior and radial collateral ligaments
The elbow, like other joints, has ligaments on either side. These are triangular bands which blend with the joint capsule. They are positioned so that they always lie across the transverse joint axis and are, therefore, always relatively tense and impose strict limitations on abduction, adduction, and axial rotation at the elbow.[8]
The ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle. Its anterior band stretches from the anterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial edge of the coronoid process, while the posterior band stretches from posterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon. These two bands are separated by a thinner intermediate part and their distal attachments are united by a transverse band below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements. The anterior band is closely associated with the tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, even being the origin of flexor digitorum superficialis. The ulnar nerve crosses the intermediate part as it enters the forearm.[8]
The radial collateral ligament is attached to the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon. Less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached near the radial notch of the ulna.[8]
Muscles[edit]
Flexion[edit]
There are three main flexor muscles at the elbow:[10]
Brachialis acts exclusively as an elbow flexor and is one of the few muscles in the human body with a single function. It originates low on the anterior side of the humerus and is inserted into the tuberosity of the ulna.
Brachioradialis acts essentially as an elbow flexor but also supinates during extreme pronation and pronates during extreme supination. It originates at the lateral supracondylar ridge distally on the humerus and is inserted distally on the radius at the styloid process.
Biceps brachii is the main elbow flexor but, as a biarticular muscle, also plays important secondary roles as a stabiliser at the shoulder and as a supinator. It originates on the scapula with two tendons: That of the long head on the supraglenoid tubercle just above the shoulder joint and that of the short head on the coracoid process at the top of the scapula. Its main insertion is at the radial tuberosity on the radius.
Brachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly. During rapid and forceful flexion all three muscles are brought into action assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow.[11] The efficiency of the flexor muscles increases dramatically as the elbow is brought into midflexion (flexed 90°) — biceps reaches its angle of maximum efficiency at 80–90° and brachialis at 100–110°.[10]
Active flexion is limited to 145° by the contact between the anterior muscles of the upper arm and forearm, more so because they are hardened by contraction during flexion. Passive flexion (forearm is pushed against the upper arm with flexors relaxed) is limited to 160° by the bony projections on the radius and ulna as they reach to shallow depressions on the humerus; i.e. the head of radius being pressed against the radial fossa and the coronoid process being pressed against the coronoid fossa. Passive flexion is further limited by tension in the posterior capsular ligament and in triceps brachii.[12]
Extension[edit]
Elbow extension is simply bringing the forearm back to anatomical position.[11] This action is performed by triceps brachii with a negligible assistance from anconeus. Triceps originates with two heads posteriorly on the humerus and with its long head on the scapula just below the shoulder joint. It is inserted posteriorly on the olecranon.[10]
Triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20–30°. As the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the main axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency. In full flexion, however, the triceps tendon is "rolled up" on the olecranon as on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency. Because triceps' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder.[10]
Extension is limited by the olecranon reaching the olecranon fossa, tension in the anterior ligament, and resistance in flexor muscles. Forced extension results in a rupture in one of the limiting structures: olecranon fracture, torn capsule and ligaments, and, though the muscles are normally left unaffected, a bruised brachial artery.[12]
Blood supply[edit]
The anastomosis and deep veins around the elbow-joint
The arteries supplying the joint are derived from an extensive circulatory anastomosis between the brachial artery and its terminal branches. The superior and inferior ulnar collateral branches of the brachial artery and the radial and middle collateral branches of the profunda brachii artery descend from above to reconnect on the joint capsule, where they also connect with the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent branches of the ulnar artery; the radial recurrent branch of the radial artery; and the interosseous recurrent branch of the common interosseous artery.[13]
The blood is brought back by vessels from the radial, ulnar, and brachial veins. There are two sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located above the medial epicondyle — the deep and superficial cubital nodes (also called epitrochlear nodes). The lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes drain the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand. The efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes.[13][14]
Nerve supply[edit]
The elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus.[13]
Development[edit]
The elbow undergoes dynamic development of ossification centers through infancy and adolescence, with the order of both the appearance and fusion of the apophyseal growth centers being crucial in assessment of the pediatric elbow on radiograph, in order to distinguish a traumatic fracture or apophyseal separation from normal development. The order of appearance can be understood by the mnemonic CRITOE, referring to the capitellum, radial head, internal epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, and external epicondyle at ages 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 years. These apophyseal centers then fuse during adolescence, with the internal epicondyle and olecranon fusing last. The ages of fusion are more variable than ossification, but normally occur at 13, 15, 17, 13, 16 and 13 years, respectively.[15] In addition, the presence of a joint effusion can be inferenced by the presence of the fat pad sign, a structure that is normally physiologically present, but pathologic when elevated by fluid, and always pathologic when posterior.[16]
Function[edit]
The function of the elbow joint is to extend and flex the arm grasp and reach for objects.[17] The range of movement in the elbow is from 0 degrees of elbow extension to 150 of elbow flexion.[18] Muscles contributing to function are all flexion (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) and extension muscles (triceps and anconeus).
In humans, the main task of the elbow is to properly place the hand in space by shortening and lengthening the upper limb. While the superior radioulnar joint shares joint capsule with the elbow joint, it plays no functional role at the elbow.[7]
With the elbow extended, the long axis of the humerus and that of the ulna coincide. At the same time, the articular surfaces on both bones are located in front of those axes and deviate from them at an angle of 45°. Additionally, the forearm muscles that originate at the elbow are grouped at the sides of the joint in order not to interfere with its movement. The wide angle of flexion at the elbow made possible by this arrangement — almost 180° — allows the bones to be brought almost in parallel to each other.[7]
Carrying angle[edit]
Normal radiograph; right picture of the straightened arm shows the carrying angle of the elbow
When the arm is extended, with the palm facing forward or up, the bones of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) are not perfectly aligned. The deviation from a straight line occurs in the direction of the thumb, and is referred to as the "carrying angle" (visible in the right half of the picture, right).
The carrying angle permits the arm to be swung without contacting the hips. Women on average have smaller shoulders and wider hips than men, which tends to produce a larger carrying angle (i.e., larger deviation from a straight line than that in men). There is, however, extensive overlap in the carrying angle between individual men and women, and a sex-bias has not been consistently observed in scientific studies.[19] This could however be attributed to the very small sample sizes in those cited earlier studies. A more recent study based on a sample size of 333 individuals from both sexes concluded that carrying angle is a suitable secondary sexual characteristic.[20]
The angle is greater in the dominant limb than the non-dominant limb of both sexes,[21] suggesting that natural forces acting on the elbow modify the carrying angle. Developmental,[22] aging and possibly racial influences add further to the variability of this parameter.
Pathology[edit]
Left: Lateral X ray of a dislocated right elbow
Right: AP X ray of a dislocated right elbow
The types of disease most commonly seen at the elbow are due to injury.
Tendonitis[edit]
Two of the most common injuries at the elbow are overuse injuries: tennis elbow and golfer's elbow. Golfer's elbow involves the tendon of the common flexor origin which originates at the medial epicondyle of the humerus (the "inside" of the elbow). Tennis elbow is the equivalent injury, but at the common extensor origin (the lateral epicondyle of the humerus).
Fractures[edit]
There are three bones at the elbow joint, and any combination of these bones may be involved in a fracture of the elbow. Patients who are able to fully extend their arm at the elbow are unlikely to have a fracture (98% certainty) and an X-ray is not required as long as an olecranon fracture is ruled out.[23] Acute fractures may not be easily visible on X-ray.[citation needed]
Dislocation[edit]
Elbow dislocations constitute 10% to 25% of all injuries to the elbow. The elbow is one of the most commonly dislocated joints in the body, with an average annual incidence of acute dislocation of 6 per 100,000 persons.[24] Among injuries to the upper extremity, dislocation of the elbow is second only to a dislocated shoulder. A full dislocation of the elbow will require expert medical attention to re-align, and recovery can take approximately 8–14 weeks. A small amount of people (10% or less) report near full recovery and minimal permanent restriction, but a permanent restriction of 5–15% movement is common.[citation needed]
Infection[edit]
Infection of the elbow joint (septic arthritis) is uncommon. It may occur spontaneously, but may also occur in relation to surgery or infection elsewhere in the body (for example, endocarditis).[citation needed]
Arthritis[edit]
Elbow arthritis is usually seen in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis or after fractures that involve the joint itself. When the damage to the joint is severe, fascial arthroplasty or elbow joint replacement may be considered.[25]
Bursitis[edit]
Main article: Olecranon bursitis
Olecranon bursitis, pain in posterior part of elbow, tenderness, warmth, swelling, pain in both flexion and extension, in chronic case extreme flexion is painful
Pain management for common problems in the radioulnar and elbow joints[edit]
Elbow pain can occur for a multitude of reasons, including injury, disease, and other conditions. Common conditions include tennis elbow, golfer’s elbow, distal radioulnar joint rheumatoid arthritis, and cubital tunnel syndrome.
Tennis elbow[edit]
Tennis elbow is a very common type of overuse injury. It can occur both from chronic repetitive motions of the hand and forearm, and from trauma to the same areas. These repetitions can injure the tendons that connect the extensor supinator muscles (which rotate and extend the forearm) to the olecranon process (also known as “the elbow”). Pain occurs, often radiating from the lateral forearm. Weakness, numbness, and stiffness are also very common, along with tenderness upon touch.[26] A non-invasive treatment for pain management is rest. If achieving rest is an issue, a wrist brace can also be worn. This keeps the wrist in flexion, thereby relieving the extensor muscles and allowing rest. Ice, heat, ultrasound, steroid injections, and compression can also help alleviate pain. After the pain has been reduced, exercise therapy is important to prevent injury in the future. Exercises should be low velocity, and weight should increase progressively.[27] Stretching the flexors and extensors is helpful, as are strengthening exercises. Massage can also be useful, focusing on the extensor trigger points.[28]
Golfer’s elbow[edit]
Golfer's elbow is very similar to tennis elbow, but less common. It is caused by overuse and repetitive motions like a golf swing. It can also be caused by trauma. Wrist flexion and pronation (rotating of the forearm) causes irritation to the tendons near the medial epicondyle of the elbow.[29] It can cause pain, stiffness, loss of sensation, and weakness radiating from the inside of the elbow to the fingers. Rest is the primary intervention for this injury. Ice, pain medication, steroid injections, strengthening exercises, and avoiding any aggravating activities can also help. Surgery is a last resort, and rarely used. Exercises should focus on strengthening and stretching the forearm, and utilizing proper form when performing movements.[30]
Distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) rheumatoid arthritis[edit]
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that affects joints. It is very common in the wrist, and is most common at the radioulnar joint. It results in pain, stiffness, and deformities. There are many different treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, and there is no one consensus for which methods are best. Most common treatments include wrist splints, surgery, physical and occupational therapy, and antirheumatic medication.[31]
Cubital tunnel syndrome[edit]
Cubital tunnel syndrome, more commonly known as ulnar neuropathy, occurs when the ulnar nerve is irritated and becomes inflamed. This can often happen where the ulnar nerve is most superficial, at the elbow. The ulnar nerve passes over the elbow, at the area known as the “funny bone”. Irritation can occur due to constant, repeated stress and pressure at this area, or from a trauma. It can also occur due to bone deformities, and oftentimes from sports.[32] Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and weakness, along with pain. First line pain management techniques include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory oral medicines. These help to reduce inflammation, pressure, and irritation of the nerve and around the nerve. Other simple fixes include learning more ergonomically friendly habits that can help prevent nerve impingement and irritation in the future. Protective equipment can also be very helpful. Examples of this include a protective elbow pad, and an arm splint. More serious cases often involve surgery, in which the nerve or the surrounding tissue is moved to relieve the pressure. Recovery from surgery can take awhile, but the prognosis is often a good one. Recovery often includes movement restrictions, and range of motion activities, and can last a few months (cubital and radial tunnel syndrome, 2).
Society and culture[edit]
The now obsolete length unit ell relates closely to the elbow. This becomes especially visible when considering the Germanic origins of both words, Elle (ell, defined as the length of a male forearm from elbow to fingertips) and Ellbogen (elbow). It is unknown when or why the second "l" was dropped from English usage of the word.[citation needed] The ell as in the English measure could also be taken to come from the letter L, being bent at right angles, as an elbow.[33] The ell as a measure was taken as six handbreadths; three to the elbow and three from the elbow to the shoulder.[34] Another measure was the cubit (from cubital). This was taken to be the length of a man's arm from the elbow to the end of the middle finger.[35]
Other primates[edit]
Though the elbow is similarly adapted for stability through a wide range of pronation-supination and flexion-extension in all apes, there are some minor differences. In arboreal apes such as orangutans, the large forearm muscles originating on the epicondyles of the humerus generate significant transverse forces on the elbow joint. The structure to resist these forces is a pronounced keel on the trochlear notch on the ulna, which is more flattened in, for example, humans and gorillas. In knuckle-walkers, on the other hand, the elbow has to deal with large vertical loads passing through extended forearms and the joint is therefore more expanded to provide larger articular surfaces perpendicular to those forces.[36]
Derived traits in catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys) elbows include the loss of the entepicondylar foramen (a hole in the distal humerus), a non-translatory (rotation-only) humeroulnar joint, and a more robust ulna with a shortened trochlear notch.[37]
The proximal radioulnar joint is similarly derived in higher primates in the location and shape of the radial notch on the ulna; the primitive form being represented by New World monkeys, such as the howler monkey, and by fossil catarrhines, such as Aegyptopithecus. In these taxa, the oval head of the radius lies in front of the ulnar shaft so that the former overlaps the latter by half its width. With this forearm configuration, the ulna supports the radius and maximum stability is achieved when the forearm is fully pronated.[37]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "MeSH Browser". meshb.nlm.nih.gov.
Jump up ^ Palastanga & Soames 2012, p. 138
Jump up ^ Kapandji 1982, pp. 74–7
Jump up ^ "MeSH Browser". meshb.nlm.nih.gov.
Jump up ^ Ross & Lamperti 2006, p. 240
Jump up ^ Kapandji 1982, p. 84
^ Jump up to: a b c Palastanga & Soames 2012, pp. 127–8
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Palastanga & Soames 2012, pp. 131–2
Jump up ^ Awaya et al. 2001
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kapandji 1982, pp. 88–91
^ Jump up to: a b Palastanga & Soames 2012, p. 136
^ Jump up to: a b Kapandji 1982, p. 86
^ Jump up to: a b c Palastanga & Soames 2012, p. 133
Jump up ^ "Cubital nodes". Inner Body. Retrieved June 2012. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Jump up ^ Soma, DB (March 2016). "Opening the Black Box: Evaluating the Pediatric Athlete With Elbow Pain". PM&R. 8 (3 Suppl): S101–12. doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2016.01.002. PMID 26972259.
Jump up ^ Lee, YJ; Han, D; Koh, YH; Zo, JH; Kim, SH; Kim, DK; Lee, JS; Moon, HJ; Kim, JS; Chun, EJ; Youn, BJ; Lee, CH; Kim, SS (February 2008). "Adult sail sign: radiographic and computed tomographic features". Acta radiologica (Stockholm, Sweden : 1987). 49 (1): 37–40. doi:10.1080/02841850701675677. PMID 18210313.
Jump up ^ Dimon, T. (2011). The Body of Motion: its Evolution and Design (pp. 39-42). Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Jump up ^ Thomas, B. P.; Sreekanth, R. (2012). "Distal radioulnar joint injuries". Indian Journal of Orthopaedics. 46 (5): 493–504. doi:10.4103/0019-5413.101031.
Jump up ^ Steel & Tomlinson 1958, pp. 315–7; Van Roy et al. 2005, pp. 1645–56; Zampagni et al. 2008, p. 370
Jump up ^ Ruparelia et al. 2010
Jump up ^ Paraskevas et al. 2004, pp. 19–23; Yilmaz et al. 2005, pp. 1360–3
Jump up ^ Tukenmez et al. 2004, pp. 274–6
Jump up ^ Appelboam et al. 2008
Jump up ^ Blakeney 2010
Jump up ^ Matsen 2012
Jump up ^ Speed, C., Hazleman, B., & Dalton, S. (2006). Fast Facts : Soft Tissue Disorders (2nd Edition). Abingdon, Oxford, GBR: Health Press Limited. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com
Jump up ^ MacAuley, D., & Best, T. (Eds.). (2008). Evidence-Based Sports Medicine. Chichester, GBR: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com
Jump up ^ Thomson, B. (2015, January 1). (5) Tennis Elbow Treatment By Trigger Point Massage. Retrieved February 17, 2015, from http://www.easyvigour.net.nz/fitness/hOBP5_TriggerPoint_Tennis_Elbow.htm
Jump up ^ Dhami, S., & Sheikh, A. (2002). At A Glance - Medial Epicondylitis (Golfer's Elbow). Factiva.
Jump up ^ Golfer's elbow. (2012, October 9). Retrieved March 14, 2015, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/golfers-elbow/basics/prevention/con-20027964
Jump up ^ Lee, S., & Hausman, M. (2005). Management of the Distal Radioulnar Joint in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Hand Clinics, (21), 577-589.
Jump up ^ Cubital and Radial Tunnel Syndrome: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment. (2014, September 29). Retrieved February 17, 2015, from http://www.webmd.com/pain-management/cubital-radial-tunnel-syndrome
Jump up ^ O.D.E>2nd edition 2005
Jump up ^ O.D.E. 2nd edition 2005,
Jump up ^ O.D.E. 2nd edition 2005
Jump up ^ Drapeau 2008, Abstract
^ Jump up to: a b Richmond et al. 1998, Discussion, p. 267
References[edit]
Appelboam, A; Reuben, A D; Benger, J R; Beech, F; Dutson, J; Haig, S; Higginson, I; Klein, J A; Le Roux, S; Saranga, S S M; Taylor, R; Vickery, J; Powell, R J; Lloyd, G (2008). "Elbow extension test to rule out elbow fracture: multicentre, prospective validation and observational study of diagnostic accuracy in adults and children". BMJ. 337: a2428. doi:10.1136/bmj.a2428. PMC 2600962  . PMID 19066257.
Awaya, Hitomi; Schweitzer, Mark E.; Feng, Sunah A.; Kamishima, Tamotsu; Marone, Phillip J.; Farooki; Shella; Trudell, Debra J.; Haghighi, Parviz; Resnick, Donald L. (December 2001). "Elbow Synovial Fold Syndrome: MR Imaging Findings". American Journal of Roentgenology. 177 (6): 1377–81. doi:10.2214/ajr.177.6.1771377. PMID 11717088. Retrieved June 2012. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Blakeney, W G (January 2010). "Elbow Dislocation". Life in the Fast Lane.
Drapeau, MS (July 2008). "Articular morphology of the proximal ulna in extant and fossil hominoids and hominins". J Hum Evol. 55 (1): 86–102. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.01.005. PMID 18472143.
Kapandji, Ibrahim Adalbert (1982). The Physiology of the Joints: Volume One Upper Limb (5th ed.). New York: Churchill Livingstone.
Matsen, Frederick A. (2012). "Total elbow joint replacement for rheumatoid arthritis: A Patient's Guide" (PDF). UW Medicine.
Palastanga, Nigel; Soames, Roger (2012). Anatomy and Human Movement: Structure and Function (6th ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 9780702040535.
Paraskevas, G; Papadopoulos, A; Papaziogas, B; Spanidou, S; Argiriadou, H; Gigis, J (2004). "Study of the carrying angle of the human elbow joint in full extension: a morphometric analysis". Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy. 26 (1): 19–23. doi:10.1007/s00276-003-0185-z. PMID 14648036.
Richmond, Brian G; Fleagle, John G; Kappelman, John; Swisher, Carl C (1998). "First Hominoid From the Miocene of Ethiopia and the Evolution of the Catarrhine Elbow" (PDF). Am J Phys Anthropol. 105 (3): 257–77. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199803)105:3<257::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID 9545073. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-17.
Ross, Lawrence M.; Lamperti, Edward D., eds. (2006). Thieme Atlas of Anatomy: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System. Thieme. p. 240. ISBN 3131420812.
Ruparelia, S; Patel, S; Zalawadia, A; Shah, S (2010). "Study Of Carrying Angle And Its Correlation With Various Parameters". NJIRM. 1 (3). ISSN 0975-9840.
Steel, F; Tomlinson, J (1958). "The 'carrying angle' in man". Journal of Anatomy. 92 (2): 315–7. PMC 1249704  . PMID 13525245.
Tukenmez, M; Demirel, H; Perçin, S; Tezeren, G (2004). "Measurement of the carrying angle of the elbow in 2,000 children at ages six and fourteen years". Acta Orthopaedica et Traumatologica Turcica. 38 (4): 274–6. PMID 15618770.
Van Roy, P; Baeyens, JP; Fauvart, D; Lanssiers, R; Clarijs, JP (2005). "Arthro-kinematics of the elbow: study of the carrying angle". Ergonomics. 48 (11–14): 1645–56. doi:10.1080/00140130500101361. PMID 16338730.
Yilmaz, E; Karakurt, L; Belhan, O; Bulut, M; Serin, E; Avci, M (2005). "Variation of carrying angle with age, sex, and special reference to side". Orthopedics. 28 (11): 1360–3. PMID 16295195.
Zampagni, M; Casino, D; Zaffagnini, S; Visani, AA; Marcacci, M (2008). "Estimating the elbow carrying angle with an electrogoniometer: acquisition of data and reliability of measurements". Orthopedics. 31 (4): 370. doi:10.3928/01477447-20080401-39. PMID 19292279.
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Medical model of disability
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Disability
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The medical model of disability, or medical model, arose from the biomedical perception of disability. This model links a disability diagnosis to an individual's physical body. The model supposes that this disability may reduce the individual's quality of life and the aim is, with medical intervention, this disability will be diminished or corrected.[1]
The medical model focuses on curing or managing illness or disability. By extension, the medical model supposes a "compassionate" or just society invests resources in health care and related services in an attempt to cure or manage disabilities medically. This is in an aim to expand functionality and/or improve functioning, and to allow disabled persons a more "normal" life. The medical profession's responsibility and potential in this area is seen as central.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Components and usage
2 Criticism
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Before the introduction of the Biomedical model, patients relaying their narratives to the doctors was paramount. Through these narratives and developing an intimate relationship with the patients, the doctors would develop treatment plans in a time when diagnostic and treatment options were limited.[2] This could particularly be illustrated with aristocratic doctors treating the elite during the 17th and 18th century.[3]
The reliance of doctors on the narratives of patients diminished with the growth of bio-medicine.[4]
In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced a framework for working with disability, publishing the "International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps." The framework proposed to approach disability by using the terms Impairment, Handicap and Disability.[5]
Impairment = a loss or abnormality of physical bodily structure or function, of logic-psychic origin, or physiological or anatomical origin
Disability = any limitation or function loss deriving from impairment that prevents the performance of an activity in the time lapse considered normal for a human being
Handicap = the disadvantaged condition deriving from impairment or disability limiting a person performing a role considered normal in respect of age, sex and social and cultural factors
Components and usage[edit]
While personal narrative is present in interpersonal interactions, and particularly dominant in Western Culture, personal narrative during interactions with medical personnel is reduced to relaying information about specific symptoms of the disability to medical professionals.[1] The medical professionals then interpret the information provided about the disability by the patient to determine a diagnosis, which likely will be linked to biological causes.[1][2]The medical professionals now define what is "normal" and what is "abnormal" in terms of biology and disability.[3]
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), published in 2001, defines disability as an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. Disability is the interaction between individuals with a health condition (such as cerebral palsy, Down syndrome and depression) and personal and environmental factors (such as negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited social supports).[6]
The altered language and words used show a marked change in emphasis from talking in terms of disease or impairment to talking in terms of levels of health and functioning. It takes into account the social aspects of disability and does not see disability only as a 'medical' or 'biological' dysfunction. That change is consistent with widespread acceptance of the social model of disability.
Criticism[edit]
The medical model of disability focuses on the individual's limitations and ways to reduce those impairments or using adaptive technology to adapt them to society. Current definitions of disability accept biomedical assistance but focus more on factors causing environmental and social exclusion. Uncritical reliance on the medical model produces unwanted consequences.
Among advocates of disability rights, who tend to subscribe to the social model instead, the medical model of disability is often cited as the basis of an unintended social degradation of disabled people; further, resources are seen as excessively misdirected towards an almost-exclusively medical focus when those same resources could be used towards things like universal design and societal inclusionary practices. This includes the monetary and the societal costs and benefits of various interventions, be they medical, surgical, social or occupational, from prosthetics, drug-based and other "cures", and medical tests such as genetic screening or preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Often, a medical model of disability is used to justify large investment in these procedures, technologies and research, when adaptation of the disabled person's environment might ultimately be more beneficial to the society at large, as well as financially cheaper and physically more attainable.
Also, some disability rights groups see the medical model of disability as a civil rights issue and criticise charitable organizations or medical initiatives that use it in their portrayal of disabled people, because it promotes a pitiable, essentially negative, largely disempowered image of people with disabilities rather than casting disability as a political, social and environmental problem (see also the political slogan "Piss On Pity").
See also[edit]
Cure
Medical model of autism
Models of deafness
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Fisher, Pamela; Goodley, Dan (January 2007). "The linear medical model of disability: mothers of disabled babies resist with counter-narratives". Sociology of Health & Illnness. 29 (1): 66. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Bury, Mike (2001). "Illness narratives: fact or fiction?". Illness narratives: fact or fiction?. 23 (3): 263. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Lawrence, Christopher (1994). Medicine in the making of modern Britain : 1700-1920 (Digital Printing ed.). London [u.a.]: Routledge. ISBN 9780415091688.
Jump up ^ Jewson, N (1976). "The disappearance of the sick man from medical cosmology". Sociology. 10: 225. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ WHO, International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps,1980
Jump up ^ "International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health". WHO. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
External links[edit]
The Open University: Making your teaching inclusive: The Medical Model
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_model_of_disability&oldid=784180120"
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