text:
List of Cleveland Browns seasons
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The Cleveland Browns were a charter member club of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) when the league was founded in 1946. From 1946 to 1949, the Browns won each of the league's four championships. The National Football League (NFL) does not recognize the Browns' AAFC championships; however, the Pro Football Hall of Fame does recognize the team's championships, which is reflected in this list. When the AAFC folded in 1949, the Browns were absorbed into the NFL in 1950. The Browns went on to win three NFL championships, nearly dominating the NFL in the 1950s, and won one more NFL championship in 1964. The team has yet to appear in a Super Bowl, however. Overall, the team has won eight championships: four in the AAFC, and four in the NFL.
In 1996, then-Browns owner Art Modell made the decision to move the team from Cleveland, Ohio to Baltimore, Maryland. An agreement between the city of Cleveland and the NFL kept the team's history, name and colors in Cleveland, while Modell's new team would be regarded as an expansion team. The Baltimore Ravens would begin play in 1996, and the Browns would return to the league in 1999. For record-keeping purposes, the Browns are considered to have suspended operations from 1996 to 1998, which is reflected in this list. The Cleveland Browns are the second team in NFL History to reach an 0-16 record.
For a complete team history, see History of the Cleveland Browns.
AAFC champions[1] (1946–1949) NFL champions (1950–1969) Super Bowl champions[2] (1970–present) Conference champions Division champions Wild Card berth
Season
Team
League
Conference
Division
Regular season results
Postseason results
Awards
Finish
Wins
Losses
Ties
All-America Football Conference
1946
1946 AAFC Western 1st 12 2 0 Won AAFC championship (1) (Yankees) 14–9
1947
1947 AAFC Western 1st 12 1 1 Won AAFC championship (2) (at Yankees) 14–3
1948
1948 AAFC Western 1st 14 0 0 Won AAFC championship (3) (Bills) 49–7
1949
1949 AAFC 1st 9 1 2 Won AAFC playoff game (Bills) 31–21
Won AAFC championship (4) (49ers) 21–7 Paul Brown (COY)
National Football League (1950–1995; 1999–present)
1950
1950 NFL American T-1st[3] 10 2 0 Won Conference Playoffs (Giants) 8–3
Won NFL Championship (5) (Rams) 30–28
1951
1951 NFL American 1st 11 1 0 Lost NFL Championship (at Rams) 17–24 Paul Brown (COY)
Otto Graham (MVP)
1952
1952 NFL American 1st 8 4 0 Lost NFL Championship (Lions) 7–17
1953
1953 NFL Eastern 1st 11 1 0 Lost NFL Championship (at Lions) 16–17 Paul Brown (COY)
Otto Graham (MVP)
1954
1954 NFL Eastern 1st 9 3 0 Won NFL Championship (6) (Lions) 56–10
1955
1955 NFL Eastern 1st 9 2 1 Won NFL Championship (7) (at Rams) 38–14 Otto Graham (MVP)
1956
1956 NFL Eastern T-4th[4] 5 7 0
1957
1957 NFL Eastern 1st 9 2 1 Lost NFL Championship (at Lions) 14–59 Paul Brown (COY)
Jim Brown (MVP, ROY)
1958
1958 NFL Eastern T-1st[5] 9 3 0 Lost Conference Playoffs (at Giants) 0–10 Jim Brown (MVP)
1959
1959 NFL Eastern T-2nd[6] 7 5 0
1960
1960 NFL Eastern 2nd 8 3 1
1961
1961 NFL Eastern 3rd 8 5 1
1962
1962 NFL Eastern 3rd 7 6 1
1963
1963 NFL Eastern 2nd 10 4 0 Jim Brown (BBA, MVP)
1964
1964 NFL Eastern 1st 10 3 1 Won NFL Championship (8)[7] (Colts) 27–0
1965
1965 NFL Eastern 1st 11 3 0 Lost NFL Championship (at Packers) 12–23 Jim Brown (MVP, MVP)
1966
1966 NFL Eastern T-2nd[8] 9 5 0
1967
1967 NFL Eastern Century 1st 9 5 0 Lost Conference Championship (at Cowboys) 14–52
1968
1968 NFL Eastern Century 1st 10 4 0 Won Conference Championship (Cowboys) 31–20
Lost NFL Championship (Colts) 0–34 Leroy Kelly (MVP)
1969
1969 NFL Eastern Century 1st 10 3 1 Won Conference Championship (at Cowboys) 38–14
Lost NFL Championship (at Vikings) 7–27
1970
1970 NFL AFC Central 2nd 7 7 0
1971
1971 NFL AFC Central 1st 9 5 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs (Colts) 3–20
1972
1972 NFL AFC Central 2nd 10 4 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Dolphins) 14–20
1973
1973 NFL AFC Central 3rd 7 5 2
1974
1974 NFL AFC Central 4th 4 10 0
1975
1975 NFL AFC Central 4th 3 11 0
1976
1976 NFL AFC Central 2nd 9 5 0 Forrest Gregg (COY)
1977
1977 NFL AFC Central 4th 6 8 0
1978[9]
1978 NFL AFC Central 3rd 8 8 0
1979
1979 NFL AFC Central 3rd 9 7 0 Sam Rutigliano (COY)
1980
1980 NFL AFC Central 1st 11 5 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs (Raiders) 12–14[10] Sam Rutigliano (COY)
Brian Sipe (MVP, MVP, POY)
1981
1981 NFL AFC Central 4th 5 11 0
1982[11]
1982 NFL AFC 8th 4 5 0 Lost First Round Playoffs (at Raiders) 10–27 Chip Banks (Def. ROY)
1983
1983 NFL AFC Central 2nd 9 7 0
1984
1984 NFL AFC Central 3rd 5 11 0
1985
1985 NFL AFC Central 1st 8 8 0 Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Dolphins) 21–24 Kevin Mack (ROY)
1986
1986 NFL AFC Central 1st 12 4 0 Won Divisional Playoffs (Jets 23–20) (2 OT)
Lost AFC Championship[12] (Broncos) 20–23 (OT) Marty Schottenheimer (COY)
1987[13]
1987 NFL AFC Central 1st 10 5 0 Won Divisional Playoffs (Colts) 38–21
Lost AFC Championship[14] (at Broncos) 33–38
1988
1988 NFL AFC Central 2nd[15] 10 6 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Oilers) 23–24
1989
1989 NFL AFC Central 1st 9 6 1 Won Divisional Playoffs (Bills) 34–30
Lost AFC Championship[16] (at Broncos) 21–37 Michael Dean Perry (Def. POY)
1990
1990 NFL AFC Central 4th 3 13 0
1991
1991 NFL AFC Central 3rd 6 10 0
1992
1992 NFL AFC Central 3rd 7 9 0
1993
1993 NFL AFC Central 3rd 7 9 0
1994
1994 NFL AFC Central 2nd 11 5 0 Won Wild Card Playoffs (Patriots) 20–13
Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Steelers) 9–29
1995
1995 NFL AFC Central 4th 5 11 0
1996
Inactive from 1996 to 1998
1997
1998
1999
1999 NFL AFC Central 6th 2 14 0
2000
2000 NFL AFC Central 6th 3 13 0
2001
2001 NFL AFC Central 3rd[17] 7 9 0
2002
2002 NFL AFC North 2nd 9 7 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs (at Steelers) 33–36
2003
2003 NFL AFC North 4th 5 11 0
2004
2004 NFL AFC North 4th 4 12 0
2005
2005 NFL AFC North 4th[18] 6 10 0
2006
2006 NFL AFC North 4th 4 12 0
2007
2007 NFL AFC North 2nd[19] 10 6 0
2008
2008 NFL AFC North 4th 4 12 0
2009
2009 NFL AFC North 4th 5 11 0
2010
2010 NFL AFC North 3rd 5 11 0
2011
2011 NFL AFC North 4th 4 12 0
2012
2012 NFL AFC North 4th 5 11 0
2013
2013 NFL AFC North 4th 4 12 0
2014
2014 NFL AFC North 4th 7 9 0
2015
2015 NFL AFC North 4th 3 13 0
2016
2016 NFL AFC North 4th 1 15 0
2017
2017 NFL AFC North 4th 0 16 0
Totals
4 AAFC championships
4 NFL championships
12 conference titles
9 NFL division titles
47
4
3
All-America Football Conference regular season results[20]
5
0
0
AAFC postseason results
462
482
10
National Football League regular season results[20]
11
20
0
NFL postseason results[20]
525
506
13
AAFC and NFL regular and postseason results
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ The NFL does not recognize the Browns' AAFC championships. For the purposes of this list, however, they are included in final totals.
Jump up ^ The Browns are one of only four teams to have never appeared in a Super Bowl. The other three teams are the Detroit Lions, the Houston Texans, and the Jacksonville Jaguars.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1950 NFL season, the Browns and Giants had identical 10–2–0 records. To determine the team that would play in the NFL Championship Game, the NFL held a one-game conference playoff. The Browns won, 8–3.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1956 season, the Browns and the Steelers ended the season with identical 5–7 records. There were no tie-breaking procedures, so the teams ended the season tied.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1958 NFL season, the Browns and Giants had identical 9–3–0 records. To determine the team that would play in the NFL Championship Game, the NFL held a one-game conference playoff. The Giants shut the Browns out 10–0.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1959 season, the Browns and the Eagles ended the season with identical 5–7 records. There were no tie-breaking procedures, so the teams ended the season tied.
Jump up ^ The Browns' championship win in 1964 is the second most recent championship won by any sports team from the Cleveland area. The most recent being the Cleveland Cavaliers Championship win over the Golden State Warriors in 2016.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1966 season, the Browns and the Eagles ended the season with identical 9–5 records. There were no tie-breaking procedures, so the teams ended the season tied.
Jump up ^ For the 1978 season, the NFL expanded from a 14-game season to a 16-game season.
Jump up ^ This game involved the play Red Right 88 in its final minutes.
Jump up ^ The 1982 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 9 games because of a players' strike. The NFL adopted a special 16-team playoff tournament; eight teams from each conference were seeded 1–8, and division standings were ignored.
Jump up ^ The 1987 Conference Championship game between the Browns and the Broncos is best remembered for The Drive, in which quarterback John Elway, over the span of 5 minutes and 2 seconds, lead the Broncos on a 98-yard drive to tie the game with 37 seconds remaining in regulation. The Broncos won the game in overtime with a field goal, 23–20.
Jump up ^ The 1987 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 15 games because of a players' strike. Games to be played during the third week of the season were canceled, and replacement players were used to play games from weeks 4 through 6.
Jump up ^ The 1988 Conference Championship game between the Browns and the Broncos is best remembered for The Fumble, in which, while on a potentially game-winning drive, the Browns' running back Ernest Byner fumbled the ball at the Broncos 3-yard line with 65 seconds remaining on the clock. The Broncos recovered the ball, allowed the Browns to get an intentional safety, and won the game, 38–33.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1988 season, the Browns and the Oilers ended the season with identical 10–6 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Cleveland finished ahead of Houston based on a better division record.
Jump up ^ The 1990 Conference Championship game between the Browns and the Broncos marked the third time in four years that John Elway defeated Bernie Kosar and the Browns in the AFC championship game.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2001 season, the Browns and the Titans ended the season with identical 7–9 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Cleveland finished ahead of Tennessee based on a better division record.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2005 season, the Browns and the Ravens ended the season with identical 6–10 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Baltimore finished ahead of Cleveland based on a better division record.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2007 season, the Browns and the Pittsburgh Steelers ended the season with identical 10–6 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, the Steelers finished ahead of the Browns based on winning both games against the Browns during the season.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Cleveland Browns Team Encyclopedia - Pro-Football-Reference.com". pro-football-reference.com. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
References[edit]
"Year By Year Season Results". Cleveland Browns official Web site. Archived from the original on 2006-12-02. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
"Cleveland Browns (1950 – )". databaseFootball.com. Archived from the original on 2007-04-08. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
"Cleveland Browns History". JT-SW.com. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
"NFL History – Past Standings". National Football League official Web site. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
"Franchise History – Cleveland Browns". Pro Football Hall of Fame official Web site. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
"Cleveland Browns (1946–1995; 1999–Present)". Sports E-Cyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
"Cleveland Browns Franchise Encyclopedia". Pro Football Reference.com. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
"History of the Cleveland Browns". Football @ JT-SW.com. John Troan. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
[show]
v
t
e
Cleveland Browns
Founded in 1946
Based in Cleveland, Ohio
Headquartered in Berea, Ohio
Franchise
History
Players
Head coaches
Seasons
Logos and uniforms
First-round draft picks
1999 expansion draft
Starting quarterbacks
Pro Bowlers
Stadiums
Cleveland Stadium
FirstEnergy Stadium
Key personnel
Owners: Jimmy Haslam
Dee Haslam
President (de facto): Paul DePodesta
General manager: John Dorsey
Head coach: Hue Jackson
Culture and lore
Art Modell
Cleveland sports curse
Dawg Pound
Draft Day
Hot Tub Time Machine
Kardiac Kids
Marty Ball
Miracle at the Met
Paul Brown
Red Right 88
Relocation controversy
"The Best Man"
The Drive
The Express
The Fortune Cookie
The Fumble
Rivalries
Cincinnati Bengals
Pittsburgh Steelers
Playoff appearances (28)
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1957
1958
1964
1965
1967
1968
1969
1971
1972
1980
1982
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1994
2002
Division championships (12)
1946
1947
1948
1967
1968
1969
1971
1980
1985
1986
1987
1989
Conference championships (11)
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1957
1964
1965
1968
1969
League championships (8)
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1954
1955
1964
Retired numbers
14
32
45
46
76
Hall of Fame inductees
Players: Brown
DeLamielleure
Ford
Gatski
Graham
Groza
Hickerson
Kelly
Lavelli
McCormack
Mitchell
Motley
Newsome
Warfield
Willis
Coach: Brown
Media
Broadcasters
Radio network
Flagships: WKNR
WKRK-FM
WNCX
Television: WEWS-TV
SportsTime Ohio
Current league affiliations
League: National Football League (1950–present)
Conference: American Football Conference
Division: North Division
Former league affiliation
League: All-America Football Conference (1946–1949)
Seasons (69)
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Championship seasons in bold
[show]
v
t
e
Cleveland Browns seasons
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Bold indicates AAFC championship (through 1949) or NFL championship (1950–1969)
[show]
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NFL team season lists
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[show]
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Related articles
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Seasons
1955
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1957
1958 (The Browns' SNI arrangement from 1956 to 1958 was national in scope.)
1959
1960
1961 (For 1960 and 1961 seasons, the Browns-SNI network was reduced to a Midwest regional network.)
Commentators
Ken Coleman
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Otto Graham
Cliff Lewis
Curly Morrison
Bob Wolff
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text:
Teotihuacan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the archaeological site. For the town and municipality, see San Juan Teotihuacán. For the patrol vessel, see Mexican Navy 42 metre patrol vessel.
Not to be confused with Tenochtitlan.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.69250°N 98.8438000°W / 19.69250; -98.8438000
Teotihuacán
View of the Avenue of the Dead and the Pyramid of the Sun, from the Pyramid of the Moon.
Location of the site
Location of the site
Show map of Mesoamerica Show map of Mexico Show all
Location
Teotihuacán, State of Mexico, Mexico
Coordinates
19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.69250°N 98.8438000°W / 19.69250; -98.8438000
History
Periods
Late Preclassic to Late Classic
Site notes
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan
Criteria
Cultural: (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi)
Reference
414
Inscription
1987 (11th Session)
[edit on Wikidata]
Teotihuacan
Location in Greater Mexico City
Teotihuacan /teɪˌoʊtiːwəˈkɑːn/,[1] also written Teotihuacán (Spanish pronunciation: [teotiwa'kan] ( listen), modern Nahuatl pronunciation (help·info)), is an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico, located in the State of Mexico 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast of modern-day Mexico City, known today as the site of many of the most architecturally significant Mesoamerican pyramids built in the pre-Columbian Americas.
At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population estimated at 125,000 or more,[2][3] making it at least the sixth largest city in the world during its epoch.[4]
Apart from the pyramids, Teotihuacan is also anthropologically significant for its complex, multi-family residential compounds, the Avenue of the Dead and the small portion of its vibrant murals that have been exceptionally well-preserved. Additionally, Teotihuacan exported fine obsidian tools that garnered high prestige and widespread usage throughout Mesoamerica.[5]
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC, with major monuments continuously under construction until about 250 AD.[2] The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD, but its major monuments were sacked and systematically burned around 550 AD.
Teotihuacan began as a new religious centre in the Mexican Highlands around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated centre in the pre-Columbian Americas. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population.[2] The term Teotihuacan (or Teotihuacano) is also used for the whole civilization and cultural complex associated with the site.
Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the centre of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The later Aztecs saw these magnificent ruins and claimed a common ancestry with the Teotihuacanos, modifying and adopting aspects of their culture. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic state.
The city and the archaeological site are located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast of Mexico City. The site covers a total surface area of 83 square kilometres (32 sq mi) and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is the most visited archaeological site in Mexico.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 History
2.1 Origins and foundation
2.2 Year 378: "Conquest" of Tikal
2.3 Year 426: "Conquest" of Copán and Quiriguá
2.4 Zenith
2.5 Collapse
3 Culture
3.1 Religion
3.2 Residency
4 Archaeological site
4.1 Excavations and investigations
4.1.1 Recent discoveries
4.2 Site layout
5 Threat from development
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Name[edit]
The name Teōtīhuacān was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs centuries after the fall of the city around 550 AD. The term has been glossed as "birthplace of the gods", or "place where gods were born",[6] reflecting Nahua creation myths that were said to occur in Teotihuacan. Nahuatl scholar Thelma D. Sullivan interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods."[7] This is because the Aztecs believed that the gods created the universe at that site. The name is pronounced [te.oːtiːˈwakaːn] in Nahuatl, with the accent on the syllable wa. By normal Nahuatl orthographic conventions, a written accent would not appear in that position. Both this pronunciation and Spanish pronunciation: [te.otiwaˈkan] are used, and both spellings appear in this article.
The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as puh, or "Place of Reeds".[8] This suggests that, in the Maya civilization of the Classic period, Teotihuacan was understood as a Place of Reeds similar to other Postclassic Central Mexican settlements that took the name of Tollan, such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula.
This naming convention led to much confusion in the early 20th century, as scholars debated whether Teotihuacan or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described by 16th-century chronicles. It now seems clear that Tollan may be understood as a generic Nahua term applied to any large settlement. In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, Tollan and other language equivalents serve as a metaphor, linking the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the lacustrine environment of the Valley of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city.[9]
History[edit]
Origins and foundation[edit]
Teotihuacan and other important Classic Era settlements
The early history of Teotihuacan is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is uncertain. Around 300 BC, people of the central and southeastern area of Mesoamerica began to gather into larger settlements.[10] Teotihuacan was the largest urban center of Mesoamerica before the Aztecs, almost 1000 years prior to their epoch.[10] The city was already in ruins by the time of the Aztecs. For many years, archaeologists believed it was built by the Toltec. This belief was based on colonial period texts, such as the Florentine Codex, which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" generally means "craftsman of the highest level" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization centered at Tula, Hidalgo. Since Toltec civilization flourished centuries after Teotihuacan, the people could not have been the city's founders.
In the Late Formative era, a number of urban centers arose in central Mexico. The most prominent of these appears to have been Cuicuilco, on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco. Scholars have speculated that the eruption of the Xitle volcano may have prompted a mass emigration out of the central valley and into the Teotihuacan valley. These settlers may have founded or accelerated the growth of Teotihuacan.[citation needed]
Other scholars have put forth the Totonac people as the founders of Teotihuacan. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in Teotihuacan immigrated from those areas influenced by the Teotihuacano civilization, including the Zapotec, Mixtec, and Maya peoples. The builders of Teotihuacan took advantage of the geography in the Basin of Mexico. From the swampy ground, they constructed raised beds, called chinampas, creating high agricultural productivity despite old methods of cultivation.[10] This allowed for the formation of channels, and subsequently canoe traffic, to transport food from farms around the city. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacan date to about 200 BC. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by AD 100.[11]
Year 378: "Conquest" of Tikal[edit]
In January 378, while Spearthrower Owl supposedly ruled in Teotihuacan, the warlord Siyah K'ak' "conquered" Tikal, removing and replacing the Maya king, with support from El Peru and Naachtun, as recorded by Stela 31 at Tikal and other monuments in the Maya region.[12]
In 378 a group of Teotihuacanos organized a coup d'etat in Tikal, Guatemala. This was not the Teotihuacan state; it was a group of the Feathered-Serpent people, thrown out from the city. The Feathered-Serpent Pyramid was burnt, all the sculptures were torn from the temple, and another platform was built to efface the facade ...[13]
Year 426: "Conquest" of Copán and Quiriguá[edit]
In 426, K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo' takes over as king of Copán in present-day Honduras, as described by Copán Altar Q. Soon thereafter, Yax K'uk' Mo' installs Tok Casper as king of Quiriguá, about 50 km north of Copán.
Zenith[edit]
The city reached its peak in AD 450, when it was the center of a powerful culture whose influence extended through much of the Mesoamerican region. At its peak, the city covered over 30 km² (over 11 1⁄2 square miles), and perhaps housed a population of 150,000 people, with one estimate reaching as high as 250,000.[14] Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacano region of influence, which spread south as far as Guatemala. Notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures.
View of the Pyramid of the Moon from the Pyramid of the Sun
The nature of political and cultural interactions between Teotihuacan and the centers of the Maya region (as well as elsewhere in Mesoamerica) has been a long-standing and significant area for debate. Substantial exchange and interaction occurred over the centuries from the Terminal Preclassic to the Mid-Classic period. "Teotihuacan-inspired ideologies" and motifs persisted at Maya centers into the Late Classic, long after Teotihuacan itself had declined.[15] However, scholars debate the extent and degree of Teotihuacano influence. Some believe that it had direct and militaristic dominance; others that adoption of "foreign" traits was part of a selective, conscious, and bi-directional cultural diffusion. New discoveries have suggested that Teotihuacan was not much different in its interactions with other centers from the later empires, such as the Toltec and Aztec.[16][17] It is believed that Teotihuacan had a major influence on the Preclassic and Classic Maya, most likely by conquering several Maya centers and regions, including Tikal and the region of Peten, and influencing Maya culture.
Platform along the Avenue of the Dead showing the talud-tablero architectural style
Restored portion of Teotihucan architecture showing the typical Mesoamerican use of red paint complemented on gold and jade decoration upon marble and granite.
Architectural styles prominent at Teotihuacan are found widely dispersed at a number of distant Mesoamerican sites, which some researchers have interpreted as evidence for Teotihuacan's far-reaching interactions and political or militaristic dominance.[18] A style particularly associated with Teotihuacan is known as talud-tablero, in which an inwards-sloping external side of a structure (talud) is surmounted by a rectangular panel (tablero). Variants of the generic style are found in a number of Maya region sites, including Tikal, Kaminaljuyu, Copan, Becan, and Oxkintok, and particularly in the Petén Basin and the central Guatemalan highlands.[19] The talud-tablero style pre-dates its earliest appearance at Teotihuacan in the Early Classic period; it appears to have originated in the Tlaxcala-Puebla region during the Preclassic.[20] Analyses have traced the development into local variants of the talud-tablero style at sites such as Tikal, where its use precedes the 5th-century appearance of iconographic motifs shared with Teotihuacan. The talud-tablero style disseminated through Mesoamerica generally from the end of the Preclassic period, and not specifically, or solely, via Teotihuacano influence. It is unclear how or from where the style spread into the Maya region. During the zenith a main structures of the site, icluding the pyramids, were painted in dark-red (maroon to Burgundy) colors (small spots-remainders watches now only) and had very impressionable view.[21]
The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers, and craftsmen. Teotihuacan is known for producing a great number of obsidian artifacts. No ancient Teotihuacano non-ideographic texts are known to exist (or known to have existed). Inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacan nobility traveled to, and perhaps conquered, local rulers as far away as Honduras. Maya inscriptions note an individual nicknamed by scholars as "Spearthrower Owl", apparently ruler of Teotihuacan, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and Uaxactun in Guatemala.[citation needed]
Scholars have based interpretations about the culture at Teotihuacan on archaeology, the murals that adorn the site (and others, like the Wagner Murals, found in private collections), and hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacano conquerors. The creation of murals, perhaps tens of thousands of murals, reached its height between 450 and 650. The artistry of the painters was unrivaled in Mesoamerica and has been compared with that of painters in Renaissance Florence, Italy.[22]
Collapse[edit]
Teotihuacán-style mask, Classical period. Walters Art Museum.
Scholars had thought that invaders attacked the city in the 7th or 8th century, sacking and burning it. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the ruling class.[23] Some think this suggests that the burning was from an internal uprising. They say the invasion theory is flawed because early archaeological work on the city was focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by the upper classes. Because all of these sites showed burning, archaeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction was centered on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. Some statues seem to have been destroyed methodically, with their fragments dispersed.[citation needed]
Evidence for population decline beginning around the 6th century lends some support to the internal unrest hypothesis. The decline of Teotihuacan has been correlated to lengthy droughts related to the climate changes of 535–536. This theory of ecological decline is supported by archaeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of malnutrition during the 6th century. Which is why there is different evidence that helps indicate that famine is most likely one of the more possible reasons for the decline of Teotihuacan. The majority of their food came from agriculture, they grew things such as maize, bean, amaranth, green tomatoes, and pumpkin. But their harvest was not nearly sufficient enough to feed a population as big as it is believed lived in Teotihuacan[24]. This finding does not conflict with either of the above theories, since both increased warfare and internal unrest can also be effects of a general period of drought and famine.[25] Other nearby centers such as Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla competed to fill the power void left by Teotihuacan's decline. They may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacan to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites emulate Teotihuacan forms, but also demonstrate an eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.[citation needed]
The sudden destruction of Teotihuacan is not uncommon for Mesoamerican city-states of the Classic and Epi-Classic period. Many Maya states suffered similar fates in the coming centuries, a series of events often referred to as the Classic Maya collapse. Nearby in the Morelos valley, Xochicalco was sacked and burned in 900 and Tula met a similar fate around 1150.[26]
There is a theory[27] that the collapse of Teotihuacan was caused by its agriculture being devastated by the 535 AD eruption of the Ilopango volcano in El Salvador.
Culture[edit]
Incensario Lid, Teotihuacan style, 400-700 C.E., Brooklyn Museum
Archaeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct quarters occupied by Otomi, Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya, and Nahua peoples.[citation needed] The Totonacs have always maintained that they were the ones who built it.[citation needed] The Aztecs repeated that story, but it has not been corroborated by archaeological findings.[citation needed]
In 2001, Terrence Kaufman presented linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacan was of Totonacan or Mixe–Zoquean linguistic affiliation.[28] He uses this to explain general influences from Totonacan and Mixe–Zoquean languages in many other Mesoamerican languages, whose people did not have any known history of contact with either of the above-mentioned groups. Other scholars maintain that the largest population group must have been of Otomi ethnicity, because the Otomi language is known to have been spoken in the area around Teotihuacan both before and after the Classic period and not during the middle period.[29]
Religion[edit]
In their landmark 1992 volume, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, Miller and Taube list eight deities:[30]
The Storm God[31]
The Great Goddess
The Feathered Serpent.[32] An important deity in Teotihuacan; most closely associated with the Feathered Serpent Pyramid (Temple of the Feathered Serpent).
The Old God
The War Serpent. Taube has differentiated two different serpent deities whose depictions alternate on the Feathered Serpent Pyramid: the Feathered Serpent and what he calls the "War Serpent". Other researchers are more skeptical.[33]
The Netted Jaguar
The Pulque God
The Fat God. Known primarily from figurines and so assumed to be related to household rituals.[34]
Esther Pasztory adds one more:[35]
The Flayed God. Known primarily from figurines and so assumed to be related to household rituals.[34]
A mural showing what has been identified as the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan
The consensus among scholars is that the primary deity of Teotihuacan was the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan.[36] The dominant civic architecture is the pyramid. Politics were based on the state religion; religious leaders were the political leaders.[37]
Teotihuacanos practiced human sacrifice: human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacan. Scholars believe that the people offered human sacrifices as part of a dedication when buildings were expanded or constructed. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and brought to the city for ritual sacrifice to ensure the city could prosper.[38] Some men were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head, and some were buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military were also buried alive, imprisoned in cages: cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes.[39]
Numerous stone masks have been found at Teotihuacan, and have been generally believed to have been used during a funerary context,[40] although some scholars call this into question, noting that masks "do not seem to have come from burials".[41]
Residency[edit]
Teotihuacan was a mix of residential and work areas. Upper-class homes were usually compounds that housed many such families, and one compound was found that was capable of housing between sixty and eighty families. Such superior residences were typically made of plaster, each wall in every section elaborately decorated with murals. These compounds or apartment complexes were typically found within the city center. The vast lakes of the Basin of Mexico provided the opportunity for people living around them to construct productive raised beds, or chinampas, from swampy muck, construction that also produced channels between the beds.[citation needed]
Different sections of the city housed particular ethnic groups and immigrants. Typically, multiple languages were spoken in these sections of the city.[citation needed]
Archaeological site[edit]
Knowledge of the huge ruins of Teotihuacan was never completely lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was a place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Today, Teotihuacan is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in Mexico.[citation needed]
Excavations and investigations[edit]
Pyramid of the Sun and the Teotihuacán Diorama at the Teotihuacán Museum.
In the late 17th century Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (1645–1700) made some excavations around the Pyramid of the Sun.[42] Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the 19th century. In 1905 Mexican archaeologist and government official, in the regime of Porfirio Díaz, Leopoldo Batres[43] led a major project of excavation and restoration. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of the Mexican War of Independence in 1910. The site of Teotihuacan was the first to be expropriated for the national patrimony under the Law of Monuments (1897), giving jurisdiction under legislation for the Mexican state to take control. Some 250 plots were farmed on the site. Peasants who had been farming portions were ordered to leave and the Mexican government eventually paid some compensation to those individuals.[44] A feeder train line was built to the site in 1908, which allowed the efficient hauling of material from the excavations and later to bring tourists to the site.[45] In 1910, the International Congress of Americanists met in Mexico, coinciding with the centennial celebrations, and the distinguished delegates, such as its president Eduard Seler and vice president Franz Boas were taken to the newly finished excavations.[46]
Further excavations at the Ciudadela were carried out in the 1920s, supervised by Manuel Gamio. Other sections of the site were excavated in the 1940s and 1950s. The first site-wide project of restoration and excavation was carried out by INAH from 1960 to 1965, supervised by Jorge Acosta. This undertaking had the goals of clearing the Avenue of the Dead, consolidating the structures facing it, and excavating the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl.[citation needed]
Sigvald Linné 1932 investigations, Statens museer för världskultur
During the installation of a "sound and light" show in 1971, workers discovered the entrance to a tunnel and cave system underneath the Pyramid of the Sun.[47] Although scholars long thought this to be a natural cave, more recent examinations have established the tunnel was entirely manmade.[48] The interior of the Pyramid of the Sun has never been fully excavated.
In 1980-82, another major program of excavation and restoration was carried out at the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the Avenue of the Dead complex. Most recently, a series of excavations at the Pyramid of the Moon have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices.[citation needed]
Recent discoveries[edit]
In late 2003 a tunnel beneath the Temple of the Feathered Serpent was accidentally discovered by Sergio Gómez Chávez and Julie Gazzola archaeologists of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). After days of heavy rainstorm Gómez Chávez noticed that a a nearly three-foot-wide sinkhole occurred near the foot of the temple pyramid.[49][50][51][52]
First trying to examine the hole with a flashlight from above Gómez could see only darkness, so tied with a line of heavy rope around his waist he was lowered by several colleagues, and descending into the murk he realized it was a perfectly cylindrical shaft. At the bottom he came to rest in apparently ancient construction - a man-made tunnel, blocked in both directions by immense stones. Gómez was acquainted that archaeologists had previously discovered a narrow tunnel underneath the Pyramid of the Sun, and supposed he was now observing a kind of similar mirror tunnel, leading to a subterranean chamber beneath Temple of the Feathered Serpent. He decided initially to elaborate clear hypothesis and to obtain approval. Meanwhile he erected a tent over the sinkhole to preserve it from the hundreds of thousands of tourists who visit Teotihuacán. Researchers reported that the tunnel was believed to have been sealed in 200 CE.[50][51][53][54]
Preliminary planning of the exploration and fundraising took more than six years.[49]
Before the start of excavations, beginning in the early months of 2004, Dr. Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera, from UNAM Institute of Geophysics, determined with the help of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and a team of some 20 archaeologists and workers the approximate length of the tunnel and the presence of internal chambers. They scanned the earth under the Ciudadela, returning every afternoon to upload the results to Gómez’s computers. By 2005, the digital map was complete. The archaeologists explored the tunnel with a remote-controlled robot called Tlaloc II-TC, equipped with an infrared camera and a laser scanner that generates 3D visualization to perform three dimensional register of the spaces beneath the temple. A small opening in the tunnel wall was made and the scanner captured the first images, 37 meters into the passage.[49][50][55][56]
In 2009, the government granted Gómez permission to dig. By the end of 2009 archaeologists of the INAH located the entrance to the tunnel that leads to galleries under the pyramid, where rests of rulers of the ancient city might have been deposited. In August 2010 Gómez Chávez, director of Tlalocan Project: Underground Road announced the advancement of investigation conducted by INAH in the tunnel closed nearly 1,800 years ago by Teotihuacan dwellers. INAH team, consisted of about 30 persons supported with national and international advisors of the highest scientific level, intended to enter the tunnel in September - October 2010. This excavation, the deepest made at the Prehispanic site, was part of the commemorations of the 100th anniversary of archaeological excavations at Teotihuacan and its opening to public.[49][50]
It was mentioned that the underground passage runs under Feathered Serpent Temple, and the entrance is located a few meters away from the temple at the expected place, designedly sealed with large boulders nearly 2000 years ago. The hole that had appeared during the 2003 storms was not the actual entrance. A vertical shaft of almost 5 meters by side is the access to the tunnel: it goes 14 meters deep, and the entrance leads to a nearly 100 meters long corridor that ends in a series of underground galleries in the rock. After archaeologists broke ground at the entrance of the tunnel a staircase and ladders that would allow easy access to the subterranean site were installed. Works advanced a painstaking pace very slowly and carefully. Excavating was done manually, with spades. Nearly 1,000 tons of soil and debris were removed from the tunnel. There were large spiral seashells, cat bones, pottery, fragments of human skin. The rich array of objects unearthed included: wooden masks covered with inlaid rock jade and quartz, elaborate necklaces, rings, greenstone crocodile teeth and human figurines, crystals shaped into eyes, beetle wings arranged in a box, sculptures of jaguars, and hundreds of metallized spheres. The mysterious globes lay in both the north and south chambers. Ranging from 40 to 130 millimetres, the balls have a core of clay and are covered with a yellow jarosite formed by the oxidation of pyrite. According to George Cowgill from Arizona State University the spheres are a fascinating find, "Pyrite was certainly used by the Teotihuacanos and other ancient Mesoamerican societies. Originally the spheres would have shown brilliantly. They are indeed unique, but I have no idea what they mean."[56] All these artifacts were deposited deliberately and pointedly, as if in offering to appease the gods.[50][51]
One of the most remarkable findings in the tunnel chambers was a miniature mountainous landscape, 17 metres underground, with tiny pools of liquid mercury representing lakes.[50][51][57] The walls and ceiling of the tunnel were found to have been carefully impregnated with mineral powder composed of magnetite, pyrite known as fool's gold and hematite, providing a special brightness to the place and to give the effect of standing under the stars as a peculiar re-creation of the underworld.[56] At the end of the passage Gómez Chávez’s team uncovered four greenstone statues, wearing garments and beads, and their open eyes would have shone with precious minerals. Two of the figurines were still in their original positions, leaning back and apparently contemplating up at the axis where the three planes of the universe meet - probably the founding shamans of Teotihuacan, guiding pilgrims to the sanctuary, and carrying bundles of sacred objects used to perform rituals, including pendants and pyrite mirrors, which were perceived as portals to other realms.[50][51]
After each new segment was cleared, the 3D scanner documented the progress. By 2015 nearly 75000 fragments of artifacts have been discovered, studied, cataloged, analyzed and, when possible, restored.[50][51][55][56]
The significance of these new discoveries is publicly explored in a major exhibition opening end of September 2017 at the De Young Museum in San Francisco.[51][52]
Site layout[edit]
The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead" (a translation from its Nahuatl name Miccoatli), is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (third largest in the World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula and the Great Pyramid of Giza). Pyramid of the Moon and The Ciudadela with Temple of the Feathered Serpent Quetzalcoatl are placed at the both ends of Avenue while Palace-museum Quetzalpapálot, fourth basic structure of site, situated between two main pyramids. Along the Avenue are many smaller talud-tablero platforms also. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Scholars have now established that these were ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples.[citation needed]
A recreation of a map of the city featured in the June 1967 issue of Scientific American and the captioned source.
The Avenue of the dead is roughly forty meters wide and four Kilometers long.[58] Further down the Avenue of the Dead, after small river, is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent Quetzalcoatl. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops where artisans produced pottery and other goods.
The geographical layout of Teotihuacan is a good example of the Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities, settlements, and buildings as a representation of the view of the Universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of North. One theory says this is due to the fact that the sun rose at that same angle during the same summer day each year. Settlers used the alignment to calibrate their sense of time or as a marker for planting crops or performing certain rituals. Another theory is that there are numerous ancient sites in Mesoamerica that seem to be oriented with the tallest mountain in their given area. This appears to be the case at Teotihuacan, although the mountain to which it is oriented is not visible from within the Teotihuacan complex due to a closer mountain ridge.[59] Pecked-cross circles throughout the city and in the surrounding regions indicate how the people managed to maintain the urban grid over long distances. It also enabled them to orient the Pyramids to the distant mountain that was out of sight.
The Ciudadela was completed during the Miccaotli phase, and the Pyramid of the Sun underwent a complex series of additions and renovations. The Great Compound was constructed across the Avenue of the Dead, west of Ciudadela. This was probably the city’s marketplace. The existence of a large market in an urban center of this size is strong evidence of state organization. Teotihuacan was at that point simply too large and too complex to have been politically viable as a chiefdom.
The Ciudadela is a great enclosed compound capable of holding 100,000 people. About 700,000 cubic meters (yards) of material was used to construct its buildings. Its central feature is the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, which was flanked by upper class apartments. The entire compound was designed to overwhelm visitors.[citation needed]
Threat from development[edit]
The archaeological park of Teotihuacan is under threat from development pressures. In 2004, the governor of Mexico state, Arturo Montiel, gave permission for Wal-Mart to build a large store in the third archaeological zone of the park. According to Sergio Gómez Chávez, an archaeologist and researcher for Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) fragments of ancient pottery were found where trucks dumped the soil from the site.[60]
The Ciudadela, on the opposite side from the Pyramid of the Moon
More recently, Teotihuacan has become the center of controversy over Resplandor Teotihuacano, a massive light and sound spectacular installed to create a night time show for tourists.[61][62] Critics explain that the large number of perforations for the project have caused fractures in stones and irreversible damage, while the project will have limited benefit.
360° View of the Avenue of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon
Panoramic view from the summit of the Pyramid of the Sun, with the Pyramid of the Moon on the far right
Panoramic view from the summit of the Pyramid of the Moon, with the Pyramid of the Sun on the far left.
Gallery[edit]
Front view of the Pyramid of the Sun
Left side view of the Pyramid of the Sun
Courtyard of the Palacio de Quetzalpapálotl
Terracotta figurines
Puma mural
Marble mask, 3rd - 7th century
Serpentine mask, 3rd-6th century
Alabaster statue of an Ocelot from Teotihuacan, 5th-6th century, possibly a ritual container to receive sacrificed human hearts (British Museum)[63]
Detail of a collective burial of those slaughtered as part of the rites of consecration for the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent (phase Miccaotli, c. 200 A.C.) In this case, all buried bodies had their hands tied behind their backs. The necklace is made of pieces that simulate human jaws, but other subjects buried wore necklaces with actual jaws.
Detail of the murals of the palace of Atetelco, dated in Xolalpan phase ( c. 450-650).
A wall painting in Teotihuacan
See also[edit]
Cerro de la Estrella, a large Teotihuacano-styled pyramid in what is now part of Mexico City
List of archaeoastronomical sites by country
List of megalithic sites
List of Mesoamerican pyramids
List of World Heritage Sites in Mexico
Robert E. Lee Chadwick, an American anthropologist and archeologist
Spring equinox in Teotihuacán
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Teotihuacán". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Teotihuacan". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Jump up ^ Millon, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Millon, p. 17, who says it was the sixth largest city in the world in AD 600.
Jump up ^ Ancient Mexico and Central America
Jump up ^ Archaeology of Native North America by Dean R. Snow.
Jump up ^ Millon (1993), p.34.
Jump up ^ Mathews and Schele (1997, p.39)
Jump up ^ Miller and Taube (1993, p.170)
^ Jump up to: a b c Pollard, Elizabeth; Rosenberg, Clifford; Tignor, Robert (2015). Worlds Together Worlds Apart Volume 1 Concise Edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-393-91847-2.
Jump up ^ Millon (1993), p.24.
Jump up ^ Naachtun’s Stela 24 and the Entrada of 378, David Stuart, 2014
Jump up ^ Linda R. Manzanilla. Teotihuacan: An Exceptional Multiethnic City in Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico, Center for Latin American Studies (CLAS) at UC Berkeley, Wednesday, April 15 2015
Jump up ^ Malmström (1978, p.105) gives an estimate of 50,000 to 200,000 inhabitants. Coe et al. (1986) says it "might lie between 125,000 and 250,000". Millon, p. 18, lists 125,000 in AD 600. Taube, p. 1, says "perhaps as many as 150,000".
Jump up ^ Braswell (2003, p.7)
Jump up ^ "Mexico's Pyramid of Death". National Geographic. 2006. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
Jump up ^ "Sacrificial Burial Deepens Mystery At Teotihuacan, But Confirms The City's Militarism". ScienceDaily. 2004. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
Jump up ^ See for example Cheek (1977, passim.), who argues that much of Teotihuacan's influence stems from direct militaristic conquest.
Jump up ^ See Laporte (2003, p.205); Varela Torrecilla and Braswell (2003, p.261).
Jump up ^ Braswell (2003, p.11)
Jump up ^ Braswell (2003, p.11); for the analysis at Tikal, see Laporte (2003, pp.200–205)
Jump up ^ Davies, p. 78.
Jump up ^ Linda R. Manzanilla. Cooperation and tensions in multiethnic corporate societies using Teotihuacan, Central Mexico, as a case study, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS/PNAS Online), July 28, 2015, vol. 112 no. 30 (2015), p.9210–9215, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1419881112
Jump up ^ "Cultura Teotihuacana". www.historiacultural.com. Retrieved 2017-09-16.
Jump up ^ Kaufman (2001, p.4)
Jump up ^ Snow, Dean R. (2010). Archaeology of Native North America. Prentice Hall. p. 156.
Jump up ^ Lost Kingdoms of Central America, BBC Four (British television, Saturday 28 January 2017, 9 to 10 pm)
Jump up ^ Terrence Kaufman, "Nawa linguistic prehistory", SUNY Albany
Jump up ^ * Wright Carr; David Charles (2005). "El papel de los otomies en las culturas del altiplano central 5000 a.C - 1650 d.C". Arqueología mexicana (in Spanish). XIII (73): 19.
Jump up ^ Miller & Taube, pp. 162–63.
Jump up ^ Instead of "Storm God", Miller and Taube call this deity "Tlaloc", the name of the much later Aztec storm god. Coe (1994), p. 101, uses the same term. However, the use of Nahuatl Aztec names to denote Teotihuacan deities has been in decline (see Berlo, p. 147).
Jump up ^ Instead of "the Feathered Serpent", Miller and Taube call this deity "Quetzalcoatl", the name of the much later Aztec feathered serpent god.
Jump up ^ Sugiyama (1992), p. 220.
^ Jump up to: a b Pasztory (1997), p. 84.
Jump up ^ Pasztory (1997), pp. 83–84.
Jump up ^ Cowgill (1997), p. 149. Pasztory (1992), p. 281.
Jump up ^ Sugiyama, p. 111.
Jump up ^ Coe (1994), p. 98.
Jump up ^ Sugiyama: 109, 111
Jump up ^ Birmingham Museum of Art (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection. Birmingham, AL: Birmingham Museum of Art. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-904832-77-5.
Jump up ^ Pasztory (1993), p. 54.
Jump up ^ Tunnel under Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent under exploration in 2010
Jump up ^ es:Leopoldo Batres
Jump up ^ Bueno, The Pursuit of Ruins, pp. 80, 192-95,
Jump up ^ Bueno, The Pursuit of Ruins, p. 199-200.
Jump up ^ Bueno, The Pursuit of Ruins, 206-207.
Jump up ^ Heyden (1975, p.131)
Jump up ^ Šprajc (2000), p. 410
^ Jump up to: a b c d National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), Mexico. Press release, 3 August 2010. Teotihuacan tunnel - entrance located. Archaeologists Locate the Entrance to Teotihuacan Tunnel, Universes in Universe - Worlds of Art, 3 August 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Matthew Shaer, Janet Jarman (photos). A Secret Tunnel Found in Mexico May Finally Solve the Mysteries of Teotihuacán, Smithsonian Magazine, June 2016
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Paul Laity. Lakes of mercury and human sacrifices – after 1,800 years, Teotihuacan reveals its treasures, The Guardian, Sunday 24 September 2017 18.52 BST
^ Jump up to: a b De Young Museum. Teotihuacan: City of Water, City of Fire. De Young Museum, September 30, 2017–February 11, 2018, De Young Museum, 2017
Jump up ^ The Associated Press. Experts: Ancient Mexicans crossbred wolf-dogs, Phys.org (Science X network), December 16, 2010
Jump up ^ Deutsche Presse-Agentur GmbH. Tunnel found under temple in Mexico, Phys.org (Science X network), May 30, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b First Images of the Interior of Teotihuacan Tunnel Captured by Camera on Small Robot, ArtDaily, November 12, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rossella Lorenzi. Robot finds mysterious spheres in ancient temple, NBCNews.com, Tuesday April 30, 2013 2:37 PM
Jump up ^ Alan Yuhas. Liquid mercury found under Mexican pyramid could lead to king's tomb, The Guardian, Friday 24 April 2015 22.23 BST
Jump up ^ "Calzada de los Muertos. Zona arqueológica de Teotihuacan". pueblosoriginarios.com. Retrieved 2017-09-16.
Jump up ^ "Teotihuacan History".
Jump up ^ David Barstow and Alejandra Xanix von Vertrab. December 17, 2012 The Bribery Aisle: How Wal-Mart Got Its Way in Mexico ], New York Times Wal-Mart Abroad
Jump up ^ Prensa Latina, Protesters Demand Stop on Pyramid Project, Banderas News, February 2009.
Jump up ^ Prensa Latina, Tourists reject sound and light show at Mexican pyramids, TwoCircles.net, February 18, 2009.
Jump up ^ British Museum Collection
Further reading[edit]
Berrin, Kathleen; Esther Pasztory (1993). Teotihuacan: Art from the City of the Gods. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-23653-4. OCLC 28423003.
Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2003). "Introduction: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction". In Geoffrey E. Braswell. The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 1–44. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017.
Brown, Dale M., ed. (1992). Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor. Lost Civilizations series. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books. ISBN 0-8094-9854-5. OCLC 24848419.
Bueno, Christina. The Pursuit of Ruins: Archeology, History, and the Making of Modern Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2016, ISBN 0826357318
Cheek, Charles D. (1977). "Excavations at the Palangana and the Acropolis, Kaminaljuyu". In William T. Sanders; Joseph W. Michels. Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: a Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 1–204. ISBN 0-271-00529-7. OCLC 3327234.
Coe, Michael D.; Rex Koontz (1994) [1962]. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27722-2. OCLC 50131575.
Coe, Michael D.; Dean Snow; Elizabeth Benson (1986). Atlas of Ancient America. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-1199-0.
Cowgill, George L. (1992). "Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts". In Janet Catherine Berlo. Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 231–46. ISBN 0-88402-205-6. OCLC 25547129.
Cowgill, George (1997). "State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico" (PDF online reproduction). Annual Review of Anthropology. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews Inc. 26 (1): 129–161. OCLC 202300854. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.129.
Davies, Nigel (1982). The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-013587-1.
Heyden, Doris (1975). "An Interpretation of the Cave underneath the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan, Mexico". American Antiquity. Menasha, WI: Society for American Archaeology. 40 (2): 131–147. JSTOR 279609. OCLC 1479302. doi:10.2307/279609.
Kaufman, Terrence (2001). "Nawa linguistic prehistory". Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project.
Laporte, Juan Pedro (2003). "Architectural Aspects of Interaction Between Tikal and Teotihuacan during the Early Classic Period". In Geoffrey E. Braswell. The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 199–216. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017.
Malmström, Vincent H. (1978). "Architecture, Astronomy, and Calendrics in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica" (PDF Reprinted). Journal for the History of Astronomy. 9: 105–116. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC 27667317.
Millon, René (1993). "The Place Where Time Began: An Archaeologist's Interpretation of What Happened in Teotihuacan History". In Berrin, Kathleen; Esther Pasztory. Teotihuacan: Art from the City of the Gods. New York: Thames and Hudson. pp. 16–43. ISBN 0-500-23653-4. OCLC 28423003.
Pasztory, Esther (1992). "Abstraction and the rise of a utopian state at Teotihuacan", in Janet Berlo, ed. Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 281–320.
Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1998). The Code of Kings: The Language of Seven Sacred Maya Temples and Tombs. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-80106-X. OCLC 37819972.
Sugiyama, Saburo (2003). Governance and Polity at Classic Teotihuacan; in Julia Ann Hendon, Rosemary A. Joyce, "Mesoamerican archaeology". Wiley-Blackwell.
Séjourné, Laurette (1959) Un Palacio en la ciudad de los dioses, Teotihuacán, Mexico, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
Séjourné, Laurette (1962) El Universo de Quetzalcóatl, Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Séjourné, Laurette (1966) Arqueología de Teotihuacán, la cerámica, Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Séjourné, Laurette (1969) Teotihuacan, métropole de l'Amérique, Paris, F. Maspero.
Šprajc, Ivan; Sprajc, Ivan (2000). "Astronomical Alignments at Teotihuacan, Mexico". Latin American Antiquity. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology. 11 (4): 403–415. JSTOR 972004. doi:10.2307/972004.
Taube, Karl A. (2000). The Writing System of Ancient Teotihuacan (PDF). Ancient America series. 1. Barnardsville, NC: Center for Ancient American Studies. OCLC 44992821.
Varela Torrecilla, Carmen; Geoffrey E. Braswell (2003). "Teotihuacan and Oxkintok: New Perspectives from Yucatán". In Geoffrey E. Braswell. The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 249–72. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017.
Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica (3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-01-263999-0.
Webmoor, Timothy (2007). "Reconfiguring the Archaeological Sensibility: Mediating Heritage at Teotihuacan, Mexico" (online digital publication). Symmetrical Archaeology [2005–, collaboratory directors T. Webmoor and C. Witmore]. PhD thesis. Stanford Archaeology Center/Metamedia Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Teotihuacán.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Teotihuacan.
Teotihuacan Research Guide, academic resources and links, maintained by Temple University
Teotihuacan Teotihuacan information and history
Teotihuacan article by Encyclopædia Britannica
Teotihuacan Photo Gallery, by James Q. Jacobs
360° Panoramic View of the Avenue of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon , by Roland Kuczora
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