text:
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
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This article is about all three bridges to have crossed the Tacoma Narrows. For the article specific to the collapsed 1940 bridge, see Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940). For the 1950 bridge, see Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1950).
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
The bridges in 2009, as seen from the Tacoma side.
Coordinates
47°16′5″N 122°33′2″W / 47.26806°N 122.55056°W / 47.26806; -122.55056Coordinates: 47°16′5″N 122°33′2″W / 47.26806°N 122.55056°W / 47.26806; -122.55056
Carries
8 lanes of SR 16, cyclists and pedestrians
Crosses
Tacoma Narrows
Locale
Tacoma to the Kitsap Peninsula United States
Maintained by
Washington State Department of Transportation
Characteristics
Design
Twin Suspension
Total length
5,400 ft (1,645.92 m)[1]
Longest span
2,800 ft (853.44 m)[1]
Clearance below
187.5 ft (57.15 m)
History
Opened
October 14, 1950 (westbound)
July 15, 2007 (eastbound)
Statistics
Toll
Eastbound only (passenger car):
$6.00 (cash/credit price)
$5.00 (transponder price)
$7.00 (pay by mail)
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge is a pair of twin suspension bridges that span the Tacoma Narrows strait of Puget Sound in Pierce County, Washington. The bridges connect the city of Tacoma with the Kitsap Peninsula and carry State Route 16 (known as Primary State Highway 14 until 1964) over the strait. Historically, the name "Tacoma Narrows Bridge" has applied to the original bridge nicknamed "Galloping Gertie", which opened in July 1940, but collapsed because of aeroelastic flutter four months later, as well as the replacement of the original bridge which opened in 1950 and still stands today as the westbound lanes of the present-day twin bridge complex.
The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened on July 1, 1940. The original bridge received its nickname "Galloping Gertie" because of the vertical movement of the deck observed by construction workers during windy conditions. The bridge became known for its pitching deck, and collapsed into Puget Sound the morning of November 7, 1940, under high wind conditions. Engineering issues, as well as the United States' involvement in World War II, postponed plans to replace the bridge for several years; the replacement bridge was opened on October 14, 1950.
By 1990, population growth and development on the Kitsap Peninsula caused traffic on the bridge to exceed its design capacity; as a result, in 1998 Washington voters approved a measure to support building a parallel bridge. After a series of protests and court battles, construction began in 2002 and the new bridge opened to carry eastbound traffic on July 16 , 2007, while the 1950 bridge was reconfigured to carry westbound traffic.
At the time of their construction, both the 1940 and 1950 bridges were the third-longest suspension bridges in the world in terms of main span length, behind the Golden Gate Bridge and George Washington Bridge. The 1950 and 2007 bridges are as of 2017 the fifth-longest suspension bridge spans in the United States and the 43rd-longest in the world.
Tolls were charged on the bridge for the entire four-month service life of the original span, as well as the first 15 years of the 1950 bridge. In 1965, the bridge's construction bonds plus interest were paid off, and the state ceased toll collection on the bridge. Over 40 years later, tolls were reinstated as part of the financing of the twin span, and are presently collected only from vehicles traveling eastbound.
Contents
[hide]
1 Original bridge
2 Westbound bridge
3 Eastbound bridge
4 See also
5 Gallery
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Original bridge[edit]
Opening day, July 1, 1940
Collapse, looking west, November 7, 1940
Main article: Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940)
The desire for the construction of a bridge in this location dates back to 1889 with a Northern Pacific Railway proposal for a trestle, but concerted efforts began in the mid-1920s. In 1937, the Washington State legislature created the Washington State Toll Bridge Authority and appropriated $5,000 to study the request by Tacoma and Pierce County for a bridge over the Narrows. The bridge was designed by Leon Moisseiff.
Play media
The collapse of the original bridge.
The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened to traffic on July 1, 1940. Its main span collapsed into the Tacoma Narrows four months later on November 7, 1940, at 11:00 a.m. (Pacific time) as a result of aeroelastic flutter caused by a 42 mph (68 km/h) wind. The bridge collapse had lasting effects on science and engineering. In many undergraduate physics texts, the event is presented as an example of elementary forced resonance, with the wind providing an external periodic frequency that matched the natural structural frequency, even though the real cause of the bridge's failure was aeroelastic flutter, not resonance. A contributing factor was its solid sides, not allowing wind to pass through the bridge's deck. Thus, its design allowed the bridge to catch the wind and sway, which ultimately took it down.[2] Its failure also boosted research in the field of bridge aerodynamics and aeroelastics, fields which have influenced the designs of all the world's great long-span bridges built since 1940.
No human life was lost in the collapse of the bridge. The only fatality was a Cocker Spaniel named Tubby, who perished after he was abandoned in a car on the bridge by his owner, Leonard Coatsworth. Professor Frederick Burt Farquharson, an engineer from the University of Washington who had been involved in the design of the bridge, tried to rescue Tubby but was bitten by the terrified dog when he attempted to remove him. The collapse of the bridge was recorded on 16 mm film by Barney Elliott, owner of a local camera shop, and shows Farquharson leaving the bridge after trying to rescue Tubby and making observations in the middle of the bridge. In 1998, The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".[3] This footage is still shown to engineering, architecture, and physics students as a cautionary tale.
The dismantling of the towers and side spans—having survived the collapse of the main span, but being damaged beyond repair—began shortly after the collapse and continued into May 1943. The United States' participation in World War II, as well as engineering and finance issues, delayed plans to replace the bridge.
Westbound bridge[edit]
Main article: Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1950)
The current westbound bridge was designed and rebuilt with open trusses, stiffening struts and openings in the roadway to let wind through. It opened on October 14, 1950, and is 5,979 feet (1822 m) long — 40 feet (12 m) longer than the first bridge, Galloping Gertie. Local residents nicknamed the new bridge Sturdy Gertie, as the oscillations that plagued the previous design had been eliminated. This bridge along with its new parallel eastbound bridge is currently the fifth-longest suspension bridges in the United States.
When built, the westbound bridge was the third longest suspension bridge span in the world.[4] Like other modern suspension bridges, the westbound bridge was built with steel plates that feature sharp entry edges rather than the flat plate sides used in the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge (see the suspension bridge article for an example).
The bridge was designed to handle 60,000 vehicles a day. It carried both westbound and eastbound traffic until the eastbound bridge opened on July 15, 2007.[5]
Eastbound bridge[edit]
In 1998, voters in several Washington counties approved an advisory measure to create a second Narrows span. Construction of the new span, which carries eastbound traffic parallel to the current bridge, began on October 4, 2002, and was completed in July 2007. The bridge was dedicated in honor of State Representative Ruth Fisher and State Senator Robert "Bob" Oke, a South Kitsap resident, one of the main proponents of building the second span across Puget Sound between the Kitsap Peninsula and Tacoma.
The Washington State Department of Transportation collects a toll before entering the eastbound span, at $5.00 for "Good to Go" account holders with in-vehicle transponders, $6.00 toll for cash/credit card customers, and $7 for those who choose Pay-By-Mail. The existing span had been free of tolls since 1965. The new bridge marks the first installation of the new Good To Go electronic toll collection system.
~300° panorama from the deck of the new Tacoma Narrows Bridge at sunset.
See also[edit]
List of longest suspension bridge spans
List of bridge failures
Gallery[edit]
New bridge sections used in construction of the new span.
A panorama of Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 2007.
The westbound bridge, in 1988, when it carried traffic in both directions
Both bridges during the 2007 bridge's grand opening ceremony, as seen from the top of the westbound bridge.
Aerial view, 2016
Aerial view, 2017
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Tacoma Narrows Bridge at Structurae
Jump up ^ Billah, K.; R. Scanlan (1991). "Resonance, Tacoma Narrows Bridge Failure, and Undergraduate Physics Textbooks" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 59 (2): 118–124. Bibcode:1991AmJPh..59..118B. doi:10.1119/1.16590.
Jump up ^ "Complete National Film Registry Listing - National Film Preservation Board". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2016-11-21.
Jump up ^ Holstine, Craig E. (2005). Spanning Washington : historic highway bridges of the Evergreen State. Washington State University Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 0-87422-281-8.
Jump up ^ Beekman, Dan and Santos, Melissa; "First traffic crosses new bridge"[permanent dead link]; The News Tribune; July 16, 2007
Further reading[edit]
Historical
Timeline of the bridges
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Schagler, N. (1995). Failed Technology: True Stories of Technological Disasters. New York: UXL. ISBN 978-0-8103-9796-5
Tacoma Narrows Bridge - University of Washington Library
Second span project
Tacoma Narrows Bridge Project (WS DOT Web Page; information about the new bridge construction project)
Puget Sound Transportation projects: Tacoma Narrows Bridge (unofficial site providing news, photos and information about the second span construction)
Wind Tunnel Testing Summary from the National Research Council of Canada
Wind Tunnel Testing Press Release from the National Research Council of Canada
"Bridge Workers are Walking Tall Above the Narrows", Rob Carson (The News Tribune), Kitsap Sun, September 25, 2005
Wire by wire, Tacoma Narrows bridge is built Mike Lindblom, The Seattle Times, October 15, 2005
High-Wire Act, The Seattle Times, September 9, 2005
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tacoma Narrows Bridges.
Photos of the bridge and the new span under construction
Photos of the bridge and contractor details
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) at Structurae
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1950) at Structurae
New Tacoma Narrows Bridge (2007) at Structurae
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tacoma_Narrows_Bridge&oldid=845781066"
Categories:
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Suspension bridges in Washington (state)
Bridges in Tacoma, Washington
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Jeep Cherokee
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about Jeep Cherokee line dating to 1974. For luxury SUV line dating to 1993, see Jeep Grand Cherokee.
For other uses, see Jeep Cherokee (disambiguation).
Jeep Cherokee
Fifth generation (KL)
Overview
Manufacturer
American Motors (1974-1986)
Chrysler Corporation (1987-1998)
DaimlerChrysler (1999-2007)
Chrysler LLC (2007-2009)
Chrysler Group LLC (2009-2014)
FCA US LLC (2014-present)
Model years
1974–present
Body and chassis
Class
Sport utility vehicle (1974–2013)
Crossover SUV (2014–present)
The Jeep Cherokee is a line of vehicles sold by Jeep under various vehicle classes. Originally sold as a variant of the popular Jeep Wagoneer, the Cherokee has evolved from a full-size SUV to one of the first compact SUVs and eventually into its current incarnation as a crossover SUV. The nameplate has been in continuous use in some form since 1974 and also spawned Jeep's most successful vehicle, the Jeep Grand Cherokee, which was originally slated to be part of the Cherokee's lineup. The vehicle is named after the Cherokee tribe of Native Americans.
Contents
[hide]
1 First generation (SJ)
2 Second generation (XJ)
3 Third generation (KJ)
4 Fourth generation (KK)
5 Fifth generation (KL)
6 References
First generation (SJ)[edit]
See also: Jeep Cherokee (SJ)
First generation
1974 Jeep Cherokee S
Overview
Manufacturer
American Motors
Production
1974–1983
Assembly
United States
Argentina
Australia [1]
Mexico
Body and chassis
Class
Full-size SUV
Body style
2-door wagon
4-door wagon
Platform
SJ
Related
Jeep Wagoneer (SJ)
Powertrain
Engine
258 cu in (4.2 L) AMC I6
360 cu in (5.9 L) AMC V8 2-barrel
360 cu in (5.9 L) AMC V8 4-barrel
401 cu in (6.6 L) AMC V8 4-barrel
Transmission
4-speed manual
3-speed automatic
Dimensions
Wheelbase
108.7 in (2,761 mm)k
Length
186.4 in (4,735 mm)
Width
74.8 in (1,900 mm)
Height
66.4 in (1,687 mm)
Curb weight
4,514 lb (2,048 kg)
The Cherokee was a rebadged reintroduction of a two-door body style Jeep Wagoneer, with a redesigned greenhouse that eliminated the car's C-pillar. Instead the Cherokee sported a much wider D-pillar and a single, long fixed rear side window with an optional flip-out section. Previously, a two-door version had been available in the Jeep Wagoneer line (from 1963 to 1967), although this had the same pillar and window configuration as the four-door Wagoneer. The Cherokee replaced the Jeepster Commando, whose sales had not met expectations despite an extensive 1972 revamp. The Cherokee appealed to a younger market than the Wagoneer, which was regarded more as a family SUV.
The Cherokee was marketed as the "sporty" two-door variant of Jeep's station wagon. The term "sport(s) utility vehicle" appears for the first time in the 1974 Cherokee sales brochure.[2][3][4] A four-door was not added to the lineup until 1977. Other than the base model, the trim levels of the Cherokee included the S (Sport), Chief, Golden Eagle, Golden Hawk, Limited, Classic, Sport, Pioneer, and Laredo.
Jeep Cherokee Chief S
Second generation (XJ)[edit]
See also: Jeep Cherokee (XJ)
Second generation
1984– 2001 Jeep Cherokee 2-door
Overview
Manufacturer
Jeep (American Motors Corporation, later Chrysler)
Also called
Jeep Wagoneer (1984-1990)
Beijing-Jeep BJ 2021 (4WD)[5]
Beijing-Jeep BJ 7250 (2WD)[5]
Production
1984–2001 (USA)
1984–2014 (China)
1987–2001 (Venezuela)
1996–2000 (Argentina)
1992–2001 (Egypt)
Assembly
United States: Toledo, Ohio (Toledo Complex)
China: Beijing (Beijing Benz)
Venezuela: Valencia
Argentina: Ferreyra, Córdoba
Egypt: Cairo (Arab American Vehicles)
Body and chassis
Class
Compact SUV
Body style
2-door SUV
4-door SUV
Layout
Front-engine, rear-wheel drive / Four-wheel drive
Related
Jeep 2500
BAW Qishi[6]
Powertrain
Engine
2.1 L (126 cu in) Renault J8S I4 (turbocharged diesel)
2.5 L (150 cu in) AMC I4 (gasoline)
2.5 L (153 cu in) VM Motori 425 OHV I4 (turbocharged diesel)
2.8 L (173 cu in) GM LR2 V6 (gasoline)
4.0 L (242 cu in) AMC I6 (gasoline)
4.0 L (242 cu in) AMC H.O. I6 (gasoline)
4.0 L (242 cu in) PowerTech I6 (gasoline)
Transmission
4-speed Borg-Warner T-4 manual Aisin AX-4 manual
5-speed Borg-Warner T-5 manual Aisin AX-5 manual
5-speed Peugeot BA-10/5 manual
5-speed Aisin AX-15 manual
5-speed NVG NV3550 manual
3-speed Chrysler A904 automatic
3-speed 30RH automatic
4-speed Aisin AW-4 automatic
Dimensions
Wheelbase
101.4 in (2,576 mm)
Length
1987-1990: 165.3 in (4,199 mm)
1991-93: 168.8 in (4,288 mm)
1994-96: 166.9 in (4,239 mm)
1997-2001: 167.5 in (4,254 mm)
Width
1987-1993: 70.5 in (1,791 mm)
1994-96: 67.7 in (1,720 mm)
1997-99: 67.9 in (1,725 mm)
2000-01: 69.4 in (1,763 mm)
Height
1987-88 2WD: 63.4 in (1,610 mm)
1987–1993: 63.3 in (1,608 mm)
1994–99 2WD: 63.9 in (1,623 mm)
1994-2001 4WD: 64.0 in (1,626 mm)
2000–01 2WD: 63.8 in (1,621 mm)
Curb weight
3,357 lb (1,523 kg) (approx.)
While the Wagoneer continued in production for another eight years as the Grand Wagoneer, the Cherokee nameplate was moved to a new platform for 1984. Without a traditional body-on-frame chassis, the Cherokee instead featured a light-weight unibody design.[7]
This generation Cherokee would eventually be well-known as an innovator of the modern SUV, as it spawned competitors as other automakers began to notice that this Jeep design began replacing regular cars.[8] It also began to supplant the role of the station wagon and "transformed from truck to limousine in the eyes of countless suburban owners."[9] The XJ is a "significant link in the evolution of the 4x4."[10]
It would prove to be so popular that the second generation Cherokee's replacement was released as a separate vehicle altogether as the Jeep Grand Cherokee, itself starting a successive line of vehicles as Jeep's flagship vehicle.
Third generation (KJ)[edit]
See also: Jeep Liberty (KJ)
Third generation
Overview
Manufacturer
Jeep (Chrysler)
Also called
Jeep Liberty
Production
2001–2007
Model years
2002–2007
Designer
Bob Boniface (1998)
Powertrain
Engine
2.4 L PowerTech I4 (gasoline)
2.5 L VM Motori R 425 I4 (turbo diesel)
2.8 L VM Motori R 428 I4 (turbo diesel)
3.7 L PowerTech V6 (gasoline)
Transmission
4-speed Ultradrive 42RLE automatic
4-speed Chrysler 45RFE automatic
5-speed Chrysler 545RFE automatic
5-speed New Venture Gear NV1500 manual
5-speed New Venture Gear NV3550 manual
6-speed Chrysler NSG370 manual
Dimensions
Wheelbase
104.2 in (2,650 mm)
Length
2001-04: 174.2 in (4,420 mm)
2005-07: 174.7 in (4,440 mm)
Width
2001-04: 71.1 in (1,810 mm)
2005-07: 71.8 in (1,820 mm)
Height
2001-04: 73.2 in (1,860 mm)
2005-07: 69.8 in (1,770 mm)
Curb weight
3,508-4,312 lb (1,591-1,956 kg)
The third generation, marketed as the Jeep Liberty in North America to differentiate itself from the Grand Cherokee, was introduced in April 2001 for the 2002 model year.
The Cherokee was priced between the Wrangler and Grand Cherokee. It remained the smallest of the 4-door Jeep SUVs up until the crossover-based 4-door Compass and Patriot arrived for 2007. The Cherokee featured unibody-construction. It was assembled at the Toledo North Assembly Plant in the United States, as well as in other countries including Egypt and Venezuela.
It was the first Jeep vehicle to use rack and pinion steering.[11] It also the first Jeep to use the two then-new PowerTech engines; the 150 horsepower (110 kW) 2.4 L straight-4, which was discontinued in 2006, and the 210 horsepower (160 kW) 3.7 L V6. However, the Cherokee was not the first Jeep vehicle to use an independent front suspension, as the Wagoneer first used it in the 1963 model. But, that independent front suspension was limited to four wheel drive versions and, even then, was a short lived option.[12]
Fourth generation (KK)[edit]
See also: Jeep Liberty (KK)
Fourth generation
Overview
Manufacturer
Jeep (Chrysler)
Also called
Jeep Liberty
Production
2007[13]–August 16, 2012
Model years
2008-2013[14][15]
Body and chassis
Related
Dodge Nitro
Powertrain
Engine
2.8 L VM Motori RA 428 I4 (turbo diesel)
3.7 L PowerTech V6 (gasoline)
Transmission
4-speed Ultradrive 42RLE automatic
5-speed Mercedes-Benz W5A580 automatic
6-speed Chrysler NSG370 manual
Dimensions
Wheelbase
106.1 in (2,690 mm)
Length
176.9 in (4,490 mm) (2008-2010)
176.1 in (4,473 mm) (2011-2013)
Width
72.4 in (1,840 mm) (2008-2010)
73.1 in (1,857 mm) (2011-2013)
Height
74.9 in (1,900 mm) (2008-2010)
71.3 in (1,811 mm) (2011-2013)
Curb weight
3,985-4,780 lb (1,808-2,168 kg)
Still using the Jeep Liberty name in North America, the Cherokee was redesigned in 2008. For the first time, a rebadged version of a Jeep model existed, as Dodge sold this version of the Cherokee as the Dodge Nitro during the same time period as the fourth-generation Cherokee. It was eventually discontinued both due to slow sales as well as Sergio Marchionne wanting to avoid duplicated vehicles with Dodge and Jeep (as well as Chrysler) sharing the same sales network.
With the smaller Patriot and Compass now available to cater to MPG-conscious buyers, the four-cylinder engine was dropped from the Cherokee's offerings. The iron-block, aluminum-head V6 was the only engine available for 2008. Towing capacity was 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg). Jeep discontinued the Cherokee's CRD for the American market because it couldn't meet tougher 2007 emissions standards for diesel engines. Transmission choices were both carry-overs: a six-speed manual or a four-speed automatic. Standard equipment included electronic stability control with roll mitigation, traction control, and anti-lock brakes with brake assist. New Features included standard side airbags. Optional features are rain-sensing wipers, Sirius Satellite Radio, Bluetooth, a navigation system, and the MyGig entertainment system, complete with a 30GB hard drive.
Fifth generation (KL)[edit]
See also: Jeep Cherokee (KL)
Fifth generation
Overview
Manufacturer
Jeep (Fiat Chrysler Automobiles)
Production
June 2013 – present
Model years
2014 – present
Assembly
United States: Toledo, Ohio (Toledo Complex)
Belvidere, Illinois (Belvidere Assembly Plant)
Changsha, China (GAC Fiat)
Designer
Greg Howell
Body and chassis
Class
Mid-size crossover SUV
Body style
4-door SUV
Layout
Transverse front-engine, front-wheel drive / all-wheel drive / four-wheel drive layout
Platform
FCA Compact Wide[16]
Related
Dodge Dart (2013)
Alfa Romeo Giulietta (2010)[16]
Chrysler 200 (2015)
Powertrain
Engine
2.0 "940 A 8000" Multijet I4 (diesel - Europe only)[17]
2.2 Multijet I4 (diesel - Europe only)
2.0 L Tigershark I4 (gasoline) (China)
2.4 L Tigershark I4 (gasoline)[18]
3.2 L Pentastar V6 (gasoline)[18]
Transmission
6-speed manual
9-speed 948TE automatic[18]
Dimensions
Wheelbase
106 in (2,692 mm)
Length
182 in (4,623 mm)
Width
73.2 in (1,859 mm) (Sport, Latitude, and Limited models) or 74.9 in (1,902 mm) (Trailhawk model only)
Height
66.2–67.8 in (1,681–1,722 mm)
For the fifth generation, the Cherokee nameplate returned to North America as the vehicle was converted to a crossover and grew to midsize in order to make room for the Jeep Renegade below the Cherokee and Compass. It was introduced for the 2014 model year at the 2013 New York International Auto Show and the sales started in November 2013.[16][19][19] The Cherokee is the first Jeep vehicle to be built on the Fiat Compact/Compact U.S. Wide platform, co-developed by Chrysler and Fiat.[18] The Jeep Cherokee is built at Toledo North Assembly Plant in Toledo, Ohio.[20]
The Cherokee has a highway fuel economy rating of 31 miles per U.S. gallon (7.6 L/100 km; 37 mpg‑imp)[18] and a 45% better fuel economy rating than the Liberty/Cherokee it replaced.[19][20]
Despite its controversial front-end styling,[19][20] the fifth-generation Cherokee would become such a sales success that FCA discontinued the slow-selling Dodge Dart and Chrysler 200 (both mechanically similar to the Cherokee) in order to increase production capacity for the Cherokee to meet demand. For 2019 the front end is to be updated to a more conservative style.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Jeep in Australia 1978 - 1991". 4wd1.com. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "1974 model year Jeep brochure picture – Cherokee page". US: Jeep. 1973. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "1974 model year Jeep Cherokee brochure – front". US: Jeep. 1973. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Allen, Jim (2003). Jeep: Collector's Library. Motorbooks, MBI Publishing. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-7603-1486-9. Retrieved September 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Beijing Jeep". Jumy.de. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Beijing Automobile Works". Chinabaw.cn. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Jeep Cherokee, the best of breed SUV: 1975-2001". Allpar. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Bradsher, Keith (2002). High and Mighty: SUVs — the World's Most Dangerous Vehicles and How They Got That Way. PublicAffairs. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-58648-123-0.
Jump up ^ Cumberford, Robert (April 2009). "20 greatest cars". Automobile Magazine. Retrieved 12 October 2015. Great designs never grow old, a truth no better confirmed than by designer Dick Teague's masterpiece, the Jeep Cherokee. Possibly the best SUV shape of all time, it is the paradigmatic model to which other designers have since aspired.
Jump up ^ Brubaker, Ken; Morr, Tom (2007). Jeep Off-Road. Motorbooks. p. 107. ISBN 978-0760329948. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Jeep Liberty Steering". Allpar.com. 2005-05-15. Retrieved 2010-09-29.
Jump up ^ "Bruce Rice's 1963 IFS Wagoneer 4x4". wagoneers.com. 2007-12-24. Archived from the original on 2010-07-30. Retrieved 2010-12-17.
Jump up ^ "2008 Jeep Liberty production begins". topspeed.com. Retrieved 2010-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Liberty 2013". Jeep.com.mx. Archived from the original on 2012-10-20. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Jeep Liberty 2013 ya en México precios y versiones". autosactual.com. 2012-07-31. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Chrysler lets 2014 Jeep Cherokee details fly ahead of New York auto show debut". Daily News (New York). Retrieved February 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "CHEROKEE 2014". Jeep.es. Retrieved 2014-02-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Harley, Michael (27 March 2013). "2014 Jeep Cherokee flaunts its new contemporary curves". autoblog.com. Autoblog.com. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The All-New 2014 Jeep Cherokee". Jeep. Retrieved March 7, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Jeep Revives Cherokee For 2014 With Polarizing New Design". Forbes. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
[hide]
v
t
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« previous — Jeep road vehicle timeline, 1980s–present
Type 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Traditional CJ-5
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Patriot (MK74)
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Compact SUV Cherokee/Wagoneer (XJ) Liberty/Cherokee (KJ) Liberty/Cherokee (KK)
Mid-size SUV Grand Cherokee/Grand Wagoneer (ZJ) Grand Cherokee (WJ) Grand Cherokee (WK) Grand Cherokee (WK2)
Commander (XK)
Full-size SUV Cherokee (SJ)
Wagoneer/Grand Wagoneer (SJ)
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Full-size pickup J-Series
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Boston Massacre
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
For the baseball event nicknamed the "Boston Massacre", see Yankees – Red Sox rivalry.
For the 2013 terrorist attack, see Boston Marathon bombing.
Boston Massacre
Part of the American Revolution
This famous depiction of the event was engraved by Paul Revere (copied from an engraving by Henry Pelham), colored by Christian Remick, and printed by Benjamin Edes. The Old State House is depicted in the background.[1]
Location
Boston, Massachusetts, British America
(now State Street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.)
Coordinates
42°21′32″N 71°03′26″W / 42.35879°N 71.05717°W / 42.35879; -71.05717Coordinates: 42°21′32″N 71°03′26″W / 42.35879°N 71.05717°W / 42.35879; -71.05717
Date
March 5, 1770; 247 years ago (1770-03-05)
Attack type
Massacre
Weapons
Flintlock muskets, clubs
Deaths
5
Non-fatal injuries
6
Perpetrators
British Army infantrymen
This article is part of a series about the
American Revolution
1765–1783
Origins[show]
Sugar Act
Currency Act
Quartering Acts
Stamp Act 1765
Declaratory Act
No taxation without representation
Townshend Acts
Tea Act
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
Intolerable Acts
Revolutionary War[show]
Continental Army
Continental Navy
Minutemen
Battles
Intelligence
Treaty of Paris
Costs
Declaration of Independence[show]
Continental Congress
Committee of Five
Lee Resolution
Articles of Confederation
United States Constitution[show]
Philadelphia Convention
Annapolis Convention
The Federalist Papers
Bill of Rights
A New Republic[show]
Republicanism
American Enlightenment
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First Great Awakening
Role of Women
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Atlantic Revolutions
Bicentennial
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The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British,[2] was an incident on March 5, 1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed several people while under attack by a mob. The incident was heavily publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams, to encourage rebellion against the British authorities.[3][4][5] British troops had been stationed in Boston, capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, since 1768 in order to protect and support crown-appointed colonial officials attempting to enforce unpopular Parliamentary legislation. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and harassment. He was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and repeatedly hit by clubs, stones and snowballs. They fired into the crowd, without orders, instantly killing three people and wounding others. Two more people died later of wounds sustained in the incident.
The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, but the crowd re-formed the next day, prompting the withdrawal of the troops to Castle Island. Eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, while the other two were convicted of manslaughter and given reduced sentences. The men found guilty of manslaughter were sentenced to branding on their hand. Depictions, reports, and propaganda about the event, notably the colored engraving produced by Paul Revere (shown at top-right), further heightened tensions throughout the Thirteen Colonies.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Incident
3 Aftermath
3.1 Investigation
3.2 Propaganda battle
3.3 Trial
4 Legacy
4.1 Contribution to American Revolution
4.2 Commemorations
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background
Main article: American Revolution
View of the Old State House, Boston, Massachusetts, the seat of British colonial government from 1713 to 1776. The Boston Massacre took place in front of the balcony, and the site is now marked by a cobblestone circle in the square (photo 2009)
Massacre Site
Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s.[6] In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of common items that were manufactured in Britain and exported to the colonies were subjected to import tariffs. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, and constitutional rights of British subjects in the colonies.[6] The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. The House also sent what became known as the Massachusetts Circular Letter to other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement,[6] and called for a boycott of merchants importing the affected goods.[7]
In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. The house refused to comply.[8]
Boston's chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, asking for military support because "the Government is as much in the hands of the people as it was in the time of the Stamp Act."[9] Commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768.[10] On June 10, 1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot.[11] Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection.[12]
Daniel Calfe declares, that on Saturday evening the 3d of March, a camp-woman, wife to James McDeed, a grenadier of the 29th, came into his father's shop, and the people talking about the affrays at the ropewalks, and blaming the soldiers for the part they had acted in it, the woman said, "the soldiers were in the right;" adding, "that before Tuesday or Wednesday night they would wet their swords or bayonets in New England people's blood."
—Excerpt from A Short Narrative, suggesting the soldiers were contemplating violence against the colonists[13]
Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston".[14] On October 1, 1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston.[15] Two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained.[16]
The Journal of Occurrences, an anonymously written series of newspaper articles, chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers while troops were stationed in Boston, feeding tensions with its sometimes exaggerated accounts of the events. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, "a young lad about eleven Years of Age", was killed by a customs employee on February 22, 1770.[16] Seider's death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston. The killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation.[17]
Incident
This 19th-century lithograph by Henry Pelham is a variation of Revere's famous engraving. Produced soon before the American Civil War, this image emphasizes Crispus Attucks, the African-American in the center, who had by then become an important symbol for abolitionists. (John Bufford after William L. Champey, circa 1856)[18]
On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on guard duty outside the Custom house on King Street, today known as State Street. A young wigmaker's apprentice named Edward Garrick called out to a British officer, Captain-Lieutenant John Goldfinch, that Goldfinch had not paid a bill due to Garrick's master. Goldfinch had in fact settled his account and ignored the insult.[19] Private White called out to Garrick that he should be more respectful of the officer. Garrick exchanged insults with Private White. Then, after Garrick started poking the officer in the chest with his finger, the officer left his post, challenged the boy, and struck him on the side of the head with his musket. As Garrick cried in pain, one of his companions, Bartholomew Broaders, began to argue with White. This attracted a larger crowd.[20] Henry Knox, a 19-year-old bookseller (who would later serve as a general in the revolution), came upon the scene and warned White, "if he fired he must die for it."[19]
An 1868 print by Alonzo Chappel, showing a more chaotic scene contrary to most earlier representations.
As the evening progressed, the crowd around Private White grew larger and more boisterous. Church bells were rung, which usually signified a fire, bringing more people out. Over fifty Bostonians pressed around White, led by a mixed-race runaway slave named Crispus Attucks, throwing objects at the sentry and challenging him to fire his weapon. White, who had taken up a somewhat safer position on the steps of the Custom House, sought assistance. Runners alerted the nearby barracks and Captain Thomas Preston, the officer of the watch.[21][22] According to his report, Preston dispatched a non-commissioned officer and six privates of the 29th Regiment of Foot, with fixed bayonets, to relieve White.[23][24] The soldiers Preston sent were Corporal William Wemms, Hugh Montgomery, John Carroll, William McCauley, William Warren, and Matthew Kilroy. Accompanied by Preston, they pushed their way through the crowd. En route, Henry Knox, again trying to reduce tensions, warned Preston, "For God's sake, take care of your men. If they fire, you must die." [clarification needed] Captain Preston responded "I am aware of it."[25] When they reached Private White on the custom house stairs, the soldiers loaded their muskets, and arrayed themselves in a semicircular formation. Preston shouted at the crowd, estimated to number between three and four hundred, to disperse.[26]
Boston Massacre grave marker in the Granary Burying Ground
The crowd continued to press around the soldiers, taunting them by yelling, "Fire!", by spitting at and throwing snowballs and other small objects at them.[27] Richard Palmes, a local innkeeper who was carrying a cudgel, came up to Preston and asked if the soldiers' weapons were loaded. Preston assured him they were, but that they would not fire unless he ordered it, and (according to his own deposition) that he was unlikely to do so, since he was standing in front of them. A thrown object then struck Private Montgomery, knocking him down and causing him to drop his musket. He recovered his weapon, and was thought to angrily shout "Damn you, fire!", then discharged it into the crowd although no command was given. Palmes swung his cudgel first at Montgomery, hitting his arm, and then at Preston. He narrowly missed Preston's head, striking him on the arm instead.[27]
There was a pause of uncertain length (eyewitness estimates ranged from several seconds to two minutes), after which the soldiers fired into the crowd. Rather than a disciplined volley (Preston gave no orders to fire), a ragged series of shots was fired, which hit eleven men.[28] Three Americans—ropemaker Samuel Gray, mariner James Caldwell, and Crispus Attucks—died instantly.[29] Samuel Maverick, an apprentice ivory turner of seventeen,[30] was struck by a ricocheting musket ball at the back of the crowd, and died a few hours later, in the early morning of the next day. An Irish immigrant, Patrick Carr, died two weeks later.[29] Christopher Monk, another apprentice, was one of those seriously wounded in the attack.[31] Although he recovered to some extent, he was crippled and eventually died in 1780, purportedly due to the injuries he had sustained in the attack a decade earlier.[32][33]
The crowd moved away from the immediate area of the custom house, but continued to grow in nearby streets.[34] Captain Preston immediately called out most of the 29th Regiment, which adopted defensive positions in front of the state house.[35] Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson was summoned to the scene, and was forced by the movement of the crowd into the council chamber of the state house. From its balcony he was able to minimally restore order, promising there would be a fair inquiry into the shootings if the crowd dispersed.[36]
Aftermath
Investigation
Hutchinson immediately began investigating the affair, and by morning, Preston and the eight soldiers had been arrested.[37] In a meeting of the governor's council held late the morning after the shootings, Boston's selectmen asked Hutchinson to order the removal of troops from the city to Castle William on Castle Island,[36] while a town meeting at Faneuil Hall met to discuss the affair. The governor's council was at first opposed to ordering the troop withdrawal, with Hutchinson correctly claiming he did not have the authority to order the troops to move. Lieutenant Colonel William Dalrymple, commander of the troops, did not offer to move them.[38] The town meeting, however, became more restive when it learned of this. Under an imminent threat of further violence, the council changed its position, and unanimously ("under duress", according to Hutchinson's report) agreed to request the troops' removal.[39] Secretary of State Andrew Oliver reported that, had the troops not been removed, "that they would probably be destroyed by the people — should it be called rebellion, should it incur the loss of our charter, or be the consequence what it would."[40] This decision left the governor without effective means to police the town.[40] The 14th was transferred to Castle Island without incident about a week later, with the 29th following shortly after.[41] The first four victims were buried amid great ceremony on March 8; Patrick Carr, the fifth and final victim, died on March 14 and was buried with them on March 17.[42]
Mr. John Gillespie, in his deposition, (No. 104) declares that, as he was going to the south end of the town, to meet some friends at a public house, he met several people in the streets in parties [armed with clubs], to the number, as he thinks, of forty or fifty persons; and that while he was sitting with his friends there, several persons of his acquaintance came in to them at different times, and took notice of the numbers of persons they had seen in the street armed in the above manner. [...] About half an hour after eight the bells rung, which [Gillespie] and his company took to be for fire; but they were told by the landlord of the house that it was to collect the mob. Mr. Gillespie upon this resolved to go home, and in his way met numbers of people who were running past him, of whom many were armed with clubs and sticks, and some with other weapons. At the same time a number of people passed by him with two fire-engines, as if there had been a fire in the town. But they were soon told that there was no fire, but that the people were going to fight the soldiers, upon which they immediately quitted the fire-engines, and swore they would go to their assistance. All this happened before the soldiers near the custom-house fired their muskets, which was not till half an hour after nine o'clock; and it [shows] that the inhabitants had formed, and were preparing to execute, a design of attacking the soldiers on that evening.
—Excerpt from A Fair Account, suggesting the colonists planned the attack on the soldiers[43]
On March 27 the eight soldiers, Captain Preston, and four civilians who were in the Customs House and were alleged to have fired shots, were all indicted for murder.[44] Bostonians continued to be hostile to the troops and their dependents. General Gage, convinced the troops were doing more harm than good, ordered the 29th Regiment out of the province in May.[45] Governor Hutchinson took advantage of the ongoing high tensions to orchestrate delays of the trials until later in the year.[46]
Propaganda battle
In the days and weeks following the incident, a propaganda battle was waged between Boston's radicals and supporters of the government. Both sides published pamphlets that told strikingly different stories, which were principally published in London in a bid to influence opinion there. The Boston Gazette's version of events, for example, characterized the massacre as part of an ongoing scheme to "quell a Spirit of Liberty", and harped on the negative consequences of quartering troops in the city.[47]
Henry Pelham's engraving copied by Paul Revere
A young Boston artist, Henry Pelham, half-brother of the celebrated portrait painter John Singleton Copley, depicted the event. Silversmith and engraver Paul Revere closely copied Pelham's image, and is often credited as its originator. In order to further public outrage, the engraving contained several inflammatory details. Captain Preston is shown ordering his men to fire, and a musket is seen shooting out of the window of the customs office, which is labeled "Butcher's Hall."[48] Artist Christian Remick hand-colored some prints.[1] Some copies of the print show a man with two chest wounds and a somewhat darker face, matching descriptions of Attucks; others show no victim as a person of color. The image was published in the Boston Gazette, circulating widely, and became an effective piece of anti-British propaganda. The image of bright red "lobster backs" and wounded men with red blood was hung in farmhouses across New England.[49]
Anonymous pamphlets were published describing the event from significantly different perspectives. A Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre, published under the auspices of the Boston town meeting, was principally written by James Bowdoin, a member of the governor's council and a vocal opponent of British colonial policy, along with Samuel Pemberton, and Joseph Warren.[50] It described the shooting and other lesser incidents that took place in the days before as unprovoked attacks on peaceful, law-abiding inhabitants, and was, according to historian Neal Langley York, probably the most influential description of the event.[51] The account it provided was drawn from more than 90 depositions taken after the event, and it included accusations that the soldiers sent by Captain Preston had been deployed with the intention of causing harm.[52] In the interest of minimizing impact on the jury pool, city leaders held back local distribution of the pamphlet, but sent copies to other colonies and to London, where they knew depositions collected by Governor Hutchinson were en route.[53] A second pamphlet, Additional Observations on the Short Narrative, furthered the attack on crown officials by complaining that customs officials (one of whom had left Boston to carry Hutchinson's gathered depositions to London) were abandoning their posts under the pretense that it was too dangerous for them to do their duties.[54]
The depositions that Hutchinson collected and sent to London were eventually published in a pamphlet entitled A Fair Account of the Late Unhappy Disturbance in Boston.[55] Drawn mainly from depositions by soldiers, its account of affairs sought to blame selfish Bostonians for denying the validity of Parliamentary laws. It also blamed the city's hoodlums and gangs for the lawlessness preceding the event, and claimed that they set up an ambush of the soldiers.[56] However, as it was not published until well after the first pamphlet had arrived in London, it ended up having a much smaller impact on the public debate there.[55]
Trial
John Adams defended the soldiers six of whom were acquitted
The Part I took in Defence of Cptn. Preston and the Soldiers, procured me Anxiety, and Obloquy enough. It was, however, one of the most gallant, generous, manly and disinterested Actions of my whole Life, and one of the best Pieces of Service I ever rendered my Country. Judgment of Death against those Soldiers would have been as foul a Stain upon this Country as the Executions of the Quakers or Witches, anciently. As the Evidence was, the Verdict of the Jury was exactly right. This however is no Reason why the Town should not call the Action of that Night a Massacre, nor is it any Argument in favour of the Governor or Minister, who caused them to be sent here. But it is the strongest Proofs of the Danger of Standing Armies.
—  John Adams, on the third anniversary of the massacre[57]
The government was determined to give the soldiers a fair trial so there could be no grounds for retaliation from the British and so moderates would not be alienated from the Patriot cause. After several lawyers with Loyalist leanings refused to defend him, Preston sent a request to John Adams, pleading for him to work on the case. Adams, who was already a leading Patriot and who was contemplating a run for public office, agreed to help, in the interest of ensuring a fair trial.[58] Adams was joined by Josiah Quincy II after the latter was assured that the Sons of Liberty would not oppose his appointment, and by Robert Auchmuty, a Loyalist.[59] They were assisted by Sampson Salter Blowers, whose chief duty was to investigate the jury pool, and Paul Revere, who drew a detailed map of the bodies to be used in the trial of the British soldiers held responsible.[60][61] Massachusetts Solicitor General Samuel Quincy and private attorney Robert Treat Paine, hired by the town of Boston, handled the prosecution.[62] Preston was tried separately in late October 1770. He was acquitted after the jury was convinced that he had not ordered the troops to fire.[63]
The trial of the eight soldiers opened on November 27, 1770.[64] Adams told the jury to look beyond the fact the soldiers were British. He argued that if the soldiers were endangered by the mob, which he called "a motley rabble of saucy boys, negroes, and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish jack tarrs [i.e. sailors]",[65] they had the legal right to fight back, and so were innocent. If they were provoked but not endangered, he argued, they were at most guilty of manslaughter.[66]
The jury agreed with Adams and acquitted six of the soldiers after two and one-half hours' deliberation. Two of the soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter because there was overwhelming evidence that they had fired directly into the crowd. The jury's decisions suggest that they believed the soldiers had felt threatened by the crowd, but should have delayed firing.[67] Patrick Carr, the fifth victim, corroborated this with deathbed testimony delivered to his doctor. The convicted soldiers were granted reduced sentences by pleading benefit of clergy, which reduced their punishment from a death sentence to branding of the thumb in open court.[68]
The four civilians were tried on December 13.[69] The principal prosecution witness, a servant of one of the accused, made claims that were easily rebutted by defense witnesses. In the face of this weak testimony, as well as waning public interest, the prosecution allegedly failed to press its case very hard. The civilians were all acquitted, and the servant was eventually convicted of perjury, whipped, and banished from the province.[70]
Legacy
Contribution to American Revolution
The Boston Massacre is considered one of the most important events that turned colonial sentiment against King George III and British Parliamentary authority.
Howard Zinn argues that Boston was full of class anger. He reports that in 1763, the Boston Gazette published that "a few persons in power" were promoting political projects "for keeping the people poor in order to make them humble."[71]
John Adams wrote that the "foundation of American independence was laid" on March 5, 1770, and Samuel Adams and other Patriots used annual commemorations (Massacre Day) of the event to fulminate against British rule.[72] Christopher Monk, the boy who was wounded in the attack and died in 1780, was paraded before the crowds as a reminder of British hostility.[33]
Later events, such as the Boston Tea Party, further illustrated the crumbling relationship between Britain and its colonies. Although five years passed between the massacre and outright revolution, and direct connections between the massacre and the later war are (according to historian Neil Langley York) somewhat tenuous,[73] it is widely perceived as a significant event leading to the violent rebellion that followed.[74][75]
Commemorations
Massacre memorial on the Boston Common
See also: Massacre Day and Freedom Trail
The massacre was remembered in 1858 in a celebration organized by William Cooper Nell, an African American abolitionist who saw the death of Crispus Attucks as an opportunity to demonstrate the role of African Americans in the Revolutionary War.[76] Partly because of this activism, artwork commemorating the massacre was produced that changed the color of a victim's skin to black (which in Revere's original engraving was white) to emphasize Attucks' claimed martyrdom.[77] In 1888, a monument was erected on the Boston Common to the men killed in the massacre, and the five victims, along with Christopher Seider, were reinterred in a prominent grave in the Granary Burying Ground.[78]
The massacre is reenacted annually on March 5[79] under the auspices of the Bostonian Society.[80][81] The Old State House, the massacre site, and the Granary Burying Ground are all part of Boston's Freedom Trail, connecting sites important in the city's revolutionary-era history.[78]
See also
Boston portal
List of massacres in Massachusetts
Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760–1789)
References
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^ Jump up to: a b Knollenberg, Growth, pp. 76–78.
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^ Jump up to: a b Bailyn, Ordeal, p. 161.
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Jump up ^ A Fair Account, pp. 14–15
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Jump up ^ Ross, Jane (April 1975). "Paul Revere – Patriot Engraver". Early American Life: 34–37.
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Jump up ^ York, "Rival Truths", p. 77.
^ Jump up to: a b York, "Rival Truths", p. 74.
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Jump up ^ Adams and Butterfield, Diary, p. 79.
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Jump up ^ Cumming, The Fate of a Nation, p. 24.
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Jump up ^ Zobel, Boston Massacre, pp. 285–86, 298.
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Jump up ^ Wheeler et al, Discovering the American Past, pp. 101–02.
Jump up ^ Nell et al, William Cooper Nell, 515.
Jump up ^ Fitz, Karsten (2005). "Commemorating Crispus Attucks: Visual Memory and the Representations of the Boston Massacre, 1770–1857". American Studies (Volume 50, No. 3): 463–484. JSTOR 41158169.
^ Jump up to: a b York, The Boston Massacre, p. 46.
Jump up ^ "The Boston Massacre". The Freedom Trail Foundation. Archived from the original on November 25, 2011. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Massacre Reenactment Registration". Bostonian Society. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ Young, p. 20
Sources
A Fair Account of the Late Unhappy Disturbance at Boston. London: B. White. 1770. OCLC 535966548. Original printing of the governor's account.
A Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre. London: W. Bingley. 1770. OCLC 510892519. Original printing of the colonists' account.
Adams, John (1962). Butterfield, L. H., ed. Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, vol. 2. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. OCLC 19993300.
Allison, Robert J. (2006). The Boston Massacre. Beverly, MA: Applewood Books. ISBN 978-1-933212-10-4. OCLC 66392877.
Antal, John (2013). 7 Leadership Lessons of the American Revolution: The Founding Fathers, Liberty, and the Struggle for Independence. Casemate. p. 40. ISBN 9781612002033.
Archer, Richard (2010). As if an Enemy's Country: the British Occupation of Boston and the Origins of Revolution. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538247-1. OCLC 313664751.
Bailyn, Bernard (1974). The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-64160-0. OCLC 6825524.
Cumming, William P.; Rankin, Hugh F. (1975). The Fate of a Nation: The American Revolution Through Contemporary Eyes. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-1644-9. OCLC 1510269.
Fischer, David Hackett (1994). Paul Revere's Ride. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508847-2. OCLC 263430392.
Knollenberg, Bernhard (1975). Growth of the American Revolution, 1766–1775. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-917110-3. OCLC 1416300.
Middlekauff, Robert (2007). The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9. OCLC 496757346.
Miller, John (1959). Origins of the American Revolution. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804705936. OCLC 180556929.
Nell, William Cooper; Wesley, Dorothy Porter; Uzelac, Constance Porter (2002). William Cooper Nell, Nineteenth-Century African American Abolitionist, Historian, Integrationist: Selected Writings from 1832–1874. Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press. ISBN 978-1-57478-019-2. OCLC 50673509.
O'Connor, Thomas H (2001). The Hub: Boston Past and Present. Boston: Northeastern University Press. ISBN 978-1-55553-474-5. OCLC 248309644.
Ross, Betsy McCaughey; McCaughey, Elizabeth P. (1980). From Loyalist to Founding Father: the Political Odyssey of William Samuel Johnson. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-04506-3. OCLC 479827879.
Triber, Jayne (1998). A True Republican: The Life of Paul Revere. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-139-7. OCLC 171052850.
Walett, Francis (September 1950). "James Bowdoin, Patriot Propagandist". The New England Quarterly (Volume 23, No. 3). JSTOR 361420.
Wheeler, William Bruce; Becker, Susan Becker; Glover, Lorri (2011). Discovering the American Past: A Look at the Evidence: To 1877. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-79984-9. OCLC 664324291.
Woods, Thomas (2008). Exploring American History: From Colonial Times to 1877. New York: Associated University Press. ISBN 978-0-7614-7746-4. OCLC 302384920.
York, Neil Longley (2009). "Rival Truths, Political Accommodation, and the Boston 'Massacre'". Massachusetts Historical Review (Volume 11): 57–95. JSTOR 40345980.
York, Neil Longley (2010). The Boston Massacre: a History with Documents. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-87348-2. OCLC 695944958.
Young, Alfred (Spring 2003). "Revolution in Boston? Eight Propositions for Public History on the Freedom Trail" (PDF). The Public Historian (Volume 25, No. 2): 17–41.
Zinn, Howard (1980). A People's History of the United States. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019448-2. OCLC 42420960.
Zobel, Hiller B (1970). The Boston Massacre. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31483-0. OCLC 243696768.
Further reading
Reid, John Phillip (1974). "A Lawyer Acquitted: John Adams and the Boston Massacre". American Journal of Legal History (Volume 18, No. 3): 189–207. ISSN 0002-9319.
Ritter, Kurt W (1977). "Confrontation as Moral Drama: the Boston Massacre in Rhetorical Perspective". Southern Speech Communication Journal (Volume 42, No. 1): 114–136. ISSN 0361-8269.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boston Massacre.
Library resources about
Boston Massacre
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Texts on Wikisource:
"Boston Massacre, The". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Boston Massacre". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Boston Massacre". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
An oration delivered April 2d, 1771, at the request of the inhabitants of the town of Boston (1771) by James Lovell
The Boston Massacre Historical Society
Boston National Historical Park Official Website
Adams’ Argument for the Defense at the trial of the soldiers, at Founders Online website. (Retrieved 10 December 2017.)
Massachusetts Historical Society Massacre Exhibit
Boston Massacre investigative game by the Bostonian Society, stagers of the annual reenactment
Preceded by
Old State House Locations along Boston's Freedom Trail
Site of the Boston Massacre Succeeded by
Faneuil Hall
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