text:
History of calendars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The history of calendars, means that people creating and using methods for keeping track of days and larger divisions of time, covers a practice with ancient roots.
Archeologists have reconstructed methods of timekeeping that go back to prehistoric times at least as old as the Neolithic. The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day, the solar year and the lunation. Calendars are explicit schemes used for timekeeping. The first historically attested and formulized calendars date to the Bronze Age, dependent on the development of writing in the Ancient Near East. The Sumerian calendar was the earliest, followed by the Egyptian, Assyrian and Elamite calendars.
A larger number of calendar systems of the ancient Near East appear in the Iron Age archaeological record, based on the Assyrian and Babylonian calendars. This includes the calendar of the Persian Empire, which in turn gave rise to the Zoroastrian calendar as well as the Hebrew calendar.
Calendars in antiquity were usually lunisolar, depending on the introduction of intercalary months to align the solar and the lunar years. This was mostly based on observation, but there may have been early attempts to model the pattern of intercalation algorithmically, as evidenced in the fragmentary 2nd-century Coligny calendar. Nevertheless, the Roman calendar contained very ancient remnants of a pre-Etruscan 10-month solar year.[1]
The Roman calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. The Julian calendar was no longer dependent on the observation of the new moon but simply followed an algorithm of introducing a leap day every four years. This created a dissociation of the calendar month from the lunation.
In the 11th century in Persia, a calendar reform led by Khayyam was announced in 1079, when the length of the year was measured as 365.24219858156 days.[2] Given that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime, this is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.[2]
The Gregorian calendar was introduced as a refinement of the Julian calendar in 1582, and is today in worldwide use as the de facto calendar for secular purposes.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Prehistory
3 Ancient Near East
4 Antiquity
4.1 Babylonia and Persia
4.1.1 Old Persian calendar
4.1.2 Zoroastrian calendar
4.1.3 Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III
4.1.4 The formation of the current Persian calendar in the 11th century
4.2 Classical Greece
4.3 Hellenistic period
4.4 China
4.5 Ancient India
4.6 Roman Empire
5 Middle Ages
5.1 Christian Europe
5.2 Bulgar calendar
5.3 Islamic calendar
5.4 Icelandic calendar
5.5 Indo-Islamic calendars
6 Mesoamerica
7 Modern calendars
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term calendar itself is taken from the calends, the term for the first day of the month in the Roman calendar, related to the verb calare "to call out", referring to the calling or the announcement that the new moon was just seen. Latin calendarium meant "account book, register", as accounts were settled and debts were collected on the calends of each month.
The Latin term was adopted in Old French as calendier and from there in Middle English as calender by the 13th century. The spelling calendar is from Early Modern English.
An alternative hypothesis connects "calendar" with Koledari in Slavic, pre-Christian tradition, which was later incorporated into Christmas. Kolo means "circle, cycle" and dar means "a gift".
equinox seen from the astronomic calendar of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily
Prehistory[edit]
A number of prehistoric structures have been proposed as having had the purpose of timekeeping (typically keeping track of the course of the solar year). This includes many megalithic structures, and reconstructed arrangements going back far into the Neolithic period.
A ceramic artefact from Bulgaria, known as the Slatino furnace model, has been pronounced by local archeologists and media to be the oldest known calendar representation, a claim not endorsed in mainstream views.[3]
A mesolithic arrangement of twelve pits and an arc found in Warren Field, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, dated to roughly 10,000 years ago, has been described as a lunar calendar and was dubbed the "world's oldest known calendar" in 2013.[4]
The Oldest European calendar is found near to Vukovar in modern-day Croatia. It is a ceramic vessel bearing inscribed ideograms of celestial objects.
Ancient Near East[edit]
The ancient Sumerian calendar divided a year into 12 lunar months of 29 or 30 days.[5] Each month began with the sighting of a new moon. Sumerian months had no uniform name throughout Sumer because of the religious diversity.[6] This resulted in scribes and scholars referring to them as "the first month", "the fifth month" etc.[citation needed] To keep the lunar year of 354 days in step with the solar year of 365.242 days an extra month was added periodically, much like a Gregorian leap year.[6]
There were no weeks in the Sumerian calendar.[7] Holy days and time off from work were usually celebrated on the first, seventh and fifteenth of each month. In addition to these holy days, there were also feast days which varied from city to city.
Antiquity[edit]
Babylonia and Persia[edit]
Further information: Babylonian calendar and Zoroastrian calendar
Although the earliest evidence of Iranian calendrical traditions is from the second millennium BCE, predating the appearance of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, the first fully preserved calendar is that of the Achaemenids. Throughout recorded history, Persians have been keen on the idea and importance of having a calendar. They were among the first cultures to use a solar calendar and have long favoured a solar over lunar and lunisolar approaches. The sun has always been a symbol in Iranian culture and is closely related to the folklore regarding Cyrus the Great.[8]
Old Persian calendar[edit]
Old Persian inscriptions and tablets indicate that early Iranians used a 360-day calendar based on the solar observation directly and modified for their beliefs. Days were not named. The months had two or three divisions depending on the phase of the moon. Twelve months of 30 days were named for festivals or activities of the pastoral year. A 13th month was added every six years to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons.
Zoroastrian calendar[edit]
Main article: Zoroastrian calendar
The first calendars based on Zoroastrian cosmology appeared in the later Achaemenid period (650 to 330 BCE). They evolved over the centuries, but month names changed little until now.
The unified Achaemenid Empire required a distinctive Iranian calendar, and one was devised in Egyptian tradition, with 12 months of 30 days, each dedicated to a yazata (Eyzad), and four divisions resembling the Semitic week. Four days per month were dedicated to Ahura Mazda and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Thirteen days were named after Fire, Water, Sun, Moon, Tiri and Geush Urvan (the soul of all animals), Mithra, Sraosha (Soroush, yazata of prayer), Rashnu (the Judge), Fravashi, Bahram (yazata of victory), Raman (Ramesh meaning peace), and Vata, the divinity of the wind. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, Daena (yazata of religion and personified conscious), Ashi (yazata of fortune) and Arshtat (justice). The remaining four were dedicated to Asman (lord of sky or Heaven), Zam (earth), Manthra Spenta (the Bounteous Sacred Word) and Anaghra Raocha (the 'Endless Light' of paradise).
Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III[edit]
The Parthians (Arsacid dynasty) adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their era from 248 BCE, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the Avestan ones used previously, differing slightly from the Middle Persian names used by the Sassanians. For example, in Achaemenid times the modern Persian month 'Day' was called Dadvah (Creator), in Parthian it was Datush and the Sassanians named it Dadv/Dai (Dadar in Pahlavi).
When in April of AD 224 the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I, abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar, which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai, the 'Gatha' or 'Gah' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change.
The formation of the current Persian calendar in the 11th century[edit]
Toghril Beg, the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, had made Esfahan the capital of his domains and his grandson Malik-Shah was the ruler of that city from 1073. An invitation was sent to Khayyam from Malik-Shah and from his vizier Nizam al-Mulk asking Khayyam to go to Esfahan to set up an Observatory there. Other leading astronomers were also brought to the Observatory in Esfahan and for 18 years Khayyam led the scientists and produced work of outstanding quality. During this time Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to calendar reform in 1079.
Cowell quotes The Calcutta Review No 59:- When the Malik Shah determined to reform the calendar, Omar was one of the eight learned men employed to do it, the result was the Jalali era (so called from Jalal-ud-din, one of the king's names) - 'a computation of time,' says Gibbon, 'which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style.'
Khayyam measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days. Two comments on this result. Firstly it shows an incredible confidence to attempt to give the result to this degree of accuracy. We know now that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime. Secondly it is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.[9]
Classical Greece[edit]
The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer, appear to have been familiar with the division of the year into the twelve lunar months but no intercalary month Embolimos or day is then mentioned. Independent of the division of a month into days, it was divided into periods according to the increase and decrease of the moon. Thus, the first day or new moon was called Noumenia. The month in which the year began, as well as the names of the months, differed among the states, and in some parts even no names existed for the months, as they were distinguished only numerically, as the first, second, third, fourth month, etc.
The ancient Athenian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with 354-day years, consisting of twelve months of alternating length of 29 or 30 days. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year of 365.242 days, an extra, intercalary month was added in every other year.[citation needed] The Athenian months were called Hekatombion, Metageitnion, Boedromion, Pyanepsion, Maimakterion, Poseidon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, Elaphebolion, Munychion, Thargelion, and Skirophorion.[10] The intercalary month usually came after Poseidon, and was called second Poseidon.[citation needed]
In addition to their regular, "festival" calendar, the Athenians maintained a second, political calendar . This "conciliar" calendar divided the year into "prytanies", one for each of the "phylai", the subdivisions of Athenian citizens. The number of phylai, and hence the number of prytanies, varied over time. Until 307 BC, there were 10 phylai. After that the number varies between 11 and 13 (usually 12). Even more confusing, while the conciliar and festival years were about the same length in the 4th century BC, such was not regularly the case earlier or later. Documents dated by prytany are frequently very difficult to assign to a particular equivalent in the Julian calendar.
The table of Greek Olympiads, following the four-year cycles between the Olympic Games from 1 July 776 BC, continued until the end of the 4th century AD.[11] The Babylonian Era of Nabonassar, beginning on 26 February 747 BC, was used by the Greeks of Alexandria.[11] It was later known in the Middle Ages from the works of Ptolemy.[11]
Hellenistic period[edit]
Further information: Roman calendar
The Greek calendars were greatly diversified by the Hellenistic period, with separate traditions in every Greek state. Of primary importance for the reconstruction of the regional Greek calendars is the calendar of Delphi, because of the numerous documents found there recording the manumission of slaves, many of which are dated both in the Delphian and in a regional calendar.
The Macedonian Era of the Seleucids, which began with the conquest of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator in 312 BC.[11] It became widely used in the Levant.[11] The Jews knew it as the "era of contracts", and used it in Europe until the 15th century.[11]
The Roman Republican calendar numbered years based on the sitting consuls.[11] References to the year of consulship were used in both conversation and official records.[11] Romans from the same family often had the same praenomen, which sometimes makes it difficult to distinguish them, and there were two consuls at any one time, each of whom might sometimes hold the appointment more than once, meaning that it was (and is) necessary to be well educated in history to understand the references.[11] The Romans had an eight-day week, with the market-day falling every eight days. It was called a nundinum or 'nine-day' in inclusive counting.
Most of the regional Hindu calendars are inherited from a system standardized in classical Hindu astronomy as adopted via Indo-Greek transmission in the final centuries BCE, and reformed by Gupta era astronomers such as Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira.
China[edit]
Main article: Chinese calendar
Before the Spring and Autumn period (before 770 BC), the Chinese Calendars were solar calendars.[citation needed] In the so-called five-phase calendar, the year consists of 10 months and a transition, each month being 36 days long, and the transitions 5 or 6 days. During the Warring States period (~475-220 BC), the primitive lunisolar calendars were established under the Zhou Dynasty, known as the six ancient calendars (simplified Chinese: 古六历; traditional Chinese: 古六曆). The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon, with 12 or 13 months (lunations) in a year. The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year. In Qin China, the Qin calendar (simplified Chinese: 秦历; traditional Chinese: 秦曆) was introduced. It follows the rules of Zhuanxu's calendar, but the months order follows the Xia's calendar.
Ancient India[edit]
Main article: Hindu calendar
Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals.[12][13][14] This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism.[12][13]
Hindu calendar, sometimes referred to as Panchanga, is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle, the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.[15][16] The ancient Hindu calendar is similar in conceptual design to the Jewish calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar.[17] Unlike Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)[18] and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but insert an extra full month by complex rules, every few years, to ensure that the festivals and crop related rituals fall in the appropriate season.[17][19]
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, and remains in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal particularly to set the Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist and Jain communities of India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist and Jain festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system in the luni-solar calendar.[20][21][22]
Roman Empire[edit]
Main article: Julian calendar
The old Roman year had 304 days divided into 10 months, beginning with March. However the ancient historian Livy gave credit to the second early Roman king Numa Pompilius for devising a calendar of 12 months. The extra months Ianuarius and Februarius had been invented, supposedly by Numa Pompilius, as stop-gaps.[11] Julius Caesar realized that the system had become inoperable, so he effected drastic changes in the year of his third consulship.[11] The New Year in 709 AUC began on 1 January and ran over 365 days until 31 December.[11] Further adjustments were made under Augustus, who introduced the concept of the "leap year" in 757 AUC (AD 4)[conversion is 1 year out].[11] The resultant Julian calendar remained in almost universal use in Europe until 1582,[11] and in some countries until as late as the twentieth century.
Marcus Terentius Varro introduced the Ab urbe condita epoch, assuming a foundation of Rome in 753 BC. The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period.
In the Roman Empire, the AUC year could be used alongside the consular year, so that the consulship of Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius could be determined as 707 AUC (or 47 BC), the third consulship of Caius Julius Caesar, with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, as 708 AUC (or 46 BC), and the fourth consulship of Gaius Julius Caesar as 709 AUC (or 45 BC).[11]
The seven-day week has a tradition reaching back to the ancient Near East, but the introduction of the "planetary week" which remains in modern use dates to the Roman Empire period (see also names of the days of the week).
Middle Ages[edit]
The page for May in the Bedford Psalter and Hours ms. (British Library Add MS 42131, fol. 3r, early 15th century)
Christian Europe[edit]
Main article: Anno Domini
For the first six centuries since the birth of Jesus Christ, European countries used various local systems to count years, most usually regnal years, modeled on the Old Testament.[11] In some cases, Creation dating was also used. In the 6th century, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the Anno Domini system, dating from the Incarnation of Jesus.[11] In the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, "ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation", equivalent to the English "before Christ"), to identify years before the first year of this era.[23]
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, even Popes continued to date documents according to regnal years, and usage of AD only gradually became common in Europe from the 11th to the 14th centuries.[citation needed] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to adopt the Anno Domini system.[citation needed]
In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (horae, minuta, secunda, tertia, and quarta) after noon on specified calendar dates.[24] Although a third for 1⁄60 of a second remains in some languages, for example Arabic ثالثة, the modern second is further divided decimally.
Rival calendar eras to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe.[11] In Spain, the "Era of the Caesars" was dated from Octavian's conquest of Iberia in 39 BC.[11] It was adopted by the Visigoths and remained in use in Catalonia until 1180, Castille until 1382 and Portugal until 1415.[11]
For chronological purposes, the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence. The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon, for the beginnings of history in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least."[citation needed] For both Christians and Jews, the prime historical date was the Year of Creation, or Annus Mundi.[25] The Eastern Orthodox Church fixed the date of Creation at 5509 BC.[25] This remained the basis of the ecclesiastical calendar in the Greek and Russian Orthodox world until modern times.[25] The Coptic Church fixed on 5500 BC. Later, the Church of England, under Archbishop Ussher in 1650, would pick 4004 BC.[25]
Bulgar calendar[edit]
The Bulgar calendar was a calendar system used by the Bulgars, a seminomadic people, originally from Central Asia, who from the 2nd century onwards dwelled in the Eurasian steppes north of the Caucasus and around the banks of river Volga. In 681 part of the Bulgars settled in the Balkan peninsula and established Bulgaria. The main source of information used for reconstruction of the Bulgar calendar is a short 15th century transcript, which contains 10 pairs of calendar terms, the same dating system being found in a marginal note of a manuscript from the 10th c. According to the reconstructed calendar, the Bulgars used a 12-year cyclic calendar similar to the one adopted by Turkic peoples from the Chinese calendar, with names and numbers that are deciphered as in Bulgar language.
Islamic calendar[edit]
The Islamic calendar is based on the prohibition of intercalation (nasi') by Muhammad, in Islamic tradition dated to a sermon held on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah AH 10 (Julian date: 6 March 632). This resulted in an observationally based lunar calendar shifting relative to the seasons of the solar year.
Icelandic calendar[edit]
Main article: Icelandic calendar
In medieval Iceland, a calendar was introduced in the 10th century. While the ancient Germanic calendars were based on lunar months, the new Icelandic calendar introduced a purely solar reckoning, with a year having a fixed number of weeks (52 weeks or 364 days). This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of the Julian leap days.
Indo-Islamic calendars[edit]
See also: Fasli calendar
During the Mughal rule, land taxes were collected from Bengali people according to the Islamic Hijri calendar. This calendar was a lunar calendar, and its new year did not coincide with the solar agricultural cycles. According to some sources, Mughal Emperor Akbar asked his royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi to create a new calendar by combining the lunar Islamic calendar and solar Hindu calendar already in use, and this was known as Fasholi shan (harvest calendar).[26][27] According to Amartya Sen, Akbar's official calendar "Tarikh-ilahi" with the zero year of 1556 CE was a blend of pre-existing Hindu and Islamic calendars. It was not used much in India outside of Akbar's Mughal court, and after his death the calendar he launched was abandoned. However, adds Sen, there are traces of the "Tarikh-ilahi" that survive in the Bengali calendar.[28] Some historians attribute the Bengali calendar to the 7th century Hindu king Shashanka.[26][29][30]
Mesoamerica[edit]
Main article: Mayan calendar
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex. The Mayan calendar had 2 years, the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab.[31]
A modern pictogram of the Mayan god Ahau, after which the 20th day of the tzolkin cycle was named
The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names: Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. The Sacred Round was used to determine important activities related to the gods and humans: name individuals, predict the future, decide on auspicious dates for battles, marriages, and so on.[31]
The two cycles of 13 and 20 intermesh and are repeated without interruption: the cycle would begin with 1 Imix, then 2 Ik, then 3 Akbal and so on until the number 13 was reached, at which point the number cycle was restarted so 13 Ben would be followed by 1 Ix, 2 Men and so on. This time Imix would be numbered 8. The cycle ended after 260 days, with the last day being 13 Ahau.[31]
The Vague Year of 365 days is similar to our modern calendar, consisting of 18 months of 20 days each, with an unlucky five-day period at the end. The Vague Year had to do primarily with the seasons and agriculture, and was based on the solar cycle. The 18 Maya months are known, in order, as: Pop, Uo, Zip, Zotz, Tzec, Xuc, Yaxkin, Mol, Chen, Yax, Zac, Ceh, Mac, Kankin, Maun, Pax, Kayab and Cumku. The unlucky five-day period was known as Uayeb, and was considered a time which could hold danger, death and bad luck.[31]
The Vague Year began with the month of Pop. The Maya 20-day month always begins with the seating of the month, followed by days numbered 1 to 19, then the seating of the following month, and so on. This ties in with the Maya notion that each month influences the next. The Maya new year would start with 1 Pop, followed by 2 Pop, all the way through to 19 Pop, followed by the seating of the month of Uo, written as 0 Uo, then 1 Uo, 2 Uo and so on. These two cycles coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and was similar to a modern-day century.[31]
Modern calendars[edit]
Further information: List of calendars and Calendar reform
While the Gregorian calendar is now in worldwide use for secular purposes, various medieval or ancient calendars remain in regional use for religious or social purposes, including the Julian calendar, the Hebrew calendar, the Islamic calendar, various Hindu calendars, the Zoroastrian calendar etc.
There are also various modern calendars that see limited use, either created for the use of new religious movements or reformed versions of older religious calendars, or calendars introduced by regionalist or nationalist movements.
Javanese calendar (1633)
Jōkyō calendar (1685)
French Republican calendar (1793)
Baha'i calendar (1873)
Solar Hijri calendar (1925)
Indian national calendar (1957)
Discordian calendar (1963)
Juche Era calendar (1997)
See also[edit]
Week-day names
History of timekeeping devices
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Religion in the Etruscan period" in Roman religion in Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Jump up to: a b "Khayyam biography". www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
Jump up ^ Bailey D., 2000, Balkan Prehistory: Exclusion, Incorporation and Identity, London:Routledge p. 325
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 9 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Mesopotamia, Calendar". History-world.org. International World History Project. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Calendar". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
Jump up ^ Yust, Walter (1947). "Encyclopædia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 576.
Jump up ^ (Panaino 1990)
Jump up ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Khayyam.html
Jump up ^ Ginzel: Handbuch der Mathematischen und Technischen Chronologie. 2. Germany: F.K. 1911. pp. 335–336.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Davies, p 267
^ Jump up to: a b Monier Monier-Williams (1923). A Sanskrit–English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 353.
^ Jump up to: a b James Lochtefeld (2002), "Jyotisha" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pages 326–327
Jump up ^ Friedrich Max Müller (1860). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate. pp. 210–215.
Jump up ^ B. Richmond (1956). Time Measurement and Calendar Construction. Brill Archive. pp. 80–82. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
Jump up ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007). A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition. State University of New York Press. p. 490. ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-0-19-874557-0.
Jump up ^ Orazio Marucchi (2011). Christian Epigraphy: An Elementary Treatise with a Collection of Ancient Christian Inscriptions Mainly of Roman Origin. Cambridge University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-521-23594-5. , Quote: "the lunar year consists of 354 days".
Jump up ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0-69112-04-85.
Jump up ^ Anita Ganeri (2003). Buddhist Festivals Through the Year. BRB. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-1-58340-375-4.
Jump up ^ Jeffery D Long (2013). Jainism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
Jump up ^ Bede. "Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum: Liber Primus" (in Latin). Thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 2008-07-06.
Jump up ^ The Opus Majus of Roger Bacon, tr. Robert Belle Burke (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1928, reprinted 2000) table facing page 231, ISBN 978-1-85506-856-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Davies, p 268
^ Jump up to: a b Kunal Chakrabarti; Shubhra Chakrabarti (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis. Scarecrow. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-0-8108-8024-5.
Jump up ^ "Pahela Baishakh". Banglapedia. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. 2015.
Jump up ^ Amartya Sen (2005). The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 319–322. ISBN 978-0-374-10583-9.
Jump up ^ Guhathakurta, Meghna; Schendel, Willem van (2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9780822353188.
Jump up ^ Nitish K. Sengupta (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books India. pp. 96–98. ISBN 978-0-14-341678-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Maya civilization". Civilization.ca. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
External links[edit]
"The Calendar", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Robert Poole, Kristen Lippincott & Peter Watson (In Our Time, Dec. 19, 2002)
show
v
t
e
Time
Key concepts
Past
history
deep time
Present
Future
Futures studies
Far future in religion
Far future in science fiction and popular culture
Timeline of the far future
Eternity
Eternity of the world
Measurement and
standards
Chronometry
UTC
UT
TAI
Unit of time
Planck time
Second
Minute
Hour
Day
Week
Month
Season
Year
Decade
Century
Millennium
Tropical year
Sidereal year
Samvatsara
Measurement
systems
Time zone
Six-hour clock
12-hour clock
24-hour clock
Daylight saving time
Solar time
Sidereal time
Metric time
Decimal time
Hexadecimal time
Calendars
Gregorian
Julian
Hebrew
Islamic
Lunar
Solar Hijri
Mayan
Intercalation
Leap second
Leap year
Clocks
Horology
History of timekeeping devices
Main types
astrarium
atomic
quantum
hourglass
marine
sundial
sundial markup schema
watch
mechanical
stopwatch
water-based
Cuckoo clock
Digital clock
Grandfather clock
Chronology
History
Astronomical chronology
Big History
Calendar era
Chronicle
Deep time
Periodization
Regnal year
Timeline
Religion
Mythology
Dreamtime
Kāla
Kalachakra
Prophecy
Time and fate deities
Wheel of time
Immortality
Philosophy of time
A-series and B-series
B-theory of time
Causality
Duration
Endurantism
Eternal return
Eternalism
Event
Multiple time dimensions
Perdurantism
Presentism
Static interpretation of time
Temporal finitism
Temporal parts
The Unreality of Time
Human experience
and use of time
Accounting period
Chronemics
Fiscal year
Generation time
Mental chronometry
Music
Procrastination
Punctuality
Temporal database
Term
Time discipline
Time management
Time perception
Specious present
Time-tracking software
Time-use research
Time-based currency (time banking)
Time value of money
Time clock
Timesheet
Yesterday – Today – Tomorrow
Time in
Geology
Geological time
age
chron
eon
epoch
era
period
Geochronology
Geological history of Earth
Physics
Absolute time and space
Arrow of time
Chronon
Coordinate time
Imaginary time
Planck epoch
Planck time
Proper time
Rate
Spacetime
Theory of relativity
Time dilation
gravitational
Time domain
Time translation symmetry
Time reversal symmetry
other subject
areas
Chronological dating
Chronobiology
Circadian rhythms
Dating methodologies in archaeology
Time geography
Related topics
Carpe diem
Clock position
Space
System time
Tempus fugit
Time capsule
Time complexity
Time signature
Time travel
Time portal
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_calendars&oldid=865391606"
Categories:
Calendars
History of technology
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 Latin-language sources (la)
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018
Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text
Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text
Use dmy dates from December 2011
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Hrvatski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Edit links
This page was last edited on 23 October 2018, at 17:23 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
/wiki/Solar_year
mw-redirect
Solar year

values: /wiki/Lunation mw-redirect Lunation

values:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_writing
mw-redirect
Bronze Age writing

values:
/wiki/Sumerian_calendar
mw-redirect
Sumerian calendar

values:
/wiki/Intercalary_month
mw-redirect
Intercalary month

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2008)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Second_millennium_BCE
mw-redirect
Second millennium BCE

values:
/wiki/Iranian_culture
mw-redirect
Iranian culture

values:
/wiki/Amesha_Spentas
mw-redirect
Amesha Spentas

values: Edit section: Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III

values: Edit section: The formation of the current Persian calendar in the 11th century

values:
/wiki/Toghril_Beg
mw-redirect
Toghril Beg

values:
/wiki/The_Calcutta_Review
mw-redirect
The Calcutta Review

values:
/wiki/Seleucus_Nicator
mw-redirect
Seleucus Nicator

values:
/wiki/Inclusive_counting
mw-redirect
Inclusive counting

values:
/wiki/Hindu_astronomy
mw-redirect
Hindu astronomy

values:
/wiki/Gupta_period
mw-redirect
Gupta period

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)

values:
/wiki/Dionysian_era
mw-redirect
Dionysian era

values:
/wiki/Regnal_years
mw-redirect
Regnal years

values:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

values:
/wiki/Annus_Mundi
mw-redirect
Annus Mundi

values:
/wiki/Greek_Orthodox
mw-redirect
Greek Orthodox

values:
/wiki/Russian_Orthodox
mw-redirect
Russian Orthodox

values:
/wiki/Archbishop_Ussher
mw-redirect
Archbishop Ussher

values:
/wiki/Icelandic_calendar
mw-redirect
Icelandic calendar

values:
/wiki/Islamic_Calendar
mw-redirect
Islamic Calendar

values:
/wiki/Mayan_calendar
mw-redirect
Mayan calendar

values:
/wiki/Baha%27i_calendar
mw-redirect
Baha'i calendar

values:
/wiki/Week-day_names
mw-redirect
Week-day names

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/K%C4%81la_(time)
mw-redirect
Kāla (time)

values:
/wiki/A-series_and_B-series
mw-redirect
A-series and B-series

values:
/wiki/Eon_(geology)
mw-redirect
Eon (geology)

values:
/wiki/Period_(geology)
mw-redirect
Period (geology)

values:
/wiki/Planck_epoch
mw-redirect
Planck epoch

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:CS1 Latin-language sources (la)

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018

values: Category:Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text

values: Category:Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text

values: Category:Use dmy dates from December 2011

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/History_of_calendars
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_calendars rootpage-History_of_calendars skin-vector action-view


text:
Extended-hours trading
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Late trading.
Extended-hours trading is stock trading that happens either before or after the normal trading hours of a stock exchange, i.e., pre-market trading or after-hours trading.
After-hours trading is known as the buying and selling of securities when the major markets are closed. [1] Since 1985, the regular trading hours for major exchanges in the United States, such as the New York Stock Exchange and the Nasdaq Stock Market, have been from 9:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Eastern Time (ET).[2] Pre-market trading occurs from 4:00 a.m. to 9:30 a.m. ET, although the majority of the volume and liquidity come to the pre-market at 8:00AM ET.[3][4] After-hours trading on a day with a normal session occurs from 4:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m. ET.[4] Market makers and specialists generally do not participate in after hours trading, which can limit liquidity.[5]
Example chart of extended hours trading, via Google Finance
Trading outside regular hours is not a new phenomenon but used to be limited to high-net-worth investors and institutional investors like mutual funds.[6] The emergence of private trading systems, known as electronic communication networks (ECNs), has allowed individual investors to participate in after-hours trading.
Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) members who voluntarily enter quotations during the after-hours session are required to comply with all applicable limit order protection and display rules (e.g., the Manning Rule and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission order handling rules).[7]
See also[edit]
List of market opening times
List of stock exchanges
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sulthan, .A (2017). Stock Market Dictionary (1 ed.). Sulthan Academy. p. 229. ISBN 1522022864.
Jump up ^ "About Us: History". NYSE. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
Jump up ^ "Pre-Market Trading". Investors Underground. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Nasdaq Trading Schedule". NASDAQ. Retrieved 2011-08-02.
Jump up ^ "After Hours Trading". Investors Underground. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "SEC.gov". United States Securities and Exchange Commission.
Jump up ^ Barclay, Michael J. (2003). "Price Discovery and Trading After Hours". University of California, Berkeley.
External links[edit]
"Trade After-Hours". Invest FAQ.
[hide]
v
t
e
Financial markets
Types of markets
Primary market
Secondary market
Third market
Fourth market
Types of stocks
Common stock
Golden share
Preferred stock
Restricted stock
Tracking stock
Share capital
Authorised capital
Issued shares
Shares outstanding
Treasury stock
Participants
Broker-dealer
Day trader
Floor broker
Floor trader
Investor
Market maker
Proprietary trader
Quantitative analyst
Regulator
Stock trader
Exchanges
Electronic communication network
List of stock exchanges
Opening times
Multilateral trading facility
Over-the-counter
Stock valuation
Alpha
Arbitrage pricing theory
Beta
Bid–ask spread
Book value
Capital asset pricing model
Capital market line
Dividend discount model
Dividend yield
Earnings per share
Earnings yield
Net asset value
Security characteristic line
Security market line
T-model
Trading theories
and strategies
Algorithmic trading
Buy and hold
Contrarian investing
Day trading
Dollar cost averaging
Efficient-market hypothesis
Fundamental analysis
Growth stock
Market timing
Modern portfolio theory
Momentum investing
Mosaic theory
Pairs trade
Post-modern portfolio theory
Random walk hypothesis
Sector rotation
Style investing
Swing trading
Technical analysis
Trend following
Value investing
Related terms
Block trade
Cross listing
Dark liquidity
Dividend
Dual-listed company
DuPont analysis
Efficient frontier
Flight-to-quality
Haircut
Initial public offering
Margin
Market anomaly
Market capitalization
Market depth
Market manipulation
Market trend
Mean reversion
Momentum
Open outcry
Public float
Public offering
Rally
Returns-based style analysis
Reverse stock split
Share repurchase
Short selling
Slippage
Speculation
Stock dilution
Stock market index
Stock split
Trade
Uptick rule
Volatility
Voting interest
Yield
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "https://www.sec.gov/investor/pubs/afterhours.htm".

This economics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extended-hours_trading&oldid=809461471"
Categories:
Share trading
Economics and finance stubs
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government
All stub articles
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Italiano
Edit links
This page was last edited on 9 November 2017, at 07:08.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: b

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Stock_trading
mw-redirect
Stock trading

value: p

value: sup

values:
/wiki/List_of_market_opening_times
mw-redirect
List of market opening times

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Template talk:Financial markets navigation

values:
/wiki/Alpha_(investment)
mw-redirect
Alpha (investment)

values:
/wiki/Dark_liquidity
mw-redirect
Dark liquidity

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Copyright status of work by the U.S. government

values:
/wiki/United_States_Government
mw-redirect
United States Government

values: position: absolute; right: 15px; display: none;

values:
metadata plainlinks stub
presentation
background:transparent

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Extended-hours_trading
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Extended-hours_trading rootpage-Extended-hours_trading vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view