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Book of Esther
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For the 2013 film, see The Book of Esther (film).
A 13th/14th-century scroll of the Book of Esther from Fez, Morocco, held at the Musée du quai Branly in Paris. Traditionally, a scroll of Esther is given only one roller, fixed to its lefthand side, rather than the customary two.[1]
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The Book of Esther, also known in Hebrew as "the Scroll" (Megillah), is a book in the third section (Ketuvim, "Writings") of the Jewish Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and in the Christian Old Testament. It is one of the five Scrolls (Megillot) in the Hebrew Bible. It relates the story of a Hebrew woman in Persia, born as Hadassah but known as Esther, who becomes queen of Persia and thwarts a genocide of her people. The story forms the core of the Jewish festival of Purim, during which it is read aloud twice: once in the evening and again the following morning. The books of Esther and Song of Songs are the only books in the Hebrew Bible that do not explicitly mention God.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Setting and structure
1.1 Setting
1.2 Structure
2 Summary
3 Authorship and date
4 Historicity
5 Historical reading
6 Interpretation
7 Additions to Esther
8 Modern retelling
9 References
9.1 Citations
9.2 Sources
10 External links
10.1 Text and translations
10.2 Physical relics
Setting and structure[edit]
Setting[edit]
The biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persian capital of Susa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes[3] (both deriving from the Persian Khshayārsha),[4] and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources as Xerxes I,[5][6] who ruled between 486 and 465 BC,[3] as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.[4][7]
Assuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483–482 BC, and concluded in March 473 BC.
Classical sources such as Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus,[8] as well as the Greek Septuagint translation of Esther, instead identify Ahasuerus as either Artaxerxes I (reigned 465 to 424 BC) or Artaxerxes II (reigned 404 to 358 BC).[8]
On his accession however Artaxerxes II lost Egypt to pharaoh Amyrtaeus, after which it was no longer part of the Persian empire. In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) as Artaxerxes III (358–338 BC) who reconquered Egypt.[9]
Structure[edit]
The Book of Esther consists of an introduction (or exposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9:19; and a conclusion in 9:20–10:3.[10]
The plot is structured around banquets (mishteh), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast of Purim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed "peripety", and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.[11]
Summary[edit]
The opening chapter of a hand-written scroll of the Book of Esther, with reader's pointer
King Ahasuerus, ruler of the Persian Empire, holds a lavish 180-day banquet, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards a seven day banquet for all inhabitants of the capital city, Shushan. (Esther 1:1-9.) On the seventh day of the latter banquet, Ahasuerus orders the queen, Vashti, to display her beauty before the guests by wearing only her crown. (1:10-11.) She refuses, infuriating Ahasuerus, who on the advice of his counselors removes her from her position as an example to other women who might be emboldened to disobey their husbands. (1:12-19.) A decree follows that "that every man should bear rule in his own house." (1:20-22.)
Ahasuerus then makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women from throughout the empire. (2:1-4.) Among these women is the Jewish orphan, Esther, who was fostered by her cousin or uncle, Mordecai. (2:5-7.) She finds favour in the King's eyes, and is crowned his new queen, but does not reveal her Jewish heritage. (2:8-20.) Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers, Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the King is recorded. (2:21-23.)
Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy. (3:1.) Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavour, as he refuses to bow down to him. (3:2-5.) Haman discovers that Mordecai refused to bow on account of his Jewishness, and in revenge plots to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the empire. (3:6.) He obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and casts lots ("purim") to choose the date on which to do this—the thirteenth of the month of Adar. (3:7-12.) A royal decree is issued throughout the kingdom to slay all Jews on that date. (3:13-15.)
When Mordecai discovers the plan, he goes into mourning and implores Esther to intercede with the King. (4:1-5) But she is afraid to present herself to the King unsummoned, an offense punishable by death. (4:6-12.) Instead, she directs Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days for her, and vows to fast as well. (4:15-16.) On the third day she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his sceptre to her to indicate that she is not to be punished. (5:1-2.) She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. (5:3-5.) During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. (5:6-8.) Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife's suggestion, has a gallows built to hang him. (5:9-14.)
That night, Ahasuerus cannot sleep, and orders the court records be read to him. (6:1.) He is reminded that Mordecai interceded in the previous plot against his life, and discovers that Mordecai never received any recognition. (6:2-3.) Just then, Haman appears to request the King's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honor. (6:4-6.) Assuming that the King is referring to Haman himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King's royal robes and led around on the King's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward!" (6:7-9.) To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai. (6:10-11.)
Immediately after, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet. The King promises to grant her any request, and she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her. (7:1-6.) Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation. (7:7.) The King returns in at this very moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier and he orders Haman hanged on the very gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai. (7:8-10.)
Unable to annul a formal royal decree, the King instead adds to it, permitting the Jews to arm and defend themselves on the day chosen for their annihilation. (8:1-14.) On 13 Adar, Haman's ten sons and 500 other men are killed in Shushan. (9:1-12.) Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed. (9:13-15.) Over 75,000 Persian people are slaughtered by the Jews, who are careful to take no plunder. (9:16-17.) Mordecai and Esther send letters throughout the provinces instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people's redemption, in a holiday called Purim (lots). (9:20-28.) Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court. (10:1-3.)
Authorship and date[edit]
Scroll of Esther (Megillah)
The Megillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. According to the Talmud, it was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai.[12] It is usually dated to the 4th century BC.[13][14] Shemaryahu Talmon, however, suggests that "the traditional setting of the book in the days of Xerxes I cannot be wide off the mark."[15]
The Greek book of Esther, included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions which do not appear in original Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BC.[16][17] The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther.
A Latin version of Esther was produced by Jerome for the Vulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material.
Several Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages of which two survive – the Targum Rishon ("First Targum") and Targum Sheni ("Second Targum")[18][19] dated c. 500–1000 AD.[20] These were not targums ("translations") in the true sense but like the Greek Esther are retellings of events and include additional legends relating to Purim.[18] There is also a 16th-century recension of the Targum Rishon, sometimes counted as Targum Shelishi ("Third Targum").[19]
Historicity[edit]
The book of Esther falls under the category of Ketuvim, one of three parts of the Jewish canon.[21] According to some sources, it is a historical novella, written to explain the origin of the Jewish holiday of Purim.[21][22]
As noted by biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan, the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an apparent inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther's cousin (or, according to others, uncle) Mordecai.[21][22] In Esther 2:5–6, either Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BC: "Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive with Jeconiah king of Judah". If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther.[21] However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai's exile to Babylon, but to his great-grandfather Kish's exile.[23][24][25]
In her article "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", biblical scholar Adele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people.[26] Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella.[27] The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian and Hellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther.[21][26]
There are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate. The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, who amongst others has been identified as the 5th-century Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BC).[6] The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces.[24] However, according to Coogan, considerable historical inaccuracies remain throughout the text, supporting the view that the book of Esther is to be read as a historical novella which tells a story describing historical events but is not necessarily historical fact.[21] Edwin M. Yamauchi has questioned the reliability of other historical sources, such as Herodotus, to which Esther has been compared. Yamauchi wrote, "[Herodotus] was, however, the victim of unreliable informants and was not infallible."[28] The reason for questioning the historical accuracy of such ancient writers as Herodotus is that he is one of the primary sources of knowledge for this time period, and it has been frequently assumed that his account may be more accurate than Esther's account.
Historical reading[edit]
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The Feast of Esther (Feest van Esther, 1625) by Jan Lievens, held at the North Carolina Museum of Art.
Those arguing in favour of a historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes I (ruled 486–465 BC),[6] although in the past it was often assumed that he was Artaxerxes II (ruled 405–359 BC). The Hebrew Ahasuerus (ʔaḥašwērōš) is most likely derived from Persian Xšayārša, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineering Queen consort named Amestris, whose father, Otanes, was one of Xerxes's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historian Ctesias refers to a similar father-in-law/general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified with Vashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign.[citation needed] Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.
As for the identity of Mordecai, the similar names Marduka and Marduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of which might after all be Mordecai.
The "Old Greek" Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes,[29] a Greek name derived from the Persian Artaxšaϑra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and the Midrashic text, Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Aršu, understood as a shortening of Aḫšiyaršu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Xšayārša (Xerxes), through which the Hebrew ʔaḥašwērōš (Ahasuerus) is derived.[30] Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Xšayārša.[30]
Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465–424 BC), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424–405 BC). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625–585 BC). In certain manuscripts of Tobit, the former is called Achiachar, which, like the Greek Cyaxares, is thought to be derived from Persian Huwaxšaϑra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5–6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 BC. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods, however the Talmud (Sanhedrin 61b) and Rashi both record a practice of deifying Haman and Josephus speaks of him being worshipped.[30] Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana; however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.)
In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) as Artaxerxes III who reconquered Egypt.[31]
Interpretation[edit]
Christine Hayes contrasts the Book of Esther with apocalyptic writings, the Book of Daniel in particular: both Esther and Daniel depict an existential threat to the Jewish people, but while Daniel commends the Jews to wait faithfully for God to resolve the crisis, in Esther the crisis is resolved entirely through human action and national solidarity. God, in fact, is not mentioned, Esther is portrayed as assimilated to Persian culture, and Jewish identity in the book is an ethnic category rather than a religious one.[32]
This contrasts with traditional Jewish commentaries, such as the commentary of the Vilna Gaon, which states "But in every verse it discusses the great miracle. However, this miracle was in a hidden form, occurring through apparently natural processes, not like the Exodus from Egypt, which openly revealed the might of God."[33] This follows the approach of the Talmud,[34] which states that "(The Book of) Esther is referenced in the Torah in the verse 'And I shall surely hide (in Hebrew, 'haster astir,' related to 'Esther') My Face from them on that day.[35]
Additions to Esther[edit]
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Bible. This was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate. Additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. Jerome recognized the former as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4–16:24. This placement and numbering system is used in Catholic Bible translations based primarily on the Vulgate, such as the Douay–Rheims Bible and the Knox Bible. In contrast, the 1979 revision of the Vulgate, the Nova Vulgata, incorporates the additions to Esther directly into the narrative itself, as do most modern Catholic English translations based on the original Hebrew and Greek (e.g., Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible, New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition). The numbering system for the additions differs with each translation. The Nova Vulgata accounts for the additional verses by numbering them as extensions of the verses immediately following or preceding them (e.g., Esther 11:2–12 in the old Vulgate becomes Esther 1:1a–1k in the Nova Vulgata), while the NAB and its successor, the NABRE, assign letters of the alphabet as chapter headings for the additions (e.g., Esther 11:2–12:6 in the Vulgate becomes Esther A:1–17). The RSVCE and the NRSVCE place the additional material into the narrative, but retain the chapter and verse numbering of the old Vulgate.
These additions include:[36]
an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai
the contents of the decree against the Jews
prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and by Esther
an expansion of the scene in which Esther appears before the king, with a mention of God's intervention
a copy of the decree in favor of the Jews
a passage in which Mordecai interprets his dream (from the prologue) in terms of the events that followed
a colophon appended to the end, which reads: In the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said he was a priest and Levite, and his son Ptolemy brought the present letter of Purim, saying that it was genuine and that Lysimachus, son of Ptolemy, of the community of Jerusalem, had translated it.
By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a "Bougaion" (βουγαῖον) where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint— Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.[37] Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique and may reflect Luther's antisemitism, which is disputed, such as in the biography of Luther by Derek Wilson, which points out that Luther's anger at the Jews was not at their race but at their theology.
The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, reconfirmed the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, as canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England:[38] "The rest of the Book of Esther".
Modern retelling[edit]
There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by Millais.
The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose Esther as one of biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.[39]
In 1689, Jean Baptiste Racine wrote Esther, a tragedy, at the request of Louis XIV's wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon.
In 1718, Handel wrote the oratorio Esther based on Racine's play.
In 1958, a book entitled Behold Your Queen! was written by Gladys Malvern and illustrated by her sister, Corinne Malvern. It was chosen as a selection of the Junior Literary Guild.
The play entitled Esther (1960), written by Welsh dramatist Saunders Lewis, is a retelling of the story in Welsh.
A 1960 movie about the story, Esther and the King, starring Joan Collins.
A 1978 miniseries entitled The Greatest Heroes of the Bible starred Victoria Principal as Esther, Robert Mandan as Xerxes, and Michael Ansara as Haman.
Episode 25 of the 1981 anime series Superbook involves this story.
The 1983 musical entitled Swan Esther was written by J. Edward Oliver and Nick Munns and released as a concept album with Stephanie Lawrence and Denis Quilley. Swan Esther has been performed by the Young Vic, a national tour produced by Bill Kenwright and some amateur groups.
A 1986 Israeli film directed by Amos Gitai entitled Esther.
In 1992, a 30-minute, fully animated video, twelfth in Hanna-Barbera's The Greatest Adventure series, titled Queen Esther features the voices of Helen Slater as Queen Esther, Dean Jones as King Ahasuerus, Werner Klemperer as Haman, and Ron Rifkin as Mordecai.[40][41]
A 1999 TV movie from the Bible Collection that follows the biblical account very closely, Esther, starred Louise Lombard in the title role and F. Murray Abraham as Mordecai.[42]
In 2000, VeggieTales released "Esther... The Girl Who Became Queen".
Chosen: The Lost Diaries of Queen Esther by Ginger Garrett. 2005, NavPress.[importance?]
A 2006 movie about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled One Night with the King, stars Tiffany Dupont and Luke Goss. It was based on the novel Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen.
Esther is one of the five heroines of the Order of the Eastern Star.
On March 8, 2011, the Maccabeats released a music video called "Purim Song".[43]
The Book of Esther is a 2013 movie starring Jen Lilley as Queen Esther and Joel Smallbone as King Xerxes.[44]
In 2012, a graphic adaptation of the Book of Esther was illustrated by J. T. Waldman and appeared in volume one of The Graphic Canon, edited by Russ Kick and published by Seven Stories Press.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Rossel, Seymour (2007). The Torah: Portion by Portion. Los Angeles: Torah Aura Productions. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-891662-94-2. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Jump up ^ David R. Blumenthal. "Where God is Not: The Book of Esther and Song of Songs". Retrieved April 19, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Baumgarten, Albert I.; Sperling, S. David; Sabar, Shalom (2007). Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael, eds. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 18 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 216.
^ Jump up to: a b Larkin, Katrina J. A. (1996). Ruth and Esther (Old Testament Guides). Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 71.
Jump up ^ Crawford, Sidnie White (1998). "Esther". In Newsom, Carol A.; Ringe, Sharon H. Women's Bible Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. p. 202.
^ Jump up to: a b c Middlemas, Jill (2010). Becking, Bob E.J.H.; Grabbe, Lester, eds. Between Evidence and Ideology. Leiden: Brill. p. 145.
Jump up ^ Moore, Carey A. (1971). Esther (Anchor Bible). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. p. XXXV.
^ Jump up to: a b E. A. W. Budge, The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus, Gorgias Press LLC, reprinted 2003
Jump up ^ "Historia Scholastica/Esther - Wikisource". la.wikisource.org.
Jump up ^ Clines 1984, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Jobes 2011, p. 40-41.
Jump up ^ Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Baba Bathra 15a
Jump up ^ NIV Study Bible, Introductions to the Books of the Bible, Esther, Zondervan, 2002
Jump up ^ Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael, eds. (2004). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 1625. ISBN 978-0195297515.
Jump up ^ Shemaryahu Talmon, "Wisdom in the Book of Esther", Vetus Testamentum 13 (1963), p. 453 (at JSTOR, free subscription needed)
Jump up ^ Freedman, David Noel; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4 p. 428 books.google.co.uk
Jump up ^ George Lyons, Additions to Esther, Wesley Center for Applied Theology, 2000
^ Jump up to: a b Prof. Michael Sokoloff, The Targums to the Book of Esther, Bar-Ilan University 's Parashat Hashavua Study Center, Parashat Tezaveh/Zakhor 5764 March 6, 2004
^ Jump up to: a b S. Kaufman, Cal Targum Texts, Text base and variants, The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion
Jump up ^ Alan J. Hauser, Duane Frederick Watson, A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Ancient Period, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Coogan, Michael David Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 396.
^ Jump up to: a b Sidnie White Crawford, "Esther", in The New Interpreters Study Bible New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha, ed. Walter J. Harrison and Donald Senior (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), 689–690.
Jump up ^ New King James Version, translation of Esther 2:6
^ Jump up to: a b Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (Editor), International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume II, 1982, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 159 (entry: Book of Esther)
Jump up ^ Wiersbe,Warren W., Bible Exposition Commentary: Old Testament History, David C Cook, 2004 p. 712
^ Jump up to: a b Adele Berlin, "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120. no. 1 (Spring 2001): 3–14.
Jump up ^ Adele Berlin, “The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120. no. 1 (Spring 2001): 6.
Jump up ^ "The archaeological background of Esther: archaeological backgrounds of the exilic and postexilic era, pt 2". Bibliotheca sacra 137, no. 546 (1980), 102.
Jump up ^ http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/17-esther-nets.pdf Note on two Greek versions of the book of Esther
^ Jump up to: a b c Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, Oxford University Press, 1923
Jump up ^ https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Historia_Scholastica/Esther#De_Ocho_seu_Artaxerxe.
Jump up ^ Hayes, Christine (2006). "Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) — Lecture 24 — Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah". Open Yale Courses. Yale University.
Jump up ^ Commentary of the Vilna Gaon to the Book of Esther 1:1
Jump up ^ Chullin 139b
Jump up ^ Deut. 31:18
Jump up ^ see the NAB online for the passages
Jump up ^ Frederic W. Bush, "The Book of Esther: Opus non gratum in the Christian Canon", Bulletin for Biblical Research 8 (1998), p. 39
Jump up ^ Article VI: Of the sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation Archived November 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Robin, Larsen and Levin. Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. p. 368.
Jump up ^ Books of the Bible Christian Bookstore. "I Have A Song – Shannon Wexelberg".
Jump up ^ "The Internet Antique Shop – The Web's largest antiques & collectibles mall serving collectors since 1995".
Jump up ^ Tania B (5 November 2000). "Esther". IMDb.
Jump up ^ "The Maccabeats – Purim Song". YouTube. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Esther (2013)". IMDb. 11 June 2013.
Sources[edit]
Clines, David J.A. (1984). The Esther Scroll. A&C Black,.
Jobes, Karen H. (2011). Esther. Zondervan.
Beal, Timothy K (Timothy Beal). The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Jacques Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas
Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin: Liberal Jewish view.
Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd ed. Wipf & Stock, 2010 – highly regarded literary analysis
Sasson, Jack M. "Esther" in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335–341, literary view
The Historicity of Megillat Esther: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting a historical reading of Esther
Esther, Book of: A Christian perspective of the book.
Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by Theodor Gaster. 1950.
White, Sidnie Ann. "Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora" in Newsom
Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Cumming, Rev. J. Elder DD The Book of Esther: Its spiritual teaching London: The Religious Tract Society, 1913
Ecker, Ronald L. The Book of Esther, Ecker's Biblical Web Pages, 2007.
Fischer, James A. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986.
Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001.
Hudson, J. Francis Esther: For Such a Time as This. From Character and Charisma series. Kingsway, 2000.
Levenson, Jon D. Esther. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997.
McConville, John C. L. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.
Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.
Paton, Lewis B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908.
Hazony, Yoram. God and Politics in Esther. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
"Esther, Book of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Esther, Apocryphal Book of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Book of Esther.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Esther
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The King James Version of Rest of Esther
Text and translations[edit]
Jewish translations
Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Purim insights to Megillat Esther
Mechon Mamre Full text, Aleppo Codex: text of Esther in Hebrew
Christian translations
Online Bible at GospelHall.org
The Book of Esther Full text, KJV, (also available at Arabic)
Esther in the NAB
Esther NRSV translation with photos of Susa
Esther: 2012 Critical Translation with Audio Drama at biblicalaudio
Introduction to the Book of Esther
Bible: Esther public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Physical relics[edit]
A Megillah (scroll of the Book of Esther), found in Vilna after World War II
Book of Esther
History books
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text:
White matter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
White matter
Micrograph showing white matter with its characteristic fine meshwork-like appearance (left of image - lighter shade of pink) and grey matter, with the characteristic neuronal cell bodies (right of image - dark shade of pink). HPS stain.
Human brain right dissected lateral view, showing grey matter (the darker outer parts), and white matter (the inner and prominently whiter parts).
Details
Identifiers
Latin
substantia alba
MeSH
D066127
TA
A14.1.00.009
FMA
83929
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
White matter structure of human brain (taken by MRI).
White matter refers to areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that are mainly made up of myelinated axons, also called tracts.[1] Long thought to be passive tissue, white matter affects learning and brain functions, modulating the distribution of action potentials, acting as a relay and coordinating communication between different brain regions.[2]
White matter is named for its relatively light appearance resulting from the lipid content of myelin. However, the tissue of the freshly cut brain appears pinkish white to the naked eye because myelin is composed largely of lipid tissue veined with capillaries. Its white color in prepared specimens is due to its usual preservation in formaldehyde.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 White matter
1.2 Grey matter
1.3 Location
1.4 Myelinated axon length
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 Imaging
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
White matter[edit]
White matter is composed of bundles, which connect various grey matter areas (the locations of nerve cell bodies) of the brain to each other, and carry nerve impulses between neurons. Myelin acts as an insulator, which allows electrical signals to jump, rather than coursing through the axon, thus increasing the speed of transmission of all nerve signals.[3]
The total number of long range fibres within a cerebral hemisphere is 2% of the total number of cortico-cortical fibers (across cortical areas) and is roughly the same number as those that communicate between the two hemispheres in the brain's largest white tissue structure, the Corpus callosum.[4] According to Schüz and Braitenberg note "As a rough rule, the number of fibres of a certain range of lengths is inversely proportional to their length."[4]
White matter in nonelderly adults is 1.7–3.6% blood.[5]
Grey matter[edit]
The other main component of the brain is grey matter (actually tanned pink due to blood capillaries), which is composed of neurons. The substantia nigra is a third colored component found in the brain that appears darker due to higher levels of melanin in dopaminergic neurons than its nearby areas. Note that white matter can sometimes appear darker than grey matter on a microscope slide because of the type of stain used. Cerebral- and spinal white matter do not contain dendrites, neural cell bodies, or shorter axons,[citation needed] which can only be found in grey matter.
Location[edit]
White matter forms the bulk of the deep parts of the brain and the superficial parts of the spinal cord. Aggregates of grey matter such as the basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus, nucleus accumbens) and brainstem nuclei (red nucleus, cranial nerve nuclei) are spread within the cerebral white matter.
The cerebellum is structured in a similar manner as the cerebrum, with a superficial mantle of cerebellar cortex, deep cerebellar white matter (called the "arbor vitae") and aggregates of grey matter surrounded by deep cerebellar white matter (dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, and fastigial nucleus). The fluid-filled cerebral ventricles (lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle) are also located deep within the cerebral white matter.
Myelinated axon length[edit]
Men have more white matter than females both in volume and in length of myelinated axons. At the age of 20, the total length of myelinated fibers in males is 176,000 km while that of a female is 149,000 km.[6] There is a decline in total length with age of about 10% each decade such that a man at 80 years of age has 97,200 km and a female 82,000 km.[6] Most of this reduction is due to the loss of thinner fibers.[6]
Function[edit]
White matter is the tissue through which messages pass between different areas of gray matter within the central nervous system. The white matter is white because of the fatty substance (myelin) that surrounds the nerve fibers (axons). This myelin is found in almost all long nerve fibers, and acts as an electrical insulation. This is important because it allows the messages to pass quickly from place to place.
Unlike gray matter, which peaks in development in a person's twenties, the white matter continues to develop, and peaks in middle age.[7]
Clinical significance[edit]
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common diseases which affect white matter. In MS lesions, the myelin shield around the axons has been destroyed by inflammation.
Alcohol use disorders are associated with decrease in white matter volume.[8] Animal studies suggest that alcohol may cause loss of white matter by damaging oligodendrocytes, the glial cell responsible for maintaining myelin.[9]
Changes in white matter known as amyloid plaques are associated with Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. White matter injuries ("axonal shearing") may be reversible, while gray matter regeneration is less likely. Other changes that commonly occur with age include the development of leukoaraiosis, which is a rarefaction of the white matter that can be caused by a variety of conditions, including loss of myelin, axonal loss, and a breakdown of the blood–brain barrier.[citation needed]
Imaging[edit]
The study of white matter has been advanced with the neuroimaging technique called diffusion tensor imaging where magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scanners are used. As of 2007, more than 700 publications have been published on the subject.[10]
A 2009 paper by Jan Scholz and colleagues[11] used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to demonstrate changes in white matter volume as a result of learning a new motor task (e.g. juggling). The study is important as the first paper to correlate motor learning with white matter changes. Previously, many researchers had considered this type of learning to be exclusively mediated by dendrites, which are not present in white matter. The authors suggest that electrical activity in axons may regulate myelination in axons. Or, gross changes in the diameter or packing density of the axon might cause the change.[12] A more recent DTI study by Sampaio-Baptista and colleagues reported changes in white matter with motor learning along with increases in myelination.[13]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Blumenfeld, Hal (2010). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. p. 21. ISBN 9780878936137. Areas of the CNS made up mainly of myelinated axons are called white matter.
Jump up ^ Douglas Fields, R. (2008). "White Matter Matters". Scientific American. 298 (3): 54–61. Bibcode:2008SciAm.298c..54D. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0308-54.
Jump up ^ Klein, S.B., & Thorne, B.M. Biological Psychology. Worth Publishers: New York. 2007.[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Schüz, Almut; Braitenberg, Valentino (2002). "The human cortical white matter: Quantitative aspects of cortico-cortical long-range connectivity". In Schüz, Almut; Braitenberg, Valentino. Cortical Areas: Unity and Diversity, Conceptual Advances in Brain Research. Taylor and Francis. pp. 377–86. ISBN 978-0-415-27723-5.
Jump up ^ Leenders, K. L.; Perani, D.; Lammertsma, A. A.; Heather, J. D.; Buckingham, P.; Jones, T.; Healy, M. J. R.; Gibbs, J. M.; Wise, R. J. S.; Hatazawa, J.; Herold, S.; Beaney, R. P.; Brooks, D. J.; Spinks, T.; Rhodes, C.; Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1990). "Cerebral Blood Flow, Blood Volume and Oxygen Utilization". Brain. 113: 27–47. doi:10.1093/brain/113.1.27. PMID 2302536.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marner, Lisbeth; Nyengaard, Jens R.; Tang, Yong; Pakkenberg, Bente (2003). "Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 462 (2): 144–52. doi:10.1002/cne.10714. PMID 12794739.
Jump up ^ Sowell, Elizabeth R.; Peterson, Bradley S.; Thompson, Paul M.; Welcome, Suzanne E.; Henkenius, Amy L.; Toga, Arthur W. (2003). "Mapping cortical change across the human life span". Nature Neuroscience. 6 (3): 309–15. doi:10.1038/nn1008. PMID 12548289.
Jump up ^ Monnig, Mollie A.; Tonigan, J. Scott; Yeo, Ronald A.; Thoma, Robert J.; McCrady, Barbara S. (2013). "White matter volume in alcohol use disorders: A meta-analysis". Addiction Biology. 18 (3): 581–92. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2012.00441.x. PMC 3390447  . PMID 22458455.
Jump up ^ Alfonso-Loeches, Silvia; Pascual, Maria; Gómez-Pinedo, Ulises; Pascual-Lucas, Maya; Renau-Piqueras, Jaime; Guerri, Consuelo (2012). "Toll-like receptor 4 participates in the myelin disruptions associated with chronic alcohol abuse". Glia. 60 (6): 948–64. doi:10.1002/glia.22327. PMID 22431236.
Jump up ^ Assaf, Yaniv; Pasternak, Ofer (2007). "Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)-based White Matter Mapping in Brain Research: A Review". Journal of Molecular Neuroscience. 34 (1): 51–61. doi:10.1007/s12031-007-0029-0. PMID 18157658.
Jump up ^ Scholz, Jan; Klein, Miriam C; Behrens, Timothy E J; Johansen-Berg, Heidi (2009). "Training induces changes in white-matter architecture". Nature Neuroscience. 12 (11): 1370–1. doi:10.1038/nn.2412. PMC 2770457  . PMID 19820707.
Jump up ^ "White Matter Matters". Dolan DNA Learning Center. Archived from the original on 2009-11-12. Retrieved 2009-10-19. [self-published source?]
Jump up ^ Sampaio-Baptista, C.; Khrapitchev, A. A.; Foxley, S.; Schlagheck, T.; Scholz, J.; Jbabdi, S.; Deluca, G. C.; Miller, K. L.; Taylor, A.; Thomas, N.; Kleim, J.; Sibson, N. R.; Bannerman, D.; Johansen-Berg, H. (2013). "Motor Skill Learning Induces Changes in White Matter Microstructure and Myelination". Journal of Neuroscience. 33 (50): 19499–503. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3048-13.2013. PMC 3858622  . PMID 24336716.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to White matter.
White Matter Atlas
WebMD (2009). "white matter". Webster's New World Medical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 456. ISBN 978-0-544-18897-6.
[show]
v
t
e
Nervous tissue
CNS
Tissue Types
Grey matter
White matter
Projection fibers
Association fiber
Commissural fiber
Lemniscus
Funiculus
Fasciculus
Nerve tract
Decussation
Commissure
Neuropil
Meninges
Cell Types
Neuronal
Pyramidal
Purkinje
Granule
Glial
insulating:
Myelination: Oligodendrocyte
other
Astrocyte
Radial glial cell
Ependymal cells
Tanycyte
Microglia
PNS
General
Dorsal
Root
Ganglion
Ramus
Ventral
Root
Ramus
Ramus communicans
Gray
White
Autonomic ganglion (Preganglionic nerve fibers
Postganglionic nerve fibers)
Connective tissues
Epineurium
Perineurium
Endoneurium
Nerve fascicle
Neuroglia
Myelination: Schwann cell
Neurilemma
Myelin incisure
Node of Ranvier
Internodal segment
Satellite glial cell
Neurons/
nerve fibers
Parts
Soma
Axon hillock
Axon
Telodendron
Axon terminals
Axoplasm
Axolemma
Neurofibril/neurofilament
Dendrite
Nissl body
Dendritic spine
Apical dendrite/Basal dendrite
Types
Bipolar
Unipolar
Pseudounipolar
Multipolar
Interneuron
Renshaw
Afferent nerve fiber/
Sensory neuron
GSA
GVA
SSA
SVA
fibers
Ia or Aα
Ib or Golgi or Aα
II or Aβ and Aγ
III or Aδ or fast pain
IV or C or slow pain
Efferent nerve fiber/
Motor neuron
GSE
GVE
SVE
Upper motor neuron
Lower motor neuron
α motorneuron
β motorneuron
γ motorneuron
Termination
Synapse
Electrical synapse/Gap junction
Chemical synapse
Synaptic vesicle
Active zone
Postsynaptic density
Autapse
Ribbon synapse
Neuromuscular junction
Sensory receptors
Meissner's corpuscle
Merkel nerve ending
Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini ending
Muscle spindle
Free nerve ending
Nociceptor
Olfactory receptor neuron
Photoreceptor cell
Hair cell
Taste bud
[show]
v
t
e
The spinal cord
General features
Cervical enlargement
Lumbar enlargement
Conus medullaris
Filum terminale
Cauda equina
Meninges
Central canal
Terminal ventricle
Grey columns
Posterior grey column
Marginal nucleus
Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
Nucleus proprius
Spinal lamina V
Spinal lamina VI
Lateral grey column
Intermediolateral nucleus
Posterior thoracic nucleus
Anterior grey column
Interneuron
Alpha motor neuron
Onuf's nucleus
Gamma motor neuron
Other
Rexed laminae
Central gelatinous substance
Gray commissure
White matter
Sensory
Posterior
Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway:
Gracile
Cuneate
Lateral:
Spinocerebellar
dorsal
ventral
Spinothalamic
lateral
anterior
Posterolateral
Spinotectal
Spinoreticular tract
Spino-olivary tract
Motor
Lateral
Corticospinal
Lateral
Extrapyramidal
Rubrospinal
Olivospinal
Raphespinal
Anterior
Corticospinal
Anterior
Extrapyramidal
Vestibulospinal
Reticulospinal
Tectospinal
Both
Anterior white commissure
External features
Ventral
Anterior median fissure
Anterolateral sulcus
Dorsal
Posterior median sulcus
Posterolateral sulcus
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the medulla
Grey matter
Cranial nuclei
afferent:
Solitary nucleus
tract
Dorsal respiratory group
Gustatory nucleus
Vestibular nuclei
Lateral
Medial
Inferior
efferent:
Hypoglossal nucleus
Nucleus ambiguus
Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
Inferior salivatory nucleus
Dorsal
Gracile nucleus
Cuneate nucleus
Accessory cuneate nucleus
Ventral
Ventral respiratory group
Arcuate nucleus of medulla
Rostral ventromedial medulla
Botzinger complex
Pre-Bötzinger complex
White matter
Dorsal
Sensory
Sensory decussation
Medial lemniscus
Juxtarestiform body
Ascending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Motor
Descending dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Ventral
Descending tracts
Olivocerebellar tract
Rubro-olivary tract
Surface
Front
Pyramid
Anterior median fissure
Anterolateral sulcus
Olive
Inferior olivary nucleus
Back
Posterior median sulcus
Posterolateral sulcus
Area postrema
Vagal trigone
Hypoglossal trigone
Medial eminence
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Grey
Reticular formation
Gigantocellular
Parvocellular
Ventral
Lateral
Paramedian
Raphe nuclei
Obscurus
Magnus
Pallidus
Perihypoglossal nuclei
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the pons
Dorsal/
(tegmentum)
Surface
Cerebellopontine angle
Superior medullary velum
Sulcus limitans
Medial eminence
Facial colliculus
White: Sensory
Trapezoid body
Trigeminal lemniscus
Dorsal trigeminal tract
Ventral trigeminal tract
Medial lemniscus
Lateral lemniscus
Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
Central tegmental tract
White: Motor
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Vestibulocerebellar tract
Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Vestibulospinal tract
Medial vestibulospinal tract
Lateral vestibulospinal tract
Grey: Cranial nuclei
afferent:
GSA
Trigeminal
Principal
Spinal
Cochlear nucleus
Dorsal
Anterior
Vestibular nuclei
Superior
efferent:
SVE: Trigeminal motor nucleus
Facial motor nucleus
GSE: Abducens nucleus
GVE: Superior salivary nucleus
Inferior salivary nucleus
Other
Apneustic center
Pneumotaxic center
Parabrachial nuclei
Subparabrachial nucleus
Medial parabrachial nucleus
Lateral parabrachial nucleus
Superior olivary nucleus
Locus coeruleus
Ventral/
(base)
Grey
Pontine nuclei
White: Motor/descending
Corticospinal tract
Corticobulbar tract
Corticopontine fibers
MCP
Pontocerebellar fibers
Surface
Basilar sulcus
Other grey: Raphe/
reticular
Reticular formation
Caudal
Oral
Tegmental
Paramedian
Raphe nuclei
Median
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the midbrain
Tectum
(Dorsal)
Surface
Corpora quadrigemina:
Inferior colliculus
Brachium
Superior colliculus
Brachium
Grey matter
Pretectal area
White: Sensory/ascending
Spinotectal tract
Central tegmental tract
White: Motor/descending
Tectospinal tract
Peduncle
(Ventral)
Tegmentum
White: Sensory/ascending
Lemnisci
Medial
Lateral
Ascending MLF
Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
Spinothalamic tract
Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
Dentatothalamic tract
White: Motor/descending
Rubrospinal tract
Rubro-olivary tract
Descending MLF
Grey: cranial nuclei
GSA
Mesencephalic- GSE
Oculomotor nucleus, Trochlear nucleus- GVE
Edinger–Westphal nucleus
Grey: other
Periaqueductal gray
Raphe nuclei
dorsal
Ventral tegmental area
Rostromedial tegmental nucleus
Pedunculopontine nucleus
Red nucleus
Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus
Parabrachial area
Interpeduncular nucleus
Midbrain reticular formation
Ventricular system
Cerebral aqueduct
Base
White: Motor/descending
Cerebral crus: Corticospinal tract
Corticobulbar tract
Corticopontine tract/Frontopontine fibers/Temporopontine fibers
Grey: Substantia nigra
Pars compacta
Pars reticulata
Surface
Superior cerebellar peduncle
Decussation
Interpeduncular fossa
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the cerebellum
Surface
Lobes
Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
Horizontal fissure
Flocculonodular lobe
Flocculus
Nodule
Primary fissure
Medial/lateral
Vermis: anterior
Central lobule
Culmen
Lingula
posterior
Folium
Tuber
Uvula
Vallecula of cerebellum
Hemisphere: anterior
Alar central lobule
posterior
Biventer lobule
Cerebellar tonsil
Grey matter
Deep cerebellar nuclei
Dentate
interposed
Emboliform
Globose
Fastigial
Cerebellar cortex
Molecular layer
Stellate cell
Basket cell
Purkinje cell layer
Purkinje cell
Bergmann glia cell = Golgi epithelial cell
Fañanas cell
Granule cell layer
Golgi cell
Granule cell
Unipolar brush cell
Fibers: Mossy fibers
Climbing fiber
Parallel fiber
White matter
Internal
Arbor vitae
Peduncles
Inferior (medulla): Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
Olivocerebellar tract
Cuneocerebellar tract
Juxtarestiform body (Vestibulocerebellar tract)
Trigeminocerebellar fibers
Middle (pons): Pontocerebellar fibers
Superior (midbrain): Ventral spinocerebellar tract
Dentatothalamic tract
[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the diencephalon of the human brain
Epithalamus
Surface
Pineal gland
Habenula
Habenular trigone
Habenular commissure
Grey matter
Pretectal area
Habenular nuclei
Subcommissural organ
Thalamus
Surface
Stria medullaris of thalamus
Thalamic reticular nucleus
Taenia thalami
Grey matter/
nuclei
paired: AN
Ventral
VA/VL
VP/VPM/VPL
Lateral
LD
LP
Pulvinar nuclei
Metathalamus
MG
LG
P cell
M cell
K cell
midline: MD
Intralaminar
Centromedian
Midline nuclear group
Interthalamic adhesion
White matter
Mammillothalamic fasciculus
Pallidothalamic tracts
Ansa lenticularis
Lenticular fasciculus
Thalamic fasciculus
PCML
Medial lemniscus
Trigeminal lemniscus
Spinothalamic tract
Lateral lemniscus
Dentatothalamic tract
Acoustic radiation
Optic radiation
Subthalamic fasciculus
Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
Medullary laminae
Hypothalamus
Surface
Median eminence/Tuber cinereum
Mammillary body
Infundibulum
Grey matter
Autonomic zones
Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)
Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)
Endocrine
posterior pituitary: Paraventricular
Magnocellular neurosecretory cell
Parvocellular neurosecretory cell
Supraoptic
oxytocin/vasopressin
other: Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)
Preoptic (GnRH)
Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)
Emotion
Lateral
Ventromedial
Dorsomedial
White matter
afferent
Medial forebrain bundle
Retinohypothalamic tract
efferent
Mammillothalamic fasciculus
Stria terminalis
Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
Pituitary
Posterior is diencephalon, but anterior is glandular
Subthalamus
Subthalamic nucleus
Zona incerta
Nuclei campi perizonalis (Fields of Forel)
[show]
v
t
e
Commissural fibers in the human brain
Corpus callosum
Genu
Splenium
Tapetum
Rostrum
Archicortex
Supracallosal gyrus
Lamina terminalis
Vascular organ of lamina terminalis
Anterior commissure
Fornix
Fornix
Septum pellucidum
Septal nuclei
Medial septal nucleus
Subfornical organ
Cave of septum pellucidum
Other
Posterior commissure
[show]
v
t
e
Rostral basal ganglia of the human brain and associated structures
Basal ganglia
Grey matter
Striatum
Dorsal striatum
Putamen
Caudate nucleus
Ventral striatum
Nucleus accumbens
Olfactory tubercle
Globus pallidus
GPe
GPi
Other
Amygdala
Claustrum
White matter
Centrum semiovale
Internal capsule
Anterior limb
Genu
Posterior limb
Optic radiation
Corona radiata
External capsule
Extreme capsule
Pallidothalamic tracts: Thalamic fasciculus
Ansa lenticularis
Lenticular fasciculus
Subthalamic fasciculus
Rhinencephalon
Grey matter
Anterior olfactory nucleus
Anterior perforated substance
Olfactory bulb
White matter
Olfactory tract
Medial olfactory stria
Lateral olfactory stria
Olfactory trigone
Other basal forebrain
Grey matter
Substantia innominata
Nucleus basalis
Nucleus of diagonal band
White matter
Diagonal band of Broca
Stria terminalis
Archicortex:
Hippocampal formation/
Hippocampus anatomy
Grey matter
Hippocampus proper
CA1
CA2
CA3
CA4
Dentate gyrus
Fascia dentata
Subiculum
White matter
Alveus
Fimbria
Perforant path
Schaffer collateral
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