text:
Space Jam (soundtrack)
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Space Jam: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture
Soundtrack album by Various artists
Released
November 12, 1996
Recorded
1996
Genre
R&B, hip hop, pop
Length
65:16
Label
Warner Sunset Records
Atlantic Records
Producer
R. Kelly
Ken Ross
Craig Kallman
Dominique Trenier
Singles from Space Jam: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture
"Fly Like an Eagle"
Released: November 21, 1996
"I Believe I Can Fly"
Released: November 26, 1996
"Space Jam"
Released: December 3, 1996
"Hit 'Em High (The Monstars' Anthem)"
Released: January 7, 1997
"For You I Will"
Released: February 25, 1997
"I Turn to You"
Released: June 1997
Space Jam: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture is the original soundtrack album of the 1996 film starring Michael Jordan and the Looney Tunes cast. An album featuring the film's score by James Newton Howard was also released. The soundtrack was released by Warner Sunset and Atlantic Records on November 12, 1996. The worldwide smash hit "I Believe I Can Fly" by R. Kelly was first released on the soundtrack.
Contents
[hide]
1 Reception
1.1 End of decade charts
2 Track listing
3 Album singles
4 References
Reception[edit]
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
Allmusic [1]
Entertainment Weekly B−[2]
The soundtrack earned mostly good reviews and was successful on the Billboard 200, peaking at #2. The soundtrack also managed to sell very well; it was certified as double platinum less than two months after its release, in January 1997. In 2001, the soundtrack was certified 6x Platinum.[3]
End of decade charts[edit]
Chart (1990–1999)
Position
U.S. Billboard 200[4] 69
Track listing[edit]
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Producer(s)
Length
1. "Fly Like an Eagle" (Seal) Steven Miller Seal Samuel, Rashad Ringo Smith 4:15
2. "The Winner (*)" (Coolio) Artis Ivey Jr., Brian Dobbs, Curtis Mayfield Dobbs 4:03
3. "Space Jam" (Quad City DJ's) Johnny McGowan
Nathaniel Orange, V Bryant McGowan 5:07
4. "I Believe I Can Fly" (R. Kelly) Robert Kelly Kelly 5:22
5. "Hit 'Em High (The Monstars' Anthem)" (B-Real, Busta Rhymes, Coolio, LL Cool J, Method Man) Louis Freese, Trevor Smith Jr., Ivey, James Smith & Clifford Smith, Jean-Claude Olivier, Samuel Barnes Oliver, Barnes 4:18
6. "I Found My Smile Again" (D'Angelo) Michael Archer Archer 6:16
7. "For You I Will" (Monica) Diane Warren David Foster 4:56
8. "Upside Down ('Round-N-'Round)" (Salt-N-Pepa) Bernard Edwards, Nile Rodgers, Cheryl James, Sandra Denton Rashad Ringo Smith, Armando Colon 4:17
9. "Givin' U All That I've Got" (Robin S.) Robin Stone, Todd Terry Terry 4:04
10. "Basketball Jones" (Barry White, Chris Rock) Thomas Chong, Richard Marin Lou Adler, Jamey Jaz 5:40
11. "I Turn to You" (All-4-One) Diane Warren James Harris III, Terry Lewis 4:53
12. "All of My Days (*)" (R. Kelly featuring Changing Faces, Jay-Z) Kelly, Shawn Carter Kelly 4:02
13. "That's the Way (I Like It)" (Spin Doctors featuring Biz Markie) Harry Wayne Casey, Richard Finch Daniel Kortchmar, Peter Denenber, Rashad Ringo Smith 3:50
14. "Buggin' (*)" (Bugs Bunny) Shawn Carter, James Newton Howard Dominique Trenier, Dominique Owen 4:15
Total length: 65:13
(*) Does not appear in the film
Album singles[edit]
Single information
"For You I Will"
Performed by: Monica
Released: February 25, 1997
Formats: CD
Chart positions: #27 UK; #2 NZ; #4 US
"I Believe I Can Fly"
Performed by: R. Kelly
Released: November 26, 1996
Formats: CD, cassette
Chart positions: #1 UK; #1 NZ; #2 US
"Space Jam"
Performed by: Quad City DJ's
Released: December 3, 1996
Formats: CD
Chart positions: #24 NZ; #37 US; #57 UK
"Hit 'Em High (The Monstars' Anthem)"
Performed by: B Real, Busta Rhymes, Coolio, LL Cool J, and Method Man
Released: January 7, 1997
Formats: CD
Chart positions: #8 UK; #50 US R&B Airplay
"Fly Like an Eagle"
Performed by: Seal
Released: February 10, 1997
Formats: CD
Chart positions: #10 US; #13 UK; #61 GER
"I Turn to You"
Performed by: All-4-One
Released: June 1997
References[edit]
Jump up ^ link
Jump up ^ link
Jump up ^ "RIAA Gold and Platinum Searchable Database". Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Geoff Mayfield (December 24, 1999). 1999 The Year in Music Totally '90s: Diary of a Decade - The listing of Top Pop Albums of the '90s & Hot 100 Singles of the '90s. Billboard. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
This soundtrack-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Juxtaglomerular apparatus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
A renal corpuscle, shown in blue and pink. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is shown to the left and labelled D.
Identifiers
MeSH
D007606
FMA
83599
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The juxtaglomerular apparatus (also known as the juxtaglomerular complex) is a structure in the kidney that regulates the function of each nephron, the functional units of the kidney. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is named because it is next to (juxta-[1]) the glomerulus.
The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of three types of cells:
the macula densa, a part of the ending of ascending limb of Loop of Henle which merges into distal convoluted tubule of the same nephron
juxtaglomerular cells, (also known as granular cells) which secrete renin
extraglomerular mesangial cells
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
2.1 Juxtaglomerular cells
2.2 Extraglomerular mesangial cells
2.3 Macula densa
3 Clinical significance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is part of the kidney nephron, next to the glomerulus. It is found between afferent arteriole and the distal convoluted tubule of the same nephron. This location is critical to its function in regulating renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate.
The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of three cell types.[2] They are:
the macula densa, a part of the distal convoluted tubule of the same nephron
juxtaglomerular cells, which secrete renin, specialized smooth muscle cells of the afferent arteriole, which supplies blood to the glomerulus
extraglomerular mesangial cells
Function[edit]
Juxtaglomerular cells[edit]
The renin–angiotensin system. It is activated when juxtaglomerular cells are poorly perfused.
See also: Renin–angiotensin system
Renin is produced by Juxtaglomerular cells. These cells are similar to epithelium and are located in the media of the afferent arterioles as they enter the glomeruli.[3] The juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin in response to:
Stimulation of the beta-1 adrenergic receptor
Decrease in renal perfusion pressure (detected directly by the granular cells)
Decrease in NaCl concentration at the macula densa, often due to an decrease in glomerular filtration rate
Extraglomerular mesangial cells[edit]
Extraglomerular mesangial cells are located in the junction between the afferent and efferent arterioles, but their significance in this location is unknown. Renin is also found in these cells.[3]
Macula densa[edit]
At the point where the afferent arterioles enter the glomerulus and the efferent arteriole leaves it, the tubule of nephron touches the arterioles of the glomerulus from which it rose. At this location, thick ascending limb of loop of Henle, there is a modified region of tubular epithelium called the Macula densa.[3] Cells in the macula densa respond to changes in the sodium chloride levels in the distal tubule of the nephron via the tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) loop.
The macula densa's detection of elevated sodium chloride, which leads to a decrease in GFR, is based on the concept of purinergic signaling.[4][5] An increase in the salt concentration causes several cell signals to eventually cause the adjacent afferent arteriole to constrict. This decreases the amount of blood coming from the afferent arterioles to the glomerular capillaries, and therefore decreases the amount of fluid that goes from the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's space (the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)).
When there is a decrease in the sodium concentration, less sodium is reabsorbed in the macular densa cells. The cells increase the production of nitric oxide and Prostaglandins to vasodilate the afferent arterioles and increase renin release.
See Also: TGF mechanism.
Clinical significance[edit]
Excess secretion of renin by the juxtaglomerular cells can lead to excess activity of the renin–angiotensin system, hypertension and an increase in blood volume. This is not responsive to the usual treatment for essential hypertension, namely medications and lifestyle modification.
One cause of this can be increased renin production due to narrowing of the renal artery, or a tumour of juxtaglomerula cells that produces renin. These will lead to secondary hyperaldosteronism, which will cause hypertension, high blood sodium, low blood potassium, and metabolic alkalosis.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Kidney
Renal corpuscle
Juxtaglomerular cell tumor
Hyperaldosteronism
Tubuloglomerular feedback
Myogenic mechanism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Dictionary.com". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease 7E
^ Jump up to: a b c Ganong. Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology. TATA McGRAW HILL. p. 705. ISBN 978-1-25-902753-6.
Jump up ^ Carlstrom, M.; Wilcox, C. S.; Welch, W. J. (2010). "Adenosine A2 receptors modulate tubuloglomerular feedback". AJP: Renal Physiology. 299 (2): F412–F417. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00211.2010. PMC 2928527  . PMID 20519378.
Jump up ^ Burnstock, Geoffrey; Evans, Louise C.; Bailey, Matthew A. (2014). "Purinergic signalling in the kidney in health and disease". The Official Journal of the International Purine Club. 10 (1,): 71–101. doi:10.1007/s11302-013-9400-5. PMC 3944043  . PMID 24265071.
External links[edit]
Electron micrograph
Diagram
[hide]
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Anatomy of the urinary system
Kidneys
Layers
Fascia
Capsule
Cortex
column
Medulla
sinus
pyramids
medullary interstitium
Lobe
Cortical lobule
Medullary ray
Nephron
Circulation
Arteries
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segmental
interlobar
arcuate
interlobular
afferent
Veins
Renal vein
Peritubular capillaries
Vasa recta
arcuate
interlobar
efferent
Nephron
Renal corpuscle
Glomerulus
Bowman's capsule
Glomerular basement membrane
Podocyte
Filtration slits
Mesangium
Intraglomerular mesangial cell
Renal tubule
Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
Descending
Thin ascending
Thick ascending
Distal convoluted tubule
Connecting tubule
Collecting ducts
Tubular fluid
Renal papilla
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
Macula densa
Juxtaglomerular cells
Mesangium
Extraglomerular mesangial cell
Ureters
Ureteropelvic junction
Bladder
Apex
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Neck
Median umbilical ligament
Muscular layer
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r/K selection theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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An ecological theory concerning the selection of life history traits
A North Atlantic right whale with solitary calf. Whale reproduction follows a K-selection strategy, with few offspring, long gestation, long parental care, and a long period until sexual maturity.
In ecology, r/K selection theory relates to the selection of combinations of traits in an organism that trade off between quantity and quality of offspring. The focus upon either increased quantity of offspring at the expense of individual parental investment of r-strategists, or reduced quantity of offspring with a corresponding increased parental investment of K-strategists, varies widely, seemingly to promote success in particular environments.
The terminology of r/K-selection was coined by the ecologists Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson in 1970[1] based on their work on island biogeography;[2] although the concept of the evolution of life history strategies has a longer history [3] (see e.g. plant strategies).
The theory was popular in the 1970s and 1980s, when it was used as a heuristic device, but lost importance in the early 1990s, when it was criticized by several empirical studies.[4][5] A life-history paradigm has replaced the r/K selection paradigm but continues to incorporate many of its important themes.[6]
Contents
1 Overview
1.1 r-selection
1.2 K-selection
1.3 Continuous spectrum
2 Ecological succession
3 Application
4 Status
5 See also
6 References
Overview[edit]
A litter of rats with their mother. The reproduction of rats follows an r-selection strategy, with many offspring, short gestation, less parental care, and a short time until sexual maturity.
In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesised to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions: r- or K-selection.[1] These terms, r and K, are drawn from standard ecological algebra as illustrated in the simplified Verhulst model of population dynamics:[7]
d N d t = r N ( 1 − N K ) {\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)}
where N is the population, r is the maximum growth rate, K is the carrying capacity of the local environment, and dN/dt, the derivative of N with respect to time t, is the rate of change in population with time. Thus, the equation relates the growth rate of the population N to the current population size, incorporating the effect of the two constant parameters r and K. (Note that decrease is negative growth.) The choice of the letter K came from the German Kapazitätsgrenze (capacity limit), while r came from rate.
r-selection[edit]
r-selected species are those that emphasize high growth rates, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high r, low K).[8] A typical r species is the dandelion (genus Taraxacum).
In unstable or unpredictable environments, r-selection predominates due to the ability to reproduce quickly. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Among the traits that are thought to characterize r-selection are high fecundity, small body size, early maturity onset, short generation time, and the ability to disperse offspring widely.
Organisms whose life history is subject to r-selection are often referred to as r-strategists or r-selected. Organisms that exhibit r-selected traits can range from bacteria and diatoms, to insects and grasses, to various semelparous cephalopods and small mammals, particularly rodents.
K-selection[edit]
By contrast, K-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches that invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low r, high K). In scientific literature, r-selected species are occasionally referred to as "opportunistic" whereas K-selected species are described as "equilibrium".[8]
In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly).
Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection include large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected.[9] Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, humans, and whales, but also smaller, long-lived organisms such as Arctic terns,[10] parrots and eagles.
Continuous spectrum[edit]
Although some organisms are identified as primarily r- or K-strategists, the majority of organisms do not follow this pattern. For instance, trees have traits such as longevity and strong competitiveness that characterise them as K-strategists. In reproduction, however, trees typically produce thousands of offspring and disperse them widely, traits characteristic of r-strategists.[11]
Similarly, reptiles such as sea turtles display both r- and K-traits: although sea turtles are large organisms with long lifespans (provided they reach adulthood), they produce large numbers of unnurtured offspring.
The r/K dichotomy can be re-expressed as a continuous spectrum using the economic concept of discounted future returns, with r-selection corresponding to large discount rates and K-selection corresponding to small discount rates.[12]
Ecological succession[edit]
In areas of major ecological disruption or sterilisation (such as after a major volcanic eruption, as at Krakatoa or Mount Saint Helens), r- and K-strategists play distinct roles in the ecological succession that regenerates the ecosystem. Because of their higher reproductive rates and ecological opportunism, primary colonisers typically are r-strategists and they are followed by a succession of increasingly competitive flora and fauna. The ability of an environment to increase energetic content, through photosynthetic capture of solar energy, increases with the increase in complex biodiversity as r species proliferate to reach a peak possible with K strategies.[13]
Eventually a new equilibrium is approached (sometimes referred to as a climax community), with r-strategists gradually being replaced by K-strategists which are more competitive and better adapted to the emerging micro-environmental characteristics of the landscape. Traditionally, biodiversity was considered maximized at this stage, with introductions of new species resulting in the replacement and local extinction of endemic species.[14] However, the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis posits that intermediate levels of disturbance in a landscape create patches at different levels of succession, promoting coexistence of colonizers and competitors at the regional scale.
Application[edit]
While usually applied at the level of species, r/K selection theory is also useful in studying the evolution of ecological and life history differences between subspecies, for instance the African honey bee, A. m. scutellata, and the Italian bee, A. m. ligustica.[15] At the other end of the scale, it has also been used to study the evolutionary ecology of whole groups of organisms, such as bacteriophages.[16]
Some researchers, such as Lee Ellis, J. Philippe Rushton, and Aurelio José Figueredo, have applied r/K selection theory to various human behaviors, including crime,[17] sexual promiscuity, fertility, IQ, and other traits related to life history theory.[18][19] Rushton's work resulted in him developing "differential K theory" to attempt to explain many variations in human behavior across geographic areas, a theory which has been criticized by many other researchers.[19][20] Other researchers have proposed that the evolution of human inflammatory responses is related to r/K selection.[21]
Status[edit]
Although r/K selection theory became widely used during the 1970s,[22][23][24][25] it also began to attract more critical attention.[26][27][28][29] In particular, a review by the ecologist Stephen C. Stearns drew attention to gaps in the theory, and to ambiguities in the interpretation of empirical data for testing it.[30]
In 1981, a review of the r/K selection literature by Parry demonstrated that there was no agreement among researchers using the theory about the definition of r- and K-selection, which led him to question whether the assumption of a relation between reproductive expenditure and packaging of offspring was justified.[31] A 1982 study by Templeton and Johnson, showed that in a population of Drosophila mercatorum under K-selection the population actually produced a higher frequency of traits typically associated with r-selection.[32] Several other studies contradicting the predictions of r/K selection theory were also published between 1977 and 1994.[33][34][35][36]
When Stearns reviewed the status of the theory in 1992,[37] he noted that from 1977 to 1982 there was an average of 42 references to the theory per year in the BIOSIS literature search service, but from 1984 to 1989 the average dropped to 16 per year and continued to decline. He concluded that r/K theory was a once useful heuristic that no longer serves a purpose in life history theory.[38]
More recently, the panarchy theories of adaptive capacity and resilience promoted by C. S. Holling and Lance Gunderson have revived interest in the theory, and use it as a way of integrating social systems, economics and ecology.[39]
Writing in 2002, Reznick and colleagues reviewed the controversy regarding r/K selection theory and concluded that:
The distinguishing feature of the r- and K-selection paradigm was the focus on density-dependent selection as the important agent of selection on organisms’ life histories. This paradigm was challenged as it became clear that other factors, such as age-specific mortality, could provide a more mechanistic causative link between an environment and an optimal life history (Wilbur et al. 1974;[26] Stearns 1976,[40] 1977[30]). The r- and K-selection paradigm was replaced by new paradigm that focused on age-specific mortality (Stearns, 1976;[40] Charlesworth, 1980[41]). This new life-history paradigm has matured into one that uses age-structured models as a framework to incorporate many of the themes important to the r–K paradigm.
—  Reznick, Bryant and Bashey, 2002[6]
See also[edit]
Evolutionary game theory
Semelparity and iteroparity
Ruderal species
Trivers–Willard hypothesis
Life history theory
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b For example: Weinbauer, M.G.; Höfle, M.G. (1 October 1998). "Distribution and Life Strategies of Two Bacterial Populations in a Eutrophic Lake". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64 (10): 3776–3783. PMC 106546. PMID 9758799.
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^ Jump up to: a b Weizmann, Fredric; Wiener, Neil I.; Wiesenthal, David L.; Ziegler, Michael. "Differential K theory and racial hierarchies". Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne. 31 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1037/h0078934.
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Jump up ^ VAN BODEGOM, D.; MAY, L.; MEIJ, H. J.; WESTENDORP, R. G. J. "Regulation of Human Life Histories: The Role of the Inflammatory Host Response". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1100 (1): 84–97. doi:10.1196/annals.1395.007.
Jump up ^ Gadgil, M.; Solbrig, O.T. (1972). "Concept of r-selection and K-selection — evidence from wild flowers and some theoretical consideration". Am. Nat. 106 (947): 14–31. doi:10.1086/282748. JSTOR 2459833.
Jump up ^ Long, T.; Long, G. (1974). "Effects of r-selection and K-selection on components of variance for 2 quantitative traits". Genetics. 76 (3): 567–573. PMC 1213086. PMID 4208860.
Jump up ^ Grahame, J. (1977). "Reproductive effort and r-selection and K-selection in 2 species of Lacuna (Gastropoda-Prosobranchia)". Mar. Biol. 40 (3): 217–224. doi:10.1007/BF00390877.
Jump up ^ Luckinbill, L.S. (1978). "r and K selection in experimental populations of Escherichia coli". Science. 202 (4373): 1201–1203. doi:10.1126/science.202.4373.1201. PMID 17735406.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilbur, H.M.; Tinkle, D.W.; Collins, J.P. (1974). "Environmental certainty, trophic level, and resource availability in life history evolution". American Naturalist. 108 (964): 805–816. doi:10.1086/282956. JSTOR 2459610.
Jump up ^ Barbault, R. (1987). "Are still r-selection and K-selection operative concepts?". Acta Oecologica-Oecologia Generalis. 8: 63–70.
Jump up ^ Kuno, E. (1991). "Some strange properties of the logistic equation defined with r and K – inherent defects or artifacts". Researches on Population Ecology. 33: 33–39. doi:10.1007/BF02514572.
Jump up ^ Getz, W.M. (1993). "Metaphysiological and evolutionary dynamics of populations exploiting constant and interactive resources – r-K selection revisited". Evolutionary Ecology. 7 (3): 287–305. doi:10.1007/BF01237746.
^ Jump up to: a b Stearns, S.C. (1977). "Evolution of life-history traits – critique of theory and a review of data" (PDF). Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 8: 145–171. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.08.110177.001045. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16.
Jump up ^ Parry, G.D. (March 1981). "The Meanings of r- and K-selection". Oecologia. 48 (2): 260–4. doi:10.1007/BF00347974.
Jump up ^ Templeton A.R.; Johnson, J.S. (1982). "Life History Evolution Under Pleiotropy and K-selection in a Natural Population of Drosophila mercatorum". In Barker, J.S.F.; Starmer, W.T. Ecological genetics and evolution: the cactus-yeast-drosophila model system. Academic Press. pp. 225–239. ISBN 978-0-12-078820-0.
Jump up ^ Snell, Terry W.; King, Charles E. (December 1977). "Lifespan and Fecundity Patterns in Rotifers: The Cost of Reproduction". Evolution. 31 (4): 882–890. doi:10.2307/2407451.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Charles E.; Condra, Cindra (November 1980). "r- and K-Selection in Drosophila pseudoobscura". Evolution. 34 (6): 1183–93. doi:10.2307/2408299.
Jump up ^ Hollocher, H.; Templeton, A.R. (April 1994). "The molecular through ecological genetics of abnormal abdomen in Drosophila mercatorum. VI. The non-neutrality of the Y chromosome rDNA polymorphism". Genetics. 136 (4): 1373–84. PMC 1205918. PMID 8013914.
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Jump up ^ Charlesworth, B. (1980). Evolution in age structured populations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Northwest Ordinance
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Northwest Territory (1787)
The Northwest Ordinance (formally An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States, North-West of the River Ohio, and also known as The Ordinance of 1787) was an act of the Congress of the Confederation of the United States (the Confederation Congress), passed July 13, 1787. The ordinance created the Northwest Territory, the first organized territory of the United States, from lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains, between British North America and the Great Lakes to the north and the Ohio River to the south. The upper Mississippi River formed the Territory's western boundary. It was the response to multiple pressures: the westward expansion of American settlers, tense diplomatic relations with Great Britain and Spain, violent confrontations with Native Americans, the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, and the empty treasury of the American government. It superseded the Land Ordinance of 1784 (of which Thomas Jefferson was the principal author). The 1787 law relied on a strong central government, which was assured under the new United States Constitution|Constitution]] that took effect the following year. In August 1789, it was replaced by the Northwest Ordinance of 1789, in which the new United States Congress reaffirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications.[1]
Considered one of the most important legislative acts of the Confederation Congress,[2] it established the precedent by which the Federal government would be sovereign and expand westward with the admission of new states, rather than with the expansion of existing states and their established sovereignty under the Articles of Confederation. It also set legislative precedent with regard to American public domain lands.[3] The U.S. Supreme Court recognized the authority of the Northwest Ordinance of 1789 within the applicable Northwest Territory as constitutional in Strader v. Graham, 51 U.S. 82, 96, 97 (1851), but did not extend the Ordinance to cover the respective states once they were admitted to the Union.[4]
The prohibition of slavery in the territory had the practical effect of establishing the Ohio River as the boundary between free and slave territory in the region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. This division helped set the stage for national competition over admitting free and slave states, the basis of a critical question in American politics in the 19th century until the Civil War.
Contents
[hide]
1 Context and history
2 Effects of the legislation
2.1 Established legal basis of land ownership
2.2 Abolition and transfer of state claims
2.3 Admission of new states
2.4 Education
2.5 Establishment of territorial government
2.6 Establishment of natural rights
2.7 Prohibition of slavery
2.8 Effects on Native Americans
3 Commemoration
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Context and history[edit]
Main article: Northwest Territory
The territory was acquired by Great Britain from France following victory in the Seven Years' War and the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Great Britain took over the Ohio Country, as its eastern portion was known, but a few months later closed it to new European settlement by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The Crown tried to restrict settlement of the thirteen colonies between the Appalachians and the Atlantic, which raised colonial tensions among those who wanted to move west. With the colonials' victory in the American Revolutionary War and signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the United States claimed the territory, as well as the areas south of the Ohio. The territories were subject to overlapping and conflicting claims of the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Virginia dating from their colonial past. The British were active in some of the border area until after the Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812.
The region had long been desired for expansion by colonists. The states were encouraged to settle their claims by the US government's de facto opening of the area to settlement following the defeat of Great Britain. In 1784, Thomas Jefferson, a delegate from Virginia, proposed that the states should relinquish their particular claims to all the territory west of the Appalachians, and the area should be divided into new states of the Union. Jefferson's proposal to create a federal domain through state cessions of western lands was derived from earlier proposals dating back to 1776 and debates about the Articles of Confederation.[5] Jefferson proposed creating ten roughly rectangular states from the territory, and suggested names for the new states: Cherronesus, Sylvania, Assenisipia, Illinoia, Metropotamia, Polypotamia, Pelisipia, Washington, Michigania and Saratoga.[6] The Congress of the Confederation modified the proposal, passing it as the Land Ordinance of 1784. This ordinance established the example that would become the basis for the Northwest Ordinance three years later.
The 1784 ordinance was criticized by George Washington in 1785 and James Monroe in 1786. Monroe convinced Congress to reconsider the proposed state boundaries; a review committee recommended repealing that part of the ordinance. Other politicians questioned the 1784 ordinance's plan for organizing governments in new states, and worried that the new states' relatively small sizes would undermine the original states' power in Congress. Other events such as the reluctance of states south of the Ohio River to cede their western claims resulted in a narrowed geographic focus.[5]
When passed in New York in 1787, the Northwest Ordinance showed the influence of Jefferson. It called for dividing the territory into gridded townships, so that once the lands were surveyed, they could be sold to individuals and speculative land companies. This would provide both a new source of federal government revenue and an orderly pattern for future settlement.[7]
Effects of the legislation[edit]
Map of the states and territories of the United States as it was on August 7, 1789, when the Northwest Territory was first organized, to May 26, 1790, when the Southwest Territory was organized
Established legal basis of land ownership[edit]
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the concept of fee simple ownership, by which ownership was in perpetuity with unlimited power to sell or give it away. This was called the "first guarantee of freedom of contract in the United States."[8]
Abolition and transfer of state claims[edit]
Main article: State cession
Passage of the ordinance, which ceded all unsettled lands to the federal government and established the public domain, followed the relinquishing of all such claims over the territory by the states. These territories were to be administered directly by Congress, with the intent of their eventual admission as newly created states. The legislation was revolutionary in that it established the precedent for new lands to be administered by the central government, albeit temporarily, rather than under the jurisdiction of the individually sovereign original states, as it was with the Articles of Confederation. The legislation also broke colonial precedent by defining future use of the natural navigation, transportation and communication routes; it did so in a way that anticipated future acquisitions beyond the Northwest Territories, and established federal policy.[9] Article 4 states: "The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, and those of any other States that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impost, or duty therefor."
Admission of new states[edit]
The most significant intended purpose of this legislation was its mandate for the creation of new states from the region. It provided that at least three but not more than five states would be established in the territory, and that once such a state achieved a population of 60,000 it would be admitted into representation in the Continental Congress on an equal footing with the original thirteen states. The first state created from the Northwest Territory was Ohio, in 1803, at which time the remainder was renamed Indiana Territory. The other four states were Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. A portion (about a third) of what later became the state of Minnesota was also part of the territory.
Education[edit]
The ordinance of Congress called for a public university as part of the settlement and eventual statehood of the Ohio Territory, further stipulating "Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." In 1786, Manasseh Cutler became interested in the settlement of western lands by American pioneers to the Northwest Territory. The following year, as agent of the Ohio Company of Associates that he had been involved in creating, he organized a contract with Congress whereby his associates (former soldiers of the Revolutionary War) might purchase one and a half million acres (6,000 km²) of land at the mouth of the Muskingum River with their Certificate of Indebtedness. Cutler also took a leading part in drafting the Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory, which was finally presented to Congress by Massachusetts delegate Nathan Dane. To smooth passage of the Northwest Ordinance, Cutler bribed key congressmen by making them partners in his land company. By changing the office of provisional governor from an elected to an appointed position, Cutler was able to offer the position to the president of Congress, Arthur St. Clair.[10] In 1797, settlers from Marietta traveled upstream via the Hocking River to establish a location for the school, choosing Athens due to its location directly between Chillicothe (the original capital of Ohio) and Marietta. Originally named in 1802 as the American Western University, the school never opened. Instead, Ohio University was formally established on February 18, 1804, when its charter was approved by the Ohio General Assembly. Its establishment came 11 months after Ohio was admitted to the Union. The first three students enrolled in 1809. Ohio University graduated two students with bachelor's degrees in 1815.[11]
Establishment of territorial government[edit]
Before the population of a territory reached 5,000, there would be a limited form of government. There would be a governor, a secretary, and three judges, all appointed by Congress. The governor will have a "freehold estate therein, in one thousand acres of land,". The secretary and the judges will have a, "freehold estate therein, in five hundred acres of land". The governor would be commander-in-chief of the militia, appoint magistrates and other civil officers, and help create and publish laws as they see fit for their territory. They would have a three-year term. The secretary would be in charge of keeping and preserving the acts and laws passed by the territorial legislatures, the public records of the district and to transit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings every six months to the secretary of the Continental Congress. They would have a four-year term. The judges would be in charge will help the governor create and pass acts and laws and in making official court rulings. Their terms did not have a set time period. As soon as the population of a territory reached 5000 free, male inhabitants, then they would receive authority to elect representatives from their counties or townships for the general assembly. For every 500 free, males there would be one representative, until there were 25 representatives. Then the Congress will control the number and proportion of the representatives from that legislature. No male can be a representative unless they have been a citizen of the United States for at least three years or lived in the district for three years. In both cases the male in question would have to own at least 200 acres of land within the same district. These representatives shall serve for a term of two years. If a representative died or was removed from office, a new one would be elected to serve out the remainder time.
Establishment of natural rights[edit]
The natural rights provisions of the ordinance foreshadowed the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution.[12] Many of the concepts and guarantees of the Ordinance of 1787 were incorporated in the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. In the Northwest Territory, various legal and property rights were enshrined, religious tolerance was proclaimed, and it was enunciated that since "Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." The right of habeas corpus was written into the charter, as was freedom of religious worship and bans on excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment. Trial by jury and a ban on ex post facto laws were also rights recognized.
Prohibition of slavery[edit]
Art. 6. There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided, always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original States, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid.[13]
The language of the ordinance prohibits slavery, but also contained a clear fugitive slave clause as well.[14] Efforts in the 1820s by pro-slavery forces to legalize slavery in two of the states created from the Northwest Territory failed, but an "indentured servant" law allowed some slaveholders to bring slaves under that status; they could not be bought or sold.[15][16] Southern states voted for the law because they did not want to compete with the territory over tobacco as a commodity crop; it was so labor-intensive that it was grown profitably only with slave labor. Additionally, slave-states' political power would merely be equalized, as there were three more slave-states than there were free-states in 1790.[17]
Effects on Native Americans[edit]
In two parts, the Northwest Ordinance mentions the Native Americans within this region. The first pertains to the demarcation of counties and townships out of lands that the Indians were regarded as having lost or relinquished title:
Section 8. For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and for the execution of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper divisions thereof; and he shall proceed from time to time as circumstances may require, to lay out the parts of the district in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature.[18]
The second describes the preferred relationship with the Indians:
Article III. Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity, shall from time to time be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them.[19]
Many Native Americans in Ohio, who were not parties, refused to acknowledge treaties signed after the Revolutionary War that ceded lands north of the Ohio River inhabited by them to the United States. In a conflict sometimes known as the Northwest Indian War, Blue Jacket of the Shawnees and Little Turtle of the Miamis formed a confederation to stop white expropriation of the territory. After the Indian confederation had killed more than 800 soldiers in two battles — the worst defeats ever suffered by the U.S. at the hands of the Indians — President Washington assigned General Anthony Wayne command of a new army, which eventually defeated the confederation and thus allowed European-Americans to continue settling the territory.
Commemoration[edit]
In 1907, a plaque commemorating the "first permanent settlement in the territory northwest of the Ohio" and the Northwest Ordinance was placed on the exterior of the Federal Hall National Monument at the corner of Broad and Nassau Streets in Lower Manhattan. Federal Hall served as the nation's Seat of government in 1787, when the Northwrest Ordinance was passed into law.
On July 13, 1937, the U.S. Post Office issued a 3-cent commemorative stamp to mark the 150th anniversary of the the Northwest Territory as defined by the Ordinance of 1787. The engraving on the stamp depicts a map of the United States at the time between the figures of Manasseh Cutler (left) and Rufus Putnam (right).[20]
See also[edit]
American pioneers to the Northwest Territory
Land Ordinance of 1785
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Reginald Horsman, "The Northwest Ordinance and the Shaping of an Expanding Republic." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1989): 21-32 in JSTOR.
Jump up ^ "Northwest Ordinance". loc.gov. Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ Shōsuke Satō, History of the land question in the United States, Johns Hopkins University, (1886), p.352
Jump up ^ 51 U.S. 82, 96, 97
^ Jump up to: a b Hubbard, Bill, Jr. (2009). American Boundaries: the Nation, the States, the Rectangular Survey. University of Chicago Press. pp. 46–47, 114. ISBN 978-0-226-35591-7.
Jump up ^ "Report from the Committee for the Western Territory to the United States Congress". Envisaging the West: Thomas Jefferson and the Roots of Lewis and Clark. University of Nebraska–Lincoln and University of Virginia. March 1, 1784. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Jerel A. Rosati, James M. Scott, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Cengage Learning, 2010, p. 20
Jump up ^ De Soto, Hernando (2000). The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465016143.
Jump up ^ The Nation and its Water Resources, Leonard B. Dworsky, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control, United States Public Health Service, 167pp., 1962. Chapters 1-6
Jump up ^ McDougall, Walter A. Freedom Just Around the Corner: A New American History, 1585–1828. (New York: Harper Collins, 2004), p. 289.
Jump up ^ "Ohio University". Ohio History Central: An Online Encyclopedia of Ohio History. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ Chardavoyne, David G. (2006). "The Northwest Ordinance and Michigan's Territorial Heritage". In Finkelman, Paul; Hershock, Martin J. The history of Michigan law. Ohio University Press series on law, society, and politics in the Midwest. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1661-7. OCLC 65205057. Its provisions established a structure of government that encouraged settlement of that vast region and provided those settlers a startling set of civil rights that presaged the U.S. Constitution's Bill of Rights
Jump up ^ "Northwest Ordinance; July 13, 1787". Avalon Project. Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ Paul Finkelman, "Slavery and the Northwest Ordinance: A Study in Ambiguity", Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Winter 1986)|, pp. 345
Jump up ^ David Brion Davis and Steven Mintz, The Boisterous Sea of Liberty, 2000 p. 234
Jump up ^ Paul Finkelman, "Evading the Ordinance: The Persistence of Bondage in Indiana and Illinois", , Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 9, No. 1, Spring 1989, p. 21
Jump up ^ Marcus D. Pohlmann, Linda Vallar Whisenhunt, Student's Guide to Landmark Congressional Laws on Civil Rights, Greenwood Press, 2002, pp. 14–15
Jump up ^ Transcript of the Northwest Ordinance – 1787. An Ordinance for the government of the Territory of the United States northwest of the River Ohio. Section 8. Retrieved March 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Transcript of the Northwest Ordinance – 1787. An Ordinance for the government of the Territory of the United States northwest of the River Ohio. Section 14, Article 3. Retrieved March 21, 2014
Jump up ^ "Ordinance of 1787 Sesquicentennial Issue". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved July 16, 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Berkhofer Jr, Robert F. "The Northwest Ordinance and the Principle of Territorial Evolution." in The American Territorial System (Athens, Ohio, 1973) pp: 45-55.
Duffey, Denis P. "The Northwest Ordinance as a Constitutional Document." Columbia Law Review (1995): 929-968. in JSTOR
Horsman, Reginald. "The Northwest Ordinance and the Shaping of an Expanding Republic." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1989): 21-32. in JSTOR
Hyman, Harold M. American Singularity: The 1787 Northwest Ordinance, the 1862 Homestead and Morrill Acts, and the 1944 GI Bill (University of Georgia Press, 2008)
Onuf, Peter S. Statehood and union: A history of the Northwest Ordinance (Indiana University Press, 1987)
Williams, Frederick D., ed. The Northwest Ordinance: Essays on Its Formulation, Provisions, and Legacy (Michigan State U. Press, 2012)
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Northwest Ordinance
Facsimile of 1789 Act
"Turning Points: How the Ordinance of 1787 was drafted, by one of its authors", Wisconsin Historical Society
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Weak (SWV song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Weak"
Single by SWV
from the album It's About Time
B-side
"SMV (In the House)"
"I'm So into You (Original Mix)"
Released
April 10, 1993 (1993-04-10)
Format
CD single
7" single
cassette single
Recorded
December 1991–early 1992
Genre
R&B
pop
Length
4:51
Label
RCA
Songwriter(s)
Brian Alexander Morgan
Producer(s)
Brian Alexander Morgan
SWV singles chronology
"I'm So into You"
(1992) "Weak"
(1993) "Right Here/Human Nature"
(1993)
"I'm So into You"
(1992) "Weak"
(1993) "Right Here/Human Nature"
(1993)
"Weak" is an R&B ballad recorded by the girl group SWV for their debut album, It's About Time (1992). It was written and produced by Brian Alexander Morgan, who composed the lyrics based upon his feelings towards R&B singer Chanté Moore.[1] Morgan originally wrote the song for Charlie Wilson, but he later decided to give the song to the group. Morgan revealed that Coko didn't like the song and gave him attitude during the recording of the single.[2]
"Weak" was released as the third single from SWV's album, following the top-ten success of "I'm So Into You". It sold over one million copies domestically and was awarded a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America.[3][4] "Weak" hit number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in July 1993 where it stayed for two weeĸѕ. It also topped the Hot R&B Singles chart for two weeks.[5] Outside the US, the song also reached number six on the New Zealand Singles Charts; it went on to become their signature song.
Billboard named the song #72 on their list of 100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cover version
2 Track listings
3 Charts
3.1 Weekly Charts
3.2 End of decade charts
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Cover version[edit]
Teen singer JoJo covered "Weak" in 2004 on her self-titled debut album.
Track listings[edit]
US Maxi-CD
Weak (Radio Edit) – 4:15
Weak (Bam Jam Jeep Mix) – 4:35
Weak (R-N-B Radio Mix) – 4:39
Weak (Bam Jam Extended Jeep Mix) – 4:54
Weak (Down Mix) – 4:34
Weak (Album Version) – 4:51
Germany Maxi-CD
Weak (R-N-B Mix) – 4:44
Weak (Bam Jam Extended Jeep Mix) – 6:00
SMV (In The House) – 2:58
I'm So into You (Original Mix) – 4:38
Charts[edit]
Weekly Charts[edit]
Chart (1993)
Peak
position
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[7]
6
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[8]
33
US Billboard Hot 100[9]
1
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[10]
1
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[11]
2
US Rhythmic (Billboard)[12]
1
End of decade charts[edit]
Chart (1990–1999)
Position
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[13] 59
See also[edit]
R&B number-one hits of 1993 (USA)
List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 1993 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Frederick, Brendan. "Interview: Brian Alexander Morgan, the '90s Mastermind Behind SWV, on His History & Return to Music". complex.com. Complex Magazine. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
Jump up ^ Greene, Andy. "The WTF Comeback of SWV". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
Jump up ^ "American certifications – S.W.V. – Weak". Recording Industry Association of America.
Jump up ^ "Best-Selling Records of 1993". Billboard. BPI Communications. 106 (3): 73. January 15, 1994. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved May 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–2004. Record Research. p. 562.
Jump up ^ "100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time: Critics' Picks". Billboard. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – SWV – Weak". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "SWV: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "SWV Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "SWV Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "SWV Chart History (Pop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "SWV Chart History (Rhythmic)". Billboard. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Geoff Mayfield (December 25, 1999). 1999 The Year in Music Totally '90s: Diary of a Decade – The listing of Top Pop Albums of the '90s & Hot 100 Singles of the '90s. Billboard. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
SWV
Cheryl "Coko" Clemons
Tamara "Taj" Johnson-George
Leanne "Lelee" Lyons
Studio albums
It's About Time
New Beginning
Release Some Tension
A Special Christmas
I Missed Us
Still
Other releases
The Remixes
Compilations
Greatest Hits (RCA)
Greatest Hits (Simitar)
Best of SWV
Platinum & Gold Collection
The Encore Collection
Singles
"Right Here"
"I'm So into You"
"Weak"
"Right Here/Human Nature"
"Downtown"
"You're Always on My Mind"
"Anything"
"You're the One"
"Use Your Heart"
"It's All About U"
"Can We"
"Someone"
"Lose My Cool"
"Rain"
"Co-Sign"
"Ain't No Man"
"MCE (Man Crush Everyday)"
Tours
SWV World Tour
Related articles
SWV discography
Book:SWV
This 1990s R&B/soul music song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weak_(SWV_song)&oldid=829415430"
Categories:
1992 songs
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Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
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Contemporary R&B ballads
Songs written by Brian Alexander Morgan
1990s R&B song stubs
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