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Ed Gein
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Ed Gein
Gein, circa 1958
Born
Edward Theodore Gein
(1906-08-27)August 27, 1906
La Crosse County, Wisconsin, United States
Died
July 26, 1984(1984-07-26) (aged 77)
Madison, Wisconsin, United States
Cause of death
Respiratory and heart failure due to cancer
Other names
The Butcher of Plainfield[1]
Criminal penalty
Served life in the Mendota Mental Health Institute
Conviction(s)
Murder
Killings
Victims
Bernice Worden and Mary Hogan (officially confirmed)
Country
United States
State(s)
Wisconsin
Date apprehended
November 16, 1957
Edward Theodore Gein (/ˈɡiːn/; August 27, 1906[2] – July 26, 1984), also known as The Butcher of Plainfield, was an American murderer and body snatcher. His crimes, committed around his hometown of Plainfield, Wisconsin, gathered widespread notoriety after authorities discovered that Gein had exhumed corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies and keepsakes from their bones and skin. Gein confessed to killing two women – tavern owner Mary Hogan in 1954, and a Plainfield hardware store owner, Bernice Worden in 1957. Gein was initially found unfit to stand trial and confined to a mental health facility. In 1968, Gein was found guilty but legally insane of the murder of Worden,[3] and was remanded to psychiatric institutions. He died at Mendota Mental Health Institute of cancer-induced liver and respiratory failure at age 77 on July 26, 1984. He is buried next to his family in the Plainfield Cemetery, in a now unmarked grave.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
1.1 Deaths in immediate family
2 Career
3 Crimes
3.1 Trial
3.2 Aftermath
4 Death
5 Documentary
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Early life[edit]
Ed Gein was born in La Crosse County, Wisconsin, USA, on August 27, 1906,[2] the second of two boys of George Philip Gein (1873–1940[4]) and Augusta Wilhelmine (née Lehrke) Gein (1878–1945[5]). Gein had an older brother, Henry George Gein (1901–1944[6]). Augusta despised her husband, an alcoholic who was unable to keep a job; he had worked at various times as a carpenter, tanner, and insurance salesman. George owned a local grocery shop for a few years, but sold the business, and the family left the city to live in isolation on a 155-acre farm in the Town of Plainfield in Waushara County, Wisconsin,[7] which became the Gein family's permanent residence.[8]
Augusta took advantage of the farm's isolation by turning away outsiders who could have influenced her sons.[8] Edward left the farm only to attend school. Outside of school, he spent most of his time doing chores on the farm. Augusta was a fervent Lutheran. She preached to her boys about the innate immorality of the world, the evil of drinking, and the belief that all women were naturally prostitutes and instruments of the devil. She reserved time every afternoon to read to them from the Bible, usually selecting graphic verses from the Old Testament concerning death, murder, and divine retribution.[9]
Edward was shy, and classmates and teachers remembered him as having strange mannerisms, such as seemingly random laughter, as if he were laughing at his own personal jokes. To make matters worse, his mother punished him whenever he tried to make friends. Despite his poor social development, he did fairly well in school, particularly in reading.[8]
Deaths in immediate family[edit]
On April 1, 1940, Ed's father George died of heart failure caused by his alcoholism; he was 66 years old. Henry and Ed began doing odd jobs around town to help cover living expenses. The brothers were generally considered reliable and honest by residents of the community. While both worked as handymen, Ed also frequently babysat for neighbors. He enjoyed babysitting, seeming to relate more easily to children than adults. Henry began dating a divorced, single mother of two and planned on moving in with her; Henry worried about his brother's attachment to their mother and often spoke ill of her around Ed, who responded with shock and hurt.[8]
On May 16, 1944, Henry and Ed were burning away marsh vegetation on the property;[10] the fire got out of control, drawing the attention of the local fire department. By the end of the day – the fire having been extinguished and the firefighters gone – Ed reported his brother missing. With lanterns and flashlights, a search party searched for Henry, whose dead body was found lying face down.[11] Apparently, he had been dead for some time, and it appeared that the cause of death was heart failure, since he had not been burned or injured otherwise.[11] It was later reported, in Harold Schechter's biography of Gein, Deviant, that Henry had bruises on his head.[12][13] The police dismissed the possibility of foul play and the county coroner later officially listed asphyxiation as the cause of death.[8][13] The authorities accepted the accident theory, but no official investigation was conducted and an autopsy was not performed.[14] Some suspected that Ed Gein killed his brother. Questioning Gein about the death of Bernice Worden in 1957, state investigator Joe Wilimovsky brought up questions about Henry's death.[10] Dr. George W. Arndt, who studied the case, wrote that, in retrospect, it was "possible and likely" that Henry's death was "the "Cain and Abel" aspect of this case".[15]
Gein and his mother were now alone. Augusta had a paralyzing stroke shortly after Henry's death, and Gein devoted himself to taking care of her. Sometime in 1945, Gein later recounted, he and his mother visited a man named Smith, who lived nearby, to purchase straw. According to Gein, Augusta witnessed Smith beating a dog. A woman inside the Smith home came outside and yelled to stop. Smith beat the dog to death. Augusta was extremely upset by this scene. What bothered her did not appear to be the brutality toward the dog but the presence of the woman. Augusta told Ed that the woman was not married to Smith so had no business being there. "Smith's harlot", Augusta angrily called her. She had a second stroke soon after, and her health deteriorated rapidly.[16] She died on December 29, 1945, at the age of 67. Ed was devastated by her death; in the words of author Harold Schechter, he had "lost his only friend and one true love. And he was absolutely alone in the world."[13]
Career[edit]
Gein held on to the farm and earned money from odd jobs. He boarded up rooms used by his mother, including the upstairs, downstairs parlor, and living room, leaving them untouched; while the rest of the house became increasingly squalid, these rooms remained pristine. Gein lived thereafter in a small room next to the kitchen. Around this time, he became interested in reading death-cult magazines and adventure stories, particularly those involving cannibals or Nazi atrocities.[8]
Gein was a handyman and received a farm subsidy from the federal government starting in 1951. He occasionally worked for the local municipal road crew and crop-threshing crews in the area. Sometime between 1946 and 1956, he also sold an 80-acre parcel of land that his brother Henry had owned.[17][better source needed]
Crimes[edit]
On the morning of November 16, 1957, Plainfield hardware store owner Bernice Worden disappeared. A Plainfield resident reported that the hardware store's truck had been driven out from the rear of the building around 9:30 am. The hardware store was closed the entire day; some area residents believed this was because of deer hunting season. Bernice Worden's son, Deputy Sheriff Frank Worden, entered the store around 5:00 pm to find the store's cash register open and blood stains on the floor.[18] Frank Worden told investigators that Ed Gein had been in the store the evening before his mother's disappearance, and that he would return the next morning for a gallon of antifreeze. A sales slip for a gallon of antifreeze was the last receipt written by Worden on the morning she disappeared.[19] On the evening of the same day, Gein was arrested at a West Plainfield[a] grocery store,[20] and the Waushara County Sheriff's Department searched the Gein farm.[18] A Waushara County Sheriff's deputy[18] discovered Worden's decapitated body in a shed on Gein's property, hung upside down by ropes at her wrists, with a crossbar at her ankles. The torso was "dressed out like a deer".[21] She had been shot with a .22-caliber rifle, and the mutilations were made after her death.[22]
Searching the house, authorities found:[23]
Whole human bones and fragments[24]
Wastebasket made of human skin[25]
Human skin covering several chair seats[26]
Skulls on his bedposts[27]
Female skulls, some with the tops sawn off[28]
Bowls made from human skulls[25]
A corset made from a female torso skinned from shoulders to waist[26]
Leggings made from human leg skin[25]
Masks made from the skin of female heads[29]
Mary Hogan's face mask in a paper bag[27]
Mary Hogan's skull in a box[30]
Bernice Worden's entire head in a burlap sack[31]
Bernice Worden's heart "in a plastic bag in front of Gein's potbellied stove"[32]
Nine vulvae in a shoe box[33]
A young girl's dress and "the vulvas of two females judged to have been about fifteen years old"[34]
A belt made from female human nipples[35]
Four noses[23]
A pair of lips on a window shade drawstring[23]
A lampshade made from the skin of a human face[23]
Fingernails from female fingers
These artifacts were photographed at the state crime laboratory and then destroyed.[36]
When questioned, Gein told investigators that between 1947 and 1952,[37] he made as many as 40 nocturnal visits to three local graveyards to exhume recently buried bodies while he was in a "daze-like" state. On about 30 of those visits, he said he came out of the daze while in the cemetery, left the grave in good order, and returned home empty-handed.[38] On the other occasions, he dug up the graves of recently buried middle-aged women he thought resembled his mother[39] and took the bodies home, where he tanned their skins to make his paraphernalia.
Gein admitted to stealing from nine graves and led investigators to their locations. Because authorities were uncertain as to whether the slight Gein was capable of single-handedly digging up a grave during a single evening, they exhumed two of the graves and found them empty (one had a crowbar in place of the body), thus apparently corroborating Gein's confession.[40][41] Allan Wilimovsky of the state crime laboratory participated in opening three test graves identified by Gein. The caskets were inside wooden boxes; the top boards ran crossways (not lengthwise). The tops of the boxes were about two feet (60 cm) below the surface in sandy soil. Gein had robbed the graves soon after the funerals while the graves were not completed. They were found as Gein described: One casket was empty, one Gein had failed to open when he lost his pry bar, and most of the body was gone from the third, but Gein had returned rings and some body parts.[42]
Soon after his mother's death, Gein began to create a "woman suit" so that "...he could become his mother—to literally crawl into her skin".[23] Gein denied having sex with the bodies he exhumed, explaining: "They smelled too bad."[43] During state crime laboratory interrogation, Gein also admitted to the shooting death of Mary Hogan, a tavern owner missing since 1954 whose head was found in his house, but he later denied memory of details of her death.[44]
A 16-year-old youth, whose parents were friends of Gein and who attended ball games and movies with him, reported that Gein kept shrunken heads in his house, which Gein had described as relics from the Philippines, sent by a cousin who had served on the islands during World War II.[45] Upon investigation by the police, these were determined to be human facial skins, carefully peeled from corpses and used by Gein as masks.[46]
Gein was also considered a suspect in several other unsolved cases in Wisconsin, including the 1953 disappearance of Evelyn Hartley, a La Crosse babysitter.[47]
During questioning, Waushara County sheriff Art Schley reportedly assaulted Gein by banging his head and face into a brick wall. As a result, Gein's initial confession was ruled inadmissible.[13][48] Schley died of heart failure at age 43 in 1968, before Gein's trial.[49] Many who knew Schley said he was traumatized by the horror of Gein's crimes, and this, along with the fear of having to testify (especially about assaulting Gein), caused his death. One of his friends said: "He was a victim of Ed Gein as surely as if he had butchered him."[13]
Trial[edit]
On November 21, 1957, Gein was arraigned on one count of first degree murder in Waushara County Court, where he pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity.[50] Gein was diagnosed with schizophrenia and found mentally incompetent, thus unfit for trial. He was sent to the Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane (now the Dodge Correctional Institution), a maximum-security facility in Waupun, Wisconsin, and later transferred to the Mendota State Hospital in Madison, Wisconsin.[51]
In 1968, doctors determined Gein was "mentally able to confer with counsel and participate in his defense".[52] The trial began on November 7, 1968[53][54][55][56][57] and lasted one week. A psychiatrist testified that Gein had told him that he did not know whether the killing of Bernice Worden was intentional or accidental. Gein had told him that while he examined a gun in Worden's store, the gun went off, killing Worden.[58] Gein testified that after trying to load a bullet into the rifle, it discharged. He said he had not aimed the rifle at Worden, and did not remember anything else that happened that morning.[59]
At the request of the defense, Gein's trial was held without a jury,[60] with Judge Robert H. Gollmar presiding. Gein was found guilty by Gollmar on November 14.[3] A second trial dealt with Gein's sanity;[3] after testimony by doctors for the prosecution and defense, Gollmar ruled Gein "not guilty by reason of insanity" and ordered him committed to Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane.[61] Gein spent the rest of his life in a mental hospital.[3][62] Judge Gollmar wrote, "Due to prohibitive costs, Gein was tried for only one murder—that of Mrs. Worden. He also admitted to killing Mary Hogan."[63]
Aftermath[edit]
Gein's house and property were scheduled to be auctioned March 30, 1958, amid rumors the house was to become a tourist attraction. On March 27, the house was destroyed by fire. Arson was suspected, but the cause was never officially determined.[64] When Gein learned of the incident while in detention, he shrugged and said, "Just as well."[65] Gein's car, which he used to haul the bodies of his victims, was sold at public auction for $760 to carnival sideshow operator Bunny Gibbons.[66] Gibbons later charged carnival goers 25¢ admission to see it.[67]
Death[edit]
Ed Gein's vandalized grave marker as it appeared in 1999 before thieves stole it
Gein died at the Mendota Mental Health Institute due to respiratory failure secondary to lung cancer on July 26, 1984, at the age of 77.[13] Over the years, souvenir seekers chipped pieces from his gravestone at the Plainfield Cemetery, until the stone itself was stolen in 2000. It was recovered in June 2001, near Seattle, and was placed in storage at the Waushara County Sheriff's Department. The gravesite itself is now unmarked, but not unknown; Gein is interred between his parents and brother in the cemetery.[68]
Documentary[edit]
The story of Ed Gein was featured on season one, episode one of the R-rated documentary series Behind The Screams first shown on 26 September 2015, called "A Real Psycho".[69][better source needed]
In popular culture[edit]
The story of Ed Gein has had a lasting effect on American popular culture as evidenced by its numerous appearances in film, music, and literature. The tale first came to widespread public attention in the fictionalized version presented by Robert Bloch in his 1959 suspense novel Psycho. In addition to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film of Bloch's novel, Psycho,[70] Gein's story was loosely adapted into a number of films, including Deranged (1974),[70] In the Light of the Moon (2000) (released in the U.S. and Australia as Ed Gein (2001)), Ed Gein: The Butcher of Plainfield (2007), Hitchcock (2012), and the Rob Zombie films House of 1000 Corpses and its sequel, The Devil's Rejects. Gein served as a model for several book and film characters, most notably such fictional serial killers as Norman Bates (Psycho), Leatherface (The Texas Chain Saw Massacre),[70] Buffalo Bill (The Silence of the Lambs)[70] and the character Dr. Oliver Thredson from American Horror Story: Asylum.[71]
American filmmaker Errol Morris and German filmmaker Werner Herzog attempted unsuccessfully to collaborate on a film project about Gein from 1975 to 1976. Morris interviewed Gein several times and ended up spending almost a year in Plainfield interviewing dozens of locals. The pair planned secretly to exhume Gein's mother from her grave to test a theory but never followed through on the scheme and eventually ended their collaboration. The aborted project was described in a 1989 New Yorker profile of Morris.[72]
At the time, the news reports of Gein's crimes spawned a subgenre of "black humor".[73] Since the 1950s, Gein has frequently been exploited by transgressive art or "shock rock", often without association with his life or crimes beyond the shock value of his name. Examples of this include the song titled "Dead Skin Mask" (1990) from the Slayer album Seasons in the Abyss, "Nothing To Gein" (2001) from Mudvayne's album L.D. 50, and "Ed Gein" (1992) from The Ziggens' album Rusty Never Sleeps.[74] Ed Gein's atrocities were also satirized in Blind Melon's "Skinned" off the 1995 album Soup which juxtaposed cheery instrumentation with semi-factual representations of Gein's crimes, arguably toward a comedic end.
See also[edit]
Biography portal
Grave robbery
Body snatching
Anatoly Moskvin
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ West Plainfield was an unincorporated community three miles (5 km) west of the center of Plainfield at 44°12′50″N 89°33′10″W / 44.213931°N 89.552818°W / 44.213931; -89.552818 (West Plainfield, Wisconsin)[7] , which has since diminished and disappeared.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Schechter, pp. 100, 116, 164, 221.
^ Jump up to: a b Vital Records, Pre-1907 Wisconsin. "Birth Index Record: Gien, Edward".
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Ed Gein Found Guilty of 1957 Murder in Plainfield". The Capital Times. Madison, Wisconsin. November 14, 1958. p. 2, col. 4. Ed Gein, the handyman whose home became known as a "house of horrors" 11 years ago, was found guilty today of first degree murder.
Jump up ^ Harold Schechter (2010). Deviant. Simon & Schuster. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4391-0697-6.
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 59.
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 54.
^ Jump up to: a b LLC., Historic Map Works. "Plainfield Township, Atlas: Waushara County 1924, Wisconsin Historical Map". www.historicmapworks.com. Retrieved 2017-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Flaster, Alex. (producer) Biography: Ed Gain. 2004. Biography. Los Angeles, California: A&E Television Networks.
Jump up ^ Williams, Anne. Fiendish Killers. London: Futura, 2007.[page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Robert H. Gollmar, Edward Gein, Pinnacle Books, 1981, p. 85.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rites Today For Man Who Died in Roche-a-Cri Fire". Wisconsin Rapids Daily Tribune, Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin, May 19, 1944, p. 1, col. 1.
Jump up ^ Bell, Rachael; Marilyn Bardsley. "Henry". Crime Library. Retrieved 2008-11-23. [better source needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Schechter, pp. 30–31.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 86.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, pp. viii–ix.
Jump up ^ "Augusta Gein, the woman who drove a man Psycho | MND: Your Daily Dose of Counter-Theory". Mensnewsdaily.com. Retrieved 2013-09-25.
Jump up ^ Mark, Timothy (2015). The "Ed Gein" Story. p. 22. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c "Widow, 58, Found Slain in Wisconsin". Star Tribune. November 17, 1957. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-03-03 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ "Signs of 10 Victims at Farm". Stevens Point Daily Journal. November 18, 1957. p. 1, cols. 7–8.
Jump up ^ "Gein Admits Killing Woman, Kileen Reveals". The Oshkosh Northwestern. November 18, 1957. p. 1. Retrieved 2017-03-03 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ Douglas, John E.; Olshaker, Mark (1998). Obsession: The FBI's Legendary Profiler Probes the Psyches of Killers, Rapists, and Stalkers and Their Victims and Tells How to Fight Back. Simon and Schuster. pp. 367–368. ISBN 0-671-01704-7.
Jump up ^ "Ed Gein case file". Archived from the original on January 21, 2013. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)[better source needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ramsland, Katherine. "A True Necrophile". Crime Library.[better source needed]
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 192. Judge Gollmar relied on the detailed report of state crime lab investigator Allan Wilimovsky who searched the Gein house, inventoried the evidence and interviewed Edward Gein. Gollmar also quotes other contemporary investigators, including Captain Lloyd Schoesphoester (Green Lake Sheriff's Dept.) who assisted the investigation of the Worden murder and search of Gein's home.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gollmar, p. 44.
^ Jump up to: a b Gollmar, p. 20.
^ Jump up to: a b Gollmar, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, pp. 18, 20, 44.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, pp. 18, 20, 22.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 24.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 87.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 46.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 48.
Jump up ^ Schechter 1989, p. 97.
Jump up ^ "Gein Also Admits He Killed Mary Hogan; Results of Lie Tests Announced". Stevens Point Daily Journal. November 20, 1957. p. 13, col. 6.
Jump up ^ "Case File – Ed Gein". Archived from the original on October 16, 2011. Retrieved 2014-04-11. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ "Empty Coffins Discovered in Graves at Plainfield; Appears To Back Up Gein's Story". Stevens Point Daily Journal. November 25, 1957. p. 1, cols. 7–8.
Jump up ^ "DA Convinced Gein Actually Raided Graves". Stevens Point Daily Journal. November 26, 1957. p. 1, col. 3.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, pp. 48–50.
Jump up ^ Bell, Rachael and Marilyn Bardsley. "Seriously weird". CrimeLibrary.com.
Jump up ^ Gollmar
Jump up ^ "Youth Tells of Seeing Gein's Heads". Stevens Point Daily Journal. November 20, 1957. p. 1, col. 6.
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 128.
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 95, 100, 105, 177.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, pp. 31–34.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 34.
Jump up ^ "Gein Pleads Innocent By Reason of Insanity". Stevens Point Daily Journal. November 21, 1957. p. 1, cols. 7–8.
Jump up ^ Moira Martingale (1993). Cannibal Killers. New York: St. Martin's. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p.95.
Jump up ^ "Ed Gein Will Be in Court", Oshkosh Daily Northwestern, Wednesday, November 6, 1968, p. 4, col. 6. "Accused murderer Ed Gein is scheduled to make his first court appearance since last April in Wautoma Thursday, when he appears before Circuit Judge Robert Gollmar of Baraboo.
Jump up ^ "Gein Trial Under Way", Oshkosh Daily Northwestern, November 7, 1968, p. 1, col. 5. "Circuit Judge Robert Gollmar of Baraboo ruled today that the murder trial of Ed Gein of Plainfield will be heard without a jury. ... The first trial witness called by the prosecution this morning was Leon Murty of Wild Rose."
Jump up ^ "Ed Gein Trial Opens Thursday in Wautoma", The Daily Telegram, Eau Claire, Wisconsin, Tuesday November 5, 1968, p. 8B, col. 1. "Ed Gein, charged in the murder and robbery of a Plainfield widow nearly 11 years ago this November, goes to trial Thursday."
Jump up ^ "Gein Trial Set Nov. 7", Wisconsin State Journal, Madison, Wisconsin, October 20, 1968, sec. 1, p. 7, col. 2. "The murder trial of Edward Gein, 62, charged in the 1957 slaying of a Plainfield woman, will begin Nov. 7 before Judge Robert Gollmar."
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 227. "The trial began on Thursday, November 7, 1968."
Jump up ^ "Psychiatrist Tells Gein Account of Worden Death", Oshkosh Daily Northwestern, November 12, 1968, p. 1, col. 1.
Jump up ^ "Gein Takes Stand, Remembers Little", The Daily Telegram, Eau Claire, Wisconsin, November 13, 1968, p. 1, col. 3.
Jump up ^ Schechter, p. 227.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p.172
Jump up ^ "Wisconsin Killer Gein Ruled Guilty, Insane". Chicago Tribune. November 15, 1968. Ed Gein, 62, the recluse who horrified the nation in 1957 when the remains of 11 bodies were found on his farm, was ruled today to have been insane when he killed a Plainfield, Wis., woman.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Gollmar, Edward Gein, Pinnacle Books, 3rd ed., 1989, p. 80.
Jump up ^ Woods, Paul Anthony; Morris, Errol (1995). Ed Gein–Psycho!. St. Martin's Press. p. 90.
Jump up ^ Hintz, Martin (2007). Got Murder?: Shocking True Stories of Wisconsins Notorious Killers. Big Earth Publishing. p. 62. ISBN 1-931599-96-3.
Jump up ^ Reavill, Gil Reavill (2007). Aftermath, Inc.: Cleaning Up After CSI Goes Home. Gotham. p. 228. ISBN 1-59240-296-8.
Jump up ^ Bie, Michael (2007). It Happened in Wisconsin. Guilford, Connecticut: TwoDot. p. 97. ISBN 0-7627-4153-8. OCLC 76820808.
Jump up ^ A Real Psycho on the Internet Movie Database
^ Jump up to: a b c d Maçek III, J.C. (4 February 2013). "No Texas, No Chainsaw, No Massacre: The True Links in the Chain". PopMatters.
Jump up ^ Eidell, Lynsey (October 7, 2015). "All the Real-Life Scary Stories Told on American Horror Story". Glamour.
Jump up ^ Singer, Mark (February 2, 1989). "Predilections". The New Yorker.
Jump up ^ George W. Arndt, "Appendix A: Gein Humor" in Robert H. Gollmar, Edward Gein (Pinnacle Books, Windsor Publishing, 3rd ed., 1989) excerpted from Arndt's original "Horror, Humor and Human Nature" also published abridged as "Community Reactions to a Horrifying event" by Menninger School of Psychiatry; both versions reprinted in several psychology textbooks.
Jump up ^ The Slayer song "Dead Skin Mask" features a young girl pleading with Gein to release her; Gein never held a live captive and his victims were middle-aged women.
Bibliography[edit]
Robert H. Gollmar, Edward Gein: America's Most Bizarre Murderer (Delavan, Wis: C. Hallberg, 1981. ISBN 978-0873190206)
Harold Schechter, Deviant: The Shocking True Story of Ed Gein, The Original Psycho (New York: Gallery Books, 1989. ISBN 978-0671644826)
Paul Anthony Woods, Ed Gein - Psycho! (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995. ISBN 9780312130572)
External links[edit]
Ed Gein on IMDb
Obsessive Love for His Mother Drove Gein to Slay, Rob Graves – Milwaukee Journal; November 21, 1957
Obituary of Judge Robert H. Gollmar, New York Times, October 22, 1987
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Kings of Judah
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The genealogy of the kings of Judah, along with the kings of Israel.
Rulers of Judah
Saul
David
Solomon
Rehoboam
Abijah
Asa
Jehoshaphat
Jehoram
Ahaziah
Athaliah
J(eh)oash
Amaziah
Uzziah/Azariah
Jotham
Ahaz
Hezekiah
Manasseh
Amon
Josiah
Jehoahaz
Jehoiakim
Jeconiah/Jehoiachin
Zedekiah
v
t
e
The Kings of Judah were the monarchs who ruled over the ancient Kingdom of Judah. According to the biblical account, this kingdom was founded after the death of Saul, when the tribe of Judah elevated David to rule over it. After seven years, David became king of a reunited Kingdom of Israel. However, in about 930 BCE the united kingdom split, with ten of the twelve Tribes of Israel rejecting Solomon's son Rehoboam as their king. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to Rehoboam, and re-formed the Kingdom of Judah, while the other entity continued to be called the Kingdom of Israel, or just Israel.
The capital of the Kingdom of Judah was Jerusalem. All of the kings of Judah lived and died in Judah except for Ahaziah (who died at Megiddo in Israel), Jehoahaz (who died a prisoner in Egypt) and Jeconiah and Zedekiah who were deported as part of the Babylonian captivity.
Judah was conquered in 587 or 586 BC,[1] by the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuzaradan, captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard.[2] With the deportation of the elite[3] and the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple, the demise of the Kingdom of Judah was complete.
The Davidic dynasty began when the tribe of Judah made David its king, following the death of Saul. The Davidic line continued when David became king of the reunited Kingdom of Israel. When the united kingdom split, the tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to the Davidic line. Following the exile of Judah, the Davidic line was respected by the exiles in Babylon, who regarded the exilarchs as kings-in-exile.
More complete biographies of the Kings of Judah than that of the Hebrew Bible were written by Iddo the Seer and in the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah, both of which are mentioned in the Bible. However, both of these works have been lost.
Contents
[hide]
1 List of Kings
1.1 House of David
2 Chronology
2.1 Co-regency
2.2 Synchronism to fall of Judah
2.3 Synchronism to Gregorian dating
3 Coronation ritual
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
List of Kings[edit]
Most modern historians follow either the older chronologies established by William F. Albright or Edwin R. Thiele,[4] or the newer chronologies of Gershon Galil and Kenneth Kitchen,[5] all of which are shown below. All dates are BCE.
Common/Biblical name
Albright
Thiele
Galil
Kitchen
Regnal Name and style
Notes
House of David[edit]
David
Reigned over Judah for 7 years in Hebron, then Israel & Judah in Jerusalem for 33 years; 40 years in total. 1000–962 1010–970 1010–970 דוד בן-ישי מלך ישראל
David ben Yishai,
Melekh Yisra’el Death: natural causes
Solomon
Reigned over Israel & Judah in Jerusalem for 40 years. 962–922 970–931 971–931 שלמה בן-דוד מלך ישראל
Shelomoh ben David,
Melekh Yisra’el Death: natural causes
Son of David by Bathsheba, his rights of succession were disputed by his older half-brother Adonijah
Rehoboam
Reigned for 17 years. 922–915 931–913 931–914 931–915 רחבעם בן-שלמה מלך יהודה
Rehav’am ben Shlomoh,
Melekh Yehudah Death: natural causes
Abijah
Reigned for 3 years. 915–913 913–911 914–911 915–912 אבים בן-רחבעם מלך יהודה
’Aviyam ben Rehav’am,
Melekh Yehudah Death: natural causes
Asa
Reigned for 41 years. 913–873 911–870 911–870 912–871 אסא בן-אבים מלך יהודה
’Asa ben ’Aviyam,
Melekh Yehudah Death: severe foot disease
Jehoshaphat
Reigned for 25 years. 873–849 870–848 870–845 871–849 יהושפט בן-אסא מלך יהודה
Yehoshafat ben ’Asa,
Melekh Yahudah Death: natural causes
Jehoram
Reigned for 8 years. 849–842 848–841 851–843 849–842 יהורם בן-יהושפט מלך יהודה
Yehoram ben Yehoshafat,
Melekh Yahudah Death: severe stomach disease
Ahaziah
Reigned for 1 year. 842–842 841–841 843–842 842–841 אחזיהו בן-יהורם מלך יהודה
’Ahazyahu ben Yehoram,
Melekh Yehudah Death: killed by Jehu, who usurped the throne of Israel
Athaliah
(Queen)
Reigned for 6 years. 842–837 841–835 842–835 841–835 עתליה בת-עמרי מלכת יהודה
‘Atalyah bat ‘Omri,
Malkat Yehudah Death: killed by the troops assigned by Jehoiada the Priest to protect Joash.
Queen Mother, widow of Jehoram and mother of Ahaziah
Jehoash (Joash)
Reigned for 40 years. 837–800 835–796 842–802 841–796 יהואש בן-אחזיהו מלך יהודה
Yehoash ben ’Ahazyahu,
Melekh Yehudah Death: killed by his officials namely: Zabad, son of Shimeath, an Ammonite Woman, and Jehozabad, son of Shimrith, a Moabite Woman.
Amaziah
Reigned for 29 years. 800–783 796–767 805–776 796–776 אמציה בן-יהואש מלך יהודה
’Amatzyah ben Yehoash,
Melekh Yehudah Death: killed in Lachish by the men sent by his officials who conspired against him.
Uzziah
(Azariah)
Reigned for 52 years. 783–742 767–740 788–736 776–736 עזיה בן-אמציה מלך יהודה
‘Uziyah ben ’Amatzyah,
Melekh Yehudah
עזריה בן-אמציה מלך יהודה
‘Azaryah ben ’Amatzyah,
Melekh Yehudah Death: Tzaraath
George Syncellus wrote that the First Olympiad took place in Uzziah's 48th regnal year.
Jotham
Reigned for 16 years. 742–735 740–732 758–742 750–735/30 יותם בן-עזיה מלך יהודה
Yotam ben ‘Uziyah,
Melekh Yehudah Death: natural causes
Ahaz
Reigned for 16 years. 735–715 732–716 742–726 735/31–715 אחז בן-יותם מלך יהודה
’Ahaz ben Yotam,
Melekh Yehudah Death: natural causes
The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III records he received tribute from Ahaz; compare 2 Kings 16:7-9
Hezekiah
Reigned for 29 years. 715–687 716–687 726–697 715–687 חזקיה בן-אחז מלך יהודה
Hizqiyah ben ’Ahaz,
Melekh Yehudah Death: Natural Causes
Contemporary with Sennacherib of Assyria and Merodach-Baladan of Babylon.
Manasseh
Reigned for 55 years. 687–642 687–643 697–642 687–642 מנשה בן-חזקיה מלך יהודה
Menasheh ben Hizqiyah,
Melekh Yehudah Death: natural causes
Mentioned in Assyrian records as a contemporary of Esarhaddon
Amon
Reigned for 2 years. 642–640 643–641 642–640 642–640 אמון בן-מנשה מלך יהודה
’Amon ben Menasheh,
Melekh Yehudah Death: killed by his officials, who were killed later on by the people of Judah.
Josiah
Reigned for 31 years. 640–609 641–609 640–609 640–609 יאשיהו בן-אמון מלך יהודה
Yo’shiyahu ben ’Amon,
Melekh Yehudah Death: shot by archers during the battle against Neco of Egypt. He died upon his arrival on Jerusalem.
Jehoahaz
Reigned for 3 months. 609 609 609 609 יהואחז בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודה
Yeho’ahaz ben Yo’shiyahu,
Melekh Yehudah Death: Neco, king of Egypt, dethroned him and was replaced by his brother, Eliakim. Carried off to Egypt, where he died.
Jehoiakim
Reigned for 11 years. 609–598 609–598 609–598 609–598 יהויקים בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודה
Yehoyaqim ben Yo’shiyahu,
Melekh Yehudah Death: Natural Causes
The Battle of Carchemish occurred in the fourth year of his reign (Jeremiah 46:2)
Jehoiachin
(Jeconiah)
Reigned for 3 months & 10 days. 598 598 598–597 598–597 יהויכין בן-יהויקים מלך יהודה
Yehoyakhin ben Yehoyaqim,
Melekh Yehudah
יכניהו בן-יהויקים מלך יהודה
Yekhonyahu ben Yehoyaqim, Melekh Yehudah Death: King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon sent for him and brought him to Babylon, where he lived and died.
Jerusalem was captured by the Babylonians and Jehoiachin deposed on 16 March, 597 BCE. Called Jeconiah in Jeremiah and Esther
Zedekiah
Reigned for 11 years. 597–587 597–586 597–586 597–586 צדקיהו בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודה
Tzidqiyahu ben Yo’shiyahu,
Melekh Yehudah Death: In prison.[6]
His reign saw the second rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar (588–586 BC). Jerusalem was captured after a lengthy siege, the temple burnt, Zedekiah blinded and taken into exile, and Judah reduced to a province.
A footnote in the Amplified Bible regarding Jeremiah 36:3 disputes that King Jehoiakim died of natural causes, asserting that the king rebelled against Babylon several years after these events (II Kings 24:1) and was attacked by numerous bands from various nations subject to Babylon (II Kings 24:2), concluding that he came to a violent death and a disgraceful burial as foretold by Jeremiah (Jer. 22:13–19).
Chronology[edit]
The breakup of the united Kingdom of Solomon
There has been considerable academic debate about the actual dates of reigns of the Judahite kings. Scholars have endeavored to synchronize the chronology of events referred to in the Bible with those derived from other external sources. These scholarly disagreements are reflected in the table above, which contains scholarly attempts to date the reigns of Judahite monarchs in terms of the Gregorian calendar.
Biblical scholars have noted the apparent inconsistencies in the chronology of the kings of Judah and Israel based on the biblical sources. Some have also pointed out the difficulties of cross-synchronising that dating with those of the other cultures of the area. Some have attempted to give as much historical weight as possible to the biblical sources, while others discount their reliability as historic sources, some even denying any historical value to the biblical sources at all.[citation needed]
Using the information in Kings and Chronicles, Edwin Thiele calculated the dates of the reigns of the kings of Judah from the division of the kingdom, which he calculates to have been in 931–930 BCE. Thiele noticed that for the first seven kings of Israel (ignoring Zimri's seven-day reign), the synchronisms to Judean kings fell progressively behind by one year for each king. Thiele saw this as evidence that the northern kingdom was measuring the years by a non-accession system (first partial year of reign was counted as year one), whereas the southern kingdom was using the accession method (it was counted as year zero). He also concluded that the calendars for reckoning the years of kings in Judah and Israel were offset by six months, that of Judah starting in Tishri (in the fall) and that of Israel in Nisan (in the spring). This is the conclusion from cross-synchronizations between the two kingdoms which often allows the narrowing of the beginning and/or ending dates of a king within a six-month period, identifying the difference as due to the calendar starting date. Once these were understood, the various reign lengths and cross-synchronisms for these kings was determined, and the sum of reigns for both kingdoms produced 931/930 BCE for the division of the kingdom when working backwards from the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC.
Thiele showed that for the reign of Jehoram, Judah adopted Israel's non-accession method of counting the years of reign, meaning that the first partial year of the king's reign was counted as his first full year, in contrast to the "accession" method previously in use, whereby the first partial year was counted as year "zero", and "year one" was assigned to the first full year of reign. Thiele attributed this change to the rapprochement between Judah and Israel, whereby Jehoshaphat, Jehoram's father, united with Ahab at the battle of Ramoth-Gilead, and chose a daughter for his son from the house of Ahab (1 Kings 22:1-38, 2 Kings 8:18).[7] This convention was followed in Judah for the next three monarchs: Ahaziah, Athaliah, and Jehoash, returning to Judah's original accession reckoning in the time of Amaziah. These changes can be inferred by comparison of the textual data in the Bible; however, the biblical texts do not explicitly state whether the reckoning was by accession or non-accession counting, nor do they indicate explicitly when a change was made in the method. Thiele's reckoning has been criticized as arbitrary in its assignment of accession and non-accession dating systems. The official records of Tiglath-Pileser III show that he switched (arbitrarily) to non-accession reckoning for his reign, in contrast with the accession method used for previous kings of Assyria.[8] Tiglath-Pileser left no record for modern historians to indicate which dating method he used, nor whether he was switching from the method used by his predecessors; this is instead determined by comparison of the relevant texts by Assyriologists, the same as Thiele did for the regnal data of Judah and Israel.
Co-regency[edit]
Additional potential confusion arises from periods of co-regency when a son's reign may begin prior to the end of his father's reign. In those situations, years of reign are specified in terms of both the father and of the son. At times, the period of co-regency is clearly indicated, while in others it must be inferred from the source material.
As an example of the reasoning that finds inconsistencies in calculations when coregencies are a priori ruled out, 2 Kings 18:10 dates the fall of Samaria (the Northern Kingdom) to the 6th year of Hezekiah's reign. William F. Albright dated the fall of the Kingdom of Israel to 721 BC, whereas E. R. Thiele calculated the date as 723 BC.[9] If Abright's or Thiele's dating are correct, then Hezekiah's reign would begin in either 729 or 727 BCE. On the other hand, 18:13 states that Sennacherib invaded Judah in the 14th year of Hezekiah's reign. Assyrian records date this invasion to 701 BC, and Hezekiah's reign would therefore begin in 716/715 BC.[10] This dating would be confirmed by the account of Hezekiah's illness in chapter 20, which immediately follows Sennacherib's departure (2 Kings 20). This would date his illness to Hezekiah's 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement (2 Kings 18:5) that he would live fifteen more years (29−15=14). These problems are all addressed by scholars who make reference to the ancient Near Eastern practice of coregency.
Following the approach of Wellhausen, another set of calculations shows it is probable that Hezekiah did not ascend the throne before 722 BCE. By Albright's calculations, Jehu's initial year was 842 BC; and between it and Samaria's destruction the Books of Kings give the total number of the years the kings of Israel ruled as 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number is 165. This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years (165−120), has been accounted for in various ways; each of those positions must allow for Hezekiah's first six years to have fallen before 722 BCE. (However, Hezekiah beginning to reign before 722 BCE is consistent with a co-regency of Ahaz and Hezekiah from 729 BC.) Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when called to the throne; although 2 Kings 18:2 states that he was twenty-five years of age, his father died at the age of thirty-six (2 Kings 16:2) and it is not likely that Ahaz had a son at the age of eleven. Hezekiah's son Manasseh ascended the throne twenty-nine years later, at the age of twelve. This places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father's reign, suggesting Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was twenty-five at his ascension. It is more probable that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (suggesting an error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh.[citation needed]
Since Albright and Friedman, several scholars have explained these dating problems on the basis of a co-regency between Hezekiah and his father Ahaz between 729 and 716/715 BCE. Assyriologists and Egyptologists recognize that co-regency was practiced in both Assyria and Egypt.[11][12] After noting that co-regencies were used sporadically in the northern kingdom (Israel), Nadav Na'aman writes,
In the kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, the nomination of a co-regent was the common procedure, beginning from David who, before his death, elevated his son Solomon to the throne.... When taking into account the permanent nature of the co-regency in Judah from the time of Joash, one may dare to conclude that dating the co-regencies accurately is indeed the key for solving the problems of biblical chronology in the eighth century B.C."[13]
Among the numerous scholars who have recognized the co-regency between Ahaz and Hezekiah are Kenneth Kitchen,[14] Leslie McFall[15] and Jack Finegan.[16] McFall, in his 1991 article, argues that if 729 BCE (that is, the Judean regnal year beginning in Tishri of 729) is taken as the start of the Ahaz/Hezekiah co-regency, and 716/715 BCE as the date of the death of Ahaz, then all the extensive chronological data for Hezekiah and his contemporaries in the late eighth century BCE are in harmony. Further, McFall found that no textual emendations are required among the numerous dates, reign lengths, and synchronisms given in the Bible for this period.[17] In contrast, those who do not accept the Ancient Near Eastern principle of co-regencies require multiple emendations of the biblical text, and there is no general agreement on which texts should be emended, nor is there any consensus among these scholars on the resultant chronology for the eighth century BCE. This is in contrast with the general consensus among those who accept the biblical and near Eastern practice of co-regencies that Hezekiah was installed as co-regent with his father Ahaz in 729 BC, and the synchronisms of 2 Kings 18 must be measured from that date, whereas the synchronisms with Sennacherib are measured from the sole reign starting in 716/715 BCE. The two synchronisms to Hoshea of Israel in 2 Kings 18 are then in agreement with the dates of Hoshea's reign that can be determined from Assyrian sources, as is the date of Samaria's fall as stated in 2 Kings 18:10. An analogous situation of two ways of measurement, both equally valid, is encountered in the dates given for Jehoram of Israel, whose first year is synchronized to the 18th year of the sole reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah in 2 Kings 3:1 (853/852 BC), but his reign is also reckoned according to another method as starting in the second year of the coregency of Jehoshaphat and his son Jehoram of Judah (2 Kings 1:17); both methods refer to the same calendar year.
Scholars who accept the principle of co-regencies note that abundant evidence for their use is found in the biblical material itself.[18] The agreement of scholarship built on these principles with both biblical and secular texts was such that the Thiele/McFall chronology was accepted as the best chronology for the kingdom period in Jack Finegan's encyclopedic Handbook of Biblical Chronology.[19]
Synchronism to fall of Judah[edit]
The Babylonian Chronicles give 2 Adar (16 March), 597 BC, as the date that Nebuchadnezzar first captured Jerusalem, thus putting an end to the reign of Jehoaichin.[20] Zedekiah's installation as king by Nebuchadnezzar can thus be dated to the early spring of 597 BC.
Historically, there has been considerable controversy over the date when Jerusalem was captured the second time and Zedekiah's reign came to an end. There is no dispute about the month, the summer month of Tammuz (Jeremiah 52:6). However, regarding the year, Albright preferred 587 BCE and Thiele advocated 586 BC, and this division among scholars has persisted until the present time. If Zedekiah's years are by accession counting, whereby the year he came to the throne was considered his "zero" year and his first full regnal year, 597/596, was counted as year one, Zedekiah's eleventh year, the year the city fell, would be 587/586. Since Judean regnal years were measured from Tishri in the fall, this would place the end of his reign and the capture of the city in the summer of 586 BCE. Accession counting was the rule for most, but not all, of the kings of Judah, whereas "non-accession" counting was the rule for most, but not all, of the kings of Israel.[4][21]
The publication of the Babylonian Chronicles in 1956, however, gave evidence that the years of Zedekiah were measured in a non-accession sense. This reckoning makes 598/597 BC, the year Zedekiah was installed by Nebuchadnezzar according to Judah's Tishri-based calendar, to be year "one", so that the fall of Jerusalem in his eleventh year would have been 588/587 BC, i.e. in the summer of 587 BCE. The Bablyonian Chronicles fairly precisely date the capture of Jehoiachin and the start of Zedekiah's reign, and they also give the accession year of Nebuchadnezzar's successor Amel-Marduk (Evil Merodach) as 562/561 BC, which was the 37th year of Jehoiachin's captivity according to 2 Kings 25:27. These Babylonian records related to Jehoiachin's reign are consistent with the fall of the city in 587 but not in 586, vindicating Albright's reckoning.
Synchronism to Gregorian dating[edit]
Further potential confusion arises from the convention of dating reigns of the Israelite kings in reference to the Gregorian calendar. Years in the Gregorian calendar commence on 1 January, whereas year numbers for dating biblical events start on 1 Tishri of the Hebrew calendar, with an unfixed starting point during September–October on the Gregorian calendar. Accordingly, an event which takes place after 1 Tishri, for example, in November and December on the Gregorian calendar, would fall in the following year in the Hebrew calendar used for biblical dating.
Coronation ritual[edit]
A detailed account of a coronation in ancient Judah is found in 2 Kings 11:12 and 2 Chronicles 23:11, in which the seven-year-old Jehoash is crowned in a coup against the usurper Athaliah. This ceremony took place in the doorway of the Temple in Jerusalem. The king was led to "his pillar", where a crown was placed upon his head, and "the testimony" given to him, after which he was anointed at the hands of the high priest and his sons. Afterwards, the people "clapped their hands" and shouted "God save the King" as trumpets blew, music played, and singers offered hymns of praise.
These elements were adopted in various forms into European coronation rituals after their conversion to Christianity many centuries later.[citation needed] Christian coronation rites continue to borrow from this example.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Book: Kings of Judah
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah
Chronology of the Bible
History of ancient Israel and Judah
Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)
Kingdom of Judah
Kings of Israel and Judah
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hans M. Barstad (2008). History and the Hebrew Bible: Studies in Ancient Israelite and Ancient Near Eastern Historiography. Mohr Siebeck. p. 90. ISBN 978-3-16-149809-1.
Jump up ^ 2 Kings 25:8-21
Jump up ^ As to the Babylonian captivity deporting a minority of the Judahite population, see: Klaus-Peter Adam; Mark Leuchter (2010). Klaus-Peter Adam; Mark Leuchter, eds. "Preface", Soundings in Kings: Perspectives and Methods in Contemporary Scholarship. Fortress Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-1-4514-1263-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Edwin Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN 0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257
Jump up ^ On the Reliability of the Old Testament (2003) by Kenneth Kitchen. Grand Rapids and Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8028-4960-1.
Jump up ^ Jeremiah 52:11
Jump up ^ Thiele, Mysterious Numbers, 58.
Jump up ^ Hayim Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994) 232, n.3.
Jump up ^ Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (3rd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983) pp. 134, 217.
Jump up ^ Leslie McFall, “A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles,” Bibliotheca Sacra 148 (1991) p. 33. (Link)[dead link]
Jump up ^ William J. Murnane, Ancient Egyptian Coregencies (Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1977).
Jump up ^ J. D. Douglas, ed., New Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1965) p. 1160.
Jump up ^ Nadav Na'aman, "Historical and Chronological Notes on the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the Eighth Century B.C." Vetus Testamentum 36 (1986) p. 91.
Jump up ^ See Kitchen's chronology in New Bible Dictionary p. 220.
Jump up ^ Leslie McFall, "Translation Guide" p.42.
Jump up ^ Jack Finegan, Handbook of Biblical Chronology (rev. ed.; Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1998) p. 246.
Jump up ^ Leslie McFall, "Translation Guide" pp. 4-45 (Link).[dead link]
Jump up ^ Thiele, Mysterious Numbers chapter 3, "Coregencies and Rival Reigns."
Jump up ^ Jack Finegan, Handbook of Biblical Chronology p. 246.
Jump up ^ D. J. Wiseman, Chronicles of Chaldean Kings in the British Museum (London: Trustees of the British Museum, 1956) 73.
Jump up ^ Leslie McFall, “A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles,” Bibliotheca Sacra 148 (1991) 45.[1]
External links[edit]
The Jewish History Resource Center Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Complete Bible Genealogy A synchronized chart of the kings of Judah and Israel
Ancient Jewish History: The Kings of Israel The Jewish Virtual Library provides a chart of the Kings of Judah and Israel, with academic dates
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