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Remedial education
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Remedial education (also known as developmental education, basic skills education, compensatory education, preparatory education, and academic upgrading) is assigned to assist students in order to achieve expected competencies in core academic skills such as literacy and numeracy.
Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with special needs, remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs; the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of underpreparedness, regardless of why. For example, even people of high intelligence can be underprepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war.
Contents
[hide]
1 In Canada
2 In the United States
2.1 Student placement
2.2 Student enrollment
2.3 Course delivery
2.4 Research on outcomes
2.5 National efforts
2.5.1 Complete College America
2.5.2 Achieving the Dream
2.5.3 Core Principles Statement
2.5.4 Changes in North Carolina
2.5.5 Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation
3 In Europe
3.1 European Framework of Transitional Preparatory/Remedial Teaching
4 In Asia
4.1 Taiwan and China
4.1.1 See also
5 Effectiveness
5.1 Metrics
5.2 Success factors
6 Online remedial education
6.1 Advantages and disadvantages
6.2 Role of teachers
6.3 Collaborative tools
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
10 External links
In Canada[edit]
In Canada, the process whereby mature students take secondary school courses so that they can qualify to take post-secondary education is called academic upgrading. The Workers' Compensation Board of Nova Scotia defines academic upgrading as "programs offered to adult learners who require the academic pre-requisites needed for entry into many occupational programs."[1] The Alberta Ministry of Enterprise and Advanced Education advises that academic upgrading can be pursued through a post-secondary institution, a school board program such as a storefront school, or via distance learning.[2]
In the United States[edit]
Post secondary remediation is delivered on both 2-year community college and 4-year university campuses in the U.S. The bulk of remedial courses focus on advancing underprepared students' literacy skills (English and reading) or math skills.[3] However, remedial courses can also be offered for other subjects such as science or study skills.[4]
Student placement[edit]
Many students are placed into remedial courses through placement tests such as the ACT, SAT, ACCUPLACER, or COMPASS assessments. Often, each college or university sets its own score thresholds for determining whether a student must enroll in remedial courses. However, some states are moving toward a uniform standard for remedial placement cut scores. Students are required to enroll in remedial courses before advancing to a college level course in that subject. Colleges review a student's score by subject - math, English, science, etc. - and compare that score to the school's cutoff.[5] For example, a college might use a score of 19 on the ACT math section as the threshold for determining whether a student must enroll in a remedial math course or college-level math course.
Particularly at community colleges – which are open enrollment to any student with a high school degree or GED – multiple semesters of remedial coursework may be available to and required of students that enter with low placement test scores.
Whether placement tests are the most effective method of placing students is an open debate across the US. Some colleges and states are experimenting with using high school GPA and placement test scores to determine student course referral.[5] A study of placement tests by the Community College Research Center in 2012 found: Placement test scores are not especially good predictors of course grades in developmental education classes. More importantly, the tests do not have much explanatory power across a range of measures of performance including college GPA, credit accumulation, and success in gatekeeper English and math classes. Using GPA with standardized test scores may also improve the accuracy of remedial placement and limit the likelihood of placing students into additional remedial courses they may not need. North Carolina recently implemented a statewide policy that allows two-year colleges to use both placement test scores and high school GPA to place students.[6]
Student enrollment[edit]
Estimates on the portion of students in higher education taking remedial courses vary. At two-year colleges the percentage reported of students taking at least 1 remedial course varies from 41% to as high as 60%,.[7][8] Students from low-income households, African American students and Hispanic students are more likely to enroll in remedial courses.[7] National estimates show that among two-year college students, students age 17-19 are most likely to enroll in remedial courses followed by students age 20-24 and then students age 25+.[9]
The likelihood of remedial placement varies among states because of high school preparation, student demographics and state policies for assessing and placing students in remedial courses. Previous proportions of recent high school graduates enrolling in remedial courses at two-year colleges range from over 70% in Tennessee to 31% in North Carolina.[10] The proportion of students enrolling in remedial courses on public, four-year college campuses is generally lower ranging from 35% in South Dakota to 5% in Washington state.[11]
The state of Colorado issued a 2012 report on remedial placement showing that 40% of recent high school students enrolled in remedial courses at both two-year and 4- year colleges. Sixty-six (66%)of students enrolled in a two-year college and 24% of students at a four-year institution needed remediation.[12]
Educators and researchers also question whether many of the students directed into remediation ultimately need the course work, and some studies have found that the current method of using placement tests to assign students to remedial courses may be related to over placement.[13]
Course delivery[edit]
There is an active debate on how remedial courses should be delivered to students. Students that are placed into remedial courses hold differing skill levels and needs for support. There is an active debate on whether students that are on the upper end of the skill spectrum may be most successful bypassing remedial coursework and enrolling in college-level courses with additional tutoring (see National Efforts to Strengthen Remediation). In contrast, students with larger skill deficiencies may require substantial math and English instruction before they can succeed academically. Researchers continue to investigate and make recommendations for effective remedial education models.
Currently, remedial education courses are delivered many ways across the United States:
Traditional, semester-long courses;
Cohort models that group a class of students together in a series of remedial courses;
Placing students in college-level courses with mandated tutoring or supplementary instruction;
Modularized courses that target particularly student skills;
Intensive, compressed courses that accelerate student readiness;
Courses that integrate remedial content with occupational skills;
Self-guided computer based courses that adapt to student skill deficiencies;
Online, in computer-based, traditional semester model.
In 2011, MDRC did a review of studies on remedial education delivery and found: "Programs that show the greatest benefits with relatively rigorous documentation either mainstream developmental students into college-level courses with additional supports, provide modularized or compressed courses to allow remedial students to more quickly complete their developmental work, or offer contextualized remedial education within occupational and vocational programs.[14]"
Accelerating the pace at which students progress through remedial courses is a reform now regularly highlighted in academic research and advocacy as effective for increasing student success. Often, remedial courses do not count toward a student's graduation requirements and taking many semesters of remedial education can lengthen a student's path to graduation and take up much needed financial aid. The Community College Research Center has found that accelerating a student's remedial English requirements resulted a higher likelihood of students completing their remedial sequences, a higher likelihood of enrolling in college-level English courses and a higher likelihood of students receiving a 'C' or better in the college-level course.[15]
Online Courses: Some colleges have explored the use of providing remedial education courses online for students; however, evidence indicates that completion of online remedial courses is lower across almost every group of students compared to in-person remedial instruction.[16] There is also evidence that students enrolling in online remedial education are less likely than their in-person counterparts to continue on to college-level coursework in the same subject.[17]
The methods for delivering remedial education and whether to deliver remedial education are active debates in the U.S. As Bahr (Bahr 2008a, pp. 420–421) explains, "On one hand, it fills an important niche in U.S. higher education by providing opportunities to rectify disparities generated in primary education and secondary schooling, to develop the minimum skills deemed necessary for functional participation in the economy and the democracy, and to acquire the prerequisite competencies that are crucial for negotiating college-level coursework. On the other hand, critics argue that taxpayers should not be required to pay twice for the same educational opportunities, that remediation diminishes academic standards and devalues post-secondary credentials, and that the large number of underprepared students entering colleges and universities demoralizes faculty. Following from these critiques, some have argued for a major restructuring of remediation or even the elimination of remedial programs altogether."
Research on outcomes[edit]
Depending on their skill level upon entering college, students can spend from 1 to multiple semesters working to fulfill remedial requirements before advancing to college level courses required for their degree. An example of a full sequence of math remedial courses for low-skill students might include: 1) Pre-Collegiate Math, 2) Basic Algebra, and 3) Intermediate Algebra.[18] There are many questions about how this structure both benefits students by increasing their preparation and harms students by increasing the courses required and time needed to complete college. Thomas Bailey from the Community College Research Center describes this in a 2010 report: For example, those with the greatest need for developmental math may be expected to enroll in and pass pre-collegiate math or arithmetic, basic algebra, and intermediate algebra, in order to prepare them forcollege-level algebra.[18]
Complete College America, a national non-profit working on remedial education reform, reports that among remedial students at two-year colleges 62% complete their remedial course and 23% complete associated college-level courses in that subject within 2 year (for example, complete math remediation and the college-level math requirements for their degree). On 4-year college campuses, 74% of students in remedial courses complete the course, and 37% complete remediation and an associated college-level course in that subject within 2 years.[9] The same report projects that 9.5% of two-year college students starting in remediation will graduate within 3 years, and 35.1% of 4-year college students starting in remedial courses will graduate within 6 years.
Similarly, a nationwide study of two year college students participating in remedial education found 46% of students referred to remedial reading and 33% of students in math remediation completed their remedial sequence. A substantial portion of these non-completing students – 29% in math and 16% in reading – did so because they did not pass their remedial course.[18] Another 11% of math students and 9% of reading students exited college without ever having failed or completed a remedial course. Students that enrolled in college and were placed into a sequence of 3 or more remedial courses were the least likely to persist to a college-level course. Like in all education pathways, there are many different points at which remedial students can step out of education. Research from the Community College Research Center at Colombia University suggests that many students do not complete their remedial sequences or do not enroll in the first college-level course in that subject.
National efforts[edit]
Over the last several years, a large amount of philanthropic and research attention has been directed at remedial education programs. Often, focus on remedial education is directed at 1) increasing the successful completion of remedial sequences 2) increasing the overall number of students with college degrees and certificates in the US and 3) decreasing the cost of remedial education to colleges and states.
Complete College America[edit]
A national non-profit organization, Complete College America (CCA), was established in 2009 and looks at paths to improving higher education outcomes for all students. The organization has provided large amounts of national data on the proportion of students enrolled in remedial courses across demographic groups. The organization has also worked with states to set goals for increasing college completion and making adjustments to higher education policies. Currently, CCA heavily promotes enrolling more students directly into college-level courses even though they would traditionally test into remedial courses. The organization also heavily promotes better aligning remedial courses with college-level courses, and using diverse measures of student academic standing for remedial placement.[19]
Achieving the Dream[edit]
Originally an initiative led by the Lumina Foundation, Achieving the Dream focuses on increasing the success of college students – particularly students of color and students from low-income backgrounds. Starting in 2004 the project funded promising, data driven approaches to strengthening remedial education coursework. Today, Achieving the Dream is its own, national organization with the same driving mission: "Achieving the Dream is a national reform network dedicated to community college student success and completion; focused primarily on helping low-income students and students of color complete their education and obtain market-valued credentials." The organization continues to fund positive interventions that move underprepared students through remediation with greater success and features a list of best practices and exemplary colleges from which other higher education administrators can learn. Achieving the Dream promotes many different promising interventions that can increase the success of students including: first-year student success courses that provide students with the skills to navigate college expectations/academics more effectively, accelerated remedial courses in math and English, student mentoring and coaching, mandatory orientations for new students and supplementary computer tutoring for remedial students.[20] Achieving the Dream also takes an active role in state policy advocacy and is currently working in 15 states to strengthen student remedial success.[21]
Core Principles Statement[edit]
In December 2012, The Dana Center at the University of Texas, Complete College America, Education Commission of the States, and Jobs for the Future released "Core Principles for Transforming Remedial Education: A Joint Statement" with 7 key principles for strengthening community college remedial programs. The statement's principles included: aligning remedial courses with a student's long-term area of study at the college, using multiple measures to placement students in remedial courses, requiring all students –including under-prepared students– to pick a program of study when they enter college, integrating academic support services into pre college-level coursework, creating accelerated course models with students with larger skill deficiencies, and measuring completion of remedial courses.[22]
Strategies that accelerate students through remedial coursework and on to college-level (also called gatekeeper) courses are widely promoted as one path to increasing the success of under-prepared students.[18]
Changes in North Carolina[edit]
In 2012, North Carolina underwent a wide scale redesign of their remedial education programs.[23] Branded as 'Success NC', the program's Developmental Education Initiative takes steps to redesign math and reading curricula, move students through remedial courses faster and better assess and place students. NC colleges can now incorporate high school grades into their course placement decisions. Additionally, starting in 2014, all colleges will deliver remedial reading & English in 3 shorter, 8 week modules for some students while allowing higher level remedial students to enroll in college-level English courses with required supplementary English instruction.[23]
Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation[edit]
In 2009 the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation appropriated $16.5 million to 15 colleges in 5 states to promote promising interventions in the remedial education.[24] Fueled by the broader goal of increasing the number of college graduates nationwide, the Gates Foundation promoted remedial interventions that proved successful, particularly low-income students and students of color, through the Lumina Foundation's Achieving the Dream Initiative.[25] A host of findings, recommendations and best practices -including 25 Steps to Effective Remedial Education- from the Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation investments are now available through the Development Education Initiative through Achieving the Dream.[26]
In Europe[edit]
While remedial programmes are common in the United States, they are less common in Europe. Nevertheless, several European higher education institutes have started to offer remedial education programmes as well.[27] One of the reasons why European universities are starting to develop remedial courses is the different situation in the two continents. In the United States, a common assumption is that remediation attracts underprepared students of low socioeconomic status. Inadequate academic preparation is no longer a barrier to college access. In contrast, in Europe, a large part of the transitional problems are caused by differences among national secondary educational programmes, which are determined on a national level.[28] Therefore, these students are hindered to effectively start a bachelor or master programme. Remedial or developmental courses can help to bridge the gap.
European Framework of Transitional Preparatory/Remedial Teaching[edit]
To be able to compare and assess various preparatory courses in Europe, a European framework of transitional courses is necessary. By developing European Framework for Transitional Preparatory Courses (EFTPC), teachers around Europe can see how their design of their courses fit with the framework. In addition, potential improvements are identified and can be extended with the insights from the field. By using the WIKI technology, each teacher can add his/her suggestions to the EFTPC. This Framework is being developed in frame of European project STEP (Studies on Transitional Electronic Programmes) [1].
In Asia[edit]
Taiwan and China[edit]
Remedial education, also known as "buxiban" (simplified Chinese: 补习班; traditional Chinese: 補習班; pinyin: bǔxíbān, lit. "remedial education classes") are cram schools in Taiwan and China.
It is a prevalent belief that parents should send their children to all kinds of cram schools in order for their children to remain competitive with their peers of the same age. As a result, many children of school-going age in Mainland China or Taiwan have schedules packed with all sorts of remediation from cram school.
Buxiban teach a variety of subjects, including math, Chinese characters, and English as a foreign language. Studying at several buxiban is widely perceived as necessary to get a high-enough college entrance exam score to attend prestigious universities.
Some buxiban are located in English-speaking countries. Most of those in North America are operated by the local communities. There, they are equivalent to hoshū jugyō kō (hoshūkō) in ethnic Japanese communities and hagwon in ethnic Korean communities. Buxiban began appearing in North America in the 1880s.[29]
See also[edit]
Hagwon in Korea: 학원 hagwon
Juku in Japan: 学習塾 gakushū juku
Cram schools in Hong Kong: 補習社 bou2 zaap6 se5
Buke
Chinese school
[30]
Effectiveness[edit]
The question that rises is whether successful completion of a remedial course guarantees students' success in college. The literature provides limited evidence for the effectiveness of remedial courses on outcomes such as: persistence to graduation, quality of performance in subsequent courses, drop-out, and grade point average. Many researchers claim that very little research has been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of remedial or developmental education and that research concerning the effectiveness of remedial education programs has been sporadic, underfunded, and inconclusive and has serious methodological flaws. Recently, efforts have been made to use more rigorous research designs (e.g. regression discontinuity design) to evaluate remedial effectiveness and suggest that post-remediation classroom composition (e.g., concentrated underpreparedness) moderates developmental education effectiveness efforts.[31]
Metrics[edit]
One way of measuring the effectiveness of a developmental/remedial program is to investigate whether the enrolled students actually complete the remedial courses successfully. Several research studies have found that underprepared students who completed remedial coursework achieve greater academic success than underprepared students who did not complete remedial coursework or students who started college academically prepared. Such findings support McCabe's statement that successfully-remediated students perform well in standard college work.[32]
Despite the claim that a number of rigorous studies using a regression discontinuity design have found underprepared students who score near placement test cut off scores and enroll in remedial education perform no better than similarly scoring students who place directly into college level courses, several studies have demonstrated developmental education programs provide benefit.[33][34]
This may in part be due to the "leakage" that often occurs from the beginning of a developmental program to its end. Research from the Community College Research Center indicates that even students who successfully complete a developmental class often drop out of school before entering credit programs [33]
Acceleration Programs in Developmental Education
This has led to Acceleration in Developmental Education with The Community College of Baltimore County and the California Completion Project perhaps the two leading proponents. These programs merge (in different ways) developmental classes with credit classes.
Success factors[edit]
Kozeracki (2002)[35] distinguishes seven commonly cited elements that are associated with student success in developmental programs:
Orientation, assessment, and placement are mandatory for new students
Clearly specified goals and objectives are established for courses and programs
The adult learning theory is applied in the design and delivery of the courses
The courses are highly structured
The programs is centralized or highly coordinated
Counseling, tutoring, and supplemental instruction components are included
The social and emotional development of the students is taken into consideration
Other research suggests that "bridge" programs that integrate basic skills and remedial education with higher-level content or technical training can produce substantially better results than traditional remedial programs.[36]
Online remedial education[edit]
Online remedial education is defined as an instruction method using Information and communication technologies (ICT) which helps students to provide knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in university.[37] This way, foreign students can study in their home country, which reduces their costs while at the same time offering flexibility to develop their knowledge and skills. ICT has the power to support independent learning as well as to learn irrespective of time and geographical constraints with the widespread implementation of internet.
Advantages and disadvantages[edit]
Advantages and possibilities:
Flexible instructional pace and flexible class participation
Elimination of barriers of time and space
Cost-effectiveness of online courses
Electronic research availability (digital libraries and online databases)
A well-designed online course makes it easy for students to navigate and find the adequate information
Disadvantages and problems:
Delayed feedback from the instructor
Unavailable technical support from the instructor
Lack of self-regulation and self-motivation
Sense of isolation, caused by the lack of interpersonal communication and interaction among students or between students and the instructor, or caused by the use of monotonous instructional methods
A poorly designed course interface makes students feel lost in seeking information
Role of teachers[edit]
In order to provide a positive experience and to ensure the effectiveness of online remedial courses, the tutor's roles in designing and organizing the learning experience, providing technical advice and support, encouraging and facilitating discussion, encouraging participation, using a variety of forms of instruction, and resolving communication problems are crucial.[28]
Collaborative tools[edit]
A recent development in collaborative working and learning is the use of synchronous tools like web-videoconferences whereby learners meet online at a fixed time (synchronous) in an online classroom.[38] While web-videoconferencing is not a new phenomenon, tools like Skype, MSN Web Messenger and Adobe Acrobat Connect allow learners to efficiently communicate using free or low cost technology such as a simple desktop computer. Until recently, such basic technology would only allow for asynchronous learning, as for example in discussion groups.
See also[edit]
University-preparatory school
Special Assistance Program (Australian education)
References[edit]
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McCabe, R. 2000. No One to Waste: A Report to Public Decision-makers and Community College Leaders. Washington, DC: Community College Press.
McCusker, M. (1999). ERIC review: Effective elements of developmental reading and writing programs. Community College Review, 27, 93-105.
Merisotis, J. P., & Phipps, R. A. (2000). Remedial education in colleges and universities: What's really going on?. Review of Higher Education, 24, 67-85.
Moss, B. G., Kelcey, B., & Showers, N. (2014). Does Classroom Composition Matter? College Classrooms as Moderators of Developmental Education Effectiveness. Community College Review, 42(3), 201-220.
Moss, B.G. & Yeaton, WH. (2006) "Shaping Policies Related to Developmental Education: An Evaluation Using the Regression-Discontinuity Design," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 28 (3), 215-229.
Moss, B. G. & Yeaton, W. H. (2013). Evaluating Effects of Developmental Education for College Students Using a Regression Discontinuity Design. Evaluation review, 37, 370-404.
Moss, B. G., Yeaton, W. H., & Lloyd, J. E. (2014). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Developmental Mathematics by Embedding a Randomized Experiment Within a Regression Discontinuity Design. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36, 170-185.
Oudenhoven, B. (2002). Remediation at the community college: Pressing issues, uncertain solutions. New Directions for Community Colleges, 117, 35-44.
Parsad, B., Lewis, L., and Greene, B. (2003). Remedial education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions in Fall 2000 (NCES 2004-010). Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics.
Perin, D. (2004). Remediation beyond developmental education: The use of learning assistance centers to increase academic preparedness in community colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 28, 559-582.
Perin, D., Keselman, A., & Monopoli, M. (2003). The academic writing of community college remedial students: Text and learner variables. Higher Education, 45, 19-42.
Perry, M., Bahr, P. R., Rosin, M., & Woodward, K. M. (2010). Course-Taking Patterns, Policies, and Practices in Developmental Education in the California Community Colleges. A Report to the California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office. EdSource.
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Waterval, D., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. H.(2006). Remedial online teaching on a summer course. Industry and Higher Education, 20(5), 327-336.
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D. T., Dijkstra, J., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2008). Longitudinal study of online remedial education effects. In N. P. Barsky, M. Clements, J. Ravn & K. Smith (Eds.), Advances in Business Education and Training 1: The Power of Technology for Learning (pp. 43–59). Dordrecht: Springer.
Saxon, D. P., & Boylan, H. R. (2001). The cost of remedial education in higher education. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, 2-8.
Waycaster, P. (2001). Factors impacting success in community college developmental mathematics courses and subsequent courses. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 25, 403-416.
Weissman, J., Silk, E., and Bulakowski, C. (1997). Assessing developmental education policies. Research in Higher Education, 38, 187-200.
Worley, J. (2003). Developmental reading instruction, academic attainment and performance among underprepared college students. Journal of Applied Research in the Community College, 10, 127-136.
External links[edit]
Basic Skills and Workforce Training. Center for Law and Social Policy.
Developmental Education.org. Developmental Education resources for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, administrators, students and citizens.
[2]. Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University
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Mental age
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The pruning process is shown in this clip that was constructed from MRI scans of healthy children and teens. The time-lapse animation compresses 15 years of brain development (ages 5-20) into just a few seconds. Red indicates more gray matter, blue less gray matter. The changes in color from yellow/red to blue show the pruning process. (source: NIMH)
Mental age is a concept related to intelligence. It looks at how a specific child, at a specific age—usually today, now—performs intellectually, compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age, measured in years. The physical age of the child is compared to the intellectual performance of the child, based on performance in tests and live assessments by a psychologist. Scores achieved by the child in question are compared to scores in the middle of a bell curve for children of the same age [1]
However, mental age varies according to what kind of intelligence is measured. A child's intellectual age can be average for his physical age but the same child's emotional intelligence can be immature for his physical age. In this psychologists often remark girls are more emotionally mature than boys in the tween years. Also, a six-year-old child intellectually gifted in Piaget terms can remain a three-year-old child in terms of emotional maturity.[2] Mental age was once considered a controversial concept.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early Theories
1.2 Modern Theories
2 Mental age and IQ
2.1 Similarities
2.2 Differences
3 Controversy
3.1 The Nature of Intelligence
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
Early Theories[edit]
During much of the nineteenth century, theories of intelligence focused on measuring the size of human skulls.[4] Anthropologist well known for their attempts in correlating cranial size and capacity with intellectual potential are Samuel Morton and Paul Broca.[4]
The modern theories of intelligence began to emerge along with experimental psychology. This is when much of psychology was moving from philosophical to more biology and medical science basis. In 1890, James Cattell published what some consider the first "mental test". Cattell was more focused on heredity rather than environment. This spurs much of the debate about the nature of intelligence.[4]
Mental age was first defined by the French psychologist Alfred Binet, who introduced the intelligence test in 1905, with the assistance of Theodore Simon.[5] Binet's experiments on French schoolchildren laid the framework for future experiments into the mind throughout the Twentieth Century. He created an experiment that was designed as a test to be completed quickly and was taken by various ages of children. As was expected, the older children performed better on these tests. However, the younger children who had exceeded the average of their peers were said to have a higher "mental age" and those who performed below average were deemed to have a lower mental age. Binet's theories suggested that while mental age was a useful indicator, it was by no means permanently affixed and individual growth or decline could be attributed to changes in teaching methods and experiences.[4]
Henry Herbert Goddard was the first psychologist to bring Binet's test to the United States. Goddard was amongst one of the many psychologists in the 1910s that believed intelligence was a fixed quantity. While Binet believed this wasn't the case, the majority of those in the U.S believed it was hereditary.[4]
Modern Theories[edit]
The limitations of the Stanford-Binet caused David Wechsler to publish the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) in 1955. These two tests were split into two different ones for children. The WAIS-IV is the known current publication of the test for adults. The reason for this test was to score the individual and compare it to others of the same age group rather than to score by chronological age and mental age. The fixed average is 100 and the normal range is between 85 and 115. This is a standard currently used and is used in the Stanford-Binet test as well.[6]
Mental age and IQ[edit]
Originally, the differences between mental age and chronological age were used to compute the intelligence quotient, or IQ. This was computed using the ratio method, with the following formula:
mental age ÷ Physical age × 100 = IQ
No matter what the child's chronological age, if the mental age is the same as the chronological age, then the IQ will equal 100.[7]
Modern intelligence tests, including the current Stanford-Binet test, no longer compute scores using the IQ formula. Instead, intelligence tests give a score that reflects how far the person's performance deviates from the average performance of others who are the same age, arbitrarily defined as an average score of 100.[8]
Similarities[edit]
Differences[edit]
An IQ or intelligence quotient, is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The mental age is the age group which scored such a result on average.
Controversy[edit]
The Nature of Intelligence[edit]
Mental age, as well as IQ have limitations. Binet did not believe these measures should be used for a single, permanent and inborn level of intelligence. He stressed the limitation of the test because intelligence overall is too broad to be represented by a single number. It is influenced by many factors such as the individual's background and changes over time.[9]
Throughout much of the 20th century, many psychologists believed intelligence was fixed and hereditary while others believed other factors would affect intelligence.
After World War I, the concept of intelligence as fixed, hereditary, and unchangeable became the dominant theory within the experimental psychological community. By the mid-1930s, there was no longer agreement among researchers on whether or not intelligence was hereditary. There are still recurring debates about the influence of environment and heredity upon an individual's intelligence and the intelligence intentional.[8]
See also[edit]
IQ
Mature minor doctrine
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Glossary of Psychological Terms". American Psychological Association (From Gerrig, Richard J. & Philip G. Zimbardo. Psychology And Life, 16/e. Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. 2002. Pearson Education.).
Jump up ^ L.K. Silverman, 1997. "Asynchronous development" is now an accepted aspect of maturation. Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 72 Issue 3/4
Jump up ^ *Thurstone LL. The Mental Age Concept. Psychological Review 33 (1926): 268-278.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Stoslopf, Alan (16 December 2009). "Theories of Intelligence". In Provenzo Jr., Eugene R.; Provenzo, Asterie B. Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 441–444. doi:10.4135/9781412963992. ISBN 9781412963992. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica., Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2014
Jump up ^ Cherry, Kendra. "History of Intelligence Testing". Retrieved 8 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Intelligence Tests". Users.ipfw.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Stoslopf, Alan (16 December 2009). "Theories of Intelligence". In Provenzo Jr., Eugene R.; Provenzo, Asterie B. Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 444–446. doi:10.4135/9781412963992. ISBN 9781412963992. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Cherry, Kendra. "History of Intelligence Testing". Retrieved 8 April 2014.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mental_age&oldid=810070993"
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Public sector undertakings in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A state-owned enterprise in India is called a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) or a Public Sector Enterprise. These companies are owned by the union government of India, or one of the many state or territorial governments, or both. The company stock needs to be majority-owned by the government to be a PSU. PSUs may be classified as Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs), or State Level Public Enterprises (SLPEs).In 1951 there were just 5 enterprise in public sector in India but in March 1991 the number increase to 246.
CPSEs are companies in which the direct holding of the Central Government or other CPSEs is 51% or more. They are administered by the Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Governance
3 List of Public Sector Undertakings
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
Further information: Economic history of India
When India achieved independence in 1947, India was primarily an agricultural country with a weak industrial base. The national consensus was in favour of rapid industrialisation of the economy which was seen as the key to economic development, improving living standards and economic sovereignty.[1] Building upon the Bombay Plan, which noted the requirement of government intervention and regulation, the first Industrial Policy Resolution announced in 1948 laid down broad contours of the strategy of industrial development. Subsequently, the Planning Commission was constituted in March 1950 and the Industrial (Development and Regulation) Act was enacted in 1951 with the objective of empowering the government to take necessary steps to regulate industrial development.[2] Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promoted an economic policy based on import substitution industrialisation and advocated a mixed economy.[3] He believed that the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. India's second five year plan (1956–60) and the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 emphasised the development of public sector enterprises to meet Nehru's national industrialisation policy. Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis was instrumental to its formulation, which was subsequently termed the Feldman–Mahalanobis model.[4][5]
The major consideration for the setting up of PSUs was to accelerate the growth of core sectors of the economy; to serve the equipment needs of strategically important sectors, and to generate employment and income. A large number of "sick units" were taken over from the private sector. Additionally, Indira Gandhi's government nationalised fourteen of India's largest private banks in 1969, and an additional six in 1980. This government-led industrial policy, with corresponding restrictions on private enterprise, was the dominant pattern of Indian economic development until the 1991 Indian economic crisis.[2] After the crisis, the government began dis-investing its ownership of several PSUs to raise capital and privatise companies facing poor financial performance and low efficiency.[6][7]
Governance[edit]
Many private have been awarded additional financial autonomy. These companies are "public sector companies that have comparative advantages", giving them greater autonomy to compete in the global market so as to "support [them] in their drive to become global giants".[8] Financial autonomy was initially awarded to nine PSUs as Navratna status in 1997.[9] Originally, the term Navaratna meant a talisman composed of nine precious gems. Later, this term was adopted in the courts of Gupta emperor Vikramaditya and Mughal emperor Akbar, as the collective name for nine extraordinary courtiers at their respective courts.
In 2010, the government established the higher Maharatna category, which raises a company's investment ceiling from Rs. 1,000 crore to Rs. 5,000 crore.[10] The Maharatna firms can now decide on investments of up to 15 per cent of their net worth in a project while the Navaratna companies could invest up to Rs 1,000 crore without explicit government approval. Two categories of "Miniratnas" afford less extensive financial autonomy.
Guidelines for awarding Ratna[11] status are as follow:
Maharatna
Navratna
Miniratna Category-I
Miniratna Category-II
Eligibility Three years with an average annual net profit of over Rs. 5000 crore, OR
Average annual Net worth of Rs. 10,000 crore for 3 years, OR Average annual Turnover of Rs. 20,000 crore for 3 years (against Rs 25,000 crore prescribed earlier)[12]
A score of 60 (out of 100), based on six parameters which include net profit, net worth, total manpower cost, total cost of production, cost of services, PBDIT (Profit Before Depreciation, Interest and Taxes), capital employed, etc., AND
A company must first be a Miniratna and have 4 independent directors on its board before it can be made a Navratna.
Have made profits continuously for the last three years or earned a net profit of Rs. 30 crore or more in one of the three years Have made profits continuously for the last three years and should have a positive net worth.
Benefits for investment Rs. 1,000 crore - Rs. 5,000 crore, or free to decide on investments up to 15% of their net worth in a project up to Rs. 1,000 crore or 15% of their net worth on a single project or 30% of their net worth in the whole year (not exceeding Rs. 1,000 crores). up to Rs. 500 crore or equal to their net worth, whichever is lower. up to Rs. 300 crore or up to 50% of their net worth, whichever is lower.
PSUs in India are also categorised based on their special non-financial objectives and are registered under Section 8 of Companies Act, 2013 (erstwhile Section 25 of Companies Act, 1956).
List of Public Sector Undertakings[edit]
Main article: List of public sector undertakings in India
See also: Public sector banks in India
As on 13 September 2017 there are 8 Maharatnas, 16 Navratnas and 74 Miniratnas.[13]There are nearly 300 CPSEs(central public sector enterprises) in total.[14]
List of Maharatna
National Thermal Power Corporation(NTPC)
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation(ONGC)
Steel Authority of India Limited(SAIL)
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited(BHEL)
Indian Oil Corporation Limited(IOCL)
Coal India Limited(CIL)
Gas Authority of India Limited(GAIL)
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited(BPCL)

List of Navratna
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
Container Corporation of India (CONCOR)
Engineers India Limited (EIL)
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
Hindustan Petroleum (HPCL)
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL)
National Aluminium Company (NALCO)
National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC)
National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC)
Neyveli Lignite Corporation
Oil India Limited (OIL)
Power Finance Corporation
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited
Rural Electrification Corporation
Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)
List of Miniratna-I
Airports Authority of India (AAI)
Antrix Corporation
Balmer Lawrie
Bharat Coking Coal Limited
Bharat Dynamics Limited
Bharat Earth Movers
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL)
Bridge and Roof
Central Warehousing Corporation
Central Coalfields Limited
Chennai Petroleum Corporation
Cochin Shipyard
Dredging Corporation of India
Educational Consultants India
Kamarajar Port
Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers
Goa Shipyard
Hindustan Copper
HLL Lifecare
Hindustan newsprint
Hindustan Paper
Housing and Urban Development Corporation
HSCC
India Tourism Development Corporation
India Trade Promotion Organisation
Indian Rare Earths
Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
Ircon International
Kudremukh Iron Ore Company
Mazagaon Dock Limited
Mahanadi Coalfields
MOIL
Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited
Mishra Dhatu Nigam
MMTC Ltd.
MSTC Ltd.
National Fertilizers
National Small Industries Corporation Limited
National Seeds Corporation
NHPC Ltd.
Northern Coalfields
North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited
Numaligarh Refinery
ONGC Videsh
Pawan Hans
Projects and Development India Limited
RailTel Corporation of India
Rail Vikas Nigam Limited
Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers
RITES
SJVN Ltd.
Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India
South Eastern Coalfields
State Trading Corporation of India
Telecommunications Consultants India
THDC Ltd.
Western Coalfields
Water and Power Consultancy Services
List of Miniratna-II
Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India
Bharat Pumps & Compressors
Broadcast Engineering Consultants India
Central Mine Planning and Design Institute
Central Railside Warehouse Company
Engineering Projects
FCI Aravali Gypsum and Minerals (India) Limited
Ferro Scrap Nigam Limited
HMT (International) Ltd.
Indian Medicines & Pharmaceuticals Corporation Limited
MECON
Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited
National Film Development Corporation of India
PEC Ltd.
Rajasthan Electronics & Instruments Limited
See also[edit]
Disinvestment in Public Sector Units of India
Indian company law
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Chapter 1, Industrial Policy Handbook" (PDF). Industrial Policy Handbook. Office of the Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Jadhav, Narendra. "Industrial Policy since 1956" (PDF). Dr. Narendra Jadhav. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Ghose, Shankar. Jawaharlal Nehru. Allied Publishers. p. 243. ISBN 978-8170233695.
Jump up ^ Ahluwalia, Isher J. (1993). Productivity and Growth in Indian Manufacturing, part of Recent Developments in Indian Economy: With Special Reference to Structural Reforms, Part 2. New Delhi: Academic Foundation. p. 25. ISBN 9788171880942.
Jump up ^ Baldev Raj Nayar, Globalization And Nationalism: The Changing Balance Of India's Economic Policy, 1950–2000 (New Delhi: Sage, 2001)
Jump up ^ "Disinvestments-A Historical Perspective". Bombay Stock Exchange. Retrieved 19 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Sankar, T.L., Mishra, R.K., Lateef Syed Mohammed, A. (1994). "Divestments in Public Enterprises: The Indian Experience". International Journal of Public Sector Management. 7 (2): 69–88. doi:10.1108/09513559410055242. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Original govt. announcement about the Navratnas 1997 Archived 9 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rediff News 26.08.2010
Jump up ^ "Maharatna status for mega PSUs gets nod". The Times of India. 25 December 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "bsepsu.com". www.bsepsu.com. Retrieved 2016-07-25.
Jump up ^ http://www.archive.india.gov.in/spotlight/spotlight_archive.php?id=78
Jump up ^ http://dpe.nic.in/about-us/management-division/maharatna-navratna-miniratna-cpse
Jump up ^ http://www.bsepsu.com/list-cpse.asp List of CPSEs - BSE
[show]
v
t
e
State-owned enterprises of Asia
Sovereign states
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
East Timor (Timor-Leste)
Egypt
Georgia
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
North Korea
South Korea
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Oman
Pakistan
Philippines
Qatar
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
States with
limited recognition
Abkhazia
Artsakh
Northern Cyprus
Palestine
South Ossetia
Taiwan
Dependencies and
other territories
British Indian Ocean Territory
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Hong Kong
Macau
[show]
v
t
e
Public sector undertakings in India (List)
Maharatna
Bharat Heavy Electricals
Coal India
Gas Authority of India
Indian Oil Corporation
National Thermal Power Corporation
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
Steel Authority of India
Bharat Petroleum Corporation
Navratna
Bharat Electronics
Container Corporation of India
Engineers India
Hindustan Aeronautics
Hindustan Petroleum
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam
National Aluminium Company
National Buildings Construction Corporation
National Mineral Development Corporation
NLC India Limited
Oil India
Power Finance Corporation
Power Grid Corporation of India
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam
Rural Electrification Corporation
Shipping Corporation of India
Miniratna-I
Airports Authority of India
Antrix Corporation
Balmer Lawrie
Bharat Coking Coal
Bharat Dynamics
Bharat Earth Movers
Bharat Sanchar Nigam
Bridge & Roof Company (India)
Central Warehousing Corporation
Central Coalfields
Chennai Petroleum Corporation
Cochin Shipyard
Dredging Corporation of India
Kamarajar Port
Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers
Goa Shipyard
Hindustan Copper
HLL Lifecare
Hindustan Newsprint
Hindustan Paper Corporation
Housing and Urban Development Corporation
Indian Rare Earths
Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
India Trade Promotion Organisation
Ircon International
India Tourism Development Corporation
Kudremukh Iron Ore Company
Mazagon Dock Limited
Mahanadi Coalfields
Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemical
Mishra Dhatu Nigam
Metals and Minerals Trading Corporation of India
MOIL
MSTC
National Fertilizers
National Seeds Corporation
Nathpa Jhakri Dam
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
Northern Coalfields
North Eastern Electric Power Corporation
Numaligarh Refinery
ONGC Videsh Limited
Pawan Hans
Projects and Development India
Rail Vikas Nigam
RailTel Corporation of India
Rail Vikas Nigam Limited
Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers
RITES
SJVN Limited
Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India
South Eastern Coalfields
State Trading Corporation of India
Telecommunications Consultants India
THDC India
WAPCOS Limited
Western Coalfields
Educational Consultants India
HSCC (India)
National Small Industries Corporation
Miniratna-II
Bharat Pumps & Compressors
Broadcast Engineering Consultants India
Central Mine Planning and Design Institute
Central Railside Warehouse Company
Engineering Projects (India) Limited
FCI Aravali Gypsum and Minerals (India)
Ferro Scrap Nigam
HMT (International)
Indian Medicines and Pharmaceuticals Corporation
MECON
Mineral Exploration Corporation
National Film Development Corporation of India
PEC Limited
Rajasthan Electronics and Instruments
Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India
Information updated as of 30 October, 2017 by Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises • See also Public sector banks in India
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_sector_undertakings_in_India&oldid=837046568"
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