text:
List of snipers
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Look up sniper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
A sniper is a trained marksman who operates alone, in a pair, or with a sniper team to maintain close visual contact with a target and engage the targets from concealed positions or distances exceeding the detection capabilities of enemy personnel.
Contents
[hide]
1 Military snipers
2 Non-military snipers
3 See also
4 References
Military snipers[edit]
Some notable military snipers include:
Name
Birth
Active
Confirmed
Country
Comments
Hiram Berdan 1824–1893 1861–1864 0 !N/A United States Commanded 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters during the American Civil War.[1]
Noah Adamia 1919–1942 1938–1942 200 !200+ Soviet Union A Soviet Georgian naval infantryman who is credited with over 200 kills and several tanks knocked out within a couple months during WWII.
Vasilij Kvachantiradze 1907–1950 1941–1945 534 !534 Soviet Union A Soviet Georgian sniper who is credited with 534 kills during WWII, one of if not possibly the highest Soviet kill counts. Known for almost single-handedly thwarting a German assault on Shumilino in Belarus.
Mikhail Budenkov 1919– 1941–1945 437 !437 Soviet Union
Herman Davis 1888–1923 1918 060 !60 United States
Fedir Dyachenko 1917–1995 1932–1945 425 !425 Soviet Union
Rob Furlong 1976– 1996–2003 01 !1+ Canada A Canadian Army sniper who held the record for the kill from the greatest distance.[2]
Leysters Greener d. 1917 1914–1917 054 !54 United Kingdom
Vasilij Golosov 1911–1943 1941–1943 422 !422 Soviet Union
Gary Gordon 1960–1993 1978–1993 0 !N/A United States Delta Force sniper who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for protecting the injured crew of a downed helicopter during the Battle of Mogadishu.[3]
Mark Osmond (pseudonym) 1986- 2007-2011 044 !44 United Kingdom British sniper with 4 Rifles credited with 44 confirmed kills in Afghanistan including two Taliban insurgents dispatched with a single bullet.[4]
Craig Harrison 1974– 1990–2014 01 !1+ United Kingdom British Army sniper who achieved the second longest confirmed kill shot in history (2,475m) using the Accuracy International L115A3 Long Range Rifle.[5]
Unnamed Royal Marine corporal 173 !173 United Kingdom Reputedly the deadliest sniper alive as of 2015 with 173 confirmed kills, mostly with the L115A3 on one tour of Afghanistan in 2006–2007, including over 90 Taliban in one day.[6]
Carlos Hathcock 1942–1999 1959–1979 093 !93 United States Renowned United States Marine Corps sniper with 93 confirmed kills.[7][8]
Simo Häyhä 1905–2002 1925–1940 542 !542 Finland A Finnish sniper known as "The White Death," who holds the record for highest number of confirmed sniper kills. Häyhä was credited with 542 confirmed sniper kills of Soviet soldiers accomplished in fewer than 100 days during the Winter War.[9][10]
Matthäus Hetzenauer 1924–2004 1943–1945 345 !345 Nazi Germany Infamous German sniper on the Eastern Front during World War II who was credited with 345 kills between 1943 and 1945.[11]
Abukhadzhi Idrisov 1918–1983 1939–1944 349 !349+ Soviet Union A Soviet Chechen sniper with an alleged 349 plus kills during World War II.
Nikolay Yakovlevich Ilyin 1925–1943 1941–1943 469 !469 Soviet Union
Nicholas Irving 2004–2010 033 !33 United States A sniper with the 3rd Ranger Battalion deployed in Afghanistan in 2009 with 33 confirmed kills.[12]
Tatang Koswara 1947–2015 1975–1976 041 !41 Indonesia A sniper credited with at least 41 confirmed kills during the Indonesian invasion of East Timor in the 1970s.[13]
Ivan Kulbertinov 1941–1945 489 !489 Soviet Union
Chris Kyle 1974–2013 1999–2009 160 !160 United States A US Navy SEAL credited with 160 confirmed kills.[14]
Musa Herdem 1987-2015 2006–2015 080 !80 Rojava PJAK PKK A YPG sniper known as 'Musa' with allegedly more than 80 confirmed kills, mainly during the fighting for Kobani.[15]
Marie Ljalková 1920–2011 1942–1953 030 !30 Czechoslovakia A Czech sniper fighting within the Soviet Army during the second world war with at least 30 confirmed kills.
Ranjith Premasiri Madalana 1969–2009 2000-2009 180 !180 Sri Lanka Sniper in the Sri Lanka Army during the country's civil war, who is alleged to have killed over 180 Tamil Tigers.[16]
Chuck Mawhinney 1949– 1967–1970 103 !103 United States A United States Marine Corps sniper who holds the record for most confirmed kills by a US Marine (103).[17]
Herbert W. McBride 1873–1933 1914–1918 100 !100+ United States US citizen and captain in the 21st Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force, during the First World War.[18]
Philip McDonald 1886–1916 1914–1916 070 !70 Canada 8th Battalion (90th Winnipeg Rifles), CEF, 70 confirmed kills during the First World War. Killed in action 3 January 1916.
Neville Methven 1916–1918 100 !100 South Africa Big game hunter and target shooter who served as an officer with Sir Abe Bailey's South African Sharpshooters on the Western Front.
Timothy Murphy 1751–1818 1775–1780 01 !1+ United States An American Revolutionary War sniper who killed British General Simon Fraser during the Battle of Saratoga.[1]
Semyon Nomokonov 1900–1973 1941–1945 367 !367 Soviet Union A Soviet World War II sniper with 367 logged kills.[19]
Henry Norwest 1884–1918 1915–1918 115 !115 Canada A sniper in the 50th Canadian Infantry Battalion during the First World War. He had 115 confirmed kills and was killed by a German sniper on August 18, 1918.[20]
Fyodor Okhlopkov 1908–1968 1941–1945 423 !423 Soviet Union One of the most effective Soviet snipers, credited with 423 confirmed kills during World War II.[21]
Johnson Paudash 1875–1959 1914–1918 088 !88 Canada 21st Battalion (Eastern Ontario), CEF during World War One. 88 confirmed kills.[22]
Lyudmila Pavlichenko 1916–1974 1941–1953 309 !309 Soviet Union Was the most successful female sniper during World War II. She served the Soviet army and has 309 confirmed kills.[21]
Vladimir Pchelintsev 1920– 1941–1945 456 !456 Soviet Union
Stepan Petrenko 1922–1984 1941–1945 422 !422 Soviet Union
Francis Pegahmagabow 1891–1952 1914–1919 378 !378 Canada An Indigenous North American sniper in World War I who is credited with 378 kills, and an unknown number of unconfirmed kills.[23]
Friedrich Pein 1915–1975 1943–1945 200 !200+ Austria Austrian fighting in the German Army credited with over 200 kills on the Eastern Front between 1943 and 1945 during the Second World War.
Arron Perry 1972– 1999–2005 01 !1+ Canada A Canadian Army sniper who briefly held the record for the longest-ever recorded and confirmed sniper kill in 2002.[2]
Graham Ragsdale 1969– 0 !N/A Canada A former Canadian Army sniper who fought in Afghanistan in 2003.[2]
Patrick Riel 1876–1916 1914–1916 030 !30 Canada Métis Canadian attached to the 8th Battalion (90th Winnipeg Rifles), CEF during the First World War with 30 confirmed kills. KIA January 14, 1916 by shell fire.[24]
Ben Roberts-Smith 1978– 1996– 0 !N/A Australia Served as a sniper with the Australian Special Air Service Regiment. He was awarded the Medal of Gallantry for his actions in 2006 during Operation Perth in the Chora Valley of Oruzgan Province, Afghanistan.[25]
Ian Robertson 1927–2014 1945–1953 030 !30+ Australia Served as a sniper with Australia's 3RAR post World War 2. He became one of the most effective snipers during the Korean War. In one morning he killed 30 enemy soldiers.[26]
Roza Shanina 1924–1945 1943–1945 059 !59 Soviet Union A Soviet sniper during the Second World War, credited with 59 confirmed kills, including 12 soldiers during the Battle of Vilnius.
Randy Shughart 1958–1993 1976–1993 0 !N/A United States Delta Force sniper who posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for protecting the injured crew of a downed helicopter during the Battle of Mogadishu.[3]
Ivan Sidorenko 1919–1994 1939–1945 500 !500+ Soviet Union A Soviet sniper credited with over 500 kills during the Second World War.
Billy Sing 1886–1943 1914–1918 150 !150+ Australia An Australian soldier in WW1 was credited with over 150 confirmed kills.[27]
Bruno Sutkus 1924–2003 1944–1945 209 !209 Lithuania Lithuanian fighting in the German Army. Credited with 209 kills on the Eastern Front between 1944 and 1945 during the Second World War.
Zhang Taofang 1931–2007 1951–1953 214 !214 China A Chinese sniper who fought in the Korean War with 214 confirmed kills in 32 days.[28]
Adelbert Waldron 1933–1995 1968–1970 109 !109 United States A United States Army sniper who formerly held the record for the most confirmed kills by a US military sniper (109).[29]
Alvin C. York 1887–1964 1917–1918 028 !28 United States 82nd Infantry Division, an expert sharpshooter using an M1917 Enfield rifle during the Meuse-Argonne offensive near Chatel-Chéhéry, France, 1918 in World War I. Medal of Honor recipient.
Vasily Zaytsev 1915–1991 1937–1945 242 !242 Soviet Union A Soviet sniper who fought at the Battle of Stalingrad. Zaytsev is credited with 242 kills (including 11 snipers).[21]
Non-military snipers[edit]
Not all snipers are highly trained professional soldiers. The term is sometimes used to describe criminals firing from cover at long range with a rifle and police sharpshooters. Some notable non-military snipers include:
William "Billy" Dixon (1850–1913), defended the Adobe Walls settlement against Indian attack with his legendary buffalo rifle, and was one of eight civilians in United States history to receive the Medal of Honor.
Frank Carter (1881–1927) was a notorious murderer in Omaha, Nebraska, who claimed to have murdered 43 victims.[30]
Michael Andrew Clark (1949–1965), teenage sniper who killed three and wounded six in Highway 101 shooting spree on April 25, 1965.[31]
Jack Hinson (1807–1874) was a farmer who engaged Union troops at long range during the American Civil War and recorded 36 officer "kills" on his custom-made .50 caliber Kentucky long rifle with iron sights.[32]
Lon Horiuchi (born 1954), a Federal Bureau of Investigation sniper who shot Randy Weaver and shot and killed Vicki Weaver at Ruby Ridge.[33]
Thomas "Tom" Horn, Jr. (1860–1903) an American Old West lawman, scout, and hired gunman, known for shooting cattle rustlers and sheepherders at long range with a Sharps rifle.[34]
John Allen Muhammad (1960–2009) and Lee Boyd Malvo (born 1975), perpetrators of the Beltway sniper attacks, a series of coordinated shootings that took place over three weeks in October 2002 in Maryland, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. Ten people were killed and three other victims were critically injured in several locations throughout the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area and along Interstate 95 in Virginia.
Byron De La Beckwith (1920-2001), ex-US Marine and white supremacist, assassinated NAACP field secretary Medgar Evers after the civil rights activist arrived home in Jackson, Mississippi on June 12, 1963.
Lee Harvey Oswald (1939–1963), ex–US Marine, assassinated President John F. Kennedy and shot Governor John Connally in Dallas, Texas on November 22, 1963, and shot at General Edwin Walker on April 10, 1963.[35]
Charles Whitman (1941–1966), college student and ex–US Marine who fired from a clock tower on the University of Texas Austin campus, killing 14 and wounding 32 on August 1, 1966.[36]
See also[edit]
List of books, articles and documentaries about snipers
Sniper (disambiguation)
List of sniper rifles
Counter-sniper tactics
Snipers of the Soviet Union
Longest recorded sniper kills
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Senich, Peter R. (1988). The Complete Book of U.S. Sniping. Boulder: Paladin Press. pp. 50–57. ISBN 978-0-87364-460-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Friscolanti,, Michael (15 May 2006), We were abandoned, Rogers Publishing, pp. 18–25
^ Jump up to: a b Durant, Michael J.; Hartov, Steve (2003). In The Company of Heroes: A True Story. Putnam Publishing Group. ISBN 0-399-15060-9.
Jump up ^ "Dead Men Risen: The snipers' story". Daily Telegraph. London. 13 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "British sniper Craig Harrison (The Silent Assassin) breaks record, kills target from 1.5 miles away". Daily News. New York. 3 May 2010. Archived from the original on 18 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "British Royal Marine is world's deadliest sniper". The Daily Telegraph. London. 2 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Sasser, Charles; Roberts, Craig (1990). One Shot, One Kill (1990 ed.). Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-671-68219-4.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Harold (March 2003). "Marine Corps Sets Sights on More Precise Shooting". National Defense Magazine. Archived from the original on 30 January 2007. Retrieved 30 March 2007. Founded in 1977, the school's first staff NCOIC was the famed sniper, Gunnery Sgt. Carlos Hathcock II, who was credited with 93 confirmed kills in Vietnam.
Jump up ^ Stirling, Robert (20 December 2012). Special Forces Sniper Skills. Osprey Publishing. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-1-78096-003-6.
Jump up ^ http://controversialtimes.com/military/10-deadliest-snipers-in-history-1-is-absolutely-crazy/
Jump up ^ Scherzer, Veit (2007). Die Ritterkreuzträger 1939–1945 Die Inhaber des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939 von Heer, Luftwaffe, Kriegsmarine, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm sowie mit Deutschland verbündeter Streitkräfte nach den Unterlagen des Bundesarchives [The Knight's Cross Bearers 1939–1945 The Holders of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross 1939 by Army, Air Force, Navy, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm and Allied Forces with Germany According to the Documents of the Federal Archives] (in German). Jena, Germany: Scherzers Miltaer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-938845-17-2.
Jump up ^ Connelly, Sherryl (24 January 2015). "'The Reaper' is gripping autobiography of sniper who killed record 33 Taliban in Afghanistan deployment". Daily News. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
Jump up ^ ""Indonesian Sniper" Tatang Koswara passes away at 68". Coconuts Media. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Buiso, Gary (1 January 2012). "Meet the big shot". Retrieved 2 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Buiso, Gary (1 January 2015). "Gritty Kurdish fighter gloats over recapture of Kobane". Retrieved 2 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Infolanka. How the LTTE was 'military' defeated: A Soldier’s view - Part Seven. infolanka.asia. Infolanka. Retrieved 28 March 2015. It is ‘Juba’ the sniper who causes havoc in Iraq and it was Corporal W.I. Ranjith Premasiri alias ‘Nero’ of SLA who was responsible for the deaths of more than 180 Tiger cadres, before his demise on 28 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Perry, Tony (22 January 2000). "A Sniper at Peace With His Duties". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Herbert W. McBride (1873–1933)". TeeJawa. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Номоконов - вновь на коне (in Russian). Zabmedia. 13 January 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sharpshooter: Henry Louis Norwest". Government of Canada. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Haskew, Michael (1 November 2005). The Sniper at War: From the American Revolutionary War to the Present Day. St. Martin's Press. pp. 65, 73–74. ISBN 978-0-312-33651-6.
Jump up ^ "Johnson Paudash MM". http://21stbattalion.ca/. Retrieved 29 January 2015. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ Brownlie, Robin (2003). A Fatherly Eye: Indian Agents, Government Power, and Aboriginal Resistance in Ontario, 1918–1939. University of Toronto Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-541784-5.
Jump up ^ "Private Patrick Riel". Canadian Great War Project. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Nicholson, Brendan (23 April 2011). "You think I'm brave? Meet my mates: Ben Roberts-Smith". theaustralian.com.au. The Australian. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "A sniper's tale". The Sydney Morning Herald. 26 April 2004.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, J. C. M. (2008). Gallipoli Sniper: The life of Billy Sing. Sydney: Pan Macmillan Australia. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4050-3865-2.
Jump up ^ Stronge, Charles (25 January 2011). Kill Shot: The 15 Deadliest Snipers of All Time. Ulysses Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-56975-862-5.
Jump up ^ Kirchner, Paul (2009). More of the Deadliest Men Who Ever Lived. Boulder: Paladin Press. ISBN 978-1-58160-690-4.
Jump up ^ "Sniper Shoots Council Bluffs Detective; Terror of People Hits Omaha's Business". The New York Times. 20 February 1926.
Jump up ^ Demaris, Ovid (1971). America the Violent. Penguin Books. p. 344.
Jump up ^ McKenney, Tom (23 September 2010). Jack Hinson's One-man War: A Civil War Sniper. Pelican Publishing. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-4556-0646-7.
Jump up ^ Witkin, Gordon (11 September 1995). "The nightmare of Idaho's Ruby Ridge". US News & World Report. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Anderson, Dan & Laurence J. Yadon (2007), 100 Oklahoma Outlaws, Gangsters, and Lawmen: 1839–1939, Pelican Publishing Company, p. 231, ISBN 978-1-58980-384-8
Jump up ^ Bugliosi, Vincent (2007). Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04525-0.
Jump up ^ Cawthorne, Nigel (2007). Serial Killers And Mass Murderers: Profiles of the World's Most Barbaric Criminals. Ulysses Press. ISBN 1-569-75578-7.
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text:
New Zealand dollar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
New Zealand dollar
New Zealand dollar (English)
Tāra o Aotearoa (Māori)
$1 coin reverse
ISO 4217
Code
NZD
Number
554
Exponent
2
Denominations
Subunit
1/100
cent
Symbol
$
cent
c
Nickname
kiwi
Banknotes
$5, $10, $20, $50, $100
Coins
10¢, 20¢, 50¢, $1, $2
Demographics
Official user(s)
New Zealand
5 territories[show]
Cook Islands (New Zealand), alongside Cook Islands dollar
Niue (New Zealand)
Pitcairn Islands (UK)
Ross Dependency (New Zealand)
Tokelau (New Zealand)
Unofficial user(s)
Fiji
New Caledonia (France)
Samoa
Tonga
Zimbabwe
Issuance
Central bank
Reserve Bank of New Zealand
Website
www.rbnz.govt.nz
Printer
Note Printing Australia (provides base polymer note material)
Website
www.noteprinting.com
Valuation
Inflation
0.2% (New Zealand only)
Source
Reserve Bank of New Zealand, November 2016
Pegged by
Cook Islands dollar, Niue dollar and Pitcairn Islands dollar (all at par)
The New Zealand dollar (sign: $; code: NZD, also abbreviated NZ$) (Māori: Tāra o Aotearoa) is the official currency and legal tender of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, the Ross Dependency, Tokelau, and a British territory, the Pitcairn Islands.[1] Within New Zealand, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign ($), with "NZ$" sometimes used to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. In the context of currency trading, it is often informally called the "Kiwi" or "Kiwi dollar",[2] since New Zealand is commonly associated with the indigenous bird and the one-dollar coin depicts a kiwi.
Introduced in 1967, the dollar is subdivided into 100 cents. Altogether there are ten denominations—five coins and five banknotes—with the smallest being the 10-cent coin. Formerly there were lower denominations, but those were discontinued due to inflation and production costs.
The New Zealand dollar is consistently one of the 10 most traded currencies in the world, being approximately 2.0% of global foreign exchange market daily turnover in 2013.[3]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Exchange rate
2 Coins
2.1 History
2.2 Current circulating coins
3 Banknotes
3.1 History
3.2 Current circulating banknotes
4 History of NZ$ foreign exchange rates in foreign countries
5 Global foreign exchange market
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Introduction[edit]
Prior to the introduction of the New Zealand dollar in 1967, the New Zealand pound was the currency of New Zealand, which had been distinct from the pound sterling since 1933. The pound used the £sd system, in which the pound was divided into 20 shillings and one shilling was divided into 12 pence, which by the 1950s was considered complicated and cumbersome.
Switching to decimal currency had been proposed in New Zealand since the 1930s, although only in the 1950s did any plans come to fruition. In 1957, a committee was set up by the Government to investigate decimal currency. The idea fell on fertile ground, and in 1963, the Government decided to decimalise New Zealand currency.[4] The Decimal Currency Act was passed in 1964, setting the date of transition to 10 July 1967.[5] Words such as "fern", "kiwi" and "zeal" were proposed to avoid confusion with the word "dollar", which many people at the time associated with the United States dollar.[6][7] In the end, the word "dollar" was chosen anyway, and an anthropomorphic dollar note cartoon character called "Mr. Dollar" became the symbol of transition in a huge publicity campaign.[8]
On Monday 10 July 1967 ("Decimal Currency Day"), the New Zealand dollar was introduced to replace the pound at a rate of two dollars to one pound (one dollar to ten shillings, ten cents to one shilling, 5⁄6 cent to a penny).[9] Some 27 million new banknotes were printed and 165 million new coins were minted for the changeover.[6]
Exchange rate[edit]
The New Zealand dollar was initially pegged to the US dollar at US$1.43 = NZ$1. This rate changed on 21 November of the same year to US$1.12 = NZ$1 after the devaluation of the British pound (see Bretton Woods system), although New Zealand devalued more than the UK.[10]
In 1971 the US devalued its dollar relative to gold, leading New Zealand on 23 December to peg its dollar at US$1.216 with a 4.5% fluctuation range, keeping the same gold value. From 9 July 1973 to 4 March 1985 the dollar's value was determined from a trade-weighted basket of currencies.
The NZ$ was floated on 4 March 1985 at the initial rate of US$0.4444. Since then the dollar's value has been determined by the financial markets, and has been in the range of about US$0.39 to 0.88.
The dollar's post-float low was US$0.3922 on 22 November 2000, and it reached a post-float high on 9 July 2014 of US$0.8821. Much of this medium-term variation in the exchange rate has been attributed to differences in interest rates.[citation needed]
The New Zealand dollar's value is often strongly affected by currency trading,[citation needed] and is among the 10 most-traded currencies.[11]
On 11 June 2007 the Reserve Bank sold an unknown worth of New Zealand dollars for nine billion USD in an attempt to drive down its value. This is the first intervention in the markets by the Bank since the float in 1985.
Two suspected interventions followed, but they were not as successful as the first: the first appeared to be initially effective, with the dollar dropping to approximately US$0.7490 from near US$0.7620. However, within little more than a month it had risen to new post-float highs, reaching US$0.8103 on 23 July 2007.
After reaching its post-float record high in early 2008, the value of the NZ$ plummeted throughout much of the 2nd half of 2008 and the first quarter of 2009 as a response to the global economic downturn and flight by investors away from "riskier" currencies such as the NZ$. The NZ$ bottomed out at approximately US$0.50 on 6 March 2009.[12] However, it rebounded strongly as the year progressed, reaching the US$0.75 range by November 2009.[12]
By late 2012, the dollar was holding above 80 US cents, occasionally reaching 85¢, prompting calls from the Green Party for quantitative easing.[13][14] Unions also called on the Government and the Reserve Bank to take action, but as of February 2013 both had declined.[15]
As of early June, 2017, the NZD was trading at approximately US$0.71.[16]
Coins[edit]
Main article: Coins of the New Zealand dollar
History[edit]
On the introduction of the dollar, coins came in denominations of 1¢, 2¢, 5¢, 10¢, 20¢ and 50¢. The 1¢ and 2¢ coins were bronze, the others were cupro-nickel.[17] To ease transition, the 5¢, 10¢ and 20¢ were the same size as the sixpence, shilling and florin that they respectively replaced. Until 1970 the ten-cent coin bore the additional legend "One Shilling". The obverse designs of all the coins featured Arnold Machin's portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, with the legend ELIZABETH II NEW ZEALAND [date]. The reverse sides of coins introduced in 1967 did not follow the designs that were originally intended for them. Those modern art and sculpture themed designs were leaked to a newspaper and met a very negative public reaction. The final releases were given more conservative designs in line with public expectations.
In 1986, New Zealand adopted Raphael Maklouf's new portrait of the Queen. The 1¢ and 2¢ coins were last minted for circulation in 1987, with collector coins being made for 1988. The coins were demonetised on 30 April 1990.[17] The lack of 1¢ and 2¢ coins meant that cash transactions were normally rounded to the nearest 5¢ (10¢ from 2006), a process known as Swedish rounding.
On 11 February 1991, aluminium-bronze $1 and $2 coins were introduced to replace existing $1 and $2 notes.[17] In 1999, Ian Rank-Broadley's portrait of the Queen was introduced and the legend rearranged to read NEW ZEALAND ELIZABETH II.
On 11 November 2004 the Reserve Bank announced that it proposed to take the 5¢ coin out of circulation and to make the 50¢, 20¢ and 10¢ coins smaller and use plated steel to make them lighter. After a three-month public submission period that ended on 4 February 2005, the Reserve Bank announced on 31 March that it would go ahead with the proposed changes. The changeover period started on 31 July 2006, with the old coins usable until 31 October 2006.[17] The old 50¢, 20¢, 10¢ and 5¢ pieces are now no longer legal tender, but are still redeemable at the Reserve Bank. Prior to the change over, these coins were similar, same for the legend and reverse artwork, to international (mainly Commonwealth) coins of the same British-derived sizes, which led to coins from other currencies, particularly older coins, being accepted by vending machines and many retailers.
Current circulating coins[edit]
The reverse designs of the current circulating New Zealand dollar coins. Image by Reserve Bank of New Zealand.
Value
Technical Parameters
Description
Date of issue
Diameter
Thickness
Mass
Composition
Edge
Obverse
Reverse
10¢ 20.50 mm 1.58 mm 3.30 g Copper-plated steel Plain Queen Elizabeth II A Māori koruru, or carved head. 31 July 2006
20¢ 21.75 mm 1.56 mm 4.00 g Nickel-plated steel "Spanish flower" Queen Elizabeth II Māori carving of Pukaki, a chief of the Ngati Whakaue iwi between traditional koru kowhaiwhai patterns[18] 31 July 2006
50¢ 24.75 mm 1.70 mm 5.00 g Plain HM Bark Endeavour and Mount Taranaki
$1 23.00 mm 2.74 mm 8 g Aluminium bronze Intermittent milling Queen Elizabeth II Kiwi and silver fern 11 February 1991
$2 26.50 mm 2.70 mm 10 g Grooved Kotuku (great egret)
Banknotes[edit]
Main article: Banknotes of the New Zealand dollar
History[edit]
In 1967, notes were introduced in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20 and $100, with all except the $5 replacing their pound predecessors. The original series of dollar notes featured on the obverse a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II wearing Queen Alexandra's Kokoshnik tiara, King George's VI festoon necklace, and Queen Mary's floret earrings, while the reverse featured native birds and plants.[19] The notes were changed slightly in 1981 due to a change of printer (from De La Rue to Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co.)—the most noticeable difference being the portrait based upon a photograph by Peter Grugeon, in which Queen Elizabeth II is wearing Grand Duchess Vladimir's tiara and Queen Victoria's golden jubilee necklace.[19] The $50 note was added in 1983 to fill the long gap between the $20 and the $100 notes. $1 and $2 notes were discontinued in 1991 after being replaced with coins.
A new series of notes was introduced in 1992. The obverse of each note featured a notable New Zealander, while the reverse featured a native New Zealand bird and New Zealand scenery. In 1999, polymer notes replaced the paper notes. The designs remained much the same, but were changed slightly to accommodate new security features, with the most obvious changes being the two transparent windows.
New banknotes are being printed in New Zealand at the moment. The new notes are the same sizes and denominations as the older banknotes, and they will continue to be made of the same flexible plastic material. The themes of the notes remain the same, with the same respected New Zealanders, the Queen, and flora and fauna remaining central to the designs. The $5 and $10 notes were released in October 2015, with the $20, $50 and $100 notes set to release in April 2016. The old New Zealand banknotes and the new 'Brighter Money' banknotes can be used interchangeably for the time being.[20]
Since the older banknotes were first issued in 1999, security features and the technology for designing and printing banknotes have all advanced considerably. And while counterfeiting rates in New Zealand are low compared to the rest of the world, the New Zealand public and government agree that it is in the best interest to "stay one step ahead of the game", hence the new notes.[20]
Current circulating banknotes[edit]
New Zealand $10 note (sixth-issue)
New Zealand $20 note (sixth-issue)
New Zealand's five-dollar note has been named the banknote of the year for 2015, a "clear winner" among nearly 40 eligible designs from a record 20 countries. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand released the new $5 and $10 notes in October as part of its Brighter Money range. The $5 shows mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary facing the South Island's Aoraki/Mount Cook, and, on the other side, a rare yellow-eyed penguin and local flora.
Value
Dimensions
Main Colour
Description
Date of issue
Obverse
Reverse
Watermark
$5 135 mm × 66 mm Orange Sir Edmund Hillary
Aoraki/Mount Cook
Massey Ferguson tractor Hoiho (yellow-eyed penguin)
Campbell Island scene Queen Elizabeth II 1999
$5
[1] 135 mm × 66 mm Orange Sir Edmund Hillary
Aoraki/Mount Cook
Kaokao patterning Hoiho (yellow-eyed penguin)
Campbell Island
Campbell Island Daisy The number 5 2015
$10 140 mm × 68 mm Blue Kate Sheppard
White camellia flowers Whio (blue duck)
River scene Queen Elizabeth II 1999
$10
[2] 140 mm × 68 mm Blue Kate Sheppard
White camellia flowers
Mangaroa (purapura whetu) patterning Whio (blue duck) with ducklings
Pineapple Scrub
New Zealand Kiokio The number 10 2015
$20 145 mm × 70 mm Green Queen Elizabeth II
New Zealand Parliament Buildings Kārearea (New Zealand falcon)
New Zealand alpine scene Queen Elizabeth II 1999
$20
[3] 145 mm × 70 mm Green Queen Elizabeth II
New Zealand Parliament Buildings
Poutama patterning Kārearea (New Zealand falcon)
Tapuae-o-Uenuku/Mount Tapuaenuku
Marlborough rock daisy The number 20 2016
$50 150 mm × 72 mm Purple Sir Āpirana Ngata
Porourangi Meeting House Kōkako (blue wattled crow)
Conifer broadleaf forest scene Queen Elizabeth II 1999
$50
[4] 150 mm × 72 mm Purple Sir Āpirana Ngata
Porourangi Meeting House
Poutama patterning Kōkako (blue wattled crow)
Pureora Forest Park
Sky-blue mushroom The number 50 2016
$100 155 mm × 74 mm Red Lord Rutherford of Nelson
Nobel Prize medal Mohua (yellowhead)
South Island lichen moth (Declana egregia)
Beech forest scene Queen Elizabeth II 1999
$100
[5] 155 mm × 74 mm Red Lord Rutherford of Nelson
Nobel Prize medal
Whakaaro Kotahi patterning Mohua (yellowhead)
South Island lichen moth (Declana egregia)
Eglinton Valley (in Fiordland National Park) The number 100 2016
History of NZ$ foreign exchange rates in foreign countries[edit]
With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, both Australia and New Zealand converted the mostly-fixed foreign exchange regimes to a moving peg against the US dollar.
In September 1974, Australia moved to a peg against a basket of currencies called the trade weighted index (TWI) in an effort to reduce fluctuations associated with its peg to the US dollar. The peg to the TWI was changed to a moving peg in November 1976, causing the actual value of the peg to be periodically adjusted.
Since the late 1990s, and certainly since the end of the Cold War the US dollar has had less and less overall influence over the value of both the NZ$ and A$ against other currencies.[citation needed]
Current NZD exchange rates
From Google Finance: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD INR CNY
From Yahoo! Finance: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD INR CNY
From XE: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD INR CNY
From OANDA: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD INR CNY
From fxtop.com: AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD INR CNY
Global foreign exchange market[edit]
Most traded currencies by value
Currency distribution of global foreign exchange market turnover[21]
Rank
Currency
ISO 4217 code
(symbol)
% daily share
(April 2016)
1
United States dollar
USD (US$)
87.6%
2
Euro
EUR (€)
31.4%
3
Japanese yen
JPY (¥)
21.6%
4
Pound sterling
GBP (£)
12.8%
5
Australian dollar
AUD (A$)
6.9%
6
Canadian dollar
CAD (C$)
5.1%
7
Swiss franc
CHF (Fr)
4.8%
8
Renminbi
CNY (元)
4.0%
9
Swedish krona
SEK (kr)
2.2%
10
New Zealand dollar
NZD (NZ$)
2.1%
11
Mexican peso
MXN ($)
1.9%
12
Singapore dollar
SGD (S$)
1.8%
13
Hong Kong dollar
HKD (HK$)
1.7%
14
Norwegian krone
NOK (kr)
1.7%
15
South Korean won
KRW (₩)
1.7%
16
Turkish lira
TRY (₺)
1.4%
17
Russian ruble
RUB (₽)
1.1%
18
Indian rupee
INR (₹)
1.1%
19
Brazilian real
BRL (R$)
1.0%
20
South African rand
ZAR (R)
1.0%
Other 7.1%
Total[22] 200.0%
The New Zealand dollar contributes greatly to the total global exchange market—far in excess of New Zealand's relative share of population or global GDP.
According to the Bank for International Settlements, the New Zealand dollar's share of global foreign exchange market daily turnover in 2016 was 2.1% (up from 1.6% in 2010) giving it a rank of 11th.[3] Trading in the currency has climbed steadily since the same survey in 1998 when the NZD's ranking was 17th and the share of turnover was just 0.2%.
See also[edit]
Economy of New Zealand
Cook Islands dollar
History of Chatham Islands numismatics
Postal orders of the Chatham Islands
Postal orders of New Zealand
Pitcairn Islands dollar
Australian dollar
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Dollar (NZD) Profile | Foreign Exchange Conversion - Money Calculator". currency7.com. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Jazial Crossley (2012-03-12). "Currency | Kiwi Follows Aussie Dollar Down". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Triennial Central Bank Survey, April 2013" (PDF). Triennial Central Bank Survey. Bank for International Settlements. Retrieved 25 March 2014. [pg.10 of PDF]
Jump up ^ "Explaining New Zealand's currency" (PDF). Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2013. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Decimal Currency Act 1964 No 27 (as at 01 February 1990), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation". www.legislation.govt.nz. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "New Zealand adopts decimal currency". nzhistory.govt.nz. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 10 January 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand dollar". Global Exchange. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ The Film Archive. "Decimal Currency, Mr. Dollar". Archived from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
Jump up ^ New Zealand official yearbook. 72. New Zealand Department of Statistics. 1967. p. 1126. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Global Financial Data. "New Zealand Dollar (USD per NZD)". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Victoria Batchelor and Chris Young, Cullen Says N.Z. Dollar Has 'Peaked,' Expects Decline (Update1) 2 August 2007 Bloomberg (access date 10 February 2008)[not in citation given]
^ Jump up to: a b 23, 8 May:00PM GMT. "New Zealand Dollar: CURRENCY:NZD quotes & news - Google Finance". Google.com. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Greens call for quantitative easing". 3 News NZ. 7 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Labour sees merit in Green call to print cash". NZ Herald. 8 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Govt rejects call to print money". 3 News NZ. 27 October 2012.
Jump up ^ http://www.xe.com/currencytables/?from=NZD&date=2017-06-01
^ Jump up to: a b c d History of New Zealand Coinage Archived 23 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine., Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Accessed 4 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Tim Watkin, Figure of unity, NZ Listener, 13–19 November 2004, Vol 196, No 3366. Accessed 14 June 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Linzmayer, Owen (2012). "New Zealand". The Banknote Book. San Francisco, CA: www.BanknoteNews.com.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.brightermoney.co.nz/
Jump up ^ "Triennial Central Bank Survey Foreign exchange turnover in April 2016" (PDF). Triennial Central Bank Survey. Basel, Switzerland: Bank for International Settlements. 11 December 2016. p. 7. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
Jump up ^ The total sum is 200% because each currency trade always involves a currency pair.
External links[edit]
ANZ New Zealand–View the current exchange rate graphs of NZ$/inr
Reserve bank of New Zealand- Money issuing Authority
Historical New Zealand Trading bank notes–Old extremely rare banknotes of New Zealand
Images of historic and modern New Zealand bank notes
Current and historical banknotes of New Zealand (in English) (in German)
Preceded by:
New Zealand pound
Reason: decimalisation
Ratio: 2 dollars = 1 pound Currency of New Zealand
10 July 1967 – Succeeded by:
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Trans-Saharan trade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara (north and south) to reach sub-Saharan Africa from the North African coast, Europe, to the Levant. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century.
The Sahara once had a very different environment. In Libya and Algeria, from at least 7000 BC, there was pastoralism, herding of sheep and goats, large settlements and pottery. Cattle were introduced to the Central Sahara (Ahaggar) from 4000 to 3500 BC. Remarkable rock paintings (dated 3500 to 2500 BC), in places which are currently very dry, portray vegetation and animal presence rather different from modern expectations.[1]
As a desert, Sahara is now a hostile expanse that separates the Mediterranean economy from the economy of the Niger basin. As Fernand Braudel points out that crossing such a zone (especially without mechanized transport) is worthwhile only when exceptional circumstances cause the expected gain to outweigh the cost and danger.[2]
Trade, beginning around 300 CE,[citation needed] was conducted by caravans of camels. According to Ibn Battuta, the explorer who accompanied one of the caravans, the average size per caravan was 1,000 camels; some caravans were as large as 12,000.[3][4] The caravans would be guided by highly paid Berbers who knew the desert and could ensure safe passage from their fellow desert nomads. The survival of a caravan was precarious and would rely on careful coordination. Runners would be sent ahead to oases so that water could be shipped out to the caravan when it was still several days away, as the caravans could not easily carry enough with them to make the full journey. In the middle of the 14th century Ibn Battuta crossed the desert from Sijilmasa via the salt mines at Taghaza to the oasis of Oualata. A guide was sent ahead and water was brought on a journey of four days from Oualata to meet the caravan.[5] Culture and religion were also exchanged on the Trans-Saharan Trade Route. These colonies eventually adopted the language and region of the country and became absorbed into the Muslim population. [6] These colonies that were being discussed in E.W. Bovill's book were Christian captives who were brought to Africa as slaves and eventually they converted to Islam and became part of the Muslim population. Like some other people in Africa, there were some benefits of becoming part of the Muslim population. During the Muslim control of some of the Western African nations during this time there was a non-Muslim tax and many people converted so they would not have to pay that tax and also for the Christian slaves, it is against the Islamic religion to have slaves so it was one way to gain their freedom.
Contents
1 Early trans-Saharan trade
2 Introduction of the camel
3 Trans-Saharan trade in the Middle Ages
4 Decline of trans-Saharan trade
5 The future of trans-Saharan trade
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Notes
8 Further reading
Early trans-Saharan trade[edit]
A building in Oualata, southeast Mauritania
The Bilma oasis in northeast Niger, with the Kaouar escarpment in the background
Ancient trade spanned the northeastern corner of the Sahara in the Naqadan era. Predynastic Egyptians in the Naqada I period traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the Western Desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean to the east. Many trading routes went from oasis to oasis to resupply on both food and water. These oases were very important.[7] They also imported obsidian from Ethiopia to shape blades and other objects.[8]
The overland route through the Wadi Hammamat from the Nile to the Red Sea was known as early as predynastic times;[9] drawings depicting Egyptian reed boats have been found along the path dating to 4000 BC.[10] Ancient cities dating to the First Dynasty of Egypt arose along both its Nile and Red Sea junctions,[9] testifying to the route's ancient popularity. It became a major route from Thebes to the Red Sea port of Elim, where travelers then moved on to either Asia, Arabia or the Horn of Africa.[9] Records exist documenting knowledge of the route among Senusret I, Seti, Ramesses IV and also, later, the Roman Empire, especially for mining.[11]
The Darb el-Arbain trade route, passing through Kharga in the south and Asyut in the north, was used from as early as the Old Kingdom for the transport and trade of gold, ivory, spices, wheat, animals and plants.[12] Later, Ancient Romans would protect the route by lining it with varied forts and small outposts, some guarding large settlements complete with cultivation.[13] Described by Herodotus as a road "traversed ... in forty days", it became by his time an important land route facilitating trade between Nubia and Egypt,[14] and subsequently became known as the Forty Days Road. From Kobbei, 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of al-Fashir, the route passed through the desert to Bir Natrum, another oasis and salt mine, to Wadi Howar before proceeding to Egypt.[15] The Darb el-Arbain trade route was the easternmost of the central routes.
The westernmost of the three central routes was the Ghadames Road, which ran from the Niger River at Gao north to Ghat and Ghadames before terminating at Tripoli. Next was the easiest of the three routes: the Garamantean Road, named after the former rulers of the land it passed through and also called the Bilma Trail. The Garamantean Road passed south of the desert near Murzuk before turning north to pass between the Alhaggar and Tibesti Mountains before reaching the oasis at Kawar. From Kawar, caravans would pass over the great sand dunes of Bilma, where rock salt was mined in great quantities for trade, before reaching the savanna north of Lake Chad. This was the shortest of the routes, and the primary exchanges were slaves and ivory from the south for salt.
The western routes were the Walata Road, from the Sénégal River, and the Taghaza Trail, from the Mali River, which had their northern termini at the great trading center of Sijilmasa, situated in Morocco just north of the desert.[15] The growth of the city of Aoudaghost, founded in the 5th century BCE, was stimulated by its position at the southern end of a trans Saharan trade route.[citation needed]
To the east, three ancient routes connected the south to the Mediterranean. The herdsmen of the Fezzan of Libya, known as the Garamantes, controlled these routes as early as 1500 BC. From their capital of Germa in the Wadi Ajal, the Garamantean Empire raided north to the sea and south into the Sahel. By the 4th century BC, the independent city-states of Phoenecia had expanded their control to the territory and routes once held by the Garamantes.[15] Shillington states that existing contact with the Mediterranean received added incentive with the growth of the port city of Carthage. Founded c. 800 BCE, Carthage became one terminus for West African gold, ivory, and slaves. West Africa received salt, cloth, beads, and metal goods. Shillington proceeds to identify this trade route as the source for West African iron smelting.[16] Trade continued into Roman times. Although there are Classical references to direct travel from the Mediterranean to West Africa (Daniels, p. 22f), most of this trade was conducted through middlemen, inhabiting the area and aware of passages through the drying lands.[17] The Legio III Augusta subsequently secured these routes on behalf of Rome by the 1st century AD, safeguarding the southern border of the empire for two and half centuries.[15]
Introduction of the camel[edit]
Modern-day camel caravan near the Ahaggar Mountains in the central Sahara, 2006
Herodotus had spoken of the Garamantes hunting the Ethiopian Troglodytes with their chariots; this account was associated with depictions of horses drawing chariots in contemporary cave art in southern Morocco and the Fezzan, giving origin to a theory that the Garamantes, or some other Saran people, had created chariot routes to provide Rome and Carthage with gold and ivory. However, it has been argued that no horse skeletons have been found dating from this early period in the region, and chariots would have been unlikely vehicles for trading purposes due to their small capacity.[18]
The earliest evidence for domesticated camels in the region dates from the 3rd century. Used by the Berber people, they enabled more regular contact across the entire width of the Sahara, but regular trade routes did not develop until the beginnings of the Islamic conversion of West Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries.[18] Two main trade routes developed. The first ran through the western desert from modern Morocco to the Niger Bend, the second from modern Tunisia to the Lake Chad area. These stretches were relatively short and had the essential network of occasional oases that established the routing as inexorably as pins in a map. Further east of the Fezzan with its trade route through the valley of Kaouar to Lake Chad, Libya was impassable due to its lack of oases and fierce sandstorms.[19] A route from the Niger Bend to Egypt was abandoned in the 10th century due to its dangers.[citation needed]
Trans-Saharan trade in the Middle Ages[edit]
See also: Trans-Saharan slave trade
The rise of the Ghana Empire, now called Mali, Senegal, and southern Mauritania, paralleled the increase in trans-Saharan trade. Mediterranean economies were short of gold but could supply salt, taken by places like the African salt mine of Taghaza, whereas West African countries like Wangara had plenty of gold but needed salt. The trans-Saharan slave trade was also important because large numbers of Africans were sent north, generally to serve as domestic servants or slave concubines.[20] The West African states imported highly trained slave soldiers. It has been estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.[21] Perhaps as many as nine million slaves were exported along the trans-Saharan caravan route.[22] Several trade routes became established, perhaps the most important terminating in Sijilmasa (Morocco) and Ifriqiya to the north. There, and in other North African cities, Berber traders had increased contact with Islam, encouraging conversions, and by the 8th century, Muslims were traveling to Ghana. Many in Ghana converted to Islam, and it is likely that the Empire's trade was privileged as a result. Around 1050, Ghana lost Aoudaghost to the Almoravids, but new goldmines around Bure reduced trade through the city, instead benefiting the Malinke of the south, who later founded the Mali Empire.
Saharan trade routes circa 1400, with the modern territory of Niger highlighted
Unlike Ghana, Mali was a Muslim kingdom since his foundation, and under it, the gold–salt trade continued. Other, less important trade goods were slaves, kola nuts from the south and slave beads and cowry shells from the north (for use as currency). It was under Mali that the great cities of the Niger bend—including Gao and Djenné—prospered, with Timbuktu in particular becoming known across Europe for its great wealth. Important trading centers in southern West Africa developed at the transitional zone between the forest and the savanna; examples include Begho and Bono Manso (in present-day Ghana) and Bondoukou (in present-day Côte d'Ivoire). Western trade routes continued to be important, with Ouadane, Oualata and Chinguetti being the major trade centres in what is now Mauritania, while the Tuareg towns of Assodé and later Agadez grew around a more easterly route in what is now Niger.
The eastern trans-Saharan route led to the development of the long lived Kanem-Bornu empire as well as the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires,centred on the Lake Chad area. This trade route was somewhat less efficient and only rose to great prominence when there was turmoil in the west such as during the Almohad conquests.
Decline of trans-Saharan trade[edit]
The Portuguese journeys around the West African coast opened up new avenues for trade between Europe and West Africa. By the early 16th century, European trading bases, the "Factories" established on the coast since 1445, and trade with the wealthier Europeans became of prime importance to West Africa. North Africa had declined in both political and economic importance, while the Saharan crossing remained long and treacherous. However, the major blow to trans-Saharan trade was the Battle of Tondibi of 1591–92. Morocco sent troops across the Sahara and attacked Timbuktu, Gao and some other important trading centres, destroying buildings and property and exiling prominent citizens. This disruption to trade led to a dramatic decline in the importance of these cities and the resulting animosity reduced trade considerably.
Although much reduced, trans-Saharan trade continued. But trade routes to the West African coast became increasingly easy, particularly after the French invasion of the Sahel in the 1890s and subsequent construction of railways to the interior. A railway line from Dakar to Algiers via the Niger bend was planned but never constructed. With the independence of nations in the region in the 1960s, the north–south routes were severed by national boundaries. National governments were hostile to Tuareg nationalism and so made few efforts to maintain or support trans-Saharan trade, and the Tuareg Rebellion of the 1990s and Algerian Civil War further disrupted routes, with many roads closed.
Azalai salt caravan from Agadez to Bilma, 1985
Traditional caravan routes are largely void of camels, but the shorter Azalai routes from Agadez to Bilma and Timbuktu to Taoudenni are still regularly—if lightly—used. Some members of the Tuareg still use the traditional trade routes, often traveling 2,400 km (1,500 mi) and six months out of every year by camel across the Sahara trading in salt carried from the desert interior to communities on the desert edges.[23]
The future of trans-Saharan trade[edit]
The African Union and African Development Bank support the Trans-Sahara Highway from Algiers to Lagos via Tamanrasset which aims to stimulate trans-Saharan trade. The route is paved except for a 200 km section in northern Niger, but border restrictions still hamper traffic. Only a few trucks carry trans-Saharan trade, particularly fuel and salt. Three other highways across the Sahara are proposed: for further details see Trans-African Highways. Building the highways is difficult because of sandstorms
See also[edit]
Trans-Sahara Highway
Neolithic Subpluvial
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995). History of Africa, Second Edition. St. Martin's Press, New York. p. 32.
Jump up ^ Braudel, Fernand (1984). The Perspective of the World. (Vol III of Civilization and Capitalism). (Published in French in 1979).
Jump up ^ David Rouge, Saharan salt caravans ply ancient route, Reuters, 21 February 2007
Jump up ^ An African Pilgrim-King and a World-Traveler: Mansa Musa and Ibn Battuta
Jump up ^ Gibb, H.A.R.; Beckingham, C.F. trans. and eds. (1994). The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, A.D. 1325–1354 (Volume 4). London: Hakluyt Society. pp. 948–49. ISBN 978-0-904180-37-4. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Bovill, E.W. (1968). Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian (2002). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-500-05074-0.
Jump up ^ Barbara G. Aston, James A. Harrell, Ian Shaw (2000). Paul T. Nicholson and Ian Shaw editors. "Stone", in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, 5–77, pp. 46–47. Also note: Barbara G. Aston (1994). "Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels", Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens 5, Heidelberg, pp. 23–26. (See on-line posts: [1] and [2].)
^ Jump up to: a b c Please refer to Wadi Hammamat#Trade route.
Jump up ^ Please refer to Wadi Hammamat#Carvings.
Jump up ^ Please refer to Wadi Hammamat#Quarries and Wadi Hammamat#Common era.
Jump up ^ Jobbins, Jenny. "The 40 days' nightmare", in Al-Ahram, 13–19 November 2003, Issue No. 664. Published in Cairo, Egypt.
Jump up ^ Please refer to Kharga Oasis.
Jump up ^ Smith, Dr. Stuart Tyson. Nubia: History, University of California Santa Barbara, Department of Anthropology, <http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/stsmith/research/nubia_history.html>. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Burr, J. Millard and Robert O. Collins, Darfur: The Long Road to Disaster, Markus Wiener Publishers: Princeton, 2006, ISBN 1-55876-405-4, pp. 6–7.
Jump up ^ Shillington (1995). p. 46.
Jump up ^ Daniels, Charles (1970). The Garamantes of Southern Libya. Oleander, North Harrow, Middlesex. p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b Masonen, P: "Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World. Archived 2013-05-28 at the Wayback Machine."
Jump up ^ Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". In UNESCO General History of Africa: Volume 3. University of California Press, ISBN 92-3-601709-6.
Jump up ^ Ibn Battuta's Trip: Part Twelve – Journey to West Africa (1351–1353) Archived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Fage, J.D. A History of Africa. Routledge, 4th edition, 2001. pg. 256
Jump up ^ The impact of the slave trade on Africa
Jump up ^ National Geographic Channel (2001). Africa, Episode 2, "Desert Odyssey" (TV/Video). This episode follows a Tuareg tribe across the Sahara for six months by camel.
Further reading[edit]
Albert Adu Boahen, Britain, the Sahara and the Western Sudan 1788–1861. Oxford 1964
Edward William Bovill, The Golden Trade of the Moors (Princeton: Markus Wiener, 1995) ISBN 1-55876-091-1
Donald Harden, The Phoenicians, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1971 (1962)
Kevin Shillington (eds), "Tuareg: Takedda and trans-Saharan trade" from the Encyclopaedia of African History, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2004, ISBN 1-57958-245-1
B.H. Warmington, Carthage, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1964 (1960)
M'hammad Sabour and Knut S. Vikør (eds), Ethnic Encounter and Culture Change[permanent dead link], Bergen, 1997, [3] Google Cache Last Retrieved Jan.2005.
Ross, Eric (2011). "A historical geography of the trans-Saharan trade" (PDF). In Krätli, Graziano; Lydon, Ghislaine. The Trans-Saharan Book Trade: Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa. Leiden: Brill. pp. 1–34. ISBN 978-90-04-18742-9.
The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade 7th–14th Century from the Museum of Modern Art
Lagha Chegrouche\E, "Géopolitique transsaharienne de l'énergie", in Revue Géopolitique N°108, 2010
Lagha Chegrouche, "Géopolitique transsaharienne de l'énergie, le jeu et l'enjeu? in Revue de l'énergie, Etude, 2010
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