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Typographic ligature
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This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
Long s + i ligature in a Garamond typeface.
Wooden movable types with ligatures (from right to left) fi, ff, ft, fl; in 20 Cicero = 240 Didot points ≈ 90.2328 mm
In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph. An example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined. The common ampersand (&) developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t (spelling et, from the Latin for "and") were combined.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Latin alphabet
2.1 Stylistic ligatures
2.2 German ß
2.3 Massachusett ꝏ
2.4 Letters and diacritics originating as ligatures
2.5 Symbols originating as ligatures
2.6 Digraphs
3 Non-Latin alphabets
3.1 Chinese ligatures
4 Computer typesetting
4.1 TeX
4.2 CSS
4.3 Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)
5 Contemporary art
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
See also: Bind rune and scribal abbreviation
The origin of typographical ligatures comes from the invention of writing with a stylus on fibrous material (like paper) or clay. Businessmen especially who needed a way to speed up the process of written communication found that conjoining letters and abbreviating words for lay use was more convenient for record keeping and transaction than the bulky long forms. The earliest known script, Sumerian cuneiform, includes many cases of character combinations that, over time, gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Ligatures figure prominently in many historical manuscripts, notably the Brahmic abugidas, or the bind rune of the Migration Period Germanic runic inscriptions.
Doubles (Geminated consonants) during the Roman Republic era were written as a sicilicus.[2] During the medieval era several conventions existed (mostly diacritic marks). However, in Nordic texts a particular type of ligature appeared for ll and tt, referred to as "broken l" and "broken t"[3]
Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their writing speed by combining characters and by introducing notational abbreviations. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes. For example, in blackletter, letters with right-facing bowls (b, o, and p) and those with left-facing bowls (c, e, o, d, g and q) were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as h, m, and n had their vertical strokes superimposed. Scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the fourteenth century employed hundreds of such abbreviations.
Modifications to script bodies like these usually originate from legal, business and monastic sources, with the emphasis shifting from business to monastic sources by around the 9th and 10th centuries.
A widely used ligature in a handwriting-style typeface
In hand writing, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in atypical fashion by merging their parts or by writing one above or inside the other. While in printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, and the characters do not have to be joined. For example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450,[4] typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, as they were based on handwriting. Ligatures made printing with movable type easier because one block would replace frequent combinations of letters and also allowed more complex and interesting character designs which would otherwise collide with one another.
Ligatures began to fall out of use due to their complexity in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for body text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans and Futura. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s (which did not require journeyman knowledge or training to operate) also generally avoid them.
The trend was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution starting around 1977 with the production of the Apple II. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution (the automatic use of ligatures where appropriate), while most new digital typefaces did not include ligatures. As most of the early PC development was designed for the English language (which already treated ligatures as optional at best) dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped due to the mass production of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented: "some of the world’s greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world’s worst fonts."[5]
Ligatures have grown in popularity over the last 20 years due to an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting (and later laser printers) was Donald Knuth's TeX program. Now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets; these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor and Hoefler Text by Jonathan Hoefler. Mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity. A parallel use of ligatures is seen in the creation of script fonts that join letterforms to simulate handwriting effectively. This trend is caused in part by the increased support for other languages and alphabets in modern computing, many of which use ligatures somewhat extensively. This has caused the development of new digital typesetting techniques such as OpenType, and the incorporation of ligature support into the text display systems of macOS, Windows and applications like Microsoft Office. An increasing modern trend is to use a "Th" ligature which reduces spacing between these letters to make it easier to read, a trait infrequent in metal type.[6][7][8]
Today, modern font programming divides ligatures into three groups, which can be activated separately: standard, contextual and historical. Standard ligatures are needed to allow the font to display without errors such as character collision. Designers sometimes find contextual and historic ligatures desirable for creating effects or to evoke an old-fashioned print look.
Latin alphabet[edit]
Stylistic ligatures[edit]
Many ligatures combine f with the following letter. A particularly prominent example is ﬁ (or fi, rendered with two normal letters). The tittle of the i in many typefaces collides with the hood of the f when placed beside each other in a word, and are combined into a single glyph with the tittle absorbed into the f. Other ligatures with the letter f include fj,[note 1] fl (ﬂ), ff (ﬀ), ffi (ﬃ), and ffl (ﬄ). Ligatures for fa, fe, fo, fr, fs, ft, fb, fh, fu, fy, and for f followed by a full stop, comma, or hyphen, as well as the equivalent set for the doubled ff and fft are also used, though are less common.
These arose because with the usual type sort for lowercase f, the end of its hood is on a kern, which would be damaged by collision with raised parts of the next letter.
Ligatures crossing the morpheme boundary of a composite word are sometimes considered incorrect, especially in official German orthography as outlined in the Duden. An English example of this would be ff in shelfful; a German example would be Schifffahrt ("boat trip").[note 2] Some computer programs (such as TeX) provide a setting to disable ligatures for German, while some users have also written macros to identify which ligatures to disable.[9][10]
Ligatures "Th" and "Wh" illustration
Turkish distinguishes dotted and dotless "I". In a ligature with f (in words such as fırın and fikir), this contrast would be obscured. The fi ligature is therefore not used in Turkish typography, and neither are other ligatures like that for fl, which would be rare anyway.
"ß" in the form of a "ſʒ" ligature on a street sign in Berlin (Petersburger Straße). The sign on the right (Bersarinplatz) ends with a "tʒ" ligature.
Remnants of the ligatures ſʒ/ſz ("sharp s", eszett) and tʒ/tz ("sharp t", tezett) from Fraktur, a family of German blackletter typefaces, originally mandatory in Fraktur but now employed only stylistically, can be seen to this day on street signs for city squares whose name contains Platz or ends in -platz. Instead, the "sz" ligature has merged into a single character, the German ß – see below.
Sometimes, ligatures for st (ﬆ), ſt (ﬅ), ch, ct, Qu and Th are used (e.g. in the typeface Linux Libertine).
Besides conventional ligatures, in the metal type era some newspapers commissioned custom condensed single sorts for the names of common long names that might appear in news headings, such as "Eisenhower", "Chamberlain" and others. In these cases the characters did not appear combined, just more tightly spaced than if printed conventionally.[11]
German ß[edit]
Main article: ß
The German Eszett (also called the scharfes S, meaning sharp s) ß is an official letter of the alphabet in Germany and Austria. There is no general consensus about its history. Its name Es-zett (meaning S-Z) suggests a connection of "long s and z" (ſʒ) but the Latin script also knows a ligature of "long s over round s" (ſs). The latter is used as the design principle for the character in most of today's typefaces. Since German was mostly set in blackletter typefaces until the 1940s, and those typefaces were rarely set in uppercase, a capital version of the Eszett never came into common use, even though its creation has been discussed since the end of the 19th century. Therefore, the common replacement in uppercase typesetting was originally SZ (Maße → MASZE, different from Masse → MASSE) and later SS (Maße → MASSE). The SS replacement is currently the only valid spelling according to the official orthography (the so-called Rechtschreibreform) in Germany and Austria. For German writing in Switzerland, the ß is omitted altogether in favour of ss. Since 2008, the capital version (ẞ) of the Eszett character is part of Unicode and appears in more and more typefaces. The new character has not yet entered mainstream writing. A new standardized German keyboard layout (DIN 2137-T2) has included the capital ß since 2012. Since the end of 2010, the Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN) suggests the new upper case character for "ß" rather than replacing it with "SS" or "SZ" for geographical names.[12]
Massachusett ꝏ[edit]
In the colonial orthography created by John Eliot, later used in the first Bible printed in the Americas, the Massachuset-language Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God published in 1663, although Eliot had previously translated catechisms and published books of the Bible as well as trained Indians to become literate who in turn trained others. A prominent feature of the new orthography was his use of the double-o ligature "ꝏ" to represent the "oo" of "food" as opposed to the "oo" of "hook", although Eliot himself used "oo" and "ꝏ" interchangeably. In the orthography in use since 2000 in the Wampanoag communities participating in the Wopanaak Language Reclamation Project, the ligature was replaced with the numeral 8, partly because of its ease in typesetting and display as well as similarity to the o-u ligature Ȣ used in Abenaki. For example, seepꝏash[13] (colonial) (seep8ash) (WLRP, modern).[14]
Letters and diacritics originating as ligatures[edit]
Further information: List of Latin letters
Capilla de San José, Sevilla. Several ligatures.
The ligatures of Adobe Caslon Pro.
As the letter W is an addition to the Latin alphabet that originated in the seventh century, the phoneme it represents was formerly written in various ways. In Old English, the Runic letter wynn (Ƿ) was used, but Norman influence forced wynn out of use. By the 14th century, the "new" letter W, originated as two Vs or Us joined together, developed into a legitimate letter with its own position in the alphabet. Because of its relative youth compared to other letters of the alphabet, only a few European languages (English, Dutch, German, Polish, Welsh, Maltese, and Walloon) use the letter in native words.
The character Æ (lower case æ; in ancient times named æsc) when used in the Danish, Norwegian, or Icelandic languages, or Old English, is not a typographic ligature. It is a distinct letter—a vowel—and when alphabetised, is given a different place in the alphabetic order. In modern English orthography Æ is not considered an independent letter but a spelling variant, for example: "encyclopædia" versus "encyclopaedia" or "encyclopedia".
Æ comes from Mediæval Latin, where it was an optional ligature in some words, for example, "Æneas". It is still found as a variant in English and French, but the trend has recently been towards printing the A and E separately.[15] Similarly, Œ and œ, while normally printed as ligatures in French, are replaced by component letters if technical restrictions require it.
In German orthography, the umlauted vowels ä, ö, and ü historically arose from ae, oe, ue ligatures (strictly, from superscript e, viz. aͤ, oͤ, uͤ). It is common practice to replace them with ae, oe, ue digraphs when the diacritics are unavailable, for example in electronic conversation. Phone books treat umlauted vowels as equivalent to the relevant digraph (so that a name Müller will appear at the same place as if it were spelled Mueller; German surnames have a strongly fixed orthography, either a name is spelled with ü or with ue); however, the alphabetic order used in other books treats them as equivalent to the simple letters a, o and u. The convention in Scandinavian languages and Finnish is different: there the umlaut vowels are treated as independent letters with positions at the end of the alphabet.
The ring diacritic used in vowels such as å likewise originated as an o-ligature.[16] Before the replacement of the older "aa" with "å" became a de facto practice, an "a" with another "a" on top (aͣ) could sometimes be used, for example in Johannes Bureus's, Runa: ABC-Boken (1611).[17] The uo ligature ů in particular saw use in Early Modern High German, but it merged in later Germanic languages with u (e.g. MHG fuosz, ENHG fuͦß, Modern German Fuß "foot"). It survives in Czech, where it is called kroužek.
The tilde diacritic, used in Spanish as part of the letter ñ, representing the palatal nasal consonant, and in Portuguese for nasalization of a vowel, originated in ligatures where n followed the base letter: Espanna → España.[18] Similarly, the circumflex in French spelling stems from the ligature of a silent s.[19] The French, Portuguese, Catalan and old Spanish letter ç represents a c over a z; the diacritic's name cedilla means "little zed".
The letter hwair (ƕ), used only in transliteration of the Gothic language, resembles a hw ligature. It was introduced by philologists around 1900 to replace the digraph hv formerly used to express the phoneme in question, e.g. by Migne in the 1860s (Patrologia Latina vol. 18).
The Byzantines had a unique o-u ligature (Ȣ) that, while originally based on the Greek alphabet's ο-υ, carried over into Latin alphabets as well. This ligature is still seen today on icon artwork in Greek Orthodox churches, and sometimes in graffiti or other forms of informal or decorative writing.
Gha (ƣ), a rarely used letter based on Q and G, was misconstrued by the ISO to be an OI ligature due to its appearance, and is thus known (to the ISO and, in turn, Unicode) as "Oi".
The International Phonetic Alphabet formerly used ligatures to represent affricate consonants, of which six are encoded in Unicode: ʣ, ʤ, ʥ, ʦ, ʧ and ʨ. One fricative consonant is still represented with a ligature: ɮ, and the extensions to the IPA contain three more: ʩ, ʪ and ʫ.
The Initial Teaching Alphabet, a short-lived alphabet intended for young children, used a number of ligatures to represent long vowels: ꜷ, æ, œ, ᵫ, ꭡ, and ligatures for ee, ou and oi that are not encoded in Unicode. Ligatures for consonants also existed, including ligatures of ʃh, ʈh, wh, ʗh, ng and a reversed t with h (neither the reversed t nor any of the consonant ligatures are in Unicode).
Rarer ligatures also exist, such as ꜳ ; Ꜵꜵ; Ꜷ; Ꜹꜹ; Ꜻꜻ (barred AV); Ꜽꜽ; Ꝏꝏ, which is used in medieval Nordic languages for /oː/ (a long close-mid back rounded vowel),[20] as well as in some orthographies of the Massachusett language to represent /uː/ (a long close back rounded vowel); ᵺ; Ỻỻ, which was used in Medieval Welsh to represent /ɬ/ (the voiceless lateral fricative);[20] Ꜩꜩ; ᴂ; ᴔ; and ꭣ.
Symbols originating as ligatures[edit]
An et ligature in a humanist script
The most common ligature is the ampersand &. This was originally a ligature of E and t, forming the Latin word "et", meaning "and". It has exactly the same use in French and in English. The ampersand comes in many different forms. Because of its ubiquity, it is generally no longer considered a ligature, but a logogram.
Like many other ligatures, it has at times been considered a letter (e.g., in early Modern English); in English it is pronounced "and", not "et", except in the case of &c, pronounced "et cetera". In most fonts, it does not immediately resemble the two letters used to form it, although certain typefaces (such as Trebuchet MS) use the design & in the form of a ligature.
Similarly, the dollar sign $ possibly originated as a ligature (for "pesos", although there are other theories as well) but is now a logogram.[21]
The Spanish peseta was sometimes symbolized by a ligature ₧ (from Pts), and the French franc was often symbolized by an F-r ligature (₣).
Alchemy used a set of mostly standardized symbols, many of which were ligatures: 🜇 (AR, for aqua regia), 🜈 (S inside a V, for aqua vitae), 🝫 (MB, for a marian bath or double boiler), 🝬 (VB, for a vapor bath), and 🝛 (aaa, for amalgam). In astronomy, the dwarf planet Pluto is symbolized by a PL ligature, ♇. A different PL ligature, ⅊, represents the property line in surveying. In engineering diagrams, a CL ligature, ℄, represents the center line of an object.
Digraphs[edit]
Uppercase IJ glyph appearing as the distinctive "broken-U" ligature in Helvetica rendered by Omega TeX
Comparison of ĳ and y in various forms
Digraphs, such as ll in Spanish or Welsh, are not ligatures in the general case as the two letters are displayed as separate glyphs: although written together, when they are joined in handwriting or italic fonts the base form of the letters is not changed and the individual glyphs remain separate. Like some ligatures discussed above, these digraphs may or may not be considered individual letters in their respective languages. Until the 1994 spelling reform, the digraphs ch and ll were considered separate letters in Spanish for collation purposes.
The difference can be illustrated with the French digraph œu, which is composed of the ligature œ and the simplex letter u.
Dutch ĳ, however, is somewhat more ambiguous. Depending on the standard used, it can be considered a digraph, a ligature or a letter in itself, and its upper case and lower case forms are often available as a single glyph with a distinctive ligature in several professional fonts (e.g. Zapfino). Sans serif uppercase Ĳ glyphs, popular in the Netherlands, typically use a ligature resembling a U with a broken left-hand stroke. Adding to the confusion, Dutch handwriting can render y (which is not found in native Dutch words, but occurs in words borrowed from other languages) as a ĳ-glyph without the dots in its lowercase form and the IJ in its uppercase form looking virtually identical (only slightly bigger). When written/typed as two separate letters, both should be capitalized – or not – to form a correctly spelled word, like IJs or ijs (ice).
Non-Latin alphabets[edit]
See also: Complex Text Layout
The Devanagari ddhrya-ligature (द् + ध् + र् + य = द्ध्र्य) of JanaSanskritSans.[22]
Ligatures are not limited to Latin script:
The Brahmic abugidas make frequent use of ligatures in consonant clusters. The number of ligatures employed is language-dependent; thus many more ligatures are conventionally used in Devanagari when writing Sanskrit than when writing Hindi. Having 37 consonants in total, the total number of ligatures that can be formed in Devanagari using only two letters is 1369, though few fonts are able to render all of them. In particular, Mangal, which is included with Microsoft Windows' Indic support, does not correctly handle ligatures with consonants attached to the right of the characters द, ट, ठ, ड, and ढ, leaving the virama attached to them and displaying the following consonant in its standard form.
The Georgian script includes უ (uni), which is a combination of ო (oni) and the former letter ჳ (vie).
A number of ligatures have been employed in the Greek alphabet, in particular a combination of omicron (Ο) and upsilon (Υ), which later gave rise to a letter of the Cyrillic script—see Ou (letter). Among the ancient Greek acrophonic numerals, ligatures were common (in fact, the ligature of a short-legged capital pi was a key feature of the acrophonic numeral system).
Cyrillic ligatures: Љ, Њ, Ы, Ѿ. Iotified Cyrillic letters are ligatures of the early Cyrillic decimal I and another vowel: Ꙗ (ancestor of Я), Ѥ, Ѩ, Ѭ, Ю (descended from another ligature, Оу, an early version of У). Two letters of the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, lje and nje (љ, њ), were invented by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić for use in his 1818 Serbian Dictionary, replacing the earlier digraphs ⟨ль⟩ and ⟨нь⟩, as ligatures of Cyrillic El and En (л, н) with the soft sign (ь). Yae, a ligature of ya (Я) and e also exists: Ԙԙ, as do Dzze (Ꚉꚉ ← Д + З) and Zhwe (Ꚅꚅ ← З + Ж).
Some forms of the Glagolitic script, used from Middle Ages to the 19th century to write some Slavic languages, have a box-like shape that lends itself to more frequent use of ligatures.
In the Hebrew alphabet, the letters aleph א and lamed ל can form a ligature (ﭏ). The ligature appears in some pre-modern texts (mainly religious), or in Judeo-Arabic texts, where that combination is very frequent, since [ʔ] [a]l- (written aleph plus lamed, in the Hebrew script) is the definite article in Arabic.
In the Arabic alphabet, historically a cursive derived from the Nabataean alphabet, most letters' shapes depend on whether they are followed (word-initial), preceded (word-final) or both (medial) by other letters. For example, Arabic mīm, isolated م, tripled (mmm, rendering as initial, medial and final): ممم. Notable are the shapes taken by lām + ʼalif isolated: ﻻ, and lām + ʾalif medial or final: ﻼ. Unicode has a special Allah ligature at U+FDF2: ﷲ.
Urdu (one of the main languages of South Asia), which uses a calligraphic version of the Arabic-based Nastaʿlīq script, requires a great number of ligatures in digital typography. InPage, a widely used desktop publishing tool for Urdu, uses Nasta`liq fonts with over 20,000 ligatures.
In American Sign Language a ligature of the American manual alphabet is used to sign "I love you", from the English initialism ILY. It consists of the little finger of the letter I plus the thumb and forefinger of the letter L. The letter Y (little finger and thumb) overlaps with the other two letters.
The Japanese language has a number of obsolete kana ligatures. Of these, only two are widely available ones on computers: one for hiragana, ゟ, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters よ and り; and one for katakana, ヿ, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters コ and ト.
Lao uses three ligatures, all comprising the letter ຫ (h). As a tonal language, most consonant sounds in Lao are represented by two consonants, which will govern the tone of the syllable. Five consonant sounds are only represented by a single consonant letter (ງ (ŋ), ນ (m), ມ (n), ລ (l), ວ (w)), meaning that one cannot render all the tones for words beginning with these sounds. A silent ຫ indicates that the syllable should be read with the tone rules for ຫ, rather than those of the following consonant. Three consonants can form ligatures with the letter ຫ. ຫ+ນ=ໜ (n), ຫ+ມ=ໝ (m) and ຫ+ລ=ຫຼ (l). ງ (ŋ) and ວ (w) just form clusters: ຫງ (ŋ) and ຫວ (w). ລ (l) can also be used written in a cluster rather than as a ligature: ຫລ (l).
In many runic texts ligatures are common. Such ligatures are known as bind-runes and were optional.
Chinese ligatures[edit]
A Chinese chéngyǔ (expression) written as a ligature. It reads Kǒng Mèng hàoxué (孔孟好學) and means "to be as studious as Confucius and Mencius."
See also: Polysyllabic Chinese character
Written Chinese has a long history of creating new characters by merging parts or wholes of other Chinese characters. However, a few of these combinations do not represent morphemes but retain the original multi-character (multiple morpheme) reading and are therefore not considered true characters themselves. In Chinese, these ligatures are called héwén (合文) or héshū (合書); see polysyllabic Chinese characters for more.
One popular ligature used on chūntiē decorations used for Chinese Lunar New Year is a combination of the four characters for zhāocái jìnbǎo (招財進寶), meaning "ushering in wealth and fortune" and used as a popular New Year's greeting.
Chinese ligatures
A Chinese ligature for zhāocái jìnbǎo (招財進寶), a popular New Year's greeting
The Cǎonímǎ (草泥马) ligature combining the three constituent characters
In 1924, Du Dingyou (杜定友; 1898–1967) created the ligature 圕 from two of the three characters 圖書館 (túshūguǎn), meaning "library".[23] Although it does have an assigned pronunciation of tuān and appears in many dictionaries, it is not a morpheme and cannot be used as such in Chinese. Instead, it is usually considered a graphic representation of túshūguǎn.
In recent years, a Chinese internet meme, the Grass Mud Horse, has had such a ligature associated with it combining the three relevant Chinese characters 草, 泥, and 马 (Cǎonímǎ).
Similar to the ligatures were several "two-syllable Chinese characters" (雙音節漢字) created in the 19th century as Chinese characters for SI units. In Chinese these units are disyllabic and standardly written with two characters, as 厘米 límǐ "centimeter" (厘 centi-, 米 meter) or 千瓦 qiānwǎ "kilowatt". However, in the 19th century these were often written via compound characters, pronounced disyllabically, such as 瓩 for 千瓦 or 糎 for 厘米 – some of these characters were also used in Japan, where they were pronounced with borrowed European readings instead. These have now fallen out of general use, but are occasionally seen.[24]
Computer typesetting[edit]
Some example ligatures in Latin script
The OpenType font format includes features for associating multiple glyphs to a single character, used for ligature substitution. Typesetting software may or may not implement this feature, even if it is explicitly present in the font's metadata. XeTeX is a TeX typesetting engine designed to make the most of such advanced features. This type of substitution used to be needed mainly for typesetting Arabic texts, but ligature lookups and substitutions are being put into all kinds of Western Latin OpenType fonts. In OpenType, there are standard liga, historical hlig, contextual clig, discretionary dlig and required rlig ligatures. These can be enabled or disabled in CSS3 using font-feature-settings.[25]
TeX[edit]
Opinion is divided over whether it is the job of writers or typesetters to decide where to use ligatures. TeX is an example of a computer typesetting system that makes use of ligatures automatically. The Computer Modern Roman typeface provided with TeX includes the five common ligatures ff, fi, fl, ffi, and ffl. When TeX finds these combinations in a text, it substitutes the appropriate ligature, unless overridden by the typesetter.
CSS[edit]
CSS supports font-variant-ligatures. common-ligatures, discretionary-ligatures, historical-ligatures and contextual are supported.[26]
Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)[edit]
This table below shows discrete letter pairs on the left, the corresponding Unicode ligature in the middle column, and the Unicode code point on the right. Provided you are using an operating system and browser that can handle Unicode, and have the correct Unicode fonts installed, some or all of these will display correctly. See also the provided graphic.
Unicode maintains that ligaturing is a presentation issue rather than a character definition issue, and that, for example, "if a modern font is asked to display 'h' followed by 'r', and the font has an 'hr' ligature in it, it can display the ligature." Accordingly, the use of the special Unicode ligature characters is "discouraged", and "no more will be encoded in any circumstances".[27] (Unicode has continued to add ligatures, but only in such cases that the ligatures were used as distinct letters in a language or could be interpreted as standalone symbols.) Note, however, that ligatures such as æ and œ are not used to replace arbitrary "ae" or "oe" sequences; it is incorrect to write "does" as "dœs".
Microsoft Word does not enable ligatures automatically. Here, with Gill Sans Light, the 'f' and 'i' appear superimposed when default settings are used.
Notably, Microsoft Word does not enable ligatures by default, partly for backward compatibility reasons due to its long history. This can be changed from the Advanced tab of the Font dialog box.

Non-ligature
Ligature[27]
Unicode
HTML
AA, aa Ꜳ, ꜳ[20] U+A732, U+A733 Ꜳ ꜳ
AE, ae Æ, æ U+00C6, U+00E6 Æ æ
AO, ao Ꜵ, ꜵ[20] U+A734, U+A735 Ꜵ ꜵ
AU, au Ꜷ, ꜷ[20] U+A736, U+A737 Ꜷ ꜷ
AV, av Ꜹ, ꜹ[20] U+A738, U+A739 Ꜹ ꜹ
AV, av (with bar) Ꜻ, ꜻ[20] U+A73A, U+A73B Ꜻ ꜻ
AY, ay Ꜽ, ꜽ[20] U+A73C, U+A73D Ꜽ ꜽ
et 🙰 U+1F670 🙰
ff ﬀ U+FB00 ﬀ
ffi ﬃ U+FB03 ﬃ
ffl ﬄ U+FB04 ﬄ
fi ﬁ U+FB01 ﬁ
fl ﬂ U+FB02 ﬂ
OE, oe Œ, œ U+0152, U+0153 Œ œ
OO, oo Ꝏ, ꝏ[20] U+A74E, U+A74F Ꝏ ꝏ
ſs, ſz ẞ, ß U+1E9E, U+00DF ß
st ﬆ U+FB06 ﬆ
ſt ﬅ U+FB05 ﬅ
TZ, tz Ꜩ, ꜩ U+A728, U+A729 Ꜩ ꜩ
ue ᵫ U+1D6B ᵫ
VY, vy Ꝡ, ꝡ[20] U+A760, U+A761 Ꝡ ꝡ
Also, there are separate code points for the digraph DZ and for the Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian digraphs DŽ, LJ, and NJ. They are not ligatures but digraphs. See Digraphs in Unicode.
Ligatures used only in phonetic transcription
Non-ligature
Ligature[27]
Unicode
HTML
db ȸ U+0238 ȸ
dz ʣ U+02A3 ʣ
dʑ (or dz curl) ʥ U+02A5 ʥ
dʒ (or dezh) ʤ U+02A4 ʤ
fŋ (or feng) ʩ U+02A9 ʩ
IJ, ij Ĳ, ĳ U+0132, U+0133 Ĳ ĳ
ls ʪ U+02AA ʪ
lz ʫ U+02AB ʫ
lʒ (or lezh) ɮ U+026E ɮ
qp ȹ U+0239 ȹ
tɕ (or tc curl) ʨ U+02A8 ʨ
ts ʦ U+02A6 ʦ
tʃ (or tesh) ʧ U+02A7 ʧ
ui ꭐ[28] U+AB50 ꭐ
turned ui ꭑ[28] U+AB51 ꭐ
An example of Xu Bing's 'Square Word' calligraphy, combining Latin characters into forms that resemble Chinese characters. The word is 'wiki'.
U+0238 and U+0239 are called digraphs, but are actually ligatures.[29]
Four "ligature ornaments" are included from U+1F670 to U+1F673 in the Ornamental Dingbats block, regular and bold variants of ℯT (script e and T) ɛT (open E and T).
Contemporary art[edit]
Typographic ligatures are used in a form of contemporary art,[30] as can be illustrated by Chinese artist Xu Bing's work in which he combines Latin letters to form characters that resemble Chinese.[31]
See also[edit]
Complex text layout
List of words that may be spelled with a ligature
Monogram
Sigla
Kerning
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The combination fj is represented in English only in "fjord" and "fjeld", but is encountered in languages where j represents a vocalic or semi-vocalic sound (Norwegian, occasionally in Esperanto) or an affix (Hungarian), or where word-compounding results such ligatures (Hungarian)
Jump up ^ Schifffahrt is written with fff only if the writer follows the spelling reform of 1996.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Ampersand & More" with Kory Stamper, part of the "Ask the Editor" video series at Merriam-Webster.com
Jump up ^ Capelli – Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane
Jump up ^ Medieval Unicode Font Initiative
Jump up ^ Bellis, Mary (17 April 2017). "Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press". ThoughtCo.
Jump up ^ Frere-Jones, Tobias. "Hoefler Text". Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Paul (12 May 2011). "Flawed Typefaces". Print magazine. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Ulrich, Ferdinand (22 July 2012). "Hunt Roman". Typographica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Shaw, Paul (31 October 2011). "The Kerning Game". Print. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Helmut Kopka; Patrick W. Daly (1999). A Guide to LaTeX, 3rd Ed. Addison-Wesley. p. 22. ISBN 0-201-39825-7.
Jump up ^ Loretan, Mico. "Selnolig". CTAN. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Dunlap, David. "1952 – 'Eisenhower,' a True Campaign Logo". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN) Empfehlungen und Hinweise für die Schreibweise geographischer Namen für Herausgeber von Kartenwerken und anderen Veröffentlichungen für den internationalen Gebrauch Bundesrepublik Deutschland 5. überarbeitete Ausgabe
Jump up ^ Trumbull, J. H. (1903). Natick Dictionary. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. p. 149.
Jump up ^ Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). Introduction to the wampanoag grammar. (Master's thesis). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 48.
Jump up ^ The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th Ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1993. p. 6.61.
Jump up ^ Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 33. Väderlek – Äänekoski / 905–906
Jump up ^ Bureus, J., Runa ABC boken
Jump up ^ "Origen de la 'Ñ'", Aula Hispanica.
Jump up ^ Teach Yourself French. Collier's Cyclopedia, 1901.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Everson, Michael; Baker, Peter; Emiliano, António; Grammel, Florian; Haugen, Odd Einar; Luft, Diana; Pedro, Susana; Schumacher, Gerd; Stötzner, Andreas (2006-01-30). "L2/06-027: Proposal to add Medievalist characters to the UCS" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Cajori, Florian (1993). A History of Mathematical Notations. New York: Dover (reprint). ISBN 0-486-67766-4. – contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the theory that $ began as a ligature for "pesos".
Jump up ^ "JanaSanskritSans".
Jump up ^ "'圕'字怎麼念？什麼意思？誰造的？" Sing Tao Daily online. 21 April 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2011.(in Chinese)
Jump up ^ Victor Mair, "Polysyllabic characters in Chinese writing", Language Log, 2011 August 2
Jump up ^ "font-feature-settings property". MSDN. MSDN. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "CSS font-variant-ligatures Property". CSS Portal.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Unicode FAQ: Ligatures, Digraphs, Presentation Forms vs. Plain Text". Unicode Consortium. 2015-07-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). "L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode "Teuthonista" phonetic characters in the UCS" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Freytag, Asmus; McGowan, Rick; Whistler, Ken (2006-05-08). "Known Anomalies in Unicode Character Names". Unicode Technical Note #27. Unicode Inc. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
Jump up ^ "The art of typography in the digital age ligatures". Retrieved November 14, 2014.
Jump up ^ Erickson, Britta (2001). The Art of Xu Bing: Words Without Meaning, Meaning Without Words (Asian Art & Culture). Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Ga. ISBN 9780295981437.
External links[edit]
Typedesk.com, Type Desk on ligatures
Ilovetypography.com, Decline and Fall of the Ligature
Live example of Ligature Substitutions, Test your browser support for Ligature Substitutions (works on all modern browsers except Safari)
http://blogs.msdn.com/b/fontblog/archive/2006/08/10/missed-opportunity-for-ligatures.aspx
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text:
Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Hague Abduction Convention
Convention on the civil Aspects of International Child Abduction
State parties to the convention
states that signed and ratified the convention)
states that acceded to the convention
state that ratified, but convention has not entered into force
Signed
25 October 1980
Location
The Netherlands
Effective
1 December 1983[1]
Parties
98 (September 2017)[1]
Depositary
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Languages
French and English
Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction at Wikisource
The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction or Hague Abduction Convention is a multilateral treaty developed by the Hague Conference on Private International Law (HCCH) that provides an expeditious method to return a child internationally abducted by a parent from one member country to another.
The Convention was concluded 25 October 1980 and entered into force between the signatories on 1 December 1983. The Convention was drafted to ensure the prompt return of children who have been abducted from their country of habitual residence or wrongfully retained in a contracting state not their country of habitual residence.[2]
The primary intention of the Convention is to preserve whatever status quo child custody arrangement existed immediately before an alleged wrongful removal or retention thereby deterring a parent from crossing international boundaries in search of a more sympathetic court. The Convention applies only to children under the age of 16.
As of May 2018, 98 states are party to the convention.[1] In 2017, Tunisia and Jamaica acceded to the convention.[1]
Contents
1 Procedural nature
2 Wrongful removal or retention
3 Habitual residence
4 Special rules of evidence
5 Limited defenses to return
6 Non-compliance
6.1 Interpretation of article 13b: no return in case of "grave risks"
7 State parties
8 See also
9 Footnotes
10 External links
Procedural nature[edit]
Family law
Family
Marriage and other
equivalent or similar unions and status[show]
Marriage
Types of marriages
Prenuptial agreement
Cohabitation
Concubinage
Common-law marriage
Civil union
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Validity of marriages[show]
Void and Voidable marriages
Annulment
Marriage fraud
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Divorce
Adultery
Grounds for divorce
No-fault divorce
Matrimonial Causes Act
Legal separation
Alimony
Parenting plan
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The Convention does not alter any substantive rights. The Convention requires that a court in which a Hague Convention action is filed should not consider the merits of any underlying child custody dispute, but should determine only that country in which those issues should be heard. Return of the child is to the member country rather than specifically to the left-behind parent.
The Convention requires the return of a child who was a "habitual resident" in a contracting party immediately before an action that constitutes a breach of custody or access rights.[3] The Convention provides that all Contracting States, as well as any judicial and administrative bodies of those Contracting States, "shall act expeditiously in all proceedings seeking the return of a children" and that those institutions shall use the most expeditious procedures available to the end that final decision be made within six weeks from the date of commencement of the proceedings.[4]
Wrongful removal or retention[edit]
The Convention provides that the removal or retention of a child is "wrongful" whenever:
"a. It is in breach of rights of custody attributed to a person, an institution or any other body, either jointly or alone, under the law of the State in which the child was habitually resident immediately before the removal or retention; and
"b. at the time of removal or retention those rights were actually exercised, either jointly or alone, or would have been so exercised but for the removal or retention." These rights of custody may arise by operation of law or by reason of a judicial or administrative decision, or by reason of an agreement having legal effect under the law of the country of habitual residence.[5]
"From the Convention's standpoint, the removal of a child by one of the joint holders without the consent of the other, is . . . wrongful, and this wrongfulness derives in this particular case, not from some action in breach of a particular law, but from the fact that such action has disregarded the rights of the other parent which are also protected by law, and has interfered with their normal exercise."[6]
Habitual residence[edit]
The Convention mandates return of any child who was "habitually resident" in a contracting nation immediately before an action that constitutes a breach of custody or access rights. The Convention does not define the term "habitual residence," but it is not intended to be a technical term. Instead, courts should broadly read the term in the context of the Convention's purpose to discourage unilateral removal of a child from that place in which the child lived when removed or retained, which should generally be understood as the child's "ordinary residence." The child's "habitual residence" is not determined after the incident alleged to constitute a wrongful removal or retention. A parent cannot unilaterally create a new habitual residence by wrongfully removing or sequestering a child. Because the determination of "habitual residence" is primarily a "fact based" determination and not one which is encumbered by legal technicalities, the court must look at those facts, the shared intentions of the parties, the history of the children's location and the settled nature of the family prior to the facts giving rise to the request for return.[7]
Special rules of evidence[edit]
The Convention provides special rules for admission and consideration of evidence independent of the evidentiary standards set by any member nation. Article 30 provides that the Application for Assistance, as well as any documents attached to that application or submitted to or by the Central Authority are admissible in any proceeding for a child's return.[8] The Convention also provides that no member nation can require legalization or other similar formality of the underlying documents in context of a Convention proceeding.[9] Furthermore, the court in which a Convention action is proceeding shall "take notice directly of the law of, and of judicial or administrative decisions, formally recognized or not in the State of habitual residence of the child, without recourse to the specific procedures for the proof of that law or for the recognition of foreign decisions which would otherwise be applicable" when determining whether there is a wrongful removal or retention under the Convention.[10]
Limited defenses to return[edit]
The Convention limits the defenses against return of a wrongfully removed or retained child. To defend against the return of the child, the defendant must establish to the degree required by the applicable standard of proof (generally determined by the lex fori, i.e. the law of the state where the court is located):
(a) that Petitioner was not "actually exercising custody rights at the time of the removal or retention" under Article 13; or
(b) that Petitioner "had consented to or acquiesced in the removal or retention" under Article 13; or
(c) that more than one year has passed from the time of wrongful removal or retention until the date of the commencement of judicial or administrative proceedings, under Article 12; or
(d) that the child is old enough and has a sufficient degree of maturity to knowingly object to being returned to the Petitioner and that it is appropriate to heed that objection, under Article 13; or
(e) that "there is grave risk that the child's return would expose the child to physical or psychological harm or otherwise place the child in an intolerable situation," under Article 13(b); or
(f) that return of the child would subject the child to violation of basic human rights and fundamental freedoms, under Article 20.
Non-compliance[edit]
2016 US Annual Report on International Parental Child Abduction
Noncompliance with the terms and spirit of the Hague Convention has been a particularly difficult problem in the practical implementation of the Convention. In 2014, the United States declared Brazil, Mexico, Romania, and Ukraine as "Countries with Enforcement Concerns."[11] Additional countries are listed and reference to the most recent report should be made by concerned parties.
The Cuellar Versus Joyce case[12] was an example of the difficulties facing left behind parents applying to the US Central Authority.
Interpretation of article 13b: no return in case of "grave risks"[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The principal purpose of the Abduction Convention is to cause the prompt return of a child to his or her "habitual residence." In certain exceptional cases under Article 13b, the court's mandatory return obligation is changed to a discretionary obligation, specifically, "the judicial or administrative authority of the requested State is not bound to order the return of the child if the person, institution or other body which opposes its return establishes that there is a grave risk that his or her return would expose the child to physical or psychological harm or otherwise place the child in an intolerable situation." The duty to return a child is however not abrogated by a finding under Art. 13(b) but merely changes from mandatory to discretionary.
In the primary source of interpretation for the Convention, the Explanatory Report, Professor E. Pérez Vera noted the following:
It would seem necessary to underline the fact that the three types of exception to the rule concerning the return of the child must be applied only so far as they go and no further. This implies above all that they are to be interpreted in a restrictive fashion if the Convention is not to become a dead letter. In fact, the Convention as a whole rests upon the unanimous rejection of this phenomenon of illegal child removals and upon the conviction that the best way to combat them at an international level is to refuse to grant them legal recognition. The practical application of this principle requires that the signatory States be convinced that they belong, despite their differences, to the same legal community within which the authorities of each State acknowledge that the authorities of one of them—those of the child's habitual residence—are in principle best placed to decide upon questions of custody and access. As a result, a systematic invocation of the said exceptions, substituting the forum chosen by the abductor for that of the child's residence, would lead to the collapse of the whole structure of the Convention by depriving it of the spirit of mutual confidence which is its inspiration.[citation needed]
State parties[edit]
signature and ratification of Japan in 2014
As of May 2018, the Convention has 98 parties.[13] The last states to accede to the Convention were Tunisia and Jamaica in 2017.[14]
See also[edit]
International child abduction
Child abduction
Child laundering
Child harvesting
List of international adoption scandals
Hague Adoption Convention
Hague Abduction Convention Compliance Reports (US)
International Child Abduction Remedies Act (US)
Hague Conference on Private International Law
Authority control
GND: 4414459-3
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Status table: Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction". Hague Conference on Private International Law. 14 June 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Preamble.
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Article 4.
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Article 11.
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Article 3.
Jump up ^ Elisa Pérez Vera, Explanatory Report: Hague Conference on Private International Law, in 3 Acts and Documents of the Fourteenth Session ("Explanatory Report"), 71, at 447–48
Jump up ^ Mozes v. Mozes, 239 F.3d 1067, 1073 (US 9th Cir. 2001) Case details on the INCADAT website Archived 13 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Article 30
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Article 23.
Jump up ^ Hague Convention, Article 14
Jump up ^ https://travel.state.gov/content/dam/childabduction/complianceReports/2014.pdf
Jump up ^ see Cuellar v Joyce, --- F.3d ----, 2010 WL 624886 9th Cir.(Mont.)
Jump up ^ https://www.hcch.net/en/instruments/conventions/status-table/?cid=24
Jump up ^ https://www.hcch.net/en/instruments/conventions/status-table/?cid=24
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hague Abduction Convention.
Full Text of the Convention
Explanatory Report by Elisa Perez-Vera
INCADAT—Case-law database of different jurisdictions concerning the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention
US State Department International—Parental Child Abduction—Compliance Report 2011
Contracting States
The Child Abduction Section of the Hague Conference website
[1]
Case law and materials including Hebrew documents
Hague Conference Guides to good practice
The Hague Domestic Violence Project International Child Abduction and Domestic Violence
Multiple perspectives on the implications of the Hague Convention
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