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Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration
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President Ronald Reagan
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This article discusses the domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration from 1981 to 1989. Reagan's policies stressed conservative economic values, starting with his implementation of supply-side economic policies, dubbed as "Reaganomics" by both supporters and detractors. His policies also included the largest tax cut in American history as well as increased defense spending as part of his Soviet strategy. However, he significantly raised taxes four times due to economic conditions and reforms, but the tax reforms instituted during presidency brought top marginal rates to their lowest levels since 1931, such that by 1988, the top US marginal tax rate was 28%.[1][2]
Notable events included his firing of nearly 12,000 striking air traffic control workers and appointing the first woman to the Supreme Court bench, Sandra Day O'Connor. He believed in federalism, free markets and passed policies to encourage development of private business, routinely criticizing and defunding the public sector. Despite his support for limited government, he greatly accelerated the nation's War on Drugs.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 "Reaganomics" and the economy
1.1 Policies
1.2 Economic record
1.3 Oil policy
1.4 Legacy
2 Environment
3 Unions and corporations
3.1 Air traffic controllers' strike
4 Military
4.1 Strategic Defense Initiative
5 The arts
6 Education
7 War on Drugs
8 The Judiciary
9 Response to AIDS
10 Gay rights
11 Civil rights
12 References
13 Further sources
14 External links
"Reaganomics" and the economy[edit]
Main article: Reaganomics
Policies[edit]
Reagan gives a televised address from the Oval Office, outlining his plan for Tax Reduction Legislation in July 1981.
Based on supply-side economics,Reagan implemented his economic policies in 1981. The four pillars of the policies were to:
Reduce marginal tax rates on income from labor and capital.
Reduce regulation.
Tighten the money supply to reduce inflation.
Reduce the growth of government spending.
By reducing or eliminating decades-long social programs, while at the same time lowering taxes and marginal tax rates, Reagan's approach to handling the economy marked a significant departure from that of many of his predecessor's Keynesian policies. Milton Friedman, the monetarist economist who was an intellectual architect of free-market policies, was a primary influence on Reagan.[4]
When Reagan entered office, the country faced the highest rate of inflation since 1947 (average annual rate of 13.5% in 1980), and interest rates as high as 13% (the Fed funds rate in Dec. 1980). These were considered the nation's principal economic problems and were all considered components of "stagflation." Reagan sought to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts [5][6] The expansionary fiscal policies soon became known as "Reaganomics",[5] and were considered by some to be the most serious attempt to change the course of U.S. economic policy of any administration since the New Deal. His radical tax reforms, in combination with a curb on domestic social spending, harsh restraints applied by the Federal Reserve Board under Paul Volcker on the nation's money supply, and heavy government borrowing required to finance the budget and trade deficits, as well as military expenditures, produced significant economic expansion and reduced inflation. Inflation was reduced by more than ten percentage points, reaching a low of 1.9% annual average inflation in 1986.[7][8]
One of the Reagan administration's strategies to reduce government spending was privatization of government functions, paying contractors to do work that government agencies had formerly done.[9][10][11]
Economic record[edit]
Reagan addresses Congress and the nation on his economic program, 1981
President Reagan's tenure marked a time of expanded economic prosperity for many Americans. The misery index sank to 9.72 from a high of 19.33, the greatest improvement record for a President since Harry S. Truman left office.[12] In terms of American households, the percentage of total households making less than $10,000 a year (in real 2007 dollars) shrunk from 8.8% in 1980 to 8.3% in 1988 while the percentage of households making over $75,000 went from 20.2% to 25.7% during that period.[13] However, the number of Americans below the poverty level did not decline at all. The number of children, ages 18 years and younger, below the poverty level increased from 11.543 million in 1980, 18.3% of children, to 12.455, 19.5%, in 1988. Also, the situation of low income groups was affected by the reduction of social spending, and inequality increased. The share of total income received by the 5% highest-income households grew from 16.5% in 1980 to 18.3% in 1988 and the share of the highest fifth of income increased from 44.1% to 46.3% in same years. In contrast, the share of total income of the lowest fifth of households fell from 4.2% in 1980 to 3.8% in 1988 and the second poorest fifth from 10.2% to 9.6%.[14]
In August 1981, after negotiations with the Republican-controlled Senate and the Democratic-controlled House, Reagan signed the largest marginal tax cut in American history into law at his California ranch. However, the 1981 marginal cuts were partially offset by bracket creep and increased Social Security rates the following year.[15]
Unemployment hit a low of 5.3% in 1988 after peaking at over 10% in 1982.[6][16][17] Real GDP growth recovered throughout Reagan's term, averaging +3.5% per year, with a high of +7.3% in 1984.[18] The average annual GDP growth during Reagan's presidency was the fifth highest since the Great Depression and the highest of any Republican president.[18][19] Inflation decreased significantly, falling from 13.6% in 1980 to 4.1% by 1988, and 16 million new jobs were created.[20] The net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills resulted in a 1% decrease of government revenues (as a percentage of GDP), with the revenue-shrinking effects of the 1981 tax cut (-3% of GDP) and the revenue-gaining effects of the 1982 tax hike (~+1% of GDP), while subsequent bills were more revenue-neutral.[21] However, tax revenue itself nominally increased massively by 103.1% from 1981 through 1989, largely as a result of more loopholes abolished than tax rates lowered.[22]
During the Reagan Administration, federal receipts grew at an average rate of 8.2% (2.5% attributed to higher Social Security receipts), and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7.1%.[23][24]
Reagan's administration is the only one not to have raised the minimum wage by its conclusion.[25]
Along with these, Reagan reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, as well as the monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him in 1987. He preserved the core New Deal safeguards, such as the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the GI Bill and Social Security, while rolling back what he viewed as the excesses of 1960s and 1970s liberal policies.
Theses policies were labeled by some as "Trickle-down economics,"[26] though others argue that the combination of significant tax cuts and a massive increase in Cold War related defense spending resulted in large budget deficits,[27] an expansion in the U.S. trade deficit,[27] as well as the stock market crash of 1987, while also contributing to the Savings and Loan crisis.[28] The ultimate cost of the Savings and Loan crisis is estimated to have totaled around US$150 billion, about $125 billion of which was consequently and directly subsidized by the U.S. government. John Kenneth Galbraith called it
"the largest and costliest venture in public misfeasance, malfeasance and larceny of all time."[29]
In order to cover new federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $997 billion to $2.85 trillion,[30] and the United States moved from being the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation.[31] Reagan described the new debt as the
"greatest disappointment"
of his presidency.[32]
Reagan's support for an increased defense budget at the height of the Cold War was supported by Congressional Democrats and Republicans. However, Congress was reluctant to follow Reagan's proposed cuts in domestic programs. In accordance with Reagan's less-government intervention views, many domestic government programs were cut or experienced periods of reduced funding during his presidency.[33] These included Social Security, Medicaid, Food Stamps, and federal education programs.[34] Though Reagan protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare,[35] in one of the most widely criticized[36] actions of the administration, the administration attempted to purge tens of thousands of allegedly disabled people from the Social Security disability roles, who the administration alleged were not truly disabled.[36] Funding for government organizations, including the Environmental Protection Agency, were also reduced.[37] He cut the EPA's budget by 22%, and his director of the EPA, Anne M. Burford, resigned over alleged mismanagement of funds.[38] Tax breaks and increased military spending created a larger budget deficit, which led Reagan to approve two tax increases, aiming to preserve funding for Social Security.[39]
Speaking of Reagan himself, Donald Regan, the President's former Secretary of the Treasury, and later Chief of Staff, criticized him for his lack of understanding economics.
"In the four years that I served as Secretary of the Treasury, I never saw President Reagan alone and never discussed economic philosophy or fiscal and monetary policy with him one-on-one.... The President never told me what he believed or what he wanted to accomplish in the field of economics."[40]
However, Reagan's chief economic adviser Martin Feldstein, argues the opposite.
"I briefed him on Third World debt; he didn't take notes, he asked very few questions.... The subject came up in a cabinet meeting and he summarized what he had heard perfectly. He had a remarkably good memory for oral presentation and could fit information into his own philosophy and make decisions on it.[41]
Oil policy[edit]
At the beginning of his presidency, Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had been started by Richard Nixon; they had contributed to both the 1973 Oil Crisis and the 1979 Energy Crisis.[42][43] The price of oil subsequently dropped, and the 1980s did not see the gasoline lines and fuel shortages that the 1970s had.[43] Reagan also attempted to make good on his 1980 campaign promise to repeal the "Windfall Profit Tax" that Carter and Congress enacted in 1980 on domestic oil production; he was able to do so in 1988, when Congress agreed that it had increased dependence on foreign oil.[44] The tax was not a tax on profits, but an excise tax on the difference between a statutory "base price" and the market price.[45] Reagan also stopped aggressive pushing of new auto efficiency standard by Carter administration, descended on alternative energy researches started by Carter administration. However, fuel efficiency in cars and light trucks driven by Americans still increased by a larger amount between 1980 and 1990 compared to previous decades or the decades since.[46]
Legacy[edit]
Some economists seem to think that Reagan's tax policies invigorated America's economy, such as Nobel Prize winner Milton Friedman, who wrote that the Reagan tax cuts were
"one of the most important factors in the boom of the 1990s."
Similarly, fellow Nobel Prize–winning economist Robert A. Mundell wrote that the tax cuts
"made the U.S. economy the motor for the world economy in the 1990s, on which the great revolution in information technology was able to feed."[47]
Other economists argue that the deficits slowed economic growth during the following administration[48] and was the reason that Reagan's successor, George H.W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and raised taxes. Nobel Prize–winning economist Robert Solow stated,
"As for Reagan being responsible [for the 1990s boom], that's far-fetched. What we got in the Reagan years was a deep recession and then half a dozen years of fine growth as we climbed out of the recession, but nothing beyond that."[47]
Another Reagan legacy was the expansion of Alternative Minimum Tax.[49] When Ronald Reagan signed the Tax Reform Act of 1986, the AMT was expanded to target middle class deductions related to having children, owning a home, or living in high tax states. In 2006, the IRS's National Taxpayer Advocate's report highlighted the AMT as the single most serious problem with the tax code. The advocate noted that the complexity of the AMT leads to most taxpayers who owe AMT not realizing it until preparing their returns or being notified by the IRS.[50]
Environment[edit]
See also: Environmental policy of the United States § The Reagan Administration (1980-1988)
Reagan dismissed proposals to halt acid rain finding them burdensome to industry.[51] The Environmental Protection Agency to make a major budget commitment to reduce acid rain; Reagan rejected the proposal and deemed it as wasteful government spending.[52] He also questioned scientific evidence on the causes of acid rain.[52] It was later discovered that the administration was releasing Superfund grants for cleaning up local toxic waste sites to enhance the election prospects of local officials aligned with the Republican Party.[53] Reagan rarely thought about the environment in political terms, however, and did not fear that his popularity would be damaged by environmental issues.[52] In 1986, Reagan removed the solar panels that his predecessor Carter had installed on the roof of the White House’s West Wing, citing a damaged roof.[54]
"Reagan's political philosophy viewed the free market as the best arbiter of what was good for the country. Corporate self-interest, he felt, would steer the country in the right direction."
the author Natalie Goldstein wrote in "Global Warming.".[55]
The HUD controversy involved administration staffers granting federal funding to constituents, and defrauding the U.S. government out of money intended for low income housing. It resulted in six convictions, including James G. Watt, Reagan's Secretary of the Interior. Watt was indicted on 24 felony counts and pleaded guilty to a single misdemeanor. He was sentenced to five years probation, and ordered to pay a $5000 fine.[56]
Unions and corporations[edit]
The Reagan Administration had some of the highest illegal union firings in recorded history.
In 1981, to protect domestic auto sales the Reagan administration signed an agreement with Japan that it would not import more than 1.67 million cars into the United States, which would be one in four cars sold in America.[57]
Air traffic controllers' strike[edit]
Main article: Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968)
President Reagan speaks about the strike during a press conference in the White House Rose Garden. Reagan fired 11,345 strikers who did not return to work.
Reagan announced that the situation had become an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft Hartley Act, and held a press conference on August 3, 1981 in the White House Rose Garden regarding the strike. Reagan stated that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated."[58]
Two days later, on August 5, Reagan fired 11,359 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order to return to work, notwithstanding the fact that the strike was illegal under federal law. The breaking of the strike had a significant impact on labor-management relations in the private sector. Although private employers nominally had the right to permanently replace striking workers under the National Labor Relations Act, that option was rarely used prior to 1981, but much more frequently thereafter. Reagan's actions essentially broke the striking union.[59]
Military[edit]
Reagan sharply accelerated the massive military buildup started by the Carter administration in response to the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.[60] This buildup, a 40% real increase in defense spending,[61] included the revival of the B-1 bomber program, which had been cancelled by the Carter administration;[62] the deployment of Pershing II missiles in West Germany; the increased enlistment of thousands of troops; and a more advanced intelligence system.[62]
Strategic Defense Initiative[edit]
Reagan salutes a military cadet
In 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a defense project. The intended goal was to make the US invulnerable to a Soviet missile attack by placing missiles in space and vaporizing those of the Soviets, upon a nuclear attack.[62] This would be done by a laser guidance system, which grew into a series of systems that turned into a layered ballistic missile defense.[62] Dubbed "Star Wars" by the news media, many wondered if the technological objective was attainable. Following air defense laser testing in 1973, work continued throughout the 1980s, and the first above earth laser intercept test was completed.[62]
The arts[edit]
Though Ronald and Nancy Reagan were both former actors and he had served as president of the Screen Actor's Guild, his administration had a curiously mixed record on support for the arts. Via a 1982 Executive Order, President Reagan established the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. In each year of his presidency (except for the fiscal years of 1982 and 1986), Congress staved off the Administration's efforts to cut federal expenditures for arts programs such as the National Endowment for the Arts.[63] In a 1983 speech he declared, "We support the National Endowment for the Arts to stimulate excellence and make art more available to more of our people,"[64] yet throughout his administration, beginning with an early threat to cut the Carter-era arts budget in half,[65] Reagan's economic and social agendas put him at odds, often contentiously, with artists and arts communities nationwide.[66]
Education[edit]
See also: United States Department of Education § Establishment, and A Nation at Risk
Reagan's philosophy of minimal government intervention in personal and family affairs was reflected in his view of the Federal Department of Education. During the 1980 presidential campaign, Gov. Reagan called for the total elimination of the U.S. Department of Education, severe curtailment of bilingual education, and massive cutbacks in the federal role in education.[citation needed] When Reagan was elected in 1980, the federal share of total education spending was 12 percent. When he left office in 1988 it stood at just 6 percent.[citation needed]
Reagan established the National Commission on Excellence in Education, whose inaugural meeting occurred in October 1981. The Final Report of the Commission, which was returned on April 26, 1983,[67] noted the almost uninterrupted decline in student achievement in standardized test scores during the previous two decades, decades in which the Federal presence in education grew. High school graduates in the early 1980s scored almost 40 points below their 1963 counterparts on standard mathematical tests and 50 points lower on verbal tests. About 13 percent of 17-year-olds were considered functionally illiterate, and for minority youth, the figure was estimated to be as high as 40 percent. Remedial math courses then comprised one-fourth of all the math courses that are taught in public 4-year colleges. Reagan felt that Americans could not afford to pass students who fail to learn from one grade to the next simply because they've come to the end of the year, and that they could not afford to waste the valuable resources of higher education to remedy problems that were ignored in elementary and high schools. Four-fifths of American 17-year-olds could not write a persuasive essay. Two-thirds could not solve mathematical problems involving more than one step, and nearly 40 percent could not draw inferences from reading.[68]
An intermittent series of Radio Address to the Nation on Education were a signature of President Reagan.[69] In September 1988, he reported on his administration's success that "Test scores are up, reversing a calamitous drop in scores over the years between 1963 and 1980. Attendance is up, and the number of kids who drop out of high school is down," and stressed that the bounty of Western civilization was owed to American children. He suggested that the report entitled James Madison Elementary School,[70] produced by Education Secretary Bill Bennett, be used to influence curricula at schools across the nation.
War on Drugs[edit]
Not long after being sworn into office, Reagan declared more militant policies in the "War on Drugs".[71][72] He promised a "planned, concerted campaign" against all drugs,[73] eventually leading to decreases in adolescent drug use in America.[74][75]
First Lady Nancy Reagan at a Just Say No rally at the White House
President Reagan signed a large drug enforcement bill into law in 1986; it granted $1.7 billion to fight drugs, and ensured a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses.[76] The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population, however, because of the differences in sentencing for crack versus powder cocaine.[76]
Critics also charged that the administration's policies did little to actually reduce the availability of drugs or crime on the street, while resulting in a great financial and human cost for American society.[77] Supporters argued that the numbers for adolescent drug users declined during Reagan's years in office.[75]
As a part of the administration's effort, Reagan's First Lady, Nancy, made the War on Drugs her main cause as First Lady, by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign. Today, there are still hundreds of "Just Say No" clinics and school clubs in operation around the country aimed at helping and rehabilitating children and teenagers with drug problems.[76] The program demonstrated to children various ways of refusing drugs and alcohol.
The Judiciary[edit]
Reagan nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the Supreme Court Justice vacancy left by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart, as he had promised during his 1980 presidential campaign. Sandra Day O'Connor was a conservative Republican and strict constructionist. Though the far-right of the Republican Party was dissatisfied by O'Connor, who refused to condemn the Roe v. Wade decision and had supported the federal Equal Rights Amendment, Senate Republicans and the vast majority of Americans approved of the pick, the Senate confirming her unanimously. O'Connor would later take more moderate positions.[78]
In 1986, during his second term, the president elevated Justice William Rehnquist to succeed outgoing Chief Justice Warren Burger and named Antonin Scalia to occupy the seat left by Rehnquist.
In 1987, when Associate Justice Louis Powell retired, Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court. Within 45 minutes of Bork's nomination to the Court, Ted Kennedy (D-MA) took to the Senate floor with a strong condemnation of Bork in a nationally televised speech, declaring,
“ Robert Bork's America is a land in which women would be forced into back-alley abortions, blacks would sit at segregated lunch counters, rogue police could break down citizens' doors in midnight raids, schoolchildren could not be taught about evolution, writers and artists could be censored at the whim of the Government, and the doors of the Federal courts would be shut on the fingers of millions of citizens.[79] ”
Reagan in the White House private quarters with Robert Bork
The rapid response of Kennedy's "Robert Bork's America" speech stunned the Reagan White House; though conservatives considered Kennedy's accusations slanderous ideological smears on a well qualified candidate for the bench,[80] the attacks went unanswered for two and a half months.[81] Bork refused to withdraw himself and his nomination was rejected 58–42.[82] Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place.[83]
Reagan also nominated a large number of judges to the United States district court and United States court of appeals benches; most of these nominations were not controversial, although a handful of candidates were singled out for criticism by civil rights advocates and other liberal critics, resulting in occasional confirmation fights. Both his Supreme Court nominations and his lower court appointments were in line with Reagan's express philosophy that judges should interpret law as enacted and not "legislate from the bench". By the end of the 1980s, a conservative majority on the Supreme Court had put an end to the perceived "activist" trend begun under the leadership of Chief Justice Earl Warren.[citation needed] Some[who?] argued that the conservative justices were equally activist, but that their sympathies lay with corporate America.[clarification needed] However, general adherence to the principle of stare decisis, along with minority support, left most of the major landmark case decisions (such as Brown, Miranda, and Roe v. Wade) of the previous three decades still standing as binding precedent.
Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 290 judges to the United States district courts. His total of 376 appointments is the most by any president. Reagan appointed many leading conservative academics to the intermediate United States Courts of Appeals, including Bork, Ralph K. Winter, Jr., Richard Posner, and Frank Easterbrook. However, he also experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies, as nine nominees for various federal appellate judgeships were not confirmed. In some cases, the nominations were not processed by the Democratic-controlled Senate Judiciary Committee before Reagan's presidency ended, while in other cases, nominees were rejected by the Senate Judiciary Committee or even blocked by unfriendly members of the Republican Party.
Response to AIDS[edit]
Perhaps the greatest criticism surrounds Reagan's silence about the AIDS epidemic spreading in the 1980s.[84] Although AIDS was first identified in 1981, Reagan did not mention it publicly for several more years, notably during a press conference in 1985 and several speeches in 1987. During the press conference in 1985, Reagan expressed skepticism in allowing children with AIDS to continue in school although he supported their right to do so, stating:
I can well understand the plight of the parents and how they feel about it. I also have compassion, as I think we all do, for the child that has this and doesn't know and can't have it explained to him why somehow he is now an outcast and can no longer associate with his playmates and schoolmates. On the other hand, I can understand the problem with the parents. It is true that some medical sources had said that this cannot be communicated in any way other than the ones we already know and which would not involve a child being in the school. And yet medicine has not come forth unequivocally and said, This we know for a fact, that it is safe. And until they do, I think we just have to do the best we can with this problem. I can understand both sides of it.[85]
The CDC had previously issued a report stating that "casual person-to-person contact as would occur among schoolchildren appears to pose no risk."[86]
Then-Vice President Bush, right, meets with President Reagan, left, in 1984.
Even with the death from AIDS of his friend Rock Hudson, Reagan was widely criticized for not supporting more active measures to contain the spread of AIDS. Until celebrities, first Joan Rivers, and soon afterwards Elizabeth Taylor spoke out publicly about the increasing number of people quickly dying from this new disease, most public officials and celebrities were too afraid of dealing with this subject.
Reagan prevented his Surgeon General, C. Everett Koop, from speaking out about the AIDS epidemic.[87] When in 1986 Reagan was highly encouraged by many other public officials to authorize Koop to issue a report on the epidemic, he expected it to be in line with conservative policies; instead, Koop's Surgeon General's Report on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome greatly emphasized the importance of a comprehensive AIDS education strategy, including widespread distribution of condoms, and rejected mandatory testing. This approach brought Koop into conflict with other administration officials such as Education Secretary William Bennett. In 1988, Koop took the unprecedented action of mailing AIDS information to every U.S. household. This information included the use of condoms as the decisive defense against contracting the disease.
Social action groups such as ACT UP worked to raise awareness of the AIDS problem. Because of ACT UP, in 1987, Reagan responded by appointing the Watkins Commission on AIDS, which was succeeded by a permanent advisory council.
Supporters of Reagan past and present have pointed out the fact that he declared in the aforementioned September 1985 press conference that he wanted from Congress massive government research effort against AIDS similar to one President Nixon had overseen against cancer. Reagan said, "It's been one of the top priorities with us, and over the last 4 years, and including what we have in the budget for '86, it will amount to over a half a billion dollars that we have provided for research on AIDS in addition to what I'm sure other medical groups are doing." He also remarked, "Yes, there's no question about the seriousness of this and the need to find an answer." Annual AIDS related funding was $44 million in 1983, 2 years after he took office, and was $1.6 billion in 1988, an increase of over 1000 percent.[88][89][90]
Gay rights[edit]
No civil rights legislation for lesbian or gay individuals passed during Reagan's tenure. On the 1980 campaign trail, he spoke of the gay civil rights movement:
My criticism is that [the gay movement] isn’t just asking for civil rights; it’s asking for recognition and acceptance of an alternative lifestyle which I do not believe society can condone, nor can I.[91]
Civil rights[edit]
Reagan opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964[92] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson.[93]
Reagan gave a States' Rights speech at the Neshoba County Fair in Philadelphia, Mississippi, the town where the murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner occurred in 1964, when running for president in 1980 (many politicians had spoken at that annual Fair, however). Reagan was offended that some accused him of racism. In 1980 Reagan said the Voting Rights Act was "humiliating to the South", although he later supported extending the Act. He opposed Fair Housing legislation in California (the Rumford Fair Housing Act), but in 1988 signed a law expanding the Fair Housing Act of 1968. Reagan was unsuccessful in trying to veto another civil rights bill in March of the same year. At first Reagan opposed the Martin Luther King holiday, and signed it only after an overwhelming veto-proof majority (338 to 90 in the House of Representatives and 78 to 22 in the Senate) voted in favor of it. Congress overrode Reagan's veto of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1988. Reagan said the Restoration Act would impose too many regulations on churches, the private sector and state and local governments.
However, President Reagan established the White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities to increase African-American participation in federal education programs and on June 29, 1982, he signed a 25-year extension of 1965 Voting Rights Act.[94]
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Jump up ^ "Ronald Reagan: Presidency – Domestic policies". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
Jump up ^ Rosenbaum, David E (January 8, 1986). "Reagan insists Budget Cuts are way to Reduce Deficit". The New York Times.
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^ Jump up to: a b Pear, Robert (April 19, 1992). "U.S. to Reconsider Denial of Benefits to Many Disabled". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Views from the Former Administrators". EPA Journal. Environmental Protection Agency. November 1985. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
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Jump up ^ "Social Security & Medicare Tax Rates". Social Security Administration. December 23, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
Jump up ^ Regan, Donald T. (1988), p. 142
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^ Jump up to: a b Lieberman, Ben (September 1, 2005). "A Bad Response To Post-Katrina Gas Prices". Heritage Foundation. Retrieved November 6, 2008.
Jump up ^ Thorndike, Joseph J. (November 10, 2005). "Historical Perspective: The Windfall Profit Tax – Career of a Concept". TaxHistory.org. Retrieved November 6, 2008.
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Jump up ^ Bureau of Transportation Statistics. "Average Fuel Efficiency of U.S. Cars and Light Trucks". Retrieved December 21, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Reagan's Economic Legacy". Business Week. Retrieved July 1, 2007.
Jump up ^ Exploding Deficits, Declining Growth: The Federal Budget and the Aging of America (PDF). Committee for Economic Development. March 2003. ISBN 0-87186-149-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hulse, Carl; Lee, Suevon (2008). "Alternative Minimum Tax". The New York Times. Retrieved May 16, 2008.
Jump up ^ "National Taxpayer Advocate 2006 Annual Report to Congress-Executive Summary" (PDF). Internal Revenue Service. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Ronald Reagan: On the Issues". OnTheIssues.org. Retrieved May 11, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Ronald Reagan on Environment". OnTheIssues.org. Retrieved May 11, 2008.
Jump up ^ "AROUND THE NATION - Conviction of Ex-Official Of E.P.A. Is Upheld - NYTimes.com". Query.nytimes.com. January 19, 1985. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Biello, David (August 6, 2010). "Where Did the Carter White House's Solar Panels Go?". Scientific AmerILOVEBACONican.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, Natalie (2009). Global Warming. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6769-5. Retrieved January 12, 2015. [page needed]
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Jump up ^ Frum, David (2008). How We Got Here: The 70s The Decade That Brought You Modern Life--For Better Or Worse. Basic Books. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-7867-2350-8.
Jump up ^ "Remarks and a Question-and-Answer Session With Reporters on the Air Traffic Controllers Strike". Ronald Reagan Foundation. 1981. Retrieved May 13, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hirsch, Stacy (June 8, 2004). "Reagan presidency pivotal for unions". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved December 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Alesina, Alberto; Carliner, Geoffrey (2008). Politics and Economics in the Eighties. University of Chicago Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-226-01282-7.
Jump up ^ Bartels, Larry M (1991). "Constituency Opinion and Congressional Policy Making: The Reagan Defense Build Up". The American Political Science Review. 85 (2): 457–474. doi:10.2307/1963169.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Presidents: Ronald Reagan's Military Buildup, 1981-1989". U-S-History.com. Retrieved March 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Drama over funding keeps arts community on the edge of its seat". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "NEAChronWeb.pdf" (PDF). Arts.gov. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ McLellan, Joseph (September 26, 1985). "NEA: The First 20 Years; Looking Back On the Up-and-Down Union of Government and Art". Washington Post. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Koch, Cynthia (Fall 1998). "The Contest for American Culture: A Leadership Case Study on The NEA and NEH Funding Crisis". Public Talk: The Online Journal of Discourse Leadership. 1 (2). Retrieved July 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform -- A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education, United States Department of Education, by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, April 1983 (Government Printing Office, 65 pages)
Jump up ^ THE PUBLIC PAPERS OF PRESIDENT RONALD W. REAGAN: "Remarks on Receiving the Final Report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education, April 26, 1983"
Jump up ^ March 12, 1983; April 30, 1983; June 25, 1983; May 12, 1984; September 8, 1984; August 24, 1985; September 10, 1988
Jump up ^ James Madison Elementary School: A Curriculum For American Students, 62 pages, GPO
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Jump up ^ "NIDA InfoFacts: High School and Youth Trends". National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
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Jump up ^ "Interview: Dr. Herbert Kleber". PBS. Retrieved June 12, 2007. The politics of the Reagan years and the Bush years probably made it somewhat harder to get treatment expanded, but at the same time, it probably had a good effect in terms of decreasing initiation and use. For example, marijuana went from thirty-three percent of high-school seniors in 1980 to twelve percent in 1991.
^ Jump up to: a b Bachman, Gerald G.; et al. "The Decline of Substance Use in Young Adulthood". The Regents of the University of Michigan. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Thirty Years of America's Drug War". PBS. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ "The Reagan-Era Drug War Legacy". stopthedrugwar.org. June 11, 2004. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Sandra Day O'Connor". Supreme Court Historical Society. March 2, 2000. Archived from the original on December 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ Reston, James (July 5, 1987). "Washington; Kennedy And Bork". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Miranda, Manuel (August 24, 2005). "The Original Borking". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ Gail Russell Chaddock (July 7, 2005). "Court nominees will trigger rapid response". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved August 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda. (October 24, 1987). "Bork's Nomination Is Rejected, 58-42; Reagan 'Saddened'". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Anthony M. Kennedy". Supreme Court Historical Society. March 2, 2000. Archived from the original on November 3, 2007.
Jump up ^ White, Allen (8 June 2004). "Reagan's AIDS Legacy / Silence equals death". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Transcript of Reagan Speech in Against The Odds: Making a difference in global heath". National Institutes of Health. 2000. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
Jump up ^ "October 10, 2005". Thenation.com. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rosett, ed. by Raymond A. Smith. Forewords by James W. Curran ... Photo ed. Jane (1998). Encyclopedia of AIDS : a social, political, cultural, and scientific record of the HIV epidemic. Chicago [u.a.]: Fitzroy-Dearborn-Publ. p. 598. ISBN 1-57958-007-6. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "New Myths on Reagan's Record". Media Research Center. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Reagan and AIDS: A Reassessment - IGF Culture Watch". IGF Culture Watch. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Against The Odds:Making a Difference in Global Health". Apps.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved January 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Scheer, Robert (2006). Playing President: My Close Ecounters with Nixon, Carter, Bush I, Reagan, and Clinton--and How They Did Not Prepare Me for George W. Bush. Akashic Books. p. 154. ISBN 978-1-933354-01-9.
Jump up ^ "Reagan, the South and Civil Rights". NPR.
Jump up ^ "Ronald Reagan on Civil Rights". OnTheIssues.org.
Jump up ^ Juan, WIlliams. "Reagan, the South and Civil Rights". NPR. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
Further sources[edit]
Appleby, Joyce; Alan Brinkley; James M. McPherson (2003). The American Journey. Woodland Hills, California: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-824129-4.
Boskin, Michael J. (1987). Reagan and the US Economy: The Successes, Failures, and Unfinished Agenda. ICEG.
Cannon, Lou; Michael Beschloss (2001). Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-891620-84-3.
Niskanen, William A. (1988). Reaganomics: An Insider's Account of the Policies and the People. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Shilts, Randy (2005). Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the U.S. Military. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-34264-0.
Wojciech, Bienkowski; Brada, Josef C.; Radlo, Mariusz-Jan, eds. (2006). Reaganomics Goes Global: What Can the EU, Russia and Transition Countries Learn from the USA?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-9941-2.
External links[edit]
Supply Side Economics: Do Tax Rate Cuts Increase Growth and Revenues and Reduce Budget Deficits ? Or Is It Voodoo Economics All Over Again? by economist Nouriel Roubini
The History of Government Economic Policy in Britain, USA & the World, including Maynard Keynes and Friedrich von Hayek ideas.
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List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League finals
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League finals
European Cup/Champions League trophy
Founded
1955
Region
Europe (UEFA)
Number of teams
32 (group stage)
2 (finalists)
Current champions
Real Madrid (13th title)
Most successful club(s)
Real Madrid (13 titles)
2017–18 UEFA Champions League
The UEFA Champions League is a seasonal football competition established in 1955.[1] The UEFA Champions League is open to the league champions of all UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) member associations (except Liechtenstein, which has no league competition), as well as to the clubs finishing from second to fourth position in the strongest leagues.[2] Prior to the 1992–93 season, the tournament was named the European Cup.[1] Originally, only the champions of their respective national league and the defending champion of the competition were allowed to participate. However, this was changed in 1997 to allow the runners-up of the stronger leagues to compete as well.[3] In the Champions League era, the defending champion of the competition did not automatically qualify until the rules were changed in 2005 to allow title holders Liverpool to enter the competition.[4]
Teams that have won the UEFA Champions League three times in a row, or five times overall, receive a multiple-winner badge.[5] Six teams have earned this privilege: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan, Liverpool and Barcelona.[6] Until 2009, clubs that had earned that badge were allowed to keep the European Champion Clubs' Cup and a new one was commissioned;[7] since 2009, the winning team each year has received a full-size replica of the trophy, while the original is retained by UEFA.[8]
A total of 22 clubs have won the Champions League/European Cup. Real Madrid hold the record for the most victories, having won the competition 13 times, including the inaugural competition. They have also won the competition the most times in a row, winning it five times from 1956 to 1960. Juventus have been runners-up the most times, losing seven finals. Atlético Madrid is the only team to reach three finals without having won the trophy while Reims and Valencia have finished as runners-up twice without winning. Spain has provided the most champions, with 18 wins from two clubs.[9] Italy have produced 12 winners from three clubs and England have produced 12 winners from five clubs. English teams were banned from the competition for five years following the Heysel disaster in 1985.[10] The current champions are Real Madrid, who beat Liverpool in the 2018 final.
Contents
1 List of finals
2 Performances
2.1 By club
2.2 By nation
3 Venues
4 Notes
5 References
List of finals[edit]
Key
Match was won during extra time
* Match was won on a penalty shoot-out
& Match was won after a replay
The "Season" column refers to the season the competition was held, and wikilinks to the article about that season.
The wikilinks in the "Score" column point to the article about that season's final game.
List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League finals
#
Season
Nation
Winners
Score
Runners-up
Nation
Venue
Att.[11]
1
1955–56
Spain Real Madrid 4–3 Reims France Parc des Princes, Paris 38,239
2
1956–57
Spain Real Madrid 2–0 Fiorentina Italy Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid 124,000
3
1957–58
Spain Real Madrid 3–2 Milan Italy Heysel Stadium, Brussels 67,000
4
1958–59
Spain Real Madrid 2–0 Reims France Neckarstadion, Stuttgart 72,000
5
1959–60
Spain Real Madrid 7–3 Eintracht Frankfurt West Germany Hampden Park, Glasgow 127,621
6
1960–61
Portugal Benfica 3–2 Barcelona Spain Wankdorf Stadium, Bern 26,732
7
1961–62
Portugal Benfica 5–3 Real Madrid Spain Olympisch Stadion, Amsterdam 61,257
8
1962–63
Italy Milan 2–1 Benfica Portugal Wembley Stadium, London 45,715
9
1963–64
Italy Internazionale 3–1 Real Madrid Spain Prater Stadium, Vienna 71,333
10
1964–65
Italy Internazionale 1–0 Benfica Portugal San Siro, Milan 89,000
11
1965–66
Spain Real Madrid 2–1 Partizan Yugoslavia Heysel Stadium, Brussels 46,745
12
1966–67
Scotland Celtic 2–1 Internazionale Italy Estádio Nacional, Lisbon 45,000
13
1967–68
England Manchester United 4–1 Benfica Portugal Wembley Stadium, London 92,225
14
1968–69
Italy Milan 4–1 Ajax Netherlands Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid 31,782
15
1969–70
Netherlands Feyenoord 2–1 Celtic Scotland San Siro, Milan 53,187
16
1970–71
Netherlands Ajax 2–0 Panathinaikos Greece Wembley Stadium, London 83,179
17
1971–72
Netherlands Ajax 2–0 Internazionale Italy De Kuip, Rotterdam 61,354
18
1972–73
Netherlands Ajax 1–0 Juventus Italy Red Star Stadium, Belgrade 89,484
19
1973–74
West Germany Bayern Munich 4–0&[A] Atlético Madrid Spain Heysel Stadium, Brussels 72,047
20
1974–75
West Germany Bayern Munich 2–0 Leeds United England Parc des Princes, Paris 48,374
21
1975–76
West Germany Bayern Munich 1–0 Saint-Étienne France Hampden Park, Glasgow 54,864
22
1976–77
England Liverpool 3–1 Borussia Mönchengladbach West Germany Stadio Olimpico, Rome 57,000
23
1977–78
England Liverpool 1–0 Club Brugge Belgium Wembley Stadium, London 92,500
24
1978–79
England Nottingham Forest 1–0 Malmö FF Sweden Olympiastadion, Munich 57,500
25
1979–80
England Nottingham Forest 1–0 Hamburg West Germany Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid 51,000
26
1980–81
England Liverpool 1–0 Real Madrid Spain Parc des Princes, Paris 48,360
27
1981–82
England Aston Villa 1–0 Bayern Munich West Germany De Kuip, Rotterdam 46,000
28
1982–83
West Germany Hamburg 1–0 Juventus Italy Olympic Stadium, Athens 73,500
29
1983–84
England Liverpool 1–1*[B] Roma Italy Stadio Olimpico, Rome 69,693
30
1984–85
Italy Juventus 1–0 Liverpool England Heysel Stadium, Brussels 58,000
31
1985–86
Romania Steaua București 0–0*[C] Barcelona Spain Estadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, Seville 70,000
32
1986–87
Portugal Porto 2–1 Bayern Munich West Germany Prater Stadium, Vienna 57,500
33
1987–88
Netherlands PSV Eindhoven 0–0*[D] Benfica Portugal Neckarstadion, Stuttgart 68,000
34
1988–89
Italy Milan 4–0 Steaua București Romania Camp Nou, Barcelona 97,000
35
1989–90
Italy Milan 1–0 Benfica Portugal Prater Stadium, Vienna 57,558
36
1990–91
Yugoslavia Red Star Belgrade 0–0*[E] Marseille France Stadio San Nicola, Bari 56,000
37
1991–92
Spain Barcelona 1–0 Sampdoria Italy Wembley Stadium, London 70,827
38
1992–93
France Marseille 1–0 Milan Italy Olympiastadion, Munich 64,400
39
1993–94
Italy Milan 4–0 Barcelona Spain Olympic Stadium, Athens 70,000
40
1994–95
Netherlands Ajax 1–0 Milan Italy Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna 49,730
41
1995–96
Italy Juventus 1–1*[F] Ajax Netherlands Stadio Olimpico, Rome 70,000
42
1996–97
Germany Borussia Dortmund 3–1 Juventus Italy Olympiastadion, Munich 59,000
43
1997–98
Spain Real Madrid 1–0 Juventus Italy Amsterdam Arena, Amsterdam 48,500
44
1998–99
England Manchester United 2–1 Bayern Munich Germany Camp Nou, Barcelona 90,245
45
1999–00
Spain Real Madrid 3–0 Valencia Spain Stade de France, Saint-Denis 80,000
46
2000–01
Germany Bayern Munich 1–1*[G] Valencia Spain San Siro, Milan 71,500
47
2001–02
Spain Real Madrid 2–1 Bayer Leverkusen Germany Hampden Park, Glasgow 50,499
48
2002–03
Italy Milan 0–0*[H] Juventus Italy Old Trafford, Manchester 62,315
49
2003–04
Portugal Porto 3–0 Monaco France Arena AufSchalke, Gelsenkirchen 53,053
50
2004–05
England Liverpool 3–3*[I] Milan Italy Atatürk Olympic Stadium, Istanbul 69,000
51
2005–06
Spain Barcelona 2–1 Arsenal England Stade de France, Saint-Denis 79,610
52
2006–07
Italy Milan 2–1 Liverpool England Olympic Stadium, Athens 63,000
53
2007–08
England Manchester United 1–1*[J] Chelsea England Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow 67,310
54
2008–09
Spain Barcelona 2–0 Manchester United England Stadio Olimpico, Rome 62,467
55
2009–10
Italy Internazionale 2–0 Bayern Munich Germany Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid 73,490
56
2010–11
Spain Barcelona 3–1 Manchester United England Wembley Stadium, London 87,695
57
2011–12
England Chelsea 1–1*[K] Bayern Munich Germany Allianz Arena, Munich 62,500
58
2012–13
Germany Bayern Munich 2–1 Borussia Dortmund Germany Wembley Stadium, London 86,298
59
2013–14
Spain Real Madrid 4–1 Atlético Madrid Spain Estádio da Luz, Lisbon 60,976
60
2014–15
Spain Barcelona 3–1 Juventus Italy Olympiastadion, Berlin 70,442
61
2015–16
Spain Real Madrid 1–1*[L] Atlético Madrid Spain San Siro, Milan 71,942
62
2016–17
Spain Real Madrid 4–1 Juventus Italy Millennium Stadium, Cardiff 65,842
63
2017–18
Spain Real Madrid 3–1 Liverpool England NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium, Kiev 61,561
Upcoming finals
#
Season
Nation
Finalist
Match
Finalist
Nation
Venue
64
2018–19
v Wanda Metropolitano, Madrid
65
2019–20
v Atatürk Olympic Stadium, Istanbul
Performances[edit]
See also: European Cup and UEFA Champions League records and statistics § General performances
By club[edit]
Performance in the European Cup and UEFA Champions League by club
v
t
e
Club
Winners
Runners-up
Years won
Years runner-up
Real Madrid
13 3 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1966, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018 1962, 1964, 1981
Milan
7 4 1963, 1969, 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003, 2007 1958, 1993, 1995, 2005
Bayern Munich
5 5 1974, 1975, 1976, 2001, 2013 1982, 1987, 1999, 2010, 2012
Liverpool
5 3 1977, 1978, 1981, 1984, 2005 1985, 2007, 2018
Barcelona
5 3 1992, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2015 1961, 1986, 1994
Ajax
4 2 1971, 1972, 1973, 1995 1969, 1996
Manchester United
3 2 1968, 1999, 2008 2009, 2011
Internazionale
3 2 1964, 1965, 2010 1967, 1972
Juventus
2 7 1985, 1996 1973, 1983, 1997, 1998, 2003, 2015, 2017
Benfica
2 5 1961, 1962 1963, 1965, 1968, 1988, 1990
Nottingham Forest
2 0 1979, 1980 —
Porto
2 0 1987, 2004 —
Celtic
1 1 1967 1970
Hamburg
1 1 1983 1980
Steaua București
1 1 1986 1989
Marseille
1 1 1993 1991
Borussia Dortmund
1 1 1997 2013
Chelsea
1 1 2012 2008
Feyenoord
1 0 1970 —
Aston Villa
1 0 1982 —
PSV Eindhoven
1 0 1988 —
Red Star Belgrade
1 0 1991 —
Atlético Madrid
0 3 — 1974, 2014, 2016
Reims
0 2 — 1956, 1959
Valencia
0 2 — 2000, 2001
Fiorentina
0 1 — 1957
Eintracht Frankfurt
0 1 — 1960
Partizan
0 1 — 1966
Panathinaikos
0 1 — 1971
Leeds United
0 1 — 1975
Saint-Étienne
0 1 — 1976
Borussia Mönchengladbach
0 1 — 1977
Club Brugge
0 1 — 1978
Malmö FF
0 1 — 1979
Roma
0 1 — 1984
Sampdoria
0 1 — 1992
Bayer Leverkusen
0 1 — 2002
Monaco
0 1 — 2004
Arsenal
0 1 — 2006
By nation[edit]
Ten different nations have won the Champions League, and thirteen nations have sent a team to the finals. Since the 1996–97 season, however (other than Porto's win in 2003–04) the winners have come from one of only four nations — Spain (11), England (4), Italy (3), and Germany (3) — and (other than Monaco's performance in 2003–04) the runners up have all come from the same four nations.
Performance by nation
Nation
Winners
Runners-up
Spain
18 11
Italy
12 16
England
12 8
Germany
7 10
Netherlands
6 2
Portugal
4 5
France
1 5
Romania
1 1
Scotland
1 1
Yugoslavia
1 1
Belgium
0 1
Greece
0 1
Sweden
0 1
Venues[edit]
European Cup and UEFA Champions League final venues
Ground
Hosts
Years
Wembley Stadium, London 7 1963, 1968, 1971, 1978, 1992, 2011, 2013
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid 4 1957, 1969, 1980, 2010
Heysel Stadium, Brussels 4 1958, 1966, 1974, 1985
Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna 4 1964, 1987, 1990, 1995
San Siro, Milan 4 1965, 1970, 2001, 2016
Stadio Olimpico, Rome 4 1977, 1984, 1996, 2009
Parc des Princes, Paris 3 1956, 1975, 1981
Hampden Park, Glasgow 3 1960, 1976, 2002
Olympiastadion, Munich 3 1979, 1993, 1997
Olympic Stadium, Athens 3 1983, 1994, 2007
Neckarstadion, Stuttgart 2 1959, 1988
De Kuip, Rotterdam 2 1972, 1982
Camp Nou, Barcelona 2 1989, 1999
Stade de France, Saint-Denis 2 2000, 2006
Atatürk Olympic Stadium, Istanbul 1 2005
Wankdorf Stadium, Bern 1 1961
Olympisch Stadion, Amsterdam 1 1962
Estádio Nacional, Lisbon 1 1967
Red Star Stadium, Belgrade 1 1973
Estadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, Seville 1 1986
Stadio San Nicola, Bari 1 1991
Amsterdam Arena, Amsterdam 1 1998
Old Trafford, Manchester 1 2003
Arena AufSchalke, Gelsenkirchen 1 2004
Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow 1 2008
Allianz Arena, Munich 1 2012
Estádio da Luz, Lisbon 1 2014
Olympiastadion, Berlin 1 2015
Millennium Stadium, Cardiff 1 2017
NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium, Kiev 1 2018
Wanda Metropolitano, Madrid 1 2019
Notes[edit]
A. ^ The first final, played two days earlier, ended 1–1 after extra time.[12]
B. ^ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot-out 4–2.[13]
C. ^ Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Steaua București won the penalty shoot-out 2–0.[14]
D. ^ Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. PSV Eindhoven won the penalty shoot-out 6–5.[15]
E. ^ Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Red Star Belgrade won the penalty shoot-out 5–3.[16]
F. ^ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Juventus won the penalty shoot-out 4–2.[17]
G. ^ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Bayern Munich won the penalty shoot-out 5–4.[18]
H. ^ Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Milan won the penalty shoot-out 3–2.[19]
I. ^ Score was 3–3 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot-out 3–2.[20]
J. ^ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Manchester United won the penalty shoot-out 6–5.[21]
K. ^ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Chelsea won the penalty shoot-out 4–3.[22]
L. ^ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Real Madrid won the penalty shoot-out 5–3.[23]
References[edit]
General
"European Champions' Cup". Rec. Sport. Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF). 31 May 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
"European Champion Clubs' Cup – History" (PDF). UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. p. 64. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
Specific
^ Jump up to: a b "Football's top club competition". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Competition format". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 18 June 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "1997/98: Seventh heaven for Madrid". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 30 April 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Liverpool get in Champions League". BBC Sport. British Broadcasting Corporation. 10 June 2005. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "UEFA Champions League Museum" (PDF). UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. p. 10. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Vieli, André, ed. (October 2005). "A brand-new trophy" (PDF). UEFA Direct. Union of European Football Associations (42): 8. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Regulations of the UEFA Champions League 2007/08" (PDF). UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Regulations of the UEFA Champions' League 2009/10" (PDF). UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Haslam, Andrew (27 May 2009). "Spain savour European pre-eminence". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "1985: English teams banned after Heysel". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 31 May 1985. Retrieved 8 August 2006.
Jump up ^ "UEFA Champions League – Statistics Handbook 2012/13" (PDF). UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. p. 141. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "1973/74: Muller ends Bayern wait". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 15 May 1974. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "1983/84: Kennedy spot on for Liverpool". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 30 May 1984. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "1985/86: Steaua stun Barcelona". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 7 May 1986. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "1987/88: PSV prosper from Oranje boom". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 25 May 1988. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "1990/91: Crvena Zvezda spot on". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 29 May 1991. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "1995/96: Juve hold their nerve". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 22 May 1996. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "2000/01: Kahn saves day for Bayern". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 23 May 2001. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "2002/03: Shevchenko spot on for Milan". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 28 May 2003. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "2004/05: Liverpool belief defies Milan". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 25 May 2005. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "2007/08: Fate favours triumphant United". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 21 May 2008. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Shoot-out win ends Chelsea's long wait for glory". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 19 May 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Spot-on Real Madrid defeat Atlético in final again". UEFA.com. Union of European Football Associations. 28 May 2016. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
show
v
t
e
UEFA club competitions winners
Men's
Champions League
Cup Winners' Cup
Europa League
Intertoto Cup
Super Cup
Intercontinental Cup
Women's
Champions League
show
v
t
e
European Cup and UEFA Champions League winners
European Cup
1950s
1955–56: Real Madrid
1956–57: Real Madrid
1957–58: Real Madrid
1958–59: Real Madrid
1959–60: Real Madrid
1960s
1960–61: Benfica
1961–62: Benfica
1962–63: Milan
1963–64: Internazionale
1964–65: Internazionale
1965–66: Real Madrid
1966–67: Celtic
1967–68: Manchester United
1968–69: Milan
1969–70: Feyenoord
1970s
1970–71: Ajax
1971–72: Ajax
1972–73: Ajax
1973–74: Bayern Munich
1974–75: Bayern Munich
1975–76: Bayern Munich
1976–77: Liverpool
1977–78: Liverpool
1978–79: Nottingham Forest
1979–80: Nottingham Forest
1980s
1980–81: Liverpool
1981–82: Aston Villa
1982–83: Hamburg
1983–84: Liverpool
1984–85: Juventus
1985–86: Steaua București
1986–87: Porto
1987–88: PSV
1988–89: Milan
1989–90: Milan
1990s
1990–91: Red Star Belgrade
1991–92: Barcelona
UEFA Champions League
1990s
1992–93: Marseille
1993–94: Milan
1994–95: Ajax
1995–96: Juventus
1996–97: Borussia Dortmund
1997–98: Real Madrid
1998–99: Manchester United
1999–2000: Real Madrid
2000s
2000–01: Bayern Munich
2001–02: Real Madrid
2002–03: Milan
2003–04: Porto
2004–05: Liverpool
2005–06: Barcelona
2006–07: Milan
2007–08: Manchester United
2008–09: Barcelona
2009–10: Internazionale
2010s
2010–11: Barcelona
2011–12: Chelsea
2012–13: Bayern Munich
2013–14: Real Madrid
2014–15: Barcelona
2015–16: Real Madrid
2016–17: Real Madrid
2017–18: Real Madrid
Finals
Winning managers
Winning players
show
v
t
e
European Cup and UEFA Champions League Final venues
European Cup
Parc des Princes (1956)
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium (1957)
Heysel Stadium (1958)
Neckarstadion (1959)
Hampden Park (1960)
Wankdorf Stadium (1961)
Olympisch Stadion (1962)
Wembley Stadium (1963)
Prater Stadium (1964)
San Siro (1965)
Heysel Stadium (1966)
Estádio Nacional (1967)
Wembley Stadium (1968)
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium (1969)
San Siro (1970)
Wembley Stadium (1971)
De Kuip (1972)
Red Star Stadium (1973)
Heysel Stadium (1974)
Parc des Princes (1975)
Hampden Park (1976)
Stadio Olimpico (1977)
Wembley Stadium (1978)
Olympiastadion (Munich) (1979)
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium (1980)
Parc des Princes (1981)
De Kuip (1982)
Olympic Stadium (Athens) (1983)
Stadio Olimpico (1984)
Heysel Stadium (1985)
Estadio Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán (1986)
Prater Stadium (1987)
Neckarstadion (1988)
Camp Nou (1989)
Prater Stadium (1990)
Stadio San Nicola (1991)
Wembley Stadium (1992)
UEFA Champions League
Olympiastadion (Munich) (1993)
Olympic Stadium (Athens) (1994)
Ernst-Happel-Stadion (1995)
Stadio Olimpico (1996)
Olympiastadion (Munich) (1997)
Johan Cruyff Arena (1998)
Camp Nou (1999)
Stade de France (2000)
San Siro (2001)
Hampden Park (2002)
Old Trafford (2003)
Arena AufSchalke (2004)
Atatürk Olympic Stadium (2005)
Stade de France (2006)
Olympic Stadium (Athens) (2007)
Luzhniki Stadium (2008)
Stadio Olimpico (2009)
Santiago Bernabéu Stadium (2010)
Wembley Stadium (2011)
Allianz Arena (2012)
Wembley Stadium (2013)
Estádio da Luz (2014)
Olympiastadion (Berlin) (2015)
San Siro (2016)
Millennium Stadium (2017)
NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium (2018)
Wanda Metropolitano (2019)
Atatürk Olympic Stadium (2020)
show
v
t
e
European Cup and UEFA Champions League
European Cup era, 1955–1992
Seasons
1955–56
1956–57
1957–58
1958–59
1959–60
1960–61
1961–62
1962–63
1963–64
1964–65
1965–66
1966–67
1967–68
1968–69
1969–70
1970–71
1971–72
1972–73
1973–74
1974–75
1975–76
1976–77
1977–78
1978–79
1979–80
1980–81
1981–82
1982–83
1983–84
1984–85
1985–86
1986–87
1987–88
1988–89
1989–90
1990–91
1991–92
Finals
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
UEFA Champions League era, 1992–present
Seasons
1992–93
1993–94
1994–95
1995–96
1996–97
1997–98
1998–99
1999–2000
2000–01
2001–02
2002–03
2003–04
2004–05
2005–06
2006–07
2007–08
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
2012–13
2013–14
2014–15
2015–16
2016–17
2017–18
2018–19
2019–20
Finals
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
History
Finals
Winning managers
Winning players
Records and statistics
Top scorers
Hat-tricks
Appearances
Performance comparison
Anthem
Broadcasters
Video games
Trophy
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Stadion Crvena Zvezda

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Leeds United A.F.C.

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Olympic Stadium (Munich)

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Amsterdam Arena

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Club Brugge K.V.

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Olympisch Stadion (Amsterdam)

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