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Glycemic index
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The glycemic index or glycaemic index (GI) (/ɡlaɪˌsiːmɪkˈɪndɛks/)[1] is a number associated with the carbohydrates in a particular type of food that indicates the effect of these carbohydrates on a person's blood glucose (also called blood sugar) level. A value of 100 represents the standard, an equivalent amount of pure glucose.[2]
The GI represents the rise in a person's blood sugar level two hours after consumption of the food. The glycemic effects of foods depends on a number of factors, such as the type of carbohydrate, physical entrapment of the carbohydrate molecules within the food, fat and protein content of the food and organic acids or their salts in the meal. The GI is useful for understanding how the body breaks down carbohydrates[3] and takes into account only the available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber) in a food. Glycemic index does not predict an individual's glycemic response to a food, but can be used as a tool to assess the insulin response burden of a food, averaged across a studied population. Individual responses vary greatly.[4]
The glycemic index is usually applied in the context of the quantity of the food and the amount of carbohydrate in the food that is actually consumed. A related measure, the glycemic load (GL),[5] factors this in by multiplying the glycemic index of the food in question by the carbohydrate content of the actual serving. Watermelon has a high glycemic index, but a low glycemic load for the quantity typically consumed.[6] Fructose, by contrast, has a low glycemic index, but can have a high glycemic load if a large quantity is consumed.
GI tables are available that list many types of foods and their GIs. Some tables also include the serving size and the glycemic load of the food per serving.[3]
Graph describing the rise of blood sugar after meals.
A practical limitation of the glycemic index is that it does not measure insulin production due to rises in blood sugar. As a result, two foods could have the same glycemic index, but produce different amounts of insulin. Likewise, two foods could have the same glycemic load, but cause different insulin responses. Furthermore, both the glycemic index and glycemic load measurements are defined by the carbohydrate content of food. For example, when eating steak, which has no carbohydrate content but provides a high protein intake, up to 50% of that protein can be converted to glucose when there is little to no carbohydrate consumed with it.[7] But because it contains no carbohydrate itself, steak cannot have a glycemic index. For some food comparisons, the "insulin index" may be more useful.
Contents
[hide]
1 Accuracy
2 Determining the GI of a food
3 Classification
4 Weight control
5 Disease prevention
6 Other factors
7 Criticism and alternatives
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Accuracy[edit]
Glycemic index charts often give only one value per food, but variations are possible due to
ripeness (riper fruits contain more sugars increasing GI)
cooking methods (the more cooked, or over cooked, a food, the more its cellular structure is broken, with a tendency for it to digest quickly and raise GI more)
processing (e.g., flour has a higher GI than the whole grain from which it is ground as grinding breaks the grain's protective layers) and the length of storage. Potatoes are a notable example, ranging from moderate to very high GI even within the same variety.[8][9]
More importantly, the glycemic response is different from one person to another, and also in the same person from day to day, depending on blood glucose levels, insulin resistance, and other factors.[9] [4]
The glycemic index only indicates the impact on glucose level two hours after eating the food. People with diabetes have elevated levels for four hours or longer after eating certain foods.[9]
Determining the GI of a food[edit]
Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. The concept was developed by Dr. David J. Jenkins and colleagues[10] in 1980–1981 at the University of Toronto in their research to find out which foods were best for people with diabetes. A lower glycemic index suggests slower rates of digestion and absorption of the foods' carbohydrates and can also indicate greater extraction from the liver and periphery of the products of carbohydrate digestion. A lower glycemic response usually equates to a lower insulin demand but not always, and can improve long-term blood glucose control[11] and blood lipids. The insulin index is also useful for providing a direct measure of the insulin response to a food.
The glycemic index of a food is defined as the incremental area under the two-hour blood glucose response curve (AUC) following a 12-hour fast and ingestion of a food with a certain quantity of available carbohydrate (usually 50 g). The AUC of the test food is divided by the AUC of the standard (either glucose or white bread, giving two different definitions) and multiplied by 100. The average GI value is calculated from data collected in 10 human subjects. Both the standard and test food must contain an equal amount of available carbohydrate. The result gives a relative ranking for each tested food.[2][12]
The current validated methods use glucose as the reference food, giving it a glycemic index value of 100 by definition. This has the advantages of being universal and producing maximum GI values of approximately 100. White bread can also be used as a reference food, giving a different set of GI values (if white bread = 100, then glucose ≈ 140). For people whose staple carbohydrate source is white bread, this has the advantage of conveying directly whether replacement of the dietary staple with a different food would result in faster or slower blood glucose response. A disadvantage with this system is that the reference food is not well-defined, because there is no universal standard for the carbohydrate content of white bread.
Classification[edit]
GI values can be interpreted intuitively as percentages on an absolute scale and are commonly interpreted as follows:
Classification
GI range[13]
Examples[13]
Low GI 55 or less fructose; beans (black, pinto, kidney, lentil, peanut, chickpea); small seeds (sunflower, flax, pumpkin, poppy, sesame, hemp); walnuts, cashews, most whole intact grains (durum/spelt/kamut wheat, millet, oat, rye, rice, barley); most vegetables, most sweet fruits (peaches, strawberries, mangos); tagatose; mushrooms; chilis
Medium GI 56–69 white sugar or sucrose, not intact whole wheat or enriched wheat, pita bread, basmati rice, unpeeled boiled potato, grape juice, raisins, prunes, pumpernickel bread, cranberry juice,[14] regular ice cream, banana, sweet potato[15]
High GI 70 and above glucose (dextrose, grape sugar), high fructose corn syrup, white bread (only wheat endosperm), most white rice (only rice endosperm), corn flakes, extruded breakfast cereals, maltose, maltodextrins, white potato (83).
A low-GI food will release glucose more slowly and steadily, which leads to more suitable postprandial (after meal) blood glucose readings. A high-GI food causes a more rapid rise in blood glucose level and is suitable for energy recovery after exercise or for a person experiencing hypoglycemia.
The glycemic effect of foods depends on a number of factors, such as the type of starch (amylose versus amylopectin), physical entrapment of the starch molecules within the food, fat and protein content of the food and organic acids or their salts in the meal — adding vinegar, for example, will lower the GI.[16] The presence of fat or soluble dietary fiber can slow the gastric emptying rate, thus lowering the GI. In general, coarse, grainy breads with higher amounts of fiber have a lower GI value than white breads.[17] However, most breads made with 100% whole wheat or wholemeal flour have a GI not very different from endosperm only (white) bread.[18] Many brown breads are treated with enzymes to soften the crust, which makes the starch more accessible (high GI).
While adding fat or protein will lower the glycemic response to a meal, the relative differences remain. That is, with or without additions, there is still a higher blood glucose curve after a high-GI bread than after a low-GI bread such as pumpernickel.
Fruits and vegetables tend to have a low glycemic index. The glycemic index can be applied only to foods where the test relies on subjects consuming an amount of food containing 50 g of available carbohydrate.[citation needed] But many fruits and vegetables (not potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn) contain less than 50 g of available carbohydrate per typical serving. Carrots were originally and incorrectly reported as having a high GI.[19] Alcoholic beverages have been reported to have low GI values; however, beer was initially reported to have a moderate GI due to the presence of maltose. This has been refuted by brewing industry professionals, who say that all maltose sugar is consumed in the brewing process and that packaged beer has little to no maltose present. Recent studies have shown that the consumption of an alcoholic drink prior to a meal reduces the GI of the meal by approximately 15%.[20] Moderate alcohol consumption more than 12 hours prior to a test does not affect the GI.[21]
Many modern diets rely on the glycemic index, including the South Beach Diet, Transitions by Market America and NutriSystem Nourish Diet.[22] However, others have pointed out that foods generally considered to be unhealthy can have a low glycemic index, for instance, chocolate cake (GI 38), ice cream (37), or pure fructose (19), whereas foods like potatoes and rice have GIs around 100 but are commonly eaten in some countries with low rates of diabetes.[23][15]
Weight control[edit]
Dietary replacement of saturated fats by carbohydrates with a low glycemic index may be beneficial for weight control, whereas substitution with refined, high glycemic index carbohydrates is not.[24] A Cochrane review found that adoption of low glycemic index (or load) diets by people who are overweight or obese leads to more weight loss (and better fat control) than use of diets involving higher glycemic index/load or other strategies.[25] Benefits were apparent even with low glycemic index/load diets that allow people to eat as much as they like.[25] The authors of the review concluded that "Lowering the glycaemic load of the diet appears to be an effective method of promoting weight loss and improving lipid profiles and can be simply incorporated into a person's lifestyle."[25]
In clinical management of obesity, diets based on a low glycemic index/load appear to provide better glycemic and inflammatory control than ones based on a high glycemic index/load (and therefore could potentially be more effective in preventing obesity-related diseases).[26] In overweight and obese children, adoption of low glycemic index/load diets may not lead to weight loss but might potentially provide other benefits.[27]
Disease prevention[edit]
Several lines of recent [1999] scientific evidence have shown that individuals who followed a low-GI diet over many years were at a significantly lower risk for developing both type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and age-related macular degeneration than others.[28] High blood glucose levels or repeated glycemic "spikes" following a meal can promote these diseases by increasing systemic glycative stress, other oxidative stress to the vasculature, and also by the direct increase in insulin level.[29] The glycative stress sets up a vicious cycle of systemic protein glycation, compromised protein editing capacity involving the ubiquitin proteolytic pathway and autophagic pathways, leading to enhanced accumulation of glycated and other obsolete proteins.[30]
Postprandial hyperglycemia is a risk factor associated with diabetes. A 1998 study shows that it also presents an increased risk for atherosclerosis in the non-diabetic population[31] and that high GI diets,[32] high blood-sugar levels more generally,[33] and diabetes[34] are related to kidney disease as well.
Conversely, there are areas such as Peru and Asia where people eat high-glycemic index foods such as potatoes and high-GI rice without a high level of obesity or diabetes.[23] The high consumption of legumes in South America and fresh fruit and vegetables in Asia likely lowers the glycemic effect in these individuals.[citation needed] The mixing of high- and low-GI carbohydrates produces moderate GI values.[citation needed]
A study from the University of Sydney in Australia suggests that having a breakfast of white bread and sugar-rich cereals, over time, can make a person susceptible to diabetes, heart disease, and even cancer.[35]
A study published in 2007 in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that age-related adult macular degeneration (AMD), which leads to blindness, is 42% higher among people with a high-GI diet, and concluded that eating a lower-GI diet would eliminate 20% of AMD cases.[36]
The American Diabetes Association supports glycemic index but warns that the total amount of carbohydrate in the food is still the strongest and most important indicator, and that everyone should make their own custom method that works best for them.[37][38]
The International Life Sciences Institute concluded in 2011 that because there are many different ways of lowering glycemic response, not all of which have the same effects on health, "It is becoming evident that modifying the glycemic response of the diet should not be seen as a stand-alone strategy but rather as an element of an overall balanced diet and lifestyle."[39]
A systematic review of few human trials examined the potential of low GI diet to improve pregnancy outcomes. Potential benefits were still seen despite no ground breaking findings in maternal glycemia or pregnancy outcomes. In this regard, more women under low GI diet achieved the target treatment goal for the postprandial glycemic level and reduced their need for insulin treatment. A low GI diet can also provide greater benefits to overweight and obese women. Interestingly, intervention at an early stage of pregnancy has shown a tendency to lower birth weight and birth centile in infants born to women with GDM.[40]
Other factors[edit]
Depending on quantities, the number of grams of carbohydrate in a food can have a bigger impact on blood sugar levels than the glycemic index does. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level.[9] Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly,[41] and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar.[41] A food with a low glycemic index can have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL) where GL= GI% x grams of carbohydrate per serving (Louie JCY, et al., 2015]. Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.
Criticism and alternatives[edit]
While the glycemic index of foods is used as a guide to the rise in blood glucose that should follow meals containing those foods, actual increases in blood glucose show considerable variability from person to person, even after consumption of identical meals.[4] This is in part because glycemic index does not take into account other factors besides glycemic response, such as insulin response, which is measured by the insulin index and can be more appropriate in representing the effects from some food contents other than carbohydrates.[42] In particular, since it is based on the area under the curve of the glucose response over time from ingesting a subject food, the shape of the curve has no bearing on the corresponding GI value. The glucose response can rise to a high level and fall quickly, or rise less high but remain there for a longer time, and have the same area under the curve. For subjects with type 1 diabetes who do not have an insulin response, the rate of appearance of glucose after ingestion represents the absorption of the food itself. This glycemic response has been modeled,[43] where the model parameters for the food enable prediction of the continuous effect of the food over time on glucose values, and not merely the ultimate effect that the GI represents.
Although the glycemic index provides some insights into the relative diabetic risk within specific food groups, it contains many counter-intuitive ratings. These include suggestions that bread generally has a higher glycemic ranking than sugar and that some potatoes are more glycemic than glucose. More significantly, studies such as that by Bazzano et al.[44] demonstrate a significant beneficial diabetic effect for fruit compared to a substantial detrimental impact for fruit juice despite these having similar "low GI" ratings.
From blood glucose curves presented by Brand-Miller et al.[45] the main distinguishing feature between average fruit and fruit juice blood glucose curves is the maximum slope of the leading edge of 4.38 mmol·L−1·h−1 for fruit and 6.71 mmol·L−1·h−1 for fruit juice. This raises the concept that the rate of increase in blood glucose may be a significant determinant particularly when comparing liquids to solids which release carbohydrates over time and therefore have an inherently greater area under the blood glucose curve.
See also[edit]
Diabetic diet
Glycemic efficacy
Glycemic load
Insulin index
Low glycemic index diet
Montignac diet
Overall Nutritional Quality Index
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Kirpitch, A. R.; Maryniuk, M. D. (2011). "The 3 R's of Glycemic Index: Recommendations, Research, and the Real World". Clinical Diabetes. 29 (4): 155–159. doi:10.2337/diaclin.29.4.155. ISSN 0891-8929.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glycemic index.
Human Nutrition Unit; School of Molecular Bioscience. "Glycemic Index". international GI database. University of Sydney. External link in |work= (help) — Searchable database of over 2600 foods with their glycemic index and load values.
List of low GI foods — Provided by the University of Sydney with some additional foods.
Revised International Table of Glycemic Index (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL) Values—2008 Table of about 2500 food items with their glycemic index and load values.
Foster-Powell K, Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC (July 2002). "International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76 (1): 5–56. PMID 12081815. 750 items
Michel Montignac: Glycemic Index
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text:
Naming of chemical elements
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Chemical elements may be named from various sources: sometimes based on the person who discovered it, or the place it was discovered. Some have Latin or Greek roots deriving from something related to the element, for example some use to which it may have been put.
Contents
[hide]
1 Known elements
2 Etymology
2.1 People
2.2 Places on earth
2.3 Astronomical objects
2.4 Minerals
2.5 Temporary names
3 Chemical symbol
4 Naming controversies
5 Alternative forms of an element, names indicating molecular structure, and names of compounds
6 References
6.1 Bibliography
Known elements[edit]
As of January 2018[update] there are 118 known elements.[1]
[hide]
v
t
e
Periodic table
Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Pnictogens Chalcogens Halogens Noble gases
Period
1
Hydrogen1H Helium2He
2
Lithium3Li Beryllium4Be Boron5B Carbon6C Nitrogen7N Oxygen8O Fluorine9F Neon10Ne
3
Sodium11Na Magnesium12Mg Aluminium13Al Silicon14Si Phosphorus15P Sulfur16S Chlorine17Cl Argon18Ar
4
Potassium19K Calcium20Ca Scandium21Sc Titanium22Ti Vanadium23V Chromium24Cr Manganese25Mn Iron26Fe Cobalt27Co Nickel28Ni Copper29Cu Zinc30Zn Gallium31Ga Germanium32Ge Arsenic33As Selenium34Se Bromine35Br Krypton36Kr
5
Rubidium37Rb Strontium38Sr Yttrium39Y Zirconium40Zr Niobium41Nb Molybdenum42Mo Technetium43Tc Ruthenium44Ru Rhodium45Rh Palladium46Pd Silver47Ag Cadmium48Cd Indium49In Tin50Sn Antimony51Sb Tellurium52Te Iodine53I Xenon54Xe
6
Caesium55Cs Barium56Ba Lanthanum57La Hafnium72Hf Tantalum73Ta Tungsten74W Rhenium75Re Osmium76Os Iridium77Ir Platinum78Pt Gold79Au Mercury80Hg Thallium81Tl Lead82Pb Bismuth83Bi Polonium84Po Astatine85At Radon86Rn
7
Francium87Fr Radium88Ra Actinium89Ac Rutherfordium104Rf Dubnium105Db Seaborgium106Sg Bohrium107Bh Hassium108Hs Meitnerium109Mt Darmstadtium110Ds Roentgenium111Rg Copernicium112Cn Nihonium113Nh Flerovium114Fl Moscovium115Mc Livermorium116Lv Tennessine117Ts Oganesson118Og
Cerium58Ce Praseodymium59Pr Neodymium60Nd Promethium61Pm Samarium62Sm Europium63Eu Gadolinium64Gd Terbium65Tb Dysprosium66Dy Holmium67Ho Erbium68Er Thulium69Tm Ytterbium70Yb Lutetium71Lu
Thorium90Th Protactinium91Pa Uranium92U Neptunium93Np Plutonium94Pu Americium95Am Curium96Cm Berkelium97Bk Californium98Cf Einsteinium99Es Fermium100Fm Mendelevium101Md Nobelium102No Lawrencium103Lr
1 (red)=Gas 3 (black)=Solid 80 (green)=Liquid 109 (gray)=Unknown Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)
Primordial From decay Synthetic Border shows natural occurrence of the element
Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:
Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Unknown
chemical
properties
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas
Etymology[edit]
Main article: List of chemical element name etymologies
Element names can refer to:
a mythological concept or character (including an astronomical object),
a mineral or similar substance,
a place, or geographical region,
a property of the element, or
a scientist.
People[edit]
Main article: List of scientists whose names are used in chemical element names
Chemical elements are sometimes named after people, especially the synthetic elements discovered (created) after ca. 1940. However, very few are named after their discoverers, and even fewer are named after living people. The element seaborgium is named after Glenn Seaborg, who was alive at the time;[2] and oganesson is named after Yuri Oganessian (still living as of January 2018[update]).
Many of the transuranic elements are named after recipients of the Nobel Prize, including:
bohrium (Niels Bohr),
curium (Marie and Pierre Curie),
einsteinium (Albert Einstein),
fermium (Enrico Fermi),
lawrencium (Ernest Lawrence),
roentgenium (Wilhelm Röntgen),
rutherfordium (Ernest Rutherford),
and seaborgium (Glenn T. Seaborg).
Transuranic elements named in honour of scientists who did not receive the prize include:[3][4]
copernicium (Nicolaus Copernicus),
flerovium (Georgy Flyorov),
meitnerium (Lise Meitner),
mendelevium (Dmitri Mendeleev),
nobelium (Alfred Nobel),
and oganesson (Yuri Oganessian).
The non-transuranic element samarium is named after Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets,[5] and gadolinium is indirectly named (via the mineral gadolinite), after Johan Gadolin.[6][7]
Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who named the element gallium after his native land of France (from Latin Gallia meaning Gaul) denied that the element's naming was for a pun on his own name ("le coq" means "the rooster" in French, as does "gallus" in Latin).[8][9]
Places on earth[edit]
Main article: List of places used in the names of chemical elements
Some chemical elements are named after places on the planet earth.
Five are named after currently existing countries – polonium (named after Poland[10]), francium and gallium (named after France[11]), nihonium (named after Japan) and germanium (named after Germany).[12] Only gallium and germanium are stable and occur in more than trace amounts on Earth. Americium is named after the Americas, in analogy with europium being named after Europe.[13]
Other elements are named after modern states or cities, including berkelium, californium and tennessine named respectively after the American city of Berkeley and the states of California and Tennessee where they were discovered;[14] and dubnium and moscovium, similarly named after Russia's Dubna[15] and Moscow.
Several places in Scandinavia have elements named after them:
Yttrium, terbium, erbium, and ytterbium are all named for the Swedish village of Ytterby, where their ores were first found.[16]
Holmium is named after Holmia, Latin for the Swedish capital Stockholm.[17][16]
Scandium comes from the Latin word for Scandinavia.
Thulium is from the Ancient Greek word for the remote Arctic land that the Romans called Ultima Thule.[16][18]
A number of other elements are named after classical words for various places.
Ruthenium is from the Latin name for the region including Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia.[19]
Lutetium is named after Lutetia, the Latin name for Paris.
Hafnium is named for Hafnia, the Latin name for Copenhagen.[20][21]
Copper's name comes from an Old English word derived from the Latin name for the island of Cyprus.[22]
The names of both magnesium and manganese derive from the Greek region of Magnesia.[23]
Astronomical objects[edit]
The naming of elements from astronomical objects stems from the ancient association of metals with the various planets and their gods, as follows: mercury with the fast-moving planet Mercury; copper with the brilliant, beautiful planet Venus; iron with Mars (named for the Roman god of war); tin with Jupiter (named for the Roman king of the gods); and lead with the slow-moving planet Saturn (named for the ancient, slow god who was the father of Jupiter). The Sun and the Moon were associated with gold and silver, respectively.
A few other elements are directly named for astronomical bodies, including planets, dwarf planets, a few asteroids, our star, our planet, and our Moon. Uranium, neptunium, plutonium, cerium, and palladium were named after Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, Ceres, and Pallas respectively, which were at the time of their naming all considered to be planets. (Today, Pluto and Ceres are considered to be dwarf planets, and Pallas is considered to be an asteroid.)[24][25][26][27][28]
The name of the element selenium came from the Greek word for the Moon (Σελήνη, Selene). The name helium comes from the Greek word for the Sun (Ἢλιος, Helios). This is because the first evidence for helium was in distinctive, heretofore unknown spectroscopic lines from the Sun; these could not be explained by any of the known elements in the 1870s.[29]
Minerals[edit]
Many elements are named after the minerals in which they are found, e.g. calcium after Latin calx (lime), silicon is named after Latin silex (sand), sodium after soda and potassium after potash.[citation needed]
Temporary names[edit]
Main articles: Systematic element name and IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party
In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations for their systematic element names to be used for yet unnamed or undiscovered elements[30] as a placeholder, until the discovery of the element is confirmed and a permanent name is decided on. The recommendations are mostly ignored among scientists, who simply call these elements by their atomic number, for example "element 119" (instead of "ununennium"), with the symbol of (119) or even simply 119.[31]
Since 2002, the IUPAC Inorganic Chemistry Division has been the official body responsible with assigning official names to new elements, with the IUPAC Council making the final decision.[32]
Chemical symbol[edit]
Main article: Symbol (chemistry)
Once an element has been named, a one-, or two-letter symbol must be ascribed to it so it can be easily referred to in such contexts as the periodic table. The first letter is always capitalised. While the symbol is often a contraction of the element's name, it may sometimes not match the element's name when the symbol is based on non-English words; examples include "Pb" for lead (from plumbum in Latin) or "W" for tungsten (from Wolfram in German).
Naming controversies[edit]
Main article: List of chemical elements naming controversies
The naming of the synthetic elements dubnium and seaborgium generated a significant amount of controversy, referred to as the Transfermium Wars. The Americans wished to name element 105 hahnium, while the Russians preferred the name dubnium. The Americans also wished to name element 106 seaborgium. This naming dispute ran from the 1970s (when the elements were discovered) to the 1990s, when the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) created a tentative list of the element names for elements 104 to 109. The Americans, however, refused to agree with these names because seaborgium was not in the list. Thus, IUPAC reconsidered, and in 1996 named element 105 dubnium and element 106 seaborgium.[33]
Alternative forms of an element, names indicating molecular structure, and names of compounds[edit]
When a pure element, comprising only one type of atom, nevertheless exists in multiple forms (allotropes) with different structure and properties, they are generally given different names; for example graphite and diamond are both forms of the element carbon. Even for elements such as nitrogen having only one stable allotrope, a name such as dinitrogen may be used to indicate its molecular structure N2 as well as its elemental composition. The naming of chemical compounds comprising more than one element is a complex subject, discussed at length in the article on chemical nomenclature.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Kean, 129
Jump up ^ Gray, 230-231
Jump up ^ Kean, 273
Jump up ^ Emsley, 464
Jump up ^ Gray, 220-229
Jump up ^ Emsley, 188
Jump up ^ Kean, 55
Jump up ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XIII. Some elements predicted by Mendeleeff". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (9): 1605–1619. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1605W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1605.
Jump up ^ Emsley, 412
Jump up ^ Emsley, 185
Jump up ^ Emsley, 197
Jump up ^ Gray, 85
Jump up ^ Kean, 119
Jump up ^ Emsley, 157
^ Jump up to: a b c Kean, 62
Jump up ^ Emsley, 224
Jump up ^ Emsley, 468
Jump up ^ Emsley, 458
Jump up ^ Emsley, 299
Jump up ^ Emsley, 210
Jump up ^ Emsley, 145
Jump up ^ Emsley, 310
Jump up ^ Emsley, 405
Jump up ^ Emsley, 345
Jump up ^ Emsley, 594
Jump up ^ Emsley, 120
Jump up ^ Emsley, 475
Jump up ^ Gray, Theodore. The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe.
Jump up ^ Chatt, J. (1979). "Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic numbers greater than 100". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 51 (2): 381–384. doi:10.1351/pac197951020381.
Jump up ^ Haire, Richard G. (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 1-4020-3555-1.
Jump up ^ Koppenol, W. H. (2002). "Naming of new elements(IUPAC Recommendations 2002)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 74 (5). doi:10.1351/pac200274050787.
Jump up ^ Kean, 127-128
Bibliography[edit]
Theodore Gray (2009), The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc.
Sam Kean (2011), The Disappearing Spoon and Other True Tales of Madness, Love, and the History of the World From the Periodic Table of the Elements, Back Bay Books/Little Brown and Company
John Emsley (2011), Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements — New Edition, Oxford University Press
[show]
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values: Gallium: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Selenium: polyatomic nonmetal; primordial; solid

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values: Ruthenium: transition metal; primordial; solid

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values: Indium: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Tin: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Iodine: diatomic nonmetal; primordial; solid

values: Caesium: alkali metal; primordial; solid

values: Barium: alkaline earth metal; primordial; solid

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values: Tantalum: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Tungsten: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Rhenium: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Osmium: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Iridium: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Platinum: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Gold: transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Mercury: post-transition metal; primordial; liquid

values: Thallium: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Lead: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

values: Bismuth: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

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values: Rutherfordium: transition metal; synthetic; unknown phase

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values: Dubnium: transition metal; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Seaborgium: transition metal; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Bohrium: transition metal; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Hassium: transition metal; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Meitnerium: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

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values: Darmstadtium: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Roentgenium: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Copernicium: post-transition metal; synthetic; unknown phase

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values: Flerovium: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Moscovium: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Livermorium: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Tennessine: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Oganesson: unknown chemical properties; synthetic; unknown phase

values: Praseodymium: lanthanide; primordial; solid

values: Neodymium: lanthanide; primordial; solid

values: Promethium: lanthanide; from decay; solid

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values: Mendelevium: actinide; synthetic; unknown phase

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Purchasing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Purchase (disambiguation).
Look up purchase or purchasing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This article needs more links to other articles to help integrate it into the encyclopedia. Please help improve this article by adding links that are relevant to the context within the existing text. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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Purchasing refers to a business or organization attempting to acquire goods or services to accomplish its goals. Although there are several organizations that attempt to set standards in the purchasing process, processes can vary greatly between organizations. Typically the word “purchasing” is not used interchangeably with the word “procurement”, since procurement typically includes expediting, supplier quality, and transportation and logistics (T&L) in addition to purchasing.
Contents
1 Details
2 Purchasing topics
2.1 Acquisition process
2.2 Selection of bidders
2.3 Bidding process
2.4 Technical evaluation
2.5 Commercial evaluation
2.6 Negotiating
2.7 Post-award administration
2.8 Order closeout
3 See also
4 References
Details[edit]
Purchasing managers/directors, and procurement managers/directors guide the organization’s acquisition procedures and standards. Most organizations use a three-way check as the foundation of their purchasing programs[citation needed]. This involves three departments in the organization completing separate parts of the acquisition process. The three departments do not all report to the same senior manager, to prevent unethical practices and lend credibility to the process. These departments can be purchasing, receiving and accounts payable; or engineering, purchasing and accounts payable; or a plant manager, purchasing and accounts payable. Combinations can vary significantly, but a purchasing department and accounts payable are usually two of the three departments involved.
When the receiving department is not involved, it is typically called a two-way check or two-way purchase order. In this situation, the purchasing department issues the purchase order receipt not required. When an invoice arrives against the order, the accounts payable department will then go directly to the requestor of the purchase order to verify that the goods or services were received. This is typically what is done for goods and services that will bypass the receiving department. A few examples are software delivered electronically, NRE work (non-reoccurring engineering services), consulting hours, etc.
Historically, the purchasing department issued purchase for supplies, services, equipment, and raw materials. Then, in an effort to decrease the administrative costs associated with the repetitive ordering of basic consumable items, "blanket" or "master" agreements were put into place. These types of agreements typically have a longer duration and increased scope to maximize the quantities of scale concept. When additional supplies were required, a simple release would be issued to the supplier to provide the goods or services.
Another method of decreasing administrative costs associated with repetitive contracts for common material, is the use of company credit cards, also known as "Purchasing Cards" or simply "P-Cards". P-card programs vary, but all of them have internal checks and audits to ensure appropriate use. Purchasing managers realized once contracts for the low dollar value consumables are in place, procurement can take a smaller role in the operation and use of the contracts. There is still oversight in the forms of audits and monthly statement reviews, but most of their time is now available to negotiate major purchases and setting up of other long term contracts. These contracts are typically renewable annually.
This trend away from the daily procurement function (tactical purchasing) resulted in several changes in the industry. The first was the reduction of personnel. Purchasing departments were now smaller. There was no need for the army of clerks processing orders for individual parts as in the past. Another change was the focus on negotiating contracts and procurement of large capital equipment. Both of these functions permitted purchasing departments to make the biggest financial contribution to the organization. A new term and job title emerged – Strategic sourcing and Sourcing Managers. These professionals not only focused on the bidding process and negotiating with suppliers, but the entire supply function. In these roles they were able to add value and maximize savings for organizations. This value was manifested in lower inventories, less personnel, and getting the end product to the consumer quicker. Purchasing managers' success in these roles resulted in new assignments outside to the traditional purchasing function – logistics, materials management, distribution, and warehousing. More and more purchasing managers were becoming Supply Chain Managers handling additional functions of their organization's operation. Purchasing managers were not the only ones to become Supply Chain Managers. Logistic managers, material managers, distribution managers, etc. all rose to the broader function and some had responsibility for the purchasing functions now.
In accounting, purchases is the amount of goods a company bought throughout this year. It also refers to information as to the kind, quality, quantity, and cost of goods bought that should be maintained. They are added to inventory. Purchases are offset by Purchase Discounts and Purchase Returns and Allowances. When it should be added depends on the Free On Board (FOB) policy of the trade. For the purchaser, this new inventory is added on shipment if the policy was FOB shipping point, and the seller remove this item from its inventory. On the other hand, the purchaser added this inventory on receipt if the policy was FOB destination, and the seller remove this item from its inventory when it was delivered.
Goods bought for the purpose other than direct selling, such as for Research and Development, are added to inventory and allocated to Research and Development expense as they are used. On a side note, equipments bought for Research and Development are not added to inventory, but are capitalized as assets.
Purchasing topics[edit]
Acquisition process[edit]
The revised acquisition process for major systems in the U.S. Department of Defense is shown in the next figure. The process is defined by a series of phases during which technology is defined and matured into viable concepts, which are subsequently developed and readied for production, after which the systems produced are supported in the field.[1]
Model of the Acquisition Process.[1]
The process allows for a given system to enter the process at any of the development phases. For example, a system using unproven technology would enter at the beginning stages of the process and would proceed through a lengthy period of technology maturation, while a system based on mature and proven technologies might enter directly into engineering development or, conceivably, even production. The process itself includes four phases of development:[1]
Concept and Technology Development: is intended to explore alternative concepts based on assessments of operational needs, technology readiness, risk, and affordability.
Concept and Technology Development phase begins with concept exploration. During this stage, concept studies are undertaken to define alternative concepts and to provide information about capability and risk that would permit an objective comparison of competing concepts.
System Development and Demonstration phase. This phase could be entered directly as a result of a technological opportunity and urgent user need, as well as having come through concept and technology development.
The last, and longest, phase is the Sustainment and Disposal phase of the program. During this phase all necessary activities are accomplished to maintain and sustain the system in the field in the most cost-effective manner possible.
Selection of bidders[edit]
This is the process where the organization identifies potential suppliers for specified supplies, services or equipment. These suppliers' credentials and history are analyzed, with the products or services they offer. The bidder selection process varies from organization to organization, but can include running credit reports, interviewing management, testing products, and touring facilities. This process is not always done in order of importance, but rather in order of expense. Often purchasing managers research potential bidders obtaining information on the organizations and products from media sources and their own industry contacts. Additionally, purchasing might send Request for Information (RFI) to potential suppliers to help gather information. Engineering would also inspect sample products to determine if the company or organisation can produce products they need. If the bidder passes both of these stages engineering may decide to do some testing on the materials to further verify quality standards. These tests can be expensive and involve significant time of multiple technicians and engineers. Engineering management must make this decision based on the cost of the products they are likely to procure, the importance of the bidders’ product to production, and other factors. Credit checks, interviewing management, touring plants as well as other steps could all be utilized if engineering, manufacturing, and supply chain managers decide they could help their decision and the cost is justifiable.
Other organizations might have minority procurement goals to consider in selection of bidders. Organizations identify goals in the use of companies owned and operated by certain ethnicities or women owned business enterprises. Significant utilizing of minority suppliers may qualify the firm as a potential bidder for a contract with a company or governmental entity looking to increase their minority supplier programs.
This selection process can include or exclude international suppliers depending on organizational goals and criteria. Companies looking to increase their pacific rim supplier base may exclude suppliers from the Americas, Europe, and Australia. Other organizations may be looking to purchase domestically to ensure a quicker response to orders as well as easier collaboration on design and production.
Organizational goals will dictate the criteria for the selection process of bidders. It is also possible that the product or service being procured is so specialized that the number of bidders are limited and the criteria must be very wide to permit competition. If only one firm can meet the specifications for the product then the purchasing managers must consider utilizing a “Sole Source” option or work with engineering to broaden the specifications if the project will permit alteration in the specifications. The sole source option is the part of the selection of bidders that acknowledges there is sometimes only one reasonable supplier for some services or products. This can be because of the limited applications for the product cannot support more than one manufacturer, proximity of the service provided, or the products are newly designed or invented and competition is not yet available.
Bidding process[edit]
This is the process an organization utilizes to procure goods, services or equipment. Processes vary significantly from the stringent to the very informal. Large corporations and governmental entities are most likely to have stringent and formal processes. These processes can utilize specialized bid forms that require specific procedures and detail. The very stringent procedures require bids to be open by several staff from various departments to ensure fairness and impartiality. Responses are usually very detailed. Bidders not responding exactly as specified and following the published procedures can be disqualified. Smaller private businesses are more likely to have less formal procedures. Bids can be in the form of an email to all of the bidders specifying products or services. Responses by bidders can be detailed or just the proposed dollar amount.
Most bid processes are multi-tiered. Acquisitions under a specified dollar amount can be “user discretion” permitting the request or to choose who ever they want. This level can be as low as $100 or as high as $10,000 depending on the organization. The rationale is the savings realized by processing these request the same as expensive items is minimal and does not justify the time and expense. Purchasing departments watch for abuses of the user discretion privilege. Acquisitions in a mid range can be processed with a slightly more formal process. This process may involve the user providing quotes from three separate suppliers. Purchasing may be asked or required to obtain the quotes. The formal bid process starts as low as $10,000 or as high as $100,000 depending on the organization. The bid usually involves a specific form the bidder fills out and must be returned by a specified deadline. Depending of the commodity being purchased and the organization the bid may specify a weighted evaluation criterion. Other bids would be evaluated at the discretion of purchasing or the end users. Some bids could be evaluated by a cross-functional committee. Other bids may be evaluated by the end user or the buyer in Purchasing. Especially in small, private firms the bidders could be evaluated on criteria or factors that have little if anything to do with the actual bid. Examples of these factors are history of the bidder with the company, history of the bidder with the company’s senior management at other firms, and bidder’s breadth of products.
Technical evaluation[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2010)
Technical evaluations, evaluations of the technical suitability of the quoted goods or services, if required, are normally performed prior to the commercial evaluation. During this phase of the procurement process, a technical representative of the company (usually an engineer) will review the proposal and designate each bidder as either technically acceptable or technically unacceptable.
Technical evaluation is usually carried out against a set of pre-determined Technical Evaluation Criteria. There are two types of criteria, general criteria (whereby scores are given if they are met) and essential criteria (failing of which shall render the bid technically disqualified).
Commercial evaluation[edit]
Cost of Money is calculated by multiplying the applicable currency interest rate by the amount of money paid prior to the receipt of the Goods. If the money was to have remained in the buyer's account, interest would be drawn. That interest is essentially an additional cost associated with such Progress or Milestone payments.
The manufacturing location is taken into consideration during the evaluation stage primarily to calculate for freight costs and regional issues. For instance, it is common in Europe for factories to close during the month of August for a summer holiday. Labor agreements may also be taken into consideration and may be drawn into the evaluation if the particular region is known to have frequent labor disputes.
The manufacturing lead-time is the time from the placement of the order (or time final drawings are submitted by the Buyer to the Seller) until the goods are manufactured and prepared for delivery. Lead-times vary by commodity and can range from several days to years.
Transportation time is evaluated while comparing the delivery of goods to the Buyer's required use-date. If Goods are shipped from a remote port, with infrequent vessel transportation, the transportation time could exceed the schedule and adjustments would need to be made.
Delivery Charges - the charge for the Goods to be delivered to a stated point.
Bid Validity
Packing
Bid Adjustments
Terms and Conditions
Seller's Services
Standards Organizations
Financial Review
Payment Currency
Risk Analysis - market volatility, financial stress within the bidders
Testing
Negotiating[edit]
Negotiating is a key skillset in the Purchasing field. One of the goals of Purchasing Agents is to acquire goods per the most advantageous terms of the buying entity (or simply, the "Buyer"). Purchasing Agents typically attempt to decrease costs while meeting the Buyer's other requirements such as an on-time delivery, compliance to the commercial terms and conditions (including the warranty, the transfer of risk, assignment, auditing rights, confidentiality, remedies, etc.).
Good negotiators, those with high levels of documented "cost savings", receive a premium within the industry relative to their compensation. Depending on the employment agreement between the Purchasing Agent (Buyer) and the employer, Buyer's cost savings can result in the creation of value to the business, and may result in a flat-rate bonus, or a percentage payout to the Purchasing Agent of the documented cost savings.
Purchasing Departments, while they can be considered as a support function of the key business, are actually revenue generating departments. For example, if the company needs to buy $30 million USD of widgets and the Purchasing Department secures the widgets for $25M USD, the Purchasing Department would have saved the company $5M USD. That savings could exceed the annual budget of the department, which in effect would pay the department's overhead - the employee's salaries, computers, office space, etc.
Post-award administration[edit]
Post-award administration typically consists of making minor changes, additions or subtractions, that in some way change the terms of the agreement or the Seller's Scope of Supply. Such changes are often minor, but for auditing purposes must be documented into the existing agreement. Examples include increasing the quantity of a Line Item or changing the metallurgy of a particular component.
Order closeout[edit]
Is the closing of order.
See also[edit]
Ecoleasing
Purchasing process
Supply chain management
Logistics
Material requirements planning
Group purchasing organization
Tendering
Total cost of acquisition
Chartered Institute of Purchasing
Mergers and acquisitions
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Systems Engineering Fundamentals. Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Defense Acquisition University Press, 2001
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Purchasing&oldid=852493757"
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