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Earth's energy budget
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Earth's climate is largely determined by the planet's energy budget, i.e., the balance of incoming and outgoing radiation. It is measured by satellites and shown in W/m2.[1]
Earth's energy budget accounts for the balance between the energy Earth receives from the Sun,[2] the energy Earth radiates back into outer space after having been distributed throughout the five components of Earth's climate system and having thus powered the so-called Earth’s heat engine.[3] This system is made up of earth's water, ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things.[4]
Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth's climate.[5]
Play media
Incoming, top-of-atmosphere (TOA) shortwave flux radiation, shows energy received from the sun (Jan 26–27, 2012).
Play media
Outgoing, longwave flux radiation at the top-of-atmosphere (Jan 26–27, 2012). Heat energy radiated from Earth (in watts per square metre) is shown in shades of yellow, red, blue and white. The brightest-yellow areas are the hottest and are emitting the most energy out to space, while the dark blue areas and the bright white clouds are much colder, emitting the least energy.
Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation. Earth is very close to be (but not perfectly) in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be relatively stable. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 240 watts of solar power per square meter. Anything that increases or decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy will change global temperatures in response.[6]
However, Earth's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors, such as atmospheric composition (mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases), the albedo (reflectivity) of surface properties, cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns.
Changes in surface temperature due to Earth's energy budget do not occur instantaneously, due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response.[7]
Contents
1 Energy budget
1.1 Incoming radiant energy (shortwave)
1.2 Earth's internal heat and other small effects
1.3 Longwave radiation
2 Earth's energy imbalance
2.1 Indirect measurement
2.2 Direct measurement
3 Natural greenhouse effect
4 Climate sensitivity
4.1 Climate forcings and global warming
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Energy budget[edit]
A Sankey diagram illustrating the Earth's energy budget described in this section — line thickness is linearly proportional to relative amount of energy.[8]
In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation).
To quantify Earth's heat budget or heat balance, let the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere be 100 units (100 units=about 1,360 watts per square meter facing the sun), as shown in the accompanying illustration. Called the albedo of Earth, around 35 units are reflected back to space: 27 from the top of clouds, 2 from snow and ice-covered areas, and 6 by other parts of the atmosphere. The 65 remaining units are absorbed: 14 within the atmosphere and 51 by the Earth’s surface. These 51 units are radiated to space in the form of terrestrial radiation: 17 directly radiated to space and 34 absorbed by the atmosphere (19 through latent heat of condensation, 9 via convection and turbulence, and 6 directly absorbed). The 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (34 units from terrestrial radiation and 14 from insolation) are finally radiated back to space. These 65 units (17 from the ground and 48 from the atmosphere) balance the 65 units absorbed from the sun in order to maintain zero net gain of energy by the Earth.[8]
Incoming radiant energy (shortwave)[edit]
The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA) is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m².[1][9] Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements.[1]
Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget. This gives the earth a mean net albedo of 0.29.[1]
Earth's internal heat and other small effects[edit]
The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is estimated to be 47 terawatts.[10] This comes to 0.087 watt/square metre, which represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface, which is dominated by 173,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation.[11]
Human production of energy is even lower, at an estimated 18 TW[citation needed].
Photosynthesis has a larger effect: photosynthetic efficiency turns up to 2% of incoming sunlight into biomass, for a total photosynthetic productivity of earth between ~1500–2250 TW (~1%+/-0.26% solar energy hitting the Earth's surface).[12]
Other minor sources of energy are usually ignored in these calculations, including accretion of interplanetary dust and solar wind, light from stars other than the Sun and the thermal radiation from space. Earlier, Joseph Fourier had claimed that deep space radiation was significant in a paper often cited as the first on the greenhouse effect.[13]
Longwave radiation[edit]
Main article: Outgoing longwave radiation
Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/convection processes.[1] Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave infrared radiation back into space.
Recent satellite observations indicate additional precipitation, which is sustained by increased energy leaving the surface through evaporation (the latent heat flux), offsetting increases in longwave flux to the surface.[5]
Earth's energy imbalance[edit]
If the incoming energy flux is not equal to the outgoing energy flux, net heat is added to or lost by the planet (if the incoming flux is larger or smaller than the outgoing respectively).
Indirect measurement[edit]
An imbalance must show in something on Earth warming or cooling (depending on the direction of the imbalance), and the ocean being the larger thermal reservoir on Earth, is a prime candidate for measurements.
Earth's energy imbalance measurements provided by Argo floats have detected an accumulation of ocean heat content (OHC). The estimated imbalance was measured during a deep solar minimum of 2005-2010 to be 0.58 ± 0.15 W/m².[14] This level of detail cannot be inferred directly from measurements of surface energy fluxes, which have combined uncertainties of the order of ± 17 W/m².[15]
Direct measurement[edit]
Several satellites indirectly measure the energy absorbed and radiated by Earth and by inference the energy imbalance. The NASA Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) project involves three such satellites: the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), launched October 1984; NOAA-9, launched December 1984; and NOAA-10, launched September 1986.[16]
Today NASA's satellite instruments, provided by CERES, part of the NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS), are designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation.[17]
Natural greenhouse effect[edit]
Diagram showing the energy budget of Earth's atmosphere, which includes the greenhouse effect
See also: Greenhouse effect
The major atmospheric gases (oxygen and nitrogen) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (infrared) radiation. However, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and other trace gases are opaque to many wavelengths of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming solar energy in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by greenhouse gas molecules.[18]
Atmospheric gases only absorb some wavelengths of energy but are transparent to others. The absorption patterns of water vapor (blue peaks) and carbon dioxide (pink peaks) overlap in some wavelengths. Carbon dioxide is not as strong a greenhouse gas as water vapor, but it absorbs energy in wavelengths (12–15 micrometres) that water vapor does not, partially closing the "window" through which heat radiated by the surface would normally escape to space. (Illustration NASA, Robert Rohde)[19]
When greenhouse gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises. Those gases then radiate an increased amount of thermal infrared energy in all directions. Heat radiated upward continues to encounter greenhouse gas molecules; those molecules also absorb the heat, and their temperature rises and the amount of heat they radiate increases. The atmosphere thins with altitude, and at roughly 5–6 kilometres, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space.[18]
Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect.[18] It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.
Climate sensitivity[edit]
Main article: Radiative forcing
A change in the incident radiated portion of the energy budget is referred to as a radiative forcing.
Climate sensitivity is the steady state change in the equilibrium temperature as a result of changes in the energy budget.
Climate forcings and global warming[edit]
Expected Earth energy imbalance for three choices of aerosol climate forcing. Measured imbalance, close to 0.6 W/m², implies that aerosol forcing is close to −1.6 W/m². (Credit: NASA/GISS)[14]
Climate forcings are changes that cause temperatures to rise or fall, disrupting the energy balance. Natural climate forcings include changes in the Sun's brightness, Milankovitch cycles (small variations in the shape of Earth's orbit and its axis of rotation that occur over thousands of years) and volcanic eruptions that inject light-reflecting particles as high as the stratosphere. Man-made forcings include particle pollution (aerosols) that absorb and reflect incoming sunlight; deforestation, which changes how the surface reflects and absorbs sunlight; and the rising concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which decreases the rate at which heat is radiated to space.
A forcing can trigger feedbacks that intensify (positive feedback) or weaken (negative feedback) the original forcing. For example, loss of ice at the poles, which makes them less reflective, causes greater absorption of energy and so increases the rate at which the ice melts, is an example of a positive feedback.[19]
The observed planetary energy imbalance during the recent solar minimum shows that solar forcing of climate, although natural and significant, is overwhelmed by anthropogenic climate forcing.[20]
In 2012, NASA scientists reported that to stop global warming atmospheric CO2 content would have to be reduced to 350 ppm or less, assuming all other climate forcings were fixed. The impact of anthropogenic aerosols has not been quantified, but individual aerosol types are thought to have substantial heating and cooling effects.[14]
See also[edit]
Planetary equilibrium temperature
Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The NASA Earth's Energy Budget Poster". NASA.
Jump up ^ Earth's internal heat and other small effects, that are indeed taken into consideration, are thousand times smaller; see below
Jump up ^ IPCC AR5 WG1 Glossary 2013 "energy budget (of the earth)"
Jump up ^ AR4 SYR Synthesis Report Annexes. Ipcc.ch. Retrieved on 2011-06-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Graeme L. Stephens; Juilin Li; Martin Wild; Carol Anne Clayson; Norman Loeb; Seiji Kato; Tristan L'Ecuyer; Paul W. Stackhouse Jr; Matthew Lebsock & Timothy Andrews (September 23, 2012). "An update on Earth's energy balance in light of the latest global observations" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. Bibcode:2012NatGe...5..691S. doi:10.1038/NGEO1580.
Jump up ^ Lindsey, Rebecca (2009). "Climate and Earth's Energy Budget". NASA Earth Observatory.
Jump up ^ M, Previdi; et al. (2013). "Climate sensitivity in the Anthropocene". Royal Meteorological Society. Bibcode:2013QJRMS.139.1121P. doi:10.1002/qj.2165.
^ Jump up to: a b S M Reddy; S J Chary. University Botany II : (Gymnosperms, Plant Anatomy, Genetics, Ecology). New Age International. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
P D Sharma. Environmental Biology. Rastogi Publications. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
P D Sharma. Environmental Biology & Toxicology. Rastogi Publications. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Wild, Martin; Folini, Doris; Schär, Christoph; Loeb, Norman; Dutton, Ellsworth; König-Langlo, Gert (2013). The Earth's radiation balance and its representation in CMIP5 models. Copernicus. Bibcode:2013EGUGA..15.1286W.
Jump up ^ Davies, J. H., & Davies, D. R. (2010). Earth's surface heat flux. Solid Earth, 1(1), 5–24.
Jump up ^ Archer, D. (2012). Global Warming: Understanding the Forecast. ISBN 978-0-470-94341-0.
Jump up ^ Pisciotta JM, Zou Y, Baskakov IV (2010). "Light-Dependent Electrogenic Activity of Cyanobacteria". PLoS ONE. 5 (5): e10821. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...510821P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010821. PMC 2876029  . PMID 20520829.
Jump up ^ Connolley, William M. (18 May 2003). "William M. Connolley's page about Fourier 1827: MEMOIRE sur les temperatures du globe terrestre et des espaces planetaires". William M. Connolley. Retrieved 5 July 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c James Hansen; Makiko Sato; Pushker Kharecha; Karina von Schuckmann (January 2012). "Earth's Energy Imbalance". NASA.
Jump up ^ Stephens, Graeme L.; Li, Juilin; Wild, Martin; Clayson, Carol Anne; Loeb, Norman; Kato, Seiji; L'Ecuyer, Tristan; Stackhouse Jr., Paul W.; Lebsock, Matthew (2012-10-01). "An update on Earth's energy balance in light of the latest global observations". Nature Geoscience. 5 (10): 691–696. Bibcode:2012NatGe...5..691S. doi:10.1038/ngeo1580. ISSN 1752-0894.
Jump up ^ Effect of the Sun's Energy on the Ocean and Atmosphere (1997)
Jump up ^ B.A. Wielicki; et al. (1996). "Mission to Planet Earth: Role of Clouds and Radiation in Climate". Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 77 (5): 853–868. Bibcode:1996BAMS...77..853W. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0853:CATERE>2.0.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Edited quote from public-domain source: Lindsey, R. (January 14, 2009), The Atmosphere's Energy Budget (page 6), in: Climate and Earth's Energy Budget: Feature Articles, Earth Observatory, part of the EOS Project Science Office, located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
^ Jump up to: a b "NASA: Climate Forcings and Global Warming". January 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ "NASA GISS: Science Brief: Earth's Energy Imbalance". www.giss.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-10.
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Leigh-Allyn Baker
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Leigh-Allyn Baker
Baker at the premiere for Bad Hair Day, February 2015
Born
(1972-03-13) March 13, 1972 (age 46)[1][2]
Murray, Kentucky, U.S.[3]
Occupation
Actress, voice artist
Years active
1994–present
Agent
CESD Talent (voice-over)[4]
Spouse(s)
Keith Kauffman (m. 2004)
Children
2[2]
Leigh-Allyn Baker (born March 13, 1972) is an American actress and voice artist. She had recurring roles on Charmed and Will & Grace, and a starring role as the matriarch Amy Duncan on the Disney Channel sitcom Good Luck Charlie. She also provided the voice of Abby on the Nickelodeon animated series Back at the Barnyard.
Contents
[hide]
1 Career
2 Personal life
3 Filmography
3.1 Live-action filmography
3.1.1 Television
3.1.2 Feature films and television film
3.2 Voice-over filmography
3.2.1 Television
3.2.2 Video games
4 References
5 External links
Career[edit]
Baker has done voice work in video games for the Star Trek and X-Men and guest starred in television shows such as That '70s Show, Early Edition, Yes, Dear and among other series. She also starred in the short-lived 1996 sitcom The Last Frontier and voiced Lu Zhi in the 2010 game Age of Conan: Rise of the Godslayer.
Baker is also known to television audiences for her recurring roles as Hannah Webster in the first season of Charmed and as Ellen, the long-time friend of Grace Adler (Debra Messing) on Will & Grace, a role she played since the show began in 1998 through to its last season in 2006 (and again in 2018, in the show's revival). She is also known for providing the voice of Abby in the Nickelodeon animated series Back at the Barnyard.
In late 2008, Baker appeared on several episodes of Hannah Montana playing Mickey, a morning show host. She starred as Amy Duncan, the matriarch of the Duncan family on the Disney Channel original sitcom, Good Luck Charlie, which ran from 2010–2014.
Baker has also made an appearance, along with her co-star Mia Talerico, on the sketch comedy show, So Random!
In 2015, she starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie, Bad Hair Day, which she also produced. She plays Liz Morgan, a "down on her luck" cop who must get a priceless necklace by teaming up with high school senior, played by Laura Marano.[5][6] In an interview with Variety, Baker said, "I wanted to executive produce because I wanted to see what it was like to build and fulfill a vision from the ground up, and since this was Disney Channel's first movie with an adult lead, I wanted that role to be protected and I wanted the movie to have my creative stamp on it." She also liked that she got to work on the Disney movie because it taps into her family unit fanbase.[7] In 2016, she starred in the faith-based Christmas film, "Wish for Christmas".[8]
Personal life[edit]
Baker is married to an entertainment executive, Keith James Kauffman.[9] They have two sons, Griffin, born in 2009, and Baker James, born in 2012.[2]
Filmography[edit]
Live-action filmography[edit]
Television[edit]
List of live-action acting appearances in television series
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Ref
1996 Almost Perfect Gina Episode: "A Midseason Night's *** Comedy"
1996 The Last Frontier Joy Garfield Episodes: "Babes in Joyland", "Single White Pest"
1997 Fired Up Janet Episode: "Truth and Consequences"
1998–2006, 2017-present Will & Grace Ellen Recurring role
1998–1999 Charmed Hannah Webster Recurring role
1999 Family Law Laurie Carrigalo Episode: "Damages"
2000 Early Edition Kate O'Rourke Episode: "Luck o' the Irish"
2001 The Geena Davis Show Miss Susie Episode: "Car Wash"
2002 Yes, Dear Stacey Episode: "Johnny Ampleseed"
2003 That 70s Show Officer Debbie Episode: "Hey Hey What Can I Do?"
2005 Las Vegas Charlene Episode: "When You Got To Go, You Go To Go"
Boston Legal Frannie Huber Episode: "Tortured Souls"
2006 House Claire Episode: "Euphoria: Part 2"
The King of Queens Jessica Episode: "Affair Trade"
2007 In Case of Emergency Maureen Recurring role
My Name is Earl Nicole Moses Episode: "Harassed a Reporter" [10]
2008–2009 Hannah Montana Mickey 2 episodes
2008 12 Miles of Bad Road Marilyn Hartsong Main role
2010–2014 Good Luck Charlie Amy Duncan Main role
2011 So Random! Herself Episode: "Leigh Allyn Baker and Mia Talerico"
2014 Dog with a Blog Cheri Episode: "Who's Training Who?"
2017 Battle of the Network Stars Herself 1 episode
Feature films and television film[edit]
List of appearances and roles in feature films
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1994 Shrunken Heads Mitzi
1995 Leprechaun 3 Waitress
1997 Inner Shadow Gaika
Swing Blade Lauranne
Breast Men Implant Removal Patient
1999 A Wake in Providence Connie
2000 Very Mean Men Mary
2004 The Crux Woman Hanging from the Rope Short film
2011 Good Luck Charlie, It's Christmas! Amy Duncan Disney Channel Original Movie
000000002015-02-13-00002015 Bad Hair Day Liz Morgan Disney Channel Original Movie; also executive producer [11]
2016 Little Savages Jackie
2016 Wish for Christmas Elizabeth MecLaren
2017 Take Two for Faith Vanessa
Voice-over filmography[edit]
Television[edit]
List of voice performances in television series and specials
Year
Title
Role
Notes
Ref
2006 American Dad! Margie Episode: "It's Good to Be the Queen"
2007–2011 Back at the Barnyard Abby, Etta, others
2011 The Penguins of Madagascar Bella Bon Bueno, Woman Episode: "Whispers and Coups/Brush with Danger"
2011–2016 Jake and the Never Land Pirates Queen Coralie
2014–2016 7D, TheThe 7D Queen Delightful, Snazzy Shazam [12][13]
Video games[edit]
List of voice performances in video games
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2000 Star Trek: Voyager – Elite Force Crewman Juliet Jurot
2002 Command & Conquer: Renegade Dr. Sydney Mobius
2003 Star Trek: Elite Force II Ensign Juliet Jurot
Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly Miyako Sudo and others
2004 X-Men Legends Jean Grey
EverQuest II Merchant and others
2005 X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse Jean Grey
Law & Order: Criminal Intent Laura Douglas/Caroline Higgins/Hanna Pritchard/Suzanne Stokes/Andrea Warren
2006 Agatha Christie: Murder on the Orient Express Countess Andrenyi and Mary Debenham
2007 God of War II Lahkesis
Mass Effect Additional voices
2008 The Hardy Boys: The Hidden Theft Laura Hardy
000000002008-11-07-00002008 Gears of War 2 KR Pilot #2, COG Medic #1, Centaur Driver #1 [14]
2009 G.I. Joe: The Rise of the Cobra Scarlett
Halo Wars Additional voices
2011 Star Wars: The Old Republic Additional voices
2012 The Secret World Madame Rogêt, additional voices
2013 Lightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII Additional voices[15]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Leigh-Allyn Baker [@L_A_Baker] (March 13, 2015). "Baker thanks Disney Channel's tweet wishing her a Happy Birthday" (Tweet). Retrieved March 17, 2015 – via Twitter.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Leigh-Allyn Baker Welcomes Son Baker James – Moms & Babies – Moms & Babies - People.com". Celebritybabies.people.com. 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2013-03-24.
Jump up ^ "Disney Channel Bios – Leigh-Allyn Baker". Disneyabcpress.com. Retrieved March 17, 2015. Born and raised in Murray, Kentucky
Jump up ^ Leigh-Allyn Baker [@L_A_Baker] (July 29, 2015). "She's been my friend and voice over agent for over 20 years! I love you @CatheyLizzio @CESDTalent" (Tweet). Retrieved August 3, 2015 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Wagmeister. "[WATCH] 'Bad Hair Day': Laura Marano's First Disney Channel Original Movie — Clip – Variety". Variety. Retrieved March 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Variety Staff. "'Bad Hair Day': Laura Marano, Leigh-Allyn Baker to Star in Disney Channel Original Movie". Variety. Retrieved March 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Wagmeister, Elizabeth (2015-02-02). "Laura Marano & Leigh-Allyn Baker Preview Disney Movie 'Bad Hair Day' (Exclusive Clip)". Variety.
Jump up ^ Klett, Leah Marieann. "Good Luck Charlie' Actress Leigh-Allyn Baker on Heartwarming New PureFlix Film 'Wish for Christmas' (Interview)". www.gospelherald.com. The Gospel Herald. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Tracked, Mommy. (2010-04-16) "Interview with Leigh-Allyn Baker. Shine.yahoo.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-29.
Jump up ^ http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/harassed-a-reporter-episode-19-aired-4-12-07-pictured-leigh-news-photo/138459965?#harassed-a-reporter-episode-19-aired-41207-pictured-leigh-allyn-baker-picture-id138459965
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara. "Original Movie 'Bad Hair Day' Starring Laura Marano & Leigh-Allyn Baker to Premiere Friday, February 13 on Disney Channel". TV by the Numbers (Press release). Retrieved January 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "'The 7D' Report for July 7 Disney XD Premiere". Animation Magazine. April 25, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
DisneyChannelPR (April 3, 2014). "Kelly Osbourne joins the cast of Disney's The 7D, a contemporary, comedic take on the seven dwarfs, premiering this summer" (Press release). Archived from the original on December 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Cat on a Hot Grim Roof". The 7D. Episode 17b.
Jump up ^ "Gears of War 2 Credits". Microsoft Game Studios. Retrieved 2014-09-03.
Jump up ^ Square Enix. Lightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII. Scene: Closing credits, 5 minutes in, Voice Actors, Additional Voices.
External links[edit]
Leigh-Allyn Baker on Twitter
Leigh-Allyn Baker on IMDb
"Somewhere in Vegas" audio interview (September 29, 2008)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
LCCN: no2015013030
VIAF: 313502588
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leigh-Allyn_Baker&oldid=835274515"
Categories:
1972 births
Actresses from Kentucky
American film actresses
American television actresses
American video game actresses
American voice actresses
Living people
People from Murray, Kentucky
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
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Gram-negative bacteria
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Microscopic image of gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria (pink-red rods)
Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the gram-staining method of bacterial differentiation.[1] They are characterized by their cell envelopes, which are composed of a thin peptidoglycan cell wall sandwiched between an inner cytoplasmic cell membrane and a bacterial outer membrane.
Gram-negative bacteria are found everywhere, in virtually all environments on Earth that support life. The gram-negative bacteria include the model organism Escherichia coli, as well as many pathogenic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Yersinia pestis. They are an important medical challenge, as their outer membrane protects them from many antibiotics (including penicillin); detergents that would normally damage the peptidoglycans of the (inner) cell membrane; and lysozyme, an antimicrobial enzyme produced by animals that forms part of the innate immune system. Additionally, the outer leaflet of this membrane comprises a complex lipopolysaccharide (LPS) whose lipid A component can cause a toxic reaction when these bacteria are lysed by immune cells. This toxic reaction can include fever, an increased respiratory rate, and low blood pressure — a life-threatening condition known as septic shock.[2]
Several classes of antibiotics have been designed to target gram-negative bacteria, including aminopenicillins, ureidopenicillins, cephalosporins, beta-lactam-betalactamase combinations (e.g. pipercillin-tazobactam), Folate antagonists, quinolones, and carbapenems. Many of these antibiotics also cover gram positive organisms. The drugs that specifically target gram negative organisms include aminoglycosides, monobactams (aztreonam) and Ciprofloxacin.
Contents
1 Characteristics
2 Classification
3 Taxonomy
3.1 Example species
4 Bacterial transformation
5 Medical treatment
6 Orthographic note
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Notes
9 External links
Characteristics[edit]
Gram-negative cell wall structure
Gram-positive and -negative bacteria are differentiated chiefly by their cell wall structure
Gram-negative bacteria display these characteristics:
An inner cell membrane is present (cytoplasmic)
A thin peptidoglycan layer is present (This is much thicker in gram-positive bacteria)
Has outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides (LPS, which consists of lipid A, core polysaccharide, and O antigen) in its outer leaflet and phospholipids in the inner leaflet
Porins exist in the outer membrane, which act like pores for particular molecules
Between the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane there is a space filled with a concentrated gel-like substance called periplasm
The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane rather than to the peptidoglycan
If present, flagella have four supporting rings instead of two
Teichoic acids or lipoteichoic acids are absent
Lipoproteins are attached to the polysaccharide backbone
Some contain Braun's lipoprotein, which serves as a link between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan chain by a covalent bond
Most, with very few exceptions, do not form spores
Classification[edit]
Along with cell shape, gram-staining is a rapid diagnostic tool and once was used to group species at the subdivision of Bacteria. Historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based on gram-staining: Firmacutes (+), Gracillicutes (−), Mollicutes (0) and Mendocutes (var.).[3] Since 1987, the monophyly of the gram-negative bacteria has been disproven with molecular studies.[4] However some authors, such as Cavalier-Smith still treat them as a monophyletic taxon (though not a clade; his definition of monophyly requires a single common ancestor but does not require holophyly, the property that all descendants be encompassed by the taxon) and refer to the group as a subkingdom "Negibacteria".[5]
Taxonomy[edit]
This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Bacteria are traditionally divided into the two groups: gram-positive and gram-negative, based on their gram-staining response. Gram-positive bacteria are also referred to as monoderms having one membrane, and gram-negative bacteria are also referred to as diderms, having two membranes. These groups are often thought of as lineages, with gram-negative bacteria more closely related to one another than to gram-positive bacteria. While this is often true, the classification system breaks down in some cases. A given bacteria's staining result, bacterial membrane organization, and lineage groupings do not always match up.[6][7][8][9] Thus, gram-staining cannot be reliably used to assess familial relationships of bacteria. However, staining often gives reliable information about the composition of the cell membrane, distinguishing between the presence or absence of an outer lipid membrane.[6][10]
Of these two structurally distinct groups of prokaryotic organisms, monoderm prokaryotes are indicated to be ancestral. Based upon a number of different observations including that the gram-positive bacteria are the major reactors to antibiotics and that gram-negative bacteria are, in general, resistant to them, it has been proposed that the outer cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria (diderms) evolved as a protective mechanism against antibiotic selection pressure.[6][7][10][11] Some bacteria such as Deinococcus, which stain gram-positive due to the presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer, but also possess an outer cell membrane are suggested as intermediates in the transition between monoderm (gram-positive) and diderm (gram-negative) bacteria.[6][11] The diderm bacteria can also be further differentiated between simple diderms lacking lipopolysaccharide; the archetypical diderm bacteria, in which the outer cell membrane contains lipopolysaccharide; and the diderm bacteria, in which the outer cell membrane is made up of mycolic acid (e. g. Mycobacterium).[8][9][11][12]
In addition, a number of bacterial taxa (including Negativicutes, Fusobacteria, Synergistetes, and Elusimicrobia) that are either part of the phylum Firmicutes or branches in its proximity are also found to possess a diderm cell structure.[9][11][12] However, a conserved signature indel (CSI) in the HSP60 (GroEL) protein distinguishes all traditional phyla of gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Proteobacteria, Aquificae, Chlamydiae, Bacteroidetes, Chlorobi, Cyanobacteria, Fibrobacteres, Verrucomicrobia, Planctomycetes, Spirochetes, Acidobacteria) from these other atypical diderm bacteria as well as other phyla of monoderm bacteria (e.g., Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Thermotogae, Chloroflexi).[11] The presence of this CSI in all sequenced species of conventional lipopolysaccharide-containing gram-negative bacterial phyla provides evidence that these phyla of bacteria form a monophyletic clade and that no loss of the outer membrane from any species from this group has occurred.[11]
Example species[edit]
The proteobacteria are a major phylum of gram-negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli (E. coli), Salmonella, Shigella, and other Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, Moraxella, Helicobacter, Stenotrophomonas, Bdellovibrio, acetic acid bacteria, Legionella etc. Other notable groups of gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, green sulfur, and green non-sulfur bacteria.
Medically relevant gram-negative cocci include the four types that cause a sexually transmitted disease (Neisseria gonorrhoeae), a meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis), and respiratory symptoms (Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus influenzae).
Medically relevant gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them cause primarily respiratory problems (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), primarily urinary problems (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter cloacae, Serratia marcescens), and primarily gastrointestinal problems (Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhi).
Gram-negative bacteria associated with hospital-acquired infections include Acinetobacter baumannii, which cause bacteremia, secondary meningitis, and ventilator-associated pneumonia in hospital intensive-care units.
Bacterial transformation[edit]
Transformation is one of three processes for horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from bacterium to another, the other two being conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and transduction (injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage virus into the host bacterium).[13] In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.[13]
As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers.[13] Transformation has been studied in medically important Gram-negative bacteria species such as Helicobacter pylori, Legionella pneumophila, Neisseria meningitidis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Haemophilus influenzae and Vibrio cholerae.[14] It has also been studied in gram-negative species found in soil such as Pseudomonas stutzeri, Acinetobacter baylyi, and gram-negative plant pathogens such as Ralstonia solanacearum and Xylella fastidiosa.[14]
Medical treatment[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
One of the several unique characteristics of gram-negative bacteria is the structure of the bacterial outer membrane. The outer leaflet of this membrane comprises a complex lipopolysaccharide (LPS) whose lipid portion acts as an endotoxin. If gram-negative bacteria enter the circulatory system, the liposaccharide can cause a toxic reaction. This results in fever, an increased respiratory rate, and low blood pressure. This may lead to life-threatening septic shock.[2]
The outer membrane protects the bacteria from several antibiotics, dyes, and detergents that would normally damage either the inner membrane or the cell wall (made of peptidoglycan). The outer membrane provides these bacteria with resistance to lysozyme and penicillin. The periplasmic space (space between the two cell membranes) also contains enzymes which break down or modify antibiotics. Drugs commonly used to treat gram negative infections include amino, carboxy and ureido penicillins (ampicillin, amoxicillin, pipercillin, ticarcillin) these drugs may be combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to combat the presence of enzymes that can digest these drugs (known as beta-lactamases) in the peri-plasmic space. Other classes of drugs that have gram negative spectrum include cephalosporins, monobactams (aztreonam), aminogylosides, quinolones, macrolides, chloramphenicol, folate antagonists, and carbapenems.[15]
The pathogenic capability of gram-negative bacteria is often associated with certain components of their membrane, in particular, the LPS.[1] In humans, the presence of LPS triggers an innate immune response, activating the immune system and producing cytokines (hormonal regulators). Inflammation is a common reaction to cytokine production, which can also produce host toxicity. The innate immune response to LPS, however, is not synonymous with pathogenicity, or the ability to cause disease.[citation needed]
Orthographic note[edit]
The adjectives Gram-positive and Gram-negative derive from the surname of Hans Christian Gram, a Danish bacteriologist; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter can be either capital G or lower-case g, depending on which style guide (e.g., that of the CDC), if any, governs the document being written.[16] This is further explained at Gram staining § Orthographic note.
See also[edit]
Gram-indeterminate
Lower plants
Outer membrane receptor
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document "Science Primer".
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Baron S, Salton MR, Kim KS (1996). "Structure". In Baron S, et al. Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1. PMID 21413343.
^ Jump up to: a b Pellitier LL Jr, "Microbiology of the Circulatory System" "NCBI Bookshelf", April 18, 2017
Jump up ^ Gibbons, N. E.; Murray, R. G. E. (1978). "Proposals Concerning the Higher Taxa of Bacteria". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 28 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1099/00207713-28-1-1.
Jump up ^ Woese CR (June 1987). "Bacterial evolution". Microbiol. Rev. 51 (2): 221–71. PMC 373105  . PMID 2439888.
Jump up ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (2006). "Rooting the tree of life by transition analyses". Biol. Direct. 1: 19. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-1-19. PMC 1586193  . PMID 16834776.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gupta RS (December 1998). "Protein phylogenies and signature sequences: A reappraisal of evolutionary relationships among archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes". Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62 (4): 1435–91. PMC 98952  . PMID 9841678.
^ Jump up to: a b Gupta RS (2000). "The natural evolutionary relationships among prokaryotes" (PDF). Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 26 (2): 111–31. doi:10.1080/10408410091154219. PMID 10890353.
^ Jump up to: a b Desvaux M, Hébraud M, Talon R, Henderson IR (April 2009). "Secretion and subcellular localizations of bacterial proteins: a semantic awareness issue". Trends Microbiol. 17 (4): 139–45. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2009.01.004. PMID 19299134.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sutcliffe IC (October 2010). "A phylum level perspective on bacterial cell envelope architecture". Trends Microbiol. 18 (10): 464–70. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2010.06.005. PMID 20637628.
^ Jump up to: a b Gupta RS (August 1998). "What are archaebacteria: life's third domain or monoderm prokaryotes related to gram-positive bacteria? A new proposal for the classification of prokaryotic organisms". Mol. Microbiol. 29 (3): 695–707. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00978.x. PMID 9723910.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Gupta RS (August 2011). "Origin of diderm (gram-negative) bacteria: antibiotic selection pressure rather than endosymbiosis likely led to the evolution of bacterial cells with two membranes". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 100 (2): 171–82. doi:10.1007/s10482-011-9616-8. PMC 3133647  . PMID 21717204.
^ Jump up to: a b Marchandin H, Teyssier C, Campos J, Jean-Pierre H, Roger F, Gay B, Carlier JP, Jumas-Bilak E (June 2010). "Negativicoccus succinicivorans gen. nov., sp. nov., --~~~~isolated from human clinical samples, emended description of the family Veillonellaceae any classis nov., Selenomonadales ord. nov. and Acidaminococcaceae fam. nov. in the bacterial phylum Firmicutes". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 60 (Pt 6): 1271–9. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.013102-0. PMID 19667386.
^ Jump up to: a b c Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard P, Claverys JP (2014). "Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control". Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 12 (3): 181–96. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3199. PMID 24509783.
^ Jump up to: a b Seitz P, Blokesch M (2013). "Cues and regulatory pathways involved in natural competence and transformation in pathogenic and environmental Gram-negative bacteria". FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 37 (3): 336–63. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00353.x. PMID 22928673.
Jump up ^ "NEJM Journal Watch: Summaries of and commentary on original medical and scientific articles from key medical journals". www.jwatch.org.
Jump up ^ "Preferred Usage - Emerging Infectious Disease journal - CDC". CDC.gov. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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3D structures of proteins from inner membranes of Ellie Wyithe's gram-negative bacteria
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