text:
List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation
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The extent of Indus Valley Civilization.
The list of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization refers to the technological and civilizational achievements of the Indus Valley Civilization, an ancient civilization which flourished in the Bronze Age around the Indus River basin in what is today mainly Pakistan and northwest portions of the Republic of India. It is also called the Harappan civilization, after one of its centres, Harappa.
Inventions[edit]
▪ Rule of law and hence the origins of democracy first emerged from this civilisation even before Greece according to some experts.
Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[2]
Ruler: The oldest preserved measuring rod is a copper-alloy bar which was found by the German Assyriologist Eckhard Unger while excavating at Nippur (pictured below). The bar dates from c. 2650 BC. and Unger claimed it was used as a measurement standard.[3] Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.[4] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2 millimeters.[4] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[5]
Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's archaeological site at Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan[6] and Dholavira, India.[7] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BC, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[6] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[6] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[6] Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE.[8] Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[8]
See also[edit]
List of Indian inventions and discoveries
List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). Jewelry making Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. ISBN 0-313-33507-9.
Jump up ^ McNeil, Ian (1990). An encyclopedia of the history of technology. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2.
Jump up ^ Scandinavian Archaeometry Center (1993). Archaeology and natural science, p. 118. P. Åströms. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitelaw, page 14
Jump up ^ Whitelaw, page 15
^ Jump up to: a b c d Livingston & Beach, 20
Jump up ^ The Lost River by Michel Danino. Penguin India 2010
^ Jump up to: a b Livingston & Beach, page xxiii
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Meluhha
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
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text:
It's My Party (Lesley Gore song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"It's My Party"
Original US single cover
Single by Lesley Gore
from the album I'll Cry If I Want To
B-side
"Danny"
Released
April 1963
Format
7" vinyl
Recorded
March 30, 1963
Genre
Pop
rock
blue-eyed soul
Length
2:19
Label
Mercury
Songwriter(s)
Walter Gold
John Gluck Jr.
Herb Weiner
Seymour Gottlieb
Producer(s)
Quincy Jones
Lesley Gore singles chronology
"It's My Party"
(1963) "Judy's Turn to Cry"
(1963)
"It's My Party"
(1963) "Judy's Turn to Cry"
(1963)
EP cover
"It's My Party" is a pop song recorded by multiple artists since the 1960s. In 1963, American singer Lesley Gore's version hit number one on the pop and rhythm and blues charts in the United States.[1] It was the first hit single for producer Quincy Jones.
Contents
1 Theme
2 Background
3 Charts
3.1 Weekly charts
3.2 Year-end charts
4 Dave Stewart and Barbara Gaskin version
4.1 Charts
4.1.1 Weekly charts
4.1.2 Year-end charts
5 Other cover versions
6 The sequel: "Judy's Turn to Cry"
7 Charts
7.1 Weekly charts
7.2 Year-end charts
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Theme[edit]
The song lyrically portrays the discomfiture of a teenage girl at her birthday party when her boyfriend Johnny disappears, only to surface in the company of Judy, another girl, who is "wearing his ring," to indicate she's replaced the birthday girl as his love interest.[2]
The song's chorus, "It's my party, and I'll cry if I want to... You would cry too if it happened to you!" became a part of American pop cultural language as a phrase used to describe being utterly humiliated and miserable during an event that is supposed to be a happy occasion.
"It's My Party" is in the key of A major.[3] The song's effectiveness is enhanced by several musical touches producer Quincy Jones incorporated, including Latin-sounding rhythms, double tracked vocals and effective horn parts.[2] Allmusic critic Jason Ankeny wrote of the song, "'It's My Party' remains one of the most vivid evocations of adolescent heartbreak ever waxed—Quincy Jones produced the record, although you'd swear it was Aaron Spelling instead."[2]
Background[edit]
"It's My Party" was credited to John Gluck, Wally Gold and Herb Weiner, staff writers at the Aaron Schroeder Music firm in 1962. The lyrics were actually written by Seymour Gottlieb, a freelance songwriter. He gave the lyrics to Herb Weiner, with whom he partnered in writing songs, to peddle. It was based on actual events relating to Gottlieb's daughter Judy's ‘Sweet 16’ party, before which she cried over the prospect of her grandparents being invited.[4] The demo for the song was cut by Barbara Jean English, a girl group veteran (the Clickettes, the Fashions), who was then working as a receptionist at the firm. She also worked with Jimmy Radcliffe, serving as the firm's in-house demo singer. Radcliffe produced the demo, and, according to English, "tried to persuade Musicor [the label owned by Aaron Schroeder] to release it as a record, or to take me into a master studio and redo it, but they weren't interested."[5]
The first recording of the song was in 1962 by The Chiffons for their One Fine Day album.[citation needed] It was also recorded by Helen Shapiro for her Helen in Nashville album in February 1963 with Shapiro's regular producer, Norrie Paramor, and also Al Kasha. Shapiro would recall: "Right from the first time we heard the song on the rough demo back in London, we thought we were going to sock them between the eyes with that one";[5] however, Shapiro's version was not one of the cuts chosen as an advance single from the album and by the time of the album's release that October the "It's My Party" track was perceived as a cover of Lesley Gore's hit.
Lesley Gore recalls that "It's My Party" was among some two hundred demos producer Quincy Jones brought to review with her in the den of her family home in February 1963. On hearing "It's My Party," Gore told Jones: "That's not half bad. I like it. Good melody. Let's put it on the maybe pile." The song proved to be the only demo Gore and Jones found agreeable. With Jones producing and Claus Ogerman handling arranging and conducting duties, Gore recorded 'It's My Party' at Bell Sound Studios in Manhattan on 30 March 1963.[5][6]
In March 1963 Phil Spector heard the demo of "It's My Party" while visiting Aaron Schroeder's office. Wally Gold would recall: "He [Spector] said, 'Great, I love it. I’m gonna do it with the Crystals.' We [the song's writers] were really excited, because that would ensure that the record was #1!"[7] Schroeder apparently only learned of the Lesley Gore recording of "It's My Party" when Quincy Jones invited him to hear the completed track, which Schroeder found formulaic; believing that Spector would be able to cut a much stronger version of the song with the Crystals and not wanting to lose Spector's good will, Schroeder attempted to convince Jones to suppress the track. Schroeder did not mention Spector's version to Jones but Jones and Spector both happened to attend a concert with Charles Aznavour at Carnegie Hall on the evening of 30 March 1963 and when they met outside it came up in conversation that Spector had recorded a version of "It's My Party" with the Crystals.[note 1] Jones skipped the concert instead spending that night—a Saturday—at Bell Sound Studios making a test pressing of the track comprising one hundred copies.
Over the next two days Jones mailed these out to radio programmers in key markets across the US. Gore heard her record played on the radio for the first time that Friday; the official release of "It's My Party" came later in the month, with the disc ascending to number one nationally in four weeks.[5][7] Jones was abroad at the time of "It's My Party"'s release. On his return he expressed dismay when Aaron Schroeder advised him that the rush release of "It's My Party" had precluded coining a more pleasant name for the singer than "Lesley Gore," to which Schroeder replied: "Didn't anybody tell you?...Quince, the record's number one. Do you really give a damn what her last name is?"[5][not in citation given]
In 1980, WCBN-FM, the University of Michigan freeform student radio station, played "It's My Party" for 18 hours straight the day after Ronald Reagan was elected.[8]
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1963)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[9]
1
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[10]
9
US Billboard Hot 100[11]
1
US R&B (Billboard)[11]
1
US Cash Box Top 100[12]
1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1963)
Position
US Billboard Hot 100[13]
29
US Cash Box [14]
30
Dave Stewart and Barbara Gaskin version[edit]
"It's My Party"
Single by Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin
B-side
"Waiting in the Wings"
Released
August 1981[15]
Format
7" vinyl
Recorded
1981
Genre
Synthpop
new wave
Length
3:47
Label
Stiff
Songwriter(s)
Wally Gold
John Gluck Jr.
Herb Weiner
Producer(s)
Dave Stewart
Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin singles chronology
"It's My Party"
(1981) "Johnny Rocco"
(1982)
"It's My Party"
(1981) "Johnny Rocco"
(1982)
In 1981, a remake by British artists Dave Stewart and Barbara Gaskin was a UK number-one hit single for four weeks, becoming the first version of the song to reach number one in the UK.[6] The cover also reached number one in Ireland and New Zealand and reached the top 10 in Australia, Austria, Germany, South Africa, and Switzerland. The music video for the Stewart/Gaskin version contained a cameo by Thomas Dolby as Johnny, Judy being played by Gaskin in a blond wig.
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1981–1982)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[16]
4
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[17]
3
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[18]
17
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[19]
13
Germany (Official German Charts)[20]
3
Ireland (IRMA)[21]
1
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[22]
20
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[23]
26
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[24]
1
South Africa (Springbok Radio)[25]
3
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[26]
6
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[27]
1
US Billboard Hot 100[28]
72
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1982)
Position
Germany (Official German Charts)[29]
29
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[30]
47
Other cover versions[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Paris Sisters recorded a version of "It's my Party" which was slower than Gore's version.
In 1963, a Swedish-language version of the song, "Leva livet", with lyrics by Stikkan Anderson, reached number five in the Swedish hit parade Svensktoppen and became a signature song for the singer, Lill-Babs.
Donna Reed sang a cover version of the song on the 1966 series finale of The Donna Reed Show.
Bryan Ferry covered the song for his 1973 album These Foolish Things.
In 1977, Carroll Baker had a number one country hit in Canada with her version of "It's My Party".[31]
In 2004, German pop group Preluders covered the song on their album Prelude to History.
Amy Winehouse covered the song on Quincy Jones' 2010 album Q Soul Bossa Nostra.
Icona Pop sampled the song on their 2014 song "My Party", featuring Ty Dolla Sign.
The sequel: "Judy's Turn to Cry"[edit]
Because of the pop cultural obsession with the song and its tragic nature, Gore recorded a sequel titled "Judy's Turn to Cry". In this song, the teenage girl narrator gets her revenge on Judy. In the lyrics the narrator explicitly finds "foolish" how much she cried when she saw Johnny and Judy together, and seems determined to start anew. But after she kisses another boy at another party, Johnny gets jealous, punches the other boy and returns to her.[2] Following just two months on the heels of "It's My Party," the sequel reached number five on the charts.
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1963)
Peak
position
US Billboard Hot 100[11]
5
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1963)
Position
US Billboard Hot 100[13]
83
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ As with "He's a Rebel", the Crystals' hit for which it was intended as the follow-up, "It's My Party" was actually recorded not by the Crystals but the Blossoms, who cut the track at Gold Star Studios. Darlene Love says the Spector version was "kinda slow with me and my sister Edna [Wright] singing together on lead. Much more R&B than Lesley Gore's version."[5]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 803.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ankeny, J. "It's My Party". Allmusic. Retrieved 2011-07-20.
Jump up ^ McClary, S., Knapp, R., Baur, S. & Warwick, J.C. (2008). Musicological identities: essays in honor of Susan McClary. Ashgate. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7546-6302-7. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Tumposky, Ellen (February 18, 2015). "Brooklyn Woman recall origins of Gore's 'It's My Party'". Daily News. New York. Retrieved February 18, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "It's My Party". Cha Cha Charming Magazine. Archived from the original on June 12, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Bronson, F. (2003). The Billboard book of number 1 hits (5 ed.). Random House. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-8230-7677-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Shannon, Bob. "Behind The Hits: Stories: It's My Party". Archived from the original on February 6, 2008. Retrieved September 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "CBN History". Retrieved February 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Australian Weekly Singles Charts(David Kent) from 1963". Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN 0-89820-089-X
Jump up ^ Cash Box Top 100 Singles, June 8, 1963
^ Jump up to: a b Musicoutfitters.com
Jump up ^ Cash Box Year-End Charts: Top 100 Pop Singles, December 28, 1963
Jump up ^ "45cat - Dave Stewart With Barbara Gaskin - It's My Party / Waiting In The Wings - Stiff - UK - BROKEN 2". 45cat.com. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Australia's (David Kent) Weekly Singles Charts for 1982". Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin – It's My Party" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin – It's My Party" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 0480." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin – It's My Party". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – It's My Party". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – week 48, 1981" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40 Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin – It's My Party" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Charts.nz – Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin – It's My Party". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "SA Charts 1965 - 1989 Songs H-I". Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Dave Stewart with Barbara Gaskin – It's My Party". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dave Stewart Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Single-Jahrescharts" (in German). GfK Entertainment. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "End Of Year Charts 1982". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "RPM Country Tracks for April 2, 1977". RPM. Retrieved November 14, 2013.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
show
v
t
e
Lesley Gore
Studio albums
I'll Cry If I Want To
Lesley Gore Sings of Mixed-Up Hearts
Boys, Boys, Boys
Girl Talk
My Town, My Guy & Me
California Nights
Someplace Else Now
Ever Since
Compilations
Lesley Gore: It's My Party
Singles
"It's My Party"
"Judy's Turn to Cry"
"She's a Fool"
"You Don't Own Me"
"That's the Way Boys Are"
"I Don't Wanna Be a Loser"
"Maybe I Know"
"Look of Love"
"Sunshine, Lollipops and Rainbows"
"California Nights"
Related articles
Discography
Michael Gore
show
v
t
e
Carroll Baker
Notable singles
"It's Late (And I Have to Go)"
"I've Never Been This Far Before"
"The Hungry Fire of Love"
"One Night of Cheatin'"
"Tonight with Love"
"Why I Had to Pass This Way"
"It's My Party"
"The Morning After Baby Let Me Down"
"I Might as Well Believe (I'll Live Forever)"
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First wave of European colonization
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The first European colonization wave took place from the early 15th century (Portuguese conquest of Ceuta in 1415) until the early 19th-century (French invasion of Algeria in 1830), and primarily involved the European colonization of the Americas, though it also included the establishment of European colonies in India and in Maritime Southeast Asia. During this period, European interests in Africa primarily focused on the establishment of trading posts there, particularly for the African slave trade.
The time period in which much of the first wave of European colonization (and other exploratory ventures) occurred is often labeled the Age of Discovery. A later major phase of European colonization, which started in the late 19th-century and primarily focused on Africa and Asia, is known as the period of New Imperialism.
Contents
[hide]
1 The Role of the Church
2 Northern European challenges to Iberian hegemony
3 Rule in the colonies: the Leyes de Burgos and the Code Noir
4 Role of companies in early colonialism
5 European colonies in India during the first wave of colonization
6 Destruction of the Amerindian population
7 Economic pursuit and treatment of slaves
8 References
The Role of the Church[edit]
Main article: Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
Religious zeal played a large role in Spanish and Portuguese overseas activities. While the Pope himself was a political power to be heeded (as evidenced by his authority to decree whole continents open to colonization by particular kings), the Church also sent missionaries to convert the indigenous peoples of other continents to the Catholic faith. Thus, the 1455 Papal Bull Romanus Pontifex granted the Portuguese all lands behind Cape Bojador and allowed them to reduce pagans and other enemies of Christ to perpetual slavery.[1]
Later, the 1481 Papal Bull Aeterni regis granted all lands south of the Canary Islands to Portugal, while in May 1493 the Spanish-born Pope Alexander VI decreed in the Bull Inter caetera that all lands west of a meridian only 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Spain while new lands discovered east of that line would belong to Portugal. These arrangements were later precised with the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas.
The Dominicans and Jesuits, notably Francis Xavier in Asia, were particularly active in this endeavour. Many buildings erected by the Jesuits still stand, such as the Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau and the Santisima Trinidad de Paraná in Paraguay, an example of a Jesuit Reduction.
Spanish treatment of the indigenous populations provoked a fierce debate at home in 1550–51, dubbed the Valladolid debate, over whether Indians possessed souls and if so, whether they were entitled to the basic rights of mankind. Bartolomé de Las Casas, author of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, championed the cause of the natives, and was opposed by Sepúlveda, who claimed Amerindians were "natural slaves".
The School of Salamanca, which gathered theologians such as Francisco de Vitoria (1480–1546) or Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), argued in favor of the existence of natural law, which thus gave some rights to indigenous people. However, while the School of Salamanca limited Charles V's imperial powers over colonized people, they also legitimized the conquest, defining the conditions of "Just War". For example, these theologians admitted the existence of the right for indigenous people to reject religious conversion, which was a novelty for Western philosophical thought. However, Suárez also conceived many particular cases — a casuistry — in which conquest was legitimized. Hence, war was justified if the indigenous people refused free transit and commerce to the Europeans; if they forced converts to return to idolatry; if there come to be a sufficient number of Christians in the newly discovered land that they wish to receive from the Pope a Christian government; if the indigenous people lacked just laws, magistrates, agricultural techniques, etc. In any case, title taken according to this principle must be exercised with Christian charity, warned Suárez, and for the advantage of the Indians. Henceforth, the School of Salamanca legitimized the conquest while at the same time limiting the absolute power of the sovereign, which was celebrated in others parts of Europe under the notion of the divine right of kings.
In the 1970s, the Jesuits would become a main proponent of the Liberation theology which openly supported anti-imperialist movements. It was officially condemned in 1984 and in 1986 by then Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) as the head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, under charges of Marxist tendencies, while Leonardo Boff was suspended.
Northern European challenges to Iberian hegemony[edit]
Map of the world in 1550, after the establishment of the first Spanish and Portuguese colonies
Map of the world in 1754, prior to the Seven Years' War
Map of the world in 1822, after the Napoleonic Wars
It was not long before the exclusivity of Iberian claims to the Americas was challenged by other European powers, primarily the Netherlands, France and England: the view taken by the rulers of these nations is epitomized by the quotation attributed to Francis I of France demanding to be shown the clause in Adam's will excluding his authority from the New World.
This challenge initially took the form of privateering raids (such as that led by Francis Drake) on Spanish treasure fleets or coastal settlements, but later, Northern European countries began establishing settlements of their own, primarily in areas that were outside of Spanish interests, such as what is now the eastern seaboard of the United States and Canada, or islands in the Caribbean, such as Aruba, Martinique and Barbados, that had been abandoned by the Spanish in favour of the mainland and larger islands.
Whereas Spanish colonialism was based on the religious conversion and exploitation of local populations via encomiendas (many Spaniards emigrated to the Americas to elevate their social status, and were not interested in manual labour), Northern European colonialism was frequently bolstered by people fleeing religious persecution or intolerance (for example, the Mayflower voyage). The motive for emigration was not to become an aristocrat nor to spread one's faith but to start afresh in a new society, where life would be hard but one would be free to exercise one's religious beliefs. The most populous emigration of the 17th century was that of the English, and after a series of wars with the Dutch and the French the English overseas possessions came to dominate the east coast of North America, an area stretching from Virginia northwards to New England and Newfoundland, although during the 17th century an even greater number of English emigrants settled in the West Indies.
However, the English, French and Dutch were no more averse to making a profit than the Spanish and Portuguese, and whilst their areas of settlement in the Americas proved to be devoid of the precious metals found by the Spanish, trade in other commodities and products that could be sold at massive profit in Europe provided another reason for crossing the Atlantic, in particular furs from Canada, tobacco and cotton grown in Virginia and sugar in the islands of the Caribbean and Brazil. Due to the massive depletion of indigenous labour, plantation owners had to look elsewhere for manpower for these labour-intensive crops. They turned to the centuries-old slave trade of west Africa and began transporting humans across the Atlantic on a massive scale – historians estimate that the Atlantic slave trade brought between 10 and 12 million individuals to the New World. The islands of the Caribbean soon came to be populated by slaves of African descent, ruled over by a white minority of plantation owners interested in making a fortune and then returning to their home country to spend it.
Rule in the colonies: the Leyes de Burgos and the Code Noir[edit]
Main articles: Leyes de Burgos, Valladolid Controversy, Code Noir, and Laws of the Indies
The January 27, 1512 Leyes de Burgos codified the government of the indigenous people of the New World, since the common law of Spain wasn't applied in these recently discovered territories. The scope of the laws were originally restricted to the island of Hispaniola, but were later extended to Puerto Rico and Jamaica. They authorized and legalized the colonial practice of creating encomiendas, where Indians were grouped together to work under colonial masters, limiting the size of these establishments to a minimum of 40 and a maximum of 150 people. The document finally prohibited the use of any form of punishment by the encomenderos, reserving it for officials established in each town for the implementation of the laws. It also ordered that the Indians be catechesized, outlawed bigamy, and required that the huts and cabins of the Indians be built together with those of the Spanish. It respected, in some ways, the traditional authorities, granting chiefs exemptions from ordinary jobs and granting them various Indians as servants. The poor fulfilment of the laws in many cases lead to inummerable protests and claims. In fact, the laws were so often poorly applied that they were seen as simply a legalization of the previous poor situation. This would create momentum for reform, carried out through the Leyes Nuevas ("New Laws") in 1542. Ten years later, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas would publish A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, in the midst of the Valladolid Controversy, a debate about the existence or not of souls in Amerindians bodies. Las Casas, bishop of Chiapas, was opposed to Sepúlveda, who claimed Amerindians were "natural slaves"...
In the French empire, slave trade and other colonial rules were regulated by Louis XIV's 1689 Code Noir.
Role of companies in early colonialism[edit]
From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country and treasure was brought back in special convoys), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade monopolies to joint-stock companies such as the East India Companies and the Hudson's Bay Company. The Massachusetts Bay Company, founded in 1628/9, swiftly established a form of self-governance following the Cambridge Agreement of August 1629, whereby subsequent meetings of the board of governors took place in Massachusetts itself.
European colonies in India during the first wave of colonization[edit]
Main article: European colonies in India
In 1498, the Portuguese arrived in Goa. Rivalry among reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British, French, Danish among others. The fractured debilitated kingdoms of India were gradually taken over by the Europeans and indirectly controlled by puppet rulers. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I accorded a charter, forming the East India Company to trade with India and eastern Asia. The British landed in India in Surat in 1624. By the 19th century, they had assumed direct and indirect control over most of India.
Destruction of the Amerindian population[edit]
Main article: Population history of American indigenous peoples
The arrival of the conquistadores caused the annihilation of most of the Amerindians. However, contemporary historians now generally reject the Black Legend according to which the brutality of the European colonists accounted for most of the deaths. It is now generally believed that diseases, such as the smallpox, brought upon by the Columbian Exchange, were the greatest destroyer, although the brutality of the conquest itself isn't contested. Genocidal policies were more common in post-colonial states, notably in 19th century United States and Argentina where indigenous populations were systematically exterminated. For example, Juan Manuel de Rosas, Argentinian caudillo from 1829 to 1852, openly pursued the extermination of the local population, an event related by Darwin in The Voyage of the Beagle (1839). He was then followed by the "Conquest of the Desert" in the 1870–80s. The result was the death of a lot of the mapuche and arauccan population in the Patagonia. After the Amerindians' quasi-total disparition, the mines and the sugar cane plantations thus led to the booming of the Atlantic slave trade, especially apparent in the Caribbean where the largest ethnic group is of African descent.
Contemporary historians debate the legitimacy of calling the quasi-disparition of the Amerindians a "genocide". Estimates of pre-Columbian population have ranged from a low of 8.4 million to a high of 112.5 million persons; in 1976, geographer William Denevan derived a "consensus count" of about 54 million people.[2]
David Stannard has argued that "The destruction of the Indians of the Americas was, far and away, the most massive act of genocide in the history of the world", with almost 100 million Amerindians killed in what he calls the American Holocaust. Like Ward Churchill, he believes that the American natives were deliberately and systematically exterminated over the course of several centuries, and that the process continues to the present day.[3]
Stannard's claim of 100 million deaths has been disputed because he makes no distinction between death from violence and death from disease. In response, political scientist R. J. Rummel has instead estimated that over the centuries of European colonization about 2 million to 15 million American indigenous people were the victims of what he calls democide. "Even if these figures are remotely true", writes Rummel, "then this still make this subjugation of the Americas one of the bloodier, centuries long, democides in world history." [4]
Economic pursuit and treatment of slaves[edit]
Spain and Portugal sought the utilization of foreign and indigenous peoples during post colonial contact with the New World. The Portuguese and Spanish use of slavery in Latin America was seen as a lucrative business which ultimately led to internal and external development in gaining economic influence at any cost. The economic pursuits of the Spanish and Portuguese empires ushered in the era of the Atlantic Slave Trade.
In the fifteenth century, Portugal shifted its attention to the latter economic endeavor. Their ships sailed from the borders of the Sahara desert to the entirety of the West African coast.[5]:33 At the outset of the Atlantic Slave Trade, Manuel Bautista Pérez, a notable Portuguese slave trader, gives insight to the amount and treatment of the African slaves. Pérez and his men conducted slave trading in which thousands of African peoples were bought from local tribal leaders and transported across the Atlantic to South America. In contrast from popular belief, Portuguese slave traders did not acquire slaves in a forceful manner. According to documents written by Manuel Pérez, slaves were only made available by certain conditions. The most notable condition was bartering “items that the leaders wanted and were interested in”.[5]:39 Items such as bread, coal, precious stones, and firearms were provided in exchange for slaves. Furthermore, local tribal leaders did not simply give up their own people for the aforementioned commodities but rather through intertribal wars, debts, and civil crime offenders.[5]:54
Labor in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies became scarce. European diseases and forced labor began killing the indigenous people in insurmountable numbers. Therefore, slaves were seen only as a business venture due to the labor shortages. These slaves were forced to work in jobs such as agriculture and mining. According to David Eltis, areas controlled by the Spanish such as Mexico, Peru, and large parts of Central America used forced slave labor in "mining activities".[6] In 1494 the Pope ushered in the Treaty of Tordesillas, granting Spain and Portugal two separate parts of the world.[7] Due to this treaty, Portugal had the monopoly on acquiring the slaves from Africa. However, Spain, like Portugal, needed the labor force to pursue their personal economic gains.[5]:20 This gave Portugal an increased revenue stream. African slaves were sold to the Spanish colonies through an internal reform known as the asiento; which gave the right, by the Spanish Crown, for acquiring African slaves from the Portuguese traders.
In terms of the treatment of slaves, Portuguese external policies on the acquisition of slaves depict a malicious attempt to obtaining economic wealth. Nearly 3,600 slaves a year were traded by a single trader.[5]:68 This latter statement illuminates that traders tried to get as many slaves as they could in the shortest amount of time. Consequently, this led to the deaths of thousands of African peoples. Newly bought slaves were kept tightly packed in highly flammable huts in order to wait for transport. Once aboard the ships many hundreds of people would once again be shoved into lower ship compartments, collectively chained up, and given little to eat. By these actions "nearly a quarter of the slaves transported died before ever reaching the destination".[5]:72 Many of them suffocated in the lower compartments as the hatches upon the deck remained closed; restricting the circulation of air. Slaves were often branded with a mark upon their skin to identify either the ship they arrived on or the company that purchased them. In addition, the slaves were seen as a "potentially economic utility"; therefore they were often equated to cattle when moved about.[8] Many African people died in large numbers in order to meet the demand for Spanish and Portuguese labor requirements.
Both Spain and Portugal share a similar history in regards to the treatment of slaves in their colonies. As time progressed and new generations of slaves lived under imperial rule, Spanish and Portuguese internal reforms dealt with African slaves in areas such as, "the purchasing and selling of slaves, legal ownership, succession upon death of owner, the rights of slaves to buy their liberty, and penalties to those who ran away".[9] There was a constant strict social control amongst the slave population. Nevertheless, the goal was to create and sustain a labor force that would yield maximum economic output. The lucrative business the Portuguese sought on the West African coast ushered in an era in which human labor, at any cost, was used for the extraction of wealth.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Daus, Ronald (1983). Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus (in German). Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag. p. 33. ISBN 3-87294-202-6.
Jump up ^ 20th century estimates in Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492. University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8061-2074-6, p. 22; Denevan's consensus count; recent lower estimates
Jump up ^ Stannard, David E. American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-508557-4; p. x (quotation), p. 151 (death toll estimate).
Jump up ^ Cf. R. J. Rummel's quote and estimate from his website, about midway down the page, after footnote 82. Rummel's estimate is presumably not a single democide, but a total of multiple democides, since there were many different governments involved.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Newson, Linda A., and Susie Minchin. From Capture to Sale the Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Jump up ^ Eltis, David. Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. p. 31.
Jump up ^ Sider, Sandra. Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe. New York: Facts On File, 2005. p. 195
Jump up ^ Postma, Johannes. The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. p. 227.
Jump up ^ Mellafe, Rolando. Negro Slavery in Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. p. 101
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Magenta Line (Delhi Metro)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Magenta Line
मेजेन्टा लाइन (Line 8)
A Hyundai Rotem driverless train on the Magenta Line.
Overview
Type
Rapid transit
System
Delhi Metro
Status
Fully Operational
Locale
Delhi and Noida
Termini
Janakpuri West
Botanical Garden
Stations
25; Elevated: 10, Underground: 15
Operation
Opened
25 December 2017(Botanical Garden - Kalkaji)
28 May 2018 (Janakpuri West-Botanical Garden)[1]
Owner
Delhi Metro
Operator(s)
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
Character
Underground and Elevated
Rolling stock
Hyundai Rotem Standard gauge
Technical
Line length
36.98 kilometers (22.98 mi), Elevated 14.6 kilometers (9.1 mi); Underground 22.2 kilometers (13.8 mi)
Track gauge
4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge
Electrification
25 kV, 50 Hz AC through overhead catenary
The Magenta Line (मेजेन्टा लाइन) is a line of Delhi Metro, a rapid transit system in Delhi, India and the first driverless metro in India. It consists of 25 metro stations from Janakpuri West to Botanical Garden, out of which 10 are elevated and rest 15 are underground. The total length of the line is 36.98 km out of which 10.466 km is elevated and 23.807 km is underground. Unlike the Airport Metro Express the line will directly serve Terminal 1 of the Indira Gandhi International Airport.
The line has been operational between Botanical Garden to Kalkaji Mandir since 25 December 2017 and rest of the section between Janakpuri West and Kalkaji Mandir was made operational on 29 May 2018. The Hauz Khas station on this line and the current Yellow Line is the deepest Metro station at a depth of 32 metres, surpassing the record set by Chawri Bazaar station on the Yellow Line, at a depth of 22 metres.[2] Janakpuri West metro station on the line contains India's tallest escalator with vertical height of 15.6 metres. The Magenta line interchanges with the Yellow, Blue, and the Violet lines of the Delhi Metro network.
Shankar Vihar metro station on the line is unique as it is the only station on the network where free movement of civilians is restricted by the military, as it falls in the Delhi Cantonment area and according to DMRC official "located right in the heart of the defence zone, it thus will cater primarily to defence personnel".[3].
For the first time in India, the construction work of two parallel tunnels was completed together at Dabri Mor station. The Janakpuri West, Dabri Mor & Dashrath Puri stations on Janakpuri West-Botanical Garden line have been executed by an HCC-Samsung joint venture.[4][5]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Extension History
2 Stations
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Inside a Magenta line metro train
Progress of civil works up to February 2018 was 99.12%.[6] The line was initially targeted for completion in December 2016, however, this date was extended. The trials of the line began in August 2017.[7] The line got inaugurated in two stages where the first section from Botanical Garden to Kalkaji Mandir was opened for public by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 25 December 2017[8] and the second stage got inaugurated by Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal on 28 May 2018. The remaining section of the line became functional and opened for public use from 29 May 2018 at 06:00 hrs IST.[9]
Extension History[edit]
A stretch of 8.679 km having 7 stations from Botanical Garden-Kalkaji Mandir has been opened to public on 25.12.2017. The remaining portion of line opened on 28 May 2018.
[10]
Phase 4
In addition to the Kalindi Kunj Depot, the Magenta Line will have a new depot at Mangolpuri.
History
Extension date
Section
Length
Stations
25 December 2017 Botanical Garden-Kalkaji Mandir 12.64 kilometers (7.85 mi) 9
28 May 2018 Kalkaji Mandir-Janakpuri West 24.34 kilometers (15.12 mi) 16
Total Botanical Garden-Janakpuri West 36.98 kilometers (22.98 mi) 25
Stations[edit]
Main article: List of Delhi metro stations

hide
[
v
t
e
]
Delhi Metro Magenta Line
Legend
Janakpuri West
Blue Line
Dabri Mor
Dashrath Puri
Palam
Sadar Bazaar Cantonment
Terminal 1D-IGI Airport
NH48
Shankar Vihar
Vasant Vihar
Munirka
R.K Puram
IIT Delhi
Hauz Khas
Yellow Line
Panchsheel Park
Chirag Delhi
Greater Kailash
Nehru Enclave
Kalkaji Mandir
Violet Line
Okhla NSIC
Mathura Road/NH-2
Sukhdev Vihar
Jamia Millia Islamia
Okhla Vihar
Jasola Vihar Shaheen Bagh
Kalindi Kunj
Yamuna River
Delhi
Uttar Pradesh
border
Okhla Bird Sanctuary
Botanical Garden
Blue Line
Stations[11]
#
Station Name
Opening
Connections
Layout
Coordinates
English
Hindi
1 Ramakrishna Ashram Marg रामकृष्ण आश्रम मार्ग 2022 Blue Line Underground
2 Nabi Karim नबी करीम 2022 None Underground
3 Sadar Bazar सदर बाजार 2022 Sadar Bazar railway station
Indian Railways
Underground
4 Pul Bangash पुल बंगाश 2022 Red Line Underground
5 GG Sabji Mandi जीजी सबजी मंडी 2022 Indian Railways Underground
6 Rajpura राजपुरा 2022 None Underground
7 Derawal Nagar डेरावल नगर 2022 None Underground
8 Ashok Vihar अशोक विहार 2022 None Underground
9 Azadpur आजादपुर 2022 Yellow Line
Pink Line
Naya Azadpur railway station
Indian Railways
Underground
10 Majlis Park माजलिस पार्क 2022 Pink Line Elevated
11 Bhalaswa Bhalaswa 2022 None Elevated
12 Mukarba Chowk मुकरबा चौक 2022 None Elevated
13 Haiderpur Badli Mor हैदरपुर बदली मोर 2022 Yellow Line Elevated
14 North Pitampura उत्तर पीतमपुरा 2022 None Elevated
15 Prashant Vihar प्रशांत विहार 2022 None Elevated
16 Rohini East रोहिणी ईस्ट 2022 Red Line Elevated
17 Madhuban Chowk मधुबन चौक 2022 None Elevated
18 Deepali Chowk दीपाली चौक 2022 None Elevated
19 West Enclave वेस्ट एन्क्लेव 2022 None Elevated
20 Mangolpuri मंगोलपुरी 2022 Indian Railways Elevated
21 Peera Garhi पीरा गढ़ी 2022 Green Line Elevated
22 Paschim Vihar पश्चिम विहार 2022 None Elevated
23 Meera Bagh मीरा बाग 2022 None Elevated
24 Keshpur केशपुर 2022 None Elevated
25 Krishna Park Extension कृष्णा पार्क एक्सटेंशन 2022 None Underground
26 Janakpuri West जनकपुरी पश्चिम 29 May 2018 Blue Line Underground/Elevated 28°37′46″N 77°04′42″E / 28.629540°N 77.078243°E / 28.629540; 77.078243
27 Dabri Mor janakpuri south डाबरी मोड़ 29 May 2018 None Underground
28 Dashrath Puri दशरथ पुरी 29 May 2018 None Underground
29 Palam पालम 29 May 2018 Palam railway station
Indian Railways
Underground
30 Sadar Bazaar Cantonment सदर बाजार छावनी 29 May 2018 None Elevated
31 Terminal 1 IGI Airport टर्मिनल 1 इन्दिरा गाँधी अंतर्राष्ट्रीय हवाई अड्डा 29 May 2018 None Underground
32 Shankar Vihar शंकर विहार 29 May 2018 None Elevated
33 Vasant Vihar वसन्त विहार 29 May 2018 None Underground
34 Munirka मुनिरका 29 May 2018 None Underground
35 R.K Puram राम कृष्ण पुरम 29 May 2018 None Underground
36 IIT Delhi आईआईटी दिल्ली 29 May 2018 None Underground
37 Hauz Khas हौज़ खास 29 May 2018 Yellow Line Underground
38 Panchsheel Park पंचशील पार्क 29 May 2018 None Underground
39 Chirag Delhi चिराग दिल्ली 29 May 2018 None Underground
40 Greater Kailash ग्रेटर कैलाश 29 May 2018 None Underground
41 Nehru Enclave नेहरू एन्क्लेव 29 May 2018 None Underground
42 Kalkaji Mandir कालकाजी मंदिर 25 Dec 2017 Violet Line Underground
Coordinates: 28°32′57″N 77°15′33″E / 28.54921°N 77.25904°E / 28.54921; 77.25904
43 Okhla NSIC ओखला एन एस आई सी 25 Dec 2017 Okhla railway station
Indian Railways
Elevated
44 Sukhdev Vihar सुखदेव विहार 25 Dec 2017 None Elevated
45 Jamia Millia Islamia जामिया मिलिया इस्लामिया 25 Dec 2017 None Elevated
46 Okhla Vihar ओखला विहार 25 Dec 2017 None Elevated
47 Jasola Vihar Shaheen Bagh जसोला विहार शाहीन बाग 25 Dec 2017 None Elevated
48 Kalindi Kunj कालिन्दी कुंज 25 Dec 2017 None Elevated
49 Okhla Bird Sanctuary ओखला पक्षी अभयारण्य 25 Dec 2017 None Elevated
50 Botanical Garden बॉटैनिकल गार्डन 25 Dec 2017 Blue Line Elevated 28°33′51″N 77°20′05″E / 28.564208°N 77.334781°E / 28.564208; 77.334781
See also[edit]
Delhi
List of Delhi Metro stations
Delhi Metro
Delhi Monorail
Delhi Suburban Railway
Transport in Delhi
Urban rail transit in India
List of metro systems
Delhi portal
Trains portal
Railways in India portal
Transport portal
Infrastructure portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Full Delhi Metro Magenta Line to open for public from May 29
Jump up ^ Ranjan, Rakesh (17 December 2014). "Hauz Khas station will be deepest on Delhi Metro as Phase-III work continues". Daily Mail India.
Jump up ^ https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/delhi-metro-magenta-line-shankar-vihar-station-5196393/
Jump up ^ For The First Time In India, DMRC Completes Work of Two Parallel Tunnels Simultaneously at Dabri Mor
Jump up ^ Delhi Metro Completes Work on Indias First Twin Tunnels Simultaneously - NDTV.com
Jump up ^ http://www.delhimetrorail.com/Show_corridor_details.aspx?id=2
Jump up ^ http://www.deccanherald.com/content/563935/driverless-trains-begin-trial-run.html
Jump up ^ "Delhi Metro's Magenta line to be inaugurated by PM Modi on December 25". Indian Express. 18 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Delhi metro magenta line flagging off ceremony
Jump up ^ Delhi metro magenta line flagging off ceremony
Jump up ^ "Delhi Metro system map" (PDF).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Delhi Metro.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Delhi.
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)
Delhi Metro Annual Reports
UrbanRail.Net – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.
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Golf Course
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