text:
Highest temperature recorded on Earth
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The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air, 1.5 meters above the ground, and shielded from direct sunlight.[1] According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 °C (134.1 °F) in Furnace Creek Ranch, California, located in the Death Valley desert in the United States, on July 10, 1913.[2][3]
From 1922 until 2012, the WMO record for the highest official temperature on Earth was 57.8 °C (136.0 °F), registered on 13 September 1922 in ‘Aziziya, Libya. In January 2012, the WMO decertified the 1922 record, citing persuasive evidence that it was a faulty reading recorded in error by an inexperienced observer. [2] Christopher C. Burt, the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading's 2012 disqualification, believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is also "a myth", and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high,[4] as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid.[5] If the 1913 record were to be decertified, the current highest recorded temperature on Earth would be 54.0 °C (129.2 °F), recorded both in Death Valley on 20 June 2013, and in Mitribah, Kuwait on 21 July 2016.[6]
At 41.80 °C (107.24 °F), July 2017 in Furnace Creek, Death Valley, was the hottest single month (average monthly temperature) ever reliably measured anywhere on Earth since records began in 1911.[7]
Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 °C.[8] A ground temperature of 84 °C (183.2 °F) has been recorded in Port Sudan, Sudan.[9] A ground temperature of 93.9 °C (201 °F) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded.[10] The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 °C for dry, darkish soils of low thermal conductivity.[11]
Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers. There is a satellite record of 66.8 °C (152.2 °F) measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008.[12] Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009, taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite, found a maximum temperature of 70.7 °C (159.3 °F), which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert, Iran. The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2009). These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature.[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mildrexler, David J.; Zhao, Maosheng; Running, Steven W. "Satellite Finds Highest Land Skin Temperatures on Earth". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 2011: 855–860. Bibcode:2011BAMS...92..855M. doi:10.1175/2011BAMS3067.1.
^ Jump up to: a b World: Highest Temperature Archived 2017-07-14 at the Wayback Machine. World Meteorological Organization Retrieved 2 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "NCDC Global measured extremes". Archived from the original on 27 September 2002. Retrieved 6 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "Doubts Cloud Death Valley's 100-year Heat Record". Retrieved 30 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Death Valley's 134F Record Temperature Study Part One". Retrieved 30 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Samenow, Jason (October 25, 2016). "New analysis shreds claim that Death Valley recorded Earth's highest temperature in 1913". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Christopher C. Burt (August 6, 2017). "Death Valley Sets New Global Record for Hottest Single Month". Weather Underground. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Mildrexler, David J.; Zhao, Maosheng; Running, Steven W. "Satellite Finds Highest Land Skin Temperatures on Earth". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 2011: 855–860 [855–857]. doi:10.1175/2011BAMS3067.1.
Jump up ^ Table 9.2, p. 158, Dryland Climatology, Sharon E. Nicholson, Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 1139500244.
Jump up ^ A possible world record maximum natural ground surface temperature, Paul Kubecka, Weather, 56, #7 (July 2001), Weather, pp. 218-221, doi:10.1002/j.1477-8696.2001.tb06577.x.
Jump up ^ Extreme Maximum Land Surface Temperatures, J. R. Garratt, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 31, #9 (September 1992), pp. 1096–1105, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1992)031<1096:EMLST>2.0.CO;2
Jump up ^ "Satellite Finds Highest Land Skin Temperatures on Earth". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 92: 855–860. July 2011. doi:10.1175/2011BAMS3067.1. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
See also[edit]
Desert climate
List of weather records#Highest temperatures ever recorded
Lowest temperature recorded on Earth
List of weather records#Lowest temperatures ever recorded
Orders of magnitude (temperature)
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Names of Japan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Land of the Rising Sun" redirects here. For other uses, see Land of the Rising Sun (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Japanese name.
The word Japan is an exonym, and is used (in one form or another) by a large number of languages. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon (にっぽん listen (help·info)) and Nihon (にほん listen (help·info)). They are both written in Japanese using the kanji 日本.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Historical
2.1 Nifon
2.2 Jippon
3 Nihon and Nippon
3.1 Meaning
3.2 History and evolution
3.3 Modern conventions
4 Jipangu
5 Other Names
5.1 Classical:
5.2 Non-CJK Names:
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
History[edit]
Further information: Wa (Japan)
Cipangu on the 1453 Fra Mauro map, the first known Western depiction of the island.
Both Nippon and Nihon literally mean "the sun's origin", that is, where the sun originates,[1] and are often translated as the Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastern position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (倭) or Wakoku (倭国).[2] Wa was a name early China used to refer to an ethnic group living in Japan around the time of the Three Kingdoms Period.
Although the etymological origins of "Wa" remain uncertain, Chinese historical texts recorded an ancient people residing in the Japanese archipelago (perhaps Kyūshū), named something like *ˀWâ or *ˀWər 倭. Carr (1992:9–10) surveys prevalent proposals for Wa's etymology ranging from feasible (transcribing Japanese first-person pronouns waga 我が "my; our" and ware 我 "I; oneself; thou") to shameful (writing Japanese Wa as 倭 implying "dwarf"), and summarizes interpretations for *ˀWâ "Japanese" into variations on two etymologies: "behaviorally 'submissive' or physically 'short'." The first "submissive; obedient" explanation began with the (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi dictionary. It defines 倭 as shùnmào 順皃 "obedient/submissive/docile appearance", graphically explains the "person; human" radical 亻 with a wěi 委 "bent" phonetic, and quotes the above Shijing poem. "Conceivably, when Chinese first met Japanese," Carr (1992:9) suggests "they transcribed Wa as *ˀWâ 'bent back' signifying 'compliant' bowing/obeisance. Bowing is noted in early historical references to Japan." Examples include "Respect is shown by squatting" (Hou Han Shu, tr. Tsunoda 1951:2), and "they either squat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect." (Wei Zhi, tr. Tsunoda 1951:13). Koji Nakayama interprets wēi 逶 "winding" as "very far away" and euphemistically translates Wō 倭 as "separated from the continent." The second etymology of wō 倭 meaning "dwarf, pygmy" has possible cognates in ǎi 矮 "low, short (of stature)", wō 踒 "strain; sprain; bent legs", and wò 臥 "lie down; crouch; sit (animals and birds)". Early Chinese dynastic histories refer to a Zhūrúguó 侏儒國 "pygmy/dwarf country" located south of Japan, associated with possibly Okinawa Island or the Ryukyu Islands. Carr cites the historical precedence of construing Wa as "submissive people" and the "Country of Dwarfs" legend as evidence that the "little people" etymology was a secondary development.
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it due to its offensive connotation, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance". Retroactively, this character was adopted in Japan to refer to the country itself, often combined with the character 大, literally meaning "Great", so as to write the preexisting name Yamato (大和) (in a manner similar to e.g. 大清帝國 Great Qing Empire, 大英帝國 Greater British Empire). However, the pronunciation Yamato cannot be formed from the sounds of its constituent characters; it refers to a place in Japan and is speculated to originally mean "Mountain Gate" (山戸).[3] Such words which use certain kanji to name a certain Japanese word solely for the purpose of representing the word's meaning regardless of the given kanji's on'yomi or kun'yomi, a.k.a. jukujikun, is not uncommon in Japanese. Other original names in Chinese texts include Yamatai country (邪馬台国), where a Queen Himiko lived. When hi no moto, the indigenous Japanese way of saying "sun's origin", was written in kanji, it was given the characters 日本. In time, these characters began to be read using Sino-Japanese readings, first Nippon and later Nihon, although the two names are interchangeable to this day.
Nippon appeared in history only at the end of the 7th century. The Old Book of Tang (舊唐書), one of the Twenty-Four Histories, stated that the Japanese envoy disliked his country's name Woguo (倭國), and changed it to Nippon (日本), or "Origin of the Sun". Another 8th-century chronicle, True Meaning of Shiji (史記正義), however, states that the Chinese Empress Wu Zetian ordered a Japanese envoy to change the country's name to Nippon. The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion as the emperor is said to be the direct descendent of the sun goddess Amaterasu and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment and descent from the chief deity of the predominant Shinto religion. The name of the country reflects this central importance of the sun.
Cipangu described on the 1492 Martin Behaim globe.
The English word for Japan came to the West from early trade routes. The early Mandarin Chinese or possibly Wu Chinese word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese (a language of the Wu Chinese subgroup), the formal pronunciation of the characters 日本 (Japan) is still Zeppen [zəʔpən]. The colloquial pronunciation of the character 日 is [ɲəʔ], which is closer to Nippon. The Malay and Indonesian words Jepang, Jipang, and Jepun were borrowed from non-Mandarin Chinese languages, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in 1577 spelled Giapan.
In English, the modern official title of the country is simply "Japan", one of the few nation-states to have no "long form" name. The official Japanese-language name is Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku (日本国), literally "State of Japan".[4] From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War II, the full title of Japan was the "Empire of Greater Japan" (大日本帝國 Dai Nippon Teikoku). A more poetic rendering of the name of Japan during this period was "Empire of the Sun." The official name of the nation was changed after the adoption of the post-war constitution; the title "State of Japan" is sometimes used as a colloquial modern-day equivalent. As an adjective, the term "Dai-Nippon" remains popular with Japanese governmental, commercial, or social organizations whose reach extend beyond Japan's geographic borders (e.g., Dai Nippon Printing, Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, etc.).
Though Nippon or Nihon are still by far the most popular names for Japan from within the country, recently the foreign words Japan and even Jipangu (from Cipangu, see below) have been used in Japanese mostly for the purpose of foreign branding.
Historical[edit]
Portuguese missionaries arrived in Japan at the end of the 16th century. In the course of learning Japanese, they created several grammars and dictionaries of Middle Japanese. The 1603–1604 dictionary Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam contains two entries for Japan: nifon[5] and iippon.[6] The title of the dictionary (Vocabulary of the Language of Japan) illustrates that the Portuguese word for Japan was by that time Iapam.
Nifon[edit]
Historically, Japanese /h/ has undergone a number of phonological changes. Originally *[p], this weakened into [ɸ] and eventually became the modern [h]. Modern /h/ is still pronounced [ɸ] when followed by /ɯ/.
Middle Japanese nifon becomes Modern Japanese nihon via regular phonological changes.
Jippon[edit]
Before modern styles of romanization, the Portuguese devised their own. In it, /zi/ is written as either ii or ji. In modern Hepburn style, iippon would be rendered as Jippon. There are no historical phonological changes to take into account here.
Etymologically, Jippon is similar to Nippon in that it is an alternative reading of 日本. The initial character 日 may also be read as /ziti/ or /zitu/. Compounded with /hoɴ/ (本), this regularly becomes Jippon.
Unlike the Nihon/Nippon doublet, there is no evidence for a *Jihon.
Nihon and Nippon[edit]
The Japanese name for Japan , 日本, can be pronounced either Nihon or Nippon. Both readings come from the on'yomi.
Meaning[edit]
日 (nichi) means "sun" or "day"; 本 (hon) means "base" or "origin". The compound means "origin of the sun" or "where the sun rises" (from a Chinese point of view, the sun rises from Japan); it is a source for the popular Western description of Japan as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Nichi, in compounds, often loses the final chi and creates a slight pause between the first and second syllables of the compound. When romanised, this pause is represented by a doubling of the first consonant of the second syllable; thus nichi 日 plus kō 光 (light) is written and pronounced nikkō, meaning sunlight.
History and evolution[edit]
Japanese 日 and 本 were historically pronounced niti (or jitu, reflecting a Late Middle Chinese pronunciation) and pon, respectively. In compounds, however, final voiceless stops (i.e. p, t, k) of the first word were unreleased in Middle Chinese, and the pronunciation of 日本 was thus Nippon or Jippon (with the adjacent consonants assimilating).
Historical sound change in Japanese has led to the modern pronunciations of the individual characters as nichi and hon. The pronunciation Nihon originated, possibly in the Kantō region, as a reintroduction of this independent pronunciation of 本 into the compound. This must have taken place during the Edo period, after another sound change occurred which would have resulted in this form becoming Niwon and later Nion.
Several attempts to decidedly determine an official reading were rejected by the Japanese government, who declared both as being correct.[7]
Modern conventions[edit]
While both pronunciations are correct, Nippon is frequently preferred for official purposes,[8] including money, stamps, and international sporting events, as well as the Nippon-koku, literally the "State of Japan" (日本国).
Other than this, there seem to be no fixed rules for choosing one pronunciation over the other; in some cases one form is simply more common. For example, Japanese speakers generally call their language Nihongo; Nippongo, while possible,[9] is rare. In other cases, uses are variable. The name for the Bank of Japan (日本銀行), for example, is given as NIPPON GINKO on banknotes, but often referred to (in the media, for example) as Nihon Ginkō.[10]
Nippon is used always or most often in the following constructions:[11]
Nippon Yūbin, Nippon Yūsei (Japan Post Group)
Ganbare Nippon! (A sporting cheer used at international sporting events, roughly, 'do your best, Japan!')
Zen Nippon Kūyu Kabushiki-gaisha (All Nippon Airways)
Nipponbashi (日本橋) (a shopping district in Osaka)
Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha (Japan Optical Industries Co. Ltd., (also called Nippon Kōgaku) which is known since 1988 as the Nikon Corporation since the Nikon brand name was used on its camera product line)
Nihon is used always or most often in the following constructions:[12]
JR Higashi-Nihon (East Japan Railway, JR Group)
Nihonbashi (日本橋) (a bridge in Tokyo)
Nihon Daigaku (Nihon University)[13]
Nihon-go (Japanese language)
Nihon-jin (Japanese people)[10]
Nihon-kai (Sea of Japan)[14]
Nihon Kōkū (Japan Airlines)
Nihon-shoki (an old history book, never Nippon shoki)[15]
In 2016, element 113 on the periodic table was named nihonium to honor its discovery in 2004 by Japanese scientists at RIKEN.[16] This is unrelated to "nipponium".
Jipangu[edit]
Another spelling, "Zipangni" (upper left), was used on a 1561 map by Sebastian Münster.[17]
As mentioned above, the English word Japan has a circuitous derivation; but linguists believe it derives in part from the Portuguese recording of the early Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese word for Japan: Cipan (日本), which is rendered in pinyin as Rìběn (IPA: ʐʅ˥˩pən˨˩˦), and literally translates to "sun origin". Guó (IPA: kuo˨˦) is Chinese for "realm" or "kingdom", so it could alternatively be rendered as Cipan-guo. The word was likely introduced to Portuguese through the Malay Jipang.
Cipangu was first mentioned in Europe in the accounts of Marco Polo. It appears for the first time on a European map with the Fra Mauro map in 1457, although it appears much earlier on Chinese and Korean maps such as the Gangnido. Following the accounts of Marco Polo, Cipangu was thought to be fabulously rich in silver and gold, which in Medieval times was largely correct, owing to the volcanism of the islands and the possibility to access precious ores without resorting to (unavailable) deep-mining technologies.
The Dutch name, Japan, may be derived from the southern Chinese pronunciation of 日本, Yatbun or Yatpun. The Dutch J is generally pronounced Y, hence Ja-Pan.[18][unreliable source?]
The modern Shanghainese pronunciation of Japan is Zeppen [zəʔpən]. In modern Japanese, Cipangu is transliterated as ジパング which in turn can be transliterated into English as Jipangu, Zipangu, Jipang, or Zipang. Jipangu (ジパング (Zipangu)) as an obfuscated name for Japan has recently come into vogue for Japanese films, anime, video games, etc.
Other Names[edit]
Classical:[edit]
These names were invented after the introduction of Chinese into the language, and they show up in historical texts for prehistoric legendary dates and also in names of gods and Japanese emperors:
Ōyashima (大八洲) meaning the Great Country of Eight (or Many) Islands,[19] Awaji, Iyo (later Shikoku), Oki, Tsukushi (later Kyūshū), Iki, Tsushima, Sado, and Yamato (later Honshū); note that Hokkaidō, Chishima, and Okinawa were not part of Japan in ancient times, as they were not yet discovered or known by the ancient Japanese. The eight islands refers to the creation of the main eight islands of Japan by the gods Izanami and Izanagi in Japanese mythology as well as the fact that eight was a synonym for "many".
Yashima (八島), "Eight (or Many) Islands"
Fusō (扶桑)
Mizuho (瑞穂) refers to ears of grain, e.g. 瑞穂国 Mizuho-no-kuni "Country of Lush Ears (of Rice)." From Old Japanese midu > Japanese mizu ("water; lushness, freshness, juiciness") + Old Japanese fo > Japanese ho ("ear (of grain, especially rice)").
Shikishima (敷島) is written with Chinese characters that suggest a meaning "islands that one has spread/laid out," but this name of Japan supposedly originates in the name of an area in Shiki District of Yamato Province in which some emperors of ancient Japan resided. The name of Shikishima (i.e. Shiki District) came to be used in Japanese poetry as an epithet for the province of Yamato (i.e. the ancient predecessor of Nara Prefecture), and was metonymically extended to refer to the entire island of Yamato (i.e. Honshū) and, eventually, to the entire territory of Japan. Note that the word shima, though generally meaning only "island" in Japanese, also means "area, zone, territory" in many languages of the Ryūkyū Islands.
Akitsukuni (秋津国), Akitsushima (秋津島), Toyo-akitsushima (豊秋津島). According to the literal meanings of the Chinese characters used to transcribe these names of Japan, toyo means "abundant," aki means "autumn," tsu means "harbor," shima means "island," and kuni means "country, land." In this context, -tsu may be interpreted to be a fossilized genitive case suffix, as in matsuge "eyelash" (< Japanese me "eye" + -tsu + Japanese ke "hair") or tokitsukaze "a timely wind, a favorable wind" (< Japanese toki "time" + -tsu + Japanese kaze "wind"). However, akitu or akidu are also archaic or dialectal Japanese words for "dragonfly," so "Akitsushima" may be interpreted to mean "Dragonfly Island."[20] Another possible interpretation would take akitsu- to be identical with the akitsu- of akitsukami or akitsumikami ("god incarnate, a manifest deity," often used as an honorific epithet for the Emperor of Japan), perhaps with the sense of "the present land, the island(s) where we are at present."
Toyoashihara no mizuho no kuni (豊葦原の瑞穂の国). "Country of Lush Ears of Bountiful Reed Plain(s)," Ashihara no Nakatsukuni, "Central Land of Reed Plains," "Country Amidst Reed Plain(s)" (葦原中国).
Hinomoto (日の本). Simple kun reading of 日本.
The katakana transcription ジャパン (Japan) of the English word Japan is sometimes encountered in Japanese, for example in the names of organizations seeking to project an international image. Examples include ジャパンネット銀行 (Japan Netto Ginkō) (Japan Net Bank), ジャパンカップ (Japan Kappu) (Japan Cup), ワイヤレスジャパン (Waiyaresu Japan) (Wireless Japan), etc.
Dōngyáng (東洋) and Dōngyíng (東瀛) – both literally, "Eastern Ocean" – are Chinese terms sometimes used to refer to Japan exotically when contrasting it with other countries or regions in eastern Eurasia; however, these same terms may also be used to refer to all of East Asia when contrasting "the East" with "the West". The first term, Dōngyáng, has been considered to be a pejorative term when used to mean "Japan", while the second, Dōngyíng, has remained a positive poetic name. They can be contrasted with Nányáng (Southern Ocean), which refers to Southeast Asia, and Xīyáng (Western Ocean), which refers to the Western world. In Japanese and Korean, the Chinese word for "Eastern Ocean" (pronounced as tōyō in Japanese and as dongyang (동양) in Korean) is used only to refer to the Far East (including both East Asia and Southeast Asia) in general, and it is not used in the more specific Chinese sense of "Japan".
In China, Japan is called Rìběn, which is the Mandarin pronunciation for the kanji 日本. The Cantonese pronunciation is Yahtbún [jɐt˨ pun˧˥], the Shanghainese pronunciation is Zeppen [zəʔpən], and the Hokkien pronunciation is Ji̍tpún. This has influenced the Malay name for Japan, Jepun, and the Thai word Yipun (ญี่ปุ่น). The terms Jepang and Jipang, ultimately derived from Chinese, were previously used in both Malay and Indonesian, but are today confined primarily to the Indonesian language. The Japanese introduced Nippon and Dai Nippon into Indonesia during the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945) but the native Jepang remains more common. In Korean, Japan is called Ilbon (Hangeul: 일본, Hanja: 日本), which is the Korean pronunciation of the Sino-Korean name, and in Sino-Vietnamese, Japan is called Nhật Bản (also rendered as Nhựt Bổn). In Mongolian, Japan is called Yapon (Япон).
Ue-kok (倭國) is recorded for older Hokkien speakers.[21] In the past, Korea also used 倭國, pronounced Waeguk (왜국).
Non-CJK Names:[edit]
Language
Contemporary name for Japan (romanization)
Amharic ጃፓን (japani)
Arabic اليابان (al-yābān)
Armenian ճապոնիա (Chaponia)
Azerbaijani Yaponiya
Bangla জাপান (Jāpān)
Basque Japonia
Belarusian Японія (Japonija)
Catalan Japó
Croatian Japan
Czech Japonsko
Dutch Japan
English Japan
Filipino Hapön (Japòn)
Finnish Japani
French Japon
Galician O Xapón
Georgian იაპონია (iaponia)
German Japan
Greek Ιαπωνία (Iaponía)
Hawaiian Iapana
Hebrew יפן (Yapan)
Hindi जापान (jāpān)
Hungarian Japán
Icelandic Japan
Indonesian Jepang
Irish An tSeapáin
Italian Giappone
Kazakh Жапония (Japoniya)
Khmer ជប៉ុន (japon)
Kurdish Japonya
Malay جڤون (Jepun)
Maltese Ġappun
Mongolia Япон
Persian ژاپن (žāpon)
Polish Japonia
Portuguese Japão
Romanian Japonia
Russian Япония (Yaponiya)
Scottish Gaelic Iapan
Sinhala ජපානය (Japanaya)
Spanish Japón
Swedish Japan
Tamil ஜப்பான் (Jappaan)
Thai ญี่ปุ่น (yīpun)
Turkish Japonya
Ukrainian Японія (Yaponiya)
Urdu جاپان (jāpān)
Welsh Siapan
Xhosa Japhan
See also[edit]
Japanese name (names of Japanese people)
Japanese place names
List of country-name etymologies
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric et al. (2005). "Nihon" in Japan encyclopedia, p. 707., p. 707, at Google Books; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, see Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File Archived 2012-05-24 at Archive.is.
Jump up ^ Joan, R. Piggott (1997). The emergence of Japanese kingship. Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-8047-2832-1.
Jump up ^ . Inoues.net http://inoues.net/wal.html. Retrieved 2011-09-26. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ In Japanese, countries whose "long form" does not contain a designation such as republic or kingdom are generally given a name appended by the character 国 ("country" or "nation"): for example, ドミニカ国 (Dominica), バハマ国 (Bahamas), and クウェート国 (Kuwait).
Jump up ^ Doi (1980:463)
Jump up ^ Doi (1980:363)
Jump up ^ Nippon or Nihon? No consensus on Japanese pronunciation of Japan, Japan Today
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Nippon" at p. 709., p. 709, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nihon Kokugo Daijiten Henshū Iin Kai, Shōgakukan Kokugo Daijiten Henshūbu (2002) [2000]. Nihon Kokugo Daijiten (2nd edition). Shōgakukan.
^ Jump up to: a b Nussbaum, "Nihon Ginkō" at p. 708., p. 708, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Nippon" passim at pp. 717., p. 717, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Nihon" passim at pp. 707–711., p. 707, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Nihon University (Nihon Daigaku)" at pp. 710–711., p. 710, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Nihonjin" at pp. 708–709., p. 708, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Nihon shoki" at p. 710., p. 710, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Richard Gonzales (2016-06-10). "Hello, Nihonium. Scientists Name 4 New Elements on the Periodic Table". Ww2.kqed.org. Retrieved 2016-07-05.
Jump up ^ Forbes JD (2007). The American Discovery of Europe. University of Illinois Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780252091254.
Jump up ^ "Japan Omnibus - General - Facts and Figures". Japan-zone.com. Retrieved 2016-07-05.
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Ō-ya-shima no Kuni" at p. 768., p. 768, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Nussbaum, "Akitsushima" at p. 20., p. 20, at Google Books
Jump up ^ "www.chineselanguage.org message board". Chinalanguage.com. Retrieved 2011-09-26.
References[edit]
Doi, Tadao (1980) [1603]. Hōyaku Nippo Jisho (in Japanese). Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 4-00-080021-3.
Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric; Käthe Roth (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301
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Rewa (princely state)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Rewa State
Rewah State
Princely State of British India
c. 1790–1948 →
Flag Coat of arms
Rewah State in the Imperial Gazetteer of India
History
• Established c. 1790
• Independence of India 1948
Area
• 1901 33,670 km2 (13,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1901 1,327,385
Density 39.4 /km2 (102.1 /sq mi)
Today part of India
Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952) p. 369
The Govindgarh palace of the Maharaja of Rewa in 1882
Flag of Rewa State in the 19th century[1]
Elephant Carriage of the Maharaja of Rewa, Delhi Durbar of 1903.
Rewa State, also known as Rewah, was a princely state of India, surrounding its eponymous capital, the town of Rewa.[2]
With an area of about 34,000 km2 (13,000 sq mi), Rewa was the largest princely state in the Bagelkhand Agency and the second largest in Central India Agency. The British political agent for Bagelkhand resided at Satna, on the East Indian railway. The Bagelkhand Agency was dissolved in 1933 and Rewa was placed under the authority of the Indore Residency.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 History
2.1 Post-independence period
2.2 Rulers of Rewa
2.2.1 List of rulers
3 References
4 External links
Description[edit]
Rewa State was bordered to the north by the United Provinces, to the east by Bengal and to the south by the Central Provinces. On the west, it met other princely states of Bagelkhand: Maihar, Nagod, Sohawal, Kothi Baghelan and Panna. The south of the state was crossed by the Bengal–Nagpur railway, the branch between Bilaspur and Katni which taps the Umaria coal-field.
In 1901, the population of the state was 1,327,385, showing a decrease of 12% over a decade; the population of the town that year was 24,608. Many of the inhabitants of the hilly tracts were Gonds and Kols. The estimated revenue of the state was ₹200,000/- p.a. The staple crops were rice, millets and wheat. More than one-third of the area was covered with forests, yielding timber and lac. The state suffered from famine in 1896–1897 and again, to a lesser extent, in 1899–1900.
Rewa is famous for its white tigers; the first one, nicknamed Mohan, was caught in Rewa. Sitar virtuoso Pandit Ravi Shankar studied music from Alauddin Khan of Maihar, who migrated to Rewa State from Bengal.
History[edit]
According to tradition, Rewa state was founded around 1140. On 5 October 1812 it became a British protectorate. Rewa state became part of the British India administration between 1 April 1875 and 15 October 1895.[3]
The Rajas of Rewa were of the Baghela (Vaghela) branch of the Rajput[citation needed] or Chalukya clan (Hindu Agnivanshi clan of Indian stock), and claimed descent from the founder of the Anhilwara (Patan) dynasty in Gujarat. They ruled from Bandhavgarh under the first ruler, Raja Vyaghra Dev, who was a direct descendant of Gujarati King and Warrior Vir Dhawal. In the mid-1550s, Raja Ramachandra Singh Baghela maintained a musically talented court, including the legendary Tansen. In 1617, Maharaja Vikramaditya Singh moved his capital to Rewa. Maharaja Martand Singh was the last ruler of Rewa who acceded to the Union of India after the country became India.[citation needed]
Birbal was born in Sidhi District of Rewa Kingdom. The Emperor Sher Shah Suri died fighting with the ruler of Rewa, Vir Singh, at the Fort of Kalinjar.[citation needed]
Emperor Akbar was given refuge at Rewa at age 10, when his father Humayun fled India following a defeat in war. Prince Ramchandra Singh and Akbar grew up together as royal heirs. Maharaja Ramchandra Singh and Akbar stayed friends. Two of the Navratnas of Akbar, Tansen and Birbal (originally named Mahesh Das) were sent from Rewa by Maharaja Ramchandra Singh once Akbar became the Emperor of India.
Rewa was the first princely state in India to declare Hindi as a national language, in the times of Maharaja Gulab Singh. He is also credited for declaring the first responsible government in modern India, providing citizens of Rewa state a right to question their monarch's decisions.
The state came under British paramountcy in 1812 and remained a princely state within the British Raj until India's independence in 1947.
During the long minority of Raja Venkat Raman Singh (b.1876, r.1880–1918), the administration of the state was reformed. In 1901, the town boasted a high school, a "model jail" and two hospitals: the Victoria hospital and the Zenana hospital. However, it was still adjudged among the most backward areas of the country by V.P. Menon, after he visited the state in 1947.
Post-independence period[edit]
Upon India's independence in 1947, the maharaja of Rewa acceded unto the Dominion of India. Rewa later merged with the Union of India and became part of Vindhya Pradesh, which was formed by the merger of the former princely states of the Bagelkhand and Bundelkhand agencies. Rewa served as the capital of the new state.
In 1956, Vindhya Pradesh was merged with other nearby political entities to form the Indian constitutive state of Madhya Pradesh. The Maharaja's palace was converted into a museum.
In February 2007, the most-extensive book on the history of Rewa, Baghelkhand, or the Tigers’ Lair by Dr D.E.U Baker, was published by Oxford University Press.
Bagheli is local language of Rewa.
Rulers of Rewa[edit]
The predecessor state Bandhogarh was founded c. 1140. The chiefs of Rewa were Baghels descended from the Solanki clan, which ruled over Gujarat from the 10th to 13th century. Vyaghra Deo, a brother of a ruler of Gujarat, is said to have made his way into northern India about the middle of the 13th century and gained the fort of Marpha, 29 km (18 mi) north-east of Kalinjar. His son Karandeo married a Kalchuri (Haihaya) princess of Mandla, and received in dowry the fort of Bandhogarh which, until its destruction in 1597 by Akbar the Great, was the Baghel capital. In 1298, Ulugh Khan, acting under orders of Mughal Padshah (emperor) Alauddin, drove the last Baghel ruler of Gujarat from his country and this is believed to have caused a considerable migration of Baghels to Bandhogarh. Until the 15th century, the Baghels of Bandhogarh were engaged in extending their possessions and escaped the attention of the Delhi Sultans, in 1498–1499, Sikandar Lodi failed in his attempt to take the fort of Bandhogarh.[citation needed]
List of rulers[edit]
The following is a list of known rulers of Rewa (or its predecessor state, Bandhogarh), in chronological order by their reign. They took the title of Raja or, from 1857, Majaraja or Maharaja.
Raja Shaktivan Deo, r.1495–1500, Raja of Bandhogarh
Raja Veer Singh Deo, r.1500–1540
Raja Virbhan Singh, r.1540–1555
Raja Ramchandra Singh, r.1555–1592
Raja Duryodhan Singh Birbhadra Singh, r.1593–1618 (deposed), 19th Raja of Bandhogarh
Raja Vikramaditya, r.1618–1630. His accession gave rise to disturbances. Akbar intervened, captured and dismantled the Bandhogarh fort in 1597 after a siege of eight months. It is after this that the town of Rewa started gaining importance. It is said to have been founded by Raja Vikramaditya in 1618 (which perhaps means that he undertook the construction of palaces and other buildings there because the place had already assumed importance in 1554 when it was held by Jalal Khan, son of emperor Shershah).
Raja Amar Singh II, r.1630–1643
Raja Anoop Singh, r.1643–1660
Raja Bhao Singh, r.1660–1690. He married twice but died childless.
Raja Anirudh Singh, r.1690–1700, a grandson of Raja Anoop Singh, he was adopted by and succeeded his childless uncle, Raja Bhao Singh.
Raja Avadhut Singh, r.1700–1755. The state was sacked by Hirde Shah of Panna, c.1731, causing the Raja to flee to Pratapgarh in Oudh (Awadh).
Raja Ajit Singh, r.1755–1809.
Raja Jai Singh, b.1765, r.1809–1835. In 1812, a body of Pindaris raided Mirzapur from Rewa territory, for which Jai Singh was called upon to accede to a treaty acknowledging the protection of the British Government, and agreed to refer all disputes with neighbouring chiefs to their arbitration and to allow British troops in his territories.
Raja Vishwanath Singh, b.1789, r.1835–1854.
Raja Raghuraj Singh Ju Deo Bahadur, b.1831, r.1854–1857 as Raja then as Majaraja 1857–1880. He helped the British quell the uprisings in the neighbouring Mandla and Jabalpur districts in the mutiny of 1857. For this service the Sohagpur (Shahdol) and Amarkantak parganas were restored to his rule (having been seized by the Marathas in the beginning of the century), and he was made the first Majaraja of Rewa, ruling until his death on 5 February 1880.
Raja Aman Bahadur Singh Baghel [ 1999 - Present ] Studied From The Daly College, Indore
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Princely States of India K–Z
Jump up ^ RewaCityOnline – Information about Rewa City
Jump up ^ Princely States of India
External links[edit]
Media related to Rewa State at Wikimedia Commons
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List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)
Salute state
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e
Former Princely states in Central India
Salute states
Ajaigarh
Ali( )Rajpur
Baoni
Baraundha
Barwani
Benares (Ramnagar)
Bhopal
Bijawar
Charkhari
Datia
Dewas Junior
Dewas Senior
Dhar
Gwalior
Indore (Holkar)
Jaora
Jhabua
Khilchipur
Maihar
Narsinghgarh
Orchha
Panna
Rajgarh
Rampur
Ratlam
Rewa
Sailana
Samthar
Sitamau
Non-salute states
Alipura
Bhadaura
Basoda
Beri(-Bundelkhand)
Bhaisaunda
Bihat
Chhatarpur
Garha
Garrauli
Gaurihar
Jaitpur
Jaso
Jigni
Jobat
Kamta-Rajaula
Kathiwara
Khaniadhana
Kothi
Kurwai (Korwai)
Lugasi
Makrai
Maksudangarh
Mathwar
Mohammadgarh
Nagod(h)(e)
Naigawan Rebai
Pahara
Paldeo
Paron
Pathari
Piploda
Raghogarh
Ratanmal
Sarila
Sohawal
Taraon
Umri
Agra Barkhera
Kathaun
Khiaoda
Sangul Wardha
Sirsi
Jagir estates
Kanda
Borjhad
Bakhatgarh
Banka–Pahari
Bhaisunda
Bijna
Bilheri
Dhotria
Dhurwai
Jamnia State
Kachhi-Baroda
Kali-Baori
Kamta-Rajaula
Multhan
Nimkhera
Ondhwa
Panth-Piploda
Rajgadh
Sondhwa
Tori Fatehpur
Extinguished (e)states
Amjhera
Banpur
Bijeraghogarh
Chirgaon
Jaitpur
Jalaun
Jhansi
Khaddi
Purwa
Tiroha
Shahgarh
Related topics
Central India Agency
Bagelkhand Agency
Bhopal Agency
Bhopawar Agency
Bundelkhand Agency
Chaube Jagirs
Gwalior Residency
Hasht-Bhaiya
List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)
Malwa Agency
Princely states annexed by the British Raj
Saugor and Nerbudda Territories
Coordinates: 24°31′48″N 81°18′00″E / 24.5300°N 81.3000°E / 24.5300; 81.3000
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rewa_(princely_state)&oldid=834404599"
Categories:
States and territories disestablished in 1948
Princely states of Madhya Pradesh
Rewa district
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