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Loanword
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For loanwords in the English language, see Lists of English words by country or language of origin.
A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word adopted from one language (the donor language) and incorporated into another language without translation. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because they share an etymological origin, and calques, which involve translation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Examples and related terms
2 From the arts
3 Linguistic classification
4 Popular and learned loanwords
5 In English
6 In languages other than English
6.1 Transmission in the Ottoman Empire
6.2 Dutch words in Indonesian
6.3 Loan words in Japanese
7 Cultural aspects
8 Changes in meaning and pronunciation
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Examples and related terms[edit]
A loanword is distinguished from a calque (loan translation), which is a word or phrase whose meaning or idiom is adopted from another language by translation into existing words or word-forming roots of the recipient language.
Examples of loanwords in the English language include café (from French café, which literally means "coffee"), bazaar (from Persian bāzār, which means "market"), and kindergarten (from German Kindergarten, which literally means "children's garden").
In a bit of heterological irony, the word calque is a loanword from the French noun, derived from the verb calquer (to trace, to copy);[1] the word loanword is a calque of the German word Lehnwort;[2] and the phrase "loan translation" is a calque of the German Lehnübersetzung.[3]
Loans of multi-word phrases, such as the English use of the French term déjà vu, are known as adoptions, adaptations, or lexical borrowings.[4][5]
Strictly speaking, the term loanword conflicts with the ordinary meaning of loan in that something is taken from the donor language without it being something that is possible to return.[6]
From the arts[edit]
Most of the technical vocabulary of classical music (such as concerto, allegro, tempo, aria, opera, and soprano) is borrowed from Italian,[7] and that of ballet from French.[8]
Linguistic classification[edit]
The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1939), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influence.[9] The basic theoretical statements all take Betz’s nomenclature as their starting point. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution” and supplements the system with English terms. A schematic illustration of these classifications is given below.[10]
The expression "foreign word" used in the illustration below is, however, an incorrect translation of the German term Fremdwort, which refers to loanwords whose pronunciation, spelling, and possible inflection or gender have not yet been so much adapted to the new language that they cease to feel foreign. Such a separation of loanwords into two distinct categories is not used by linguists in English in talking about any language. In addition, basing such a separation mainly on spelling as described in the illustration is (or, in fact, was) not usually done except by German linguists and only when talking about German and sometimes other languages that tend to adapt foreign spellings, which is rare in English unless the word has been in wide use for a very long time.
According to the linguist Suzanne Kemmer, the expression "foreign word" can be defined as follows in English: "[W]hen most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Schadenfreude (German)."[11] This is however not how the term is (incorrectly) used in this illustration:
On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution.... (2) Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation.... (3) Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen later refined (1956) his model in a review of Gneuss’s (1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz (1949) again.
Weinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines simple words “from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s (1949) terminology.
Popular and learned loanwords[edit]
There is a distinction between "popular" and "learned" loanwords. Popular loanwords are transmitted orally. Learned loanwords are first used in written language, often for scholarly, scientific, or literary purposes.[12]
In English[edit]
See also: Lists of English words by country or language of origin
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The English language has often borrowed words from other cultures or languages:
Spanish definition
English definition
sombrero
"hat" "a wide-brimmed festive Mexican hat"
Other examples of words borrowed by English
from Hindi from Afrikaans from Malay
jungle
dacoit
loot
juggernaut (from Sanskrit 'Jagannath')
syce/sais
dinghy
chutney
pundit
wallah
bangle
cheetah
cot
blighty
shampoo
thug
karma (from Sanskrit)
sari
bungalow
jodhpurs
[from Persian origin]
pajama/pyjamas
bazaar
trek
aardvark
laager
wildebeest
veld orangutan
shirang
amok
[via Afrikaans from Malay]
sjambok
Some English loanwords remain relatively faithful to the donor language's phonology even though a particular phoneme might not exist or have contrastive status in English. For example, the Hawaiian word ʻaʻā is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the English pronunciation, /ˈɑː.ɑː/ or /ˈɑːʔɑː/, contains at most one. In addition, the English spelling usually removes the ʻokina and macron diacritics.[13]
The majority of English affixes, such as un-, -ing, and -ly, were present in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the English verbal suffix -ize (American English) or ise (British English) comes from Greek -ιζειν (-izein) via Latin -izare.
In languages other than English[edit]
Transmission in the Ottoman Empire[edit]
During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and administrative language of the empire was Turkish, with many Persian, and Arabic loanwords, called Ottoman Turkish, considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many such words were exported to other languages of the empire, such as Albanian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek, Hungarian and Ladino. After the empire fell after World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language Association, during which many adopted words were replaced with new formations derived from Turkic roots. That was part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms, which also included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet.
Turkish also has taken many words from French, such as pantolon for trousers (from French pantalon) and komik for funny (from French comique), most of them pronounced very similarly. Word usage in modern Turkey has acquired a political tinge: right-wing publications tend to use more Arabic or Persian originated words, left-wing ones use more adopted from European languages, while centrist ones use more native Turkish root words.[14]
Dutch words in Indonesian[edit]
Almost 350 years of Dutch presence in what is now Indonesia have left significant linguistic traces. Though very few Indonesians have a fluent knowledge of Dutch, the Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch, both in words for everyday life and as well in scientific or technological terminology.[15] One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words.[16]
Loan words in Japanese[edit]
Main article: Gairaigo
Cultural aspects[edit]
According to Hans Henrich Hock and Brian Joseph, "languages and dialects ... do not exist in a vacuum": there is always linguistic contact between groups.[17] The contact influences what loanwords are integrated into the lexicon and which certain words are chosen over others.
Changes in meaning and pronunciation[edit]
In some cases, the original meaning shifts considerably through unexpected logical leaps. The English word Viking became Japanese バイキング baikingu meaning 'buffet', because Imperial Viking was the first restaurant in Japan to offer buffet-style meals.[18]
See also[edit]
Cognate
Hybrid word
Inkhorn term
Language contact
Lists of English words by country or language of origin
Phono-semantic matching
Semantic loan
Neologism
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Calque, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
Jump up ^ Carr, Charles T. (1934). The German Influence on the English Language. Society for Pure English Tract No. 42. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 75. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Robb: German English Words germanenglishwords.com
Jump up ^ Chesley, Paula; Baayen, R. Harald (2010). "Predicting New Words from Newer Words: Lexical Borrowings in French". Linguistics. 48 (4): 1343–74.
Jump up ^ Thomason, Sarah G. (2001). Language Contact: An Introduction. Washington: Georgetown University Press.
Jump up ^ Jespersen, Otto (1964). Language. New York: Norton Library. p. 208. ISBN 0-393-00229-2. Linguistic 'borrowing' is really nothing but imitation.
Jump up ^ Shanet 1956: 155.
Jump up ^ Kersley & Sinclair 1979: 3.
Jump up ^ Compare the two survey articles by Oksaar (1996: 4f.), Stanforth (2002) and Grzega (2003, 2004).
Jump up ^ The following comments and examples are taken from Grzega, Joachim (2004), Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu?, Heidelberg: Winter, p. 139, and Grzega, Joachim (2003), “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”, Onomasiology Online 4: 22–42.
Jump up ^ Loanwords by Prof. S. Kemmer, Rice University
Jump up ^ Algeo, John (2009-02-02). The Origins and Development of the English Language. Cengage Learning. ISBN 1428231455.
Jump up ^ Elbert, Samuel H.; Pukui, Mary Kawena (1986). Hawaiian Dictionary (Revised and enlarged ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. p. 389. ISBN 0-8248-0703-0.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Geoffrey (2002). The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925669-1.
Jump up ^ Sneddon (2003), p.162.
Jump up ^ "A Hidden Language – Dutch in Indonesia [eScholarship]". Repositories.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2015-03-29.
Jump up ^ Hock, Hans Henrich; Joseph., Brian D. (2009). "Lexical Borrowing". Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics (2nd ed.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 241–78. .
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
References[edit]
Best, Karl-Heinz, Kelih, Emmerich (eds.) (2014): Entlehnungen und Fremdwörter: Quantitative Aspekte. Lüdenscheid: RAM-Verlag.
Betz, Werner (1949): Deutsch und Lateinisch: Die Lehnbildungen der althochdeutschen Benediktinerregel. Bonn: Bouvier.
Betz, Werner (1959): “Lehnwörter und Lehnprägungen im Vor- und Frühdeutschen”. In: Maurer, Friedrich / Stroh, Friedrich (eds.): Deutsche Wortgeschichte. 2nd ed. Berlin: Schmidt, vol. 1, 127–147.
Bloom, Dan (2010): "What's That Pho?". French Loan Words in Vietnam Today; Taipei Times, [2]
Cannon, Garland (1999): “Problems in studying loans”, Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 25, 326–336.
Duckworth, David (1977): “Zur terminologischen und systematischen Grundlage der Forschung auf dem Gebiet der englisch-deutschen Interferenz: Kritische Übersicht und neuer Vorschlag”. In: Kolb, Herbert / Lauffer, Hartmut (eds.) (1977): Sprachliche Interferenz: Festschrift für Werner Betz zum 65. Geburtstag. Tübingen: Niemeyer, p. 36–56.
Gneuss, Helmut (1955): Lehnbildungen und Lehnbedeutungen im Altenglischen. Berlin: Schmidt.
Grzega, Joachim (2003): “Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology”, Onomasiology Online 4, 22–42.
Grzega, Joachim (2004): Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu? Heidelberg: Winter.
Haugen, Einar (1950): “The analysis of linguistic borrowing”. Language 26, 210–231.
Haugen, Einar (1956): “Review of Gneuss 1955”. Language 32, 761–766.
Hitchings, Henry (2008), The Secret Life of Words: How English Became English, London: John Murray, ISBN 978-0-7195-6454-3 .
Hayakawa, Isamu (2014), A Historical Dictionary of Japanese Words Used in English, Revised and Corrected Edition, Amazon, Tokyo: Texnai, ISBN 978-4907162313 .
Kersley, Leo; Sinclair, Janet (1979), A Dictionary of Ballet Terms, Da Capo Press, ISBN 0-306-80094-2 External link in |title= (help).
Koch, Peter (2002): “Lexical Typology from a Cognitive and Linguistic Point of View”. In: Cruse, D. Alan et al. (eds.): Lexicology: An International on the Nature and Structure of Words and Vocabularies/Lexikologie: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1142–1178.
Oksaar, Els (1996): “The history of contact linguistics as a discipline”. In: Goebl, Hans et al. (eds.): Kontaktlinguistik/contact linguistics/linguistique de contact: ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenössischer Forschung/an international handbook of contemporary research/manuel international des recherches contemporaines. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1–12.
Shanet, Howard (1956), Learn to Read Music, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-671-21027-4 External link in |title= (help).
Stanforth, Anthony W. (2002): “Effects of language contact on the vocabulary: an overview”. In: Cruse, D. Alan et al. (eds.) (2002): Lexikologie: ein internationales Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen/Lexicology: an international handbook on the nature and structure of words and vocabularies. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, p. 805–813.
Weinreich, Uriel (1953): Languages in contact: findings and problems. The Hague: Mouton.
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2003), ‘‘Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew’’, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (ISBN 978-1-4039-3869-5)
External links[edit]
Look up loanword in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
World Loanword Database (WOLD)
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text:
Forbes' list of world's highest-paid athletes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This is a list of the highest-paid athletes in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine.
Contents
[hide]
1 2017 list
2 2016 list
3 2015 list
4 2014 list
5 2013 list
6 2012 list
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
2017 list[edit]
The 2017 list:[1]
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements
1 Cristiano Ronaldo Football Portugal $93 million $58 million $35 million
2 LeBron James Basketball United States $86.2 million $31.2 million $55 million
3 Lionel Messi Football Argentina $80 million $53 million $27 million
4 Roger Federer Tennis Switzerland $64 million $6 million $58 million
5 Kevin Durant Basketball United States $60.6 million $26.6 million $34 million
6 Andrew Luck American football United States $50 million $47 million $3 million
6 Rory McIlroy Golf Northern Ireland $50 million $16 million $34 million
8 Stephen Curry Basketball United States $47.3 million $12.3 million $35 million
9 James Harden Basketball United States $46.6 million $26.6 million $20 million
10 Lewis Hamilton Auto racing England $46 million $38 million $8 million
2016 list[edit]
The 2016 list:[2]
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements
1 Cristiano Ronaldo Football Portugal $88 million $56 million $32 million
2 Lionel Messi Football Argentina $81.4 million $53.4 million $28 million
3 LeBron James Basketball United States $77.2 million $23.2 million $54 million
4 Roger Federer Tennis Switzerland $67.8 million $7.8 million $60 million
5 Kevin Durant Basketball United States $56.2 million $20.2 million $36 million
6 Novak Djokovic Tennis Serbia $55.8 million $21.8 million $34 million
7 Cam Newton American football United States $53.1 million $41.1 million $12 million
8 Phil Mickelson Golf United States $52.9 million $2.9 million $50 million
9 Jordan Spieth Golf United States $52.8 million $20.8 million $32 million
10 Kobe Bryant Basketball United States $50 million $25 million $25 million
2015 list[edit]
The 2015 list was released on 10 June 2015.[3]
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements
1 Floyd Mayweather Jr. Boxing United States $300 million $285 million $15 million
2 Manny Pacquiao Boxing Philippines $160 million $148 million $12 million
3 Cristiano Ronaldo Football Portugal $79.6 million $52.6 million $27 million
4 Lionel Messi Football Argentina $73.8 million $51.8 million $22 million
5 Roger Federer Tennis Switzerland $67 million $9 million $58 million
6 LeBron James Basketball United States $64.8 million $20.8 million $44 million
7 Kevin Durant Basketball United States $54.1 million $19.1 million $35 million
8 Phil Mickelson Golf United States $50.8 million $2.8 million $48 million
9 Tiger Woods Golf United States $50.6 million $0.6 million $50 million
10 Kobe Bryant Basketball United States $49.5 million $23.5 million $26 million
2014 list[edit]
The 2014 list was released on 11 June 2014.[4]
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements
1 Floyd Mayweather Jr. Boxing United States $105 million $105 million $0
2 Cristiano Ronaldo Football Portugal $80 million $52 million $28 million
3 LeBron James Basketball United States $72.3 million $19.3 million $53 million
4 Lionel Messi Football Argentina $64.7 million $41.7 million $23 million
5 Kobe Bryant Basketball United States $61.5 million $30.5 million $31 million
6 Tiger Woods Golf United States $61.2 million $6.2 million $55 million
7 Roger Federer Tennis Switzerland $56.2 million $4.2 million $52 million
8 Phil Mickelson Golf United States $53.2 million $5.2 million $48 million
9 Rafael Nadal Tennis Spain $44.5 million $14.5 million $30 million
10 Matt Ryan American football United States $43.8 million $42 million $1.8 million
2013 list[edit]
The 2013 list was released on 5 June 2013.[5]
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements
1 Tiger Woods Golf United States $78.1 million $13.1 million $65 million
2 Roger Federer Tennis Switzerland $71.5 million $6.5 million $65 million
3 Kobe Bryant Basketball United States $61.9 million $27.9 million $34 million
4 LeBron James Basketball United States $59.8 million $17.8 million $42 million
5 Drew Brees American football United States $51 million $40 million $11 million
6 Aaron Rodgers American football United States $49 million $43 million $6 million
7 Phil Mickelson Golf United States $48.7 million $4.7 million $44 million
8 David Beckham Football England $47.2 million $5.2 million $42 million
9 Cristiano Ronaldo Football Portugal $44 million $23 million $21 million
10 Lionel Messi Football Argentina $41.3 million $20.3 million $21 million
2012 list[edit]
The 2012 list was released on 18 June 2012.[6]
Rank
Name
Sport
Nationality
Total earnings
Salary/winnings
Endorsements
1 Floyd Mayweather Jr. Boxing United States $85 million $85 million $0
2 Manny Pacquiao Boxing Philippines $62 million $56 million $6 million
3 Tiger Woods Golf United States $59.4 million $4.4 million $55 million
4 LeBron James Basketball United States $53 million $13 million $40 million
5 Roger Federer Tennis Switzerland $52.7 million $7.7 million $45 million
6 Kobe Bryant Basketball United States $52.3 million $20.3 million $32 million
7 Phil Mickelson Golf United States $47.8 million $4.8 million $43 million
8 David Beckham Football England $46 million $9 million $37 million
9 Cristiano Ronaldo Football Portugal $42.5 million $20.5 million $22 million
10 Peyton Manning American football United States $42.4 million $32.4 million $10 million
See also[edit]
List of professional sports leagues by revenue
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The World's Highest Paid Athletes 2017".
Jump up ^ "World's Highest Paid Athletes 2016". Forbes. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Forbes Announces 2015 List Of The World's 100 Highest-Paid Athletes". Forbes. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Floyd Mayweather Heads 2014 List Of The World's Highest-Paid Athletes". Forbes. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "The World's Highest-Paid Athletes 2013: Behind The Numbers". Forbes. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Mayweather Tops List Of The World's 100 Highest-Paid Athletes". Forbes. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
External links[edit]
The World's Highest-Paid Athletes List - Forbes
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Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution
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This article is part of a series on the
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The drafting of the Constitution of the United States began on May 25, 1787, when the Constitutional Convention met for the first time with a quorum at the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to revise the Articles of Confederation, and ended on September 17, 1787, the day the Constitution drafted by the convention's delegates to replace the Articles was adopted and signed. The ratification process for the Constitution began that day, and ended when the final state, Rhode Island, ratified it on May 29, 1790. In addition to key events during the Constitutional Convention and afterward while the Constitution was before the states for their ratification, this timeline includes important events that occurred during the run-up to the convention and during the nation's transition from government under the Articles of Confederation to government under the Constitution, and concludes with the unique ratification vote of Vermont, which at the time was a sovereign state outside the Union. The time span covered is 5 years, 9 months, from March 25, 1785 to January 10, 1791.
Contents
[hide]
1 1785
2 1786
3 1787
4 1788
5 1789
6 1790
7 1791
8 Gallery
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
1785[edit]
March 25 • Maryland–Virginia conference convenes
Initially scheduled to assemble in Alexandria, Virginia on March 21, delegates representing the states of Maryland and Virginia gather at Mount Vernon, the Fairfax County home of George Washington, to address navigational rights in the states' common waterways.[1] Attending what later became known as the Mount Vernon Conference were: Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Thomas Stone, and Samuel Chase, from Maryland; along with George Mason, and Alexander Henderson of Virginia.[2]
March 28 • Maryland–Virginia conference concludes
Delegates approve a thirteen-point agreement, commonly known as the Mount Vernon Compact, regulating commerce, fishing, and navigation in the waters of the Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers, and Chesapeake Bay.[1] The agreement was subsequently ratified by both the Virginia and Maryland General Assemblies, becoming the nation's first interstate compact.[3][4]
1786[edit]
January 21 • Conference to address certain defects of the federal government called
Virginia General Assembly calls for an interstate convention for the purpose of discussing and developing a consensus about reversing the protectionist trade and commerce barriers existing between the various states.[5]
September 11 • Annapolis Convention convenes
Delegates representing Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia meet at George Mann's Tavern[6] in Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to facilitate commerce between the states and establish standard rules and regulations. Appointed delegates from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island either arrived too late to participate or otherwise did not attend.[7] Four states: Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland and South Carolina, did not appoint delegates.
September 14 • Annapolis Convention adjourns
The convention report, sent to Congress and the legislatures of the various states, contains a request that another convention be held the following May at Philadelphia to discuss amending the Articles of Confederation.[5][6]
November 23 •
New Jersey elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. David Brearley, Jonathan Dayton, William Houston, William Livingston, and William Paterson will attend.[8]
December 4 •
Virginia elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. John Blair Jr., James Madison, Jr., George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph, George Washington, and George Wythe will attend.[8]
December 30 •
Pennsylvania elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. George Clymer, Thomas FitzSimons, Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll, Thomas Mifflin, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, and James Wilson will attend.[8]
1787[edit]
January 6 •
North Carolina elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. William Blount, William Davie, Alexander Martin, Richard Dobbs Spaight, and Hugh Williamson will attend.[8]
January 17 •
New Hampshire elects delegates to the proposed Philadelphia Convention. Nicholas Gilman and John Langdon will attend.[8]
February 3 •
Delaware elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. Richard Bassett, Gunning Bedford, Jr., Jacob Broom, and John Dickinson, and George Read will attend.[8]
February 10 •
Georgia elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. Abraham Baldwin, William Few, William Houstoun, and William Pierce will attend.[8]
February 21 • Convention to discuss revisions to the Articles of Confederation called
The Congress of the Confederation calls a constitutional convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein and when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States render the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union".[9]
March 3 •
Massachusetts elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Elbridge Gerry, Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King, and Caleb Strong will attend.[8]
March 6 •
New York elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Alexander Hamilton, John Lansing, Jr., and Robert Yates will attend.[8]
March 8 •
South Carolina elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Pierce Butler, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, and John Rutledge will attend.[8]
April 23 •
Maryland elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Daniel Carroll, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Luther Martin, James McHenry, and John Mercer will attend.[8]
May 5 •
A motion to send delegates to the constitutional convention fails in the Rhode Island General Assembly.[10]
South facade of Independence Hall (formerly the Pennsylvania Statehouse), Philadelphia, where the Constitution was forged
May 14 • Constitutional Convention scheduled to begin
As only a small number of delegates have arrived in Philadelphia, the convention's opening meeting is postponed for lack of a quorum.[11]
May 14 •
Connecticut elects delegates to the constitutional convention. Oliver Ellsworth, William Samuel Johnson and Roger Sherman will attend.[8]
May 17 •
A letter from "Certain Citizens of Rhode Island" is sent to the convention expressing their support for its work and their regret that not every state will be participating.[10]
May 25 • Constitutional Convention convenes
As enough delegates have gathered at the Pennsylvania State House to constitute a quorum, the constitutional convention is called to order and delegates begin their work. George Washington is elected president of the convention. William Jackson is selected as the secretary to the convention. Alexander Hamilton, Charles Pinckney and George Wythe are chosen to prepare rules for the convention.[12]
George Washington, who served as president of the 1787 Constitutional Convention
Nathaniel Gorham, who served as chairman when delegates met as a Committee of the Whole
May 29 •
Virginia Plan (also known as the Large State Plan or the Randolph Plan) for structuring the federal government is presented by Edmund Randolph.[13]
May 29 •
Pinckney Plan for structuring the federal government is presented by Charles Pinckney.[14]
May 30 •
Nathaniel Gorham is elected to serve as chairman of the Committee of the Whole.[15]
June 15 •
New Jersey Plan (also known as the Small State Plan or the Paterson Plan) for structuring the federal government is presented by William Paterson.[16]
June 18 •
Hamilton Plan (also known as the British Plan) for structuring the federal government is presented by Alexander Hamilton.[17]
July 2 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Abraham Baldwin, Gunning Bedford, William Davie, Oliver Ellsworth, Benjamin Franklin, Elbridge Gerry, Luther Martin, George Mason, John Rutledge, William Patterson, and Robert Yates, is selected to work out a compromise on the issue of representation in the two houses of the federal legislature. Committees like this one, composed of one delegate from each state represented, were established on several occasions during the convention in order to secure a breakthrough so that the deliberative process could move forward in a productive fashion.[18]
July 16 •
Committee of Eleven report, proposing proportional representation for seats in the House of Representatives based on population, equal representation for each State in the Senate, and that all money bills would originate in the House, is approved by the convention (5–4–1). This is known as the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise).[19]
July 24 •
Committee of Detail, composed of John Rutledge, Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Gorham, Oliver Ellsworth, and James Wilson, is selected to write a first draft constitution reflective of the Resolutions passed by the convention up to that point.[12]
August 6 •
Committee of Detail report, proposing a twenty-three article (plus preamble) constitution is presented.[20]
August 18 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Abraham Baldwin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, Rufus King, John Langdon, William Livingston, George Mason, James McHenry, Charles C. Pinkney, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to address issues related to Federal assumption of state debts. Issues related to the militia are referred to this committee on August 20.[18]
August 22 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Abraham Baldwin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, William Johnson, Rufus King, John Langdon, William Livingston, Luther Martin, James Madison, Charles C. Pinkney, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to address issues related to federal tax and duty levying powers and also its power to regulate or prohibit the migration or importation of slaves.[18]
August 25 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Pierce Butler, Daniel Carrol, Jonathan Dayton, William Few, Thomas FitzSimons, Nathaniel Gorham, John Langdon, George Mason, George Read, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to consider issues related to interstate trade and navigation.[18]
August 31 •
Committee of Eleven (Leftover Business) composed of Abraham Baldwin, David Brearly, Pierce Butler, Daniel Carrol, John Dickinson, Nicholas Gilman, Rufus King, James Madison, Gouvernour Morris, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to settle "such parts of the Constitution as have been postponed, and such parts of Reports as have not been acted on".[12]
The convention voting record, which reflects the mutual concessions and compromises that produced the Constitution; this page records the final vote taken September 15, 1787
September 1–8 •
Committee of Eleven (Leftover Business) addresses several outstanding issues—including the method of choosing a president, the length of a presidential term of office, the president's treaty making power, and the impeachment of the president—and makes a series of reports.[18]
September 8 •
Committee of Style and Arrangement, composed of Alexander Hamilton, William Johnson, Rufus King, James Madison, and Gouverneur Morris, is selected to distill a final draft constitution from the twenty-three approved articles.[12]
September 12 •
Committee of Style and Arrangement presents the completed final draft of the Constitution to the convention for its consideration. The twenty-three articles have been reorganized into a cohesive document containing seven articles, a preamble and a closing endorsement, of which Gouverneur Morris was the primary author.[8] The committee also presented a proposed letter to accompany the constitution when delivered to Congress.[21]
September 13–14 •
The official copy of the draft Constitution is engrossed by Jacob Shallus.[22]
September 15 •
The draft Constitution receives the unanimous approval of the state delegations.[23]
Howard Chandler Christy's Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States
September 17 • Constitution signed and convention adjourns
The approved Constitution is signed by thirty-nine delegates from twelve states (all but Rhode Island). One delegate, John Dickinson, who was ill and not present, had George Read sign his name by proxy. Three delegates present declined to sign the document: Edmund Randolph, George Mason, and Elbridge Gerry. George Washington, as president of the convention, signed first. The other delegates then signed, grouped by state in strict congressional voting order. Washington, however, signed near the right margin, and so when the delegates ran out of space beneath his signature, they began a second column of signatures to the left. Jackson, the convention secretary, also signed as a witness. The convention then adjourned sine die.[6]
September 18 • Proposed Constitution published
The Pennsylvania Packet prints the first public copies of the proposed Constitution in Philadelphia.[11]
September 20 •
Proposed Constitution is received by Congress.[24]
September 27 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Cato" is published.[25]
September 28 •
Congress of the Confederation votes to transmit the proposed Constitution to the thirteen states for ratification.[26]
October 5 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Centinel" is published.[27]
October 8 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Federal Farmer" is published.[28]
October 18 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Brutus" is published.[29]
An advertisement for The Federalist, 1787, using the pseudonym "Philo-Publius"
October 27 •
First of The Federalist Papers by "Publius", Federalist No. 1, is published in The Independent Journal.[30] The planned series of essays would, the authors hoped, "give a satisfactory answer to all the [Anti-Federalist] objections which shall have made their appearance, that may seem to have any claim to your attention."[31]
November 20 •
Ratifying convention begins in Pennsylvania.[32]
December 3 •
Ratifying convention begins in Delaware.[33]
December 7 • Ratification
Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the Constitution (30–0).[34][35]
December 11 •
Ratifying convention begins in New Jersey.[36]
December 12 • Ratification
Pennsylvania becomes the second state to ratify the Constitution (46–23).[34][35]
December 18 • Ratification
New Jersey becomes the third state to ratify the Constitution (38–0).[34][35][36]
December 18 •
Pennsylvania convention Anti-Federalist minority publishes their "Dissent".[37]
December 25 •
Ratifying convention begins in Georgia.[38]
1788[edit]
January 2 • Ratification
Georgia becomes the fourth state to ratify the Constitution (26–0).[34][35]
January 3 •
Ratifying convention begins in Connecticut.[39]
January 9 • Ratification
Connecticut becomes the fifth state to ratify the Constitution (128–40).[34][35]
January 9 •
Ratifying convention begins in Massachusetts.[40]
February 6 • Ratification
Massachusetts becomes the sixth state to ratify the Constitution (187–168).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, Massachusetts requests that nineteen alterations be made to it.[41]
February 13–22 •
Ratifying convention (first session) held in New Hampshire.[42]
March 1 •
Rhode Island legislature calls for popular referendum on the proposed Constitution.[43]
March 24 •
Voters in Rhode Island vote down the Constitution (2,708–237).[43]
April 10 •
Albany Antifederal Committee publishes a circular forcefully objecting to the proposed constitution, calling the frame of government "more arbitrary and despotic than that of Great Britain."[44]
April 21 •
Ratifying convention begins in Maryland.[42]
April 28 • Ratification
Maryland becomes the seventh state to ratify the Constitution (63–11).[34][35]
May 12 •
Ratifying convention begins in South Carolina.[45]
May 23 • Ratification
South Carolina becomes the eighth state to ratify the Constitution (149–73).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, South Carolina requests that two alterations be made to it.[45]
June 2 •
Ratifying convention begins in Virginia.[42]
June 17 •
Ratifying convention begins in New York.[46]
June 18 •
Ratifying convention (second session) begins in New Hampshire.[47]
June 21 • Ratification
New Hampshire becomes the ninth state to ratify the Constitution (57–47).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, New Hampshire requests that twelve alterations be made to it.[48]
Dates the 13 states ratified the Constitution
June 21 •
Having been ratified by nine of the thirteen states, the Constitution is officially established.[49]
June 25 • Ratification
Virginia becomes the tenth state to ratify the Constitution (89–79).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, Virginia requests that 20 alterations be made to it.[50]
July 2 •
Congress President Cyrus Griffin informs Congress that New Hampshire has ratified the Constitution and notes that this is the ninth ratification transmitted to them. A committee is formed to examine all ratifications received thus far and to develop a plan for putting the new Constitution into operation.[51][52]
July 21 – August 2 •
First ratifying convention held in North Carolina. With the hope of effecting the incorporation of a bill of rights into the frame of government, delegates vote (184–84) neither to ratify nor to reject the Constitution.[53]
July 26 • Ratification
New York becomes the eleventh state to ratify the Constitution (30–27).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, New York requests that thirty-three alterations be made to it.[54]
September 13 •
Congress of the Confederation certifies that the new constitution has been duly ratified and sets date for first meeting of the new federal government and the presidential election.[51][55]
December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789 • Presidential election held
First quadrennial presidential election under the new Constitution is held.[56]
1789[edit]
February 4 • Electoral College convenes
Presidential electors meet to cast their votes in their respective states. George Washington is unanimously elected to be the nation's first president and John Adams is elected its first vice president, receiving 34 of 69 votes cast. Only ten of the thirteen states cast electoral votes in this election. North Carolina and Rhode Island were ineligible to participate as they had not yet ratified the Constitution. The New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted electors in time, so there were no voting electors from New York.[56][57]
Federal Hall, New York City, first seat of government of the United States under the Constitution
March 4 • United States Congress convenes
The federal government begins operations under the new form of government as members of the 1st United States Congress are seated at Federal Hall in New York City. The Senate of eleven states would include 20 Federalists and two Anti-federalists (both from Virginia). The House would seat 48 Federalists and 11 Anti-federalists (from four states: Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina, and Virginia).[58] However, the initial meeting of each chamber must be adjourned due to lack of a quorum.[59]
April 1 • House of Representatives reconvenes
With a quorum being present representatives begin their work. Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania is elected Speaker of the House.[60]
April 6 • Senate reconvenes
With a quorum being present senators begin their work. John Langdon of New Hampshire is elected President pro tempore of the Senate.[61]
April 6 • Electoral votes counted
The House and Senate, meeting in joint session, certify that George Washington has been elected President of the United States and John Adams elected as Vice President.[56][62]
April 21 • John Adams assumes vice presidential duties
John Adams is sworn in as Vice President of the United States in the Senate chamber at Federal Hall in New York City.[63]
George Washington's inauguration as the first President of the United States, April 30, 1789
April 30 • George Washington assumes presidential duties
George Washington inaugurated as President of the United States at Federal Hall in New York City. Washington placed his hand upon a Bible belonging to the St. John's Lodge No. 1, A.Y.M.[64] as Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston administered the presidential oath of office.[56][65]
September 25 • Constitutional amendments proposed by Congress
Twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution are approved by the Senate, having been passed by the House on the preceding day, both without recorded vote, and sent to the states for ratification.[66] Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution December 15, 1791, and are collectively known as the Bill of Rights.[67] Article Two became part of the Constitution May 7, 1992 as the Twenty-seventh Amendment.[68] Article One is technically still pending before the states.[34]
November 16 •
Second ratifying convention begins in North Carolina.[69]
November 21 • Ratification
North Carolina becomes the twelfth state to ratify the Constitution (194–77).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, North Carolina requests that twenty-six alterations be made to it.[70]
1790[edit]
February 2 • Supreme Court of the United States convenes
The Supreme Court of the United States holds its inaugural session with a quorum present at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street in New York City, with Chief Justice John Jay presiding.[71] As set by the Judiciary Act of 1789, the Supreme Court would initially consist of a chief justice and five associate justices.[72]
March 1–6 •
Ratifying convention (first session) held in Rhode Island.[43]
May 24 •
Ratifying convention (second session) begins in Rhode Island.[43]
May 29 • Ratification
Rhode Island becomes the thirteenth and final state to ratify the Constitution (34–32).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, Rhode Island requests that twenty-one alterations be made to it.[73]
1791[edit]
January 6 •
Convention to consider joining the United States begins in Vermont.[74]
January 10 • Ratification and application
Vermont votes to ratify the Constitution and to apply for admission to the Union (105–2).[74]
Gallery[edit]
Original parchment pages of the United States Constitution
See also[edit]
Confederation Period
Federal Procession of 1788
Founding Fathers of the United States
History of the United States (1776–89)
Republicanism in the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Mount Vernon Conference". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved October 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ Alden, Henry Mills, ed. (1880). Harper's New Monthly Magazine. Digitized May 14, 2008. 60. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 364. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Maryland-Virginia Compact of 1785". Virginia Law. Richmond, Virginia: Legislative Information System, Commonwealth of Virginia. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Mt. Vernon Compact & The Annapolis Convention". Annapolis, Maryland: Maryland State Archives. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Scharf 1888, p. 268
^ Jump up to: a b c Wright Jr & MacGregor Jr 1987, p. 264
Jump up ^ Ferling 2003, p. 268
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Meet the Framers of the Constitution". America's Founding Documents. Washington, D.C.: The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Resolution of Congress, 21 Feb. 1787". The Founders' Constitution. University of Chicago Press. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Letter from Certain Citizens of Rhode Island to the Federal Convention". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Maier 2010, p. 27
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vile, John R. (April 2006). "The Critical Role of Committees at the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787". The American Journal of Legal History. 48 (2): 147–176. doi:10.2307/25434790. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Variant Texts of the Virginia Plan, Presented by Edmund Randolph to the Federal Convention". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Plan of Charles Pinckney (South Carolina), Presented to the Federal Convention". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ Vile 2005, p. 324
Jump up ^ Madison 1787, June 15
Jump up ^ "Variant Texts of the Plan Presented by Alexander Hamilton to the Federal Convention". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Committee Assignments Chart and Commentary". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Madison 1787, July 16
Jump up ^ Madison 1787, August 6
Jump up ^ Madison 1787, September 12
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Jump up ^ Madison 1787, September 15
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 52
Jump up ^ "Cato I". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836a, p. 319
Jump up ^ "Centinel I". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Federal Farmer I". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Brutus I". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Millican 1990, p. 58
Jump up ^ Gunn 1994, p. 540
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 100
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 122
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Kilpatrick 1961, p. 24
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Vile 2005, p. 658
^ Jump up to: a b "1787 Convention Minutes". New Jersey Department of State. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of Pennsylvania". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Georgia Ratifying Convention Meets". Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 137
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 155
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836a, p. 322
^ Jump up to: a b c Maier 2010, p. 125
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Rhode Island History Chapter 3: The Revolutionary Era, 1763-1790". Rhode Island General Assembly. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 133
^ Jump up to: a b Elliot 1836a, p. 325
Jump up ^ "Nation at the Crossroads: The Great New York Debate over the Constitution, 1787–88". New-York Historical Society. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 315
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836a, p. 326
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 361
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836c, pp. 659–661
^ Jump up to: a b Elliot 1836a, pp. 332–333
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, pp. 376–377
Jump up ^ North Carolina History Project. "Hillsborough Convention of 1788". Raleigh, North Carolina: John Locke Foundation. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836a, pp. 329–319
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 429
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Presidential Election of 1789". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Maier 2010, p. 438
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Jump up ^ "March 4: A forgotten huge day in American history". Philadelphia: National Constitution Center. March 4, 2013. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Muhlenberg, Frederick Augustus Conrad, (1750 - 1801)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Jump up ^ "Langdon, John, (1741 - 1819)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Jump up ^ "Senate Journal. 1st Congress, 1st session". April 6, 1789. p. 7.
Jump up ^ Smith 1962, pp.744
Jump up ^ "George Washington Inaugural Bible". St. John's Lodge No. 1, AYM. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "George Washington's Inaugural Address". The National Archives. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Labunski 2006, p.240
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the United States—A History". America's Founding Documents. Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Killian, Johnny H.; Costello, George A.; Thomas, Kenneth R., eds. (2004). "The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation" (PDF). U.S. Senate Document No. 108–17. Contributors: David M. Ackerman, Henry Cohen, Robert Meltz. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 44 n.19. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Minutes of the North Carolina Constitutional Convention at Fayetteville". Documenting the American South. UNC University Library. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836d, pp. 244–247
Jump up ^ "The Court as an Institution". Washington, D.C.: Public Information Office, Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Landmark Legislation: Judiciary Act of 1789". Washington, D.C.: Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ Elliot 1836a, pp. 336–337
^ Jump up to: a b Forbes, C.S. (March 1902). "Vermont's Admission to the Union". The Vermonter: A State Magazine. VII (8): 102. Retrieved March 29, 2014.
Bibliography[edit]
Elliot, Jonathan (1836a). Elliot's Debates. Volume One (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Published under the sanction of Congress. LCCN 17007172.
Elliot, Jonathan (1836c). Elliot's Debates. Volume Three (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Published under the sanction of Congress. LCCN 17007172.
Elliot, Jonathan (1836d). Elliot's Debates. Volume Four (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Published under the sanction of Congress. LCCN 17007172.
Ferling, John (2003). A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515924-1.
Gunn, Giles B., ed. (1994). Early American Writing. New York, New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-039087-1.
Kilpatrick, James J., ed. (1961). The Constitution of the United States and Amendments Thereto. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Commission on Constitutional Government.
Labunski, Richard (2006). James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518105-0.
Madison, James (1787) [Published by Oxford University Press, 1920]. Hund, Gaillard; Scott, James Brown, eds. "The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 ..." – via The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, New Haven Connecticut. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Maier, Pauline (2010). Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86854-7.
Millican, Edward (1990). One United People: The Federalist Papers and the National Idea. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-08131-6033-7.
Scharf, J. Thomas (1888). History of Delaware 1609–1888. Volume One. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: L. J. Richards and Company.
Smith, Page (1962). John Adams. Volume Two 1784-1826. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
Vile, John R. (2005). The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding. Volume 1: A-M. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-669-8.
Wright Jr, Robert K.; MacGregor Jr, Morris J. (1987). "Appendix A: The Annapolis Convention". Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History. ISBN 0-16-035959-7. CMH Pub 71-25.
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