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Flat panel display
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While flat-panel TVs have existed in research labs since 1964, they did not become the main display technology until the early 2000s, when the technologies became affordable. They are much thinner and lighter than early 1950s-mid 2000s televisions and monitors, which typically used heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) picture tubes. The flat-panel TV depicted here is from 2008.
Flat-panel displays are electronic viewing technologies used to enable people to see content (still images, moving images, text, or other visual material) in a range of entertainment, consumer electronics, personal computer, and mobile devices, and many types of medical, transportation and industrial equipment. They are far lighter and thinner than traditional cathode ray tube (CRT) television sets and video displays and are usually less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) thick. Flat-panel displays can be divided into two display device categories: volatile and static. Volatile displays require that pixels be periodically electronically refreshed to retain their state (e.g., liquid-crystal displays (LCD)). A volatile display only shows an image when it has battery or AC mains power. Static flat-panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable (e.g., e-book reader tablets from Sony), and as such, flat-panel displays retain the text or images on the screen even when the power is off. As of 2016, flat-panel displays have almost completely replaced old CRT displays. In many 2010-era applications, specifically small portable devices such as laptops, mobile phones, smartphones, digital cameras, camcorders, point-and-shoot cameras, and pocket video cameras, any display disadvantages of flat-panels (as compared with CRTs) are made up for by portability advantages (thinness and lightweightness).
Most 2010s-era flat-panel displays use LCD and/or LED technologies. Most LCD screens are back-lit as color filters are used to display colors. Flat-panel displays are thin and lightweight and provide better linearity and they are capable of higher resolution than typical consumer-grade TVs from earlier eras. The highest resolution for consumer-grade CRT TVs was 1080i; in contrast, many flat-panels can display 1080p or even 4K resolution. As of 2016, some devices that use flat-panels, such as tablet computers, smartphones and, less commonly, laptops, use touchscreens, a feature that enables users to select onscreen icons or trigger actions (e.g., playing a digital video) by touching the screen. Many touchscreen-enabled devices can display a virtual QWERTY or numeric keyboard on the screen, to enable the user to type words or numbers.
A multifunctional monitor (MFM) is a flat-panel display that has additional video inputs (more than a typical LCD monitor) and is designed to be used with a variety of external video sources, such as VGA input, HDMI input from a VHS VCR or video game console and, in some cases, a USB input or card reader for viewing digital photos). In many instances, an MFM also includes a TV tuner, making it similar to a LCD TV that offers computer connectivity.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Common types
2.1 Liquid crystal displays
2.2 Liquid crystal displays with light-emitting diode (LED) backlighting
2.3 Plasma panels
2.4 Electroluminescent panels
2.5 Organic light-emitting diode
2.6 Quantum dot light emitting diode
3 Volatile
3.1 Examples
4 Static
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The first engineering proposal for a flat-panel TV was by General Electric as a result of its work on radar monitors.[when?] Their publication of their findings gave all the basics of future flat-panel TVs and monitors. But GE did not continue with the R&D required and never built a working flat panel at that time.[1] The first production flat-panel display was the Aiken tube, developed in the early 1950s and produced in limited numbers in 1958. This saw some use in military systems as a heads up display, but conventional technologies overtook its development. Attempts to commercialize the system for home television use ran into continued problems and the system was never released commercially.[2] The Philco Predicta featured a relatively flat (for its day) cathode ray tube setup and would be the first commercially released "flat panel" upon its launch in 1958; the Predicta was a commercial failure. The plasma display panel was invented in 1964 at the University of Illinois, according to The History of Plasma Display Panels.[3] The first active-matrix addressed display was made by T Peter Brody's Thin-Film Devices department at Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1968.[4] In 1977, James P Mitchell prototyped and later demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel LED television display LED Display. As of 2012[update], 50% of global market share in flat-panel display (FPD) production is by Taiwanese manufacturers such as AU Optronics and Chimei Innolux Corporation.
Common types[edit]
Liquid crystal displays[edit]
An LCD screen used as a notification panel for travellers
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are lightweight, compact, portable, cheap, more reliable, and easier on the eyes than cathode ray tube screens. LCD screens use a thin layer of liquid crystal, a liquid that exhibits crystalline properties. It is sandwiched between two electrically conducting plates. The top plate has transparent electrodes deposited on it, and the back plate is illuminated so that the viewer can see the images on the screen. By applying controlled electrical signals across the plates, various segments of the liquid crystal can be activated, causing changes in their light diffusing or polarizing properties. These segments can either transmit or block light. An image is produced by passing light through selected segments of the liquid crystal to the viewer. They are used in various electronics like watches, calculators, and notebook computers.
Liquid crystal displays with light-emitting diode (LED) backlighting[edit]
Some LCD screens are backlit with a number of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs are two-lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic "pn-junction" diode, except that an LED also emits light. This form of LCD (liquid crystal display) is the most prevalent in the 2010s. The image is still generated by the LCD.
Plasma panels[edit]
A plasma display consists of two glass plates separated by a thin gap filled with a gas such as neon. Each of these plates has several parallel electrodes running across it. The electrodes on the two plates are at right angles to each other. A voltage applied between the two electrodes one on each plate causes a small segment of gas at the two electrodes to glow. The glow of gas segments is maintained by a lower voltage that is continuously applied to all electrodes. In the 2010s, plasma displays have been discontinued by numerous manufacturers.
Electroluminescent panels[edit]
In an electroluminescent display (ELD), the image is created by applying electrical signals to the plates which makes the phosphor glow.
Organic light-emitting diode[edit]
An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes; typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in solid-state lighting applications.[1][2][3]
Quantum dot light emitting diode[edit]
QLED- QLED or Quantum Dot LED is a flat panel display technology introduced by Samsung under this trademark. Other television set manufacturers such as Sony have used the same technology to enhance the backlighting of LCD Television already in 2013.[5][6] Quantum dots create their own unique light when illuminated by a light source of shorter wavelength such as blue LEDs. This type of LED TV introduced by Samsung enhances the color gamut of LCD panels, where the image is still generated by the LCD. In the view of Samsung, quantum dot displays for large-screen TVs are expected to become more popular than the OLED displays in the coming years. This is surprising because Samsung Galaxy devices such as smartphones are mainly equipped with OLED displays manufactured by Samsung as well. Samsung states on their website that the QLED TV they produce can determine what part of the display needs more or less contrast. Samsung also announced a partnership with Microsoft that will promote the new Samsung QLED TV.
Volatile[edit]
A large LED display at the Taipei Arena displays commercials and movie trailers.
Volatile displays require that pixels be periodically refreshed to retain their state, even for a static image. As such, a volatile screen needs electrical power, either from mains electricity (being plugged into a wall socket) or a battery to maintain an image on the display or change the image. This refresh typically occurs many times a second. If this is not done, for example, if there is a power outage, the pixels will gradually lose their coherent state, and the image will "fade" from the screen.
Examples[edit]
Further information: Comparison CRT, LCD, Plasma
The following flat-display technologies have been commercialized in 1990s to 2010s:
Plasma display panel (PDP)
Active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AMLCD)
Rear projection: Digital Light Processing (DLP), LCD, LCOS
Electronic paper: E Ink, Gyricon
Light-emitting diode display (LED)
Active-matrix organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED)
Quantum dot display (QLED)
Technologies that were extensively researched, but their commercialization was limited or has been ultimately abandoned:
Active-matrix Electroluminescent display (ELD)
Interferometric modulator display (IMOD)
Field emission display (FED)
Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED, SED-TV)
Static[edit]
Amazon's Kindle Keyboard e-reader displaying a page of an e-book. The Kindle's image of the book's text will remain onscreen even if the battery runs out, as it is a static screen technology. Without power, however, the user cannot change to a new page.
Static flat-panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable. This means that the image they hold requires no energy to maintain, but instead requires energy to change. This results in a much more energy-efficient display, but with a tendency towards slow refresh rates which are undesirable in an interactive display. Bistable flat-panel displays are beginning deployment in limited applications (Cholesteric displays, manufactured by Magink, in outdoor advertising; electrophoretic displays in e-book reader devices from Sony and iRex; anlabels).
See also[edit]
Computer monitor
Display motion blur
Electronic paper
FPD-Link
Flexible display
Large-screen television technology
LED-backlit LCD television
Mobile display
Sony Watchman
Stereoscopy 3D displays requiring no special glasses
Touch panel
Transparent display
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Proposed Television Sets Would Feature Thin Screens." Popular Mechanics, November 1954, p. 111.
Jump up ^ William Ross Aiken, "History of the Kaiser-Aiken, thin cathode ray tube", IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, Volume 31 Issue 11 (November 1984), pp. 1605-1608.
Jump up ^ Plasma TV Science.org - The History of Plasma Display Panels
Jump up ^ Castellano, Joseph A. (2005). Liquid gold: the story of liquid crystal displays and the creation of an industry ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). New Jersey [u.a.]: World Scientific. p. 176. ISBN 981-238-956-3.
Jump up ^ CES 2015 placing bets on new TV technologies. IEEE Spectrum, January 7, 2015. Retrieved October 21, 2017
Jump up ^ LG leaps quantum dot rivals with new TV. CNET, December 16, 2014. Retrieved October 21, 2017
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plasma displays.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to LCD computer monitors.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to LCD TVs.
TFT Central, flat panel monitor reviews, news and articles
LED display, LED display system in China
Finetech Japan, FDP exhibition and conference
Feature: Strange Inventions You Never Knew About
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flat_panel_display&oldid=841383709"
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Flag of Nigeria
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Nigeria
Use
National flag
Proportion
1:2
Adopted
1 October 1960
Design
A vertical bicolour triband of green, white and green
Designed by
Micheal Taiwo Akinkunmi
Variant flag of Nigeria
Use
State flag
Proportion
1:2
Design
A vertical bicolour triband of a green, white and green; charged with the coat of arms in the centre
Variant flag of Nigeria
Use
Civil ensign
Proportion
1:2
Design
A red field with the national flag, in the canton
Variant flag of Nigeria
Use
State ensign
Proportion
1:2
Design
A blue field with the national flag, in the canton
Variant flag of Nigeria
Use
Naval ensign
Proportion
1:2
Design
A white field with the national flag in the canton, with the Naval seal in the fly.
Variant flag of Nigeria
Use
Air force ensign
Proportion
1:2
Design
A sky-blue field with the national flag in the canton, with the air force roundel in the fly.
The flag of Nigeria was designed in 1959 and first officially hoisted on 1 October 1960. The flag has three vertical bands of green, white, green. The two green stripes represent Nigeria’s natural wealth, while the white band represents peace.
Contents
1 Design
2 Colour specifications
3 Government flags
4 Historical flags
5 Subnational flags
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Design[edit]
The flag is an adaptation of the winning entry from Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi in a competition held in 1959. Akinkunmi was a 23-year-old student at the time he designed the flag. He was studying at Norwich Technical College in London, England, when he saw an advertisement in a newspaper that submissions were being accepted for the design of a new national flag of Nigeria. The original submission had a red radiating sun badge in the central white vertical band with a green vertical band on each side. After the badge was removed by the judges, the flag has remained unchanged. It was first officially used on 1 October 1960, the day Nigeria was granted independence from the United Kingdom.[1]
Like other countries, Nigeria has special ensigns for civil and naval vessels. Some of its states also have flags.[2]
Colour specifications[edit]
Colour scheme
Green
White
RAL
None 9003
Signal white
CMYK 100.0.39.47 0.0.0.0
Hexadecimals #008753 #FFFFFF
Decimals 0,135,83 255,255,255
Government flags[edit]
Flag of the President of Nigeria
Flag of the President as Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces
Former flag of the President, adopted in 1963
Flag of the Nigerian Defence Forces
Naval ensign of Nigeria (1960—98)
Akinkunmi's original proposal
Historical flags[edit]
See also: Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960)
Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1887—88)
Flag of the Royal Niger Company (1888—99)
Flag of the British West African Settlements
Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886—1906)
Flag of the Oil Rivers Protectorate
Flag of the Niger Coast Protectorate
Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900—14)
Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900—14)
Flag of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (1914—60)
Subnational flags[edit]
Flag of Osun State
See also[edit]
Nigeria portal
Heraldry portal
Coat of arms of Nigeria
Flag of Rhodesia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-06-30.
Jump up ^ Nigeria: One Nation, Many Flags
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Nigeria.
Nigeria at Flags of the World
http://www.flagscorner.com/nigeria-flag/
Worldstatesmen.org – Nigeria
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text:
List of brightest stars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about apparent magnitude. For absolute magnitude, see List of most luminous stars.
This is a list of the brightest naked eye stars to +2.50 magnitude, as determined by their maximum, total or combined apparent visual magnitudes as seen from Earth. Although several of the brightest stars are also known close binary or multiple star systems, they do appear to the naked eye as single stars. The given list below combines/adds the magnitudes of bright individual components. Proper names in this list are those approved by the Working Group on Star Names
Contents
[hide]
1 Measurement
2 Main table of the brightest stars
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Measurement[edit]
Apparent visual magnitudes of the brightest star can also be compared to non-stellar objects in our Solar System. Here the maximum visible magnitudes above the brightest star, Sirius (−1.46), are as follows. Excluding the Sun, the brightest objects are the Moon (−12.7), Venus (−4.89), Jupiter (−2.94), Mars (−2.91), Mercury (−2.45), and Saturn (−0.49).
Any exact order of the visual brightness of stars is not perfectly defined for four reasons:
Stellar brightness is traditionally based on the apparent visual magnitude as perceived by the human eye, from the brightest stars of 1st magnitude to the faintest at 6th magnitude. Since the optical telescope's invention, and the known existence of double or binary stars, has meant that stellar brightness could be expressed as either individual (separate) or total (combined) magnitude. The table is ordered by combined magnitude of all naked eye components appearing as if it they were single stars. Such stars are included in parentheses, where any individual component magnitudes are bright enough to make a detectable contribution. e.g. the double star Alpha Centauri has the total or combined magnitude of −0.27, while its two component stars have magnitudes of +0.01 and +1.33.[1]
New or more accurate photometry, standard filters, or adopting differing methods using standard stars can measure stellar magnitudes slightly differently. This may change the apparent order of lists of bright stars. The table shows measured V magnitudes, which use a specific filter that closely approximates human vision. However, other kinds of magnitude systems do exist based on different wavelengths, some well away from the distribution of the visible wavelengths of light, and these apparent magnitudes vary dramatically in the different systems.[2] For example, Betelgeuse has the K-band (infra-red) apparent magnitude of −4.05.[3]
Some stars, like Betelgeuse and Antares, are variable stars, changing their magnitude over days, months or years. In the table, the range of variation is indicated with var. Single magnitude values quoted for variable stars come from a variety of sources. Magnitudes are expressed within the table are when the stars are either at maximum brightness, which is repeated for every cycle, e.g., the eclipsing binary Algol; or, if the variations are small, as a simple average magnitude. For all red variable stars, describing a single maximum brightness is often difficult because each cycle produces a different maximum brightness, which is thought to be caused by poorly understood pulsations in stellar evolution processes. Such quoted stellar brightness is sometimes based on the average maximum apparent magnitude [4] from estimated maximums over many observed light-curve cycles, sometimes spanning across centuries. Results often quoted in the literature are not necessarily straight forward and may differ in expressing an alternate value for a singular maximum brightness or as a range of values.
A select number of stars, thought to be uniformly fixed in brightness, are used as standard stars. These standard stars have carefully determined magnitudes that have been analysed over many years, and are often used to determine other star's magnitudes or their stellar parameters using comparatively consistent scales.[5]
Main table of the brightest stars[edit]
The source of magnitudes cited in this list is the linked Wikipedia articles—this basic list is simply a catalog of what Wikipedia itself documents. References can be found in the individual articles.
V Mag.
(mV)
Proper name
Bayer designation
Distance (ly)
Spectral class
0.0002998732600000000000♠−26.74 Sun 0.000 015 813 G2 V
0.0012999853999999999999♠−1.46 Sirius α CMa 0008.6 A1 V, DA2
0.0033000280000000000000♠−0.74 Canopus α Car 0310 A9 II
0.0043000730000000000000♠−0.27 (0.01 + 1.33) Rigil Kentaurus α Cen 0004.4 G2 V, K1 V
0.0053001500000000000000♠−0.05 Arcturus α Boo 0037 K0 III
6998300000000000000♠0.03 (−0.02 - 0.07var) Vega α Lyr 0025 A0 Va
6998800000000000000♠0.08 (0.03 - 0.16var) Capella α Aur 0042 K0 III, G1 III
6999130000000000000♠0.13 (0.05 - 0.18var) Rigel β Ori 0860 B8 Ia
6999340000000000000♠0.34 Procyon α CMi 0011 F5 IV-V
6999460000000000000♠0.46 (0.40 - 0.46var) Achernar α Eri 0140 B6 Vep
6999500000000000000♠ 0.50 (0.2 - 1.2var) Betelgeuse α Ori 0640[6] M2 Iab
6999610000000000000♠0.61 Hadar β Cen 0350 B1 III
6999760000000000000♠0.76 Altair α Aql 0017 A7 V
6999760000000000000♠0.76 (1.33 + 1.73) Acrux α Cru 0320 B0.5 IV, B1 V
6999860000000000000♠0.86 (0.75 - 0.95var) Aldebaran α Tau 0065 K5 III
6999960000000000000♠0.96 (0.6 - 1.6var) Antares α Sco 0600 M1.5 Iab, B3 V
6999970000000000000♠0.97 (0.97 - 1.04var) Spica α Vir 0260 B1 III-IV, B2 V
7000113990000099999♠1.14 Pollux β Gem 0034 K0 III
7000116000000099999♠1.16 Fomalhaut α PsA 0025 A3 V
7000125000000000000♠1.25 (1.21 - 1.29var) Deneb α Cyg 2,600 A2 Ia
7000125000000000000♠1.25 (1.23 - 1.31var) Mimosa β Cru 0350 B0.5 II, B2 V
7000138990000099999♠1.39 Regulus α Leo 0077 B7 V
7000150000000000000♠1.50 Adhara ε CMa 0430 B2 Iab:
7000162000000000000♠1.62 Shaula λ Sco 0700 B2 IV
7000162000000000000♠1.62 (1.98 + 2.97) Castor α Gem 0052 Am, A1 V
7000164000000000000♠1.64 Gacrux γ Cru 0088 M3.5 III
7000164000000000000♠1.64 Bellatrix γ Ori 0240 B2 III
7000165000000000000♠1.65 Elnath β Tau 0130 B7 III
7000169000000000000♠1.69 Miaplacidus β Car 0110 A1 III
7000169000000000000♠1.69 (1.64 - 1.74var) Alnilam ε Ori 2,000 B0 Ia
7000172000000000000♠1.72 (1.81 - 1.87var + 4.27) – γ1,2 Vel 0840 WC8, O7.5e
7000174000000000000♠1.74 Alnair α Gru 0100 B7 IV
7000177000000000000♠1.77 Alioth ε UMa 0081 A1 III-IVp kB9
7000177000000000000♠1.77 Alnitak ζ Ori A 0820 O9.7 Ib, O9 III, B0 II-IV
7000179000000000000♠1.79 Dubhe α UMa 0120 G9 III, A7.5
7000180000000000000♠1.80 Mirfak α Per 0590 F5 Ib
7000182000000000000♠1.82 Wezen δ CMa 1,800 F8 Ia
7000184000000000000♠1.84 Sargas θ Sco 0270 F0 II
7000185000000000000♠1.85 Kaus Australis ε Sgr 0140 B9.5 III
7000186000000000000♠1.86 Avior ε Car 0630 K3 III, B2 Vp
7000186000000000000♠1.86 Alkaid η UMa 0100 B3 V
7000190000000000000♠1.90 (1.89 - 1.94var) Menkalinan β Aur 0100 A1mIV+A1mIV
7000191000000000000♠1.91 Atria α TrA 0420 K2 IIb-IIIa
7000192000000000000♠1.92 Alhena γ Gem 0100 A1.5 IV+
7000194000000000000♠1.94 Peacock α Pav 0180 B2 IV
7000196000000000000♠1.96 (1.99 - 2.39var + 5.57) – δ Vel 0080 A1 Va(n), F2-F5
7000198000000000000♠1.98 Mirzam β CMa 0500 B1 II-III
7000200000000000000♠2.00 Alphard α Hya 0180 K3 II-III
7000198000000000000♠1.98 (1.86 - 2.13var) Polaris α UMi 0430 F8 Ib
7000200000000000000♠2.00 Hamal α Ari 0066 K1 IIIb
7000200999999999999♠2.08 (2.37 + 3.64) Algieba γ1 Leo 0130 K0 III, G7 IIIb
7000202000000000000♠2.02 Diphda β Cet 0096 K0 III
7000205009999999999♠2.05 Nunki σ Sgr 0220 B2.5 V
7000206000000000000♠2.06 Menkent θ Cen 0061 K0 III
7000205009999999999♠2.05 (2.01 - 2.10var) Mirach β And 0200 M0III
7000206000000000000♠2.06 Alpheratz α And 0097 B8 IV
7000207009999999999♠2.07 Rasalhague α Oph 0047 A5 V
7000208000000000000♠2.08 Kochab β UMi 0130 K4 III
7000209009999900000♠2.09 Saiph κ Ori 0720 B0 Iab:
7000211009999900000♠2.11 Denebola β Leo 0036 A3 Va
7000212000000000000♠2.12 (2.1 - 3.39var) Algol β Per 0093 B8 V
7000215000000000000♠2.15 (2.0 - 2.3var) – β Gru 0170 M5 III
7000217000000000000♠2.17 – γ Cen 0130 A1IV, (A0III/A0III)
7000221000000000000♠2.21 Aspidiske ι Car 0690 A9 Ib
7000221000000000000♠2.21 (2.14 - 2.30var) Suhail λ Vel 0570 K4.5 Ib-II
7000223000000000000♠2.23 (2.21 - 2.32var) Alphecca α CrB 0075 A0 V, G5 V
7000223000000000000♠2.23 (2.23 - 2.35var) Mintaka δ Ori 0900 B0 III, O9 V
7000223000000000000♠2.23 Sadr γ Cyg 1,500 F8 Ib
7000223000000000000♠2.23 Eltanin γ Dra 0150 K5 III
7000224000000000000♠2.24 Schedar α Cas 0230 K0 IIIa
7000225000000000000♠2.25 Naos ζ Pup 1,100 O4 If(n)p
7000225990000099999♠2.26 Almach γ And 0350 K3 IIb, B9.5 V, B9.5 V, A0 V
7000227000000000000♠2.27 Mizar ζ1 UMa 0078 A2 Vp, A2 Vp, A1m, A5 V
7000227990000099999♠2.28 (2.25 - 2.31var) Caph β Cas 0054 F2 III
7000229000000000000♠2.29 Izar ε Boo 0202 K0 II-III, A2 V
7000230000000099999♠2.30 (2.29 - 2.34var) – α Lup 0550 B1.5 III
7000230000000099999♠2.30 (2.29 - 2.31var) – ε Cen 0380 B1III
7000231000000000000♠2.31 (1.6 - 2.32var) Dschubba δ Sco 0400 B0.3 IV
7000231000000000000♠2.31 – ε Sco 0065 K1 III
7000235000000000000♠2.35 (2.30 - 2.41var) – η Cen 0310 B1.5Vne
7000237000000000000♠2.37 Merak β UMa 0079 A1 IVps
7000238000000000000♠2.38 Ankaa α Phe 0077 K0.5 IIIb
7000239000000000000♠2.39 – κ Sco 0460 B1.5 III
7000240000000000000♠2.40 (0.7 - 3.0var) Enif ε Peg 0670 K2 Ib
7000242000000000000♠2.42 (2.31 - 2.74var) Scheat β Peg 0200 M2.5 II-IIIe
7000243000000000000♠2.43 Sabik η Oph 0049 A1 V, A3 V
7000244000000000000♠2.44 Phecda γ UMa 0084 A0Ve
7000245000000000000♠2.45 Aludra η CMa 2,000[7] B5 Ia
7000246000000000000♠2.46 – κ Vel 0540 B2 IV
7000247000000000000♠2.47 (1.6 - 3.0var) – γ Cas 0610 B0.5 IVpe
7000248000000000000♠2.48 Markab α Peg 0140 B9 III
7000248000000000000♠2.48 – ε Cyg 0072 K0 III-IV
7000250000000000000♠2.50 Acrab β Sco 0404 B1V, B2V
See also[edit]
Star portal
Book: The Brightest Stars
88 modern constellations by area
Historical brightest stars: the brightest star in Earth's night sky at each period within the last or next 5 million years
List of largest stars
List of most luminous stars
List of nearest bright stars
List of nearest galaxies
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
Lists of constellations
Lists of stars
Lists of stars by constellation
Stars and planetary systems in fiction
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hoffleit, Dorrit; Jaschek, Carlos (1991). "The Bright star catalogue". New Haven. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
Jump up ^ Bessell, Michael S. (2005). "Standard Photometric Systems". Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics. 43: 293. Bibcode:2005ARA&A..43..293B. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.082801.100251.
Jump up ^ Ducati, J. R. (2002). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system". CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237. Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
Jump up ^ "Macmillan Dictionary of Astronomy (Illingworth, Valerie, 1985)". Dictionary Series (Second ed.). Springer. p. 237. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Landolt, Arlo U. (2009). "UBVRI Photometric Standard Stars Around the Celestial Equator: Updates and Additions". The Astronomical Journal. 137 (5): 4186. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.4186L. arXiv:0904.0638  . doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/5/4186.
Jump up ^ Harper, Graham M.; Brown, Alexander; Guinan, Edward F. (April 2008). "A New VLA-Hipparcos Distance to Betelgeuse and its Implications". The Astronomical Journal. IOP Publishing. 135 (4,): 1430–1440. Bibcode:2008AJ....135.1430H. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/4/1430.
Jump up ^ van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (2): 653–664. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. arXiv:0708.1752  . doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357.
External links[edit]
25 Brightest Stars, as Seen from the Earth
The Brightest Stars at An Atlas of the Universe
The Magnitude system
About stellar magnitudes
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English-medium education
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"English Medium" redirects here. For the 1999 Malayalam film, see English Medium (film).
An English-medium education system is one that uses English as the primary medium of instruction—particularly where English is not the mother tongue of the students.
Initially associated with the expansion of English from its homeland in England and the lowlands of Scotland and its spread to the rest of Great Britain and Ireland, the rise of the British Empire increased the language's spread,[1][2] as has the increased economic and cultural influence of the United States since World War II.[1][2]
A working knowledge of English is perceived as being valuable; for example, English is very dominant in the world of computing. As a result, many states throughout the world where English is not the predominant language encourage or mandate the use of English as the normal medium of instruction.
Contents
[hide]
1 By country
1.1 Canada
1.2 Wales
1.3 Ireland
1.4 Scotland
1.5 Cornwall
1.6 The British Raj
1.7 India
1.8 Malaysia
1.9 Indonesia
1.10 Pakistan
1.11 Bangladesh
1.12 The Union of Myanmar
1.13 The Philippines
1.14 Slovenia
1.15 South Africa
1.15.1 Colonial education
1.15.2 Milner Schools
1.16 China
2 See also
3 References
4 Sources and further reading
5 External links
By country[edit]
Public advert on a street hoarding in Livorno, Italy
Canada[edit]
Main article: Education in Canada
Further information: Language policies of Canada's provinces and territories, Official bilingualism in Canada, and Timeline of official languages policy in Canada
Education is a provincial matter under the Canadian constitution, section 92. French language rights have been guaranteed in the province of Quebec since the Treaty of Paris 1763, French outside of Quebec and all other minority languages have faced laws against them at one time or another. English-only education laws were gradually rolled out across Canada during the nineteenth and twentieth century, culminating in the Manitoba Schools Question 1896 and Regulation 17 in Ontario in 1912, which both attacked French and other European minority languages, and the Indian residential schools system which attacked Aboriginal languages.
These policies were gradually abolished in the wake of Canada's adoption of official bilingualism (French/English) in 1969 and multiculturalism in 1971, but English remains the predominant language of education outside of Quebec and New Brunswick.
Wales[edit]
Further information: Welsh medium education
The Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, passed by the Parliament of England, annexing Wales to the Kingdom of England are sometimes known as the "Acts of Union."
An often quoted example of the effects on the Welsh language is the first section of the 1535 Act, which states: "the people of the same dominion have and do daily use a speche nothing like ne consonant to the naturall mother tonge used within this Realme" and then declares the intention "utterly to extirpe alle and singular sinister usages and customs" belonging to Wales.[3]
Section 20 of the 1535 Act makes English the only language of the law courts and that those who used Welsh would not be appointed to any public office in Wales:
Also be it enacted by the Authority aforesaid, That all Justices, Commissioners, Sheriffs, Coroners, Escheators, Stewards, and their Lieutenants, and all other Officers and Ministers of the Law, shall proclaim and keep the Sessions Courts, Hundreds, Leets, Sheriffs Courts, and all other Courts in the English Tongue;
(2) and all Oaths of Officers, Juries and Inquests, and all other Affidavits, Verdicts and Wager of Law, to be given and done in the English Tongue; (3) and also that from henceforth no Person or Persons that use the Welsh Speech or Language, shall have or enjoy any manner Office or Fees within this Realm of England, Wales, or other the King's Dominion, upon Pain of forfeiting the same Offices or Fees, unless he or they use and exercise the English Speech or Language.
An effect of this language clause was to lay the foundation for creating a thoroughly Anglicised ruling class of landed gentry in Wales, which would have many consequences.
The parts of the 1535 Act relating to language were definitively repealed only in 1993, by the Welsh Language Act 1993, though annotations on the Statute Law Database copy of the act reads that sections 18–21 were repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1887.[citation needed]
In July 1846, the British Government appointed three commissioners to enquire into the state of education in Wales; the Commissioners were all monoglot English-speakers.[4]
The Commissioners reported to the Government on 1 July 1847 in three large blue-bound volumes. This report quickly became known as Brad y Llyfrau Gleision (The Treachery of the Blue Books) as, apart from documenting the state of education in Wales, the Commissioners were also free with their comments disparaging the language, Non-conformity, and the morals of the Welsh people in general. An immediate effect of the report was for a belief to take root in the minds of ordinary people that the only way for Welsh people to get on in the world was through the medium of English, and an inferiority complex developed about the Welsh language whose effects have not yet been completely eradicated. The historian Professor Kenneth O. Morgan referred to the significance of the report and its consequences as "the Glencoe and the Amritsar of Welsh history".[5]
Ireland[edit]
The poet Edmund Spenser wrote[6] in (1596) a recommendation that "the Irish ... be educated in English, in grammar and in science ... for learning hath that wonderful power of itself that it can soften and temper the most stern and savage nature."
The setting up of 'Royal Schools' in Ireland, was proclaimed in 1608 by James I, with the intended purpose "that there shall be one Free School at least appointed in every County, for the education of youth in learning and religion."
These schools provided an English-medium education to the sons of landed settlers in Ireland, most of whom were of Scottish or English descent.
However, only five such schools were actually set up; The Royal School, Armagh in County Armagh, Portora Royal School in County Fermanagh, The Cavan Royal School in County Cavan, The Royal School Dungannon in Tyrone and The Royal and Prior School in County Donegal.
The National Education System[7] (sic) was founded in 1831, by the British Government, under the direction of the Chief Secretary, E.G. Stanley. Some 2,500 national schools were established in Ulster in the period 1832–1870, built with the aid of the Commissioners of National Education and local trustees.
Prof. S. Ó Buachalla states:
During the first four decades of their existence, there is no mention of the Irish language in the programme of regulations of the Commissioners of National Education; furthermore no provision whatsoever was made in 1831 when the original scheme was drawn up for education of those children who spoke Irish only. According to the official opinion of later Commissioners, expressed in a formal reply to the Chief Secretary in 1884, " the anxiety of the promoters of the National Scheme was to encourage the cultivation of the English language.[8]
The Irish patriot P.H. Pearse published a series of studies of the English-medium education system in Ireland. His article entitled The Murder Machine[9] embodies an article which appeared in the Irish Review for February 1913.
Pearse wrote in his pamphlet the following:
And English education in Ireland has seemed: to some like the bed of Procustes, the bed on which all men that passed that way must lie, be it never so big for them, be it never so small for them: the traveller for whom it was too large had his limbs stretched until he filled it; the traveller for whom it was too small had his limbs chopped off until he fitted into it—comfortably. It was a grim jest to play upon travellers. The English have done it to Irish children not by way of jest, but with a purpose. Our English-Irish systems took, and take, absolutely no cognisance of the differences between individuals, of the differences between localities, of the: differences between urban and rural communities, of the differences springing from a different ancestry, Gaelic or Anglo-Saxon.
Scotland[edit]
Further information: Gaelic medium education in Scotland
Attempts were made by legislation, in the later medieval and early modern period, to establish English at first among the aristocracy and increasingly amongst all ranks by education acts and parish schools. The Parliament of Scotland passed some ten such acts between 1494 and 1698.
In 1609 nine Gaelic chieftains were abducted and forced to sign the Statutes of Iona,[10] which would seem to have been designed specifically to Anglicize leaders and institutions of Gaelic society, in order to bring it under control of central government.
Among the items listed in this agreement was the "planting of the gospell among these rude, barbarous, and uncivill people" by Protestant churches; the outlawing of bards who were traditionally on circuit between the houses of noblemen; the requirement that all men of wealth send their heirs to be educated in Lowland schools where they would be taught to "speik, reid, and wryte Inglische."
The then King James VI, followed this by the School Establishment Act 1616, which sought to establish schools in every parish in the Scottish Highlands so that "the youth be exercised and trayned up in civilitie, godlines, knawledge, and learning, that the vulgar Inglische toung be universallie plantit, and the Irische language, whilk is one of the chief and principall causes of the continewance of barbaritie and incivilitie amongis the inhabitantis of the Ilis and Heylandis, may be abolisheit and removeit."[11]
In 1709 the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge (SSPCK) was established in order to further funding sources for Highland church schools. All manner of incentives and punishments were used to stop children from speaking Scottish Gaelic. The SSPCK had five schools by 1711, 25 by 1715, 176 by 1758 and 189 by 1808, by then with 13,000 pupils attending. At first the SSPCK avoided using the Gaelic language with the result that pupils ended up learning by rote without understanding what they were reading. In 1741 the SSPCK introduced a Gaelic-English vocabulary, then in 1766 brought in a New Testament with facing pages of Gaelic and English texts for both languages to be read alongside one another, with more success. After a number of years of unsuccessful attempts at English-only teaching methods, it was realized that literacy in Gaelic was a much more effective means of teaching and a bridge towards fluency in English.[12]
Since 1918 education acts have provided for teaching Gaelic in Gaelic-speaking areas, but development was very slow until Gaelic became an initial teaching medium in the Gaelic areas of Inverness-shire and Ross-shire from 1958. In 1975 the newly created Western Isles education authority introduced bilingual primary education shortly followed by Highland Region in Skye. Gaelic-medium primary education commenced with two schools in 1985, growing to 42 units by 1993/94.
In secondary education, Gaelic has long been taught as a subject—often through the medium of English, even to native speakers. A move towards bilingual secondary education in the Western Isles was frustrated by a change of government in the 1979 United Kingdom general election. Gaelic-medium secondary education has developed less satisfactorily. Gaelic-medium streams followed on from primary in Glasgow and Inverness, with some experimentation in the Western Isles, but the sector is hampered by acute teacher shortage, and an Ofsted inspectorate report of 1994 regarded Gaelic-medium secondary education as divisive and inappropriate.[13]
Third level provision through Gaelic is provided by Sabhal Mòr Ostaig (literally: "the great barn at Ostaig") a Gaelic-medium college based in Sleat, on the Isle of Skye in north west Scotland. It is part of the University of the Highlands and Islands, and also has a campus on Islay known as Ionad Chaluim Chille Ìle.
In 2004, Prince Charles, Duke of Rothesay, (who is patron of the College) stated that:
The beauty of Gaelic music and song is inescapable. But without the living language, it risks becoming an empty shell. That is why an education system, up to the level represented by the college here in Skye, is so important – to ensure fluency and literacy which will continue to renew the health and creativity of the language.[14]
The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 is the first piece of legislation to give formal recognition to the Gaelic language in Scotland. It recognises Gaelic as an official language of Scotland, commanding "equal respect" with English.
Education Minister Peter Peacock, who has ministerial responsibility for Gaelic, said: "This is a momentous day for Gaelic as we open a new chapter in the language's history. We have come a long way since the dark days of 1616 when an Act of Parliament ruled that Gaelic should be 'abolishit and removit' from Scotland."[15]
Cornwall[edit]
Penryn, Prayer Book Rebellion Memorial, near the site of Glasney College.
In the Prayer Book rebellion of 1549, where the English state sought to suppress Cornish language speaking with the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer, which was made available only in English. In replacing Latin with English, and under the guise of suppressing Catholicism, English was effectively imposed as the language of the Church, with the intent of it becoming the language of the people. At the time people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English.
The forced introduction of English to church services in Cornwall provided a major reason for the rebellion. The articles of the rebels states: "and we the cornyshe men (whereof certen of vs vnderstande no Englysh) vtterly refuse thys new English."[16]
The British Raj[edit]
British records[17] show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. Subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students from all classes of society. Gandhi is said to have described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed by British rule.
The Charter Act of 1813 decreed that English would be taught in the Indian education system although not as a replacement for indigenous languages. Instead, it was anticipated that English would co-exist with Oriental studies as a means by which moral law could be reinforced.
The 1817 publication of James Mill's History of British India[18] proved to be a defining text in the theories of how education policies should be formed (ed. Horace Hayman Wilson: London, Piper, Stephenson and Spence, 1858). Mill advocated the introduction of European knowledge to counter balance Indian traits judged to be irrational. Instilling ideals of reason would accordingly 'reform' Indians by the example of Western systems of thought and outlook. His ideas discredited Indian culture, language and literature even as its assumptions of moral superiority authorised and justified the presence of the British in India.
The current system of education,[19] was introduced and funded by the British in the 19th century, following recommendations by Thomas Babington Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since.
Thomas MacAulay's infamous 'Minute On Indian Education' (1835) encapsulates both the overt and covert agendas for such a policy.[20]
The term 'Macaulay's Children' is used to refer to people born of Indian ancestry who adopt Western culture as a lifestyle. It is usually used in a derogatory fashion, and the connotation is one of disloyalty to one's country and one's heritage.
The passage to which the term refers is from his 'Minute on Indian Education' delivered in 1835. It reads:
It is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.
In 1835 Lord William Bentninck revitalised the earlier Charter Act with his New Education Policy which determined that English should be the official language of the courts, diplomacy and administration. Prior to this Persian had been the accepted language of diplomacy. Bentninck's motive was ostensibly to "regenerate" society, but the ramifications were boundless. From this moment on only those with Western style education and a knowledge of English were eligible for government employment or for a career in public life.
In 1854 Sir Charles Wood published his Education Dispatch which was aimed at widening the availability of Western oriented knowledge. Universities were established under the London examining model in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
Lord Ripon's Hunter Commission of 1882 somewhat belatedly advocated that there should be increased provision of education at primary level and for women. The theory was that there would be a subsequent rise in the calibre of applicants for third level entry.
The inevitable result was that an Indian-based education was viewed as being second rate in comparison to an English-medium education.
India[edit]
Private English medium schools are gaining popularity throughout India as urban middle class Indians who feel that English is the global language send their children to these schools. Increasingly, many poor families too are sending their children to English medium schools due the poor quality of education in Government run vernacular medium schools.[citation needed]
Malaysia[edit]
Main article: Education in Malaysia
Up until 1981 in West Malaysia (and some years later in East Malaysia), there were English-medium schools set up by the former British colonial government and Christian missionaries. However, following the implementation of the 1967 National Language Act which stipulated the conversion of all English-medium schools to Malay-medium schools; all English-medium schools were definitely phased out.[21] The policy has now caused many newly graduates to become unemployed as they cannot find jobs especially in the private sector due to the lack of English proficiency; with the graduates can only depends on public sector jobs provided by the government. This led to a criticism over the policy by local governments from the East Malaysian sides who are now feel the impacts to their younger generations caused by the federal government policy who have been too long sidelined the importance to mastering the universal language of English.[22] By 2016, Sarawak began to support the re-establishment of English-medium schools,[23] and request for the approval of more English-medium schools in the state from the federal government using its autonomy in education.[24] The move was followed by Sabah in 2017 when a minister from the state also urging the return of English-medium schools,[25] which grows with more supports from other ministers.[26][27]
Indonesia[edit]
English medium school in Indonesia consists of International school and National Plus school.[28] A National Plus school in Indonesia refers to a school that offers education beyond the minimum requirements of the national Indonesian accreditation authorities. National Plus school offers some subjects taught in English and may provide some native English speakers on staff or may offer international curriculum such as from Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) or the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO). National Plus schools can typically be differentiated from international schools by their core market. International schools tend to primarily exist to serve the needs of expatriate students and national plus schools for Indonesian students; however there is significant overlap on both sides.[29]
Pakistan[edit]
The Government of Pakistan has recently[when?] announced the introduction of English lessons on a phased basis to all schools across the country. This new policy states that "English language has been made compulsory from Class-1 onwards" and the "Introduction of English as medium of instruction for science, mathematics, computer science and other selected subjects like economics and geography in all schools in a graduated manner."[30] Caretaker Minister for Education Mr. Shujaat Ali Beg declared 25 January 2008 that 18 colleges of the city of Karachi would be made "Model English Medium Colleges,"[31]
Bangladesh[edit]
In Bangladesh the system of education is divided into three different branches. Students are free to choose anyone of them provided that they have the means. These branches are: The English Medium, The Bengali Medium, and The Religious Branch. In the English Medium system, courses are all taught in English using English books with the exception for Bengali and Arabic. English medium schools are mainly private and thus traditionally were reserved for the upper and upper middle class. However huge demand in urban areas has resulted in large number of English-medium schools mushrooming. This has caused a fall in quality. O and A level exams are arranged through the British Council in Dhaka.[32]
The Union of Myanmar[edit]
In the Union of Myanmar, the education system is based on the British Colonial model, due to nearly a century of British and Christian presences. Nearly all schools are government-operated, and also there has been a recent increase in privately funded English language schools.
The Philippines[edit]
The United States of America won the Philippine–American War (1898–1901), and declared the Philippines a US colony. US imperial rule followed. Mac Síomóin quotes the Filipino scholar E. San Juan who made the following comment regarding the use made by the US administration of the English language to rule his country:
Its conquest of hegemony or consensual rule was literally accomplished through the deployment of English as the official medium of business, schooling and government. This pedagogical strategy was designed to cultivate an intelligencia, a middle stratum divorced from its roots in the plebeian masses, who would service the ideological apparatus of Anglo-Saxon supremacy. Americanization was mediated through English, sanctioned as the language of prestige and aspiration.[33]
English is used for instruction at the University of the Philippines.
Slovenia[edit]
University of Ljubljana teaches at least 100 courses in English. In Where to Invade Next, Michael Moore interviews several American citizens studying at the university who were taking courses taught in English.
South Africa[edit]
Colonial education[edit]
The earliest European schools in South Africa were established in the Cape Colony in the late seventeenth century by Dutch Reformed Church elders committed to biblical instruction, which was necessary for church confirmation. In rural areas, itinerant teachers (meesters) taught basic literacy and math skills. British mission schools proliferated after 1799, when the first members of the London Missionary Society arrived in the Cape Colony.[8]
Language soon became a sensitive issue in education. At least two dozen English-language schools operated in rural areas of the Cape Colony by 1827, but their presence rankled among devout Afrikaners, who considered the English language and curriculum irrelevant to rural life and Afrikaner values. Throughout the nineteenth century, Afrikaners resisted government policies aimed at the spread of the English language and British values, and many educated their children at home or in the churches.
Milner Schools[edit]
In order to anglicize the Transvaal area during the Anglo Boer war, Lord Milner set out to influence British Education in the area for the English-speaking populations. He founded a series of schools known as the "Milner Schools" in South Africa. These schools consist of modern day Pretoria High School for Girls, Pretoria Boys High School, Potchefstroom High School for Boys, Hamilton Primary School, and St. Marys DSG.
China[edit]
Main article: Education in China
A number of universities are involved English-medium education by International Scholarly Exchange Curriculum program (ISEC program). ISEC program establishes a platform for those universities to communicate with other international institutions who use English-medium education. Other famous universities that offer English-medium education (China-Foreign cooperative universities), such as University of Nottingham Ningbo, China, United International College, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Shanghai Newyork University and Wenzhou-Kean University.
See also[edit]
Bilingual education
Welsh in education
Medium of instruction
List of Irish medium primary schools in Northern Ireland
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Imperial Archive. A site dedicated to the study of Literature, Imperialism, Postcolonialism". Qub.ac.uk. 30 January 2006. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Lecture 7: World-Wide English". EHistLing. Retrieved 26 March 2007.
Jump up ^ David Hutchison and Hugh O'Donnell, ed. (2014). Centres and Peripheries: Metropolitan and Non-Metropolitan Journalism in the Twenty First Century. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 44. ISBN 978-1443827577.
Jump up ^ "Report of Commission of Enquiry into the State of Education in Wales, 1847". GENUKI. 13 March 2003. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "'Glencoe of Welsh history' is published online". The Independent. 4 January 2006. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "CAIN: CSC: The Common School". Cain.ulst.ac.uk. 5 May 1993. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 29 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Séamas Ó Buachalla (1984). "Educational Policy and the Role of the Irish Language from 1831 to 1981". European Journal of Education. Blackwell Publishing. 19 (1): 75. JSTOR 1503260.
Jump up ^ The Murder Machine http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/E900007-001/index.html
Jump up ^ Gaelic in Scotland
Jump up ^ Charles W. J. Withers (July 1990). "Gaelic Scotland: The Transformation of a Culture Region". Geographical Review. Wiley-Blackwell. 80 (3): 327–329.
Jump up ^ Arnove, R.F.; Graff, H.J. (1987). National Literacy Campaigns: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-306-42458-8.
Jump up ^ "Euromosaic – Gaelic in Scotland (United Kingdom)". Uoc.es. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "A speech by HRH The Prince Charles, Duke of Rothesay, at Sabhal Mor Ostaig, Isle of Skye". princeofwales.gov.uk. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Official Report". Scottish Parliament. 2 February 2005. Retrieved 2016-12-16.
Jump up ^ Alan M. Kent, Tim Saunders, ed. (2000). Looking at the Mermaid: A Reader in Cornish Literature 900-1900. Francis Boutle Publishers. p. 267. ISBN 978-1903427019.
Jump up ^ "Education in Pre-British India". Infinityfoundation.com. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ James Mill, Horace Hayman Wilson (1847). The history of British India, Volume 6. James Madden. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Western Education in Nineteenth-Century India". Qub.ac.uk. 4 June 1998. Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Frances Pritchett. "Minute on Education (1835) by Thomas Babington Macaulay". Columbia.edu. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Raymond Hickey (6 December 2012). Standards of English: Codified Varieties around the World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 280–. ISBN 978-1-139-85121-3.
Jump up ^ Irene C (21 September 2015). "Get English back into the system". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Sulok Tawie (10 September 2016). "Adenan: Sarawak will back English-medium schools". The Malay Mail. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Approve more English-medium schools, govt urged". Bernama. The Star. 14 September 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Re-establish English-medium government schools in Sabah, says Rahman". Bernama. The Star. 23 April 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mositun: Bring back English-medium schools". The Star. 24 April 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Support grows for Sabah English schools". The Malay Mail. 24 April 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Indonesian National "Plus" and International Schools". Living in Indonesia. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Guides for Foreign Residents & Expats". Retrieved 10 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education Archived 8 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "18 colleges declared 'English medium'". interface.edu.pk. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Education in Bangladesh". Sanisoft.tripod.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2001. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
Jump up ^ 'Ó Mhársa go Magla' by Tomás Mac Síomóin. First published in 2006. ISSN 1649-3079
Sources and further reading[edit]
Séamas Ó Buachalla,Educational Policy and the Role of the Irish Language from 1831 to 1981, European Journal of Education, Vol. 19, No. 1, Multicultural Education (1984), pp. 75–92
Bisong, Joseph (1995 [1994]) Language Choice and cultural Imperialism: a Nigerian Perspective. ELT Journal 49/2 pp. 122–132.
Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon. In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a. M.: Lang. pp. 221–240.
Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2002) World English. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 1-85359-577-2
Canagarajah, A. Suresh (1999), Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-442154-6
Canagarajah, A. Suresh, Thomas Ricento & Terrence G. Wiley [eds.] (2002) Journal of Language, Identity, and Education. Special issue. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-9629-5
Canagarajah, A. Suresh [ed.] (2004) Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-4593-3
Crystal, David (2003), English as a Global Language, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53032-6
Davies, Alan (1996) Review Article: ironising the Myth of Linguicism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 17/6: 485–596.
Davies, Alan (1997) Response to a Reply. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18/3 p. 248.
Edge, Julian [ed.] (2006) (Re-)Locating TESOL in an Age of Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-8530-8
Holborow, Marnie (1999) Politics of English. Sage Publications. ISBN 0-7619-6018-X
Holborrow, Marnie (1993) Review Article: linguistic Imperialism. ELT Journal 47/4 pp. 358–360.
Holliday, Adrian (2005), Struggle to Teach English as an International Language , Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-442184-8
Kontra, Miklos, Robert Phillipson, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas & Tibor Varady [eds.] (1999), Language: A Right and a Resource, Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9116-64-5
Kramsch, Klaire and Patricia Sullivan (1996) Appropriate Pedagogy. ELT Journal 50/3 pp. 199–212.
Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers.
Pennycook, Alastair (1995), The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language, Longman. ISBN 0-582-23473-5
Pennycook, Alastair (1998), English and the Discourses of Colonialism, Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17848-7
Pennycook, Alastair (2001), Critical Applied Linguistics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3792-2
Pennycook, Alastair (in press) Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-37497-9
Phillipson, Robert (1992), Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-437146-8
Phillipson, Robert [ed.] (2000), Rights to Language, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3835-X
Phillipson, Robert (2003) English-Only Europe? Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28807-X
Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers.
Rajagopalan, Kanavilli (1999) Of EFL Teachers, Conscience and Cowardice. ELT Journal 53/3 200–206.
Ramanathan, Vaidehi (2005) The English-Vernacular Divide. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 1-85359-769-4
Rahman, Tariq (1996) Language and Politics in Pakistan Karachi: Oxford University Press
Ricento, Thomas [ed.] (2000) Ideology, Politics, and Language Policies. John Benjamins. ISBN 1-55619-670-9
Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove & Robert Phillipson [eds.]; Mart Rannut (1995), Linguistic Human Rights, Mouton De Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014878-1
Sonntag, Selma K. (2003) The Local Politics of Global English. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0598-1
Spichtinger, Daniel (2000) The Spread of English and its Appropriation. University of Vienna, Vienna.
Tsui, Amy B.M. & James W. Tollefson (in press) Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-5694-3
Widdowson, H.G. (1998a) EIL: squaring the Circles. A Reply. World Englishes 17/3 pp. 397–401.
Widdowson, H.G. (1998b) The Theory and Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis. Applied Linguistics 19/1 pp. 136–151.
External links[edit]
Minute by the Hon'ble T.B. Macaulay, dated the 2 February 1835.
Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, Colaiste Ghàidhlig na h-Alba
The Common School, by Seamus Dunn
English Next by David Graddol, British Council
European Journal of Education, Vol. 19, No. 1, Multicultural Education (1984) 'Education Policy and the Role of the Irish Language from 1831 to 1981.' URL
Gaelic in Scotland
Empire? What Empire? Imperialism and British national identity c. 1815–1914 by Professor Bernard Porter
TEFL Courses Online Review - ESL teaching strategies and techniques
The Murder Machine by P.H. Pearse
UNESCO Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Education
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