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Pico de gallo
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Pico de gallo
In Mexican cuisine, pico de gallo (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈpiko ðe ˈɣaʎo], lit. rooster's beak), also called salsa fresca or salsa cruda, is made from chopped tomato, onion, cilantro, fresh serranos (jalapeños or habaneros are used as alternatives), salt, and lime juice. Other ingredients, such as shrimp, or avocado, are also sometimes added.
Pico de gallo can be used in much the same way as other Mexican liquid salsas, but since it contains less liquid, it can also be used as a main ingredient in dishes such as tacos and fajitas.
The tomato-based variety is widely known as salsa picada (minced/chopped sauce). In Mexico it is sometimes called salsa mexicana (Mexican sauce). Because the colours of the red tomato, white onion, green chili and cilantro are reminiscent of the colours of the Mexican flag, it is also sometimes called salsa bandera (flag sauce).
In many regions of Mexico the term refers to any of a variety of salads (including fruit salads), salsa, or fillings made with tomato, tomatillo, avocado, orange, jícama, cucumber, papaya, or mild chilis. The ingredients are tossed in lime juice and either hot sauce or chamoy, then sprinkled with a salty chili powder.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Etymology[edit]
According to food writer Sharon Tyler Herbst,[1] pico de gallo ("rooster's beak") is named thus because originally people ate it by pinching pieces between the thumb and forefinger.
In their book Authentic Mexican: Regional Cooking from the Heart of Mexico, Rick Bayless and Deann Groen speculate that the name might allude to the bird feed-like texture and appearance of the mince.[2]
Many native residents of the Sonoran Mexico region explain that the salsa is thus named because the serrano pepper resembles a rooster's beak in shape.[3]
See also[edit]
Salad
Pebre, a similar condiment from Chile
List of Mexican dishes
List of tomato dishes
food portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sharon Tyler Herbst, "Food Lover's Companion", 2nd ed., as quoted in Barron's Educational Services, Inc. 1995: www.Epicurious.com, retrieved 10/3/2007 [1]
Jump up ^ Bayless, Rick; Groen, Deann. Authentic Mexican: Regional Cooking from the Heart of Mexico.
Jump up ^ Wilder, Janos. The Great Chiles Rellenos Book. Ten Speed Press, 2013.
External links[edit]
Pico de Gallo at Wikibook Cookbooks
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Commander-in-Chief's Trophy
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Commander-in-Chief's Trophy
Showing the side of the 2016 winner, Air Force.
Air Force
Falcons Army
Black Knights Navy
Midshipmen
Originated: 1972; 46 years ago (1972)
Current Holder: Army
Air Force (20)
1982 1983
1985 1987
1989 1990
1991 1992
1994 1995
1997 1998
1999 2000
2001 2002
2010 2011
2014 2016 Army (7)
1972 1977
1984 1986
1988 1996
2017 Navy (15)
1973 1975
1978 1979
1981 2003
2004 2005
2006 2007
2008 2009
2012 2013
2015
Shared Awards (4)
1974 1976 1980 1993
Army
Navy
Air Force
Campus locations in the United States
The Commander-in-Chief's Trophy is awarded to each season's winner of the American college football triangular series among the teams of the U.S. Military Academy (Army Black Knights), the U.S. Naval Academy (Navy Midshipmen), and U.S. Air Force Academy (Air Force Falcons).
The Navy–Air Force game is traditionally played on the first Saturday in October, the Army–Air Force game on the first Saturday in November, and the Army–Navy Game on the second Saturday in December. In the event of a tie, the award is shared, but the previous winner retains possession of the trophy. Along with the Florida Cup, the Michigan MAC Trophy, and the Beehive Boot, the Commander-in-Chief's Trophy is one of the few three-way rivalries that awards a trophy to the winner.
Through 2017, the Air Force Falcons hold the most trophy victories at 20 and the Navy Midshipmen have won 15. The Army Black Knights trail with only 7, but are the current holder. The trophy has been shared on four occasions, most recently in 1993.
Contents
1 History of the trophy
2 The trophy
3 Game results and trophy winners
4 See also
5 References
History of the trophy[edit]
Prior to 1972, Air Force played Army in odd years and Navy in even years. The Commander-in-Chief's trophy was the brainchild of Air Force General George B. Simler, a former Air Force Academy athletic director who envisioned the trophy as a means to create an annual series of football games for the Air Force Academy against the Military Academy and the Naval Academy. First awarded in 1972 by President Richard Nixon, the trophy itself is jointly sponsored by the alumni associations of the three academies.[1][2]
The trophy is named for the U.S. President, who is the Commander-in-Chief of all U.S. military services under the U.S. Constitution. The President has personally awarded the trophy on a number of occasions. During the 1980s, for instance, President Ronald Reagan presented the award in an annual White House ceremony. In 1996, President Bill Clinton presented the trophy to the Army team at Veterans Stadium after the Army–Navy Game. From 2003 to 2007, President George W. Bush presented the trophy to Navy teams at ceremonies in the White House.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the winner of the trophy, if bowl eligible, was granted an invitation to the Liberty Bowl in Memphis, Tennessee.[3]
Navy was the first to five wins in 1981, while Army won its fifth in 1988 and Air Force in 1989 to knot the series (five wins each with three shares). Air Force has led since their win in 1990, and dominated through 2002, with sixteen wins to Army's six. Winless in the series for over two decades, Navy reeled off seven consecutive sweeps from 2003 through 2009 to draw close.
In the annual series, Air Force plays a home game and a road game, usually both on campus, hosting Navy in even-numbered years and Army in odd years. Army–Navy is a neutral site game, usually in a major eastern city and most frequently in Philadelphia; it was last played on campus in 1942 and 1943, during World War II travel restrictions.
The other two federal service academies – the U.S. Coast Guard Academy and U.S. Merchant Marine Academy – do not participate in this competition. They are approximately one-quarter the size of the three Department of Defense academies and compete in Division III athletics, so they do not compete against the DOD military academies in most sports. The Coast Guard Bears and Merchant Marine Mariners have an annual football rivalry for the Secretaries Cup.
The trophy[edit]
The trophy itself stands 2.5 feet (0.76 m) high and weighs a hefty 170 lb (77 kg). The design consists of three silver footballs in a pyramid-like arrangement, set on a circular base, with three arc-shaped sections cut out — one for each academy. In each of the cut-out areas stands a silver figurine of the mascot of one of the academies, in front of small, engraved plates denoting which years the respective academy has won the trophy. Beneath each of the three silver footballs is the crest of one of the three academies.
When Air Force has possession of the trophy, it is displayed in a glass case in the Cadet Fieldhouse, the indoor sports complex at the Air Force Academy. When Navy has possession of the trophy, it is displayed in a glass case in Bancroft Hall, the Midshipmen's dormitory. When Army possesses the trophy, it is housed in a glass case in Eisenhower Hall, the academy's theater and ballroom.
Game results and trophy winners[edit]
In the event of a shared award, the previous year's winner retains custody of the trophy.
Air Force victories Army victories Navy victories Shared trophies and tied games No game played, no trophy awarded and future events
Season
Trophy Winner
Air Force – Navy score
Air Force – Army score
Army – Navy score
Before Trophy Established
1890-1958
N/A Not played Not played See Army-Navy Game
1959
N/A Not played 13–13[a] 43–12[b]
1960
N/A 35–3[c] Not played 17–12[b]
1961
N/A Not played Not played 13–7[b]
1962
N/A Not played Not played 34–14[b]
1963
N/A Not played 14–10[d] 21–15[b]
1964
N/A Not played Not played 11–8[b]
1965
N/A Not played 14–3[d] 7–7[b]
1966
N/A 15–7[e] Not played 20–7[b]
1967
N/A Not played 10–7[e] 19–14[b]
1968
N/A 26–20[d] Not played 21–14[b]
1969
N/A Not played 13–6[f] 27–0[b]
1970
N/A 26–3[g] Not played 11–7[b]
1971
N/A Not played 20–7[e] 24–23[b]
Trophy Established
1972
Army (1) 21–17[e] 17–14[f] 23–15[b]
1973
Navy (1) 42–6[h] 43–10[e] 51–0[b]
1974
Shared (Navy retained trophy) (1) 19–16[e] 17–16[f] 19–0[b]
1975
Navy (2) 17–0[g] 33–3[e] 30–6[b]
1976
Shared (Navy retained trophy) (2) 13–3[e] 24–7[f] 38–10[b]
1977
Army (2) 10–7[h] 31–6[e] 17–14[b]
1978
Navy (3) 37–8[e] 28–14[f] 28–0[b]
1979
Navy (4) 13–9[h] 28–7[e] 31–7[b]
1980
Shared (Navy retained trophy) (3) 21–20[e] 47–24[f] 33–6[i]
1981
Navy (5) 30–13[h] 7–3[e] 3–3[i]
1982
Air Force (1) 24–21[e] 27–9[f] 24–7[i]
1983
Air Force (2) 44–17[h] 41–20[e] 42–13[j]
1984
Army (3) 29–22[e] 24–12[f] 28–11[i]
1985
Air Force (3) 24–7[h] 45–7[e] 17–7[i]
1986
Army (4) 40–6[e] 21–11[f] 27–7[i]
1987
Air Force (4) 23–13[h] 27–10[e] 17–3[i]
1988
Army (5) 34–24[e] 28–15[f] 20–15[i]
1989
Air Force (5) 35–7[h] 29–3[e] 19–17[k]
1990
Air Force (6) 24–7[e] 15–3[f] 30–20[i]
1991
Air Force (7) 46–6[h] 25–0[e] 24–3[i]
1992
Air Force (8) 18–16[e] 7–3[f] 25–24[i]
1993
Shared (Air Force retained trophy) (4) 28–24[h] 25–6[e] 16–14[k]
1994
Air Force (9) 43–21[e] 10–6[f] 22–20[i]
1995
Air Force (10) 30–20[h] 38–20[e] 14–13[i]
1996
Army (6) 20–17[e] 23–7[f] 28–24[i]
1997
Air Force (11) 10–7[h] 24–0[e] 39–7[k]
1998
Air Force (12) 49–7[e] 35–7[f] 34–30[i]
1999
Air Force (13) 19–14[l] 28–0[e] 19–9[i]
2000
Air Force (14) 27–13[e] 41–27[f] 30–28[m]
2001
Air Force (15) 24–18[l] 34–24[e] 26–17[i]
2002
Air Force (16) 48–7[e] 49–30[f] 58–12[k]
2003
Navy (6) 28–25[l] 31–3[e] 34–6[n]
2004
Navy (7) 24–21[e] 31–22[f] 42–13[n]
2005
Navy (8) 27–24[h] 27–24[e] 42–23[n]
2006
Navy (9) 24–17[e] 43–7[f] 26–14[n]
2007
Navy (10) 31–20[h] 30–10[e] 38–3[m]
2008
Navy (11) 33–27[e] 16–7[f] 34–0[n]
2009
Navy (12) 16–13 (OT)[h] 35–7[e] 17–3[n]
2010
Air Force (17) 14–6[e] 42–22[f] 31–17[n]
2011
Air Force (18) 35–34 (OT)[h] 24–14[e] 27–21[l]
2012
Navy (13) 28–21 (OT)[e] 41–21[f] 17–13[n]
2013
Navy (14) 28–10[h] 42–28[e] 34–7[n]
2014
Air Force (19) 30–21[e] 23–6[f] 17–10[m]
2015
Navy (15) 33–11[h] 20–3[e] 21–17[n]
2016
Air Force (20) 28–14[e] 31–12[f] 21–17[m]
2017
Army (7) 48–45[h] 21–0[e] 14–13[n]
2018
TBD October 6, 2018[e] November 3, 2018[f] December 8, 2018[n]
Season
Trophy winner
Air Force – Navy
Air Force – Army
Army – Navy
Records since 1972
Air Force: 26–20 (.565)
Air Force: 33–13 (.717)
Navy: 29–16–1 (.641)
All-time Records
Air Force: 29–21 (.580)
Air Force: 36–15–1 (.702)
Navy: 60–51–7 (.538)
Jump up ^ At Yankee Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u At Philadelphia Municipal Stadium/John F. Kennedy Stadium
Jump up ^ At Baltimore Memorial Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c At Soldier Field
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax At Falcon Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y At Michie Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b At Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s At Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q At Veterans Stadium
Jump up ^ At Rose Bowl
^ Jump up to: a b c d At Giants Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c d At FedExField
^ Jump up to: a b c d At PSINet Stadium/M&T Bank Stadium
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l At Lincoln Financial Field
Records since Trophy Established
Team
Trophies
Last
W
L
T
Pct.
Air Force 20 2016 59 33 0 .641
Navy 15 2015 49 42 1 .538
Army 7 2017 29 62 1 .321
Four shared trophies, last in 1993
Only tie was in 1981 (Army–Navy, 3–3)
Overtime for Division I-A regular season introduced in 1996
three OT games, all between Navy (2–1) and Air Force
See also[edit]
Army–Navy Game
Secretaries Cup – annual Division III rivalry game between the Coast Guard Bears and Merchant Marine Mariners
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Staff Sgt. Raymond Hoy (April 18, 2011). "Falcons bring home Commander-in-Chief's Trophy". www.af.mil. Archived from the original on July 24, 2012. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Kyle Meadows (July 24, 2008). "The Top Ten College Football Rivalry Trophies". Bleacher Report.
Jump up ^ John Cavanaugh (November 12, 1989). "COLLEGE FOOTBALL; Boston College Surprises Army". The New York Times.
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Air Force Falcons football
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DU Stadium (1955–1961)
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Army Black Knights football
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The Plain (1890–1923)
Michie Stadium (1924–present)
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Air Force (Commander-in-Chief's Trophy)
Navy: Army–Navy Game (Commander-in-Chief's Trophy; Thompson Cup)
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Navy Midshipmen football
Venues
Worden Field (1890–1923)
Thompson Stadium (1924–1958)
Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium (1959–present)
Memorial Stadium (alternate)
Bowls & rivalries
Bowl games
Army: Army–Navy Game (Commander-in-Chief's Trophy)
Air Force (Commander-in-Chief's Trophy)
Johns Hopkins
Maryland: Crab Bowl Classic
Notre Dame (Rip Miller Trophy)
SMU (Gansz Trophy)
Culture & lore
Bill the Goat
"Anchors Aweigh"
"I believe that we will win!"
Marching band
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2007 North Texas game
People
Head coaches
Statistical leaders
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Seasons
1879
1880
1881
1882
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1927
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1930
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National championship seasons in bold
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American Athletic Conference football rivalries
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Civil Conflict (Connecticut–UCF)
East Carolina–UCF
Houston–SMU
Houston–Tulsa
Gansz Trophy (SMU–Navy)
War on I-4 (USF–UCF)
Non-conference
Victory Bell (Cincinnati–Miami)
The Keg of Nails (Cincinnati–Louisville)
River City Rivalry (Cincinnati–Pittsburgh)
Connecticut–Massachusetts
Ramnapping Trophy (Connecticut–Rhode Island)
East Carolina–Marshall
East Carolina–NC State
Bayou Bucket Classic (Houston–Rice)
Louisville–Memphis
Paint Bucket Bowl (Memphis–Arkansas State)
Memphis–Ole Miss
Black and Blue Bowl (Memphis–Southern Miss)
Army–Navy
Commander-in-Chief's Trophy (Navy–Air Force–Army)
Navy–Johns Hopkins
Crab Bowl Classic (Navy–Maryland)
Navy–Notre Dame
Rice–SMU
Safeway Bowl (SMU–North Texas)
SMU–TCU
Mayor's Cup (Temple–Villanova)
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Battle for the Bell (Tulane–Southern Miss)
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Oklahoma State–Tulsa
show
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NCAA Division I FBS independents football rivalries
Army–Navy Game (Army–Navy)
Army–Notre Dame
Beehive Boot (BYU–Utah–Utah State)
Boston College–Massachusetts
BYU–Utah State
Colonial Clash (Massachusetts–New Hampshire)
Commander-in-Chief's Trophy (Air Force–Army–Navy)
Connecticut–Massachusetts
Holy War (Boston College–Notre Dame)
Holy War (BYU–Utah)
Michigan–Notre Dame
Michigan State–Notre Dame
Navy–Notre Dame
Northwestern–Notre Dame
Notre Dame–Purdue
Notre Dame–Stanford
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show
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Mountain West Conference football rivalries
Conference
Air Force–Colorado State
Air Force–Hawaii
Boise State–Fresno State
Boise State–Nevada
Border War (Colorado State–Wyoming)
Fresno State–Hawaii
Fresno State–San Diego State
Fresno State–San Jose State
Fremont Cannon (Nevada–UNLV)
Hawaii–Wyoming
Utah State–Wyoming
Non-conference
Arizona–New Mexico
Beehive Boot (BYU–Utah–Utah State)
Bill Walsh Legacy Game (San Jose State–Stanford)
Boise State–Idaho
BYU–Utah State
Commander-in-Chief's Trophy (Air Force–Army–Navy)
Rocky Mountain Showdown (Colorado–Colorado State)
Rio Grande Rivalry (New Mexico–New Mexico State)
Battle of the Brothers (Utah–Utah State)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commander-in-Chief%27s_Trophy&oldid=853021230"
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49ers–Cowboys rivalry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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San Francisco 49ers-Dallas Cowboys
San Francisco 49ers
Dallas Cowboys
Latest meeting
October 22, 2017
Cowboys 40, 49ers 10
Next meeting
TBD (will not play in 2018, unless they meet each other in playoffs)
Statistics
Meetings total
36
All-time series
Dallas leads 18-17-1
Postseason results
Dallas Cowboys lead 5–2
Most recent
January 15, 1995
Dallas Cowboys 28, San Francisco 49ers 38
Largest victory
San Francisco 49ers 14, Dallas Cowboys 59 (1980)
Current win streak
Dallas Cowboys, 2 win (2017)
Championship success during tenure of rivalry
Super Bowl titles (10)
Dallas Cowboys (5) – 1971, 1977, 1992, 1993, 1995
San Francisco 49ers (5) – 1981, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1994
NFC Championships (14)
Dallas Cowboys (8) – 1970, 1971, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1992, 1993, 1995
San Francisco 49ers (6) – 1981, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1994, 2012
Super Bowl appearances (14)
Dallas Cowboys (8) – 1970, 1971, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1992, 1993, 1995
San Francisco 49ers (6) – 1981, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1994, 2012
The 49ers–Cowboys rivalry is a National Football League (NFL) rivalry between the San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys. The Cowboys lead the series 18-17-1. It is one of the great inter-division rivalry games in the NFL. The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season. Sports Illustrated ranked it as the eighth best rivalry[1] while the NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the NFL. The rivalry was also the subject of two 2015 episodes of NFL Network's The Timeline series.
History[edit]
The rivalry between the Cowboys and 49ers has been going on since the 1970s, including seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers' Joe Montana complete a game-winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992–1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three consecutive times. Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match-ups, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are second all time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers with five each.
The Catch[edit]
Main article: The Catch (American football)
The Catch refers to the winning touchdown reception by Dwight Clark from a Joe Montana pass in the January 10, 1982, NFC Championship Game between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers. The Catch is widely regarded as one of the most memorable events in NFL history.
Game results[edit]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Date
Score
Winner
Competition
Location
Series
November 20, 1960 26-14 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 1-0
November 10, 1963 31-24 49ers Regular Season San Francisco SF 2-0
November 7, 1965 39-31 Cowboys Regular Season Dallas SF 2-1
December 16, 1967 24-16 49ers Regular Season San Francisco SF 3-1
November 27, 1969 24-24 Tie Regular Season Dallas SF 3-1-1
January 3, 1971 17-10 Cowboys NFC Championship Game San Francisco SF 3-2-1
January 2, 1972 14-3 Cowboys NFC Championship Game Dallas Tied 3-3-1
November 23, 1972 31-10 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 4-3-1
December 23, 1972 30-28 Cowboys NFC Playoffs - Divisional San Francisco Tied 4-4-1
November 10, 1974 20-14 Cowboys Regular Season Dallas Dallas 5-4-1
December 12, 1977 42-35 Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco Dallas 6-4-1
September 9, 1979 21-13 Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco Dallas 7-4-1
October 12, 1980 59-14 Cowboys Regular Season Dallas Dallas 8-4-1
October 11, 1981 45-14 49ers Regular Season San Francisco Dallas 8-5-1
January 10, 1982 28-27 49ers NFC Championship Game San Francisco Dallas 8-6-1
December 19, 1983 42-17 49ers Regular Season (WK 16) San Francisco Dallas 8-7-1
December 22, 1985 31-16 49ers Regular Season San Francisco Tied 8-8-1
October 13, 1989 31-14 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 9-8-1
November 11, 1990 24-6 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 10-8-1
January 23, 1993 30-20 Cowboys NFC Championship Game San Francisco SF 10-9-1
October 17, 1993 26-17 Cowboys Regular Season Dallas Tied 10-10-1
January 16, 1994 38-21 Cowboys NFC Championship Game Dallas Dallas 11-10-1
November 13, 1994 21-14 49ers Regular Season San Francisco Tied 11-11-1
January 15, 1995 38-28 49ers NFC Championship Game San Francisco SF 12-11-1
November 12, 1995 38-20 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 13-11-1
November 10, 1996 20-17 (OT) Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco SF 13-12-1
November 2, 1997 17-10 49ers Regular Season San Francisco SF 14-12-1
September 24, 2000 41-24 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 15-12-1
December 30, 2001 27-21 Cowboys Regular Season Dallas SF 15-13-1
December 8, 2002 31-27 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 16-13-1
September 25, 2005 34-31 Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco SF 16-14-1
November 23, 2008 35-22 Cowboys Regular Season Dallas SF 16-15-1
September 18, 2011 27-24 (OT) Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco Tied 16-16-1
September 7, 2014 28-17 49ers Regular Season Dallas SF 17-16-1
October 2, 2016 24-17 Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco Tied 17-17-1
October 22, 2017 40-10 Cowboys Regular Season San Francisco Dallas 18-17-1
Jump up ^ http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/nfl/photos/0809/nfl-best-rivalries/#/nfl/photos/0809/nfl-best-rivalries/3/
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1995 (XXX)
Media
Broadcasters
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Current league affiliations
League: National Football League
Conference: National Football Conference
Division: East Division
Seasons (59)
1960
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Conservation of mass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov discovered the law of mass conservation in 1756 by experiments, and came to the conclusion that phlogiston theory is incorrect.[1][2][3]
Antoine Lavoisier's discovery of the Law of Conservation of Mass led to many new findings in the 19th century. Joseph Proust's law of definite proportions and John Dalton's atomic theory branched from the discoveries of Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier's quantitative experiments revealed that combustion involved oxygen rather than what was previously thought to be phlogiston.
The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system mass cannot change quantity if it is not added or removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is "conserved" over time. The law implies that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form, as for example when light or physical work is transformed into particles that contribute the same mass to the system as the light or work had contributed. Thus, during any chemical reaction, nuclear reaction, or radioactive decay in an isolated system, the total mass of the reactants or starting materials must be equal to the mass of the products.
The concept of mass conservation is widely used in many fields such as chemistry, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. Historically, mass conservation was discovered in chemical reactions by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century, and was of crucial importance in the progress from alchemy to the modern natural science of chemistry.
The closely related concept of matter conservation was found to hold good in chemistry to such high approximation that it failed only for the high energies treated by the later refinements of relativity theory, but otherwise remains useful and sufficiently accurate for most chemical calculations, even in modern practice.
In special relativity, needed for accuracy when large energy transfers between systems is involved, the difference between thermodynamically closed and isolated systems becomes important, since conservation of mass is strictly and perfectly upheld only for so-called isolated systems, i.e. those completely isolated from all exchanges with the environment. In this circumstance, the mass–energy equivalence theorem states that mass conservation is equivalent to total energy conservation, which is the first law of thermodynamics. By contrast, for a thermodynamically closed system (i.e., one which is closed to exchanges of matter, but open to exchanges of non-material energy, such as heat and work, with the surroundings) mass is (usually) only approximately conserved. The input or output of non-material energy must change the mass of the system in relativity theory, although the change is usually small, since relatively large amounts of such energy (by comparison with ordinary experience) carry only a small amount of mass (again by ordinary standards of measurement).
In special relativity, mass is not converted to energy, since mass and energy cannot be destroyed, and energy in all of its forms always retains its equivalent amount of mass throughout any transformation to a different type of energy within a system (or translocation into or out of a system). Certain types of matter (a different concept) may be created or destroyed, but in all of these processes, the energy and mass associated with such matter remains unchanged in quantity (although type of energy associated with the matter may change form).
In general relativity, mass (and energy) conservation in expanding volumes of space is a complex concept, subject to different definitions, and neither mass nor energy is as strictly and simply conserved as is the case in special relativity and in Minkowski space. For a discussion, see mass in general relativity.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Mass conservation in chemistry
2 Generalization
2.1 The mass associated with chemical amounts of energy is too small to measure
2.2 Mass conservation remains correct if energy is not lost
3 Exceptions or caveats to mass/matter conservation
3.1 Matter is not perfectly conserved
3.2 Open systems and thermodynamically closed systems
3.3 General relativity
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
An important idea in ancient Greek philosophy was that "Nothing comes from nothing", so that what exists now has always existed: no new matter can come into existence where there was none before. An explicit statement of this, along with the further principle that nothing can pass away into nothing, is found in Empedocles (approx. 490–430 BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed."[4]
A further principle of conservation was stated by Epicurus (341–270 BC) who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be".[5]
Jain philosophy, a non-creationist philosophy based on the teachings of Mahavira (6th century BC),[6] states that the universe and its constituents such as matter cannot be destroyed or created. The Jain text Tattvarthasutra (2nd century AD) states that a substance is permanent, but its modes are characterised by creation and destruction.[7] A principle of the conservation of matter was also stated by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201–1274). He wrote that "A body of matter cannot disappear completely. It only changes its form, condition, composition, color and other properties and turns into a different complex or elementary matter".[8]
Mass conservation in chemistry[edit]
The principle of conservation of mass was first outlined by Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) in 1748. He proved it by experiments—though this is sometimes challenged.[9] Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) had expressed these ideas in 1774. Others whose ideas pre-dated the work of Lavoisier include Joseph Black (1728–1799), Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), and Jean Rey (1583–1645).[10]
The conservation of mass was obscure for millennia because of the buoyancy effect of the Earth's atmosphere on the weight of gases. For example, a piece of wood weighs less after burning; this seemed to suggest that some of its mass disappears, or is transformed or lost. This was not disproved until careful experiments were performed in which chemical reactions such as rusting were allowed to take place in sealed glass ampoules; it was found that the chemical reaction did not change the weight of the sealed container and its contents. The vacuum pump also enabled the weighing of gases using scales.
Once understood, the conservation of mass was of great importance in progressing from alchemy to modern chemistry. Once early chemists realized that chemical substances never disappeared but were only transformed into other substances with the same weight, these scientists could for the first time embark on quantitative studies of the transformations of substances. The idea of mass conservation plus a surmise that certain "elemental substances" also could not be transformed into others by chemical reactions, in turn led to an understanding of chemical elements, as well as the idea that all chemical processes and transformations (such as burning and metabolic reactions) are reactions between invariant amounts or weights of these chemical elements.
Following the pioneering work of Lavoisier the prolonged and exhaustive experiments of Jean Stas supported the strict accuracy of this law in chemical reactions,[11] even though they were carried out with other intentions. His research[12][13] indicated that in certain reactions the loss or gain could not have been more than from 2 to 4 parts in 100,000.[14] The difference in the accuracy aimed at and attained by Lavoisier on the one hand, and by Morley and Stas on the other, is enormous.[15]
Generalization[edit]
Main article: Conservation of mass in special relativity
Main article: Conservation of energy
In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.
Also, mass must be differentiated from matter (see below), since matter may not be perfectly conserved in isolated systems, even though mass is always conserved in such systems. However, matter is so nearly conserved in chemistry that violations of matter conservation were not measured until the nuclear age, and the assumption of matter conservation remains an important practical concept in most systems in chemistry and other studies that do not involve the high energies typical of radioactivity and nuclear reactions.
The mass associated with chemical amounts of energy is too small to measure[edit]
The change in mass of certain kinds of open systems where atoms or massive particles are not allowed to escape, but other types of energy (such as light or heat) are allowed to enter or escape, went unnoticed during the 19th century, because the change in mass associated with addition or loss of small quantities of thermal or radiant energy in chemical reactions is very small. (In theory, mass would not change at all for experiments conducted in isolated systems where heat and work were not allowed in or out.)
The theoretical association of all energy with mass was made by Albert Einstein in 1905. However Max Planck pointed out that the change in mass of systems as a result of extraction or addition of chemical energy, as predicted by Einstein's theory, is so small that it could not be measured with available instruments, for example as a test of Einstein's theory. Einstein speculated that the energies associated with newly discovered radioactivity were significant enough, compared with the mass of systems producing them, to enable their mass-change to be measured, once the energy of the reaction had been removed from the system. This later indeed proved to be possible, although it was eventually to be the first artificial nuclear transmutation reaction in 1932, demonstrated by Cockcroft and Walton, that proved the first successful test of Einstein's theory regarding mass-loss with energy-loss.
Mass conservation remains correct if energy is not lost[edit]
The conservation of relativistic mass implies the viewpoint of a single observer (or the view from a single inertial frame) since changing inertial frames may result in a change of the total energy (relativistic energy) for systems, and this quantity determines the relativistic mass.
The principle that the mass of a system of particles must be equal to the sum of their rest masses, even though true in classical physics, may be false in special relativity. The reason that rest masses cannot be simply added is that this does not take into account other forms of energy, such as kinetic and potential energy, and massless particles such as photons, all of which may (or may not) affect the total mass of systems.
For moving massive particles in a system, examining the rest masses of the various particles also amounts to introducing many different inertial observation frames (which is prohibited if total system energy and momentum are to be conserved), and also when in the rest frame of one particle, this procedure ignores the momenta of other particles, which affect the system mass if the other particles are in motion in this frame.
For the special type of mass called invariant mass, changing the inertial frame of observation for a whole closed system has no effect on the measure of invariant mass of the system, which remains both conserved and invariant (unchanging), even for different observers who view the entire system. Invariant mass is a system combination of energy and momentum, which is invariant for any observer, because in any inertial frame, the energies and momenta of the various particles always add to the same quantity (the momentum may be negative, so the addition amounts to a subtraction). The invariant mass is the relativistic mass of the system when viewed in the center of momentum frame. It is the minimum mass which a system may exhibit, as viewed from all possible inertial frames.
The conservation of both relativistic and invariant mass applies even to systems of particles created by pair production, where energy for new particles may come from kinetic energy of other particles, or from one or more photons as part of a system that includes other particles besides a photon. Again, neither the relativistic nor the invariant mass of totally closed (that is, isolated) systems changes when new particles are created. However, different inertial observers will disagree on the value of this conserved mass, if it is the relativistic mass (i.e., relativistic mass is conserved but not invariant). However, all observers agree on the value of the conserved mass if the mass being measured is the invariant mass (i.e., invariant mass is both conserved and invariant).
The mass-energy equivalence formula gives a different prediction in non-isolated systems, since if energy is allowed to escape a system, both relativistic mass and invariant mass will escape also. In this case, the mass-energy equivalence formula predicts that the change in mass of a system is associated with the change in its energy due to energy being added or subtracted: Δ m = Δ E / c 2 . {\displaystyle \Delta m=\Delta E/c^{2}.} This form involving changes was the form in which this famous equation was originally presented by Einstein. In this sense, mass changes in any system are explained simply if the mass of the energy added or removed from the system, are taken into account.
The formula implies that bound systems have an invariant mass (rest mass for the system) less than the sum of their parts, if the binding energy has been allowed to escape the system after the system has been bound. This may happen by converting system potential energy into some other kind of active energy, such as kinetic energy or photons, which easily escape a bound system. The difference in system masses, called a mass defect, is a measure of the binding energy in bound systems – in other words, the energy needed to break the system apart. The greater the mass defect, the larger the binding energy. The binding energy (which itself has mass) must be released (as light or heat) when the parts combine to form the bound system, and this is the reason the mass of the bound system decreases when the energy leaves the system.[16] The total invariant mass is actually conserved, when the mass of the binding energy that has escaped, is taken into account.
Exceptions or caveats to mass/matter conservation[edit]
Matter is not perfectly conserved[edit]
The principle of matter conservation may be considered as an approximate physical law that is true only in the classical sense, without consideration of special relativity and quantum mechanics. It is approximately true except in certain high energy applications.
A particular difficulty with the idea of conservation of "matter" is that "matter" is not a well-defined word scientifically, and when particles that are considered to be "matter" (such as electrons and positrons) are annihilated to make photons (which are often not considered matter) then conservation of matter does not take place over time, even within isolated systems. However, matter is conserved to such an extent that matter conservation may be safely assumed in chemical reactions and all situations in which radioactivity and nuclear reactions are not involved.
Even when matter is not conserved, the collection of mass and energy within the system are conserved.
Open systems and thermodynamically closed systems[edit]
Mass is also not generally conserved in open systems. Such is the case when various forms of energy are allowed into, or out of, the system (see for example, binding energy). However, again unless radioactivity or nuclear reactions are involved, the amount of energy escaping such systems as heat, work, or electromagnetic radiation is usually too small to be measured as a decrease in system mass.
The law of mass conservation for isolated systems (totally closed to all mass and energy), as viewed over time from any single inertial frame, continues to be true in modern physics. The reason for this is that relativistic equations show that even "massless" particles such as photons still add mass and energy to isolated systems, allowing mass (though not matter) to be strictly conserved in all processes where energy does not escape the system. In relativity, different observers may disagree as to the particular value of the conserved mass of a given system, but each observer will agree that this value does not change over time as long as the system is isolated (totally closed to everything).
General relativity[edit]
In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansion (see Mass in general relativity). The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.
See also[edit]
Conservation law
Continuity equation in fluid dynamics
Groundwater energy balance
Mass balance
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Volkenstein, Mikhail V. (2009). Entropy and Information (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-0346-0078-1. Extract of page 20
Jump up ^ Okuň, Lev Borisovič (2009). Energy and Mass in Relativity Theory. World Scientific. p. 253. ISBN 978-981-281-412-8. Extract of page 253
Jump up ^ Lewis, David (2012). Early Russian Organic Chemists and Their Legacy (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 29. ISBN 978-3-642-28219-5. Extract of page 29
Jump up ^ Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers (2 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27455-5.
Jump up ^ Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation". The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-521-27556-3.
Jump up ^ Mahavira is dated 598 BC - 526 BC. See. Dundas, Paul; John Hinnels ed. (2002). The Jains. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26606-8. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) p. 24
Jump up ^ Devendra (Muni.), T. G. Kalghatgi, T. S. Devadoss (1983) A source-book in Jaina philosophy Udaipur:Sri Tarak Guru Jain Gran. p.57. Also see Tattvarthasutra verses 5.29 and 5.37
Jump up ^ Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution, Azerbaijan International 9 (2).
Jump up ^ Pomper, Philip (October 1962). "Lomonosov and the Discovery of the Law of the Conservation of Matter in Chemical Transformations". Ambix. 10 (3): 119–127.
Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasil’evich (1970). Mikhail Vasil’evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory. Henry M. Leicester (trans.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Introduction, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Robert D. Whitaker, "An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass", Journal of Chemical Education, 52, 10, 658-659, Oct 75
Jump up ^ Matthew Moncrieff Pattison Muir, The Elements of Chemistry (1904)
Jump up ^ Nouv. Recherches sur les lois des proportions chimiques (1865) 152, 171, 189
Jump up ^ "Conservation of Mass in Chemical Changes"Journal - Chemical Society, London, Vol.64, Part 2 Chemical Society (Great Britain)
Jump up ^ William Edwards Henderson, A Course in General Chemistry (1921)
Jump up ^ Ida Freund, The study of Chemical Composition: an account of its method and historical development, with illustrative quotations (1904)
Jump up ^ Kenneth R. Lang, Astrophysical Formulae, Springer (1999), ISBN 3-540-29692-1
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