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Flag of Mexico
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Mexico
Use
National flag and ensign
Proportion
4:7
Adopted
September 16, 1968
Design
A vertical tricolor of green, white and red with the National Coat of Arms centered on the white band.
Variant flag of Mexico
Use
Naval Jack
The flag of Mexico (Spanish: Bandera de México) is a vertical tricolor of green, white, and red with the national coat of arms charged in the center of the white stripe. While the meaning of the colors has changed over time, these three colors were adopted by Mexico following independence from Spain during the country's War of Independence, and subsequent First Mexican Empire. The form of the coat of arms was most recently revised in 1968, but the overall design has been used since 1821, when the First National Flag was created.
Red, white, and green are the colors of the national liberation army in Mexico. The central emblem is the Mexican coat of arms, based on the Aztec symbol for Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), the center of the Aztec empire. It recalls the legend of an eagle sitting on a cactus while devouring a serpent that signaled to the Aztecs where to found their city, Tenochtitlan.[1] A ribbon in the national colors is at the bottom of the coat of arms. Throughout history, the flag has changed several times, as the design of the coat of arms and the length-width ratios of the flag have been modified. However, the coat of arms has had the same features throughout: an eagle, holding a serpent in its talon, is perched on top of a prickly pear cactus; the cactus is situated on a rock that rises above a lake. The coat of arms is derived from an Aztec legend that their gods told them to build a city where they spot an eagle on a nopal eating a serpent, which is now Mexico City.
The current law of national symbols, Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, that governs the use of the national flag has been in place since 1984. The current national flag is also used as the Mexican naval ensign by ships registered in Mexico.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Design and symbolism
2.1 Differences with Italian flag
3 Protocol
3.1 Civil ceremonies
3.2 Variants
3.3 Law articles
3.4 Regulations for use
4 Chronology
4.1 Others
5 Monumental flags
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
See also: List of Mexican flags
Flag display at the Mexican History Museum of Monterrey, Nuevo León
Before the adoption of the first national flag, various flags were used during the War of Independence from Spain. Though it was never adopted as an official flag, many historians consider the first Mexican flag to be the Standard of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which was carried by Miguel Hidalgo after the Grito de Dolores on September 16, 1810.[2] The Standard became the initial symbol of the rebel army during the Mexican War of Independence. Various other Standards were used during the war. José María Morelos used a flag with an image of the Virgin to which was added a blue and white insignia with a crowned eagle on a cactus over a three-arched bridge and the letters V.V.M. (Viva la Virgen María – "long live the Virgin Mary").[2] The Revolutionary Army also used a flag featuring the colors white, blue and red in vertical stripes. The first use of the modern colors—green, white and red—was in the flag of the unified Army of the Three Guarantees (pictured above) after independence from Spain was won.[3][dubious – [[Talk:Flag of Mexico#This is false, the Bandera Siera used by the rebels in the Orizaba region was also a green/white/red tricolor [1]|discuss]]]
While similar to the national flag that is used today, the eagle in these arms is not holding a serpent in his talons and a crown has been affixed to the head of the eagle to signify the Empire. Variants of this flag that appeared in this period also included a naval flag that had the tricolor pattern, but only contained the eagle with the crown above its head. The military also used a similar square flag, but the eagle was larger than on the national flag. The national flag was officially decreed by Agustín de Iturbide in November 1821 and first officially used in July 1822. This flag was no longer used upon the abolishment of the empire.[4]
The first national flag was established in 1821, the first year of Mexican recognized sovereignty. The imperial government that was set up chose a tricolor flag of green, white and red and charged with the national coat of arms. The official decree stated that
Sole article:... the national flag and flags of the army shall be tricolor, adopting forever the colors green, white and "encarnado" [flesh-colored red] arranged vertically, with the crowned eagle in the center of the white stripe, according to the following design[5]
The second national flag was adopted after the establishment of the first federal republic in 1823. The new flag was chosen for the republic in April of that year, the only differences being the appearance of the central emblem. The crown was removed from the eagle's head and a serpent was placed in the eagle's right talon. Another addition to the flag is a branch of oak and laurel branches, a tradition that was carried over to the current flag. This flag was discontinued in 1864 upon the dissolution of the first federal republic.[6]
The third national flag was that of the Second Mexican Empire. Once again, the national flag used the green, white and red tricolor pattern with the white stripe being charged with the national arms. However, the ratio of the flag was changed from 4:7 to 1:2 and four eagles, which had crowns above their heads, were placed at each corner of the flag. The design, which was ordered by the Emperor Maximilian, gave the arms a look similar to the French Imperial arms, but he decided to add a bit of "Mexican flavor" to the flag. The coat of arms was described in a decree issued in November 1865 as:
oval in shape in blue; in the center is depicted the eagle of Anahuac, in profile and passant, supported by a cactus, supported, in turn, by a rock sunk on water, and ripping a snake. The border is gold charged by a garland of encino and laurel. The crest is the Imperial Crown. As supporters, two griffins from our elders' arms, their upper half in black and the lower in gold; behind the scepter and sword in saltire. The shield is surrounded by the collar of the Order of the Águila Mexicana, and the motto: "Equidad en la Justicia" [Equity in Justice][7]
Reverse side of the flag
The current national flag was adopted on September 16, 1968, and was confirmed by law on February 24, 1984. The current version is an adaptation of the design approved by presidential decree in 1916 by Venustiano Carranza, where the eagle was changed from a front-facing to a side-facing position.[3] Before the adoption of the current national flag, official flags have been used by the government. All of these flags used the tricolor pattern, with the only differences being the changes in the coat of arms, which was still charged in the center of the white stripe. One possible reason for the 1968 flag and arms change was that Mexico City was the host of the 1968 Summer Olympic Games.[8] Around this same time period, the plain tricolor flag that Mexico used as its merchant ensign was also legally abandoned. The reasoning is that without the coat of arms, the flag would not be the Mexican flag; it would become nearly identical to the Italian flag.[9]
There was also debate in 1984 about how the coat of arms would be depicted on the reverse of the flag. To solve this problem, a PAN deputy proposed a change to the Law of the National Arms, Flag and Anthem that same year to allow for the eagle to face to the right when the reverse of the flag is displayed.[10] In 1995, the law was changed to include the following:
When the National Arms is reproduced in the reverse side of the National Flag, the Mexican Eagle will appear standing in its right grasp, holding with the left one and the beak the curved serpent.[11]
Design and symbolism[edit]
Official construction sheet
The Mexican coat of arms
Main article: Coat of arms of Mexico
The official design of the Mexican flag can be found in Article 3 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, passed in 1984. While the exact shades of the flag have not been defined by law, in 2001 it was reported, through a personal communication, to Flags of the World that the Interior Ministry (Secretaría de Gobernación) has suggested the following tones in the Pantone system;[12] nevertheless, the ministry has not officially ruled on the matter. So far, there are not official printed documents nor statements on the color shades. The Pantone colors listed below were employed by the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Limited in its "Flag Manual".[13] while 2008 Beijing Olympic Games Flag Manual proposed others.[14]
Colour scheme
Green
White
Red
Pantone[15] 3425c Safe 186c
RGB[16] 0-104-71 255-255-255 206-17-38
CMYK[17] 100-34-93-30 0-0-0-0 0-92-82-19
Web colors[18] 006847 FFFFFF CE1126
The article dictates what must be featured on the flag and also its proportions. Copies of the national flag which are made according to this law are kept in two locations: the General National Archive (Archivo General de la Nación) and the National Museum of History (Museo Nacional de Historia).
“ Art. 3: The Bandera Nacional is a rectangle divided into three vertical stripes of identical measures, with the colours placed in the following order from hoist to fly: green, white, and red. Centred in the white stripe, the National Coat of Arms has a diameter of three-fourths the width of the white stripe. The proportion of the flag is four to seven (Ratio 4:7). It could carry a rope or tie of the same colours below the truck. ”
Differences with Italian flag[edit]
Mexican and Italian flags.
Although the Mexican tricolour (green, white, red) has been continuously used for a longer time than the Italian one, at the time of the Mexican flag's adoption, the similarly toned Italian tricolour had already been used briefly in Europe,[19] for example by the Cisalpine Republic, but it had different proportions from the modern Italian flag.
Both flags use the same colors (green, white and red), but the Mexican flag has darker shades of green and red (particularly the green). These flags present a different aspect ratio (proportions): the Italian flag aspect ratio is 2:3 (1 to 1.5), more squarish in shape, while the Mexican flag aspect ratio is 4:7 (1 to 1.75), resulting in a longer shape.
Protocol[edit]
The civil salute given by former Mexican President Vicente Fox
When the flag is paraded in front of a crowd, those in military uniform must present a salute according to military regulations. Civilians who are present give the following salute to the national flag: standing at attention (firmes), they raise their right arms and place their right hands on their chests, in front of the heart. The hand is flat and the palm of the hand is facing the ground. This salute is known as the El saludo civil a la Bandera Nacional ("The Civil Salute to the National Flag"). When the President is acting in the capacity of the Head of the Armed Forces, he salutes the national flag with a military salute. When the national anthem is played on television to open or close daily programming, the national flag will be shown at the same time.[20] During certain times of the year, the flag is flown by both civilians and government personnel. Mostly, these events coincide with national holidays and days of significance to the country. During some of these occasions, the flag will be flown at half-mast to honor the death of important Mexicans. These dates are listed in Article 18 of the Law of the National Flag, Arms and Anthem. The national Día de la Bandera (Flag Day) celebration occurs on February 24. On this day in 1821, all the factions fighting in the War of Independence joined together to form the Army of the Three Guarantees in response to the Plan de Iguala, which was signed by Vicente Guerrero and Agustín de Iturbide, declaring Mexico officially an independent country. General Vicente Guerrero was the first military official who swore allegiance to the national flag.[3] Another flag tradition is that before every Olympics in which Mexico is a participant, the President hands a flag over to the flag bearer, chosen by their peers, to carry with them to the host city.[21]
Civil ceremonies[edit]
Mexican sculpture about the founding of Tenochtitlan.
Churubusco flag
The flag songs are dedicated to the flag day, it is a national holiday in Mexico. Flag Day is celebrated every year on February 24 since its implementation in 1937. The songs were established by President of Mexico General Lázaro Cárdenas before the monument to General Vicente Guerrero, first to pledge allegiance to the Mexican flag and Agustin de Iturbide:
The Juramento a la Bandera
¡Bandera de México!
Legado de nuestros héroes,
símbolo de la unidad
de nuestros padres y nuestros hermanos.
Te prometemos ser siempre fieles
a los principios de libertad y de justicia
que hacen de nuestra patria la nación independiente, humana y generosa
a la que entregamos nuestra existencia.
Translation: The Oath to the Flag
Flag of Mexico!
Legacy of our heroes,
symbol of the unity
of our parents and our siblings.
We promise to always be loyal
to the principles of liberty and justice
that make our homeland
the independent nation, humane and generous
to the which one we give our existence.
The Toque de Bandera
Se levanta en el mástil mi bandera
como un sol entre céfiros y trinos
muy adentro en el templo de mi veneración,
oigo y siento contento latir mi corazón
Es mi bandera, la enseña nacional,
son estas notas su cántico marcial.
Desde niños sabremos venerarla
Y también por su amor, ¡vivir!
Almo y sacro pendón que en nuestro anhelo
como rayo de luz se eleva al cielo
inundando a través de su lienzo tricolor
inmortal nuestro ser de fervor y patrio ardor.
Es mi bandera, la enseña nacional,
son estas notas su cántico marcial.
Desde niños sabremos venerarla
Y también por su amor, ¡morir!
Translation: The Salute to the Flag
My flag rises in the mast
like a sun between winds and warbles
very inside in the temple of my veneration,
I hear and feel happily my heart beating
It's my flag, the national standard,
These notes are its martial canticle.
From childhood we'll know how to venerate it
and also for its love, to live!
Venerable and sacred banner of our yearning
like a ray of light rises to the sky
flooding through its three-colored canvas
our immortal being of fervour and homeland ardour.
It's my flag, the national standard,
these notes are its martial canticle.
Since children we'll know how to venerate it
and also for its love, to die!
Variants[edit]
Mexico (variants)
Proportion
4:7
Adopted
De facto
Variant flag of Mexico (variants)
Variant flag of Mexico (variants)
Name
Cravat
There are two variants of the national flag that are mostly used by the state and federal governments, the difference between the national flag and the variants are the designs of the coat of arms. In the first variant, which is used by the President of Mexico and secretaries of federal bodies, the entire coat of arms is coloured gold, with the exception of the tricolour ribbon, which is green, white and red, and with the stone, lake and talons of the eagle coloured in silver. In the second variant, the entire coat of arms is coloured gold, even the ribbon, lake, stone and talons. The second variant is used mostly by State governments and federal bodies who are not able to use the first variant.[22]
Law articles[edit]
In Article 3 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag and Anthem (Ley sobre el Escudo, la Bandera y el Himno Nacionales) also describes that the national flag can be decorated with a special tie called a corbata (cravat). The corbata is composed of a bow, two ribbons of different length and both ribbons are attached with a golden tassel called fringe. The corbata is placed on the top of the flag at the point where the truck is, and the colours of the corbata match that of the national flag. Organizations and political parties can adopt their own corbatas, such as the National Action Party (PAN), which uses a white corbata with blue fringes.[23]
In Article 3 of the Flag Law does not give an official symbolism to the colors, other meanings may be given to them. Other groups have used the national colors as part of their own logos or symbols. For example, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) political party has adopted the national colors as part of their logo. Another political party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), also had the national colors as part of their logo, but changed them in the 1990s after a controversy surrounding impartiality issues, while the PRI did not.[24] Several states, such as Querétaro and Hidalgo have incorporated either elements of the national flag, or even the entire flag, into their coat of arms.
Regulations for use[edit]
Flag of Mexico on television.
The image of the flag is protected under law. A special permit is needed to broadcast its image. In February 2010, MTV Mexico controversially canceled a much-publicized broadcast of an episode of South Park, called "Pinewood Derby", featuring the flag, because it claimed that the permit had not been issued.
In 2008, Mexican pop singer Paulina Rubio was fined for posing nude wrapped in the flag in a photo shoot for a Spanish magazine.[25]
Chronology[edit]
Virgin of Guadalupe Standard.
National Flag (registered)
National Flag (unregistered)
Non-Independent Mexico
Northern America – New Spain – Mexican America
América Septentrional – Nueva España – América Mexicana
1535–1821
Adopted date
Related organization Promulgated Flag Description
April 17, 1535
Monarchy April 17, 1535 – November 25, 1550
Antonio de Mendoza
Viceroy April 29, 1783 – November 3, 1784
Matías de Gálvez y Gallardo
Viceroy Viceroy of New Spain
1785–1821
Monarchy Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid
Viceroy July 21, 1821 – September 28, 1821
Juan O'Donojú y O'Rian
Viceroy Viceroy of New Spain
Independent Mexico
Mexican Nation – Mexican Empire – Mexican Republic – United Mexican States
Nación Mexicana – Imperio Mexicano – República Mexicana – Estados Unidos Mexicanos
1821 –2017
Adopted date
Related organization Promulgated Flag Description
February 24, 1821
Sovereign Provisional Junta Agustín de Iturbide
Royalist
Vicente Ramón Guerrero
Insurgent Flag of the Three Guarantees
Designed by
José Magdaleno Ocampo
August 24, 1821
Sovereign Provisional Junta Agustín de Iturbide
Regency's President Flag of the Iturbide's Regency
Designed by
Agustin de Iturbide
November 2, 1821
Constitutional Congress Agustín Iturbide I of Mexico
Emperor
José Manuel de Herrera
First Minister Flag of the First Mexican Empire
Designed by
Agustin de Iturbide
Independence
Religion
Union
April 14, 1823
Constitutional Congress October 10, 1824 – April 1, 1829
Guadalupe Victoria
President
January 21, 1858 – December 28, 1862
Félix María Zuloaga
President Flag of the Mexican Republic
Designed by
Constitutional Congress
Government Executive
October 10, 1824 – May 15, 1867
Reform War
January 21, 1858 – December 28, 1862 Regency of the Second Mexican Empire
July 11, 1863 – November 18, 1863
July 15, 1864
Constitutional Congress Maximilian I of Mexico
Emperor
Juan Nepomuceno Almonte
First Minister Flag of the Second Mexican Empire
Designed by
Ferdinand Maximilian
Hope
Purity
Religion
June 19, 1867
Government Executive Benito Pablo Juárez García
President Readopted
Flag of the Mexican Republic
Designed by
Constitutional Congress
April 1, 1893
Government Executive José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz
President Flag of the Mexican Republic
Designed by
Tomas de la Peña
September 20, 1916
Government Executive Venustiano Carranza Garza
President Flag of the United Mexican States
Designed by
Antonio Gómez
February 5, 1934
Government Executive Abelardo Rodríguez Luján
President Flag of the United Mexican States
Designed by
Jorge Enciso
September 16, 1968
Government Executive Gustavo Díaz Ordaz
President Flag of the United Mexican States
Designed by
Francisco Eppens Helguera
Hope
Union
Blood of Heroes
Others[edit]
Other flags were flown as Mexican flags, either designed to intimidate the enemy or to act as identification. These flags were considered without subsequent formal documentation as national flag and temporally situated; Flag of Francisco I. Madero (February 9, 1913), Flag of Doliente Hidalgo (January 2, 1812), Flag of José María Morelos y Pavón, Flag of Francisco Villa, Flag of Siera Battalion, Flag of Jalisco Battalion, Libres de Puebla Battalion, Artillería Mina Battalion, Oaxaca Battalion, Toluca Battalion, Flag of Chihuahua Battalion, Flag of Durango Battalion, Flag of San Lorenzo Battalion, Flag of Lanceros Battalion, Flag of San Luis Potosí Battalion, Flag of Aguascalientes Battalion, Flag of Galeana Battalion (May 22, 1864), Flag of San Blas Battalion (September 24, 1846), Flag of Tres Villas Battalion, Flag of Milicias Battalion, Flag of Remixto Battalion, Flag of Quautla Battalion, Flag of 201 Squadron, Etc.[26]
Monumental flags[edit]
Main article: Banderas monumentales
Raising of a monumental flag during a ceremony at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City
In 1999, President of Mexico Ernesto Zedillo started a program erecting giant flags across the country. Directed by the Secretariat of National Defense, the banderas monumentales (monumental flags) were placed in various cities and spots, most of which are of great significance to the nation. In a decree issued on July 1, 1999, by Zedillo, the flags were to be placed in Mexico City, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Veracruz. The decree also stipulated for the flags to measure 14.3 meters by 25 meters, which are raised on flag poles that are 50 meters high. After these initial monumental flags were created, cities such as Ensenada, Nuevo Laredo and Cancún were reported to have their own monumental flags. Smaller flags, called banderas semi-monumentales, have been erected in smaller towns and at various educational institutes.[27]
As of December 22, 2010, the biggest Mexican flag in the world is now located in Piedras Negras, Coahuila.[28] Located at the Gran Plaza (Great Plaza) right across from International Bridge I connecting Piedras Negras with Eagle Pass, Texas. The pole is 120 meters in height and weighs 160 tons making it the tallest one in Latin America and one of the tallest in the world. The flag measures 60 by 34 meters and weights 420 kilograms.[29]
Mexico's first largest monumental flag was the one located at the Mirador del Obispado in Monterrey (northeast) with a pole of 120 tons and 100.6 meters in height. The flag measures 50 by 28.6 meters and weighs 230 kilograms, four times the size of most other monumental flags at the time. It is located at the top of the Cerro del Obispado (Bishopric Hill) at an altitude of 775 meters above the sea level (city's altitude 538 meters).[30] There is another monumental flag that is a similar size (in comparison to Monterrey's) in the city of Dolores Hidalgo in Guanajuato, the cradle of Mexican independence.
Example Locations
Piedras Negras, Coahuila
Monterrey, Nuevo León
Querétaro, Querétaro
Mexico City, Federal District:
Zócalo, in the city center
Campo Militar Marte, military base behind Los Pinos
San Jerónimo roundabout, in Periférico Sur
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua
Iguala, Guerrero
Tonalá, Jalisco
Mérida, Yucatán
Cancún, Quintana Roo
Mexicali, Baja California
Tampico, Tamaulipas
Tijuana, Baja California
Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas
Campeche, Campeche
Veracruz, Veracruz
Acapulco, Guerrero
Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato
Pachuca, Hidalgo
Durango, Durango
Ensenada, Baja California
See also[edit]
Heraldry portal
Mexico portal
Flag flying days in Mexico
List of Mexican flags
Himno Nacional Mexicano
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Art of Mesoamerica, Miller. 245.
^ Jump up to: a b Diagrams of historical Mexican flags[permanent dead link] (in Spanish)
^ Jump up to: a b c Juán López de Escalera Diccionario Biográfico y de Historia de México, Editorial del Magisterio, México, 1964.
Jump up ^ "Mexican Empire (1821–1823)". Fotw.vexillum.com. January 17, 2009. Archived from the original on August 10, 2004. Retrieved March 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ January 7, 1822 Decree Establishing the Imperial Flag
Jump up ^ "Mexico (1823-1864/1823-1880)". Fotw.vexillum.com. January 17, 2009. Retrieved March 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ November 1, 1865 Decree on the Imperial Arms
Jump up ^ Page 45 of Adventure Guides Mexico's Pacific Coast by Vivien Lougheed, Hunter Publishing, ISBN 978-1-58843-395-4
Jump up ^ Flags of the World page "Mexico – Flag without arms" (Archive page)
Jump up ^ Flags of the World page "Mexico – Reverse side of the flag" Archived February 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Diario Oficial de la Federación (DOF) of May 9, 1995
Jump up ^ Gabino Villascán, Juan Manuel. "Mexico". Flags of the World. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Flags and Anthems Manual London 2012. London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Limited. 2012. p. 91.
Jump up ^ Gabino Villascán, Juan Manuel. "Mexico". Flags of the World. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Flags of the World page "Mexico" Archived March 8, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Vexilla mundi page "Mexico" Archived February 11, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Inkscape RGB to CMYK converter (approx.)
Jump up ^ Adobe Photoshop RGB Translator
Jump up ^ Ghisi, Enrico Il tricolore italiano (1796–1870) Milan: Anonima per l'Arte della Stampa, 1931; see Gay, H. Nelson in The American Historical Review Vol. 37 No. 4 (pp. 750–751), July 1932
Jump up ^ "Artículo 41 Ley Sobre el Escudo, La Bandera y el Himno Nacionales (Article 41 of the Law of the National Arms, Flag and Anthem)". Info4.juridicas.unam.mx. Archived from the original on July 12, 2012. Retrieved March 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ 2000 ceremony in Mexico to hand the national flag over from President Zedillo to flag-bearer [[Fernando Platas for the Sydney Olympics]
Jump up ^ Flags of the World page "Mexico – Coat of arms" Archived November 25, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Photo of the PAN flag with the corbata". Retrieved March 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ Christian Science Monitor article on the PRI logo controversy[dead link]
Jump up ^ Miglierini, Julian (February 10, 2010). "MTV under fire as it pulls South Park episode in Mexico". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved February 10, 2010.
Jump up ^ SEDENA, Libro de banderas históricas
Jump up ^ Installment of semi-monumental flags in León, Guanajuato September 9, 2005 (in Spanish)
Jump up ^ "En Piedras Negras ondea la bandera de México más grande del mundo". Milenio.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012. Retrieved March 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Por Hilda Aguilar (December 23, 2010). "En Piedras Negras, Izan Bandera más grande del mundo [ESPECIAL] – 23/12/2010 | Periódico Zócalo". Zocalo.com.mx. Retrieved March 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ Secretariat of Interior article Archived March 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. (in Spanish)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Mexico.
The Flag of Mexico
Mexico at Flags of the World
Presidency of Mexico – National Symbols (in Spanish)
Artes e historia – Bandera de Mexico (in Spanish)
Las Banderas de México A Través de Su Historia (Especial: Día de la Bandera) (in Spanish)
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text:
Blood type distribution by country
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
[hide]
1 ABO and distribution by country
2 Maps of allele ABO among native populations
3 References
4 See also
ABO and distribution by country[edit]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Blood type distribution by country. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
ABO and Rh blood type distribution by country (population averages)
Country
Population[1]
O+
A+
B+
AB+
O−
A−
B−
AB−
Argentina
44,270,440 45.4% 34.26% 8.59% 2.64% 8.4% 0.44% 0.21% 0.06%
Australia[2]
24,642,693 40.0% 31.0% 8.0% 2.0% 9.0% 7.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Austria[3]
8,592,470 30.0% 33.0% 12.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0% 3.0% 1.0%
Bahrain
1,418,695 48.48% 19.35% 22.61% 3.67% 3.27% 1.33% 1.04% 0.25%
Bangladesh
164,833,667 31.18% 21.44% 34.58% 8.85% 1.39% 0.96% 0.96% 0.64%
Belgium[4]
11,444,053 38.0% 34.0% 8.6% 4.1% 7.0% 6.0% 1.5% 0.8%
Bolivia
11,053,376 51.53% 29.45% 10.11% 1.15% 4.39% 2.73% 0.54% 0.1%
Bosnia and Herzegovina
3,792,730 31.0% 36.0% 12.0% 6.0% 5.0% 7.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Brazil[5]
211,248,418 36.0% 34.0% 8.0% 2.5% 9.0% 8.0% 2.0% 0.5%
Bulgaria
7,045,097 28.0% 37.0% 13.0% 7.0% 5.0% 7.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Cambodia
16,077,172 46.7% 27.2% 18.5% 4.9% 1.3% 0.8% 0.5% 0.1%
Cameroon
24,515,533 42.8% 38.8% 12.0% 3.3% 1.4% 1.2% 0.4% 0.1%
Canada[6]
36,627,140 39.0% 36.0% 7.6% 2.5% 7.0% 6.0% 1.4% 0.5%
Chile
18,314,060 85.5% 8.7% 3.35% 1.0% 1.2% 0.1% 0.05% 0.1%
China
1,388,251,023 47.7% 27.8% 18.9% 5.0% 0.28% 0.19% 0.1% 0.03%
Colombia
49,069,267 61.30% 26.11% 2.28% 1.47% 5.13% 2.7% 0.7% 0.31%
Côte d'Ivoire
23,869,656 46.5% 22.5% 22.5% 4.3% 2.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.2%
Croatia
4,207,355 29.0% 36.0% 15.0% 5.0% 5.0% 6.0% 3.0% 1.0%
Cyprus
1,189,395 35.22% 40.35% 11.11% 4.72% 3.85% 3.48% 0.87% 0.40%
Czech Republic[7]
10,555,152 27.0% 36.0% 15.0% 7.0% 5.0% 6.0% 3.0% 1.0%
Denmark[8]
5,711,902 35.0% 37.0% 8.0% 4.0% 6.0% 7.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Dominican Republic
10,766,932 46.2% 26.4% 16.9% 3.1% 3.7% 2.1% 1.4% 0.2%
Ecuador
16,665,756 75.0% 14.0% 7.1% 0.5% 2.38% 0.7% 0.3% 0.02%
Egypt
95,220,838 52.0% 24.0% 12.4% 3.8% 5.0% 2.0% 0.6% 0.2%
El Salvador[9]
6,171,483 62.0% 23.0% 11.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.7% 0.3%
Estonia[10]
1,305,745 29.5% 30.8% 20.7% 6.3% 4.3% 4.5% 3.0% 0.9%
Ethiopia
104,352,727 39.0% 28.0% 21.0% 5.0% 3.0% 2.0% 1.0% 1.0%
Finland[11]
5,541,328 27.0% 38.0% 15.0% 7.0% 4.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
France[12]
64,939,560 36.0% 37.0% 9.0% 3.0% 6.0% 7.0% 1.0% 1.0%
Germany
80,635,980 35.0% 37.0% 9.0% 4.0% 6.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Greece
10,892,849 37.4% 32.9% 11.0% 3.7% 7.0% 5.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Guinea
13,291,741 46.88% 21.64% 22.86% 4.52% 2.0% 0.9% 1.0% 0.2%
Hong Kong
7,402,115 41.5% 26.13% 25.34% 6.35% 0.32% 0.17% 0.14% 0.05%
Hungary
9,787,801 28.0% 34.0% 17.0% 8.0% 4.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Iceland[13]
334,311 47.6% 26.4% 9.3% 1.6% 8.4% 4.6% 1.7% 0.4%
India[14]
1,342,561,902 27.85% 20.8% 38.14% 8.93% 1.43% 0.57% 1.79% 0.49%
Indonesia
263,519,317 36.82% 25.87% 28.85% 7.96% 0.18% 0.13% 0.15% 0.04%
Iran
80,982,137 33.5% 27.0% 22.2% 7.0% 4.0% 3.0% 2.5% 0.8%
Iraq
38,657,787 32.1% 25.0% 25.6% 7.4% 3.6% 2.7% 2.7% 0.9%
Ireland[15]
4,749,263 47.0% 26.0% 9.0% 2.0% 8.0% 5.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Israel[16]
8,323,659 32.0% 34.0% 17.0% 7.0% 3.0% 4.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Italy
59,797,969 39.0% 36.0% 7.5% 2.5% 7.0% 6.0% 1.5% 0.5%
Jamaica[17]
2,813,316 47.0% 23.0% 20.0% 3.0% 3.5% 2.0% 1.0% 0.5%
Japan[18]
126,044,340 29.9% 39.8% 19.9% 9.9% 0.15% 0.2% 0.1% 0.05%
Kenya
48,470,780 45.6% 25.2% 21.28% 4.2% 1.8% 1.0% 0.9% 0.02%
Korea[19]
76,111,290 36.5% 32.8% 21.0% 9.0% 0.4% 0.2% 0.08% 0.02%
Latvia
1,944,122 30.6% 31.0% 17.0% 6.0% 5.4% 6.0% 3.0% 1.0%
Lebanon
6,039,438 38.4% 32.3% 9.5% 3.2% 7.7% 6.5% 1.7% 0.7%
Libya
6,408,990 42.64% 28.86% 11.19% 4.5% 6.26% 4.24% 1.64% 0.67%
Lithuania
2,827,573 36.0% 33.0% 11.0% 4.0% 7.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Macao
606,413 41.5% 26.1% 25.4% 6.3% 0.33% 0.17% 0.15% 0.05%
Macedonia
2,083,690 30.0% 34.0% 15.0% 6.0% 5.0% 6.0% 3.0% 1.0%
Malaysia
31,165,480 34.32% 30.35% 27.37% 7.46% 0.17% 0.15% 0.14% 0.04%
Mauritania
4,266,765 46.3% 26.68% 17.47% 3.85% 2.8% 1.6% 1.1% 0.2%
Mexico
130,227,836 55.79% 29.9% 8.0% 1.63% 2.7% 1.5% 0.4% 0.08%
Mongolia
3,052,044 55.4% 27.7% 10.9% 4.96% 0.6% 0.3% 0.1% 0.04%
Nepal
29,188,100 35.2% 28.3% 27.1% 8.6% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1%
Netherlands[20]
17,033,012 39.5% 35.0% 6.7% 2.5% 7.5% 7.0% 1.3% 0.5%
New Zealand[21]
4,604,996 38.0% 32.0% 9.0% 3.0% 9.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Nigeria
191,851,411 51.3% 22.4% 20.7% 2.6% 1.6% 0.7% 0.6% 0.1%
Norway[22]
5,330,986 33.2% 41.6% 6.8% 3.4% 5.8% 7.4% 1.2% 0.6%
Pakistan
180,440,005 24.63% 20.6% 34.40% 9.52% 4.17% 2.66% 3.57% 0.45%
Papua New Guinea
7,952,511 48.3% 37.4% 9.8% 2.9% 0.7% 0.6% 0.2% 0.1%
Peru
32,167,717 70.0% 18.4% 7.8% 1.6% 1.4% 0.5% 0.28% 0.02%
Philippines[23]
103,801,747 36.9% 28.9% 26.9% 6.97% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.03%
Poland[24]
38,563,480 31.0% 32.0% 15.0% 7.0% 6.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Portugal[25]
10,264,672 36.3% 40.0% 6.6% 2.9% 6.0% 6.6% 1.1% 0.5%
Romania
19,237,087 29.0% 37.0% 14.0% 7.0% 4.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Russia
143,374,801 46.0% 31.0% 9.0% 2.1% 6.0% 4.0% 1.0% 0.9%
Saudi Arabia[26]
32,744,532 47.8% 23.9% 17.0% 4.0% 4.0% 2.0% 1.0% 0.3%
Serbia
8,776,827 31.92% 35.28% 12.6% 4.2% 6.08% 6.72% 2.4% 0.8%
Singapore
5,784,819 43.6% 23.9% 24.4% 6.0% 0.9% 0.7% 0.4% 0.1%
Slovakia
5,432,265 27.2% 35.7% 15.3% 6.8% 4.8% 6.3% 2.7% 1.2%
Slovenia
2,071,258 31.0% 33.0% 12.0% 6.0% 7.0% 7.0% 3.0% 1.0%
South Africa[27]
55,437,815 38.0% 32.0% 12.0% 3.0% 7.0% 5.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Spain[28]
46,070,163 36.0% 34.0% 8.0% 2.5% 9.0% 8.0% 2.0% 0.5%
Sweden[29]
9,920,843 32.0% 37.0% 10.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 2.0% 1.0%
Switzerland
8,454,321 26.0% 37.0% 13.0% 7.0% 5.0% 6.0% 4.0% 2.0%
Syria
18,920,698 43.0% 30.0% 14.0% 3.7% 5.0% 3.0% 1.0% 0.3%
Taiwan
23,234,936 43.9% 25.9% 23.9% 6.0% 0.17% 0.1% 0.01% 0.02%
Thailand
68,298,027 40.8% 16.9% 36.8% 4.97% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% 0.03%
Turkey[30]
80,420,065 29.8% 37.8% 14.2% 7.2% 3.9% 4.7% 1.6% 0.8%
Ukraine
44,404,078 32.0% 34.0% 15.0% 5.0% 5.0% 6.0% 2.0% 1.0%
United Arab Emirates
3,398,017 44.1% 21.9% 20.9% 4.3% 4.3% 2.1% 2.0% 0.4%
United Kingdom[31]
65,512,375 37.0% 35.0% 8.0% 3.0% 7.0% 7.0% 2.0% 1.0%
United States[32]
326,481,533 37.4% 35.7% 8.5% 3.4% 6.6% 6.3% 1.5% 0.6%
Venezuela[33]
32,011,082 58.5% 28.5% 5.2% 1.8% 3.5% 1.5% 0.8% 0.2%
Vietnam
95,414,640 41.7% 21.9% 30.8% 4.98% 0.3% 0.1% 0.2% 0.02%
Weighted mean
6,451,291,390 40.19% 30.05% 15.43% 4.67% 4.14% 3.59% 1.38% 0.55%
50.0% and above 40.0–49.9% 30.0–39.9% 20.0–29.9% 10.0–19.9% 5.0–9.9%
[show]Ethnic distribution of ABO (without Rh) blood types[34]
(This table has more entries than the table above but does not distinguish between Rh types.)
People group
O (%)
A (%)
B (%)
AB (%)
Aboriginal people 61 39 0 0
Abyssinians 43 27 25 5
Ainu (Japan) 17 32 32 18
Albanians 38 43 13 6
Grand Andamanese 9 60 23 9
Arabs 34 31 29 6
Armenians 31 50 13 6
Asian Americans 40 28 27 5
Austrians 36 44 13 6
Bantus 46 30 19 5
Basques 51 44 4 1
Belgians 47 42 8 3
Bororo (Brazil) 100 0 0 0
Brazilians 47 41 9 3
Bulgarians 32 44 15 8
Burmese 36 24 33 7
Buryats (Siberia) 33 21 38 8
Bushmen 56 34 9 2
Chinese-Canton 46 23 25 6
Chinese-Peking 29 27 32 13
Chuvash 30 29 33 7
Croats 42 34 17 7
Czechs 30 44 18 9
Danes 41 44 11 4
Dutch 45 43 9 3
Egyptians 33 36 24 8
English 47 42 9 3
Inuit (Alaska) 38 44 13 5
Inuit (Greenland) 54 36 23 8
Estonians 34 36 23 8
Fijians 44 34 17 6
Finns 34 41 18 7
French 43 47 7 3
Georgians 46 37 12 4
Germans 41 43 11 5
Greeks 40 42 14 5
Romani people (Hungary) 29 27 35 10
Hawaiians 37 61 2 1
Hindus (Bombay) 29 25 35 11
Hungarians 36 43 16 5
Icelanders 56 32 10 3
Indians (India) 29 21 40 9
Native Americans 79 16 4 1
Irish 52 35 10 3
Italians (Milan) 46 41 11 3
Japanese 30 38 22 10
Jews (Germany) 42 41 12 5
Jews (Poland) 33 41 18 8
Kalmuks 26 23 41 11
Kikuyu (Kenya) 60 19 20 1
Koreans 28 32 31 10
Sami people 29 63 4 4
Latvians 32 37 24 7
Lithuanians 40 34 20 6
Malays 62 18 20 0
Māori 46 54 1 0
Mayans 98 1 1 1
Moros 64 16 20 0
Navajo Indians 73 27 0 0
Nicobarese 74 9 15 1
Norwegians 39 50 8 4
Papuans (New Guinea) 41 27 23 9
Persians 38 33 22 7
Peruvian Indians 100 0 0 0
Filipinos 45 22 27 6
Poles 33 39 20 9
Portuguese 35 53 8 4
Romanians 33 43 16 8
Russians 33 36 23 8
Sardinians 50 26 19 5
Scots 51 34 12 3
Serbians 38 42 16 5
Shompen Nicobarese 100 0 0 0
Slovaks 42 37 16 5
South Africans 45 40 11 4
Spanish 38 47 10 5
Sudanese 62 16 21 0
Swedish 38 47 10 5
Swiss 40 50 7 3
Tatars 28 30 29 13
Thais 37 22 33 8
Turks 43 34 18 6
Ukrainians 37 40 18 6
Black Americans 49 27 20 4
White Americans 45 40 11 4
Vietnamese 42 22 30 5
Mean 43.91 34.80 16.55 5.14
Standard deviation 16.87 13.80 9.97 3.41
Blood group B has its highest frequency in South Asia where it ranks first as the largest share of the earth's population. In Southeast Asia the share of the population is high, especially in Thailand and Indonesia, then in East Asia, Northern Asia and neighboring Central Asia, and its incidence diminishes both towards the west and the east, falling to single digit percentages in Netherlands, Norway and Portugal.[35][36] It is believed to have been entirely absent from Native American and Australian Aboriginal populations prior to the arrival of Europeans in those areas.[36][37]
Blood group A is associated with high frequencies in Europe, especially in Scandinavia and Central Europe, although its highest frequencies occur in some Australian Aboriginal populations and the Blackfoot Indians of Montana, the US.[38][39]
Maps of allele ABO among native populations[edit]
Map of allele A
among native populations
Map of allele B
among native populations
Map of allele O
among native populations
References[edit]
Jump up ^ CIA World Factbook
Jump up ^ Blood Types - What Are They?, Australian Red Cross
Jump up ^ "Austrian Red Cross - Blood Donor Information". Old.roteskreuz.at. 2006-03-21. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Rode Kruis Wielsbeke - Blood Donor information material". Rodekruiswielsbeke.be. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ Tipos Sanguíneos Archived 9 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Canadian Blood Services - Société canadienne du sang. "Types & Rh System, Canadian Blood Services". Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ Czech Red Cross. "Podíl krevních skupin v populaci České republiky". Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. Retrieved 2011-03-18.
Jump up ^ Frequency of major blood groups in the Danish population.
Jump up ^ "centro-de-sangre" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2017-09-15.
Jump up ^ http://www.verekeskus.ee/?op=body&id=27
Jump up ^ "Suomalaisten veriryhmäjakauma" (in Finnish). 2009-08-21. Retrieved 2010-11-19. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Les groupes sanguins (système ABO)". Centre Hospitalier Princesse GRACE - Monaco (in French). C.H.P.G. MONACO. 2005. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Blóðflokkar" (in Icelandic). .landspitali.is. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Blood Type Frequencies by Country including the Rh Factor".
Jump up ^ "Irish Blood Transfusion Service - Irish Blood Group Type Frequency Distribution". Irish Blood Transfusion Service. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
Jump up ^ "The national rescue service in Israel" (in Hebrew). Mdais.org. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "national-blood-transfusion-service?" [What is a blood type?]. Retrieved 2014-09-23.
Jump up ^ "血液の知識". Japanese Red Cross Society. Archived from the original on 2012-07-29. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ http://bloodtypes.jigsy.com/East_Asia-bloodtypes
Jump up ^ "Voorraad Erytrocytenconcentraten Bij Sanquin" (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
Jump up ^ "What are Blood Groups?". NZ Blood. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Hva er en blodtype?" [What is a blood type?] (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2014-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Philippine Red Cross". Retrieved 2014-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Regionalne Centrum Krwiodawstwa i Krwiolecznictwa we Wroclawiu" (in Polish). Rckik.wroclaw.pl. 2010-09-02. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Portuguese Blood Institute" (in Portuguese). (assuming Rh and AB antigens are independent)
Jump up ^ "Frequency of ABO blood groups in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia". Cat.inist.fr. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "South African National Blood Service - What's Your Type?". Sanbs.org.za. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Federación Nacional de Donantes de Sangre/La sangre/Grupos". Donantesdesangre.net. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Frequency of major blood groups in the Swedish population". Geblod.nu. 2007-10-02. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Turkey Blood Group Site". Kangrubu.com. Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Blood Group Basics". Blood.co.uk. Retrieved 2017-07-30.
Jump up ^ "Blood Types in the U.S". Archived from the original on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2011-07-19. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "preguntas-frecuentes" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2014-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Racial and ethnic distribution of ABO blood types". Bloodbook.com. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
Jump up ^ Blood Transfusion Division, United States Army Medical Research Laboratory (1971). Selected contributions to the literature of blood groups and immunology. 1971 v. 4. United States Army Medical Research Laboratory, Fort Knox, Kentucky. ... In northern India, in Southern and Central China and in the neighboring Central Asiatic areas, we find the highest known frequencies of B. If we leave this center, the frequency of the B gene decreases almost everywhere ...
^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 0-85229-787-4. ... The maximum frequency of the B gene occurs in Central Asia and northern India. The B gene was probably absent from Native Americans and Australian Aboriginal people before racial admixture occurred with the coming of the white man ...
Jump up ^ Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember (1973). Anthropology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. ... Blood type B is completely absent in most North and South American Indians ...
Jump up ^ Dean 2005, 2.1.4: Blood Type A: Central and Eastern Europe Type A is common in Central and Eastern Europe. In countries such as Austria, Denmark, Norway, and Switzerland, about 45–50% of the population have this blood type, whereas about 40% of Poles and Ukrainians do so. The highest frequencies are found in small, unrelated populations. For example, about 80% of the Blackfoot Indians of Montana have blood type A ...
Jump up ^ Technical Monograph No. 2: The ABO Blood Group System and ABO Subgroups (PDF). Biotec. March 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2007. ... The frequency of blood group A is quite high (25–55%) in Europe, especially in Scandinavia and parts of central Europe. High group A frequency is also found in the Aboriginal people of South Australia (up to 45%) and in certain American Indian tribes where the frequency reaches 35% ...
See also[edit]
Blood type
ABO blood group system
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Evolutionary genetics
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Population genetics by region
Americas
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text:
Ham
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the cured but uncooked leg of pork, see Gammon (meat). For other uses, see Ham (disambiguation).
Half ham
Typical slice of ham
Ham is pork that has been preserved through salting, smoking, or wet curing.[1] It was traditionally made only from the hind leg of swine, and referred to that specific cut of pork.[2] Ham is made around the world, including a number of highly coveted regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham and some varieties of Spanish jamón. Technically a processed meat, "ham" may refer to a product which has been through mechanical re-forming.
The precise nature of meat termed "ham" is controlled in a number of areas, often by statute, including the United States and European Union. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as Prosciutto di Parma and Prosciutto Toscano PDO in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
1.1 Labeling
2 Methods
2.1 Salting
2.2 Smoking
2.3 Wet curing
3 Protected designations
4 Uses
5 Health effects
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Definition
The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, with Cato the Elder writing about the "salting of hams" in his De Agri Cultura tome around 160 BC.[3]
There are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham.[4] Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul.[5] It was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings.[4]
The modern word "ham" is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee, from a Germanic base where it meant "crooked". It began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a swine around the 15th century.[6] Preservation methods include curing, smoking, and salting.
Because of the preservation process, ham is a compound foodstuff or ingredient, being made up of the original meat, as well as the remnants of the preserving agent(s), such as salt, but it is still recognised as a food in its own right.[7]
Labeling
In many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. For instance, in the United States, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) says that "the word 'ham', without any prefix indicating the species of animal from which derived, shall be used in labeling only in connection with the hind legs of swine".[8]
In addition to the main categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. For instance, in the United States, a "smoked" ham must have been smoked by hanging over burning wood chips in a smokehouse or an atomized spray of liquid smoke such that the product appearance is equivalent; a "hickory-smoked" ham must have been smoked using only hickory. However, injecting "smoke flavor" is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was "smoked"; these are labeled "smoke flavor added". Hams can only be labeled "honey-cured" if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called "lean" and "extra lean" hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat and cholesterol per 100 grams of product.
Ham re-formed from smaller pieces into a larger block also has to be labeled in many jurisdictions.
Methods
Ham is produced by preserving and flavoring raw pork by salting, smoking, or wet curing. Besides salt, several ingredients may be used to obtain flavoring and preservation, from black pepper (e.g. Prosciutto Toscano PDO) to the precious saffron (e.g. the "Zafferano di San Gimignano PDO" in the esteemed Golden Ham).
Salting
Sea salt being added to raw pork leg as part of a dry cure process
Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the curative agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams, although this is comparatively rare.[9] This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt (for about one month for Parma ham) while it is gradually pressed – draining all the blood. In Tuscan Ham (Prosciutto Toscano PDO) different spices and herbs (from garlic to black pepper, from juniper to laurel) are added to salt during this step. Specific ingredients may be used to enhance flavour and taste during this step, e.g. pure saffron in the Golden Ham from San Gimignano (Italy). The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry. It is then hung to air for another period of time.
The duration of the curing process varies by the type of ham, with Serrano ham curing in 9–12 months, Parma hams taking more than 12 months, and Iberian ham taking up to 2 years to reach the desired flavour characteristics.[10] Some dry cured hams, such as the Jinhua ham, take approximately 8 to 10 months to complete.[11]
Most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites (either sodium or potassium), which are added along with the salt, although following a similar methodology. The nitrites deliver a distinctive pink or red tinge to the meat, as well as imparting flavour. The amount and mixture of salt and nitrites used have an effect on the shrinkage of the meat.[12]
Sodium nitrite is used because it prevents bacterial growth and, in a reaction with the meat's myoglobin, gives the product a desirable dark red color. Because of the toxicity of nitrite (the lethal dose of nitrite for humans is about 22 mg per kg body weight), some areas specify a maximum allowable content of nitrite in the final product. Under certain conditions, especially during cooking, nitrites in meat can react with degradation products of amino acids, forming nitrosamines, which are known carcinogens.[13]
The dry curing of ham involves a number of enzymatic reactions. The enzymes involved are proteinases (cathepsins – B, D, H & L, and calpains) and exopeptidases (peptidase and aminopeptidase).[14] These enzymes cause proteolysis of muscle tissue, which creates large numbers of small peptides and free amino acids, while the adipose tissue undergoes lipolysis to create free fatty acids.[14] Salt and phosphates act as strong inhibitors of proteolytic activity.[15]
Animal factors influencing enzymatic activity include age, weight, and breed.[16] During the process itself, conditions such as temperature, duration, water content, redox potential, and salt content all have an effect.[14]
The salt content in dry-cured ham varies throughout a piece of meat, with gradients determinable through sampling and testing or non-invasively through CT scanning.[17]
Smoking
See also: Smoking (cooking)
Ham can also be preserved through the smoking method, in which the meat is placed in a smokehouse (or equivalent) to be cured by the action of smoke.
The main flavor compounds of smoked ham are guaiacol, and its 4-, 5-, and 6-methyl derivatives as well as 2,6-dimethylphenol. These compounds are produced by thermal breakdown (i.e., combustion) of lignin, a major constituent of wood used in the smokehouse.[18]
Wet curing
See also: brining
Wet curing (also known as brining) involves the immersion of the meat in a brine, sometimes with other ingredients such as sugar also added for flavour. Meat is submerged in the brine for around 3–14 days, during which time the meat needs to be kept submerged, and the brine mixture agitated periodically to prevent separation of the ingredients.[9]
Wet curing also has the effect of increasing volume and weight of the finished product, by about 4%.
The wet curing process can also be replicated by using mechanical pumping using needles and curing solution. This can be quicker, increase the weight of the finished product by more than immersion wet curing, and ensure a more even distribution of salt through the meat. This process is quicker than traditional wet cure, normally being completed between a few days and a few weeks.[19]
Protected designations
Hams aging in an atmospherically controlled storage room in Mazerolles, Béarn, Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Spanish Jamón from the town of Guijuelo, a protected designation ham
A number of hams worldwide have some level of protection of their unique characteristics, usually relating to their method of preservation and/or location of production or processing. Dependent on jurisdiction, rules may prevent any other product being sold with the particular appellation, such as through the European protected geographical indication.
Belgium
Jambon d'Ardenne – Wallonia, Belgium
Bulgaria
Elenski but – Elena
China
Anfu ham- Jiangxi
Jinhua ham – Jinhua
Rugao ham – Rugao
Xuanwei ham – Xuanwei
Czechoslovakia
Pražká Šunka ("Prague Ham") – Prague
Prager Schinken [German]
Prosciutto di Praga [Italian]
Croatia
Pršut
France
Bayonne ham (Jambon de Bayonne) – Bayonne
Jambon de Paris – Paris
Jambon d'Aoste – Aosta region
Jambon de Savoie – Savoy
Jambon d'Auvergne – Auvergne region
Jambon d'Ardèche – Ardèche region
Germany
Ammerländer Schinken – Ammerland
Schwarzwälder Schinken – Black Forest
Westfälischer Schinken – Westphalia
Italy
Prosciutto Toscano – Tuscany
Prosciutto di Parma – Parma
San Daniele
Speck Alto Adige – South Tyrol
Vallée d’Aoste Jambon de Bosses – Saint-Rhémy-en-Bosses, Aosta Valley
Luxembourg
Éisleker ham – Oesling region
Montenegro
Njeguška pršuta – Njeguši, Montenegro
Portugal
fiambre
presunto (cured pork)
Slovenia
Kraški pršut (prosciutto from the Kras region)[20]
Spain
jamón serrano (Serrano ham),[21] includes most varieties of Spanish cured ham except ibérico
jamón ibérico,[22] made from the ibérico pig breed
Lacón Gallego, from Galicia
Jamón from Los Pedroches (Córdoba province)
Jamón from Huelva (including Jabugo), from Huelva province, Andalusia
Jamón from Guijuelo (Salamanca province)
Jamón from Dehesa de Extremadura, from Extremadura
United Kingdom
Wiltshire cure ham[23]
York ham – York[24][25]
United States
Smithfield ham – Smithfield, Virginia
Uses
A pizza with buffalo mozzarella and cooked ham
Ham is typically used in its sliced form, often as a filling for sandwiches and similar foods, such as in the ham sandwich and ham and cheese sandwich. Other variations include toasted sandwiches such as the croque-monsieur and the Cubano.
Preserved ham can be cooked (although there is no requirement), and usually requires washing in water to remove salt. Whole fresh pork leg is also served cooked as gammon, known as ham in the United States.
Health effects
As a processed meat, there has been concern over the health effects of ham consumption.[26] A meta-analysis study has shown a statistically relevant correlation between processed meat consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer, with an increase in consumption of 50 grams (1.8 oz) per day leading to a 19% increase in risk.[27]
This supported earlier studies, including the 2007 study Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective, by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research,[28] which reviewed more than 7,000 studies published worldwide.[29] Among the recommendations was that, except for very rare occasions, people should avoid eating ham or other processed meats – cured, smoked, salted or chemically preserved meat products such as bacon, hot dogs, sausage,[30] salami,[31] and pastrami. The report states that once an individual reaches the 510 grams (18 oz) weekly limit for red meat, every 48 grams (1.7 oz) of processed meat consumed a day increases cancer risk by 21%.[29]
A European cohort study also positively correlated processed meat consumption with higher all-cause mortality, with an estimation that 3.3% of the deaths amongst participants could have been prevented by consuming less than 20 grams (0.71 oz) of processed meat per day.[clarify][32]
See also
Food portal
Ham and eggs
List of hams
List of ham dishes
List of smoked foods
Turkey ham
References
Jump up ^ "Red and processed meats and cancer prevention". World Cancer Research Fund.
Jump up ^ "Bacon: Bacon and Ham Curing" in Chambers's Encyclopædia. London: George Newnes, 1961, Vol. 2, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Callow, EH (December 1947). "The Action of Salts and other Substances Used in the Curing of Bacon and Ham". British Journal of Nutrition. 1 (2–3): 269–274. PMID 18907930. doi:10.1079/bjn19470037.
^ Jump up to: a b Zeuthen, Peter (2008-04-15). Meat Fermentation Worldwide: History and Principles. ISBN 978-0-470-37634-8.
Jump up ^ Larousse Gastronomique. Hamlyn. 2009. ISBN 978-0-600-62042-6.
Jump up ^ Brown, Lesley, ed. (2007). Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. II (Sixth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University press. p. 3611.
Jump up ^ "Labelling and Composition of Meat Products: Guidance Notes" (PDF). Food Standards Agency Scotland. p. 31.
Jump up ^ "9 CFR 317.8 – False or misleading labeling or practices generally; specific prohibitions and requirements for labels and containers". Legal Information Institute.
^ Jump up to: a b "Curing Methods". Meat and Sausages.com.
Jump up ^ Sentandreu, Miguel Angel; Toldrá, Fidel (2001). "Dipeptidyl peptidase activities along the processing of Serrano dry-cured ham". European Food Research and Technology. 213 (2): 83–87. doi:10.1007/s002170100355.
Jump up ^ Zhou, G.H.; Zhao, G.M. (2007), "Biochemical changes during processing of traditional Jinhua ham", Meat Science (77): 114–120
Jump up ^ Wierbicki, Eugen; Howker, John J (1976). "Effect of salt, phosphates and other curing ingredients on shrinkage of lean pork meat and quality of smoked processed ham". Journal of Food Science. 41 (5): 1116–1121. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1976.tb14399.x.
Jump up ^ Jakszyn, P.; Gonzalez, C. A. (2006). "Nitrosamine and related food intake and gastric and oesophageal cancer risk: A systematic review of the epidemiological evidence". World journal of gastroenterology : WJG. 12 (27): 4296–4303. PMC 4087738  . PMID 16865769. doi:10.3748/wjg.v12.i27.4296.
^ Jump up to: a b c Toldrá, Fidel; Flores, Mónica (1998). "The Role of Muscle Proteases and Lipases in Flavor Development During the Processing of Dry-Cured Ham". Critical Reviews in Food SCience and Nutrition. 38 (4): 351–352. doi:10.1080/10408699891274237.
Jump up ^ Sárraga, Carmen; Gil, Marta; Arnau, Jacint; Monfort, Josep M (1989). "Effect of curing salt and phosphate on the activity of porcine muscle proteases". Meat Science. 24 (4): 241–249. doi:10.1016/0309-1740(89)90042-9.
Jump up ^ Sárraga, Carmen; Gil, Marta; García-Regueiro, José Antonio (1993). "Comparison of calpain and cathepsin (B,L and D) activities during dry-cured ham processing from heavy and large white pigs". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 62 (1): 71–75. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740620110.
Jump up ^ Vestergaard, Christian; Erbou, Søren G; Thauland, Torunn; Adler-Nissen, Jens; Berg, Per (January 2005). "Salt distribution in dry-cured ham measured by computed tomography and image analysis". Meat Science. 69 (1): 9–15. PMID 22062634. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.06.002.
Jump up ^ Wittkowski, Reiner; Ruther, Joachim; Drinda, Heike; Rafiei-Taghanaki, Foroozan "Formation of smoke flavor compounds by thermal lignin degradation" ACS Symposium Series (Flavor Precursors), 1992, volume 490, pp 232–243. ISBN 9780841222229
Jump up ^ Deibel, RH; Niven, CF (September 1958). "The occurrence and significance of a motile microorganism of the Genus Lactobacillus in ham curing brines". Applied Microbiology. 6 (5): 323–327. PMC 1057423  . PMID 13571973.
Jump up ^ "Zdaj uradno originalen: kraški pršut zaščiten v EU".
Jump up ^ Regulator Agency of the Serrano Ham D.O., Jamón de Teruel.com
Jump up ^ "Campaña informativa sobre los Productos del Ibérico del Ministerio de Agricultura de España". Web.archive.org. 22 May 2008. Archived from the original on 22 May 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
Jump up ^ A colour atlas of food quality control, section "Brine curing", pages 65 and 66. Jane P. Sutherland, A. H. Varnam
Jump up ^ "Food Legends of the United Kingdom: York Ham". Information Britain. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Lori Alden. "Cook's Thesaurus: Ham". Food Subs. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, James. "Processed meat 'early death' link". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Larsson, SC; Wolk, A (2012). "Red and processed meat consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: meta-analysis of prospective studies". British Journal of Cancer. 106 (3): 603–607. PMC 3273353  . PMID 22240790. doi:10.1038/bjc.2011.585.
Jump up ^ "Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective" (PDF). The World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research. 31 October 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Tina Marie Macias (31 October 2007). "Body fat is linked to six types of cancers". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective" (PDF). The World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research. 31 October 2007. p. 117. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Be thin to cut cancer, study says". BBC News. 31 October 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Rohrmann; et al. (7 March 2013). "Meat consumption and mortality – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". BMC Medicine. 11 (63): 63. PMC 3599112  . PMID 23497300. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-63.
External links
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Ham
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ham (food).
Ham history
United States Department of Agriculture: Ham and food safety
Cook´s Thesaurus: ham
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sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jambon
Jambon – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: שינקען – Yiddish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Ham rootpage-Ham vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view