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Adolf Hitler's rise to power
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Hitler in conversation with Ernst Hanfstaengl and Hermann Göring, 21 June 1932.
Adolf Hitler's rise to power began in Germany in September 1919 when Hitler joined the political party known as the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – DAP (German Workers' Party). The name was changed in 1920 to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party, commonly known as the Nazi Party). This political party was formed and developed during the post-World War I era. It was anti-Marxist and opposed to the democratic post-war government of the Weimar Republic and the Treaty of Versailles; and it advocated extreme nationalism and Pan-Germanism as well as virulent anti-Semitism. Hitler's "rise" can be considered to have ended in March 1933, after the Reichstag adopted the Enabling Act of 1933 in that month. President Paul von Hindenburg had already appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933 after a series of parliamentary elections and associated backroom intrigues. The Enabling Act—when used ruthlessly and with authority—virtually assured that Hitler could thereafter constitutionally exercise dictatorial power without legal objection.
Adolf Hitler rose to a place of prominence in the early years of the party. Being one of the best speakers of the party, he told the other members to either make him leader of the party or he would never return. He was aided in part by his willingness to use violence in advancing his political objectives and to recruit party members who were willing to do the same. The Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923 and the later release of his book Mein Kampf (Translation: My Struggle) introduced Hitler to a wider audience. In the mid-1920s, the party engaged in electoral battles in which Hitler participated as a speaker and organizer,[a] as well as in street battles and violence between the Rotfrontkämpferbund and the Nazis' Sturmabteilung (SA). Through the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Nazis gathered enough electoral support to become the largest political party in the Reichstag, and Hitler's blend of political acuity, deceptiveness and cunning converted the party's non-majority but plurality status into effective governing power in the ailing Weimar Republic of 1933.
Once in power, the Nazis created a mythology surrounding the rise to power, and they described the period that roughly corresponds to the scope of this article as either the Kampfzeit (the time of struggle) or the Kampfjahre (years of struggle).
Contents
[hide]
1 The beginning (1918–1924)
1.1 From Armistice (November 1918) to party membership (September 1919)
1.2 From early party membership to the Hofbräuhaus Melee (November 1921)
1.3 From Beer Hall Melee to Beer Hall Coup D'État: the abortive Beer Hall Putsch and the ensuing trial
2 Move towards power (1925–1930)
3 Weimar parties fail to halt Nazis
4 Seizure of control (1931–1933)
5 Chancellor to dictator
6 See also
7 References
The beginning (1918–1924)[edit]
Adolf Hitler became involved with the fledgling Nazi Party after the First World War, and set the violent tone of the movement early, by forming the Sturmabteilung (SA) paramilitary.[1] Catholic Bavaria resented rule from Protestant Berlin, and Hitler at first saw revolution in Bavaria as a means to power – but an early attempt proved fruitless, and he was imprisoned after the 1923 Munich Beerhall Putsch. He used the time to produce Mein Kampf, in which he argued that the effeminate Jewish-Christian ethic was enfeebling Europe, and that Germany needed a man of iron to restore itself and build an empire.[2] He decided on the tactic of pursuing power through "legal" means.[3]
From Armistice (November 1918) to party membership (September 1919)[edit]
After being granted permission from King Ludwig III of Bavaria, 25-year-old Austrian-born Hitler enlisted in a Bavarian regiment of the German army, although he was not yet a German citizen. For over four years (August 1914 – November 1918), Germany was a principal actor in World War I,[b] on the Western Front. Soon after the fighting on the front ended in November 1918,[c] Hitler returned[d] to Munich after the Armistice with no job, no real civilian job skills and no friends. He remained in the Reichswehr and was given a relatively meaningless assignment during the winter of 1918–1919,[e] but was eventually recruited by the Army's Political Department (Press and News Bureau), possibly because of his assistance to the army in investigating the responsibility for the ill-fated Bavarian Soviet Republic.[4][f] He took part in "national thinking" courses under Captain Karl Mayr.[5] Apparently his skills in oratory, as well as his extreme and open anti-Semitism, caught the eye of an approving army officer and he was promoted to an "education officer"—which gave him an opportunity to speak in public.[6][g][h]
In July 1919 Hitler was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, both to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). The DAP had been formed by Anton Drexler, Karl Harrer and others, through amalgamation of other groups, on 5 January 1919 at a small gathering in Munich at the restaurant Fuerstenfelder Hof. While he studied the activities of the DAP, Hitler became impressed with Drexler's antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist and anti-Marxist ideas.[7]
Hitler's membership card for the German Workers' Party (DAP)
During the 12 September 1919 meeting,[i] Hitler took umbrage with comments made by an audience member that were directed against Gottfried Feder, the speaker, a crank economist with whom Hitler was acquainted due to a lecture Feder delivered in an army "education" course.[6][j] The audience member (Hitler in Mein Kampf disparagingly called him the "professor") asserted that Bavaria should be wholly independent from Germany and should secede from Germany and unite with Austria to form a new South German nation.[k] The volatile Hitler arose and scolded the unfortunate Professor Baumann, using his speaking skills and eventually causing Baumann to leave the meeting before its adjournment.[8][9] Impressed with Hitler's oratory skills, Drexler encouraged him to join the DAP. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party.[10] Within a week, Hitler received a postcard stating he had officially been accepted as a member and he should come to a "committee" meeting to discuss it. Hitler attended the "committee" meeting held at the run-down Alte Rosenbad beer-house.[11] Later Hitler wrote that joining the fledgling party "...was the most decisive resolve of my life. From here there was and could be no turning back. ... I registered as a member of the German Workers' Party and received a provisional membership card with the number 7".[12] Normally, enlisted army personnel were not allowed to join political parties. However, in this case, Hitler had Captain Mayr's permission to join the DAP. Further, Hitler was allowed to stay in the army and receive his weekly pay of 20 gold marks a week.[13]
From early party membership to the Hofbräuhaus Melee (November 1921)[edit]
Otto Strasser: What is the program of the NSDAP?
Hitler: The program is not the question. The only question is power.
Strasser: Power is only the means of accomplishing the program.
Hitler: These are the opinions of the intellectuals. We need power![14]
By early 1920 the DAP had grown to over 101 members, and Hitler received his membership card as member number 555.[l]
Hitler's considerable oratory and propaganda skills were appreciated by the party leadership. With the support of Anton Drexler, Hitler became chief of propaganda for the party in early 1920 and his actions began to transform the party. He organised their biggest meeting yet of 2,000 people, on 24 February 1920 in the Staatliches Hofbräuhaus in München.[15] There Hitler announced the party's 25-point program (see National Socialist Program).[16] He engineered the name change of the DAP to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party), commonly known to the rest of the world as the Nazi Party.[m][17] Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.[18] Hitler was later discharged from the army in March 1920 and began working full-time for the NSDAP.[19] In 1920, a small "hall protection" squad was organised around Emil Maurice.[20] The group was first named the "Order troops" (Ordnertruppen). Later in August 1921, Hitler redefined the group, which became known as the "Gymnastic and Sports Division" of the party (Turn- und Sportabteilung).[21] By the autumn of 1921 the group was being called the Sturmabteilung (Storm Detachment) or SA, and in November 1921 the group was officially known by that name.[22]
Throughout 1920, Hitler began to lecture at Munich's beer halls, particularly the Hofbräuhaus, Sterneckerbräu and Bürgerbräukeller. Only Hitler was able to bring in the crowds for the party speeches and meetings.[23] By this time, the police were already monitoring the speeches, and their own surviving records reveal that Hitler delivered lectures with titles such as Political Phenomenon, Jews and the Treaty of Versailles. At the end of the year, party membership was recorded at 2,000.[24]
In June 1921, while Hitler and Dietrich Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[25] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party.[26] Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich.[27] The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3,680.[27] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful: at a general membership meeting, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, with only one nay vote cast.[28]
On 14 September 1921, Hitler and a substantial number of SA members and other Nazi Party adherents disrupted a meeting at the Löwenbräukeller of the Bavarian League. This federalist organization objected to the centralism of the Weimar Constitution, but accepted its social program. The League was led by Otto Ballerstedt, an engineer whom Hitler regarded as "my most dangerous opponent." One Nazi, Hermann Esser, climbed upon a chair and shouted that the Jews were to blame for the misfortunes of Bavaria, and the Nazis shouted demands that Ballerstedt yield the floor to Hitler.[29] The Nazis beat up Ballerstedt and shoved him off the stage into the audience. Both Hitler and Esser were arrested, and Hitler commented notoriously to the police commissioner, "It's all right. We got what we wanted. Ballerstedt did not speak."[30] Hitler was eventually sentenced to 3 months imprisonment and ended up serving only a little over one month.
On 4 November 1921, the Nazi Party held a large public meeting in the Munich Hofbräuhaus. After Hitler had spoken for some time, the meeting erupted into a melee in which a small company of SA defeated the opposition.[20]
From Beer Hall Melee to Beer Hall Coup D'État: the abortive Beer Hall Putsch and the ensuing trial[edit]
Defendants in the Beer Hall Putsch
In 1922 and early 1923, Hitler and the NSDAP formed two organizations that would grow to have huge significance. The first began as the Jungsturm Adolf Hitler and the Jugendbund der NSDAP; they would later become the Hitler Youth.[31][32] The other was the Stabswache (Staff Guard), which in May 1923 was renamed the Stoßtrupp-Hitler (Shock Troop-Hitler).[33] This early incarnation of a bodyguard unit for Hitler would later become the Schutzstaffel (SS).[34] Inspired by Benito Mussolini's March on Rome in 1922, Hitler decided that a coup d'état was the proper strategy to seize control of the country. In May 1923, elements loyal to Hitler within the army helped the SA to procure a barracks and its weaponry, but the order to march never came.
A pivotal moment came when Hitler led the Beer Hall Putsch, an attempted coup d'état on 8–9 November 1923. Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup. Hitler was arrested on 11 November 1923.[35] Hitler was put on trial for high treason, gaining great public attention.[36]
The rather spectacular trial began in February 1924. Hitler endeavored to turn the tables and put democracy and the Weimar Republic on trial as traitors to the German people. Hitler was convicted and on 1 April sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.[37] Hitler received friendly treatment from the guards; he had a room with a view of the river, wore a tie, regular visitors to his chambers, was allowed mail from supporters and was permitted the use of a private secretary. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections.[38]
Hitler used the time in Landsberg Prison to consider his political strategy and dictate the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice), principally to his deputy Rudolf Hess.[n] After the putsch the party was banned in Bavaria, but it participated in 1924's two elections by proxy as the National Socialist Freedom Movement. In the German election, May 1924 the party gained seats in the Reichstag, with 6.55% (1,918,329) voting for the Movement. In the German election, December 1924 the National Socialist Freedom Movement (NSFB) (Combination of the Deutschvölkische Freiheitspartei (DVFP) and the Nazi Party (NSDAP)) lost 18 seats, only holding on to 14 seats, with 3% (907,242) of the electorate voting for Hitler's party.
The Barmat Scandal was often used later in Nazi propaganda, both as an electoral strategy and as an appeal to anti-Semitism.
Hitler had determined, after some reflection, that power was to be achieved not through revolution outside of the government, but rather through legal means, within the confines of the democratic system established by Weimar.[citation needed]
For five to six years there would be no further prohibitions of the party (see below Seizure of Control: (1931–1933)).
Move towards power (1925–1930)[edit]
In the German election, May 1928 the Party achieved just 12 seats in the Reichstag.[39] The highest provincial gain was again in Bavaria (5.11%), though in three areas the NSDAP failed to gain even 1% of the vote. Overall the NSDAP gained 2.6% (810,100) of the vote.[39] Partially due to the poor results, Hitler decided that Germans needed to know more about his goals. Despite being discouraged by his publisher, he wrote a second book that was discovered and released posthumously as the Zweites Buch. At this time the SA began a period of deliberate antagonism to the Rotfront by marching into Communist strongholds and starting violent altercations.
At the end of 1928, party membership was recorded at 130,000. In March 1929, Erich Ludendorff represented the Nazi Party in the Presidential elections. He gained 280,000 votes (1.1%), and was the only candidate to poll fewer than a million votes. The battles on the streets grew increasingly violent. After the Rotfront interrupted a speech by Hitler, the SA marched into the streets of Nuremberg and killed two bystanders. In a tit-for-tat action, the SA stormed a Rotfront meeting on 25 August and days later the Berlin headquarters of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) itself. In September Goebbels led his men into Neukölln, a KPD stronghold, and the two warring parties exchanged pistol and revolver fire.
The German referendum of 1929 was important as it gained the Nazi Party recognition and credibility it never had before.[40]
On the evening of 14 January 1930, at around ten o'clock, Horst Wessel was fatally shot at point-blank range in the face by two members of the KPD in Friedrichshain.[41] The attack occurred after an argument with his landlady who was a member of the KPD, and contacted one of her Rotfront friends, Albert Hochter, who shot Wessel.[42] Wessel had penned a song months before which would become a Nazi anthem as the Horst-Wessel-Lied. Goebbels seized upon the attack (and the weeks Wessel spent on his deathbed) to publicize the song, and the funeral was used as an anti-Communist propaganda opportunity for the Nazis.[43] In May Goebbels was convicted of "libeling" President Hindenberg and fined 800 marks. It stemmed from a 1929 article by Goebbels in his newspaper Der Angriff. In June, Goebbels was charged with high treason by the prosecutor in Leipzig based on statements Goebbels had made in 1927, but after a four-month investigation it came to naught.[44]
Hitler with Nazi Party members in December, 1930
Against this backdrop, Hitler's party gained a victory in the Reichstag, obtaining 107 seats (18.3%, 6,409,600 votes) in September, 1930.[39] The Nazis became the second largest party in Germany. In Bavaria the party gained 17.9% of the vote, though for the first time this percentage was exceeded by most other provinces: Oldenburg (27.3%), Braunschweig (26.6%), Waldeck (26.5%), Mecklenburg-Strelitz (22.6%), Lippe (22.3%) Mecklenburg-Schwerin (20.1%), Anhalt (19.8%), Thuringen (19.5%), Baden (19.2%), Hamburg (19.2%), Prussia (18.4%), Hessen (18.4%), Sachsen (18.3%), Lubeck (18.3%) and Schaumburg-Lippe (18.1%).
An unprecedented amount of money was thrown behind the campaign. Well over one million pamphlets were produced and distributed; sixty trucks were commandeered for use in Berlin alone. In areas where NSDAP campaigning was less rigorous, the total was as low as 9%. The Great Depression was also a factor in Hitler's electoral success. Against this legal backdrop, the SA began its first major anti-Jewish action on 13 October 1930 when groups of brownshirts smashed the windows of Jewish-owned stores at Potsdamer Platz.[45]
Weimar parties fail to halt Nazis[edit]
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 heralded worldwide economic disaster. The Nazis and the Communists made great gains at the 1930 Election.[46] Both the Nazis and Communists between them secured almost 40% of Reichstag seats, which required the moderate parties to consider negotiations with anti-democrats.[47] "The Communists", wrote Bullock, "openly announced that they would prefer to see the Nazis in power rather than lift a finger to save the republic".[48]
The Weimar political parties failed to stop the Nazi rise. Germany's Weimar political system made it difficult for chancellors to govern with a stable parliamentary majority, and successive chancellors instead relied on the president's emergency powers to govern.[49] From 1931 to 1933, the Nazis combined terror tactics with conventional campaigning – Hitler criss-crossed the nation by air, while SA troops paraded in the streets, beat up opponents, and broke up their meetings.[3]
A middle-class liberal party strong enough to block the Nazis did not exist – the People's Party and the Democrats suffered severe losses to the Nazis at the polls. The Social Democrats were essentially a conservative trade union party, with ineffectual leadership. The Catholic Centre Party maintained its voting block, but was preoccupied with defending its own particular interests and, wrote Bullock: "through 1932-3 ... was so far from recognizing the danger of a Nazi dictatorship that it continued to negotiate with the Nazis". The Communists meanwhile were engaging in violent clashes with Nazis on the streets, but Moscow had directed the Communist Party to prioritise destruction of the Social Democrats, seeing more danger in them as a rival for the loyalty of the working class. Nevertheless, wrote Bullock, the heaviest responsibility lay with the German right wing, who "forsook a true conservatism" and made Hitler their partner in a coalition government.[50]
Chancellor Franz von Papen (left) with his eventual successor, the Minister of Defence Kurt von Schleicher.
The Centre Party's Heinrich Brüning was Chancellor from 1930 to 1932. Brüning and Hitler were unable to reach terms of co-operation, but Brüning himself increasingly governed with the support of the President and Army over that of the parliament.[51] The 84-year-old President von Hindenburg, a conservative monarchist, was reluctant to take action to suppress the Nazis, while the ambitious Major-General Kurt von Schleicher, as Minister handling army and navy matters hoped to harness their support.[52] With Schleicher's backing, and Hitler's stated approval, Hindenburg appointed the Catholic monarchist Franz von Papen to replace Brüning as Chancellor in June 1932.[53][54] Papen had been active in the resurgence of the Harzburg Front.[55] He had fallen out with the Centre Party.[56] He hoped ultimately to outmaneuver Hitler.[57]
At the July 1932 Elections, the Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag, yet without a majority. Hitler withdrew support for Papen and demanded the Chancellorship. He was refused by Hindenburg.[58] Papen dissolved Parliament, and the Nazi vote declined at the November Election.[59] In the aftermath of the election, Papen proposed ruling by decree while drafting a new electoral system, with an upper house. Schleicher convinced Hindenburg to sack Papen, and Schleicher himself became Chancellor, promising to form a workable coalition.[60]
The aggrieved Papen opened negotiations with Hitler, proposing a Nazi-Nationalist Coalition. Having nearly outmaneuvered Hitler, only to be trounced by Schleicher, Papen turned his attentions on defeating Schleicher, and concluded an agreement with Hitler.[61]
Seizure of control (1931–1933)[edit]
On 10 March 1931, with street violence between the Rotfront and SA spiraling out of control, breaking all previous barriers and expectations, Prussia re-enacted its ban on brown shirts. Days after the ban SA-men shot dead two communists in a street fight, which led to a ban being placed on the public speaking of Goebbels, who sidestepped the prohibition by recording speeches and playing them to an audience in his absence.
When Hitler's citizenship became a matter of public discussion in 1924 he had a public declaration printed on 16 October 1924: "The loss of my Austrian citizenship is not painful to me, as I never felt as an Austrian citizen but always as a German only . . . . It was this mentality that made me draw the ultimate conclusion and do military service in the German Army."[62] Under the threat of criminal deportation home to Austria, Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, and did not acquire German citizenship until almost seven years later; therefore, he was unable to run for public office.[63] Hitler gained German citizenship after being appointed a Free State of Brunswick government official by Dietrich Klagges, after an earlier attempt by Wilhelm Frick to convey citizenship as a Thuringian police official failed.[64][65][66]
Ernst Röhm, in charge of the SA, put Wolf-Heinrich von Helldorff, a vehement anti-Semite, in charge of the Berlin SA. The deaths mounted, with many more on the Rotfront side, and by the end of 1931 the SA had suffered 47 deaths, and the Rotfront recorded losses of approximately 80. Street fights and beer hall battles resulting in deaths occurred throughout February and April 1932, all against the backdrop of Adolf Hitler's competition in the presidential election which pitted him against the monumentally popular Hindenburg. In the first round on 13 March, Hitler had polled over 11 million votes but was still behind Hindenburg. The second and final round took place on 10 April: Hitler (36.8% 13,418,547) lost out to Paul von Hindenburg (53.0% 19,359,983) whilst KPD candidate Thälmann gained a meagre percentage of the vote (10.2% 3,706,759). At this time, the Nazi Party had just over 800,000 card-carrying members.
Three days after the presidential elections, the German government banned the NSDAP paramilitaries, the SA and the SS, on the basis of the Emergency Decree for the Preservation of State Authority.[67][68] This action was largely prompted by details that emerged at a trial of SA men for assaulting unarmed Jews in Berlin. After less than a month the law was repealed on 30 May by Franz von Papen, Chancellor of Germany. Such ambivalence about the fate of Jews was supported by the culture of anti-Semitism that pervaded the German public at the time.
In the federal election of July 1932, the NSDAP won 37.3% of the popular vote (13,745,000 votes), an upswing by 19 percentage points, becoming the largest party in the Reichstag, holding 230 out of 608 seats.[39] Dwarfed by Hitler's electoral gains, the KPD turned away from legal means and increasingly towards violence. One resulting battle in Silesia resulted in the army being dispatched, each shot sending Germany further into a potential all-out civil war. By this time both sides marched into each other's strongholds hoping to spark a rivalry. The attacks continued and reached fever pitch when SA leader Axel Schaffeld was assassinated on 1 August.
As the NSDAP was now the largest party in the Reichstag, they were thus entitled to select the President of the Reichstag and were able to elect Göring for the post.[69] Energised by the success, Hitler asked to be made chancellor. Hitler was offered the job of vice-chancellor by Chancellor Papen at the behest of President Hindenburg, but he refused. Hitler saw this offer as placing him in a position of "playing second fiddle" in the government.[70]
Göring, in his position of Reichstag president, asked that decisive measures be taken by the government over the spate in murders of NSDAP members. On 9 August, amendments were made to the Reichstrafgesetzbuch statute on 'acts of political violence', increasing the penalty to 'lifetime imprisonment, 20 years hard labour or death'. Special courts were announced to try such offences. When in power less than half a year later, Hitler would use this legislation against his opponents with devastating effect.
The law was applied almost immediately but did not bring the perpetrators behind the recent massacres to trial as expected. Instead, five SA men who were alleged to have murdered a KPD member in Potempa (Upper Silesia) were tried. Hitler appeared at the trial as a defence witness, but on 22 August the five were convicted and sentenced to death. On appeal, this sentence was commuted to life imprisonment in early September. They would serve just over four months before Hitler freed all imprisoned Nazis in a 1933 amnesty.
The Nazi Party lost 35 seats in the November 1932 election, but remained the Reichstag's largest party, with 196 seats (33.09%). The Social Democrats (SPD) won 121 seats (20.43%) and the Communists (KPD) won 100 (16.86%).
The Comintern described all moderate left-wing parties as "social fascists", and urged the Communists to devote their energies to the destruction of the moderate left. As a result, the KPD, following orders from Moscow, rejected overtures from the Social Democrats to form a political alliance against the NSDAP.
After Chancellor Papen left office, he secretly told Hitler that he still held considerable sway with President Hindenburg and that he would make Hitler chancellor as long as he, Papen, could be the vice chancellor. Another notable event was the publication of the Industrielleneingabe, a letter signed by 22 important representatives of industry, finance and agriculture, asking Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor.
Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after the parliamentary elections of July and November 1932 had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler headed a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and the German National People's Party (DNVP).
On 30 January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP gained three posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Göring, Minister Without Portfolio (and Minister of the Interior for Prussia).[71][72] The SA and SS led torchlit parades throughout Berlin. It is this event that would become termed Hitler's Machtergreifung ("seizure of power"). The term was originally used by some Nazis to suggest a revolutionary process,[73] though Hitler, and others, used the word Machtübernahme ("take-over of power"), reflecting that the transfer of power took place within the existing constitutional framework[73] and suggesting that the process was legal.[74][75]
Papen was to serve as Vice-Chancellor in a majority conservative Cabinet – still falsely believing that he could "tame" Hitler.[54] Initially, Papen did speak out against some Nazi excesses. However, after narrowly escaping death in the Night of the Long Knives in 1934, he no longer dared criticise the regime and was sent off to Vienna as German ambassador.[76]
Both within Germany and abroad initially there were few fears that Hitler could use his position to establish his later dictatorial single-party regime. Rather, the conservatives that helped to make him chancellor were convinced that they could control Hitler and "tame" the Nazi Party while setting the relevant impulses in the government themselves; foreign ambassadors played down worries by emphasizing that Hitler was "mediocre" if not a bad copy of Mussolini; even SPD politician Kurt Schumacher trivialized Hitler as a "Dekorationsstück" ("piece of scenery/decoration") of the new government. German newspapers wrote that, without doubt, the Hitler-led government would try to fight its political enemies (the left-wing parties), but that it would be impossible to establish a dictatorship in Germany because there was "a barrier, over which violence cannot proceed" and because of the German nation being proud of "the freedom of speech and thought". Theodor Wolff of Frankfurter Zeitung wrote:[77]
It is a hopeless misjudgement to think that one could force a dictatorial regime upon the German nation. [...] The diversity of the German people calls for democracy.
—  Theodor Wolff in Frankfurter Zeitung, Jan 1933
Even within the Jewish German community, in spite of Hitler not hiding his ardent antisemitism, the worries appear to have been limited. In a declaration of January 30, the steering committee of the central Jewish German organization (Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens) wrote that "as a matter of course" the Jewish community faces the new government "with the largest mistrust", but at the same they were convinced that "nobody would dare to touch [their] constitutional rights". The Jewish German newspaper Jüdische Rundschau (de) wrote on Jan 31st:[78]
... that also within the German nation still the forces are active that would turn against a barbarian anti-Jewish policy.
—  Jüdische Rundschau (de), Jan 31st, 1933
However a growing number of keen observers, like Sir Horace Rumbold, British Ambassador in Berlin, began to revise their opinions. On 22 February 1933, he wrote, "Hitler may be no statesman but he is an uncommonly clever and audacious demagogue and fully alive to every popular instinct," and he informed the Foreign Office that he had no doubt that the Nazis had "come to stay."[79] On receiving the dispatch Robert Vansittart, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, concluded that if Hitler eventually gained the upper hand, "then another European war [was] within measurable distance."[80]
With Germans who opposed Nazism failing to unite against it, Hitler soon moved to consolidate absolute power.
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power!
—  Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934[81]
Chancellor to dictator[edit]
Adolf Hitler addressing the Reichstag on 23 March 1933. Seeking assent to the Enabling Act, Hitler offered the possibility of friendly co-operation, promising not to threaten the Reichstag, the President, the States or the Churches if granted the emergency powers.
Following the Reichstag fire, the Nazis began to suspend civil liberties and eliminate political opposition. The Communists were excluded from the Reichstag. At the March 1933 elections, again no single party secured a majority. Hitler required the vote of the Centre Party and Conservatives in the Reichstag to obtain the powers he desired. He called on Reichstag members to vote for the Enabling Act on 24 March 1933. Hitler was granted plenary powers "temporarily" by the passage of the Act.[82] The law gave him the freedom to act without parliamentary consent and even without constitutional limitations.[83]
Employing his characteristic mix of negotiation and intimidation, Hitler offered the possibility of friendly co-operation, promising not to threaten the Reichstag, the President, the States or the Churches if granted the emergency powers. With Nazi paramilitary encircling the building, he said: "It is for you, gentlemen of the Reichstag to decide between war and peace".[82] The Centre Party, having obtained promises of non-interference in religion, joined with conservatives in voting for the Act (only the Social Democrats voted against).[84]
The Act allowed Hitler and his Cabinet to rule by emergency decree for four years, though Hindenburg remained President.[85] Hitler immediately set about abolishing the powers of the states and the existence of non-Nazi political parties and organisations. Non-Nazi parties were formally outlawed on 14 July 1933, and the Reichstag abdicated its democratic responsibilities.[86] Hindenburg remained commander-in-chief of the military and retained the power to negotiate foreign treaties.
The Act did not infringe upon the powers of the President, and Hitler would not fully achieve full dictatorial power until after the death of Hindenburg in August 1934.[87] Journalists and diplomats wondered whether Hitler could appoint himself President, who might succeed him as Chancellor, and what the army would do. Hitler combined the two positions, so that all governmental power lay in his hands. All soldiers took the Hitler Oath on the day of Hindenburg's death, swearing "unconditional obedience" to Hitler.[88]
See also[edit]
Early timeline of Nazism
Gleichschaltung
Poison Kitchen
Political views of Adolf Hitler
Weimar paramilitary groups
Weimar political parties
Day of Potsdam
References[edit]
Informational notes
Jump up ^ He could not, at this time, run for political office in Germany, as he was not then a German citizen. Shirer 1960, pp. 130–131.
Jump up ^ Despite his receipt of several medals and decorations (including twice with the prestigious Iron Cross, both First and Second Class), Hitler was promoted in rank only once, to corporal (Gefreiter). Toland 1976, pp. 84–88.
Jump up ^ The Armistice, ceasing active hostilities, was signed and effective 11 November 1918. Hitler, in hospital at the time, was informed of the upcoming cease-fire and the other consequences of Germany's defeat and surrender in the field—including Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication, and a revolution leading to the proclamation of a republic in Berlin to replace the centuries-old Hohenzollern monarchy—on Sunday morning, 10 November, by a pastor attending to patients. Days after digesting this traumatic news, by his own account Hitler made his decision: "... my own fate became known to me ... I ... decided to go into politics." Hitler 1999, p. 206.
Jump up ^ Hitler, having been born in the defunct Austro-Hungarian Empire to Austrian parents, was not a German citizen, but had managed to enlist in a Bavarian regiment, where he served on the front lines as a runner. He was wounded twice in action; at the time of the Armistice, he was recovering in a German hospital (in Pomerania northeast of Berlin) from temporary blindness that had resulted from a mid-October British gas attack at the last Battle of Ypres. Shirer 1960, pp. 28–30; Toland 1976, p. 86.
Jump up ^ Guard duty at a POW camp to the East, near the Austrian border. The prisoners were Russian, and Hitler had volunteered for the posting. Shirer 1960, p. 34; Toland 1976, p. xx.
Jump up ^ Toland suggests that Hitler's assignment to this department was partially a reward for his "exemplary" service in the front lines, and partially because the responsible officer felt sorry for Hitler as having no friends, but being very willing to do whatever the army required. Toland 1976, p. xx.
Jump up ^ Apparently someone in an army "educational session" had made a remark that Hitler deemed "pro-Jewish" and Hitler reacted with characteristic ferocity. Shirer states that Hitler had attracted the attention of a right-wing university professor who was engaged to educate enlisted men in "proper" political belief, and that the professor's recommendation to an officer resulted in Hitler's advancement. Shirer 1960, p. 35.
Jump up ^ "I was offered the opportunity of speaking before a larger audience; and ... it was now corroborated: I could 'speak.' No task could make me happier than this; ... I was able to perform useful services to ... the army. ... [I]n ... my lectures I led many hundreds ... of comrades back to their people and fatherland." Hitler 1999, pp. 215–216.
Jump up ^ Held, like so many meetings of the period, in a beer cellar, this time the Sterneckerbrau. Hitler 1999, p. 218.
Jump up ^ Feder had formed the German Fighting League for the Breaking of Interest Slavery. The notion of "Breaking Interest Slavery" was, by Hitler's account, a "powerful slogan for this coming struggle." Hitler 1999, p. 213.
Jump up ^ According to Shirer, the seemingly preposterous "South German nation" idea actually had some popularity in Munich in the politically raucous atmosphere of Bavaria following the war. Shirer 1960, p. 36.
Jump up ^ The membership numbers were artificially started at 501 because the DAP wanted to make itself look larger than it actually was. The membership numbers were also apparently issued alphabetically, and not chronologically, so one cannot infer that Hitler was in fact the party's 55th member. Toland 1976, p. 131. In a Hitler speech shown in Triumph of the Will, Hitler makes explicit reference to his being the seventh party member and he notes the same in Mein Kampf. Hitler 1999, p. 224.
Jump up ^ The word "Nazi" is a contraction for Nationalsozialistische, but this contraction was not used by the party itself.
Jump up ^ Hess participated in the putsch, but escaped police custody following its abortive end. He initially fled to Austria, but later turned himself in to the authorities. Nesbit & van Acker 2011, pp. 18–19.
Citations
Jump up ^ Shadows of the Dictators 1989, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Shadows of the Dictators 1989, p. 27.
^ Jump up to: a b Shadows of the Dictators 1989, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, p. 34.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 72–74.
^ Jump up to: a b Shirer 1960, p. 35.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Hitler 1999, p. 219.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 75.
Jump up ^ Evans 2003, p. 170.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 75, 76.
Jump up ^ Hitler 1999, p. 224.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 76.
Jump up ^ Toland 1976, p. 106.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 86.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 85, 86.
Jump up ^ Zentner & Bedürftig 1997, p. 629.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 87, 88.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 93.
^ Jump up to: a b Hoffmann 2000, p. 50.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, p. 42.
Jump up ^ Campbell 1998, pp. 19, 20.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 88, 89.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 89.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 100, 101.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 102.
^ Jump up to: a b Kershaw 2008, p. 103.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 83, 103.
Jump up ^ Toland 1976, pp. 112–113.
Jump up ^ Toland 1976, p. 113.
Jump up ^ Lepage 2008, p. 21.
Jump up ^ Zentner & Bedürftig 1997, p. 431.
Jump up ^ Weale 2010, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Weale 2010, pp. 26–29.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 131.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, p. 75.
Jump up ^ Fulda 2009, pp. 68–69.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 239.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kolb 2005, pp. 224–225.
Jump up ^ Nicholls, A. J. (2000) Weimar and the Rise of Hitler. London: Palgrave MacMillan. p.138 ISBN 9780312233518
Jump up ^ Siemens 2013, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Burleigh 2000, pp. 118–119.
Jump up ^ Evans 2003, pp. 266–268.
Jump up ^ Thacker 2010, pp. 111–112.
Jump up ^ Hakim 1995, p. [page needed].
Jump up ^ Fulbrook 1991, p. 55.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 118.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 138.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, pp. 92–94.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, pp. 138–139.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 90.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 110.
^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Bracher 1991, p. 254.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 112.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, pp. 113–114.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, pp. 117–123.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, pp. 117–124.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 128.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, p. 132.
Jump up ^ Hamann 2010, p. 402.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, p. 130.
Jump up ^ Speer, Albert (1995). Inside the Third Reich. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 109. ISBN 9781842127353.
Jump up ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/chap16_part09.asp FRICK'S PARTICIPATION IN PROMOTING THE NAZI CONSPIRATORS' ACCESSION TO POWER.
Jump up ^ Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 28–29.
Jump up ^ "1932: Chronik" [1932: Timeline] (in German). Deutsches Historisches Museum. Retrieved 2012-04-06. 13. 4. Auf Grundlage der von Hindenburg erlassenen Notverordnung "zur Sicherung der Staatsautorität" verbietet Brüning SA und Schutzstaffel (SS). Die Regierung befürchtet einen Putschversuch der rechtsradikalen Organisationen.
Jump up ^ "April 1932: SA and SS banned". Federal Chancellor Willy Brandt Foundation. Retrieved 2012-04-06. Basing his actions on the 'Emergency Decree for the Preservation of State Authority', Reich Defence Minister Wilhelm Groener bans Hitler's Sturmabteilung (SA) as well as his Schutzstaffel (SS) on 13 April 1932.
Jump up ^ Evans 2003, p. 297.
Jump up ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 233, 234.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, p. 184.
Jump up ^ Manvell & Fraenkel 2011, p. 92.
^ Jump up to: a b 2015, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Evans 2005, p. 569.
Jump up ^ Frei 1983.
Jump up ^ Evans 2005, pp. 33–34.
Jump up ^ "Ruhig abwarten!" [Calmly wait!] (in German). Die Zeit Online. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "Ruhig abwarten!" [Calmly wait!] (in German). Die Zeit Online. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ Kershaw, Ian, Making Friends with Hitler: Lord Londonderry and Britain's Road to War, Penguin, 2012, ISBN 9780241959213, 512 p.
Jump up ^ Liebmann, George, Diplomacy Between the Wars: Five Diplomats and the Shaping of the Modern World, I.B.Tauris, 2008, ISBN 9780857712110, 288 p., p. 74.
Jump up ^ Time 1934.
^ Jump up to: a b Bullock 1991, pp. 147–148.
Jump up ^ Hoffmann 1977, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Bullock 1991, pp. 138, 148.
Jump up ^ Evans 2003, p. 354.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 200–201.
Jump up ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 226–227.
Jump up ^ Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 59.
Bibliography
Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1991). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Consequences of National Socialism. Penguin History Series. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-013724-8.
Bullock, Alan (1991) [1962]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. New York; London: Harper Perennial. ISBN 1-56852-036-0.
Burleigh, Michael (2000). The Third Reich: A New History. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-9326-X.
Campbell, Bruce (1998). The SA Generals and The Rise of Nazism. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2047-0.
Encyclopædia Britannica. "Franz von Papen". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
Evans, Richard J. (2003). The Coming of the Third Reich. New York; Toronto: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303469-8.
Evans, Richard J. (2003). The Coming of the Third Reich. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9648-X.
Evans, Richard J. (2005). Das Dritte Reich – Aufstieg [The Coming Of The Third Reich] (in German). Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. ISBN 3-423-34191-2.
Frei, Norbert (1983). "Machtergreifung – Anmerkungen zu einem historischen Begriff]" [Machtergreifung – Notes on a historical term] (PDF). Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (VfZ) (in German) (31): 136–145.
Fulbrook, Mary (1991). The Fontana History of Germany: 1918–1990: The Divided Nation. Fontana Press.
Fulda, Bernhard (2009). Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954778-4.
Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and All That Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
Hamann, Brigitte (2010). Hitler's Vienna: A Portrait of the Tyrant as a Young Man. Tauris Parke. ISBN 978-1848852778.
Hitler, Adolf (1999) [1925]. Mein Kampf. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-92503-4.
Hoffmann, Peter (1977). The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945 (First English ed.). London: McDonald & Jane's.
Hoffmann, Peter (2000). Hitler's Personal Security: Protecting the Führer 1921–1945. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-30680-947-7.
Kershaw, Ian (1999) [1998]. Hitler: 1889–1936: Hubris. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04671-7.
Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-06757-2.
Kolb, Eberhard (2005) [1984]. The Weimar Republic. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34441-8.
Lepage, Jean-Denis G.G. (2008). Hitler Youth, 1922–1945: An Illustrated History. Jefferson, NC; London: McFarland & Co. ISBN 978-0786439355.
Manvell, Roger; Fraenkel, Heinrich (2011) [1962]. Goering: The Rise and Fall of the Notorious Nazi Leader. London: Skyhorse. ISBN 978-1-61608-109-6.
Nesbit, Roy Conyers; van Acker, Georges (2011) [1999]. The Flight of Rudolf Hess: Myths and Reality. Stroud: History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-4757-2.
Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0.
Siemens, Daniel (2013). The Making of a Nazi Hero: The Murder and Myth of Horst Wessel. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0857733139.
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Thacker, Toby (2010) [2009]. Joseph Goebbels: Life and Death. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-27866-0.
Toland, John (1976). Adolf Hitler. New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 0-385-03724-4.
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Zentner, Christian; Bedürftig, Friedemann (1997) [1991]. The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-3068079-3-0.

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Second Intermediate Period of Egypt
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Second Intermediate Period of Egypt
c. 1650 BC – c. 1550 BC
The political situation in the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1650 — c. 1550 BC) Thebes was briefly conquered by the Hyksos c. 1580 BC
Capital
Avaris
(c. 1674 – c. 1535 BC, Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt)
Thebes
(c. 1660 – c. 1600 BC, 16th Dynasty)
Abydos
(c. 1650 – c. 1600 BC, Abydos Dynasty)
Kerma
(c. 2500 – c. 1500 BC, Kingdom of Kerma)
Common languages
Ancient Egyptian
Religion
Ancient Egyptian religion
Government
Monarchy
Pharaoh
• c. 1648 BC
Salitis (first)
• c. 1555 – c. 1550 BC
Kamose (last)
History
• Established
c. 1650 BC
• Disestablished
c. 1550 BC
Preceded by Succeeded by
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
New Kingdom of Egypt
Today part of
Egypt
Part of a series on the
History of Egypt
Prehistoric Egypt pre–3150 BC
Ancient Egypt
Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686 BC
Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC
1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC
Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC
2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC
New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC
3rd Intermediate Period 1069–744 BC
Kushite Egypt 744–656 BC
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 664–525 BC
Classical antiquity
Achaemenid Egypt 525–404 BC
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt 404–398 BC
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt 398–380 BC
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt 380–343 BC
Achaemenid Egypt 343–332 BC
Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt 332–30 BC
Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD
Sasanian Egypt 619–629
Middle Ages
Rashidun Egypt 641–661
Umayyad Egypt 661–750
Abbasid Egypt 750–935
Tulunid Egypt 868–905
Ikhshidid Egypt 935–969
Fatimid Egypt 969–1171
Ayyubid Egypt 1171–1250
Mamluk Egypt 1250–1517
Early modern
Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867
French occupation 1798–1801
Egypt under Muhammad Ali 1805–1882
Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914
Modern Egypt
British occupation 1882–1922
Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922
Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953
Republic 1953–present
Egypt portal
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t
e
Dynasties of Ancient Egypt
All years are BC
Early[show]
First Dynasty I c. 3150–2890
Second Dynasty II 2890–2686
Old Kingdom[show]
Third Dynasty III 2686–2613
Fourth Dynasty IV 2613–2498
Fifth Dynasty V 2498–2345
Sixth Dynasty VI 2345–2181
First Intermediate[show]
Seventh Dynasty VII spurious
Eighth Dynasty VIII 2181–2160
Ninth Dynasty IX 2160–2130
Tenth Dynasty X 2130–2040
Early Eleventh Dynasty XI 2134–2061
Middle Kingdom[show]
Late Eleventh Dynasty XI 2061–1991
Twelfth Dynasty XII 1991–1803
Thirteenth Dynasty XIII 1803–1649
Fourteenth Dynasty XIV 1705–1690
Second Intermediate[show]
Fifteenth Dynasty XV 1674–1535
Sixteenth Dynasty XVI 1660–1600
Abydos Dynasty 1650–1600
Seventeenth Dynasty XVII 1580–1549
New Kingdom[show]
Eighteenth Dynasty XVIII 1549–1292
Nineteenth Dynasty XIX 1292–1189
Twentieth Dynasty XX 1189–1077
Third Intermediate[show]
Twenty-first Dynasty XXI 1069–945
Twenty-second Dynasty XXII 945–720
Twenty-third Dynasty XXIII 837–728
Twenty-fourth Dynasty XXIV 732–720
Twenty-fifth Dynasty XXV 732–653
Late Period[show]
Twenty-sixth Dynasty XXVI 672–525
Twenty-seventh Dynasty
(1st Persian Period)
XXVII 525–404
Twenty-eighth Dynasty XXVIII 404–398
Twenty-ninth Dynasty XXIX 398–380
Thirtieth Dynasty XXX 380–343
Thirty-first Dynasty
(2nd Persian Period)
XXXI 343–332
Ptolemaic (Hellenistic)[show]
Argead Dynasty 332–305
Ptolemaic Kingdom 323–30
See also: List of Pharaohs by Period and Dynasty
v
t
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The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom.
It is best known as the period when the Hyksos people of West Asia made their appearance in Egypt and whose reign comprised the 15th dynasty founded by Salitis.
Contents
1 History
1.1 End of the Middle Kingdom
1.2 Hyksos rule
1.2.1 15th dynasty
1.2.2 16th dynasty
1.2.3 Abydos dynasty
1.2.4 17th dynasty
2 References
3 Bibliography
History[edit]
End of the Middle Kingdom[edit]
Main articles: Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt and Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt
The 12th Dynasty of Egypt came to an end at the end of the 19th century BC with the death of Queen Sobekneferu (1806–1802 BC).[1] Apparently she had no heirs, causing the 12th dynasty to come to a sudden end, and, with it, the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom; it was succeeded by the much weaker 13th Dynasty. Retaining the seat of the 12th dynasty, the 13th dynasty ruled from Itjtawy ("Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands") near Memphis and Lisht, just south of the apex of the Nile Delta.
The 13th dynasty is notable for the accession of the first formally recognised Semitic-speaking king, Khendjer ("Boar"). The 13th Dynasty proved unable to hold on to the entire territory of Egypt, however, and a provincial ruling family of Western Asian descent in Avaris, located in the marshes of the eastern Nile Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the 14th Dynasty.[1]
Hyksos rule[edit]
Main article: Hyksos
15th dynasty[edit]
Main article: Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
The 15th Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BC.[2] Known rulers of the Fifteenth Dynasty are as follows:[2]
Salitis
Sakir-Har
Khyan
Apophis, c. 1590? BC–1550 BC
Khamudi, c. 1550–1540 BC
The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty. It ruled from Avaris but did not control the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the northeast. The names and order of their kings is uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty[3] (line X.21 of the cited web link clearly provides this summary for the dynasty: "6 kings functioning 100+X years"). The surviving traces on the X figure appears to give the figure 8 which suggests that the summation should be read as 6 kings ruling 108 years.
Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi I and Apepi II, but this is primarily due to the fact there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man, Apepi, who ruled Egypt for 40 or more years.[4] This is also supported by the fact that this king employed a third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre.[5] Apepi likely employed several different prenomens throughout various periods of his reign. This scenario is not unprecedented, as later kings, including the famous Ramesses II and Seti II, are known to have used two different prenomens in their own reigns.
16th dynasty[edit]
Main article: Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt
The 16th Dynasty ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt[6] for 70 years.[7]
Of the two chief versions of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, Dynasty XVI is described by the more reliable[8] Africanus (supported by Syncellus)[9] as "shepherd [hyksos] kings", but by Eusebius as Theban.[8]
Ryholt (1997), followed by Bourriau (2003), in reconstructing the Turin canon, interpreted a list of Thebes-based kings to constitute Manetho's Dynasty XVI, although this is one of Ryholt's "most debatable and far-reaching" conclusions.[8] For this reason other scholars do not follow Ryholt and see only insufficient evidence for the interpretation of the 16th Dynasty as Theban.[10]
The continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the short-lived 16th dynasty. The armies of the 15th dynasty, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on the 16th dynasty territory, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. In his study of the second intermediate period, the egyptologist Kim Ryholt has suggested that Dedumose I sued for a truce in the latter years of the dynasty,[7] but one of his predecessors, Nebiryraw I, may have been more successful and seems to have enjoyed a period of peace in his reign.[7]
Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th dynasty and the 14th dynasty, also blighted the 16th dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III.[7]
Thebes (Luxor Temple pictured) was the capital of many of the Dynasty XVI pharaohs.
From Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15 kings of the dynasty can now be named, five of whom appear in contemporary sources.[6] While they were most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab and Edfu.[6] By the reign of Nebiriau I, the realm controlled by the 16th dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu and south to Edfu.[7][11] Not listed in the Turin canon (after Ryholt) is Wepwawetemsaf, who left a stele at Abydos and was likely a local kinglet of the Abydos Dynasty.[6]
Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th dynasty as shown in the table below.[12] Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt. The estimated dates come from Bennett's publication.[13]
Abydos dynasty[edit]
Main article: Abydos Dynasty
The Abydos Dynasty may have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over part of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt and was contemporary with the 15th and 16th Dynasties, approximately from 1650 to 1600 BC.[14] The existence of an Abydos Dynasty was first proposed by Detlef Franke[15] and later elaborated on by Egyptologist Kim Ryholt in 1997. The existence of the dynasty may have been vindicated in January 2014, when the tomb of the previously unknown pharaoh Seneb Kay was discovered in Abydos.[14] The dynasty tentatively includes four rulers: Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny, Snaaib,[16] and Seneb Kay.
The royal necropolis of the Abydos Dynasty was found in the southern part of Abydos, in an area called Anubis Mountain in ancient times. The rulers of the Abydos Dynasty placed their burial ground adjacent to the tombs of the Middle Kingdom rulers.[14]
17th dynasty[edit]
Main article: Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt
Around the time Memphis and Itj-tawy fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence from Itj-tawy, becoming the 17th Dynasty. This dynasty would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The Theban-based 17th Dynasty restored numerous temples throughout Upper Egypt while maintaining peaceful trading relations with the Hyksos kingdom in the north. Indeed, Senakhtenre Ahmose, the first king in the line of Ahmoside kings, even imported white limestone from the Hyksos-controlled region of Tura to make a granary door at the Temple of Karnak. However, his successors — the final two kings of this dynasty — Seqenenre Tao and Kamose are traditionally credited with defeating the Hyksos in the course of the wars of liberation. With the creation of the 18th Dynasty around 1550 BC the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history begins with Ahmose I, its first pharaoh, completing the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and placing the country, once again, under centralised administrative control.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. 1997, p.185
^ Jump up to: a b Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
Jump up ^ Turin Kinglist Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed July 26, 1006
Jump up ^ Kim Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C." by Museum Tuscalanum Press. 1997. p.125
Jump up ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period University College London; scroll down to the 15th dynasty
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bourriau 2003: 191
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ryholt 1997: 305
^ Jump up to: a b c Bourriau 2003: 179
Jump up ^ Cory 1876
Jump up ^ see for example, Quirke, in Maree: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth – Seventeenth Dynasties, Current Research, Future Prospects, Leuven 2011, Paris — Walpole, MA. ISBN 978-9042922280, p. 56, n. 6
Jump up ^ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 256–257
Jump up ^ Kings of the Second Intermediate Period 16th dynasty (after Ryholt 1997)
Jump up ^ Chris Bennet, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123–155
^ Jump up to: a b c "Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh". Penn Museum. January 2014. Retrieved 16 Jan 2014.
Jump up ^ Detlef Franke: Zur Chronologie des Mittleren Reiches. Teil II: Die sogenannte Zweite Zwischenzeit Altägyptens, In Orientalia 57 (1988), p. 259
Jump up ^ Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 8772894210.
Bibliography[edit]
Von Beckerath, Jürgen. "Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten," Ägyptologische Forschungen, Heft 23. Glückstadt, 1965.
Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford, 1964, 1961.
Hayes, William C. "Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II." Chapter 2, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965.
James, T.G.H. "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I." Chapter 8, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965.
Kitchen, Kenneth A., "Further Notes on New Kingdom Chronology and History," Chronique d'Egypte, 63 (1968), pp. 313–324.
Oren, Eliezer D. The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives Philadelphia, 1997.
Ryholt, Kim. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0
Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation. New Haven, 1966.
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
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values: Други прелазни период – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
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values: Drugi prijelazni period Egipta – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
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values: Ikalawang Pagitang Panahon ng Ehipto – Tagalog

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
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values: Другий перехідний період (Стародавній Єгипет) – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
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values: Thời kỳ Chuyển tiếp thứ Hai của Ai Cập – Vietnamese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
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values: 第二中间时期 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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