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Halloween costume
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Children dressed as Batman and Robin, 1966
Halloween costumes are costumes worn on or around Halloween, a festival which falls on October 31. An early reference to wearing costumes at Halloween comes from Scotland in 1585, but they may pre-date this. There are many references to the custom during the 18th and 19th centuries in the Celtic countries of Scotland, Ireland, Mann and Wales. It has been suggested that the custom comes from the Celtic festivals of Samhain and Calan Gaeaf, or from the practise of "souling" during the Christian observance of Allhallowtide. Wearing costumes and mumming has long been associated with festivals at other times of the year, such as on Christmas.[1] Halloween costumes are traditionally based on frightening supernatural or folkloric beings. However, by the 1930s costumes based on characters in mass media such as film, literature, and radio were popular. Halloween costumes have tended to be worn mainly by young people, but since the mid-20th century they have been increasingly worn by adults also.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of Halloween costumes
2 Economics of Halloween costumes
3 Politics of Halloween costumes
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 Further reading
8 External links
History of Halloween costumes[edit]
An early 20th-century Irish Halloween mask (a "rhymer" or a "vizor") displayed at the Museum of Country Life.
The wearing of costumes at Halloween may come from the belief that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this time.
The practice may have originated in a Celtic festival, held on 31 October–1 November, to mark the beginning of winter. It was called Samhain in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, and Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. The festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots. After the Christianization of Ireland in the 5th century, some of these customs may have been retained in the Christian observance of All Hallows' Eve in that region—which continued to be called Samhain/Calan Gaeaf—blending the traditions of their ancestors with Christian ones.[2][3] It was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, could more easily come into our world.[4] It was believed that the Aos Sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter.
From at least the 16th century,[5] the festival included mumming and guising,[6] which involved people going house-to-house in costume (or in disguise), usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food.[6] It may have originally been a tradition whereby people impersonated the Aos Sí, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf. Impersonating these beings, or wearing a disguise, was also believed to protect oneself from them.[7] It is suggested that the mummers and guisers "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".[8] F. Marian McNeill suggests the ancient pagan festival included people wearing masks or costumes to represent the spirits, and that faces were marked (or blackened) with ashes taken from the sacred bonfire.[5] In parts of southern Ireland, a man dressed as a Láir Bhán (white mare) led youths house-to-house reciting verses—some of which had pagan overtones—in exchange for food. If the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune.[9] In 19th century Scotland, youths went house-to-house with masked, painted or blackened faces, often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.[6] In parts of Wales, men went about dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod,[6] while in some places, young people cross-dressed.[6] Elsewhere in Europe, mumming and costumes were part of other yearly festivals. However, in the Celtic-speaking regions they were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human wanderers".[6]
The medieval Danse Macabre depicted on a stained glass window in St. Mary's Church, Lübeck
It has also been suggested that the wearing of Halloween costumes developed from the custom of souling, which was practised by Christians in parts of Western Europe from at least the 15th century.[10][11] At Allhallowtide, groups of poor people would go door-to-door, collecting soul cakes – either as representatives of the dead,[12] or in return for saying prayers for them.[13] One 19th century English writer said it "used to consist of parties of children, dressed up in fantastic costume, who went round to the farm houses and cottages, signing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as "Soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give them".[14] The soulers typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls for a soul cake".[15] The practice was mentioned by Shakespeare his play The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593).[16][17] Christian minister Prince Sorie Conteh wrote on the wearing of costumes: "It was traditionally believed that the souls of the departed wandered the earth until All Saints' Day, and All Hallows' Eve provided one last chance for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before moving to the next world. In order to avoid being recognised by any soul that might be seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or costumes to disguise their identities".[18] In the Middle Ages, statues and relics of martyred saints were paraded through the streets at Allhallowtide. Some churches who could not afford these things had people dress as saints instead.[19][20] Some believers continue the practice of dressing as saints, biblical figures, and reformers in Halloween celebrations today.[21] Many Christians in continental Europe, especially in France, believed that on Halloween "the dead of the churchyards rose for one wild, hideous carnival," known as the danse macabre, which has often been depicted in church decoration.[22] An article published by Christianity Today claimed the danse macabre was enacted at village pageants and at court masques, with people "dressing up as corpses from various strata of society", and suggested this was the origin of Halloween costume parties.[23][24]
The custom of guising at Halloween in North America is first recorded in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario reported children going "guising" around the neighborhood.[25] In 19th century America, Halloween was often celebrated with costume parades and "licentious revelries".[26] However, efforts were made to "domesticate" the festival to conform with Victorian era morality. Halloween was made into a private rather than public holiday, celebrations involving liquor and sensuality de-emphasized, and only children were expected to celebrate the festival.[27] Early Halloween costumes emphasized the gothic nature of Halloween, and were aimed primarily at children. Costumes were also made at home, or using items (such as make-up) which could be purchased and utilized to create a costume. But in the 1930s, A.S. Fishbach, Ben Cooper, Inc., and other firms began mass-producing Halloween costumes for sale in stores as trick-or-treating became popular in North America. Halloween costumes are often designed to imitate supernatural and scary beings. Costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as vampires, werewolves, zombies, ghosts,[28] skeletons, witches, goblins, trolls, devils, etc. or in more recent years such science fiction-inspired characters as aliens and superheroes. There are also costumes of pop culture figures like presidents, athletes, celebrities, or characters in film, television, literature, etc. Another popular trend is for women (and in some cases, men) to use Halloween as an excuse to wear sexy or revealing costumes, showing off more skin than would be socially acceptable otherwise.[29] Young girls also often dress as entirely non-scary characters at Halloween, including princesses, fairies, angels, cute animals and flowers. The Masks are also a mandatory part of the Halloween Costumes. They can be either DIY or may also be purchased from the Halloween Stores.[30]
There have been controversial costumes over the years. One that sparked enormous controversy well before Halloween 2015 is a "Caitlyn Jenner" corset costume. Despite public outcry claiming that the costume is offensive, popular retailers plan to go full steam ahead with selling the costume; one defending their conviction to sell the costume as a celebration of Jenner.[31]
Halloween costume parties generally take place on or around October 31, often on the Friday or Saturday prior to the holiday.
College students dressed up for Halloween.
Economics of Halloween costumes[edit]
[32] Researchers conducted a survey for the National Retail Federation in the United States and found that 53.3 percent of consumers planned to buy a costume for Halloween 2005, spending $38.11 on average (up $10 from the year before). They were also expected to spend $4.96 billion in 2006, up significantly from just $3.3 billion the previous year.[33] The troubled economy has caused many Americans to cut back on Halloween spending. In 2009, the National Retail Federation anticipated that American households would decrease Halloween spending by as much as 15% to $56.31.[34] In 2013, Americans spent an estimated $6.9 billion to celebrate Halloween, including a predicted $2.6 billion on costumes (with more spent on adult costumes than for children's costumes) and $330 million on pet costumes.[35][36]
Politics of Halloween costumes[edit]
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Halloween costumes in the contemporary Western world sometimes depict people and things from present times and are sometimes read in terms of their political and cultural significance. Halloween costumes are sometimes denounced for cultural appropriation when they uncritically use stereotypical representations of other groups of people.[37][38] Immigration and Customs Enforcement Secretary Julie Myers was involved in a scandal when she awarded "Best Costume" at the ICE Halloween party to an 'escaped Jamaican prisoner' dressed in dreadlocks and blackface.[39]
See also[edit]
Ben Cooper, Inc.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Halloween," 2008, p. 63-64.
Jump up ^ Santino, Jack. The Hallowed Eve: Dimensions of Culture in a Calendar Festival of Northern Ireland. University Press of Kentucky, p.95
Jump up ^ Hutton, p.379
Jump up ^ Monaghan, Patricia. The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing, 2004. p.41
^ Jump up to: a b McNeill, F. Marian. Hallowe'en: its origin, rites and ceremonies in the Scottish tradition. Albyn Press, 1970. pp.29–31
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Hutton, pp.380-382
Jump up ^ Hole, Christina. British Folk Customs. Hutchinson, 1976. p.91
Jump up ^ Peddle, S. V. (2007). Pagan Channel Islands: Europe's Hidden Heritage. p.54
Jump up ^ Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, Volume 2. 1855. pp.308-309
Jump up ^ Jackson, Jeanne L. (1 January 1995). Red Letter Days: The Christian Year in Story for Primary Assembly. Nelson Thornes. p. 158. ISBN 9780748719341. Later, it became the custom for poorer Christians to offer prayers for the dead, in return for money or food (soul cakes) from their wealthier neighbours. People would go 'souling' - rather like carol singing - requesting alms or soul cakes: 'A soul, a soul, a soul cake, Please to give us a soul cake, One for Peter, two for Paul, have mercy on us Christians all.'
Jump up ^ Rogers, 2002, p. 24-26.
Jump up ^ Cleene, Marcel. Compendium of Symbolic and Ritual Plants in Europe. Man & Culture, 2002. p.108. Quote: "Soul cakes were small cakes baked as food for the deceased or offered for the salvation of their souls. They were therefore offered at funerals and feasts of the dead, laid on graves, or given to the poor as representatives of the dead. The baking of these soul cakes is a universal practice".
Jump up ^ Rogers, Nicholas (2001). Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN 0-19-514691-3.
Jump up ^ Publications, Volume 16 (English Dialect Society), Harvard University Press, page 507
Jump up ^ Santino, Jack (1994). Halloween and Other Festivals of Death and Life. University of Tennessee Press. p. 84. ISBN 9780870498138. Retrieved 28 October 2015. The begging ritual, taken up by nonindigents and by children, involved the recitation of a souling rhyme, which typically requested "mercy on all Christian souls for a soul cake."
Jump up ^ Hutton, pp.374-375
Jump up ^ The Two Gentlemen of Verona Act 2, Scene 1.
Jump up ^ Prince Sorie Conteh (2009). Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Africa: Interreligious Encounters and Dialogue. Cambria Press. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Youth Spirit 2 (Cheryl Perry), Wood Lake Publishing Inc., page 20
Jump up ^ The Power of Halloween (Diana Millay), page 47
Jump up ^ "Eve of All Saints", Using Common Worship: Times and Seasons - All Saints to Candlemas (David Kennedy), Church House Publishing, page 42
Jump up ^ Descriptive Analyses of Piano Works (Edward Baxter Perry), Theodore Presser Company, page 276
Jump up ^ Books & Culture. Christianity Today. 1999. p. 12. Sometimes enacted as at village pageants, the danse macabre was also performed as court masques, the courtiers dressing up as corpses from various strata of society...both the name and the observance began liturgically as All Hallows' Eve.
Jump up ^ Hörandner, Editha (2005). Halloween in der Steiermark und anderswo. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 99. ISBN 9783825888893. On the other hand the postmodern phenomenon of "antifashion" is also to be found in some Halloween costumes. Black and orange are a 'must' with many costumes. Halloween - like the medieval danse macabre - is closely connected with superstitions and it might be a way of dealing with death in a playful way.
Jump up ^ Rogers, p.76.
Jump up ^ Lherm, 2001, p. 194.
Jump up ^ Lherm, 2001, p. 194-195, 204.
Jump up ^ Rook, Dennis W. (Dec 1985). "The Ritual Dimension of Consumer Behavior". Journal of Consumer Research (Univ. of Chicago Press) 12 (3): 251–264. Accessed November 14, 2010.
Jump up ^ Rosenbloom, Stephanie (October 19, 2006). "Good Girls Go Bad, for a Day". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ http://whatdayishalloween.com/top-10-scariest-halloween-masks/
Jump up ^ https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/2015/08/26/fuss-over-caitlyn-costume-spurs-early-sales/32429343/
Jump up ^ Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 14, 2010.
Jump up ^ Grannis, Kathy; Scott Krugman (September 20, 2006). "As Halloween Shifts to Seasonal Celebration, Retailers Not Spooked by Surge in Spending". National Retail Federation. Archived from the original on 2006-12-27. Retrieved 31 October 2006.
Jump up ^ "Halloween - Retail Horror Story?". Orlando Sentinel. October 29, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Halloween Is a $6.9 Billion Unstoppable American Cultural Juggernaut". Businesswekk. October 14, 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "NewsOne Minute: Study Finds Barely Anyone Buys Father’s Day Presents". Newsone. Jun 6, 2014. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Kjerstin Johnson, "Don't Mess Up When You Dress Up: Cultural Appropriation and Costumes", Bitch magazine, 25 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Wade, Lisa (11 October 2012). "Race-Themed Events at Colleges (Trigger Warning)". Sociological Images. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Lipton, Eric (April 9, 2008). "Official Had Controversial Photos Deleted, Report Says". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-09. "The staff member who won the “most original costume” prize wore a dreadlock wig, what looked like a prison jumpsuit and black face paint. “I’m a Jamaican detainee from Krome — obviously, I’ve escaped,” the employee, referring to a detention center in Miami, announced to the judges..."
Bibliography[edit]
Addis, M.E. Leicester. "Allhallowtide." Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly. 40:5 (November 1895).
Dunwich, Gerina. A Witch's Halloween. Avon, Mass.: Adams Media, 2007.
Denny, Dann. "Adults go for sexy or funny looks on Halloween." Herald-Times, (Bloomington, IN) 28 Oct. 2010: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 9 Feb. 2013.
Dowling, Melissa. "Sexy Sells Halloween Costumes." Multichannel Merchant 6.10 (2010): 56. Business Source Complete. Web. 9 Feb. 2013.
"Halloween." In Encyclopedia of the End: Mysterious Death in Fact, Fancy, Folklore, and More. Deborah Noyes, ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2008.
Levinson, Stacey, Stacey Mack, Dan Reinhardt, and Helen Suarez, Grace Yeh (1992)
"Halloween As a Consumption Experience", in NA - Advances in Consumer Research, Volume 19, eds. John F. Sherry, Jr. and Brian Sternthal, Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 219-228.
Lherm, Adrien. "Halloween — A 'Reinvented' Holiday." In Celebrating Ethnicity and Nation: American Festive Culture From the Revolution to the Early Twentieth Century. Geneviève Fabre, ed. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001.
Nelson, Adie. "The Pink Dragon Is Female." Psychology Of Women Quarterly 24.2 (2000): 137. Academic Search Complete. Web. 9 Feb. 2013.
Northrup, Lesley A. Women and Religious Ritual. Washington, D.C.: Pastoral Press, 1993.
Ogletree, Shirley Matile, and Larry Denton. "Age And Gender Differences In Children's
Halloween Costumes." Journal of Psychology 127.6 (1993): 633. Business Source Complete. Web. 9 Feb. 2013.
Rogers, Nicholas. Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Seltzer, Sarah. "Embracing Our Inner Monsters." The New York Times [New York] 28 Oct. 2012: n. pag. Print.
Further reading[edit]
Galembo, Phyllis. Dressed for Thrills: 100 Years of Halloween Costumes and Masquerade. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Halloween costumes.
Santino, Jack. "The Fantasy and Folklore of All Hallows", The American Folklife Center, 2009
[hide]
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Halloween
Main topics
History
Samhain • Allhallowtide
Symbols
Activities
Trick-or-treating
Geography
Christian observances
Traditions
Abstinence from meat
Apple bobbing
Cards
Costumes
Food
Ghost tours
Jack-o'-lantern
Lighting candles on graves
Prayer for the dead
Soul cake
Events
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Great Pumpkin
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events
Festival of the Dead
Bon Festival
Chuseok
Día de Muertos
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Pitri Paksha
Qingming Festival
Totensonntag
Zhōng yuán jié
Veneration of the dead
Death anniversary
Death customs
Kaddish
Yizkor
Other events
Allantide
Beggars Night
Devil's Night
Eid il-Burbara
Hop-tu-Naa
Korochun
Krampus
Mischief Night
Namahage
Old Halloween
Saci day
Superstition
Walpurgis Night
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text:
Gastrocnemius muscle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Gastrocnemius muscle
Details
Origin
superior to articular surfaces of lateral condyle of femur and medial condyle of femur
Insertion
tendo calcaneus (achilles tendon) into mid-posterior calcaneus
Artery
sural arteries
Nerve
tibial nerve from the sciatic, specifically, nerve roots S1–S2
Actions
plantar flexes foot, flexes knee
Antagonist
Tibialis anterior muscle
Identifiers
TA
A04.7.02.044
FMA
22541
Anatomical terms of muscle
[edit on Wikidata]
In humans, the gastrocnemius muscle (/ˌɡæstrɒkˈniːmiəs/ or /ˌɡæstrəkˈniːmiəs/; plural gastrocnemii; Latin, from Greek γαστήρ "stomach" and κνήμη (knḗmē) "leg"; meaning "stomach of leg" (referring to the bulging shape of the calf) is a very powerful superficial bipennate muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg. It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel, a two joint muscle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Variation
2 Function
3 Motor pathway
4 Clinical significance
5 History
6 Additional images
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
The gastrocnemius is located with the soleus in the posterior (back) compartment of the leg. The lateral head originates from the lateral condyle of the femur, while the medial head originates from the medial condyle of the femur. Its other end forms a common tendon with the soleus muscle; this tendon is known as the calcaneal tendon or Achilles Tendon and inserts onto the posterior surface of the calcaneus, or heel bone.
Deep to the gastrocnemius (farther from the skin) is the soleus muscle. Some anatomists consider both to be a single muscle, the triceps surae or "three-headed [muscle] of the calf", since they share a common insertion via the Achilles tendon. The plantaris muscle and a portion of its tendon run between the two muscles, which is involved in "locking" the knee from the standing position. Since the anterior compartment of the leg is lateral to the tibia, the bulge of muscle medial to the tibia on the anterior side is actually the posterior compartment. The soleus is superficial to the mid-shaft of the tibia.
Variation[edit]
10% to 30% of individuals have a sesamoid bone called the "fabella" in the lateral (outer) head of gastrocnemius muscle.
Function[edit]
Along with the soleus muscle, the gastrocnemius forms half of the calf muscle. Its function is plantar flexing the foot at the ankle joint and flexing the leg at the knee joint.
The gastrocnemius is primarily involved in running, jumping and other "fast" movements of leg, and to a lesser degree in walking and standing. This specialization is connected to the predominance of white muscle fibers (type II fast twitch) present in the gastrocnemius, as opposed to the soleus, which has more red muscle fibers (type I slow twitch) and is the primary active muscle when standing still, as determined by EMG studies.[1][2]
Motor pathway[edit]
The plan to use the gastrocnemius in running, jumping, knee and plantar flexing is created in the precentral gyrus in the cerebrum of the brain.[3] Once a plan is produced, the signal is sent to and down an upper motor neuron. The signal is passed through the internal capsule and decussates, or crosses, in the medulla oblongata, specifically in the lateral corticospinal tract.[4] The signal continues down through the anterior horn of the spinal cord where the upper motor neuron synapses with the lower motor neuron. Signal propagation continues down the anterior rami (Lumbar 4-5 and Sacral 1-5) of the sacral plexus. The sciatic nerve branches off of the sacral plexus in which the tibial and common fibular nerves are wrapped in one sheath. The tibial nerve eventually separates from the sciatic nerve and innervates the gastrocnemius muscle. Thus, completing the plan the brain had originally started with, so that the actions of running, standing, and jumping could be executed.
Clinical significance[edit]
The gastrocnemius muscle is prone to spasms, which are painful, involuntary contractions of the muscle that may last several minutes.[5]
A severe ankle dorsiflexion force may result in an injury of the muscle, commonly referred to as a "torn" or "strained" calf muscle, which is acutely painful and disabling.
Ultrasound of medial gastrocnemius strain
The gastrocnemius muscle may also become inflamed due to overuse. Anti-inflammatory medications and physical therapy (heat, massage, and stretching) may be useful.
Anatomical abnormalities involving the medial head of gastrocnemius muscle result in popliteal artery entrapment syndrome.
History[edit]
In a 1967 EMG study, Herman and Bragin concluded that its most important role was plantar flexing in large contractions and in rapid development of tension.[2]
Additional images[edit]
Nerves, arteries and veins surrounding the gastrocnemius and soleus.
Muscle layer under the gastrocnemius
Cross section of the lower leg
Right femur. Posterior surface.
Back of left lower extremity.
Gastrocnemius muscle
Gastrocnemius muscle
Lateral aspect of right leg.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clinically Oriented Anatomy. pp. 598–600. ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Hamilton, Nancy; Luttgens, Kathryn (2001). Kinesiology: Scientific Basis of Human Motion (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-248910-1.
Jump up ^ Freberg, Laura (2015-01-01). Discovering Behavioral Neuroscience: An Introduction to Biological Psychology. Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781305687738.
Jump up ^ Saladin, Kenneth (2015). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. McGraw-Hill Education.
Jump up ^ "Nighttime Leg Cramps". WebMD. August 19, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastrocnemius muscle.
Anatomy photo:14:st-0405 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center
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