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Bank of America Tower (Manhattan)
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Bank of America Tower
The Bank of America Tower, with its spire, as viewed from the New York Public Library Main Branch at Fifth Avenue
Location within Manhattan
Bank of America Tower (Manhattan) (New York City)
Bank of America Tower (Manhattan) (New York)
Bank of America Tower (Manhattan) (the US)
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Alternative names
One Bryant Park
General information
Type
Commercial
offices
Location
Avenue of the Americas & 42nd Street
Manhattan, New York 10036
Coordinates
40°45′19″N 73°59′03″W / 40.755278°N 73.984167°W / 40.755278; -73.984167Coordinates: 40°45′19″N 73°59′03″W / 40.755278°N 73.984167°W / 40.755278; -73.984167
Construction started
2004
Completed
2009
Cost
US$1 billion
Height
Architectural
365.8 m (1,200 ft)[1]
Roof
287.9 m (945 ft)
Top floor
234.5 m (769 ft)[1]
Technical details
Floor count
55[1] (+3 basement floors) (7 mechanical)
Floor area
2,099,985 sq ft (195,095.0 m2)
Lifts/elevators
52[1]
Design and construction
Architect
COOKFOX Architects[1]
Adamson Associates Architects
Developer
Durst Organization[1]
Structural engineer
Severud Associates
Main contractor
Tishman Construction Corporation[1]
References
[1][2][3][4][5]
The Bank of America Tower (BOAT) at One Bryant Park is a 1,200 ft (365.8 m) skyscraper in the Midtown area of Manhattan in New York City. It is located on Avenue of the Americas, between 42nd and 43rd Streets, opposite Bryant Park.
The US$1 billion project was designed by COOKFOX Architects, and advertised to be one of the most efficient and ecologically friendly buildings in the world. It is the fifth tallest building in New York City, after One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue, 30 Hudson Yards, and the Empire State Building, and the seventh tallest building in the United States. Construction was completed in 2009.[6]
The building's Urban Garden Room at 43rd Street and 6th Avenue is open to the public.
Contents
1 Details
1.1 Environmental features
1.2 Height
2 Recognition
3 Construction incidents
4 In popular culture
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Details[edit]
The tower from street level
Construction in October 2007
The tower's architectural spire is 255.5 ft (77.9 m) tall and was placed on December 15, 2007. The building is 55 stories high and contains 2,100,000 square feet (195,096 m2) of office space, three escalators and a total of 52 elevators--50 to serve the offices and two leading to the New York City Subway's mezzanine below ground, for the 42nd Street – Bryant Park / Fifth Avenue station.[7]
Several buildings were demolished to make way for the tower. Among them was the Hotel Diplomat, a 13-story structure which had occupied the site at 108 West 43rd Street since 1911,[8] and Henry Miller's Theatre, which was rebuilt and reopened at its previous location. The building's tenants include Bank of America as the anchor tenant and Marathon Asset Management, and the tower's platinum LEED rating and modern column-free office space has enticed tenants from all over the city. The Bank of America Tower is considered a worldwide model for green architecture in skyscrapers.[9]
Environmental features[edit]
Construction progress, 2005
Street level, January 2014
The design of the building makes it environmentally friendly, using technologies such as floor-to-ceiling insulated glazing to contain heat and maximize natural light, and an automatic daylight dimming system. The tower also features a greywater system, which captures rainwater for reuse. Bank of America states that the building is made largely of recycled and recyclable materials.[10] Air entering the building is filtered, as is common, but the air exhausted is cleaned as well.[11] Bank of America Tower is the first skyscraper designed to attain a Platinum LEED Certification.[10]
The Bank of America Tower is constructed using a concrete manufactured with slag, a byproduct of blast furnaces. The mixture used in the tower concrete is 55% cement and 45% slag. The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment by decreasing the amount of cement needed for the building, which in turn lowers the amount of carbon dioxide greenhouse gas produced through the normal cement manufacturing process. Each ton of regular cement produced creates about one ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[12]
Temperature control and the production of some of its energy are accomplished in an environmentally friendly manner for the tower. Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency. Carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building. Conditioned air for the occupants is provided by multiple air column units located in the tenant space that deliver 50 °F air into a raised access floor plenum. This underfloor air system provides users with the ability to control their own space temperature as well as improving the ventilation effectiveness. When building churn occurs, workstation moves can be performed more easily with lower cost and less product waste. The cooling system produces and stores ice during off-peak hours, and allows the ice to melt to help cool the building during peak load, similar to the ice batteries in the 1995 Hotel New Otani Tokyo in Japan.[13] Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.[14]
Water conservation features in the tower include waterless urinals, which are estimated to save 8,000,000 US gal (30,000,000 l) of water per year and reduce CO2 emissions by 144,000 lb (65,000 kg) per year (as calculated with the Pacific Institute water-to-air model).[15] The tower has a 4.6-megawatt cogeneration plant, which provides part of the base-load energy requirements.
Time magazine reported in August 2013 that the Bank of America Tower used twice as much energy overall as the Empire State Building, due to the large energy usage in the Bank of America Tower and the comparatively small occupancy rate of the Empire State Building.[16]
In summer 2013, the Durst Organization employed Brooklyn Grange Rooftop Farm to install and maintain two honeybee hives on the building.[17]
Height[edit]
Height comparison to Bank of America Tower (center)
Building
Name
Architectural
Height
Roof
Height
One World Trade Center 1,776 ft (541 m) 1,368 ft (417 m)
432 Park Avenue 1,396 ft (426 m) 1,396 ft (426 m)
Empire State Building 1,472 ft (449 m) 1,250 ft (380 m)
Bank of America Tower 1,200 ft (370 m) 953.5 ft (290.6 m)
Chrysler Building 1,046 ft (319 m) 925 ft (282 m)
New York Times Building 1,046 ft (319 m) 748 ft (228 m)
With the architectural spire[18] included, the structural height of the Bank of America Tower is 1,200 ft (370 m), making it the fifth tallest building in New York City (after One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue, 30 Hudson Yards, and the Empire State Building). A formal ruling by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat confirmed this.[19]
Recognition[edit]
Detail of spire during the day
Detail of spire during the night
In June 2008, the New York Academy of Sciences launched a podcast that highlights these green features.[20]
In October 2009, the building was featured on episode 100 of the National Geographic Channel television series MegaStructures.[21]
In June 2010, the Bank of America Tower was the recipient of the 2010 Best Tall Building Americas award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.[22]
Construction incidents[edit]
Materials fell from the building on three occasions:
October 17, 2007: A construction container fell from a crane around 1 p.m., causing damage to the tower and injuring eight people on the sidewalk.[23] The container broke windows on several floors of the building, spraying debris that rained down on the streets below. Eight people suffered cuts and bruises. The Buildings Department temporarily stopped construction at the site.
August 12, 2008: A 1,500-pound (680 kg) glass panel fell onto a sidewalk. Two people suffered minor injuries.[24]
September 17, 2008: A debris container fell, shattered a panel of glass facade, and caused several pieces of glass to fall from the 50th floor to the sidewalk and street (West 42nd and Avenue of the Americas) at around 3:00 pm (EDT). No one was injured.[25]
In popular culture[edit]
The Bank of America Tower appears in HBO's The Newsroom as the headquarters of Atlantis World Media, with CGI being used to change the name of the building above the entrance.
In the Daredevil episode "World on Fire", Foggy Nelson and Karen Page have a meeting with Foggy's ex-girlfriend Marci Stahl in the Bank of America Tower's lobby, representing the offices of Landman & Zack.
In Jessica Jones, the offices of Hogarth Chao & Benowitz are located in the Bank of America Tower.
In Younger, the offices of Empirical Publishing are located in the Bank of America Tower.
See also[edit]
Buildings and architecture of New York City
List of tallest buildings in New York City
Tallest buildings in the United States
New York City portal
Architecture portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Bank of America Tower - The Skyscraper Center". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.
Jump up ^ Bank of America Tower (Manhattan) at Emporis
Jump up ^ Bank of America Tower (Manhattan) at Glass Steel and Stone
Jump up ^ "Bank of America Tower". SkyscraperPage.
Jump up ^ Bank of America Tower (Manhattan) at Structurae
Jump up ^ C.J. Hughes (5 November 2008). "New Skyscraper Stars in National Geographic Show". Architectural Record. archrecord.construction.com. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-27.
Jump up ^ "One Bryant Park". Van Deusen & Associates. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ Dunlap, David W. (7 November 1993). "An Aging Midtown Hotel That Will Not Go Gently". The New York Times. NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
Jump up ^ McDonnell, Tim (16 September 2015). "There's been a boom in energy-efficient skyscraper construction". Grist.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bank of America and The Durst Organization Break Ground On the Bank of America Tower at One Bryant Park in New York City" (Press release). Bank of America Corporation. 2 August 2004. Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ Cook, Richard A.; Hartley, Alice (6 June 2005). ""What is Free?": How Sustainable Architecture Act and Interacts Differently" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ "EF Technology". U.S. Concrete, Inc. Archived from the original on 5 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
Jump up ^ "Ice-cooling System Reduces Environmental Burden". The New Otani News. New Otani Co., Ltd. 28 June 2000. Archived from the original on 7 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
Jump up ^ Foley, Gearoid; DeVault, Robert; Sweetser, Richard. "The Future of Absorption Technology in America" (PDF). U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-08.
Jump up ^ Pacific Institute. "Water to Air Models". Retrieved 2008-06-13.
Jump up ^ Walsh, Bryan (2013-08-14). "The Surprisingly Large Energy Footprint of the Digital Economy [UPDATE]". TIME.com. Retrieved 2015-09-18.
Jump up ^ Satow, Julie (6 August 2013). "Worker Bees on a Rooftop, Ignoring Urban Pleasures". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Photo of Bank of America Tower: Elevations". Emporis. Cook + Fox Architects, LLP. 4 September 2005. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ "100 tallest completed buildings in the world". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. 2011-02-03. Retrieved 2012-05-01.
Jump up ^ "Green Buildings Solutions: What's Working? Post Occupancy Evaluation". New York Academy of Sciences. 15 April 2010. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ See MegaStructures
Jump up ^ "CTBUH 9th Annual Awards, 2010". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Crane's Bucket Falls 53 Stories In Midtown". WNBC. 2007-10-17. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ Hauser, Christine (12 August 2008). "At a Midtown Intersection, Another Sheet of Glass Falls". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Glass Falls 50 Floors From Midtown Building". NY1. 17 September 2008. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Further reading[edit]
Dirk Stichweh: New York Skyscrapers. Prestel Publishing, Munich, 2009, ISBN 3-7913-4054-9
The Bank of America - Megastructure at One Bryant Park
National Geographic Channel - "Man-Made: Ultimate Skyscraper" (Television Episode)
Curbed NY topic
The Site Selection report on the tower
Bank of America press release on the tower
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bank of America Tower (Manhattan).
Bank of America Tower on CTBUH
Bank of America Tower on the Durst Organization website
Bank of America Tower on Skyscraper Center
Wirednewyork.com site photos
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Buck Taylor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Buck Taylor
Taylor at the 2011 Dallas International Film Festival
Born
Walter Clarence Taylor, III
(1938-05-13) May 13, 1938 (age 79)
Hollywood, Los Angeles
California, U.S.
Residence
Near Fort Worth, Texas
Occupation
Actor, artist
Years active
1961–present
Spouse(s)
Judy Ann Nugent (m. 1961; div. 1983)
Goldie Ann Taylor (m. 1995)
Children
3 (1 deceased)
Website
http://www.bucktaylor.com/
Walter Clarence Taylor, III, known as Buck Taylor (born May 13, 1938), is an American actor best known for his role as gunsmith-turned-deputy Newly O'Brien in 174 episodes during the last eight seasons of CBS's Gunsmoke television series (1967–1975). In recent years, he has painted the portrait of his friend and Gunsmoke series' star James Arness.[1] Taylor's painting specialty is the American West, and each year, he creates the posters for several Texas rodeos. Taylor lives with his second wife on a ranch near Fort Worth, Texas.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early years, education, military
2 Acting career
2.1 Television and film roles
2.2 Newly O'Brien on Gunsmoke
2.3 Acting after Gunsmoke
3 Artistic pursuits
4 Personal life
5 References
6 External links
Early years, education, military[edit]
Taylor was born in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, to Mr. and Mrs. Walter Taylor, Jr. He has an older sister, Faydean Taylor Tharp (born circa 1931) of the Greater Los Angeles Area. His father was the character actor Dub Taylor, sometimes known as "Cannonball" Taylor, and a native of Richmond, Virginia. Buck Taylor was born in the same year his father got his first acting role in the film You Can't Take It with You. Dub Taylor, one of cinema's most prolific supporting actors, appeared with dozens of leading actors, including John Wayne and the musicians Tex Ritter and Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys. Buck grew up on the various Hollywood sets, and was close to his father's Texas friend, the Western actor Chill Wills.[3]
Taylor graduated from North Hollywood High School and studied theatre arts at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. In 1960, he tried out for the Olympic Games in gymnastics. He served two years in the United States Navy.[2]
Acting career[edit]
Television and film roles[edit]
Taylor's first acting role was as Trooper Shattuck in the 1961 episode "Image of a Drawn Sword" on CBS's Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theater. He appeared on the sitcoms The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet and My Favorite Martian. He was cast twice in the 1963-1964 ABC series The Greatest Show on Earth. He portrayed Mickey Vecchione in the 1963 episode "My Son the Social Worker" on Going My Way. He appeared in 1960's series Combat! episode "The First Day".
Taylor co-starred in the 1963 Walt Disney production, Johnny Shiloh, the first of more than fifty films. He was then cast in an uncredited role in Ensign Pulver (1964) and in The Wild Angels (1966), as a motorcycle gang member. He guest starred on Have Gun - Will Travel, The Rebel, and three times on Stoney Burke. He was cast on The Fugitive, and The Legend of Jesse James. He appeared as well on The Virginian and The Big Valley.
He also appeared as frustrated newlywed Gard Hayden in The Outer Limits in the 1964 episode titled "Don't Open Till Doomsday".
Newly O'Brien on Gunsmoke[edit]
Taylor's long-term role on Gunsmoke was not his first role in a weekly series. In the preceding 1966–1967 season, he starred in 10 episodes as John "Brad" Bradford, along with Michael Anderson, Jr. and Barbara Hershey in ABC's The Monroes, the story of an orphaned family trying to survive in the Wyoming wilderness.[4]
Gunsmoke introduced Taylor on a weekly basis to millions of viewers. Dub Taylor also guest-starred numerous times on the series. Before Taylor was cast as handsome young gunsmith "Newly", he had actually appeared in an earlier segment of the series as an outlaw. As Newly, however, he was clearly one of the "good guys" in the same tradition as James Arness as Matt Dillon. The Newly character superseded that of Clayton Thaddeus "Thad" Greenwood, played by Roger Ewing (born 1942). Taylor got along so well with the Gunsmoke cast that he named his second and third sons Matthew Taylor and Cooper Glenn Taylor for James Arness' (1923–2011) Marshal Matt Dillon character and for Glenn Strange (1899–1973), the character actor who played the bartender, Sam, and remained on the program until cancer claimed his life. Strange never knew of the honor, for Cooper Taylor was not born until 1975. Taylor was actively involved in the preparation of the script for the 1987 Gunsmoke: Return to Dodge reunion film,[5] by which time Milburn Stone, the cranky Doc Adams character, had died. Ken Curtis, who had portrayed the deputy Festus Haggen, felt shortchanged by the offer of far less pay than Amanda Blake and passed on the project. In 1991, Taylor co-starred with Curtis in what turned out to be Curtis' last acting role in the film version of Louis L'Amour's Conagher, which also starred Taylor's friend Sam Elliott and Elliott's wife, Katharine Ross.[3]
Acting after Gunsmoke[edit]
At the age of 43, Taylor was cast as the outlaw Dan Clifton, who died at 31, in the 1981 film Cattle Annie and Little Britches, a fictional portrayal of the teenaged bandits Cattle Annie and Little Britches, played by Amanda Plummer and Diane Lane, respectively. Taylor is called "Dynamite Dick" in the film, but Clifton's nickname was "Dynamite Dan."[6]
In 1983, Taylor appeared in the film The Triumphs of a Man Called Horse. In the film Gettysburg (1993), he played William Gamble. In the 2003 production Gods and Generals, Taylor was cast as Maxcy Gregg.[7]
He appeared on CBS's Dallas starring Larry Hagman and Walker, Texas Ranger starring Chuck Norris.[3]
Taylor had a memorable role as "Turkey Creek" Jack Johnson in Tombstone (1993) and appeared in 1997 in Rough Riders, both co-starring with Sam Elliott. He appeared in director John Lee Hancock's The Alamo (2004) and in the Wyoming-based Flicka (2006), a loose adaptation of the novel My Friend Flicka.[8]
He appeared as Ben Lily in January 2008 with his friend Val Kilmer in the CBS miniseries Comanche Moon, another in the Lonesome Dove line of television films based on Larry McMurtry novels. Taylor in 2008 worked in three films, The Hard Ride, The Last Horseman, and Legend of Hell's Gate.[8] While he was clean-shaven in Gunsmoke, like other cowboy actors, he later elected to sport a deep mustache.
Taylor's self-portrait hangs in the Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame in Fort Worth. Taylor is also an inductee of the Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame in Fort Worth and has received the "Spirit of Texas" Award. In 1993, he received the Golden Boot award which honors the "Best of the West" from the Motion Picture and Television Fund. In 1998, Taylor, Rex Allen, and Christina Paine won the "Cowboy Spirit Award".
In 2000, Taylor was memorialized in "The Trail of Fame" on the streets of Dodge City, the western Kansas town where Gunsmoke is set. He has also received the "Spirit of the West" award, along with Jack Palance and Roy Rogers. Additionally, Taylor is recognized on the Hollywood Walk of Fame with his friends Sam Elliott and Katharine Ross. Taylor's star also appears on the streets of "Little Hollywood" in Kanab, Utah. There, his star is between Ronald W. Reagan and Tom Mix.
In 1981, Taylor was inducted as a trustee in the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City for his Gunsmoke role.[3] In 2006, he was awarded by the same organization with the "Wrangler" (or Western Heritage Award).[3] Taylor has a plaque on the Walk of Western Stars in Santa Clarita, California, that includes past recipients James Arness and other Gunsmoke alumni Dennis Weaver and the late Amanda Blake.[8]
Artistic pursuits[edit]
In 1993, Taylor began selling his paintings at the National Finals Rodeo in Las Vegas. These paintings are sold through his website, private art shows and festivals, and at galleries. His private commissions can be found in the Loomis Fargo headquarters, the Franklin Mint, John Wayne Enterprises, the American Quarter Horse Association Museum in Amarillo, the National Ranching Heritage Center museum in Lubbock, and in the hands of private collectors Roy Clark, Val Kilmer, Roger Staubach, Powers Boothe, Jasey Wrenn, Sam Elliott, and James Arness. Taylor is the official artist for several rodeos, including the Pendleton Round-Up in Pendleton, Oregon, and state fairs.[3]
Personal life[edit]
In 1961, Taylor married the actress Judy Ann Nugent, who was a sister-in-law of actor Nick Adams.[9] The couple divorced in 1983. They had three sons: Adam Carlyle Taylor (1966–1994), Matthew Taylor (born 1970), and Cooper Glenn Taylor (born 1975). Adam was an assistant director, and Matthew and Cooper are Hollywood stunt men who were raised in Montana. Taylor is the father-in-law of actress/producer Anne Lockhart (born 1953), the widow of Adam Taylor, who died three days before his 28th birthday in a highway accident in Madison County, Montana. Anne is the daughter of actress June Lockhart. Taylor has two grandchildren, Carlyle and Zane Taylor, the daughter and son of Adam and Anne.[8]
Taylor and current wife Goldie, a flight attendant, met in 1995 at a quarter horse show, where his paintings were being exhibited. They wed after a three-month courtship and run a ranch on the Brazos River in Texas.
Taylor supports the John Wayne Cancer Foundation, the Walt Garrison Multiple Sclerosis Foundation, the Future Farmers of America Scholarship, the Screen Actors Guild Retirement Home, the Ben Johnson Children's Hospital, and Frontier Texas, a state-of-the-art museum for which Taylor does some of the narration. The museum opened in 2004 in Abilene in Taylor County (coincidence of the name) in West Texas.
References[edit]
Biography portal
United States Navy portal
California portal
Los Angeles portal
Montana portal
Texas portal
Film portal
Television portal
Art portal
Jump up ^ "Buck Taylor Paintings". Bucktaylor.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
^ Jump up to: a b TV.com (1938-05-13). "Buck Taylor Bio – Buck Taylor Biography – Buck Taylor Stories". Tv.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Buck Taylor | Actor and Western Artist | Biography Archived May 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.. bucktaylor.com
Jump up ^ "The Monroes" (1966) – Full cast and crew. imdb.com
Jump up ^ Amazon.com: Gunsmoke- Return to Dodge (VHS, 1987)
Jump up ^ "Cattle Annie and Little Britches". Internet Movie Data Base. Retrieved December 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Buck Taylor Biography". Starpulse.com. 1938-05-13. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Buck Taylor (I). imdb.com
Jump up ^ Judy Nugent (I). imdb.com
External links[edit]
Buck Taylor on IMDb
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
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LCCN: no99082493
IATH: w6fs3ks8
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buck_Taylor&oldid=801844120"
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text:
Natural and legal rights
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Rights
Theoretical distinctions
Claim rights and liberty rights
Individual and group rights
Natural and legal rights
Negative and positive rights
Human rights
Civil and political
Economic, social and cultural
Three generations
Rights by beneficiary
Animals
Authors
Children
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Creditors
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Fathers
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Humans
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Natural and legal rights are two types of rights. Natural rights are those that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular culture or government, and so are universal and inalienable (they cannot be repealed or restrained by human laws). Legal rights are those bestowed onto a person by a given legal system (they can be modified, repealed, and restrained by human laws).
The concept of natural law is related to the concept of natural rights. Natural law first appeared in ancient Greek philosophy,[1] and was referred to by Roman philosopher Cicero. It was subsequently alluded to in the Bible, and was then developed in the Middle Ages by Catholic philosophers such as Albert the Great and his pupil Thomas Aquinas. During the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of natural laws was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government – and thus legal rights – in the form of classical republicanism. Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by others to challenge the legitimacy of all such establishments.
The idea of human rights is also closely related to that of natural rights: some acknowledge no difference between the two, regarding them as synonymous, while others choose to keep the terms separate to eliminate association with some features traditionally associated with natural rights.[2] Natural rights, in particular, are considered beyond the authority of any government or international body to dismiss. The 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an important legal instrument enshrining one conception of natural rights into international soft law. Natural rights were traditionally viewed as exclusively negative rights,[3] whereas human rights also comprise positive rights.[4] Even on a natural rights conception of human rights, the two terms may not be synonymous.
The proposition that animals have natural rights is one that gained the interest of philosophers and legal scholars in the 20th century and into the 21st.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Ancient
1.2 Modern
1.2.1 Thomas Hobbes
1.2.2 John Locke
1.2.3 Thomas Paine
1.3 American individualist anarchists
1.4 Contemporary
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
History[edit]
The idea that certain rights are natural or inalienable also has a history dating back at least to the Stoics of late Antiquity and Catholic law of the early Middle Ages, and descending through the Protestant Reformation and the Age of Enlightenment to today.[citation needed]
The existence of natural rights has been asserted by different individuals on different premises, such as a priori philosophical reasoning or religious principles. For example, Immanuel Kant claimed to derive natural rights through reason alone. The United States Declaration of Independence, meanwhile, is based upon the "self-evident" truth that "all men are … endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights".[6]
Likewise, different philosophers and statesmen have designed different lists of what they believe to be natural rights; almost all include the right to life and liberty as the two highest priorities. H. L. A. Hart argued that if there are any rights at all, there must be the right to liberty, for all the others would depend upon this. T. H. Green argued that “if there are such things as rights at all, then, there must be a right to life and liberty, or, to put it more properly to free life.”[7] John Locke emphasized "life, liberty and property" as primary. However, despite Locke's influential defense of the right of revolution, Thomas Jefferson substituted "pursuit of happiness" in place of "property" in the United States Declaration of Independence.
Ancient[edit]
Stephen Kinzer, a veteran journalist for The New York Times and the author of the book All The Shah's Men, writes in the latter that:
The Zoroastrian religion taught Iranians that citizens have an inalienable right to enlightened leadership and that the duty of subjects is not simply to obey wise kings but also to rise up against those who are wicked. Leaders are seen as representative of God on earth, but they deserve allegiance only as long as they have farr, a kind of divine blessing that they must earn by moral behavior.
The Stoics held that no one was a slave by nature; slavery was an external condition juxtaposed to the internal freedom of the soul (sui juris). Seneca the Younger wrote:
It is a mistake to imagine that slavery pervades a man's whole being; the better part of him is exempt from it: the body indeed is subjected and in the power of a master, but the mind is independent, and indeed is so free and wild, that it cannot be restrained even by this prison of the body, wherein it is confined.[8]
Of fundamental importance to the development of the idea of natural rights was the emergence of the idea of natural human equality. As the historian A.J. Carlyle notes: "There is no change in political theory so startling in its completeness as the change from the theory of Aristotle to the later philosophical view represented by Cicero and Seneca.... We think that this cannot be better exemplified than with regard to the theory of the equality of human nature."[9] Charles H. McIlwain likewise observes that "the idea of the equality of men is the profoundest contribution of the Stoics to political thought" and that "its greatest influence is in the changed conception of law that in part resulted from it."[10] Cicero argues in De Legibus that "we are born for Justice, and that right is based, not upon opinions, but upon Nature."[11]
Modern[edit]
One of the first Western thinkers to develop the contemporary idea of natural rights was French theologian Jean Gerson, whose 1402 treatise De Vita Spirituali Animae is considered one of the first attempts to develop what would come to be called modern natural rights theory.[12]
Centuries later, the Stoic doctrine that the "inner part cannot be delivered into bondage"[13] re-emerged in the Reformation doctrine of liberty of conscience. Martin Luther wrote:
Furthermore, every man is responsible for his own faith, and he must see it for himself that he believes rightly. As little as another can go to hell or heaven for me, so little can he believe or disbelieve for me; and as little as he can open or shut heaven or hell for me, so little can he drive me to faith or unbelief. Since, then, belief or unbelief is a matter of every one's conscience, and since this is no lessening of the secular power, the latter should be content and attend to its own affairs and permit men to believe one thing or another, as they are able and willing, and constrain no one by force.[14]
17th-century English philosopher John Locke discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as being "life, liberty, and estate (property)", and argued that such fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the social contract. Preservation of the natural rights to life, liberty, and property was claimed as justification for the rebellion of the American colonies. As George Mason stated in his draft for the Virginia Declaration of Rights, "all men are born equally free," and hold "certain inherent natural rights, of which they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity."[15] Another 17th-century Englishman, John Lilburne (known as Freeborn John), who came into conflict with both the monarchy of King Charles I and the military dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell governed republic, argued for level human basic rights he called "freeborn rights" which he defined as being rights that every human being is born with, as opposed to rights bestowed by government or by human law.
The distinction between alienable and unalienable rights was introduced by Francis Hutcheson. In his Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725), Hutcheson foreshadowed the Declaration of Independence, stating: “For wherever any Invasion is made upon unalienable Rights, there must arise either a perfect, or external Right to Resistance. . . . Unalienable Rights are essential Limitations in all Governments.” Hutcheson, however, placed clear limits on his notion of unalienable rights, declaring that “there can be no Right, or Limitation of Right, inconsistent with, or opposite to the greatest publick Good."[16] Hutcheson elaborated on this idea of unalienable rights in his A System of Moral Philosophy (1755), based on the Reformation principle of the liberty of conscience. One could not in fact give up the capacity for private judgment (e.g., about religious questions) regardless of any external contracts or oaths to religious or secular authorities so that right is "unalienable." Hutcheson wrote: "Thus no man can really change his sentiments, judgments, and inward affections, at the pleasure of another; nor can it tend to any good to make him profess what is contrary to his heart. The right of private judgment is therefore unalienable."[17]
In the German Enlightenment, Hegel gave a highly developed treatment of this inalienability argument. Like Hutcheson, Hegel based the theory of inalienable rights on the de facto inalienability of those aspects of personhood that distinguish persons from things. A thing, like a piece of property, can in fact be transferred from one person to another. According to Hegel, the same would not apply to those aspects that make one a person:
The right to what is in essence inalienable is imprescriptible, since the act whereby I take possession of my personality, of my substantive essence, and make myself a responsible being, capable of possessing rights and with a moral and religious life, takes away from these characteristics of mine just that externality which alone made them capable of passing into the possession of someone else. When I have thus annulled their externality, I cannot lose them through lapse of time or from any other reason drawn from my prior consent or willingness to alienate them.[18]
In discussion of social contract theory, "inalienable rights" were said to be those rights that could not be surrendered by citizens to the sovereign. Such rights were thought to be natural rights, independent of positive law. Some social contract theorists reasoned, however, that in the natural state only the strongest could benefit from their rights. Thus, people form an implicit social contract, ceding their natural rights to the authority to protect the people from abuse, and living henceforth under the legal rights of that authority.
Many historical apologies for slavery and illiberal government were based on explicit or implicit voluntary contracts to alienate any "natural rights" to freedom and self-determination.[19] The de facto inalienability arguments of Hutcheson and his predecessors provided the basis for the anti-slavery movement to argue not simply against involuntary slavery but against any explicit or implied contractual forms of slavery. Any contract that tried to legally alienate such a right would be inherently invalid. Similarly, the argument was used by the democratic movement to argue against any explicit or implied social contracts of subjection (pactum subjectionis) by which a people would supposedly alienate their right of self-government to a sovereign as, for example, in Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes. According to Ernst Cassirer,
There is, at least, one right that cannot be ceded or abandoned: the right to personality...They charged the great logician [Hobbes] with a contradiction in terms. If a man could give up his personality he would cease being a moral being. … There is no pactum subjectionis, no act of submission by which man can give up the state of free agent and enslave himself. For by such an act of renunciation he would give up that very character which constitutes his nature and essence: he would lose his humanity.[20]
These themes converged in the debate about American Independence. While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Richard Price in England sided with the Americans' claim "that Great Britain is attempting to rob them of that liberty to which every member of society and all civil communities have a natural and unalienable title."[21]:67 Price again based the argument on the de facto inalienability of "that principle of spontaneity or self-determination which constitutes us agents or which gives us a command over our actions, rendering them properly ours, and not effects of the operation of any foreign cause."[21]:67–68 Any social contract or compact allegedly alienating these rights would be non-binding and void, wrote Price:
Neither can any state acquire such an authority over other states in virtue of any compacts or cessions. This is a case in which compacts are not binding. Civil liberty is, in this respect, on the same footing with religious liberty. As no people can lawfully surrender their religious liberty by giving up their right of judging for themselves in religion, or by allowing any human beings to prescribe to them what faith they shall embrace, or what mode of worship they shall practise, so neither can any civil societies lawfully surrender their civil liberty by giving up to any extraneous jurisdiction their power of legislating for themselves and disposing their property.[21]:78–79
Price raised a furor of opposition so in 1777 he wrote another tract that clarified his position and again restated the de facto basis for the argument that the "liberty of men as agents is that power of self-determination which all agents, as such, possess."[22] In Intellectual Origins of American Radicalism, Staughton Lynd pulled together these themes and related them to the slavery debate:
Then it turned out to make considerable difference whether one said slavery was wrong because every man has a natural right to the possession of his own body, or because every man has a natural right freely to determine his own destiny. The first kind of right was alienable: thus Locke neatly derived slavery from capture in war, whereby a man forfeited his labor to the conqueror who might lawfully have killed him; and thus Dred Scott was judged permanently to have given up his freedom. But the second kind of right, what Price called "that power of self-determination which all agents, as such, possess," was inalienable as long man remained man. Like the mind's quest for religious truth from which it was derived, self-determination was not a claim to ownership which might be both acquired and surrendered, but an inextricable aspect of the activity of being human.[23]
Meanwhile, in America, Thomas Jefferson "took his division of rights into alienable and unalienable from Hutcheson, who made the distinction popular and important",[24] and in the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, famously condensed this to:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights...
In the 19th century, the movement to abolish slavery seized this passage as a statement of constitutional principle, although the U.S. constitution recognized and protected slavery. As a lawyer, future Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase argued before the Supreme Court in the case of John Van Zandt, who had been charged with violating the Fugitive Slave Act, that:
The law of the Creator, which invests every human being with an inalienable title to freedom, cannot be repealed by any interior law which asserts that man is property.
The concept of inalienable rights was criticized by Jeremy Bentham and Edmund Burke as groundless. Bentham and Burke, writing in 18th century Britain, claimed that rights arise from the actions of government, or evolve from tradition, and that neither of these can provide anything inalienable. (See Bentham's "Critique of the Doctrine of Inalienable, Natural Rights", and Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France). Presaging the shift in thinking in the 19th century, Bentham famously dismissed the idea of natural rights as "nonsense on stilts". By way of contrast to the views of British nationals Burke and Bentham, the leading American revolutionary scholar James Wilson condemned Burke's view as "tyranny."[25]
The signers of the Declaration of Independence deemed it a "self-evident truth" that all men are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights". In The Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau claims that the existence of inalienable rights is unnecessary for the existence of a constitution or a set of laws and rights. This idea of a social contract – that rights and responsibilities are derived from a consensual contract between the government and the people – is the most widely recognized alternative.
One criticism of natural rights theory is that one cannot draw norms from facts.[26] This objection is variously expressed as the is-ought problem, the naturalistic fallacy, or the appeal to nature. G.E. Moore, for example, said that ethical naturalism falls prey to the naturalistic fallacy.[citation needed] Some defenders of natural rights theory, however, counter that the term "natural" in "natural rights" is contrasted with "artificial" rather than referring to nature. John Finnis, for example, contends that natural law and natural rights are derived from self-evident principles, not from speculative principles or from facts.[26]
There is also debate as to whether all rights are either natural or legal. Fourth president of the United States James Madison, while representing Virginia in the House of Representatives, believed that there are rights, such as trial by jury, that are social rights, arising neither from natural law nor from positive law (which are the basis of natural and legal rights respectively) but from the social contract from which a government derives its authority.[27]
Thomas Hobbes[edit]
Main article: Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) included a discussion of natural rights in his moral and political philosophy. Hobbes' conception of natural rights extended from his conception of man in a "state of nature". Thus he argued that the essential natural (human) right was "to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own Nature; that is to say, of his own Life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own judgement, and Reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto." (Leviathan. 1, XIV)
Hobbes sharply distinguished this natural "liberty", from natural "laws", described generally as "a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving his life; and to omit, that, by which he thinketh it may best be preserved." (Leviathan. 1, XIV)
In his natural state, according to Hobbes, man's life consisted entirely of liberties and not at all of laws – "It followeth, that in such a condition, every man has the right to every thing; even to one another's body. And therefore, as long as this natural Right of every man to every thing endureth, there can be no security to any man... of living out the time, which Nature ordinarily allow men to live." (Leviathan. 1, XIV)
This would lead inevitably to a situation known as the "war of all against all", in which human beings kill, steal and enslave others in order to stay alive, and due to their natural lust for "Gain", "Safety" and "Reputation". Hobbes reasoned that this world of chaos created by unlimited rights was highly undesirable, since it would cause human life to be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". As such, if humans wish to live peacefully they must give up most of their natural rights and create moral obligations in order to establish political and civil society. This is one of the earliest formulations of the theory of government known as the social contract.
Hobbes objected to the attempt to derive rights from "natural law," arguing that law ("lex") and right ("jus") though often confused, signify opposites, with law referring to obligations, while rights refer to the absence of obligations. Since by our (human) nature, we seek to maximize our well being, rights are prior to law, natural or institutional, and people will not follow the laws of nature without first being subjected to a sovereign power, without which all ideas of right and wrong are meaningless – "Therefore before the names of Just and Unjust can have place, there must be some coercive Power, to compel men equally to the performance of their Covenants..., to make good that Propriety, which by mutual contract men acquire, in recompense of the universal Right they abandon: and such power there is none before the erection of the Commonwealth." (Leviathan. 1, XV)
This marked an important departure from medieval natural law theories which gave precedence to obligations over rights.
John Locke[edit]
Main article: John Locke
John Locke, "Life, Liberty, Estate (property)"
John Locke (1632 – 1704) was another prominent Western philosopher who conceptualized rights as natural and inalienable. Like Hobbes, Locke believed in a natural right to life, liberty, and property. It was once conventional wisdom that Locke greatly influenced the American Revolutionary War with his writings of natural rights, but this claim has been the subject of protracted dispute in recent decades. For example, the historian Ray Forrest Harvey declared that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles" in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson’s use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness" instead of "property."[28] More recently, the eminent[29] legal historian John Phillip Reid has deplored contemporary scholars’ "misplaced emphasis on John Locke," arguing that American revolutionary leaders saw Locke as a commentator on established constitutional principles.[30][31] Thomas Pangle has defended Locke's influence on the Founding, claiming that historians who argue to the contrary either misrepresent the classical republican alternative to which they say the revolutionary leaders adhered, do not understand Locke, or point to someone else who was decisively influenced by Locke.[32] This position has also been sustained by Michael Zuckert.[33][34][35]
According to Locke there are three natural rights:
Life: everyone is entitled to live.[36]
Liberty: everyone is entitled to do anything they want to so long as it doesn't conflict with the first right.
Estate: everyone is entitled to own all they create or gain through gift or trade so long as it doesn't conflict with the first two rights.
In developing his concept of natural rights, Locke was influenced by reports of society among Native Americans, whom he regarded as "natural peoples" who lived in a state of liberty and "near prefect freedom", but not license.[37] It also informed his conception of social contract.
The social contract is an agreement between members of a country to live within a shared system of laws. Specific forms of government are the result of the decisions made by these persons acting in their collective capacity. Government is instituted to make laws that protect these three natural rights. If a government does not properly protect these rights, it can be overthrown.
Thomas Paine[edit]
Main article: Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine (1731–1809) further elaborated on natural rights in his influential work Rights of Man (1791), emphasizing that rights cannot be granted by any charter because this would legally imply they can also be revoked and under such circumstances they would be reduced to privileges:
It is a perversion of terms to say that a charter gives rights. It operates by a contrary effect – that of taking rights away. Rights are inherently in all the inhabitants; but charters, by annulling those rights, in the majority, leave the right, by exclusion, in the hands of a few. … They...consequently are instruments of injustice.
The fact therefore must be that the individuals themselves, each in his own personal and sovereign right, entered into a compact with each other to produce a government: and this is the only mode in which governments have a right to arise, and the only principle on which they have a right to exist.
American individualist anarchists[edit]
Benjamin Tucker
While at first American individualist anarchists adhered to natural rights positions, later in this era led by Benjamin Tucker, some abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner's Egoist anarchism. Rejecting the idea of moral rights, Tucker said there were only two rights: "the right of might" and "the right of contract".[citation needed] He also said, after converting to Egoist individualism, "In times past... it was my habit to talk glibly of the right of man to land. It was a bad habit, and I long ago sloughed it off.... Man's only right to land is his might over it."[38]
According to Wendy McElroy:
In adopting Stirnerite egoism (1886), Tucker rejected natural rights which had long been considered the foundation of libertarianism. This rejection galvanized the movement into fierce debates, with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself. So bitter was the conflict that a number of natural rights proponents withdrew from the pages of Liberty in protest even though they had hitherto been among its frequent contributors. Thereafter, Liberty championed egoism although its general content did not change significantly.[39]
Several periodicals were "undoubtedly influenced by Liberty's presentation of egoism, including I published by C.L. Swartz, edited by W.E. Gordak and J.W. Lloyd (all associates of Liberty); The Ego and The Egoist, both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton. Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed were the German Der Eigene, edited by Adolf Brand, and The Eagle and The Serpent, issued from London. The latter, the most prominent English-language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle 'A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology'".[39] Among those American anarchists who adhered to egoism include Benjamin Tucker, John Beverley Robinson, Steven T. Byington, Hutchins Hapgood, James L. Walker, Victor Yarros and E.H. Fulton.[39]
Contemporary[edit]
Many documents now echo the phrase used in the United States Declaration of Independence. The preamble to the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserts that rights are inalienable: "recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world." Article 1, § 1 of the California Constitution recognizes inalienable rights, and articulated some (not all) of those rights as "defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing, and protecting property, and pursuing and obtaining safety, happiness, and privacy." However, there is still much dispute over which "rights" are truly natural rights and which are not, and the concept of natural or inalienable rights is still controversial to some.
Erich Fromm argued that some powers over human beings could be wielded only by God, and that if there were no God, no human beings could wield these powers.[40]
Contemporary political philosophies continuing the classical liberal tradition of natural rights include libertarianism, anarcho-capitalism and Objectivism, and include amongst their canon the works of authors such as Robert Nozick, Ludwig von Mises, Ayn Rand,[41] and Murray Rothbard.[42] A libertarian view of inalienable rights is laid out in Morris and Linda Tannehill's The Market for Liberty, which claims that a man has a right to ownership over his life and therefore also his property, because he has invested time (i.e. part of his life) in it and thereby made it an extension of his life. However, if he initiates force against and to the detriment of another man, he alienates himself from the right to that part of his life which is required to pay his debt: "Rights are not inalienable, but only the possessor of a right can alienate himself from that right – no one else can take a man's rights from him."[43]
Various definitions of inalienability include non-relinquishability, non-salability, and non-transferability.[44] This concept has been recognized by libertarians as being central to the question of voluntary slavery, which Murray Rothbard dismissed as illegitimate and even self-contradictory.[45] Stephan Kinsella argues that "viewing rights as alienable is perfectly consistent with – indeed, implied by – the libertarian non-aggression principle. Under this principle, only the initiation of force is prohibited; defensive, restitutive, or retaliatory force is not."[46]
Various philosophers have created different lists of rights they consider to be natural. Proponents of natural rights, in particular Hesselberg and Rothbard, have responded that reason can be applied to separate truly axiomatic rights from supposed rights, stating that any principle that requires itself to be disproved is an axiom. Critics have pointed to the lack of agreement between the proponents as evidence for the claim that the idea of natural rights is merely a political tool.
Hugh Gibbons has proposed a descriptive argument based on human biology. His contention is that Human Beings were other-regarding as a matter of necessity, in order to avoid the costs of conflict. Over time they developed expectations that individuals would act in certain ways which were then prescribed by society (duties of care etc.) and that eventually crystallized into actionable rights.[47]
See also[edit]
Constitutional economics
Constitutionalism
Fundamental rights
Human dignity
Human rights
Natural law
Positive law
Rule according to higher law
Rule of law
Substantive due process
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rommen, Heinrich A., The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social Philosophy trans. Thomas R. Hanley, O.S.B., Ph.D. (B. Herder Book Co., 1947 [reprinted 1959] ), p.. 5
Jump up ^ Jones, Peter. Rights. Palgrave Macmillan, 1994, p. 73.
Jump up ^ For example, the imperative "not to harm others" is said to be justified by natural law, but the same is not true when it comes to providing protection against harm
Jump up ^ See James Nickel, Human Rights, 2010. The claim that "..all human rights are negative rights.." is rejected, therefore human rights also comprise positive rights.
Jump up ^ "Animal Rights", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007; Dershowitz, Alan. Rights from Wrongs: A Secular Theory of the Origins of Rights, 2004, pp. 198–99; "Animal Rights: The Modern Animal Rights Movement", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
Jump up ^ "America's Founding Documents | National Archives". Archives.gov. 2016-10-12. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
Jump up ^ Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation, T. H. Green, 1883, p.114.
Jump up ^ Seneca, De beneficiis, III, 20.
Jump up ^ Carlyle, A.J. (1903). A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West. 1. Edinburgh. pp. 8, 9.
Jump up ^ McIlwain, Charles H. (1932). The Growth of Political Thought in the West: From the Greeks to the End of the Middle Ages. New York. pp. 114–15.
Jump up ^ Cicero, De Legibus (Keyes translation), book 1, section 28.
Jump up ^ Richard Tuck, Philosophy and Government 1572–1651 (1993), pp. 25-7.
Jump up ^ Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. Cornell University Press, 1966, p. 77.
Jump up ^ Martin Luther, Concerning Secular Authority, 1523.
Jump up ^ Pauline Maier,American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993, p. 134.
Jump up ^ Francis Hutcheson, An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue in Two Treatises (Indianapolis, 2004), pp. 192, 193.
Jump up ^ Hutcheson, Francis. A System of Moral Philosophy. London, 1755, pp. 261–2.
Jump up ^ Georg W. F. Hegel, Hegel's Philosophy of Right, T.M. Knox, trans., New York: Oxford University Press, 1967 (1821), section 66.
Jump up ^ Philmore, J. 1982. The Libertarian Case for Slavery: A Note on Nozick. Philosophical Forum. XIV (Fall 1982): 43–58.
Jump up ^ Cassirer, Ernst. The Myth of the State. Yale University Press, 1963, p. 175
^ Jump up to: a b c Price, Richard. Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty. 1776, Part I. Reprinted in: Peach, Bernard, (Ed.) Richard Price and the Ethical Foundations of the American Revolution. Duke University Press, 1979.
Jump up ^ Price, Richard. Additional Observations on the Nature and Value of Civil Liberty. Reprinted in: Peach, Bernard, (Ed.) Richard Price and the Ethical Foundations of the American Revolution. Duke University Press, 1979, p. 136.
Jump up ^ Lynd, Staughton. Intellectual Origins of American Radicalism. Vintage Books, 1969, pp. 56–57.
Jump up ^ Garry Wills, 1979. Inventing America. New York: Vintage Books, p. 213
Jump up ^ Wilson, James. Robert Green McCloskey, ed. The Works of James Wilson. 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 586–89.
^ Jump up to: a b Finnis, John (2011). Natural Law & Natural Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 23–58.
Jump up ^ Introduction of the Bill of Rights in Congress, 1789 Jun 8, Jul 21, Aug 13, 18–19; Annals 1:424-50, 661–65, 707–17, 757–59, 766.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Ray Forrest (1937). Jean Jacques Burlamaqui: A Liberal Tradition in American Constitutionalism. Chapel Hill, N.C. p. 120.
Jump up ^ Law As Culture and Culture As Law: Essays in Honor of John Phillip Reid Books.google.co.kr. Retrieved on 2013-07-29.
Jump up ^ Reid, John Phillip (1987). Constitutional History of the American Revolution: The Authority To Tax. Madison, Wis. pp. 135–36.
Jump up ^ Reid, John Phillip (1986). Constitutional History of the American Revolution: The Authority of Rights. Madison, Wis. pp. 132–33.
Jump up ^ Pangle, Thomas L. (1988). The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of John Locke. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ Zuckert, Michael P. (1996). The Natural Rights Republic: Studies in the Foundation of the American Political Tradition. South Bend, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press.
Jump up ^ Zuckert, Michael P. (1998). Natural Rights and the New Republicanism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Jump up ^ Zuckert, Michael P. (2002). Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
Jump up ^ Kunze, Fred. "A Biography of John Locke". American History from revolution to reconstruction and beyond. GMW – University of Groningen. Retrieved 20 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Chp 4: Ennobling `Savages', Native America in European natural-rights philosophy, "Exemplar Of Liberty"". Ratical.org. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
Jump up ^ Tucker, Instead of a Book, p. 350
^ Jump up to: a b c "Literature of Liberty, Autumn 1981, vol. 4, No. 3 – Online Library of Liberty". Oll.libertyfund.org. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
Jump up ^ Erich Fromm (1973), The Revolution of Hope: Toward a Humanized Technology, New York: Bantam.
Jump up ^ Individual Rights – Ayn Rand Lexicon. Aynrandlexicon.com. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
Jump up ^ "The Ethics of Liberty | Mises Institute". Mises.org. 2005-07-20. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
Jump up ^ "Man and Society". The Market for Liberty. p. 11.
Jump up ^ Block, Walter (Spring 2003). "A Libertarian Theory of Inalienability" (PDF). 17 (2). Journal of Libertarian Studies: 39–85.
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Jump up ^ "De Sciuridae Et Homo Sapiens: The Origin Of Rights And Duties" (PDF). Bu.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
Further reading[edit]
Fruehwald, Edwin, A Biological Basis of Rights, 19 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal 195 (2010).
Grotius, Hugo, The Rights Of War And Peace: Three Volume Set, 1625
Haakonssen, Knud, Grotius, Pufendorf and Modern Natural Law, 1999
Hutcheson, Francis. A System of Moral Philosophy. 1755, London.
Locke, John. Two Treatises on Government. 1690 (primarily the second treatise)
Lloyd Thomas, D.A. Locke on Government. 1995, Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09533-6
Pufendorf, Baron Samuel von, Law of Nature and Nations, 1625
Tuck, Richard, Natural Rights Theories: Their Origin and Development, 1982
Waldron, Jeremy [ed.] Theories of Rights 1984, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-875063-3
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Natural rights
The U.S. Declaration of Independence and Natural Rights from Constitutional Rights Foundation.
The U.S. Committee for the Protection of Natural Rights.
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