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Blazing Saddles
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Blazing Saddles
Theatrical release poster
by John Alvin[1]
Directed by
Mel Brooks
Produced by
Michael Hertzberg
Screenplay by
Andrew Bergman
Mel Brooks
Richard Pryor
Norman Steinberg
Al Uger
Story by
Andrew Bergman
Starring
Cleavon Little
Gene Wilder
Harvey Korman
Slim Pickens
Madeline Kahn
Mel Brooks
Dom DeLuise
Music by
John Morris
Songs:
Mel Brooks
Cinematography
Joseph Biroc
Edited by
Danford Greene
John C. Howard
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date
February 7, 1974 (1974-02-07)
Running time
93 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$2.6 million
Box office
$119.6 million[3]
Blazing Saddles is a 1974 American satirical Western comedy film directed by Mel Brooks. Starring Cleavon Little and Gene Wilder, the film was written by Brooks, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor, Norman Steinberg, and Al Uger, and was based on Bergman's story and draft.[4] The film received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences, was nominated for three Academy Awards, and is ranked No. 6 on the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Laughs list.
Brooks appears in two supporting roles, Governor William J. Le Petomane and a Yiddish-speaking Indian chief; he also dubs lines for one of Lili von Shtupp's backing troupe. The supporting cast includes Slim Pickens, Alex Karras, and David Huddleston, as well as Brooks regulars Dom DeLuise, Madeline Kahn, and Harvey Korman. Bandleader Count Basie has a cameo as himself.
The film satirizes the racism obscured by myth-making Hollywood accounts of the American West, with the hero being a black sheriff in an all-white town. The film is full of deliberate anachronisms, from the Count Basie Orchestra playing "April in Paris" in the Wild West, to Slim Pickens referring to the Wide World of Sports, to the German army of World War II.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
5 Accolades
6 Legacy
6.1 TV pilot
6.2 Soundtrack
6.3 In popular culture
7 Home media
8 Possible stage production
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Plot[edit]
In the American frontier of 1874, construction on a new railroad will soon be going through Rock Ridge, a town inhabited exclusively by white people with the surname Johnson. The conniving attorney general Hedley Lamarr wants to force Rock Ridge's residents to abandon their town, thereby lowering land prices. After he sends a gang of thugs, led by his flunky Taggart, to shoot the sheriff and trash the town, the townspeople demand that Governor William J. Le Petomane appoint a new sheriff to protect them. Lamarr persuades the dim-witted Le Petomane to appoint Bart, a black railroad worker who was about to be executed for starting a fight. A black sheriff, he reasons, will offend the townspeople, create chaos, and leave the town at his mercy.
With his quick wits and the assistance of Jim, an alcoholic gunslinger known as the "Waco Kid", Bart works to overcome the townspeople's hostile reception. He subdues Mongo, an immensely strong, dim-witted, but philosophical henchman sent to kill him, and then beats German seductress-for-hire Lili von Shtupp at her own game. Lamarr, furious that his schemes have backfired, hatches a larger plan involving a recruited army of thugs, including common criminals, Ku Klux Klansmen, Nazis, and Methodists.
Three miles east of Rock Ridge, Bart introduces the white townspeople to the black, Chinese and Irish railroad workers — who have agreed to help in exchange for acceptance by the community — and explains his plan to defeat Lamarr's army. They labor all night to build a perfect replica of their town, as a diversion; but with no people in it, Bart realizes it won't fool the villains. While the townspeople construct replicas of themselves, Bart, Jim, and Mongo buy time by constructing the "Gov. William J. Le Petomane Thruway," forcing the raiding party to turn back for "a shitload of dimes" to pay the toll. Once through the tollbooth, the raiders attack the fake town populated with dummies, which are boobytrapped with dynamite bombs. After Jim detonates the bombs with his sharpshooting, launching bad guys and horses skyward, the Rock Ridgers storm the villains.
The resulting brawl between townsfolk, railroad workers, and Lamarr's thugs breaks the fourth wall, spilling onto a neighboring set where director Buddy Bizarre is directing a Busby Berkeley-style top-hat-and-tails musical number; then into the studio commissary for a food fight; and then out of the Warner Bros. film lot into the streets of Burbank. Lamarr, realizing he has been beaten, hails a taxi and orders the driver to "drive me off this picture". He ducks into Grauman's Chinese Theatre, which is playing the premiere of Blazing Saddles. As he settles into his seat, he sees Bart arriving on horseback outside the theatre. Bart blocks Lamarr's escape, and then shoots him in the groin. Bart and Jim then go into Grauman's to watch the end of the film, in which Bart announces to the townspeople that he is moving on. Riding out of town, he finds Jim, and invites him along to "nowhere special". They ride off into the sunset in a chauffeured stretch limousine.
Cast[edit]
Cleavon Little as Sheriff Bart
Gene Wilder as Jim, the "Waco Kid"
Harvey Korman as Hedley Lamarr
Madeline Kahn as Lili von Shtupp, the "Teutonic Titwillow"
Slim Pickens as Taggart
Dom DeLuise as Buddy Bizarre
Mel Brooks as Gov. William J. Le Petomane / Indian Chief
Liam Dunn as Reverend Johnson
George Furth as Van Johnson
Burton Gilliam as Lyle
John Hillerman as Howard Johnson
David Huddleston as Olson Johnson
Richard Collier as Dr. Samuel Johnson
Alex Karras as Mongo
Jack Starrett as Gabby Johnson
Robyn Hilton as Miss Stein, the governor's secretary
Rodney Allen Rippy as Young Bart
Charles McGregor as Charlie
Robert Ridgely as Boris, the hangman
Carol Arthur as Harriet Johnson
Anne Bancroft as extra in church congregation
Ralph Manza as man in commissary playing Hitler
Cast notes
Count Basie had a cameo appearance with his band, playing "April in Paris" in the middle of the desert as Bart rides toward Rock Ridge to assume the post of sheriff.
Brooks cast himself in three on-screen roles—Governor Le Petomane, the Yiddish-speaking Indian chief, and an applicant for Hedley Lamarr's thug army (an aviator wearing sunglasses and a flight jacket)—and two off-screen voice roles—one of Lili's German chorus boys during "I'm Tired", and a grouchy moviegoer.[5]
Production[edit]
The idea for the film came from a story outline written by Andrew Bergman that he originally intended to develop and produce himself. "I wrote a first draft called Tex-X" (a play on Malcolm X's name), he said. "Alan Arkin was hired to direct and James Earl Jones was going to play the sheriff. That fell apart, as things often do."[6] Brooks was taken with the story, which he described as "hip talk—1974 talk and expressions—happening in 1874 in the Old West", and purchased the film rights from Bergman. Though he had not worked with a writing team since Your Show of Shows, he hired a group of writers (including Bergman) to expand the outline, and posted a large sign: "Please do not write a polite script."[7] Brooks described the writing process as chaotic: "Blazing Saddles was more or less written in the middle of a drunken fistfight. There were five of us all yelling loudly for our ideas to be put into the movie. Not only was I the loudest, but luckily I also had the right as director to decide what was in or out."[8] Bergman remembers the room being just as chaotic, telling Creative Screenwriting, "In the beginning, we had five people. One guy left after a couple of weeks. Then, it was basically me, Mel, Richie Pryor and Norman Steinberg. Richie left after the first draft and then Norman, Mel and I wrote the next three or four drafts. It was a riot. It was a rioter’s room!"[6]
The original title, Tex X, was rejected, as were Black Bart and Purple Sage. Brooks said he finally conceived Blazing Saddles one morning while taking a shower.[9] For the movie's title song, Brooks advertised in the trade papers for a "Frankie Laine-type" singer; to his surprise, Laine himself offered his services. "Frankie sang his heart out ... and we didn't have the heart to tell him it was a spoof. He never heard the whip cracks; we put those in later. We got so lucky with his serious interpretation of the song."[10]
Casting was problematic. Richard Pryor was Brooks' original choice to play the Sheriff Bart, but the studio, claiming his history of drug arrests made him uninsurable, refused to approve financing with Pryor as the star.[9] Cleavon Little was cast in the role, and Pryor remained as a writer. Brooks offered the other leading role, the Waco Kid, to John Wayne; he declined, deeming the film "too blue" for his family-oriented image, but assured Brooks that "he would be the first one in line to see it."[11] Gig Young was cast, but he collapsed during his first scene from what was later determined to be alcohol withdrawal syndrome, and Gene Wilder was flown in to replace him.[12][13] Johnny Carson and Wilder both turned down the Hedley Lamarr role before Harvey Korman was cast.[14] Madeline Kahn objected when Brooks asked to see her legs during her audition. "She said, 'So it’s THAT kind of an audition?'" Brooks recalled. "I explained that I was a happily married man and that I needed someone who could straddle a chair with her legs like Marlene Dietrich in Destry Rides Again. So she lifted her skirt and said, 'No touching.'"[15]
Brooks had numerous conflicts over content with Warner Bros. executives, including frequent use of the word "nigger", Lili Von Shtupp's seduction scene, the cacophony of flatulence around the campfire, and Mongo punching out a horse. Brooks, whose contract gave him final content control, declined to make any substantive changes, with the exception of cutting Bart's final line during Lili's seduction: "I hate to disappoint you, ma'am, but you're sucking my arm."[16] When asked later about the many "nigger" references, Brooks said he received consistent support from Pryor and Little. He added, "If they did a remake of Blazing Saddles today [2012], they would leave out the N-word. And then, you've got no movie."[17] Brooks said he received many letters of complaint after the film's release, " ... but of course, most of them were from white people."[18]
The film was almost not released. "When we screened it for executives, there were few laughs", said Brooks. "The head of distribution said, 'Let’s dump it and take a loss.' But [studio president John] Calley insisted they open it in New York, Los Angeles and Chicago as a test. It became the studio's top moneymaker that summer."[15] The world premiere took place on February 7, 1974, at the Pickwick Drive-In Theater in Burbank; 250 invited guests—including Little and Wilder—watched the film on horseback.[19]
Hedy Lamarr sued Warner Bros., charging that the film's running parody of her name infringed on her right to privacy. Brooks said he was flattered; the studio settled out of court for a small sum and an apology for “almost using her name." Brooks said that Lamarr "never got the joke."[18]
Reception[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2016)
While the film is now considered a classic comedy, critical reaction was mixed when the film was released. Vincent Canby wrote:[20]
Blazing Saddles has no dominant personality, and it looks as if it includes every gag thought up in every story conference. Whether good, bad or mild, nothing was thrown out. Woody Allen's comedy, though very much a product of our Age of Analysis, recalls the wonder and discipline of people like Keaton and Laurel and Hardy. Mr. Brooks's sights are lower. His brashness is rare, but his use of anachronism and anarchy recalls not the great film comedies of the past, but the middling ones like the Hope-Crosby "Road" pictures. With his talent he should do much better than that.
Roger Ebert gave the film four stars and called it a "crazed grabbag of a movie that does everything to keep us laughing except hit us over the head with a rubber chicken. Mostly, it succeeds. It's an audience picture; it doesn't have a lot of classy polish and its structure is a total mess. But of course! What does that matter while Alex Karras is knocking a horse cold with a right cross to the jaw?"[21]
The film grossed $119.5 million at the box office, becoming only the tenth film up to that time to pass the $100 million mark.[22]
On the film-critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has 90% positive reviews, saying, "Daring, provocative, and laugh-out-loud funny, Blazing Saddles is a gleefully vulgar spoof of Westerns that marks a high point in Mel Brooks' storied career." [23]
Accolades[edit]
The film received three Academy Award nominations in 1974: Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Madeline Kahn), Best Film Editing, and Best Music, Original Song (the title song). The film also earned two BAFTA awards nominations, for Best Newcomer (Cleavon Little) and Best Screenplay.[24][25]
The film won the Writers Guild of America Award for "Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen" for writers Mel Brooks, Norman Steinberg, Andrew Bergman, Richard Pryor, and Alan Uger.[26]
In 2006, Blazing Saddles was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.[26]
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs - #6[27]
Legacy[edit]
TV pilot[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A television series titled Black Bart was produced for CBS based on Bergman's original story. It featured Louis Gossett, Jr. as Bart and Steve Landesberg as his drunkard sidekick, a former Confederate officer named "Reb Jordan". Other cast members included Millie Slavin and Noble Willingham. Bergman is listed as the sole creator.
CBS aired the pilot once on April 4, 1975. The pilot episode featured guest appearances by Gerrit Graham and Brooke Adams and was written by Michael Elias and Rich Eustis. Elias and Eutis later created and executive produced the ABC sitcom Head of the Class (1986-1991).
Interviewed in 1996, Steve Landesberg said Black Bart "was like a joke. ... We did the pilot, and CBS dumped it at the end of the 1975 season in April or May on a Friday. We thought it was done, then CBS tells us to come back and film six more episodes. And then another six. Six episodes each season, when an order was usually for 24 or 26. I was on Barney Miller by that point, and we'd film during the winter break when all other TV shows were on hiatus. And they never aired any of them. It was like a sick joke. If I wasn't under contract I would have walked, but they were paying me so I can't complain."
In 1989, Louis Gossett, Jr. told Entertainment Tonight, "CBS and Warner Bros. made a deal. ... The deal was that CBS would get to air Blazing Saddles, and any sequels from the movie, in exchange for co-producing a TV show. At the time Warners wanted to make Blazing Saddles into a comedy series of films, a new one coming out every year or so. They wanted to use the model that the Brits had for the Carry On films. But [Mel] Brooks had a clause in his contract that said Warner had to keep producing Blazing Saddles stories, in the movies or TV, or they'd lose the rights to make sequels. The TV show was a way to keep the rights. They didn't have to air it, just keep producing it. So for four years I spent my winter on a soundstage being paid to be in show that would never see the light of day, just so Warners could keep the sequel rights to Blazing Saddles. By 1979 they finally figured out the market had changed and they weren't going to make any sequels, so we were cancelled, if a show that never was supposed to air can be cancelled."
Mel Brooks addressed the existence of the Black Bart series in 2005: "My lawyers, bless their souls, came to me and said, 'Warner Bros. is going to try and take away your control of the movie. Let's put in a crazy condition that says they can't do any sequels unless they make it right away or make a TV show out of it within six months.' Which is brilliant. They couldn't make a sequel in six months, and the movie was too vulgar to be a TV show. Now it would air in family hour if that was still a thing. So the lawyers put that in, never thinking they'd make a TV show. ... In 1977, three years later, Warner Bros comes to me and says they want to make another Blazing Saddles, and I say, 'No. You don't have the right to do that.' They say, 'Yes we do, we've been making a TV series and still control the rights.' What TV series? I haven't seen a TV show. They take me onto the lot, into a projection booth, and show me three episodes. My lawyers never thought to put in language that said they had to air the damn thing, only that they had to make it. Oy gevalt! Well, management changed and they never did Blazing Saddles 2, and as far as I know they're still making that stupid show to this day."
The pilot episode of Black Bart was later included as a bonus feature on the Blazing Saddles 30th Anniversary DVD and the Blu-ray disc.[28]
Soundtrack[edit]
The first studio-licensed release of the full music soundtrack to Blazing Saddles was on La-La Land Records on August 26, 2008. Remastered from original studio vault elements, the limited edition CD (a run of 3000) features the songs from the film as well as composer John Morris's score. Instrumental versions of all the songs are bonus tracks on the disc. The disc features exclusive liner notes featuring comments from Mel Brooks and John Morris.[29]
In popular culture[edit]
The 2017 animated film Blazing Samurai, starring Michael Cera, Samuel L. Jackson, Michelle Yeoh, and Ricky Gervais, has been characterized by its creators as "equally inspired by and an homage to Blazing Saddles." Brooks served as an executive producer for the production, and voiced one of the characters.[30]
Home media[edit]
The film was first released on DVD in 1997.[31] In 2006, the film was released on Blu-ray.[32] A 40th Anniversary Blu-Ray set was released in 2014.[33]
Possible stage production[edit]
In September 2017, Mel Brooks indicated his desire to do a stage play version of Blazing Saddles in the future.[34]
See also[edit]
List of American films of 1974
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Stewart, Jocelyn (February 10, 2008). "John Alvin, 59; created movie posters for such films as 'Blazing Saddles' and 'E.T.'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles (AA)". British Board of Film Classification. May 3, 1974. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles (1974)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Director and Leading Actors". Getback.com. Archived from the original on 2008-10-04. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
Jump up ^ Crick, Robert Alan. The Big Screen Comedies of Mel Brooks McFarland, 2002. ISBN 9780786443260. pp. 65-66. Quote:"As for Mel Brooks himself, his aviator and voice-overs as a German dancer and cranky film-goer provide funny cameos...". The book credits him as playing "William J. LePetomane/Indian Chief/Aviator/Voice of German Dancer/Voice of Moviegoer."
^ Jump up to: a b Swinson, Brock (June 24, 2016). "'It's a Good-Natured Insanity.' Andrew Bergman on Screenwriting". Creative Screenwriting. Retrieved June 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Pockross, Andrew (2014-05-09). "Mel Brooks on Blazing New Comedic Trails in 'Blazing Saddles'". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved 2014-05-09.
Jump up ^ Swinson, Brock (January 14, 2016). "Mel Brooks on Screenwriting". Creative Screenwriting. Retrieved January 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Salon: in-depth news, politics, business, technology & culture". archive.salon.com. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ From the libretto of the La-LaLand Records soundtrack album
Jump up ^ Staff (May 20, 2016) "Mel Brooks on John Wayne, Improv and the Presidential Race" Metro Philadelphia
Jump up ^ Donnelly, Paul (2005). Fade To Black: A Book of Movie Obituaries (3 ed.). Omnibus. p. 746. ISBN 1-84449-430-6.
Jump up ^ Parish, James Robert (2008). It's Good to Be the King: The Seriously Funny Life of Mel Brooks. John Wiley and Sons. p. 9. ISBN 0-470-22526-2.
Jump up ^ White, Timothy (March 22, 1979) "Johnny Carson: The Rolling Stone Interview" in Wenner, Jan S. ed. (2007) The Rolling Stone Interviews New York: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-02313-9. Retrieved May 24, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Lumenick, L. (May 3, 2014). Mel Brooks: 10 things you never knew about Blazing Saddles. nypost.com, retrieved May 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Madison, William V. (1 May 2015). Madeline Kahn: Being the Music, A Life. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 119–. ISBN 978-1-61703-762-7.
Jump up ^ Weide, Robert (Summer 2012). "Quiet on the Set! Mel Brooks: the DGA Interview". DGA Quarterly. Los Angeles, California: Directors Guild of America, Inc.: 30–37. OCLC 68905662. Page 36: Q: Blazing Saddles also makes frequent use of the "N-word." Could you get away with that today? A: Never. If they did a remake of Blazing Saddles today, they would leave out the N-word. And then, you've got no movie. And I wouldn't have used it so much if I didn't have Richard Pryor with me on the set as one of my writers. And Cleavon Little [as Sheriff Bart] was great. Even though it was allowed, I kept asking Cleavon, "Is that all right there? Is that too much there? Am I pushing this?" and he'd say, "no, no, no, it's perfect there."
^ Jump up to: a b Interview: Mel Brooks. Blazing Saddles (DVD). Burbank, California: Warner Brothers Pictures/Warner Home Video, 2004. ISBN 0-7907-5735-4.
Jump up ^ Lozano, C (October 8, 1989). Death of a Drive-In : Pickwick Theater Shuts Down, Ending an Era for Burbank Moviegoers and Film Makers. LATimes.com, retrieved May 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Canby, Vincent (February 8, 1974). "Screen: 'Blazing Saddles', a Western in Burlesque". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (February 7, 1974). "Blazing Saddles". The Chicago Sun-Times.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles (1974)". Box Office Mojo. 1982-01-01. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles on Rotten Tomatoes". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2012-10-05.
Jump up ^ "Film | Most Promising Newcomer To Leading Film Roles in 1975" BAFTA
Jump up ^ "Film | Screenplay in 1975" BAFTA
^ Jump up to: a b "Blazing Saddles". IMDb.com. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs" (PDF). American Film Institute. Retrieved 2016-07-17.
Jump up ^ Black Bart on IMDb
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles press release at La-La Land Records". Lalalandrecords.com. Archived from the original on November 13, 2012. Retrieved 2012-11-01.
Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (November 3, 2015). "'Blazing Samurai' Lands A-List Voice Talent Led By Samuel L. Jackson". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved September 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles DVD". Blu-ray.com. 1997-06-25. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles Blu-ray". Blu-ray.com. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
Jump up ^ "Blazing Saddles Blu-ray". Blu-ray.com. Retrieved 2016-09-07.
Jump up ^ Sabur, Rozina (September 21, 2017). "'Stupidly politically correct society is the death of comedy', warns veteran comedian Mel Brooks". telegraph.co.uk. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved September 22, 2017. The director said he hopes he is able to recreate Blazing Saddles on the stage in the future.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Blazing Saddles
Blazing Saddles on IMDb
Blazing Saddles at the TCM Movie Database
Blazing Saddles at AllMovie
Blazing Saddles at the American Film Institute Catalog
Blazing Saddles at Box Office Mojo
Blazing Saddles at Rotten Tomatoes
[hide]
v
t
e
Mel Brooks
Awards and nominations
Films directed
The Producers (1967)
The Twelve Chairs (1970)
Blazing Saddles (1974)
Young Frankenstein (1974)
Silent Movie (1976)
High Anxiety (1977)
History of the World, Part I (1981)
Spaceballs (1987)
Life Stinks (1991)
Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993)
Dracula: Dead and Loving It (1995)
Films produced
To Be or Not to Be (1983)
84 Charing Cross Road (1987)
The Producers (2005)
Television series created
Get Smart (1965–1970)
When Things Were Rotten (1975)
The Nutt House (1989)
Spaceballs: The Animated Series (2008–2009)
Musicals written for the stage
Shinbone Alley (1957)
All-American (1962)
The Producers (2001)
Young Frankenstein (2007)
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Papez circuit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Papez circuit
The structures of the Papez circuit in the brain form a curved shape around the brainstem
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The Papez circuit /peɪpz/,[1][2][3] or medial limbic circuit, is a neural circuit for the control of emotional expression. In 1937, James Papez proposed that the circuit connecting the hypothalamus to the limbic lobe was the basis for emotional experiences. Paul D. MacLean reconceptualized Papez's proposal and coined the term limbic system. MacLean redefined the circuit as the "visceral brain" which consisted of the limbic lobe and its major connections in the forebrain – hypothalamus, amygdala, and septum. Over time, the concept of a forebrain circuit for the control of emotional expression has been modified to include the prefrontal cortex.
Recent studies show that it has a more significant role in memory functions than in emotions. Some of the structures that Papez originally described such as the hippocampus now appear to have little to do with emotional behavior.
Contents
1 Structure
2 Function
2.1 Emotion
2.2 Memory
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Alzheimer's disease
3.2 Parkinson's disease
3.3 Semantic dementia
3.4 Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome
3.5 Transient global amnesia
4 History
5 References
Structure[edit]
Caption: In a dissected brain, the inferior medial view shows the curved shape of the structures of the Papez circuit in the brain.
The Papez circuit involves various structures of the brain. It begins and ends with the hippocampus (or the hippocampal formation). Fiber dissection indicates that the average size of the circuit is 350 millimeters. The Papez circuit goes through the following neural pathways:
hippocampal formation (subiculum) → fornix → mammillary bodies → mammillothalamic tract → anterior thalamic nucleus → cingulum → entorhinal cortex → hippocampal formation.[4]
A photograph of the inferior medial view of the brain when dissected clearly shows the layout of the Papez circuit. Due to the location of the structures in the circuit, the resulting shape is a limbus. This is what drove MacLean to call the circuit the limbic system when he later modified the circuit.
Various studies indicate that the Papez circuit is greatly influenced by the cerebellum and that perhaps the hippocampus is not the starting point of the circuit. Anatomically, this would make sense since the cerebellum is connected to the circuit with many fine fibers and fiber bundles. Chemical lesions on the cerebellum seem to have an inhibitory effect on the circuit. Animal behavioral studies show that electrical stimulation of the anterior cerebellum can cause arousal, predatory attack, and feeding responses, all of which are thought to be expressions of emotion. Overall, these studies provide evidence that the cerebellum may also be included in an emotional system of the brain.[5]
Function[edit]
Emotion[edit]
A heuristic model of the neural pathway of the Papez circuit shows the connections between its different parts.
Based on Papez's experiment with aggression in rats and other studies, it was initially believed that the circuit was involved with emotion. The circuit connects the hypothalamus and the cortex and acts as the emotional system of the brain. "The cingulate cortex projects to the hippocampus, and the hippocampus projects to the hypothalamus by way of the bundle of axons called the fornix. Hypothalamic effects reach the cortex via a relay in the anterior thalamic nuclei."[6]
However, there has not been additional proof of the circuit's role in emotion over the years. Now, the Amygdala is thought to play a key role in emotion, a structure that was not a part of the Papez circuit until 1952 when MacLean included it in the modified version of the circuit, the limbic system.
Memory[edit]
In the past few years, many experiments have been done that involve structures of the Papez circuit. Moreover, many cases where structures of the Papez circuit have been damaged show changes that indicate its real function.
Theta waves are used to measure activity in mainly the hippocampus but can be used to measure other brain regions as well. Strong synchronization of theta waves in the hippocampus and anterior ventral thalamus has been observed. Although theta waves between the hippocampus and the anterior dorsal and anterior medial regions in the thalamus showed no synchronization, scientists have seen a marked increase in firing rates of the neurons in the brain regions.[7] Overall, based on theta wave experimentation, some components of the Papez circuit have shown to indeed have a connection and work together. Also, theta waves are thought to be linked to learning and memory. Consequently, many scientists believe that the Papez circuit is involved with memory because of theta wave experiments. Some scientists have narrowed it down to specifically spatial and episodic memory.[8][9]
Damage to the mammillothalamic tract, ventral anterior nucleus, and ventral lateral nucleus can result in memory and language impairment.[10] Amnesia can be a result of disconnection of the mammillary bodies from the Papez circuit.[11]
The fornix is a bundle of nerve tracts made of white matter. It is crucial in normal cognitive functions. Harm to the fornix can result in amnesia.[12]
Clinical significance[edit]
Caption: Compared to a healthy individual, Alzheimer's patients experience significantly more brain loss. The neurodegenerative effects of the disease can be seen by comparing the brains of a healthy individual and an Alzheimer's patient.
Alzheimer's disease[edit]
Alzheimer's disease is a common neurodegenerative disease and a form of dementia. It leaves patients impaired or unable to learn new information. They usually have difficulty coming up with the names of people, objects, etc. Degeneration or other neural problems because of this disease commonly occurs in parts of the Papez circuit. It is already known that problems with episodic memory are linked to tumors or damage in the Papez circuit. Specific structures of the Papez circuit linked to episodic memory are the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures. As a result of these adverse effects on episodic memory, damage to the Papez circuit can not only indicate or predict amnesia but also Alzheimer's in a patient.[13]
Parkinson's disease[edit]
Parkinson's disease is caused by the degeneration of the substantia nigra in the midbrain. There may also be damage to the structures of the Papez circuit in this disease. Usually, Parkinson's is correlated with depletion of dopamine in the basal ganglia.[14]
Semantic dementia[edit]
Semantic dementia is a rare degenerative disorder that exhibits defects in all semantic memory functions, including naming, single word comprehension and impoverished general knowledge, with relative preservation of other components of speech, perceptual and nonverbal problem-solving skills, and episodic memory. This may occur due to damage in the mammillary bodies, ventral anterior nucleus, and ventral lateral nucleus which has resulted in disruption in language in previous research.[10]
Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome[edit]
Alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome occurs when a chronic alcoholic patient suffers from poor nutrition and specifically develops a thiamine deficiency. Usually with this disease, there are widespread abnormalities in the Papez and fronto-cerebellar circuits.[15] The mammillary bodies are an important part of the Papez circuit. If there is damage, such as loss of neurons and/or myelination, to the mammillary bodies, the Papez circuit can be severely affected. There will be a disruption in the connecting parts of the system. As a result, the ability to learn new information or to retrieve recently acquired memories is significantly reduced or lost.
Transient global amnesia[edit]
Transient global amnesia is a very rare disorder and not much is known about it. Patients acutely develop a selective disorder of episodic memory, losing from several to 48 hours of previously learned information and are unable to learn new information. Damage to the hippocampus and other medial lobe structures in the Papez circuit is thought to be the cause of reduced or lost episodic memory.[9][14]
History[edit]
Neuroscientist Paul D. MacLean is famous for his work on the limbic system and its evolutionary history.
In 1907/1908, Bavarian neuropathologist Christfried Jakob discovered the visceral brain. By date, he held the "... first interpretation of the limbic or ‘internal’ brain as a viscero-emotional mechanism..." He traced the structures of the system based on degeneration experiments in apes and dogs as well as neurodegenerative diseases in humans.[16]
However, it was not until 1937 when James Papez studied this system in detail that it became famous. Papez had been studying cases of rabies which is a disease that causes high levels of aggression. He noticed that this heightened aggression correlated with damage to the hippocampus.[17] Theoretically, this made sense to Papez who asserted that the hippocampus is responsible for the expression of emotion because of its connection to the autonomic nervous system. He also noticed that in other cases, certain stimuli (taste, smell, pain, etc.) would cause strong emotional responses. These stimuli activated not only the hippocampus but also other brain structures. He theorized that these brain structures worked together as the emotional control center in the brain and consequently founded the Papez circuit.[18] Because of these studies, Papez strongly believed that the circuit was the cortical control of emotion.
Around the same time, Paul D. MacLean was also interested in the Papez circuit. He had read through Paul Broca's research which indicated that the limbic lobe that surrounds the brainstem is a structure present in all mammals. Papez's paper on the emotional circuit which involved the connection between the hypothalamus and the limbic lobe set MacLean on a journey to learn more. He visited Papez at Cornell University after which he proposed a modified version of the Papez circuit in 1952, emphasizing not only the hippocampus, but also the amygdala and septum.[19]
The hippocampus, amygdala, and septum make up the rhinencephalon (frontotemporal portion of the brain) or, as Jakob termed it, the visceral brain. Together, the limbic lobe and the visceral brain make up the limbic system. MacLean believed that including the visceral brain in the limbic system accounted for the external sensory information associated with subjective emotional experiences. Since the limbic system consists of evolutionary primitive structures which prevents its interpretation verbally, the visceral brain accounts for the visual, auditory, olfactory, and other external sensory inputs that are associated with emotions.[19]
Recently, many studies have been done to analyze the anatomy and function of the Papez circuit. Many scientists have been finding proof that the circuit is related to memory as well as emotion. The limbic system, the modified version of the circuit proposed by MacLean, is thought to be involved in the same functions as well as behavior, motivation, and olfaction.[20]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ MacLean, Paul D. (February 1–2, 1981). "James W. Papez Oral History Collection" (Interview: Audio). Interviewed by Kenneth E. Livingston. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ Greenberg, Stephen (October 24, 2016). "Pronunciation of James W. Papez according to Oral History Tapes housed in U.S. National Library of Medicine." (Interview: Telephone Conversation). Interviewed by James W. H. Sonne. [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Livingston, Kenneth E. James W. Papez Oral History Collection. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1981
Jump up ^ Shah, A., Jhawar, S. S., & Goel, A. (2012). Analysis of the anatomy of the Papez circuit and adjoining limbic system by fiber dissection techniques. [Article]. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 19(2), 289-298. doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2011.04.039.
Jump up ^ Snider, R. S., & Maiti, A. (1976). CEREBELLAR CONTRIBUTIONS TO PAPEZ CIRCUIT. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 2(2), 133-146. doi: 10.1002/jnr.490020204.
Jump up ^ Bear, Mark F., Connors, Barry W., & Paradiso, Michael A. (2006). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Jump up ^ Vertes, R. P., Albo, Z., & Di Prisco, G. V. (2001). Theta-rhythmically firing neurons in the anterior thalamus: Implications for mnemonic functions of Papez's circuit. [Letter]. Neuroscience, 104(3), 619-625. doi: 10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00131-2.
Jump up ^ Albo, Zimbul, Di Prisco, Gonzalo Viana, & Vertes, Robert P. (2011). Multisite Spike-Field Coherence, Theta Rhythmicity, and Information Flow Within Papez's Circuit. In R. P. Vertes & R. W. Stackman (Eds.), Electrophysiological Recording Techniques (Vol. 54, pp. 191-213): Humana Press Inc, 999 Riverview Dr, Ste 208, Totowa, NJ 07512-1165 USA.
^ Jump up to: a b Markowitsch, H. J. (1997). Varieties of memory: Systems, structures, mechanisms of disturbance. [Review]. Neurology Psychiatry and Brain Research, 5(1), 37-56.
^ Jump up to: a b Nishio, Y., Hashimoto, M., Ishii, K., & Mori, E. (2011). Neuroanatomy of a neurobehavioral disturbance in the left anterior thalamic infarction. [Article]. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 82(11), 1195-1200. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2010.236463.
Jump up ^ Beglinger, L. J., Haut, M. W., & Parsons, M. W. (2006). The role of the Mammillary bodies in memory: A case of amnesia following bilateral resection. [Article]. European Journal of Psychiatry, 20(2), 88-95.
Jump up ^ Thomas, A. G., Koumellis, P., & Dineen, R. A. (2011). The Fornix in Health and Disease: An Imaging Review. [Review]. Radiographics, 31(4), 1107-1121. doi: 10.1148/rg.314105729.
Jump up ^ Carlesimo, G. A. (2012). Memory disorders in patients with cerebral tumors. Journal of Neuro-Oncology, 108(2), 253-256. doi: 10.1007/s11060-012-0825-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Budson, A., & Price, B. (2001). Memory: Clinical Disorders Encyclopedia of Life Sciences: Macmillan Publishers Ltd, Nature Publishing Group.
Jump up ^ Pitel, A. L., Aupee, A. M., Chetelat, G., Mezenge, F., Beaunieux, H., de la Sayette, V., . . . Desgranges, B. (2009). Morphological and Glucose Metabolism Abnormalities in Alcoholic Korsakoff's Syndrome: Group Comparisons and Individual Analyses. [Article]. PLoS ONE, 4(11). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007748.
Jump up ^ Triarhou, L. C. (2008). Centenary of Christfried Jakob's discovery of the visceral brain: An unheeded precedence in affective neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(5), 984-1000. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.03.013
Jump up ^ Eysenck, M. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective: Taylor & Francis.
Jump up ^ Klein, S. B., & Thorne, B. M. (2006). Biological Psychology: Worth Publishers.
^ Jump up to: a b Newman, J. D., & Harris, J. C. (2009). The Scientific Contributions of Paul D. MacLean (1913-2007). The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197(1).
Jump up ^ Medline Plus Medical Encyclopedia
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Papez circuit pathway
Diencephalon
Mammillary body → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior nuclei of thalamus →
Telencephalon
Anterior limb of internal capsule → Cingulate gyrus → Cingulum → Parahippocampal gyrus → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus/Hippocampal formation (CA3 → CA1 → Subiculum) → Fornix →
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text:
Germ layer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Germ cell
A germ layer is a primary layer of cells that form during embryogenesis.[1] The three germ layers in vertebrates are particularly pronounced; however, all eumetazoans, (animals more complex than the sponge) produce two or three primary germ layers. Animals with radial symmetry, like cnidarians, produce two germ layers (the ectoderm and endoderm) making them diploblastic. Animals with bilateral symmetry produce a third layer (the mesoderm), between these two layers. making them triploblastic. Germ layers eventually give rise to all of an animal’s tissues and organs through the process of organogenesis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Germ layers
1.1 Development
1.2 Endoderm
1.3 Mesoderm
1.4 Ectoderm
1.5 Neural crest
2 See also
3 References
Germ layers[edit]
Gastrulation of a diploblast: The formation of germ layers from a (1) blastula to a (2) gastrula. Some of the ectoderm cells (orange) move inward forming the endoderm (red).
Micrograph of a teratoma, a tumour that characteristically has tissue from all three germ layers. The image shows tissue derived from the mesoderm (immature cartilage - left-upper corner of image), endoderm (gastrointestinal glands - center-bottom of image) and ectoderm (epidermis - right of image). H&E stain.
Caspar Friedrich Wolff observed organization of the early embryo in leaf-like layers. In 1817, Heinz Christian Pander discovered three primordial germ layers while studying chick embryos. Between 1850 and 1855, Robert Remak had further refined the germ cell layer concept, and introduced into English were the terms "mesoderm" by Huxley in 1871 and "ectoderm" and "endoderm" by Lankester in 1873.
Among animals, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Although they have differentiated cells (e.g. collar cells), they lack true tissue coordination. Diploblastic animals, Cnidaria and Ctenophora, show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm. Diploblastic animals are organized into recognisable tissues. All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) are triploblastic, possessing a mesoderm in addition to the germ layers found in Diploblasts. Triploblastic animals develop recognizable organs.
Development[edit]
Fertilization leads to the formation of a zygote. During the next stage, cleavage, mitotic cell divisions transform the zygote into a hollow ball of cells, a blastula. This early embryonic form undergoes gastrulation, forming a gastrula with either two or three layers (the germ layers). In all vertebrates, these progenitor cells differentiate into all adult tissues and organs.[2]
In the human embryo, after about three days, the zygote forms a solid mass of cells by mitotic division, called a morula. This then changes to a blastocyst, consisting of an outer layer called a trophoblast, and an inner cell mass called the embryoblast. Filled with uterine fluid, the blastocyst breaks out of the zona pellucida and undergoes implantation. The inner cell mass initially has two layers: the hypoblast and epiblast. At the end of the second week, a primitive streak appears. The epiblast in this region moves towards the primitive streak, dives down into it, and forms a new layer, called the endoderm, pushing the hypoblast out of the way (this goes on to form the amnion.) The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the mesoderm. The top layer is now called the ectoderm.[3]
Endoderm[edit]
The endoderm produces tissue within the lungs, thyroid, and pancreas.
Main article: Endoderm
The endoderm is one of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the endoderm.
The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tract except part of the mouth and pharynx and the terminal part of the rectum (which are lined by involutions of the ectoderm). It also forms the lining cells of all the glands which open into the digestive tract, including those of the liver and pancreas; the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity; the trachea, bronchi, and alveoli of the lungs; the bladder and part of the urethra; and the follicle lining of the thyroid gland and thymus.
The endoderm forms: the stomach, the colon, the liver, the pancreas, the bladder, the epithelial parts of trachea, the lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid, and the intestines.
Mesoderm[edit]
The mesoderm aids in the production of cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, tissues within the kidneys, and red blood cells.
Main article: Mesoderm
The mesoderm germ layer forms in the embryos of triploblastic animals. During gastrulation, some of the cells migrating inward contribute to the mesoderm, an additional layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm.[citation needed] The formation of a mesoderm leads to the development of a coelom. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.[citation needed]
The mesoderm has several components which develop into tissues: intermediate mesoderm, paraxial mesoderm, lateral plate mesoderm, and chorda-mesoderm. The chorda-mesoderm develops into the notochord. The intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. The paraxial mesoderm develops into cartilage, skeletal muscle, and dermis. The lateral plate mesoderm develops into the circulatory system (including the heart and spleen), the wall of the gut, and wall of the human body.[4]
Through cell signaling cascades and interactions with the ectodermal and endodermal cells, the mesodermal cells begin the process of differentiation.[5]
The mesoderm forms: muscle (smooth and striated), bone, cartilage, connective tissue, adipose tissue, circulatory system, lymphatic system, dermis, genitourinary system, serous membranes, and notochord.
Ectoderm[edit]
The ectoderm produces tissues within the epidermis, aids in the formation of neurons within the brain, and constructs melanocytes.
Main article: Ectoderm
The ectoderm generates the outer layer of the embryo, and it forms from the embryo's epiblast.[6] The ectoderm develops into the surface ectoderm, neural crest, and the neural tube.[7]
The surface ectoderm develops into: epidermis, hair, nails, lens of the eye, sebaceous glands, cornea, tooth enamel, the epithelium of the mouth and nose.
The neural crest of the ectoderm develops into: peripheral nervous system, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage, dentin of teeth.
The neural tube of the ectoderm develops into: brain, spinal cord, posterior pituitary, motor neurons, retina.
Note: The anterior pituitary develops from the ectodermal tissue of Rathke's pouch.
Neural crest[edit]
Because of its great importance, the neural crest is sometimes considered a fourth germ layer.[8] It is, however, derived from the ectoderm.
See also[edit]
Histogenesis
Neurulation
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2000). "Comparative Embryology". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2000). "Early Mammalian Development". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "Paraxial and Intermediate Mesoderm". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Brand, Thomas (1 June 2003). "Heart development: molecular insights into cardiac specification and early morphogenesis". Developmental Biology. 258 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00112-X.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "Early Mammalian Development". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F (2003). "The Central Nervous System and The Epidermis". Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Hall BK (2000). "The neural crest as a fourth germ layer and vertebrates as quadroblastic not triploblastic". Evolution & Development. 2: 3–5. doi:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00032.x. PMID 11256415.
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Human embryogenesis in the first three weeks
Week 1
Fertilization
Oocyte activation
Zygote
Cleavage
Blastomere
Morula
Blastocoele
Blastocyst
Blastula
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Week 2
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Fourth Estate
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Category: Journalism
v
t
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The Fourth Estate (or fourth power) is a segment of society that wields an indirect but significant influence on society even though it is not a formally recognized part of the political system.[1] The most commonly recognized part of the fourth estate is the news media, or press.
The term fourth estate derives from traditional European concept of the three estates of the realm: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The equivalent term fourth power is somewhat uncommon in English but is used in many European languages (see: es:Cuarto poder and fr:Quatrième pouvoir, for example) referring to the separation of powers in government into a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 The press
2.1 The networked Fourth Estate
3 Alternative meanings
3.1 In European law
3.2 Nigeria
3.3 The proletariat
3.4 British queens consort
4 Fiction
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
Origins[edit]
Thomas Carlyle attributed the origin of the term to Edmund Burke, who used it in a parliamentary debate in 1787 on the opening up of press reporting of the House of Commons of Great Britain.[2] Earlier writers have applied the term to lawyers, to the British queens consort (acting as a free agent, independent of the king), and to the proletariat.
The press[edit]
In current use, the term is applied to the press,[3] with the earliest use in this sense described by Thomas Carlyle in his book On Heroes and Hero Worship: "Burke said there were Three Estates in Parliament; but, in the Reporters' Gallery yonder, there sat a Fourth Estate more important far than they all."[4]
In Burke's 1787 coining, he would have been making reference to the traditional three estates of Parliament: The Lords Spiritual, the Lords Temporal and the Commons.[5] If, indeed, Burke did make the statement Carlyle attributes to him, the remark may have been in the back of Carlyle's mind when he wrote in his French Revolution (1837) that "A Fourth Estate, of Able Editors, springs up; increases and multiplies, irrepressible, incalculable."[6] In this context, the other three estates are those of the French States-General: the church, the nobility and the townsmen.[5] Carlyle, however, may have mistaken his attribution: Thomas Macknight, writing in 1858, observes that Burke was merely a teller at the "illustrious nativity of the Fourth Estate".[7] If Burke is excluded, other candidates for coining the term are Henry Brougham speaking in Parliament in 1823 or 1824[8] and Thomas Macaulay in an essay of 1828 reviewing Hallam's Constitutional History: "The gallery in which the reporters sit has become a fourth estate of the realm."[9] In 1821, William Hazlitt (whose son, also named William Hazlitt, was another editor of Michel de Montaigne—see below) had applied the term to an individual journalist, William Cobbett, and the phrase soon became well established.[10][11]
Oscar Wilde wrote:
In old days men had the rack. Now they have the Press. That is an improvement certainly. But still it is very bad, and wrong, and demoralizing. Somebody — was it Burke? — called journalism the fourth estate. That was true at the time no doubt. But at the present moment it is the only estate. It has eaten up the other three. The Lords Temporal say nothing, the Lords Spiritual have nothing to say, and the House of Commons has nothing to say and says it. We are dominated by Journalism.[12]
In United States English, the phrase "fourth estate" is contrasted with the "fourth branch of government", a term that originated because no direct equivalents to the estates of the realm exist in the United States. The "fourth estate" is used to emphasize the independence of the press, while the "fourth branch" suggests that the press is not independent of the government.[13]
The networked Fourth Estate[edit]
Yochai Benkler, author of the 2006 book The Wealth of Networks, described the "Networked Fourth Estate" in a May 2011 paper published in the Harvard Civil Liberties Review.[14] He explains the growth of non-traditional journalistic media on the Internet and how it affects the traditional press using Wikileaks as an example. When Benkler was asked to testify in the United States vs. PFC Bradley E. Manning trial, in his statement to the morning 10 July 2013 session of the trial he described the Networked Fourth Estate as the set of practices, organizing models, and technologies that are associated with the free press and provide a public check on the branches of government.[15][16][17]:28–29 It differs from the traditional press and the traditional fourth estate in that it has a diverse set of actors instead of a small number of major presses. These actors include small for-profit media organizations, non-profit media organizations, academic centers, and distributed networks of individuals participating in the media process with the larger traditional organizations.[15]:99–100
Alternative meanings[edit]
In European law[edit]
In 1580 Montaigne proposed that governments should hold in check a fourth estate of lawyers selling justice to the rich and denying it to rightful litigants who do not bribe their way to a verdict:[18][19]
What is more barbarous than to see a nation [...] where justice is lawfully denied him, that hath not wherewithall [sic] to pay for it; and that this merchandize hath so great credit, that in a politicall government there should be set up a fourth estate [tr. French: quatriesme estat (old orthography), quatrième état (modern)] of Lawyers, breathsellers and pettifoggers [...].
—  Michel de Montaigne, in the translation by John Florio, 1603
Nigeria[edit]
In the context of Nigeria, the fourth estate refers to the news media with the first three estates referring to the three arms of government; the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.
The proletariat[edit]
Il quarto stato (1901): a march of strikers in Turin, Italy
An early citation for this is Henry Fielding in The Covent Garden Journal (1752):
None of our political writers ... take notice of any more than three estates, namely, Kings, Lords, and Commons ... passing by in silence that very large and powerful body which form the fourth estate in this community ... The Mob.[20]
(This is an early use of "mob" to mean the mobile vulgus, the common masses.)
This sense has prevailed in other countries: In Italy, for example, striking workers in 1890s Turin were depicted as Il quarto stato—The Fourth Estate—in a painting by Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo.[21] A political journal of the left, Quarto Stato, published in Milan, Italy, in 1926, also reflected this meaning.[22]
Far-right theorist Julius Evola saw the Fourth Estate as the final point of his historical cycle theory, the regression of the castes:
[T]here are four stages: in the first stage, the elite has a purely spiritual character, embodying what may be generally called "divine right." This elite expresses an ideal of immaterial virility. In the second stage, the elite has the character of warrior nobility; at the third stage we find the advent of oligarchies of a plutocratic and capitalistic nature, such as they arise in democracies; the fourth and last elite is that of the collectivist and revolutionary leaders of the Fourth Estate.
—  Julius Evola, Men Among The Ruins, p. 164
British queens consort[edit]
In a parliamentary debate of 1789 Thomas Powys, 1st Baron Lilford, MP, demanded of minister William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham that he should not allow powers of regency to "a fourth estate: the queen".[23] This was reported by Burke, who, as noted above, went on to use the phrase with the meaning of "press".
Fiction[edit]
In his novel The Fourth Estate, Jeffrey Archer wrote: "In May 1789, Louis XVI summoned to Versailles a full meeting of the 'Estates General'. The First Estate consisted of three hundred clergy. The Second Estate, three hundred nobles. The Third Estate, six hundred commoners." The book is a fictionalization from episodes in the lives of two real-life Press Barons, Robert Maxwell and Rupert Murdoch.
See also[edit]
Fourth branch of government
Freedom of the press
Estates of the realm
First Estate
Second Estate
Third Estate
Fifth Estate
Fourth Estate (association)
List of newspapers in the United States
Videocracy
Thomas Carlyle
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "fourth estate". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. Retrieved Jun 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Schultz, Julianne (1998). Reviving the fourth estate. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-521-62970-6.
Jump up ^ "estate, n, 7b". Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1989.
Jump up ^ Carlyle, Thomas (19 May 1840). "Lecture V: The Hero as Man of Letters. Johnson, Rousseau, Burns". On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History. Six Lectures. Reported with emendations and additions (Dent, 1908 ed.). London: James Fraser. p. 392. OCLC 2158602.
^ Jump up to: a b OED: "estate, n, 6a"
Jump up ^ "The French Revolution". London: Griffith Farrane Browne. pp. 146–148. Archived from the original on 22 January 2000. Retrieved 12 November 2009. |chapter= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Macknight, Thomas (1858). History of the life and times of Edmund Burke. 1. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 462. OCLC 3565018.
Jump up ^ Ross, Charles (9 June 1855). "Replies to Minor Queries". Notes and Queries. London: William Thoms. 11 (294): 452. Ross (October 1800–6 December 1884) was chief parliamentary reporter for The Times.
Jump up ^ Macaulay, Thomas (September 1828). "Hallam's constitutional history". The Edinburgh Review. London: Longmans. 48: 165.
Jump up ^ Hazlitt, William (1835). Character of W. Cobbett M. P. Finsbury, London: J Watson. p. 3. OCLC 4451746. He is too much for any single newspaper antagonist...He is a kind of fourth estate in the politics of the country.
Jump up ^ de Montaigne, Michel; Cotton, Charles (1680). Hazlitt, William, ed. The Complete Works of Michael de Montaigne (1842 ed.). London: J Templeman.
Jump up ^ Wilde, Oscar (February 1891). "The Soul of Man under Socialism". Fortnightly Review. 49 (290): 292–319.
Jump up ^ Martin A. Lee and Norman Solomon. Unreliable Sources (New York, NY: Lyle Stuart, 1990) ISBN 0-8184-0521-X
Jump up ^ Benkler, Yochai (2011). "Free Irresponsible Press: Wikileaks and the Battle over the Soul of the Networked Fourth Estate" (PDF). Harv. CR-CLL Rev. 46: 311. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "US vs Bradley Manning, Volume 17 July 10, 2013 Afternoon Session". Freedom of the Press Foundation: Transcripts from Bradley Manning's Trial. 10 July 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2014. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
Jump up ^ https://pressfreedomfoundation.org/sites/default/files/07-10-13-pm-session.pdf
Jump up ^ "US vs Bradley Manning, Volume 17 July 10, 2013 Morning Session" (PDF). Freedom of the Press Foundation: Transcripts from Bradley Manning's Trial. 10 July 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-12. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
Jump up ^ John Florio (tr.) (1603), Michel de Montaigne, 1, Folio Society (published 2006), p. 104
Jump up ^ For a more recent translation, see Hazlitt's edition of 1842:"What can be more outrageous than to see a nation where, by lawful custom, the office of a Judge is to be bought and sold, where judgments are paid for with ready money, and where justice may be legally denied him that has not the wherewithal [sic] to pay...a fourth estate of wrangling lawyers to add to the three ancient ones of the church, nobility and people, which fourth estate, having the laws in their hands, and sovereign power over men's lives and fortunes, make a body separate from the nobility." (Hazlitt 1842: 45)
Jump up ^ Fielding, Henry (13 June 1752). "O ye wicked rascallions". Covent Garden Journal. London (47). , Quoted in OED "estate, n, 7b".
Jump up ^ Paulicelli, Eugenia (2001). Barański, Zygmunt G.; West, Rebecca J., eds. The Cambridge companion to modern Italian culture. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-521-55982-9. For his painting, Pellizza transferred the action to his home village of Volpedo.
Jump up ^ Pugliese, Stanislao G. (1999). Carlo Rosselli: Socialist Heretic and Antifascist Exile. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-674-00053-7.
Jump up ^ Edmund Burke, ed. (1792). Dodsley's Annual Register for 1789. 31. London: J Dodsley. p. 112. The Whigs in parliament supported the transfer of power to the Regent, rather than the sick king's consort, Queen Charlotte.
External links[edit]
"The Fourth Estate", Section V of French Revolution by Thomas Carlyle, as posted in the online library of World Wide School
Look up fourth estate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fourth_Estate&oldid=834050577"
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values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: السلطة الرابعة – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: رکن چهارم مشروطیت – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Չորրորդ իշխանություն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: Төртінші билік – Kazakh

values: द फोर्थ इस्टेट – Marathi

values: Четвёртая власть – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: ฐานันดรที่สี่ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Четверта влада – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

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