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Coles Group
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For the supermarket chain, see Coles Supermarkets.
For supposedly the current entity, see Wesfarmers.
For the demerged subsidiary, see Myer.
Coles Group Limited
Successor
Wesfarmers
(November 2007 - present)
Founded
1914 – Business
1929 – Public Company
1986 – Coles Myer
2006 – Coles Group
2007 – acquired by Wesfarmers
Headquarters
Hawthorn East, Victoria, Australia
Products
Retail and consumer services
Subsidiaries
Coles Supermarkets, Bi-Lo, Pick 'n Pay Hypermarkets, Coles Express, Coles Central, Coles Select, Coles Hotels, Liquorland, Vintage Cellars, 1st Choice Liquor Superstore, Officeworks, Kmart, Kmart Tyre & Auto Service, Target, Target Country, Target Home, Harris Technology
Website
www.colesgroup.com.au
Coles Group Limited (formerly Coles Myer Limited) was an Australian public company that operated numerous retail chains. It was Australia's second-largest retailer, behind Woolworths Limited. It was acquired by Western Australian public company Wesfarmers, with transfer of ownership on 23 November 2007. The corporate operations ceased at head office in Melbourne from that point, now based at Wesfarmers head office in Perth.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Coles
1.2 Myer
1.3 Merger of GJ Coles and Myer
1.4 After the merger
1.5 Sale of Myer
1.6 Sale of Coles Group
2 Businesses
2.1 Everyday Needs Businesses
2.2 Other brands
3 References
History[edit]
Coles[edit]
In 1914, the first Coles "variety store" was opened in Melbourne. Coles was founded in 1914 by George Coles when he opened what was called the "Coles Variety Store" in Smith Street in the Melbourne suburb of Collingwood.[1] More stores opened and the chain was regarded as the leaders in providing value to Australian shoppers. The building formerly occupied by the original Coles Variety Store is now the location of a Woolworths outlet - the major competitor to Coles.
Coles was run in succession by members of the Coles family from 1914 until the mid-1970s by the "famous five knights", brothers Sir George, Sir Arthur, Sir Edgar, Sir Kenneth and Sir Norman — known by their first initials — GJ, AW, EB, KF, NC.[2]
In 1960, the first supermarket was opened in the Melbourne suburb of North Balwyn and in 1973, a Coles store had been established in all capital cities of the country.
Kmart Australia Limited was born out of a joint venture between G.J Coles & Coy (Coles) and Kmart Corporation in the US. The first store opened in the Melbourne suburb of Burwood in 1969.[3]
In 1978 Coles acquired full ownership of the Australian K-Mart operation and in 1994 bought back all shares Kmart Corporation held in Coles Myer.
A long-term licensing agreement allows Coles Group to use the Kmart name. Kmart New Zealand shares merchandise and branding with Kmart Australia, and is owned by Coles Group Holdings New Zealand.
In Australia, BI-LO was established by John Weekes in Adelaide during the late 1970s. It is a major supermarket chain owned and operated by retail giant Coles Group in parallel to Coles Supermarkets. It has more than 200 stores in Australia.
A new head office opened in 1987 at Hawthorn East, Melbourne. As of 2008, it remained the head office for Coles Supermarkets and associated subsidiaries.
In 1996, BI-LO acquired the six-store Newmart discount supermarket chain in Western Australia which then became the equivalent to BI-LO in Western Australia. By August 2002, it grew to 16 stores before being transferred to the management and being re branded as Coles, though some stores were sold off to Foodland Associated Limited and became Action Supermarkets.
Myer[edit]
See also: Myer
Sidney Myer arrived in Melbourne in 1899, working briefly at a drapery store before moving to Bendigo where he and his partner, Jacob Slonim, opened the first store in 1900. A second store opened in 1908. In 1911 Myer bought a drapery store in Bourke Street, Melbourne, which later became the flagship Myer store, the Myer Emporium. Myer expanded to Adelaide, acquiring a shareholding in Marshall's department store in 1925, later renaming this company as Myer SA Stores Ltd. Expansion across Australia followed.[4] (Myer was bought from Coles Myer in 2006 causing the name change to Coles Group.)
Merger of GJ Coles and Myer[edit]
Both chains grew throughout Australia through growth and acquisitions, and both independently listed on the Australian Stock Exchange.
By the 1980s, Coles primarily operated supermarkets, whilst Myer operated a chain of mid-market department stores, as well as the Target Discount variety store chain in Australia. In August 1985, the Myer Emporium Ltd and GJ Coles & Coy Ltd merged,[5] becoming the largest ever Australian Corporation.[6] The official name change to "Coles Myer Limited" followed in January 1986.[7]
Coles Group was previously known as Coles Myer (1986-2006)
After the merger[edit]
The office stationery chain Officeworks, based on the US chain Office Depot, was established in 1993 with the first store opening in the Melbourne suburb of Richmond in June 1994. This represented a successful introduction of a "category killer" - by comparison, around the same time Coles unsuccessfully attempted to negate the arrival of Toys R Us with the short-lived chain World 4 Kids.
In 1996, the operations of Target and Fosseys (earlier "Coles Fosseys") merged and the first Baby Target speciality store was opened, followed in 1998 by Target Home. In 1999, regional Fosseys stores were re-badged as Target Country, with metropolitan stores closed. Following Target's operating loss of $43m in 2001, the chain's format was repositioned to compete less with Kmart, Woolworths Limited's Big W, Harris Scarfe and The Warehouse, and more with Myer, with a focus on "middle class" quality products, especially clothing and home wares.
In 1998, Coles Myer opened the first Megamart store, in Coorparoo, Queensland. Harris Technology, a computer hardware and software reseller started by Ron Harris in 1986, was acquired in 1999.
By 2001, Coles Myer planned to expand the Megamart chain of furniture and electrical stores, but by 2005 had decided to divest the struggling chain. Six of the nine stores were sold to competitor Harvey Norman, with the remainder closed.
In 2001, the Company appointed John Fletcher, formerly of Brambles, as chief executive. Fletcher engineered a brief turnaround in the company's fortunes. Fletcher abolished the shareholder discount card, on the basis that it had eroded margins while providing little benefit, and was unpopular with institutional investors. Since their introduction in the early 1990s, the card had induced a tenfold increase in the number of Coles Myer's shareholders, with the overwhelming majority owning only small parcels of shares.[8]
Fletcher also engineered the acquisition of the retail fuel operations of Shell Australia with the fuel outlets rebranded as Coles Express, allowing Coles Group to counter the success of Woolworths' discount petrol operation. Woolworths subsequently gained entry to part of Caltex Australia's network to provide a recognised brand for its fuel offer.
Sale of Myer[edit]
In August 2005, Coles Myer called for expressions of interest in selling the perennially under-performing Myer department store business. There was significant interest from both Australian and overseas investors, including the Myer family. On 13 March 2006, Coles Myer announced it would sell Myer to a consortium largely controlled by US private equity group Newbridge Capital, part of the Texas Pacific Group. The Myer family retained a 5% stake. Texas Pacific had interests in UK department store Debenhams and high-end US retailer Neiman Marcus. The sale was completed in June 2006.
With the sale of Myer, the parent company received shareholder approval to rename as Coles Group Ltd, effective 27 November 2006.
Sale of Coles Group[edit]
Coles Group planned to rebrand its assorted holdings under the Coles name, with plans to have all holdings other than Officeworks and Target rebranded by late 2007. This plan was not well received by investors, most of whom reportedly believed that such a significant change to the flagship supermarkets business would be too risky and cause an eventual decline in market share. (The plan was eventually put on hold in March 2007 due to the proposed sale of Coles Group.) [9]
In August 2006, Coles announced that a group of private equity companies led by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. (KKR) was looking to buy the company, with an initial proposal of $14.50 per share. The Coles board rejected the offer stating it significantly undervalued the company, and was conditional on a due diligence process, without a guarantee that the deal would go ahead. A second proposal of $15.25 per share in October 2006 was rejected for largely the same reasons.[10]
In November 2006, long-term senior supermarkets executive Peter Scott was dismissed for an unspecified breach of the company's code of conduct.[11]
On 23 February 2007, the company announced a downgrade of expected earnings and that it was considering ownership options, including the possibility of a full sale of the business or a restructuring such as a demerger.[12] On 20 March 2007, it deferred its plans to rebrand Kmart under the Coles banner and create supercentres, and subsequently paused its conversion of BI-LO stores to Coles Supermarkets given the lack of success of this move.
On 23 March, Coles Group stated it planned to sell its businesses as either an entire package, or in three parts (Officeworks, Target and the remaining businesses Kmart, Coles, Bi-Lo, Liquorland, Vintage Cellars and First Choice Liquor).[13]
On 3 April, Solomon Lew, the former chairman and long-time antagonist of the current board and management team, sold his 5.8% shareholding of the company. A large portion of these shares were bought by Wesfarmers, which was believed to be part of a consortium of bidders including Macquarie Bank, PEP and Permira. The share price at which the transaction took place was reportedly $16.47, then 2.2% above the market price. A bid for the entire company at this price would have valued Coles Group at A$19.7 billion, well above the two KKR proposals announced in 2006.[14]
In May 2007, Coles reported its slowest sales growth in at least seven years with continuing poor performance from Coles Supermarkets and Kmart.[15]
On 2 July 2007, Wesfarmers announced it intended to buy Coles Group for $22 billion, the largest take-over bid in Australia. The sale was expected to be completed in October 2007.[16]
In August 2007, Wesfarmers foreshadowed its plans for the restructuring of Coles Group following its anticipated takeover, including investment of A$5 billion, establishing three separate divisions (including a combined Bunnings/Officeworks "big box" retailing division), the possible sale of Kmart, and the exit of Coles Group from its head office base at Tooronga.[17]
The independent expert report published in October 2007, advising shareholders preparatory to the proposed sale was critical of the culture within Coles Group.[18]
At a shareholder meeting in Melbourne on 7 November 2007, shareholders voted overwhelmingly with 99.25% approval of the sale of Coles Group to Wesfarmers.[19] The Scheme of Arrangement between Coles Group and its shareholders was approved by the Supreme Court of Victoria on 9 November 2007, the last day Coles Group shares traded on the Australian Securities Exchange. The Scheme was implemented on 23 November 2007,[20] ending Coles Group as a company with its subsidiaries merged into Wesfarmers' business structure.[21]
Businesses[edit]
Everyday Needs Businesses[edit]
The Everyday Needs businesses encompassed retail outlets that were frequently shopped at by customers including supermarkets, liquor and general merchandise.
Coles Supermarkets: the second-largest supermarket chain in Australia.
BI-LO: a budget supermarket chain. Until 2001, Bi-Lo traded as Newmart in Western Australia. In August 2006 Coles Group began to re-brand BI-LO stores as Coles Supermarket or divested them, but this activity was placed on hold in 2007 pending the sale of Coles Group.
Liquorland: Liquor chain, with some outlets attached to Coles or Bi-Lo Supermarkets, but run separately. Also operates some hotels via a subsidiary.
Vintage Cellars: Liquor chain with an orientation towards fine wines
1st Choice Liquor Superstore: Liquor chain comprising larger stores which compete more directly with Woolworths' Dan Murphy's
Pick 'n Pay Hypermarket: two "hypermarkets" located in suburbs of Brisbane. (Rebranded to Coles and Kmart in late 2012)
Kmart: chain of discount department stores, originally 51% owned by the US S.S. Kresge Company (later Kmart Corporation), but bought out by Coles Myer in 1994. Kmart also operates the automotive servicing brand Kmart Tyre & Auto Service. Until 2006, Kmart also operated a Garden Super Centre brand. In August 2006 Coles Group announced that Kmart would be replaced by the Coles brand, but this plan was deferred in March 2007 pending the sale of Coles Group.
Coles Express: re branded Shell service stations offering convenience stores and fuel products. Before Coles Myer Ltd took over Shell service stations, Coles Express was the name used for smaller, inner-urban Coles supermarkets which are now known as Coles Central.
Kmart Tyre & Auto Service: car servicing outlets. All Shell Autoserv outlets attached to Shell petrol stations were bought by the Kmart Tyre & Auto Service business in early 2006.
Other brands[edit]
Officeworks: Large office supplies network, stocking stationery, office and school supplies, computer hardware and software, and office furniture.
Harris Technology: Computer hardware and software reseller with strong online presence, oriented towards corporate customers.
Target: chain of discount department stores whose name and logo was originally purchased from Target Corporation by Myer Emporium Limited in 1968. Target Australia is otherwise not related to Target Corporation. Operates in some regional areas as "Target Country", smaller stores which were previously branded "Fosseys".
Coles Group was a partner with National Australia Bank in Loyalty Pacific, which operated the flybuys loyalty program until Coles purchased 100% of the program in 2011.
Coles SuperCentres were planned to open from September 2007, with many sourced from either existing Pick 'n Pay Hypermarkets or former 'Super K' stores, which were divided in the 1990s into separate Coles and Kmart stores. However these plans were put on hold in March 2007 pending the sale of Coles Group.[9] Then in August 2007, Wesfarmers CEO Richard Goyder said super centres would almost certainly not be part of the Wesfarmers approach after taking over Coles Group.[22]
Coles Group Limited was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange with the code CGJ, which references back to its first ever registered company name of G.J. Coles & Coy Proprietary Limited. The company has in the past been listed on the NYSE (de-listed 6 January 2006), the New Zealand Stock Exchange (de-listed 1989) and The London Stock Exchange.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Coles Myer Ltd. - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Coles Myer Ltd". www.referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Mixed legacy of Coles' new world". The Age, Melbourne. 8 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "George James Coles". Only Melbourne. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
Jump up ^ * "Dictionary of Australian Biography (Sidney Myer)". Retrieved 2007-09-18.
Jump up ^ "COLES GROUP LIMITED HISTORY OF SHARE ISSUES SINCE INTRODUCTION OF AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL GAINS TAX" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Myer family clears way for Coles $1.12bn bid". Sydney Morning Herald. 7 August 1985.
Jump up ^ "Coles Myer Ltd". Funding Universe. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
Jump up ^ White, Robert; Bruce Tranter; Dallas Hanson (2004). "Share Ownership in Australia: The Emergence of New Tensions?". Journal Article Excerpt from Journal of Sociology, Vol. 40, 2004. Questia. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Coles defers supercentre strategy as sell-off looms". New Zealand Herald. 20 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Inside Business - Peter Morgan on Coles Myer's rejection of takeover bid". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 October 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Coles sacks supermarkets executive over supplier deals". The Age, Melbourne. 18 November 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Press Release - Coles Group Market Update" (PDF). Coles Group. 23 February 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Break-up tipped to start next week as Coles prepares for $20 billion sale". The Age, Melbourne. 2007-03-23. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Surprise rival bid puts heat on KKR". The Age, Melbourne. 2007-04-03. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Coles Group sales growth reaches 7-year low". International Herald Tribune. 18 May 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Coles sold for $22 billion". Herald Sun, Melbourne. 2 July 2007. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
Jump up ^ "Wesfarmers plans Coles investment, restructuring". Reuters. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
Jump up ^ "Coles chief hits the target but pays the price". The Australian. 2 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-09.
Jump up ^ "Coles Shareholders vote in favour of Scheme of Arrangement" (PDF) (Press release). Coles Group Limited. 7 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Wesfarmers officially takes over Coles". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 23 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Senior Management Appointments" (PDF) (Press release). Wesfarmers Limited. 8 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ "'Mini-Kmarts' to hold off rivals". Australian Financial Review. 20 August 2007. p. 15.
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text:
Clark electrode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A schematic representation of Clark's 1962 invention, the Oxygen Electrode
The Clark electrode[1][2] is an electrode that measures ambient oxygen concentration in a liquid using a catalytic platinum surface according to the net reaction:[3]
O2 + 4 e− + 4 H+ → 2 H2O
It improves on a bare platinum electrode by use of a membrane to reduce fouling and metal plating onto the platinum.[4]
Contents
1 History
2 Mechanism of Action
3 Applications
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
Leland Clark (Professor of Chemistry, Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio, and Fels Research Institute, Yellow Springs, Ohio) had developed the first bubble oxygenator for use in cardiac surgery. However, when he came to publish his results, his article was refused by the editor since the oxygen tension in the blood coming out from the device could not be measured. This motivated Clark to develop the oxygen electrode.[5]
The electrode, when implanted in vivo, will reduce oxygen and thus required stirring in order to maintain an equilibrium with the environment. Severinghaus improved the design by adding a stirred cuvette in a thermostat. A discrepancy between the measured partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) between blood samples and gaseous mixtures of identical pO2, meant that the modified electrode required calibration; consequently a microtonometer was added to the water thermostat.[5]
Mechanism of Action[edit]
The electrode compartment is isolated from the reaction chamber by a thin Teflon membrane; the membrane is permeable to molecular oxygen and allows this gas to reach the cathode, where it is electrolytically reduced.
The above reaction requires a steady stream of electrons to the cathode, which depends on the rate at which oxygen can reach the electrode surface. Increasing the voltage applied (between the Pt electrode and a second Ag electrode) will increase the rate of electrocatalysis. Clark affixed an oxygen permselective membrane over the Pt electrode. This limits the diffusion rate of oxygen to the Pt electrode.
Above a certain voltage, the current plateaus and increasing the potential any further does not result in a higher rate of electrocatalysis of the reaction. At this point, the reaction is diffusion-limited and depends only on the permeability properties of the membrane (which is ideally well characterized, the electrode being calibrated against known standard solutions) and by the oxygen gas concentration, which is the measured quantity.
Applications[edit]
Main article: Blood glucose monitoring
The Clark oxygen electrode laid the basis for the first glucose biosensor (in fact the first biosensor of any type), invented by Clark and Lyons in 1962. [6] This sensor used a single Clark oxygen electrode coupled with a counter-electrode. As with the Clark electrode, a permselective membrane covers the Pt electrode. Now, however, the membrane is impregnated with immobilized glucose oxidase (GOx).[7] The GOx will consume some of the oxygen as it diffuses towards the PT electrode, incorporating it into H2O2 and gluconic acid.[3] The rate of reaction current is limited by the diffusion of both glucose and oxygen. This diffusion can be well characterized for a membrane for both the oxygen and glucose, leaving as the only variable the oxygen and glucose concentrations on the analyte-side of the glucose membrane, which is the quantity being measured.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clark Jr, LC; Wolf, R; Granger, D; Taylor, Z (1953). "Continuous recording of blood oxygen tensions by polarography". Journal of Applied Physiology. 6 (3): 189–93. doi:10.1152/jappl.1953.6.3.189. PMID 13096460.
Jump up ^ Severinghaus, JW; Astrup, PB (1986). "History of blood gas analysis. IV. Leland Clark's oxygen electrode". Journal of clinical monitoring. 2 (2): 125–39. doi:10.1007/BF01637680. PMID 3519875.
^ Jump up to: a b Wang, Joseph (2007). "Electrochemical Glucose Biosensors". Chemical Reviews. 108 (2): 814–825. doi:10.1021/cr068123a.
Jump up ^ KANWISHER, JOHN (1959). "Polarographic oxygen electrode" (PDF). Limnology and Oceanography. 4 (2): 210–217. Bibcode:1959LimOc...4..210K. doi:10.4319/lo.1959.4.2.0210.
^ Jump up to: a b Severinghaus, J (2002). "The Invention and Development of Blood Gas Analysis Apparatus". Anesthesiology. 97: 253–6. doi:10.1097/00000542-200207000-00031.
Jump up ^ Clark, L.; Lyons, C. (1962). "ELECTRODE SYSTEMS FOR CONTINUOUS MONITORING IN CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 102 (29). Bibcode:1962NYASA.102...29C. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x.
Jump up ^ Wise, Donald L. (1991). Bioinstrumentation and Biosensors. p. 233. ISBN 9780824783372.
External links[edit]
Clark-type Sensors Explained, The Gas Detector Encyclopedia, Edaphic Scientific Knowledge Base
Biosensors & Bioelectronics: Leland Clark
Clark Oxygen Electrode, precursor to today's modern biosensors - broken link
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clark_electrode&oldid=845156845"
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text:
Legal drinking age
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Minimum legal age to purchase alcohol by country:
Illegal regardless of age
Minimum age of 25 years
Minimum age of 21 years
Minimum age of 20 years
Minimum age of 19 years
Minimum age of 18 years
Minimum age of 17 years
Minimum age of 16 years
No regulation/no information
The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume or purchase alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks.[1]
Some Islamic nations prohibit Muslims, or both Muslims and non-Muslims, from drinking alcohol at any age. In other countries, it is not illegal for minors to drink alcohol, but the alcohol can be seized without compensation. In some cases, it is illegal to sell or give alcohol to minors. The following list indicates the age of the person for whom it is legal to consume and purchase alcohol.
Kazakhstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Paraguay, Solomon Islands, India (certain states), the United States (except U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico), Yemen (Aden and Sana'a), Japan, Iceland, Canada (certain Provinces and Territories), and South Korea have the highest set drinking ages, however some of these countries do not have off-premises drinking limits. Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Georgia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Morocco, and Western Sahara have the lowest set drinking ages.
Contents
[hide]
1 Africa
2 Americas
3 Asia
4 Europe
5 Oceania
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Africa[edit]
Country/region
De jure
Notes
Drinking Age
Purchase age
Algeria 18[2]
Angola 18[citation needed]
Botswana 18[2]
Burundi 16[2] No limit if accompanied by parents[citation needed]
Cameroon 18 21 18 on the premises, 21 off the premises[citation needed]
Cape Verde 18[citation needed]
Central African Republic 18[citation needed]
Comoros None[citation needed]
Egypt 21[2]
Equatorial Guinea None[citation needed]
Eritrea 18[2]
Ethiopia 18[2]
Gabon 18[2]
Gambia 18[2]
Ghana 18[3]
Guinea-Bissau None[2]
Kenya 18[2]
Lesotho 18[2]
Libya Illegal[2]
Malawi 18[2]
Mauritius 18[2]
Morocco 18[citation needed] Forbidden for Muslims[2]
Mozambique 18[2]
Namibia 18[2]
Niger 18[2]
Nigeria 18[citation needed]
Republic of the Congo 18[citation needed]
Rwanda 18[2]
Senegal None[citation needed]
Seychelles 18[2]
Somalia Illegal[4]
South Africa 18 The parent, adult guardian of a minor or a person responsible for administering a religious sacrament, may on occasion supply to that minor a moderate quantity of liquor to be consumed by the minor in the presence and under the supervision of that parent, guardian or other person.[5]
South Sudan 18[6]
Sudan Illegal[7]
Swaziland 18[2]
Tanzania 18[8]
Togo None[2]
Tunisia 18[citation needed]
Uganda 18[2]
Western Sahara 16[citation needed]
Zambia 18[2]
Zimbabwe 18[2]
Americas[edit]
Country/region
De jure
Notes
Drinking age
Purchase age
Anguilla 16[citation needed]
Antigua and Barbuda 16[9] The sale and distribution of alcohol to a person under 16 years of age is illegal.
Argentina 18[10]
Bahamas 18[2]
Barbados 18[11] Those aged 10–17 are allowed to consume alcohol provided they are with a parent or guardian.
Belize 18[12] Drinking age is rarely enforced. IDs are almost never requested.
Bermuda 18[13]
Bolivia 18[2]
Brazil 18[2]
British Virgin Islands 16[12] It is illegal to sell or to supply alcohol to anyone under the age of 16.
Canada 18[14][15][16] In Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec, the legal drinking age is 18.
19[14][15][16] In Ontario, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut, the legal drinking age is 19.
Cayman Islands 18[17]
Chile 18[2] The minimum age is 18 to enter an enclosure that sells alcoholic beverages. Selling alcohol to a minor may incur a fine. One must provide identification upon request. Residents of Chile over the age of 18 must carry their Chilean identification card issued by the Civil Registry and Identification Service at all times.[18]
Colombia 18[2]
Costa Rica 18[2]
Cuba 16[2]
Dominican Republic 18[19]
Ecuador 18[2]
El Salvador 18[2]
Falkland Islands 18[citation needed]
Grenada 16[citation needed]
Guatemala 18[2]
Guyana 18[2] Except 16 for wine or malt liquor to be consumed with a meal
Haiti None[2]
Honduras 18[2]
Jamaica None[citation needed] 18[citation needed] Minors can drink if accompanied by parent or legal guardian as well as someone with permission from their parent or legal guardian.[citation needed]
Mexico 18[2] A person must be eighteen years or over to legally purchase and consume alcoholic beverages in Mexico. The drinking age however isn't strictly enforced, and IDs are barely requested.[citation needed]
Nicaragua 18[2]
Panama 18[2]
Paraguay 20[20]
According to Art. 1° of the law to "ban on the sale of alcoholic beverages to minors", it is illegal to serve or sell alcohol or to allow the consumption by minors under 20 years of age.
Furthermore, under Art 2° all public establishments selling alcohol must display a clearly legible notice in the sales area with the following text: "ESTA PROHIBIDA LA VENTA DE BEBIDAS ALCOHÓLICAS A MENORES DE VEINTE AÑOS DE EDAD" (It is illegal (prohibited) to sell alcoholic beverages to minors under 20 years of age)
Peru 18[2]
Puerto Rico 18 The minimum age for the selling of any alcohol beverage is 18. Although a valid Puerto Rico license ID or passport is required as proof of age to buyers who look under the age of 18, it is generally not a common practice to ask for ID to enter a venue that sells alcohol or to sell you alcohol at other establishments. This law can be more enforced in some tourist areas and on foreigners visiting the island by some more exclusive hotels, bars, and upscale clubs. A few of the more exclusive venues in the tourist areas may have their own entrance rules regarding age including not allowing anyone under the age of 25 or 23 to enter and consume alcohol or change this depending on specific nights/events and restricted by gender/sex (i.e. women over 18 allowed to enter but only men over 21 on that same night).[citation needed]
Trinidad and Tobago 18[2]
Turks and Caicos Islands 18[citation needed]
United States
(50 states and integral territories) Varies by jurisdiction[2] 21[2] The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 withholds revenue from states that allow the purchase of alcohol by anyone under the age of twenty-one. Prior to the effective date of that Act, the drinking age varied from state to state. Some states do not allow those under the legal drinking age to be present in liquor stores or in bars (usually, the difference between a bar and a restaurant is that food is served only in the latter). Contrary to popular belief, since the act went into law, only a few states prohibit minors and young adults from consuming alcohol in private settings. As of January 1, 2010, fifteen states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, seventeen states do not ban underage consumption, and the remaining eighteen states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws.
Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, thirty-one states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho, Texas, and Maryland, is considered legal for those under the age of twenty-one.[21]
By a judge's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults eighteen to twenty years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise.[22]
The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents.
Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty-one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to year in jail.[23]
See also: Minor in Possession and List of alcohol laws of the United States
United States Virgin Islands 18[24]
Uruguay 18[2]
Venezuela 18[2]
Asia[edit]
Country/region
De jure
Notes
Drinking age
Purchase age
Afghanistan Illegal[25]
Bangladesh Illegal for Muslims [26] Alcohol will be sold to foreigners in certain locations, albeit clandestinely.
Bhutan 18[27]
Brunei 17 with restrictions, unless Muslim[2] Non-Muslims over 17 years of age are allowed to import alcohol not to exceed maximum total volume 2 liters of liquor and 12 cans of beer at 330 ml for personal use, once in 48 hours. This alcohol must be “stored and consumed at the place of residence of the importer” and is “not to be given, transferred or sold to another person.”.[2]
Cambodia None[28]
China 18[2] Introduced in January 2006.[29] Weakly enforced to not enforced.
Hong Kong 18[30] The regulation is only applicable to restaurants, bars and clubs, where a liquor license is required. Private drinking is also not regulated.
India 18–25 (varies between states)[2]
Main article: Alcohol laws of India
Consumption of alcohol is prohibited in the states of Bihar, Gujarat and Nagaland.[31]
Indonesia 21[32]
Iran Illegal [2] There is a ban on alcohol, but religious minorities may purchase small amounts from shops owned by the same religious minority.[33]
Iraq 18[34]
Israel None 18[2] Israel law prohibits selling or serving alcohol to minors, but it does not prohibit minors to drink.
Japan 20[2]
Jordan 18[35]
Kazakhstan 21[36]
Kuwait Illegal[37]
Kyrgyzstan 18[2]
Lebanon 18[2] Often unenforced and according to a global school health study, 40% of minors over 13 drink alcohol and up to 25% buy it from stores.[38]
Macau None[citation needed]
Malaysia 18 Will be increased to 21 on 1 December 2017[39]
Maldives Illegal except for tourists, 18[citation needed] Sale of alcohol is limited to tourist resorts. It is illegal to sell alcohol to local Maldivians[40]
Mongolia 18[41]
Myanmar None 18[42]
Nepal 18 The legal age for consumption of alcohol in Nepal is 18. However, there are exceptions to underage consumption for purposes of religious ceremonies.[citation needed]
North Korea 18[43]
Oman 21 Residents need personal liquor licenses to consume alcohol in their private residences.[44]
Pakistan Illegal [2] Non-Muslim citizens may possess alcohol to be used in accordance with religious ceremonies[2]
Palestinian Authority 16[citation needed] Legal in most cities
Philippines 18[45]
Qatar 19[citation needed] Muslims are allowed to purchase alcohol, but generally not allowed to consume. Non Muslims are allowed to purchase, and consume alcohol. The only legal distributor of alcohol in the country is the Qatar Distribution Company located in Doha.[citation needed]
Saudi Arabia Illegal Drinking or possessing alcohol is illegal in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Persons who drink or possess alcohol are subject to arrest and trial. Punishments range from heavy fines, lengthy prison terms and whippings.[citation needed]
Singapore None (Private places, sometimes with permission from parents/guardian)
18 (Public places e.g. bars and restaurants) 18[2]
Main Legislation
Drinking alcohol is strictly forbidden in public places in reaction to 2013 Little India riot, after the Committee of Inquiry accepts the recommendations on 7 July 2014.
For convenience stores, those who pretend to be 18 years and above in a "Challenge 18" scheme will be downgraded to "Challenge 21" scheme, and after which the licences will be revoked once they pretend to be 18 years and above if it is on "Challenge 21".
It is illegal to purchase alcohol in Singapore or consume in a nightclub/allow entry to the nightclub under 18. Home and private drinking of alcohol is allowed, although the safest age could be 6. Parents can try a sip of alcohol at any age.[citation needed]
South Korea None 19[citation needed] The age limit for alcohol is after January 1 of the year one's age turns to 19.[citation needed]
Sri Lanka 21[2]
Syria 18[citation needed]
Taiwan 18[46]
It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 to consume alcohol.[47]
Parents, guardians, and others taking care of people under 18 shall prohibit underage drinking,[48] or risk administrative fines of 10000 to 50000 new Taiwan dollars when the situations are serious.[49]
One shall not supply alcohol to anyone under the age of 18.[50] A violator shall be administratively fined 3000 to 15000 New Taiwan Dollars.[51]
Tajikistan 18[2]
Thailand 20[52] The Alcoholic Beverage Control Act of 2008 increased the drinking age in Thailand from 18 to 20, private drinking is not regulated in private locations.[52][53]
Turkmenistan 18[2]
United Arab Emirates 18–21 (varies between states).[54] Expatriate non-Muslim residents may request a liquor permit to purchase alcoholic beverages, but it is illegal for such holders to provide drinks to others.[55]
The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by-law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal).[54]
It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public.[54]
Uzbekistan None 20[2]
Vietnam None[citation needed]
Yemen Illegal[citation needed] Exception is in Aden Region where it's legal for 21 and up[citation needed]
Europe[edit]
Country/region
De jure
Notes
Drinking age
Purchase age
Albania 18[2]
Armenia None 18 There are no laws mandating alcohol vendors to ID potential underage drinkers. ID checks are very rarely, if ever, carried out.[citation needed]
Austria 16 Burgenland, Lower Austria and Vienna[56]
16 for beer and wine
18 for distilled beverages Carinthia, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol and Vorarlberg[56]
Carinthia also requires adolescents to maintain a blood alcohol level below 0.05%.
Azerbaijan 18[2]
Belarus 18[2]
Belgium None 16 for beer and wine
18 for spirits[57] Since 10 January 2010, it is illegal to "sell, serve, or offer" any form of distilled alcohol to those under the age of 18 or any alcoholic drink to those under 16. So fermented drinks like beer or wine are permitted above 16.[57] Previously, it was illegal to sell alcoholic drinks to under-16s, but accompanying adults could buy drinks for them.
Bosnia and Herzegovina None 18[58]
Bulgaria 18[2]
Croatia 18[2]
Cyprus 17[59]
Czech Republic None 18[60] It is illegal to provide alcohol to minors[61] (punishable by fine or up to 1[62] or 2[63] year(s) imprisonment). Consumption itself is not prohibited by law.[64]
Denmark None 16 to buy alcohol <16.5% ABV
18 to buy alcohol ≥16.5% ABV
18 to be served in restaurants, bars, discos etc.[2] While there is no age requirement for drinking alcohol in Denmark, there are laws that prevent minors from buying alcohol:
In order to buy alcohol above 1.2% and below 16.5% ABV in stores, one must be 16 years of age.
In order to buy alcohol above 16.5% ABV in stores, one must be 18 years of age.[65]
To be served alcoholic drinks in bars, discos, clubs, restaurants and any establishment serving alcoholic beverages one must be 18 years of age.
By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation.[66] If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification.[67] This card is rarely used though since a passport or moped-licence can sometimes be used.[68]
Estonia 18[69]
Finland 18 for possession and purchase of 1.2–22% ABV
20 for possession and purchase of 23–80% ABV
18 for all in bars, clubs and restaurants[70] All major grocery chains have implemented a policy to ask for ID if the customer looks under 30.[71] Stores may refuse to sell alcohol if the customer is accompanied by a minor, or if proxy purchasing is suspected. Purchasing alcohol on behalf of a minor is a criminal offence.[70][72]
Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine.[73]
In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances.[70]
France None 18 France has no explicitly stated consumption age,[74] but selling alcohol to a minor (under 18) is illegal[75] and can be fined 7500 euros.[74] This age was raised from 16 to 18 in 2009.[76][77]
Georgia None 16[citation needed]
Germany None (on private residence)
16 (in public) (14 when accompanied by a custodial person) for beer and wine
18 for spirits and aliments containing spirits above negligible amount[78]
16 for beer and wine
18 for spirits and aliments containing spirits above negligible amounts[78]
See also: Alcohol laws in Germany
Gibraltar None[79] 16/18 It is illegal to sell alcoholic drinks to anyone under the age of 18.
The minimum age to be served in licensed premises is 16 if:[79]
The alcoholic beverage is beer, wine or cider below 15% ABV, or
The alcoholic beverage is served in a bottle, or a pre-packaged container below 5.5% ABV.
Greece None 18[citation needed] In 2008, the consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited for minors in public. However, the law does not apply to private events or private premises.
Hungary 18[2]
Iceland None 20[80] Possession or consumption of alcohol by minors is not an offence, but supplying them with alcohol is. However, law allows alcohol possessed by a minor to be confiscated.
Ireland None (on private residence with permission from parents or guardians) [81] 18[81] It is illegal for minors to buy alcohol or for a third party to attempt to buy it for minors. It is illegal to purchase alcohol for anybody under the age of consent without permission from their guardians.[82]
Italy None 18[83] In 2012 the then Health Minister Renato Balduzzi proposed to raise the age to 18.[84] Selling alcohol to those under the age of 18 in shops carries a fine between €250 and €1000. Serving alcoholic beverages to those under the age of 16 is a criminal offense and is punished with prison up to one year, if the individual is 16 or 17 it will be treated as an offense that is fined between €250 and €1000 (Legge n. 189/2013).
Kosovo None
Latvia None 18[85]
Liechtenstein 16 for wine, beer and cider
18 for spirits and spirit-based beverages. e.g. alcopops Wine, beer and ciders as well as some other party drinks sometimes without spirits may be purchased by the age of 16. Spirits as well as alcopops may be sold only to people at least 18.[86]
Lithuania 18[87] Minors under the age of 18 are prohibited from consuming alcoholic beverages or from having them. After 2018, January 1st, a new law will be put into place, changing the legal drinking age from 18 to 20.[88]
Luxembourg None 16[89]
Macedonia 18[90][unreliable source?] Must show an ID card upon request. In certain smaller places, such as family-owned convenience stores and street kiosks, there is little to no enforcement on how old or young somebody purchases alcohol. There is little to no enforcement for drinking privately, but drinking in bars may require an ID.
Malta 17[91] Must provide identification upon request.
Moldova None 16[92] It is illegal to sell alcohol to anyone under the age of 16. There is no consumption age.
Montenegro None 18[citation needed]
Netherlands 18 The legal age for purchasing and consumption of alcoholic beverages was raised from 16 to 18 on 1 January 2014. However, many places have officially or unofficially retained a less strict regulation towards 16- and 17-year-olds.[93] Alcohol is commonly available upon parental permission. Selling alcoholic beverages to people under 18 is illegal, although giving it away in private is not.
Norway None[94] 18 (<22%)
20 (≥22% ABV)[2] Selling alcohol to or buying alcohol for minors is illegal. Minors are defined as under 18 for beer and wine, under 20 for drinks that contain 22% ABV or more. Minors who buy alcohol are not held criminally responsible; instead, the crime lies with those who sold it or obtained it for them.
Alcohol with more than 60% ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products.[95]
Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas.[96]
Poland None 18[97] Article 15 of The Act on Upbringing in Sobriety and Counteracting Alcoholism[98] clearly states that buyers or persons being served must be at least 18 and prove it with ID if they look like they may not be at least that age. There is no mention of consumption age in this or any other act in Poland. Drinking on streets, town squares, and in parks is illegal regardless of age.
Portugal None[citation needed] 18[99]
Romania None 18[100] According to law 61/1991 updated in 2008, paragraphs 21-25, it is illegal to serve or sell alcohol to minors.
Russia None 18[101] There is no law or regulation in Russia that prohibits minors from consuming alcohol, but selling alcohol to minors is prohibited by federal and additional regional laws.
Serbia 18[102]
Slovakia 18[103]
Slovenia None 18[104] There is no law regulating the possession and consumption, but it is illegal to sell or offer alcohol of any kind to minors.
Spain 18 Asturias was the last autonomous community in Spain where the drinking age was increased to 18 (previously 16) on 1 May 2015.[105]
Sweden
None
None (less than 2.25% ABV)
18 (bars and restaurants),
18 (2.25%–3.5% ABV in food shops),
20 (Systembolaget shops[106]),
See also: Alcohol in Sweden
Many clubs choose to have higher age limits than 18, commonly 20 or 23. It is legal to drink below 18, but it is illegal to sell, lend or give alcohol to someone under that age and the police can seize alcohol from them, apart from being served alcohol supervised in private "in moderation". It is legal to serve an underage person alcohol in a private place.[107] The reason for lower limit in bars than in Systembolaget shops is that bartenders have a legal responsibility for how drunk a guest gets.
Switzerland None
(See notes) 16 for fermented alcoholic drinks (with less than 15% ABV and natural wines with less than 18% ABV);[108]
18 for spirits [109] Whoever offers or supplies alcoholic beverages to a child under the age of 16 years in an amount which is harmful to one's health is punished with imprisonment up to 3 years or a fine.[110] Whoever sells or supplies spirits to a person under the age of 18 years is punished with a fine up to 10.000 CHF.[111]
18 The canton Ticino prohibits selling and consumption of any type of alcohol by minors under the age of 18. Some shops and supermarkets may not sell alcohol to minors under the age of 18.[112]
Turkey 18[2]
See also: Alcohol laws of Turkey
Ukraine 18[2]
United Kingdom 18 (on licensed premises)[113]
16 (beer, wine or cider with a meal on licensed premises)[113]
5 (not on licensed premises)[114]
None (under medical supervision, or in an emergency)[114] 18[113]
None (liqueur confectionery)[115] Legislation in England and Wales:
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages on licensed premises under the age of 18, other than the following two exceptions.[113]
Minors aged 16 or 17 may consume wine, beer or cider on licensed premises when ordered with a meal, and accompanied by an adult.[113]
It is legal to sell liqueur confectionery to someone of any age.[115]
It is illegal to permit minors under the age of 5 to consume alcoholic beverages unless under medical supervision or in an emergency.[114]
Persons over 17 are entitled to their own duty free allowance, which includes alcohol. [116]
18 (in public without a meal or adult supervision)
16 (beer, wine or cider on licensed premises with meal)
5 (on private premises)[117] 18
16 (beer, wine, cider or perry with a meal on licensed premises)
None (liqueur confectionery)[115] Legislation in Scotland:
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.[118]
Minors aged 16 or 17 may consume wine, beer or cider on licensed premises when ordered with a meal.[118]
It is legal to sell liqueur confectionery to someone of any age.[115]
Persons over 17 are entitled to their own duty free allowance, which includes alcohol. [116]
18 Legislation in Northern Ireland:
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.[citation needed]
Challenge 21 and Challenge 25 (applies to all of the United Kingdom)
Under the BBPA's Challenge 21 and Challenge 25 schemes, customers attempting to buy alcoholic beverages are asked to prove their age if in the retailer's opinion they look under 21[119] (or optionally 25) even though the law states they must be a minimum of 18. Many supermarket and off-licence chains display Challenge 21 (or Challenge 25) notices stating that they will not serve persons who look under 21 (or 25) without ID.
Oceania[edit]
Country/region
De jure
Notes
Drinking age
Purchase age
American Samoa 21[120]
Australia 18[2][121]
Main article: Alcohol laws of Australia
Varies by state. Some states restrict possession and consumption to over 18, all states restrict purchasing to over 18. In some states, minors may consume alcohol in a private residence with parental permission.[122]
Fiji 18[123] The drinking age was 21 from 2006 to 2009 but was lowered to 18 in 2009.[123]
Guam 21[124]
Micronesia, Federated States of 21
New Zealand None 18[125] Minimum age applies for beverages with 1.15% ABV or over; no restrictions on beverages less than 1.15% ABV.[126]
Persons under 18 may drink outside private residences or private functions if accompanied by their parent or legal guardian. Alcohol may be supplied to minors only by, or with express consent from, their parent or legal guardian.[127]
Northern Mariana Islands 21[citation needed]
Palau 21[2]
Papua New Guinea 18[2]
Samoa 21[2]
Solomon Islands 21[2]
Tokelau 18[128]
Tonga 21[2]
Vanuatu 18[2]
See also[edit]
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External links[edit]
IARD International Alliance for Responsible Drinking
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