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Fight-or-flight response
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For other uses, see Fight or Flight.
Fight or flight?
The fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival.[1] It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.[a][2] His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.[3] More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine.[4] The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.[5]
This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Physiology
1.1 Autonomic nervous system
1.1.1 Sympathetic nervous system
1.1.2 Parasympathetic nervous system
1.2 Reaction
1.3 Function of physiological changes
2 Emotional components
2.1 Emotion regulation
2.2 Emotional reactivity
3 Cognitive components
3.1 Content specificity
3.2 Perception of control
3.3 Social information processing
4 Other animals
4.1 Evolutionary perspective
4.2 Examples
4.3 Varieties of responses
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
Physiology[edit]
Autonomic nervous system[edit]
See also: Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.[7]
Sympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilises and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.[8]
Parasympathetic nervous system[edit]
See also: Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[8]
Reaction[edit]
The fight-or-flight response
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH.[9] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.[10] The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.[11] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.[12] Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and :[13]
Acceleration of heart and lung action
Paling or flushing, or alternating between both
Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops
General effect on the sphincters of the body
Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body
Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action
Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation
Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)
Relaxation of bladder
Inhibition of erection
Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)
Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)
Disinhibition of spinal reflexes
Shaking.
Function of physiological changes[edit]
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:[14][15]
Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.
Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.
The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.
Emotional components[edit]
Emotion regulation[edit]
See also: Emotional self-regulation
In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.[16][17]
Emotional reactivity[edit]
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response.[18] Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.[19][20]
Cognitive components[edit]
Content specificity[edit]
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterised by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words.[21] There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.[22]
Perception of control[edit]
See also: Control (psychology)
Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events.[23] Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.[24]
Social information processing[edit]
See also: Social information processing (cognition)
The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts.[25] The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.[26]
Other animals[edit]
Evolutionary perspective[edit]
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.[27][28]
Examples[edit]
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The sympathetic nervous system’s activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal.[13] Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.
Varieties of responses[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Bison hunted by dogs
Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.
Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves.[29] These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.
The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.
A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.
See also[edit]
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
Coping (psychology)
Defense physiology
Emotional dysregulation
Freezing behavior
Escape distance
The Relaxation Response
Rest and digest
Vasoconstriction
Workplace bullying
Yerkes–Dodson law
Acute stress reaction
Anxiety
Anxiety disorder
Panic attack
Phobia
Social anxiety
Social anxiety disorder
Tend and befriend
Body reactivity
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in The American Journal of Physiology. Others in the 1915 edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Other sources say that he first used the term in 1929 or in 1932 edition of the same book. The issue needs further research.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393002055.
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27 October 1995). "Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response". Science Magazine. 5236 (270).
Jump up ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ "Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained". Hufflington Post. April 19, 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (2009). PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library. Radom. pp. 270–275.
Jump up ^ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W. Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011). "ACTH Action on the Adrenal". Endotext.org. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response". Trends in Immunology. 24 (8): 444–448. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X. PMID 12909458.
Jump up ^ King, Michael. "PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE". Washington University, St. Louis.
Jump up ^ "HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE". University of Utah. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97767-6.
Jump up ^ Stress Management for Health Course. "The Fight Flight Response". Retrieved 19 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Olpin, Michael. "The Science of Stress". Weber State University.
Jump up ^ Cistler, Josh; Bunmi O. Olatunji; Matthew T. Feldner; John P. Forsyth (2010). "Emotion Regulation and the Anxiety Disorders: An Integrative Review". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 32 (1): 68–82. doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1. PMC 2901125  . PMID 20622981.
Jump up ^ Gross, James (1998). "Sharpening the Focus: Emotion Regulation, Arousal, and Social Competence". Psychological Inquiry. 9 (4): 287–290. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8.
Jump up ^ Avero, Pedro; Calvo, M (1 July 1999). "Emotional reactivity to social-evaluative stress: genderdifferences in response systems concordance". Personality and Individual Differences. 27 (1): 155–170. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00229-3.
Jump up ^ Carthy, T; Horesh N; Apter A; Edge MD; Gross JJ (May 2010). "Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children". Behavior Research and Therapy. 48 (5): 384–393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013.
Jump up ^ Valiente, C; Eisenberg N; Smith CL; Reiser M; Fabes RA; Losoya S; Guthrie IK; Murphy BC (December 2003). "The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalising problems: A longitudinal assessment". Personality. 71 (6): 1171–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106011. PMID 14633062.
Jump up ^ Reid, Sophie C.; Salmon, Karen; Peter F. Lovibond (October 2006). "Cognitive Biases in Childhood Anxiety, Depression, and Aggression: Are They Pervasive or Specific?". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 30 (5): 531–549. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9077-y.
Jump up ^ Beck, Aaron (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. United States: Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ Weems, CF; Silverman, WK (April 2006). "An integrative model of control: implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety". Journal of Affective disorders. 91 (2): 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009.
Jump up ^ Brendgen, M; Vitaro F; Turgeon L; Poulin F; Wanner B (June 2004). "Is there a dark side of positive illusions? Overestimation of social competence and subsequent adjustment in aggressive and nonaggressive children". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 32 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.08470.cd. PMID 15228179.
Jump up ^ Crick, Nicki; Dodge, Kenneth (January 1994). "A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (1): 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.
Jump up ^ Dodge, Kenneth (March 1980). "Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior". Journal of Child Development. 51 (1): 162–170. doi:10.2307/1129603.
Jump up ^ Grohol, John. "What's the purpose of the fight or flight response?". Retrieved 18 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, David; Kopin, I (2007). "Evolution of concepts of stress". Stress. 10 (2): 109–20. doi:10.1080/10253890701288935. PMID 17514579.
Jump up ^ Gill, A.C. (2004). Revision of the Indo-Pacific dottyback fish subfamily Pseudochrominae (Perciformes: Pseudochromidae). Smithiana Monographs. pp. 1–123.
Further reading[edit]
Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994. Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. W.H. Freeman and Company.
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fight-or-flight_response&oldid=843329782"
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text:
Sport in Ecuador
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Sports in Ecuador influence the culture and its people. Futbol the most popular sport, followed by baseball, volleyball, basketball, and tennis.
Since 2005, Ecuador has been greatly involved in sports, and hosted the Guayaquil Marathon in Ecuador's largest city.
Contents
[hide]
1 Football
2 Tennis
3 Olympics
4 Other sports
5 References
Football[edit]
Main article: Football in Ecuador
Estadio Casa Blanca, the largest stadium in Quito, and home of LDU Quito.
Futbol is the most popular sport in Ecuador. Its best known professional teams include Barcelona and Emelec from Guayaquil, LDU Quito, Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito, Olmedo from Riobamba, and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca.
The national team's matches are the most watched sporting events in the country. In June 2007, FIFA adopted a resolution, prohibiting international football games at or higher than 2,500m above sea level. Ecuador, Bolivia and other South American countries issued a joint letter of protest against this ruling. Ecuador qualified for the final rounds of both the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cup. Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica, to come in second to Germany in Group A, in the 2006 FIFA World Cup.
Tennis[edit]
See also: Ecuador Davis Cup team and Ecuador Fed Cup team
Nicolás Lapentti
There is a considerable interest in tennis in the middle and upper classes in Ecuadorian society, and several Ecuadorian professional players have attained international fame, including Nicolás Lapentti, Francisco Segura, and Andrés Gómez. As of 2015, Ecuador hosts an ATP World Tour 250 series event, the Ecuador Open Quito as part of the south-American summer clay-court circuit.
Olympics[edit]
Main article: Ecuador at the Olympics
Ecuador has competed in eleven Summer Olympic Games. They have never competed in the Winter Olympic Games. The nation from South America won its first Olympic medal, when Jefferson Pérez won the gold medal in the Men's 20 km Walk. The Ecuadorian Olympic Committee was created in 1948 and recognized by the IOC in 1959.
Other sports[edit]
Main article: Rugby union in Ecuador
Basketball has a high profile, especially at amateur (high school and college) level as an alternative to football. It is sometimes considered as the second sport behind football; Ecuador even took part in the inaugural 1950 FIBA World Championship, finishing 8th out of 10 teams. There are regional leagues and a national league, which include clubs and teams from colleges as well.
One of Ecuador's specialties include ecuavóley, a three-person variation of volleyball with more relaxed rules (the ball can be hit with the palm of the hand, and a football is traditionally used). Rugby union is found to some extent in Ecuador, with teams in Guayaquil, Quito, and Cuenca. Pelota nacional, an indigenous racquet sport, is also played. Surfing is popular in some coastal towns. Winter sports are very popular up in the Andes mountains, where it is most available.
There is flourishing activity in non-traditional sports such as inline hockey, capoeira, mountain biking, motorbiking, whitewater kayaking, skiing, snowboarding, and paintball. Martin Davalos, from Pichincha, Quito, is a well-known accomplished AMA motocross and supercross dirtbike rider and racer. Some coastal resorts, particularly Montañita and Ayampe, have been developed as surfing centres. The 2005 World Rafting Championships were held on the Quijos River in Napo Province. Ecuador also hosted the 2007 Youth World Championship for rock climbing, held in Ibarra, becoming the first country outside of Europe or Asia to host the event.
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Exxon Valdez oil spill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Exxon Valdez oil spill
Three days after Exxon Valdez ran aground
Location
Prince William Sound, Alaska
Coordinates
60°50′27″N 146°51′45″W / 60.8408°N 146.8625°W / 60.8408; -146.8625Coordinates: 60°50′27″N 146°51′45″W / 60.8408°N 146.8625°W / 60.8408; -146.8625
Date
March 24, 1989; 29 years ago (1989-03-24)
Cause
Cause
Grounding of the Exxon Valdez oil tanker
Operator
Exxon Shipping Company
Spill characteristics
Volume
10.8×10^6 US gal (260,000 bbl; 41,000 m3)
Area
11,000 sq mi (28,000 km2)
Shoreline impacted
1,300 mi (2,100 km)
The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company, bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am[1][2] local time and spilled 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 41,000 m3) of crude oil over the next few days.[3] It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters.[4] The Valdez spill is the second largest in US waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume released.[5] Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing response plans. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field, eventually covered 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of coastline,[3] and 11,000 square miles (28,000 km2) of ocean.[6][7]
According to official reports, the ship was carrying 53.09451 million US gallons (1,264,155 bbl; 200,984.6 m3) of oil, of which about 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 41,000 m3) were spilled into the Prince William Sound.[1][8] An approximate figure of 11 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 42,000 m3) was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council,[3] the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club.[5][9][10]
During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.
Multiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident:
Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil on to the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain.[11] In this photograph, pooled black oil is shown stranded in the rocks
Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for Exxon Valdez. The NTSB found this was widespread throughout the industry, prompting a safety recommendation to Exxon and to the industry.[12]
The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.[12]
Exxon Shipping Company failed to properly maintain the Raytheon Collision Avoidance System (RAYCAS) radar, which, if functional, would have indicated to the third mate an impending collision with the Bligh Reef by detecting the "radar reflector", placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reef for the purpose of keeping ships on course. This cause has only been identified by Greg Palast (without evidentiary support) and is not present in the official accident report.[13]
Captain Joseph Hazelwood, who was widely reported to have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef. However, as the senior officer, he was in command of the ship even though he was asleep in his bunk. In light of the other findings, investigative reporter Greg Palast stated in 2008, "Forget the drunken skipper fable. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood, he was below decks, sleeping off his bender. At the helm, the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reef had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was not turned on. In fact, the tanker's radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster, and Exxon management knew it. It was just too expensive to fix and operate."[14] Exxon blamed Captain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker.[13]
Other factors, according to an MIT course entitled "Software System Safety" by Professor Nancy G. Leveson,[15] included:
Ships were not informed that the previous practice of the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh Reef had ceased.[16]
The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.[17]
Exxon Valdez was sailing outside the normal sea lane to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.[17]
The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977 crew, worked 12- to 14-hour shifts, plus overtime. The crew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load of oil.[18]
Coast Guard vessel inspections in Valdez were not performed, and the number of staff was reduced.[18]
Lack of available equipment and personnel hampered the spill cleanup.[16]
This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organization introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules (MARPOL) through various conventions. The rules were ratified by member countries and, under International Ship Management rules, the ships are being operated with a common objective of "safer ships and cleaner oceans".[19]
In 2009, Exxon Valdez Captain Joseph Hazelwood offered a "heartfelt apology" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: "The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story," he said. Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake.[20]
Contents
[hide]
1 Clean-up and environmental impact
2 Litigation and cleanup costs
3 Political consequences and reforms
3.1 Coast Guard report
3.2 Oil Pollution Act of 1990
3.3 Alaska regulations
4 Economic and personal impact
5 Reactions
5.1 In popular culture
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Clean-up and environmental impact[edit]
Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shoreline
Chemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was applied to the slick by a private company on March 24 with a helicopter. But the helicopter missed the target area. Scientific data on its toxicity were either thin or incomplete. In addition, public acceptance of a new, widespread chemical treatment was lacking. Landowners, fishing groups, and conservation organizations questioned the use of chemicals on hundreds of miles of shoreline when other alternatives may have been available."[21][22][22][23]
According to a report by David Kirby for TakePart, the main component of the Corexit formulation used during cleanup, 2-butoxyethanol, was identified as "one of the agents that caused liver, kidney, lung, nervous system, and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska following the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill.[24]
Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment. Despite civilian insistence for a complete clean, only 10% of total oil was actually completely cleaned.[1] Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis.[25] More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment.
Clean-up efforts after the Exxon Valdez oil spill
Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g. certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of natural and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study by the Exxon Valdez spill. Despite the extensive cleanup attempts, less than ten percent of the oil was recovered and a study conducted by NOAA determined that as of early 2007 more than 26 thousand U.S. gallons (98 m3) of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year.[26][27]
Wildlife was severely affected by the oil spill.
Both the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied.[28] Immediate effects included the deaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an unknown number of salmon and herring.[8][29]
In 2003, fourteen years after the spill, a team from the University of North Carolina found that the remaining oil was lasting far longer than anticipated, which in turn had resulted in more long-term loss of many species than had been expected. The researchers found that at only a few parts per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons caused a long-term increase in mortality rates. They reported that "species as diverse as sea otters, harlequin ducks and killer whales suffered large, long-term losses and that oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habitats will take an estimated 30 years to recover."[30]
In 2006, a study done by the National Marine Fisheries Service in Juneau found that about 6 miles (9.7 km) of shoreline around Prince William Sound was still affected by the spill, with 101.6 tonnes of oil remaining in the area. Exxon Mobil denied any concerns over any remaining oil, stating that they anticipated a remaining fraction that they assert will not cause any long-term ecological impacts, according to the conclusions of the studies they had done: "We've done 350 peer-reviewed studies of Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude that Prince William Sound has recovered, it's healthy and it's thriving."[31] However, in 2007 a NOAA study concluded that this contamination can produce chronic low-level exposure, discourage subsistence where the contamination is heavy, and decrease the "wilderness character" of the area.[27]
The effects of the spill continued to be felt for many years afterwards. As of 2010 there were an estimated 23,000 US gallons (87 m3) of Valdez crude oil still in Alaska's sand and soil, breaking down at a rate estimated at less than 4% per year.[32]
On March 24, 2014, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the spill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seem to have recovered, with the sea otter the latest creature to return to pre-spill numbers. Scientists who have monitored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concern remains for one of two pods of local orca whales, with fears that one pod may eventually die out.[33] Federal scientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 US gallons (61 to 79 m3) of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Sound and up to 450 miles (725 km) away. Some of the oil does not appear to have biodegraded at all. A USGS scientist who analyses the remaining oil along the coastline states that it remains among rocks and between tide marks. "The oil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out, the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consistency of mayonnaise – or mousse."[34] Alaska state senator Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demand that the US government force ExxonMobil to pay the final $92 million (£57 million) still owed from the court settlement. The major part of the money would be spent to finish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to restore the crippled herring population.[34]
Litigation and cleanup costs[edit]
Eagles rescued from the oil spill
In the case of Exxon v. Baker, an Anchorage jury awarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billion for punitive damages. To protect itself in case the judgment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion credit line from J.P. Morgan & Co. J.P. Morgan created the first modern credit default swap in 1994, so that Morgan's would not have to hold as much money in reserve (8% of the loan under Basel I) against the risk of Exxon's default.[35]
Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the original judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, the judge announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive. Exxon appealed again and the case returned to court to be considered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a similar case, which caused Judge Holland to increase the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.[citation needed]
After more appeals, and oral arguments heard by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals on January 27, 2006, the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion on December 22, 2006. The court cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages.[36]
Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owes $2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case.[37] On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments for 90 minutes. Justice Samuel Alito, who at the time, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from the case.[38] In a decision issued June 25, 2008, Justice David Souter issued the judgment of the court, vacating the $2.5 billion award and remanding the case back to the lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law. Exxon's actions were deemed "worse than negligent but less than malicious."[39] The punitive damages were further reduced to an amount of $507.5 million.[40] The Court's ruling was that maritime punitive damages should not exceed the compensatory damages,[40] supported by a peculiar precedent dating back from 1818.[41] Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy has decried the ruling as "another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations."[42]
Exxon's official position was that punitive damages greater than $25 million were not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company "put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound."[43]
Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of the Exxon Valdez.[44][45] Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the Seattle Seven for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $750 million if the damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement,[46] and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay.[47]
As of December 15, 2009, Exxon paid all owed $507.5 million punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plus interest, which were further distributed to thousands of plaintiffs.[48]
In October 1989, Exxon filed suit against the State of Alaska, charging that the government had interfered with Exxon's attempts to clean up the spill by refusing to approve the use of dispersant chemicals until the night of the 26th. The government disputed the claim, stating that there was a long-standing agreement to allow the use of dispersants to clean up spills, thus Exxon did not require permission to use them, and that in fact Exxon had not had enough dispersant on hand to effectively handle a spill of the size created by the Valdez.[49] Exxon filed claims in October 1990 against the Coast Guard, asking to be reimbursed for cleanup costs and damages awarded to plaintiffs in any lawsuits filed by the State of Alaska or the Federal Government against Exxon. The company claimed that the Coast Guard was "wholly or partially responsible" for the spill, because they had granted mariners' licenses to the crew of the Valdez, and because they had given the Valdez permission to leave regular shipping lanes to avoid ice. They also reiterated the claim that the Coast Guard had delayed cleanup by refusing to give permission to use chemical dispersants on the spill immediately.[50]
Political consequences and reforms[edit]
The Oil Spill Recovery Institute was formed after United States Congress approved it to seek a solution. Collaborating with InnoCentive they found a partial solution for the flow of oil.[51]
Coast Guard report[edit]
A report by the US National Response Team summarized the event and made a number of recommendations, such as changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in order to address the causes of the accident.[1]
Oil Pollution Act of 1990[edit]
In response to the spill, the United States Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than 1 million US gallons (3,800 m3) in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound.[52]
In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against the Federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone.[53] In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound.[54]
OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of a double hull design, providing an additional layer between the oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would likely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent.[55]
The Exxon Valdez supertanker was towed to San Diego, arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately 1,600 short tons (1,500 t) of steel were removed and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, renamed S/R Mediterranean, left harbor after $30 million of repairs.[54] It was still sailing as of January 2010, registered in Panama. The vessel was then owned by a Hong Kong company, who operated it under the name Oriental Nicety. In August 2012, it was beached at Alang, India and dismantled.
Alaska regulations[edit]
In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle (ERV). Tankers at Valdez are no longer single-hulled. Congress enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be double-hulled as of 2015.[56]
Economic and personal impact[edit]
In 1991, following the collapse of the local marine population (particularly clams, herring and seals) the Chugach Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. It has since recovered.[57]
According to several studies funded by the state of Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic effects. These included the loss of recreational sports, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call "existence value", which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.[58][59][60][61]
The economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon and herring in the area.[62][63] The village of Chenega was transformed into an emergency base and media outlet.The local villagers had to cope with a tripling of their population from 80 to 250. When asked how they felt about the situation, a village councillor noted that they were too shocked and busy to be depressed; others emphasized the human costs of leaving children unattended while their parents worked to clean up.[64] Many Native Americans were worried that too much time was spent on the fishery and not enough on the land that supports subsidence hunting.
In 2010, a CNN report alleged that many oil spill cleanup workers involved in the Exxon Valdez response had subsequently become sick. Anchorage lawyer Dennis Mestas found that this was true of 6,722 of 11,000 worker files he was able to inspect. Access to the records was controlled by Exxon. Exxon responded in a statement to CNN:
After 20 years, there is no evidence suggesting that either cleanup workers or the residents of the communities affected by the Valdez spill have had any adverse health effects as a result of the spill or its cleanup.[65][66]
Reactions[edit]
In 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill, to be distributed to schools. Dr. Michael Fry called it a piece of "corporate propaganda".[67]
In December 1994, the Unabomber assassinated Burson-Marsteller executive Thomas Mosser, accusing him of having "helped Exxon clean up its public image after the Exxon Valdez incident". The PR company claimed not to have been contracted during the actual crisis.[68]
In popular culture[edit]
Several weeks after the spill, Saturday Night Live aired a pointed sketch featuring Kevin Nealon, Phil Hartman, and Victoria Jackson as cleanup workers struggling to scrub the oil off of animals and rocks on a beach in Prince William Sound.
In the 1995 film Waterworld, the Exxon Valdez is the flagship of the movie's villain, "The Deacon," the leader of a band of scavenging raiders. In the ship is a portrait of their patron saint, Joseph Hazelwood.
In the second Forrest Gump novel, Gump & Co. by Winston Groom, Gump commandeers the Exxon Valdez and accidently crashes it.[69]
See also[edit]
List of oil spills
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
Ixtoc I oil spill
Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster, 1992 HBO movie
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Skinner, Samuel K; Reilly, William K. (May 1989). The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: A Report to the President (PDF). National Response Team. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ "EVOS: The Spill: Timeline". November 2, 2013. Archived from the original on November 2, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Questions and Answers about the Spill". History of the Spill. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions About the Spill". Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division (September 1992). "Oil Spill Case Histories 1967–1991, Report No. HMRAD 92-11" (PDF). Seattle: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: 80. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Brandon Keim (March 24, 2009). "The Exxon Valdez Spill Is All Around Us". Wired Science. Retrieved June 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ Shigenaka, Gary (2014). "Twenty-Five Years After the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: NOAA's Scientific Support, Monitoring, and Research" (PDF). Office of Response and Restoration. Seattle: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved January 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Graham, Sarah (December 19, 2003). "Environmental Effects of Exxon Valdez Spill Still Being Felt". Scientific American. Archived from the original on March 29, 2006. Retrieved March 9, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Exxon Valdez disaster – 15 years of lies". Greenpeace News. Greenpeace. March 24, 2004. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "16 Years After Exxon Valdez Tragedy, Arctic Refuge, America's Coasts Still At Risk" (Press release). Sierra Club. March 23, 2005. Archived from the original on March 5, 2008. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Exxon Valdez Photos". NOAA. p. 7. Archived from the original on July 14, 2005. Beginning 3 days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain.
^ Jump up to: a b Practices that relate to the Exxon Valdez (PDF). Washington, DC: National Transportation and Safety Board. September 18, 1990. pp. 1–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 11, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ten years after but who was to blame?". Greg Palast. March 21, 1999. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ Palast, Greg (June 25, 2008). "Court Rewards Exxon for Valdez Oil Spill – Greg Palast".
Jump up ^ Leveson, Nancy G. (July 2005). "Software System Safety" (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. pp. 18–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Leveson, p.20
^ Jump up to: a b Leveson, p.18
^ Jump up to: a b Leveson, p.19
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Jump up ^ Kirby, David (Apr 22, 2013). "Corexit: An Oil Spill Solution Worse Than the Problem?". www.TakePart.com. Participant Media. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Marybeth Holleman (March 22, 2004). "The Lingering Lessons of the Exxon Valdez Spill". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on June 13, 2010. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b MacAskill, Ewan (February 2, 2007). "18 years on, Exxon Valdez oil still pours into Alaskan waters". The Guardian. Retrieved March 9, 2008.
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Jump up ^ Savage, David G. (June 26, 2008). "Justices slash Exxon Valdez verdict". articles.latimes.com. Tribune Company. Retrieved June 26, 2008.
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Further reading[edit]
Lee, Douglas B. (August 1989). "Tragedy in Alaska Waters". National Geographic. Vol. 176 no. 2. pp. 260–263. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
External links[edit]
NTSB safety recommendation to address crew management deficiencies at Exxon and in industry
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council
ExxonMobil updates and news on Valdez
Images from the Exxon Valdez oil spill from the National Ocean Service Office of Response and Restoration
EVOS Damage Assessment and Restoration at National Marine Fisheries Service
Oil Spill Profiles: Exxon Valdez at United States Environmental Protection Agency
US National Response Team
Exxon Valdez oil spill at Encyclopedia of Earth
The story behind the oil spill verdict – originally published in San Diego Union-Tribune
Alaskan Regional Response Team report on the Exxon Valdez disaster
BP Played Central Role in Botched Containment of 1989 Exxon Valdez Disaster – video report by Democracy Now!
The short film Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Assessment (April 24, 1990) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film Exxon Valdez: One Year Later (March 22, 1990) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Photos related to the oil spill from the Alaska Resources Library and Information Services (ARLIS)
"25 Years After Exxon Valdez, BP Was the Hidden Culprit" at Truthdig (March 23, 2014)
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