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Life imprisonment in England and Wales
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In England and Wales, life imprisonment is a sentence which lasts until the death of the prisoner, although in most cases the prisoner will be eligible for parole (officially termed "early release") after a fixed period set by the judge. This period is known as the "minimum term" (previously known as the "tariff"). In some exceptionally grave cases, however, a judge may order that a life sentence should mean life by making a "whole life order."
Murder has carried a mandatory life sentence in England and Wales since capital punishment was suspended in 1965.[1] There is currently no "first degree" or "second degree" murder definition. However, there were two degrees of murder between 1957 and 1965, one carrying the death penalty and one life imprisonment, and there have recently been plans to introduce such a definition.[2]
Life imprisonment is only applicable to defendants aged 21 or over. Those aged between 18 and 20 are sentenced to custody for life. Those aged under 18 are sentenced to detention during Her Majesty's pleasure for murder, or detention for life for other crimes where life imprisonment is the sentence for adults. However people under 21 may not be sentenced to a whole life order, and so must become eligible for parole.
In addition to the sentences mentioned above, until 2012 there were two other kinds of life sentence, imprisonment for public protection (for those over 18) and detention for public protection (for those under 18). These were for defendants whose crimes were not serious enough to merit a normal life sentence, but who were considered a danger to the public and so should not be released until the Parole Board had decided that they no longer represented a risk. These sentences were abolished by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, although a number of prisoners remain imprisoned under the former legislation.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 The Criminal Justice Act 2003
3 Paroles
4 Minimum term
5 Starting points for murder
6 Whole life order
6.1 European Court of Human Rights challenges against whole life orders
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Main article: Capital punishment in the United Kingdom
When Parliament was considering abolition of the death penalty, there were many MPs who were against the reform, and the deal offered was that former capital offences would always inevitably merit a mandatory life sentence. Accordingly, life imprisonment replaced the death penalty as punishment for murderers, firstly for those whose sentences were commuted and later for those whose crimes were not "aggravated" within the meaning of the Homicide Act 1957. To begin with, it was fairly common for those sentenced to life to be released in around ten to fifteen years.[3] As time passed, it came to be thought that longer sentences should be imposed, especially in cases such as the Moors Murders, the Yorkshire Ripper and Dennis Nilsen. The Home Secretary (and now the Minister for Justice) was empowered to make Whole Life Orders to ensure that particularly dangerous or heinous criminals were never released. Currently, mandatory lifers serve an average of 14 years and for other lifers the average has been in decline and now stands at nine years.[3]
The Criminal Justice Act 2003[edit]
Main article: Criminal Justice Act 2003 § Life sentences for murder
Formerly, the Home Secretary reserved the right to set the "tariff" or minimum length of term for prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment. However, in November 2000 politicians were stripped of this power in relation to defendants aged under 18, following an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights by the murderers of James Bulger.[4]
In November 2002 a similar decision in relation to adult offenders followed a successful challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson. Anderson had been sentenced to life imprisonment in 1988 with a recommended minimum term of 15 years, but the Home Secretary later informed him that he would have to serve at least 20 years. The House of Lords ruled that this was incompatible with his human rights.[5][6]
This judgment was upheld by the European Court of Human Rights. Since then, judges have set minimum terms and only the Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom can make any amendments to the sentence. Though politicians can no longer decide when or if a life sentence prisoner can be considered for parole, the Attorney General still has the power to petition the Court of Appeal in a bid to increase any prison terms which are seen as unduly lenient.[citation needed]
The Criminal Justice Act 2003 sets out guidelines for how long murderers should spend in prison before being considered for parole. Judges are not obliged to follow the guidelines, but must give reasons in court if they depart from them - whether recommending a lesser or higher minimum term than in accordance with the guidelines.[7]
The guidelines recommended that multiple murderers (who murder two or more people) whose crimes involved sexual abuse, pre-planning, abduction or terrorism should never be released from prison. Such a sentence is known as a "whole life order". The murder of a single child following abduction, sexual or sadistic conduct also qualifies, as does the murder of a police or prison officer during the course of their duty (since 2015) and murder committed to advance a political, religious or ideological cause - along with any murder which was committed by someone who had previously been convicted of murder. Other multiple murders (two or more) should carry a recommended minimum of 30 years as a starting point sentence prior to consideration of additional aggravating factors and of any mitigating factors. A 30-year minimum should also apply to the worst single murders, including those with sexual or racial motives and the use of a firearm - until 2015, the murder of a police officer in the course of duty also came within this category. Most other murders should be subject to a 15-year minimum as a starting point. Inevitably, there have been numerous departures from these guidelines since they were first put into practice. For example, the judge who sentenced American fugitive David Bieber for the murder of a police officer said that he should never be released from prison,[8] whereas statutory guidelines recommended a 30-year minimum for this type of murder - this was a decade before the act was amended to include the murder of a police officer in the course of duty as one of the offenders whose life sentences should mean life.
On 23 July 2008, Bieber won a High Court appeal against the whole life tariff recommended by the trial judge, and was instead issued with a minimum term of 37 years, effectively meaning that he would not be released until at least 2041, by which time he would be 75 years old if still alive. In the case of Mark Goldstraw, who killed four people in an arson attack on a house in Staffordshire in 2006, the trial judge set a recommended minimum of 35 years; this crime met the guidelines for a whole life term as it involved planning and resulted in the death of more than one person.
Angus Sinclair, who had been imprisoned since 1982 for child abuse, was jailed for a minimum of 37 years in 2015. This means he will almost certainly die in prison as he was 69 by the time of his conviction for murdering two teenage girls in 1977. Many other life prisoners have received minimum terms which, due to their great length or the fact that the killer was middle aged or elderly when convicted, make it almost certain that they will never be released.
Paroles[edit]
A prisoner who has served their minimum term becomes eligible for parole. If the Parole Board agrees to release a prisoner who was sentenced to life, he or she is released on a life licence meaning that he or she will remain on parole for the remainder of their natural lives. Prisoners who break the conditions of their release, or who are found to be a danger to the public, can be immediately returned to prison for an indefinite period under the terms of this licence.
In England and Wales, the average life sentence prisoner serves around 15 years before being paroled, although those convicted of exceptionally grave crimes remain behind bars for considerably longer; Ian Huntley was given a minimum term of 40 years. Some receive whole life sentences which make it almost certain that they will die in prison; they can only be considered for release on appeal to the High Court, or in exceptional circumstances such as great age or ill health.
By 2015, there were at least 60 prisoners[citation needed] in England and Wales serving such sentences, issued by either the High Court or the Home Office. These include "Yorkshire Ripper" Peter Sutcliffe. A number of other prisoners have died in prison when serving such sentences including Moors Murderers (Ian Brady and Myra Hindley) and serial killer GP Harold Shipman who committed suicide four years into his sentence.
For England and Wales, the law regarding release on licence of prisoners is laid out in chapter 2 of the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 (see in particular sections 28–30). This Act was amended and updated by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 chapters 6 and 7.[citation needed]
For Scotland, the law is set out in the Prisoners and Criminal Proceedings (Scotland) Act 1993, as amended in relation to life prisoners by the Convention Rights (Compliance) (Scotland) Act 2001, which incorporated changes to ensure that the procedure is compliant with the European Convention on Human Rights. The Scottish legal system does not allow a whole life sentence to be issued.[citation needed]
Minimum term[edit]
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Under the criminal law of England and Wales, a minimum term (formerly "tariff") is the minimum period that a person serving an indefinite sentence must serve before that person becomes eligible for parole. The sentencing judge bears responsibility for setting the minimum term.
The purpose of this mechanism has been described as follows:
The tariff is the minimum period a life sentence prisoner must serve to meet the requirements of retribution and deterrence before being considered for release. After this minimum period has been served release will only take place where the prisoner is judged no longer a risk of harm to the public.
—  Hilary Benn, House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 8 July 2002.
The factors involved in the determination of a tariff were contested in the 1993 case of Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, two 11-year-old boys who were convicted of the murder of two-year-old James Bulger. Although the trial judge initially recommended that the pair would have to serve at least eight years in custody, the High Court later set a minimum term of 10 years. However, in July 1994 the Home Secretary Michael Howard set a tariff of 15 years, based in part on the public outcry over the murders. The ruling also came shortly after The Sun newspaper petitioned the Home Secretary with the signatures of more than 20,000 readers for the two killers to receive stiffer sentences.
Another petition for "life to mean life" (even though the whole life tariff was not an option in the case offenders who committed their crimes before the age of 21) for the two killers attracted almost 280,000 signatures. It also came at a time when the popularity of the Conservative government was at a low ebb - particularly on Merseyside, where the crime occurred. Some commentators also argued that The Sun newspaper also saw the petition as an attempt to boost its sales on Merseyside, which had plummeted five years earlier due its controversial reporting of the Hillsborough disaster, in which 96 Liverpool F.C. supporters were killed at an FA Cup semi-final. In June 1997, the House of Lords ruled that Howard had acted unlawfully when setting the 15-year minimum terms. This ruling also signalled the end of the Home Secretary's powers to set minimum terms for offenders who committed their crimes before the age of 18.[citation needed]
In November 2002, following a European Court of Human Rights ruling that the Home Secretary could no longer set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, the High Court stripped the Home Secretary of his powers to set minimum terms completely. Earlier that year, following a legal challenge by another convicted murderer, Dennis Stafford, the Home Secretary had also been stripped of his powers to overrule the Parole Board's recommendations that a life sentence prisoner should be granted parole.[citation needed]
Another notable prisoner whose minimum sentence was increased was Myra Hindley, jailed for life in 1966 for her role in the Moors Murders; she was convicted of murdering two children and being an accessory in the murder of a third. Her partner Ian Brady was convicted of all three murders. Their trial judge later recommended to the appropriate authorities that he felt it was unlikely that Brady could ever be rehabilitated and safe to be considered for release, but felt that the same was not true of Hindley once she was removed from Brady's influence, recommending that she should be considered for parole after a period of around 25 years. This ruling was endorsed by at least one Home Secretary and High Court judge, but after the pair confessed to two more murders in 1986, Hindley's minimum term was increased to 30 years and then replaced by a whole life tariff in 1990, although she was not informed of the decision until 1994 - following a High Court ruling that the Home Secretary was obliged to inform all life sentence prisoners when or if they could be considered for parole. This was despite reports by Parole Board and prison officials which stated that Hindley posed little or no risk to society, and should be considered for parole or at least for a transfer to an open prison as a possible prelude to parole in the near future. A number of high-profile supporters, including Lord Longford and David Astor, backed Hindley's campaign for parole, and claimed that a succession of Home Secretaries were keeping her in prison in attempt to win votes for their respective governments, as well as shying away from an inevitable tabloid media backlash that would accompany lost votes for any government whose Home Secretary failed to block Hindley's release from prison. Some sources also claimed that Hindley was being kept in prison for her own safety more than to protect to the public from any risk she might pose, as she had received numerous deaths threats from relatives of the Moors Murders victims and from members of the public pledging to kill her if she was ever set free. Hindley lodged three appeals against her whole life tariff, but all three appeals were unsuccessful and she remained in prison until her death in November 2002, just over a week before the Home Secretary was stripped of his powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners. Daily Mirror columnist Carole Malone was not a supporter of Hindley's campaign for parole, but was critical of Michael Howard's motives for reaffirming Hindley's whole life tariff in February 1997 - three months before an inevitable general election defeat - and claimed that the Home Secretary was seizing the opportunity to win votes by keeping Myra Hindley in prison. Immediately after Hindley's death, Malone commented that it had been inevitable that Hindley would die in prison, as successive Home Secretaries were too fearful about the survival of their government to consider Hindley's release.
In the days between Hindley's death and the ruling being delivered, the Home Secretary issued 50-year minimum terms on four convicted child killers who had been convicted of high-profile murders between 1995 and 2001. Various legal and media sources, whether opposing or supporting the 50-year tariffs, were keen to argue that the 50-year minimum terms were politically motivated, as the crimes were high profile and still relatively fresh in public memory, and that the Home Secretary had also seized the opportunity to set these hefty tariffs as he knew that he was on the verge of being stripped of these powers. The government was also under public scrutiny due to the start of a firefighter's strike which began after the government failed to settle pay and working conditions with the national firefighter's union.
With the death of Myra Hindley, the Home Secretary had lost perhaps the most high-profile prisoner in the prison system, whose minimum term had been increased by a succession of Home Secretaries, leaving him with limited time to select new high-profile prisoners to impose heavy sentences on. Some of these factors were used as grounds to appeal in June 2010 when one of the killers, Roy Whiting, successfully appealed to have his sentence reduced in the High Court.
A similar system operates in Scotland, whereby the trial judge fixes a "punishment part" to "satisfy the requirements of retribution and deterrence". The prisoner cannot be considered for parole until this punishment part is served.
For example, for a murder, someone may be given a life sentence with a minimum term of 15 years. This means they cannot be released on parole until the minimum term is served. Some prisoners serve considerably longer than the minimum term recommended by the trial judge - even if it was later reaffirmed or reduced by a Home Secretary or by the High Court. A notable example is Harry Roberts, jailed for life in 1966 for his role in the murder of three policemen in London. His trial judge recommended that he serve at least 30 years before being considered for parole, but he was not granted parole until 2014, by which time he had served 48 years in prison.
Starting points for murder[edit]
The terms below are only guidelines for adults, and starting points vary in different legal cases. Starting points may either be increased or decreased depending on aggravating and/or mitigating factors respectively. The guidelines are in Schedule 21 of the Act.
However, the law still states that life sentence prisoners (and prisoners issued with fixed-term prison sentences) who have been convicted of crimes committed before the Criminal Justice Act 2003 came into force (18 December 2003) are sentenced according to guidelines which existed when the crime was committed.
Type of murder
Starting point
Multiple murder where each murder involved premeditation, abduction or sexual or sadistic conduct.
Murder of a child involving abduction or sexual or sadistic conduct.
Any assassination committed to further a religious, political, racial or ideological cause.
Murder by a person previously convicted of murder.
Murder of a police or prison officer in the execution of their duty (from 13 April 2015).[9][10]
Whole-life order (if aged over 21).
Murder involving a firearm or explosive.
Murder done for personal gain.
Murder to obstruct the course of justice.
Murder involving sexual or sadistic conduct.
Multiple murder.
Racially, sexually, or religiously aggravated murder.
Murder committed by a person aged under 21 if it would otherwise deserve a whole life order.
(In Griffiths and others v R (2012)[11] the Court of Appeal said that this list is not exhaustive.)
30 years.
Murder involving a knife (from 2 March 2010). 25 years.
Murder committed by a person under 18 (10-17). 12 years. In some cases a convicted person has been sentenced to 10 years and in some serious cases up to 15 years.
Other cases of murder. 15 years.
Whole-life orders cannot be given to offenders under the age of 21.[12][13]
Whole life order [edit]
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Further information: List of prisoners with whole-life orders
The whole life order (formerly a whole life tariff) is a court order whereby a prisoner who is being sentenced to life imprisonment is ordered to serve that sentence without possibility of parole. This order may be made in cases of aggravated murders committed by anyone who was aged 21 or above at the time of the crime. The purpose of a whole life order is for a prisoner to be kept in prison until he or she dies, although in exceptional circumstances a prisoner can still be released by the Home Secretary on compassionate grounds such as great age or ill health; which has also seen several life sentence prisoners being granted early release a considerable length of time before the date when they could first apply for parole.
A whole life tariff can also be quashed on appeal by the Court of Appeal; a number of prisoners have had their sentences reduced by this method. From 1983, the Home Secretary had the right to decide how long a life sentence prisoner should serve before being considered for parole, and the trial judge was not obliged to recommend when or if an offender should be considered for parole. In some cases, the trial judge had recommended that a life sentence prisoner should at some point be considered for parole, only for the Home Secretary to later impose a whole life tariff; this happened in a number of cases involving prisoners who had been sentenced to life imprisonment before or after 1983.
The question of whether a Home Secretary should have the power to impose whole life tariffs was a controversial one, since a decision to impose such a sanction (or not) could carry political consequences for the Home Secretary and, by extension, the government he served – as well as a backlash by the national media. Perhaps the most notable example is Myra Hindley, jailed for life in 1966 for her role in the Moors Murders. Her trial judge recommended that she should serve a minimum of 25 years before being considered for parole, However, this was later increased to 30 years and in 1990 to "whole life" by David Waddington.
The introduction of the government's tariff-setting procedures in 1983 also came shortly after a number of other high-profile murderers convicted. 1983 was also the year in which Dennis Nilsen was jailed for life for murdering 11 young men whose dismembered properties were found at the two flats he had rented in North London. Two years earlier, "Yorkshire Ripper" Peter Sutcliffe had been found guilty of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in a six-year spree.
In 1976, "Black Panther" Donald Neilson had been convicted on four charges of murder at the end of a highly publicised trial. All of these murderers were also subjected to a whole life tariff by subsequent Home Secretaries; Neilson remained in prison until his death in 2011, while Nilsen and Sutcliffe both remain imprisoned more than 30 years into their sentences, despite recommendations from their trial judges that they should be considered for parole after 25 and 30 years respectively.
In November 2002, a successful legal challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson saw the Home Secretary stripped of the final say on how long a life sentence prisoner must serve before parole can be considered, including the right to decide that certain prisoners should never be released. This ruling had been anticipated for several months, and was delivered just days after the death of Myra Hindley, who had been widely expected to gain immediate parole in the event of the Home Secretary being stripped of these sentencing powers.
A year later, the Criminal Justice Act 2003 was passed, which required that the trial judge recommended the minimum number of years to be served (or order that life should mean life) in the case of anyone being sentenced to life imprisonment.[14] As had been the case when the Home Secretary could decide on the minimum length of a life sentence, prisoners were entitled to have their tariff reviewed by the High Court. These prisoners can also appeal to the European Court of Human Rights if their appeals to the High Court are unsuccessful.[15]
In June 1997, the High Court had already stripped the Home Secretary of their powers to decide on minimum terms for life sentence prisoners who were convicted before the age of 18, following a legal challenge by solicitors acting for Robert Thompson and Jon Venables. The pair had been found guilty of murdering Merseyside toddler James Bulger in 1993, when they were 11 years old. The trial judge's initial recommendation was that they should not be considered for parole for at least eight years. The Lord Chief Justice later ruled that the pair should serve a minimum sentence of 10 years, but following a petition by The Sun newspaper, Home Secretary Michael Howard had ruled during 1994 that the pair should not be released until they had spent at least 15 years in custody.
Opponents on this ruling had argued that this decision had been politically motivated; the murder of James Bulger had been a highly publicised case, the change in the sentence had been announced at a time when the Conservative government was trailing the Labour opposition in the opinion polls (which might have seen a "vote puller", in a similar vein to the constant changes to Myra Hindley's sentence), and was perhaps seen as an attempt by The Sun newspaper to regain lost sales on Merseyside, where its circulation had slumped dramatically since its controversial reporting of the Hillsborough disaster (which had claimed the lives of 96 Liverpool fans) five years earlier.
Only the Home Secretary can grant a release to a prisoner sentenced to a whole life tariff or whole life order, on compassionate grounds including great age or ill health. Only four prisoners known or believed to have been issued with a whole life tariff have so far been released from their sentences. Three of them were IRA members who were freed under the Good Friday Agreement in 1999, having spent more than 20 years in prison for terrorist offences including murder. The other was gang member Reggie Kray, who was freed from his life sentence in August 2000 after serving 32 years (two years after the expiry of his original 30-year minimum term) due to terminal cancer; although the Home Office never confirmed he had been issued with a whole life tariff, his lengthy imprisonment and the fact that he was not paroled when his tariff expired (despite being well into his sixties) helped fuel media speculation that he was among the prisoners who had been issued with a whole life tariff. He died a few weeks after being freed.
Many prisoners have also received minimum sentences which are likely to last for most if not all of their remaining lives, such as child killers Roy Whiting and Ian Huntley, who were both convicted of child murder and received 40-year minimum terms which mean that they cannot apply for parole until they are at least 82 and 68 respectively. Whiting's trial judge had originally recommended that life should mean life and just before the High Court stripped politicians of their sentencing powers in November 2002, Home Secretary David Blunkett set Whiting's minimum term at 50 years, which was effectively a whole life tariff as it meant that he could only apply for parole if he lived to be at least 92. This decision was later appealed before the High Court, and the tariff was reduced to a 40-year minimum term. Huntley murdered two 10-year-old girls in August 2002, but by the time he was convicted 16 months later, the Home Secretary had been stripped of powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, and that decision was instead left to the High Court.
Perhaps the most notable prisoner to have been issued with a whole life tariff is Myra Hindley, who was jailed for life in 1966 for her part in the Moors Murders with Ian Brady; she was convicted of two murders and being an accessory in a third murder which Ian Brady was convicted of. Her original 25-year minimum term was later increased to 30 years in 1985 by Home Secretary Leon Brittan, before his successor David Waddington ruled in 1990 that life should mean life for Hindley. His successors Michael Howard, Jack Straw and David Blunkett agreed with this ruling over the next 11 years.
Between 1997 and 2000, Hindley made three appeals against the ruling that life should mean life in her case, but each was unsuccessful. She remained in prison until her death in November 2002, 36 years after she was jailed. Her campaign for parole was supported by the likes of Lord Longford and David Astor, who claimed that she was a reformed character who had merely acted as Brady's accomplice under duress, and had completely changed once removed from his influence. However, opinion polls showed that the majority of the British public was opposed to Hindley being paroled, and the tabloid media largely opposed her release as well. Hindley received numerous death threats from members of the public – including the relatives of some of the Moors Murders victims – who vowed to kill her if she were ever released from prison. Widespread public and media doubt as to whether Hindley's remorse was genuine was further fueled by the fact that Hindley did not confess to two more murders until 1986, and further strengthened the belief of those who opposed her attempts to win parole that the reported turnaround in her life while in prison was nothing more than a ploy to boost her chances of parole.
Ian Brady was also told by a succession of Home Secretaries that his life sentence should mean life, but unlike Hindley he never attempted to gain parole, and insisted he never wanted to be released from custody. In 1999, he even made an unsuccessful legal challenge to be allowed to starve himself to death. He died in May 2017 after more than 50 years in prison, and was Britain's longest-serving prisoner.
Since 2003, the law has provided that whole life orders cannot be issued to anyone who was under the age of 21 at the time of their crime, although there had never been a previous case of a whole life tariff being imposed or recommended to someone who committed their crime before the age of 21.[16]
Around 100 prisoners are believed to have been issued with whole life tariffs since the mechanism was first introduced in 1983, although some of them were convicted of their crimes before that date and some of the prisoners known to have been issued with the whole life tariff have since died in prison or had their sentences reduced on appeal.[citation needed]
A number of prisoners who are unlikely to ever be released or have received very long sentences have declared their wish to die;[citation needed] for example, Ian Brady. At least two such inmates have committed suicide in prison, Harold Shipman and Daniel Gonzalez and there have been attempted suicides by such prisoners, including Ian Huntley. A number have since died in prison as a result of ill health, including Brady's accomplice Myra Hindley and the "Black Panther" serial murderer and armed robber Donald Neilson.
Whole life sentences have also been criticised in some quarters for giving offenders no incentive to behave well and co-operate with prison staff, or make any serious attempt at rehabilitation. This was highlighted by the case of Robert Mawdsley, jailed for life for a single murder in 1975, who went on to kill three inmates several years into his sentence. In 2016, a second convicted murderer, Victor Castigador, admitted to murdering another prisoner. At least two other such prisoners have seriously wounded other inmates in prison. Shortly after being jailed for life in 2005, spree killer Mark Hobson poured a bucket of boiling water over Ian Huntley and left him scarred for life. In 2012, convicted murderer Gary Vinter admitted slashing Roy Whiting with a sharpened toilet brush handle. Four years later, Vinter admitted the attempted murder of another inmate who was left with a traumatic brain injury and blinded in one eye. Vinter's lawyer claimed after the second attack that the absence of any likelihood of eventual release from prison had left him with no incentive to co-operate with the prison regime.[citation needed]
European Court of Human Rights challenges against whole life orders[edit]
Three convicted murderers, Jeremy Bamber, Peter Moore and Douglas Vinter, all murderers who had been sentenced to whole life orders, applied to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, for the court to declare that it is a contravention of the European Convention on Human Rights for someone to be sentenced to lifelong imprisonment. When the initial ruling was delivered in January 2012, the court ruled that because the whole-life orders were imposed by a judge only after consideration of the facts of each case, and because the life prisoners could apply to the Home Secretary for compassionate release, their whole life orders did not breach their human rights.[17][18]
A later appeal by the same men led to a ruling in July 2013 that there must be a prospect of review of whole-life tariffs within 25 years of the prisoner being sentenced, and that any impossibility of parole would violate their Article 3 rights.[19] By this stage there were at least 49 prisoners serving such sentences in England and Wales.[20]
In February 2014, five judges at the Court of Appeal (ECHR) found the Strasbourg court was incorrect in concluding English and Welsh law never allowed whole life orders to be reduced because the Secretary of State could reduce such orders in "exceptional circumstances", and that all "whole life" prisoners would be entitled to a review of their sentence within 25 years of being sentenced. Lord Thomas, current Lord Chief Justice said whole life orders were compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in the most appalling cases of murder. Thomas said further, "Judges should therefore continue as they have done to impose whole-life orders in those rare and exceptional cases. ... In our judgment the law of England and Wales therefore does provide to an offender 'hope' or the 'possibility' of release in exceptional circumstances which render the just punishment originally imposed no longer justifiable."[21]
In February 2015, the ECHR upheld the lawfulness of whole life orders, on the ground that they can be reviewed in exceptional circumstances, following a fresh challenge by murderer Arthur Hutchinson, who had been sentenced to life imprisonment for a triple murder in Sheffield more than 30 years earlier. Another legal challenge to the court by Hutchinson was rejected in January 2017. A fresh challenge by another "whole life" prisoner – Jamie Reynolds, who murdered a teenage girl in Shropshire in 2013 – is now reportedly pending with the ECHR. By this stage, there were believed to be more than 70 prisoners in England and Wales serving whole life sentences.[22]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 (c.71)". opsi.gov.uk. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
Jump up ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6433195.stm
^ Jump up to: a b Rohrer, Finlo (2006-06-16). "The history of life". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
Jump up ^ HM Courts Service: Review of Minimum Terms set for Young Offenders detained at her Majesty's Pleasure (Statement from the Lord Chief Justice about the 2000 changes) Archived 2 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine., hmcourts-service.gov.uk; accessed 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lords defy Blunkett on life sentences". BBC News. 25 November 2002. Retrieved 24 August 2007.
Jump up ^ "Judgments - Regina v Secretary of State for the Home Department (Respondent) Ex Parte Anderson (Fc) (Appellant)". House of Lords of the British Parliament. 25 November 2002. Retrieved 24 August 2007.
Jump up ^ Schedule 21 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003, legislation.gov.uk; accessed 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Killer's appeal delayed for 'rights' ruling". Yorkshire Post. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, section 27".
Jump up ^ "The Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015 (Commencement No. 1, Saving and Transitional Provisions) Order 2015".
Jump up ^ [2012] EWCA Crim 2822
Jump up ^ Crown Prosecution Service - Retrieved March 21, 2013
Jump up ^ Section 269(2) and (4) of the Criminal Justice Act 2003
Jump up ^ Section 269
Jump up ^ Section 276 and Schedule 22
Jump up ^ Criminal Justice Act 2003, section 269(4) at legislation.gov.uk; accessed 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "European Court of Human Rights: CASES OF VINTER AND OTHERS v. THE UNITED KINGDOM". Hudoc.echr.coe.int. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Murderers lose appeal against whole life tariffs". BBC. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Killers' life terms 'breach their human rights'". BBC. 9 July 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Killers' life terms 'breach their human rights'". bbc.co.uk. 9 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Court of Appeal upholds principle of whole-life prison terms". bbc.co.uk. 18 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "British courts can impose whole-life prison sentences", bbc.co.uk; retrieved 3 February 2015.
External links[edit]
Schedule 21 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003, from legislation.gov.uk
Life Sentenced Prisoners in United Kingdom from Ministry of Justice
Information from Liberty website regarding United Kingdom
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List of industrial centres in India
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This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (March 2013)
Industrial clusters in India for Automobile, Pharmaceutical, Electrical, Cement and Logistics & Warehousing
The major industrial centres in India are listed below:[1]
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
No.
Place
State
Significance
1 Korba Chhattisgarh Coal, Power, Aluminium
2 Raipur Chhattisgarh Steel, Iron ore, plywood, paper power generation and cement, agriculture
3 Bhilai Chhattisgarh Steel, Power
4 Bhiwandi Maharashtra Textiles, Logistics, Small and Medium Industries
5 Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh Auto Parts
6 Firozabad Uttar Pradesh Glass and bangle works
7 Panna Madhya Pradesh Diamond Mines
8 Panipat Haryana Textiles
9 Channapatna Karnataka Wooden toys and
11 Varanasi Uttar Pradesh Hand-loom
12 Moradabad Uttar Pradesh Handicrafts
13 Bareilly Uttar Pradesh Handicrafts, Furniture Manufacturing
14 Jamshedpur Jharkhand Iron and Steel, Auto parts
15 Bhagalpur Bihar Silks
16 Tiruppur Tamil Nadu Textiles and garments
17 Rajahmundry Andhra Pradesh Textiles, Paper, oil and gas
18 Bokaro Steel City Jharkhand Steel and Coal
19 Kolkata West Bengal Various
20 Durgapur West Bengal Iron and Steel, Power, Cement, Chemicals, Heavy engineering
21 Kharagpur West Bengal Chemicals, machinery, heavy metals, Automobiles, Railways, Cement
22 Haldia West Bengal Petrochemical, refinery, Industrial chemicals
23 Indore Madhya Pradesh garment industries
24 Pithampur Madhya Pradesh auto cluster, medicine, cotton yarn, auto testing treck
25 Dibrugarh Assam Tea industries
26 Noida Uttar Pradesh Software
27 Kannur Kerala Hand-loom Exports
28 Salem Tamil Nadu Pig Iron, Steel and Malleable Iron
29 Sivakasi Tamil Nadu Safety Matches, Fireworks, Printing and Packaging
30 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Leather, Chemical, Fertilizers, Iron and Steel
31 Rajkot Gujarat Auto-components, Casting and Forgings, Jewelry and Agri machines
32 Cochin Kerala Information Technology, Seafood, Fisheries, Oil refining, Spices
33 Peenya Karnataka Various
34 Surat Gujarat Textiles, Diamond
35 Rourkela Orissa Steel and Fertilizer
36 Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh Steel, Ship Building, Pharmaceutical, Fertilisers, Coffee, Fishing, Petrochemical, Refinery
37 Angul Orissa Coal, Aluminium and Electricity (Coal and Water)
38 Rudrapur Uttarakhand Automobile, FMCG, Pharmaceutical, Chemicals
39 Ahmedabad Gujarat Automobile, Engineering, Pharmaceutical, Chemicals
40 Gandhinagar Gujarat Electronics, Laser
41 Jamnagar Gujarat Brass Parts, Brass Item Manufacturing
42 Vadodara Gujarat Transformer, electric parts, Power, oil unit
43 Bharuch Gujarat Petroleum, Petrochemicals, Pharmaceutical, Chemicals, Fertilizer, Metal Fabrication, Ship Building
44 Ludhiana Punjab Bicycle Manufacturing, Bicycle parts, Metal Fabrication, machine parts, auto parts, household appliances, hosiery, apparel and garments.
45 Pimpri-Chinchwad Pune Automobile, Carplants, Factories etc
References[edit]
Jump up ^ UNIDO Focal Point. "List Of SME Clusters in India". Methodology and the Action Plan for Updation of Data on SME Industrial Clusters. Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_industrial_centres_in_India&oldid=829278421"
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Tina Majorino
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Tina Majorino
Majorino at the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con
Born
Tina Marie Majorino
(1985-02-07) February 7, 1985 (age 33)
Westlake, Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Occupation
Actress
Years active
1992–1999, 2004–present
Tina Marie Majorino[1] (/meɪdʒoʊˈriːnoʊ/;[2] born February 7, 1985) is an American film and television actress. She started her career as a child actor, starring in films such as Andre, When a Man Loves a Woman, Corrina, Corrina, and Waterworld.
Despite her early success, she took a sabbatical from 1999 to 2004. She returned for one of her best known roles to date, the character Deb in the 2004 film Napoleon Dynamite. Since her return to acting, she has been in television series such as Veronica Mars, Big Love, True Blood and Grey's Anatomy. She returned to the role of Mac in the Veronica Mars movie, and has played the part of Maggie Harris on TNT's Legends TV series.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Filmography
3.1 Film
3.2 Television
4 References
5 External links
Early life[edit]
Majorino was born in Westlake, California the daughter of Sarah (née Black) and real estate agent Robert "Bob" Majorino.[3] Her father is of Italian, Cuban, and French descent, and her mother has English, Scottish, German, and Filipino ancestry.[4] She has an older brother, Kevin, with whom she has formed a rock band, The AM Project.[5]
Career[edit]
Majorino began her acting career in a 1992 sitcom[6] called Camp Wilder. Her first film role was in 1994's When a Man Loves a Woman. She subsequently starred in leading roles in the family films Corrina, Corrina and Andre, both of which were released in August 1994.[7] Her next film was the 1995 action film Waterworld, playing a child named Enola.[8]
She played the title role in the 1999 television film Alice in Wonderland. After Alice, she took time off from the business. She has since cited burnout as the reason for her hiatus from acting. She did not appear in another film until the 2004 cult film Napoleon Dynamite.[9] From 2004 onward, she played a recurring role on UPN's series, Veronica Mars, as the computer-savvy Cindy "Mac" Mackenzie. It began in the show's eighth episode, "Like a Virgin", and continued until the show's series finale, "The Bitch is Back". Show creator Rob Thomas created the role with her in mind. She had met Thomas while interviewing him for a report on one of his books.[7] Majorino became a series regular in the show's third and final season.[10] During her time on Veronica Mars, she also started appearing in a recurring role on the cable television series Big Love with Waterworld costar Jeanne Tripplehorn and fellow Veronica Mars cast members Amanda Seyfried and Kyle Gallner.[9] In 2005, she appeared in the music video for the song "Blind" by rock group Lifehouse.[11][12]
She started filming for The Deep End, a television show for ABC in 2009. She played the role of Addy Fisher, a meek and insecure first-year associate at a high-profile law firm.[13][14][15] The show was canceled after only six episodes were aired.[16]
She returned to television in 2011 playing the recurring role of Special Agent Genny Shaw on Bones. She also starred in the music video for "Fuckin' Perfect" by Pink.
In 2012, she reprised her role as Deb in the animated TV version of Napoleon Dynamite. She was also seen playing the role of the vampire Molly in Season 5 of the HBO television series True Blood, an uncredited role as a pregnant woman in the Fox show, Raising Hope, in an episode titled "Tarot Cards," and the role of intern Dr. Heather Brooks in Season 9 of the ABC series Grey's Anatomy, with her character being killed off in the two-part premiere of Season 10. In 2014 she appeared in the Veronica Mars film as her character Mac, a project financed by fans through Kickstarter.[17]
Filmography[edit]
Majorino at the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1994 When a Man Loves a Woman Jess Green
1994 Corrina, Corrina Molly Singer
1994 Andre Toni Whitney
1995 Waterworld Enola
1997 Santa Fe Crystal Thomas
2004 Napoleon Dynamite Deb
2006 Think Tank Sal
2006 Sharp, AA Sharp The Daughter Short film
2007 What We Do Is Secret Michelle
2012 Should've Been Romeo Alice
2014 Veronica Mars Cindy "Mac" Mackenzie
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1992–1993 Camp Wilder Sophie Wilder Main role (19 episodes)
1996 New York Crossing TV film
1997 True Women Young Euphemia Ashby TV film
1997 Before Women Had Wings Avocet Abigail 'Bird' Jackson TV film
1997 Merry Christmas, George Bailey Janie Bailey TV film
1999 Alice in Wonderland Alice TV film
2004 Without a Trace Serena Barnes / Andrews Episode: "Lost and Found"
2004–2007 Veronica Mars Cindy "Mac" Mackenzie Recurring role (seasons 1–2); main role (season 3); 34 episodes
2006–2011 Big Love Heather Tuttle Recurring role (26 episodes)
2010 In Security N/A Unsold TV pilot
2010 The Deep End Addy Fisher Main role (7 episodes)
2011 Castle Reese Harmon Episode: "One Life to Lose"
2011–2012 Bones Special Agent Genevieve Shaw Episodes: "The Hole in the Heart", "The Male in the Mail", "The Bump in the Road"
2012 Napoleon Dynamite Deb (voice) Main role (6 episodes)
2012 True Blood Molly Recurring role (6 episodes)
2012–2013 Grey's Anatomy Dr. Heather Brooks Recurring role (22 episodes)
2014 Legends Maggie Harris Main role (season 1; 10 episodes)
2017–2018 Scorpion Florence Recurring role
References[edit]
Jump up ^ According to the State of California. California Birth Index, 1905–1995. Center for Health Statistics, California Department of Health Services, Sacramento, California. Searchable at http://www.familytreelegends.com/records/39461
Jump up ^ "Television News, Reviews and TV Show Recaps - HuffPost TV". The Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ "Tina Majorino Biography (1985-)". filmreference.com.
Jump up ^ Steele, Tyler. "Albertina Majorino Interview! (Aґrchived version)". Turtle Soup. Archived from the original on 2006-01-12. Retrieved 2006-11-30.
Jump up ^ Dransfeldt, Jeffrey (2006-10-06). "Tina Majorino reflects on time away from show-biz". Oregon Daily Emerald. Retrieved 2009-07-24. [dead link]
Jump up ^ 1992 Fall Preview, TV Guide – it was a sitcom
^ Jump up to: a b DuBois, Stephanie. "TV RISING STAR: 'VERONICA MARS' TINA MAJORINO SHUNS HOLLYWOOD RAT RACE". Netscape. Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2007-05-06.
Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (1995-07-28). "WATERWORLD; Aquatic Armageddon With Plenty of Toys". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Kuhn, Sarah. "Majorino Feeling the Love – "Big Love" actress brings genuineness to outsider roles". Back Stage West. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
Jump up ^ Mitovich, Matt Webb (2006-10-24). "Tina Majorino (Mac) Teases Veronica Mars' Next Big Mystery". TV Guide. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
Jump up ^ "LoL sits down for an interview with Tina Majorino!". Lifehouse on Lefora. 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2009-07-24. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "LoL sits down for an interview with Nigel Dick!". Lifehouse on Lefora. 2009-02-12. Retrieved 2009-07-24. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Joe (2009-07-21). "ABC series 'The Deep End' expected to begin filming in North Texas". Dallas Morning News. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Troy (January 20, 2010). "Nice Teeth". Slate. Archived from the original on November 29, 2010. Retrieved November 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hinckley, David (January 28, 2010). "ABC's 'The Deep End' firmly unoriginal". New York Daily News. Archived from the original on November 19, 2010. Retrieved August 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ Owen, Rob (2010-05-19). "For fall, ABC adding 6 shows, making most changes on Tuesdays, Fridays". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on 2010-12-04.
Jump up ^ Nordyke, Kimberly (2013-06-12). "Veronica Mars' Movie: Tina Majorino to Return as 'Mac". The Hollywood Reporter.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tina Majorino.
Tina Majorino on IMDb
Interview in Stumped? Magazine
@TinaMajorino on Twitter
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb14202246d (data)
GND: 135155592
ISNI: 0000 0001 1487 142X
LCCN: no2001040632
SNAC: w6794rb6
VIAF: 2681694
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tina_Majorino&oldid=840959064"
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United States declaration of war on Japan
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President Roosevelt, wearing a black armband, signs the Declaration of War on Japan on December 8, 1941
On December 8, 1941, the United States Congress declared war (Public Law 77-328, 55 STAT 795) on the Empire of Japan in response to that country's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor the prior day. It was formulated an hour after the Infamy Speech of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Japan had sent a message to the United States to its embassy in Washington earlier, but because of problems at the embassy in decoding the very long message – the high-security level assigned to the declaration meant that only personnel with very high clearances could decode it, which slowed down the process – it was not delivered to the U.S. Secretary of State until after the Pearl Harbor attack. Following the U.S. declaration, Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, declared war on the United States, bringing the United States fully into World War II.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Vote and Presidential signature
3 Text of the declaration
4 See also
5 References
Background[edit]
The attack on Pearl Harbor took place before a declaration of war by Japan had been delivered to the United States. It was originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the US that it was withdrawing from further peace negotiations,[1][2] but the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification – known as the "14-Part Message" – in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. However, because of the very secret nature of the message, it had to be decoded, translated and typed up by high embassy officials, who were unable to do these tasks in the available time. Hence, the ambassador did not deliver it until after the attack had begun. But even if it had been, the notification was worded so that it actually neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations, so it was not a proper declaration of war as required by diplomatic traditions.[3]
The United Kingdom declared war on Japan nine hours before the US did, partially due to Japanese attacks on the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong; and partially due to Winston Churchill's promise to declare war "within the hour" of a Japanese attack on the United States.[4]
Vote and Presidential signature[edit]
President Roosevelt formally requested the declaration in his Infamy Speech, addressed to a joint session of Congress and the nation at 12:30 p.m. on December 8.[5] The declaration was quickly brought to a vote; it passed the Senate, and then passed the House at 1:10 p.m.[5] The vote was 82 – 0 in the Senate and 388 – 1 in the House. Jeannette Rankin, a pacifist and the first woman elected to Congress (in 1916), cast the only vote against the declaration, eliciting hisses from some of her peers. Several colleagues requested she change her vote to make the resolution unanimous—or at least to abstain—but she refused.[6][7] "As a woman, I can't go to war," she said, "and I refuse to send anyone else." Nine other women held Congressional seats at the time. After the vote, an angry mob followed her from the Capitol building, forcing her to take refuge in a telephone booth until United States Capitol Police could rescue her. Two days later a similar war declaration against Germany and Italy came to vote; Rankin abstained. Nine other women voted in favor of the declaration of war.
Roosevelt signed the declaration at 4:10 p.m the same day.[5] The power to declare war is assigned exclusively to Congress in the United States Constitution, making it an open question whether his signature was technically necessary.[5] However, his signature was symbolically powerful and resolved any doubts.
Text of the declaration[edit]
JOINT RESOLUTION Declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial Government of Japan and the Government and the people of the United States and making provisions to prosecute the same.
Whereas the Imperial Government of Japan has committed unprovoked acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America:
Therefore be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war between the United States and the Imperial Government of Japan which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and the President is hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial Government of Japan; and, to bring the conflict to a successful termination, all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States.[8]
See also[edit]
World War II portal
Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire
United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)
United States declaration of war upon Italy
Declaration of war by the United States
Kellogg–Briand Pact
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hixson, Walter L. (2003), The American Experience in World War II: The United States and the road to war in Europe, Taylor & Francis, p. 73, ISBN 978-0-415-94029-0
Jump up ^ Calvocoressi, Peter; Wint, Guy & Pritchard, John (1999) The Penguin History of the Second World War, London: Penguin. p.952
Jump up ^ Prange, Gordon W. (1982) At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor, Dillon. pp.424, 475, 493-94
Jump up ^ Staff (December 15, 1941) "The U.S. At War, The Last Stage" Time
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kluckhorn, Frank L.(December 9, 1941) "U.S. Declares War, Pacific Battle Widens" The New York Times p.A1. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ Staff (April 1, 2014) "Jeannette Rankin: Suffragist, Congresswoman, Pacifist" Women's History Matters
Jump up ^ Luckowski, Jean and Lopach, James (ndg) "A Chronology and Primary Sources for Teaching about Jeannette Rankin" Montana.gov
Jump up ^ "Declaration of War with Japan" Retrieved 2010-15-7
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Integrative learning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Integrative learning is a learning theory describing a movement toward integrated lessons helping students make connections across curricula. This higher education concept is distinct from the elementary and high school "integrated curriculum" movement.
Contents
[hide]
1 Term and concept
2 Integrated medical curriculum
3 K-12 outcomes
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Term and concept[edit]
Integrative Learning comes in many varieties: connecting skills and knowledge from multiple sources and experiences; applying skills and practices in various settings; utilizing diverse and even contradictory points of view; and, understanding issues and positions contextually."
...making connections within a major, between fields, between curriculum, cocurriculum, or between academic knowledge and practice."[1]
Integrated studies involve bringing together traditionally separate subjects so that students can grasp a more authentic understanding. Veronica Boix Mansilla, cofounder of the Interdisciplinary Studies Project at Project Zero, explains "when [students] can bring together concepts, methods, or languages from two or more disciplines or established areas of expertise in order to explain a phenomenon, solve a problem, create a product, or raise a new question" they are demonstrating interdisciplinary understanding. For over a decade, Project Zero researchers at the Harvard Graduate School of Education have been studying interdisciplinary work across a range of settings. They have found interdisciplinary understanding to be crucial for modern-thinking students.[2]
Edutopia highlighted Central York High School as a "School That Works" because of its successful integrated studies approach. For example, an AP government teacher and art teacher collaborated to create a joint project that asked students to create a sculpture based on the principles presented by the AP government class.[3] AP government teacher Dayna Laur states that, "Integrated studies projects [aim to] create a connectedness between disciplines that otherwise might seem unrelated to many students. Deliberately searching for ways in which you can mingle standards and content is imperative if you want to create truly authentic experiences because, in the world outside of the classroom, content is not stand-alone."[4][5]
Concept map describing activities offered by universities to encourage integrative learning.
Integrated medical curriculum[edit]
In many American medical schools, an integrated curriculum refers to a non-compartmentalized approach to basic science learning. As opposed to traditional medical curriculum, which separate subjects such as embryology, physiology, pathology and anatomy, integrated curricula alternate lectures on these subjects over the course of the first two years. (Jonas 1989) The course of study is instead organized around organ systems (such as "Cardiovascular" or "Gastrointestinal"). Another major component of the integrated medical curriculum is problem-based learning.
K-12 outcomes[edit]
Interdisciplinary curricula has been shown by several studies to support students’ engagement and learning. Specifically integrating science with reading comprehension and writing lessons has been shown to improve students’ understanding in both science and English language arts.[6]
See also[edit]
Andragogy
Bachelor of Arts and Science
Polymath
The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
Experiential learning
Distributed cognition
Integrated arts
Integrated science program
Interdisciplinarity
Interdisciplinary studies
Knowledge integration
School organizational models
Service learning
Transdisciplinary Studies
Science of Team Science
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Huber, M. T., Hutchings, P., & Gale, R. (2005). Integrative Learning for Liberal Education. peerReview, Summer/Fall.
Jump up ^ Boss, Suzie (6 December 2011). "Integrated Studies: A Short History".
Jump up ^ "Integrated Studies: What Experts Say". 6 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Nobori, Mariko (22 June 2011). "Integrating Art and Politics to Improve High School Student Engagement".
Jump up ^ Central York High School - New High School Homepage 1[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Parsons, Jim; Taylor, Leah (6 May 2011). "Improving Student Engagement". 14 (1) – via cie.asu.edu.
Bibliography[edit]
Augsburg, T., & de Barros, J. A. (2010, June). Integrating different modes of inquiry for pre-service teachers. In Proceedings of the first interdisciplinary CHESS Interactions Conference (pp. 241-255).
Awbrey, S.M, Dana, D., Miller, V.W., Robinson, P., Ryan, M.M. and Scott, D.K. (Eds.), (2006). Integrative Learning and Action: A Call to Wholeness (Studies in Education and Spirituality). New York: Peter Lang Publ.
Brinkman, G. W., & van der Geest, T. M. (2003). Assessment of Communication Competencies in Engineering Design Projects. Technical Communication Quarterly, 12(1), 67-81.
Czechowski, J. (2003), "An Integrated Approach to Liberal Learning", Peer Review, 5(4), 4-7.
Grace, D. J., & Picard, A. (2001). An Experimental Approach to Integrating Mathematics and Literacy Methods Courses. Action in Teacher Education, 23(1), 29-36.
Graff, G. (1991, February 13). Colleges are Depriving Students of a Connected View of Scholarship. The Chronicle of Higher Education, p. 48.
Hecke, G. R. V., Karukstis, K. K., Haskell, R. C., McFadden, C. S., & Wettack, F. S. (2002). An Integration of Chemistry, Biology, and Physics: The Interdisciplinary Laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education, 79(7), 837-844.
Huber, M. T., & Hutchings, P. (2004). Integrative Learning: Mapping the Terrain. The Academy in Transition. Washington, DC.: Association of American Colleges and Universities
Huber, M. T., Hutchings, P., & Gale, R. (2005). Integrative Learning for Liberal Education. peerReview, Summer / Fall.
Jacobs, S. K., Rosenfeld, P., & Haber, J. (2003). Information Literacy as the Foundation for Evidence-Based Practice in Graduate Nursing Education: A Curriculum-Integrated Approach. Journal of Professional Nursing, 19(5), 320-328.
Jennings, T. E. (1997). Restructuring for integrative education: multiple perspectives, multiple contexts. Westport, Conn: Bergin & Garvey.
Jory, B. (Ed.). (2001). Campbell Monograph Series on Education and Human Sciences (Vol. 2).
Jonas, Harry S., Sylia I. Etzel and Barbara Barzansky. Undergraduate Medical Education. JAMA, Aug. 25 1989. 262(8): 1018-1019.
Kain, D. L. (1993). Cabbages--And Kings: Research Directions in Integrated /Interdisciplinary Curriculum. Journal of Educational Thought/Revue de la Pensée Éducative, 27(3), 312-331.
Kirtland, J., & Hoh, P. S. (2002). Integrating Mathematics and Composition Instruction. Primus, 12(1).
Klein, J. T. (1996). Crossing boundaries: knowledge, disciplinarities, and interdisciplinarities: University Press of Virginia.
Klein, J. T. (1999). Mapping interdisciplinary studies. Washington, DC. : Association of American Colleges and Universities.
Klein, J. T. (2005). Humanities, Culture, and Interdisciplinarity: The Changing American Academy: State University of New York Press.
Kline, Peter (1988).The Everyday Genius Development of Integrative Learning
Lorents, A., Morgan, J., & Tallman, G. (2003). The Impact of Course Integration on Student Grades. Journal of Education for Business, 78(3), 135-138
Matthews, M. W., & Rainer, J. D. (2001). The Quandaries of Teachers and Teacher Educators in Integrating Literacy and Mathematics. Language Arts, 78(4), 357-364.
Perez de Tagle, J. (2008) Leader As Surfer: A Transformational OD Primer for CEOs and Change Agents.
Roberts, J. A. (2004). Riding the Momentum: Interdisciplinary Research Centers to Interdisciplinary Graduate Programs. Paper presented at the July 2004 Merrill conference.
Roberts, J. A., & Barnhill, R. E. (2001, Oct 10-13). Engineering Togetherness (An Incentive System for Interdisciplinary Research). Paper presented at the 2001 IEEE/ASEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Reno, NV.
Scott, D. K. (2002). General Education for an Integrative Age. Higher Education Policy, 15(1), 7-18.
Shapiro, D. F. (2003). Facilitating Holistic Curriculum Development. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28(4), 423-434.
Shore, M. A., & Shore, J. B. (2003). An Integrative Curriculum Approach to Developmental Mathematics and the Health Professions Using Problem Based Learning. Mathematics and Computer Education, 37(1), 29-38.
Stefanou, C. R., & Salisbury-Glennon, J. D. (2002). Developing Motivation and Cognitive Learning Strategies through an Undergraduate Learning Community. Learning Environments Research, 5(1), 77-97
Venville, G. J., Wallace, J., Rennie, L. J., & Malone, J. A. (2002). Curriculum Integration: Eroding the High Ground of Science as a School Subject? Studies in Science Education, 37, 43-83.
Viswat, L. J., Duppenthaler, C. E., Nishi, K., & Podziewski, K. (2003). A Pilot Study on a Coordinated Approach to Language Instruction. Bulletin of the Educational Research Institute, 21, 79-92.
Walker, D. (1996). Integrative Education. Eugene OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management.
External links[edit]
Integrative Learning
Antioch University New England Integrated Learning Program
Association for Integrative Studies
Institute for Advanced Study in the Integrative Sciences
Integrative Learning: Opportunities to Connect collaborative project at the American Association of Colleges and Universities
Hybridvigor.net
Becoming A Brilliant Star
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