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Newton's laws of motion
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Newton's First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 Principia Mathematica
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F → = m a → {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}=m{\vec {a}}}
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Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces. More precisely, the first law defines the force qualitatively, the second law offers a quantitative measure of the force, and the third asserts that a single isolated force doesn't exist. These three laws have been expressed in several different ways, over nearly three centuries,[1] and can be summarised as follows:
First law: In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.[2][3]
Second law: In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant – see below.)
Third law: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.
The three laws of motion were first compiled by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687.[4] Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems.[5] For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Laws
2.1 Newton's first law
2.2 Newton's second law
2.2.1 Impulse
2.2.2 Variable-mass systems
2.3 Newton's third law
3 History
3.1 Newton's 1st Law
3.2 Newton's 2nd Law
3.3 Newton's 3rd Law
4 Importance and range of validity
5 Relationship to the conservation laws
6 See also
7 References and notes
8 Further reading and works cited
9 External links
Overview
Isaac Newton (1643–1727), the physicist who formulated the laws
Newton's laws are applied to objects which are idealised as single point masses,[6] in the sense that the size and shape of the object's body are neglected to focus on its motion more easily. This can be done when the object is small compared to the distances involved in its analysis, or the deformation and rotation of the body are of no importance. In this way, even a planet can be idealised as a particle for analysis of its orbital motion around a star.
In their original form, Newton's laws of motion are not adequate to characterise the motion of rigid bodies and deformable bodies. Leonhard Euler in 1750 introduced a generalisation of Newton's laws of motion for rigid bodies called Euler's laws of motion, later applied as well for deformable bodies assumed as a continuum. If a body is represented as an assemblage of discrete particles, each governed by Newton's laws of motion, then Euler's laws can be derived from Newton's laws. Euler's laws can, however, be taken as axioms describing the laws of motion for extended bodies, independently of any particle structure.[7]
Newton's laws hold only with respect to a certain set of frames of reference called Newtonian or inertial reference frames. Some authors interpret the first law as defining what an inertial reference frame is; from this point of view, the second law holds only when the observation is made from an inertial reference frame, and therefore the first law cannot be proved as a special case of the second. Other authors do treat the first law as a corollary of the second.[8][9] The explicit concept of an inertial frame of reference was not developed until long after Newton's death.
In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, momentum, and (most importantly) force are assumed to be externally defined quantities. This is the most common, but not the only interpretation of the way one can consider the laws to be a definition of these quantities.
Newtonian mechanics has been superseded by special relativity, but it is still useful as an approximation when the speeds involved are much slower than the speed of light.[10]
Laws
Newton's first law
Main article: Inertia
Play media
Explanation of Newton's first law and reference frames (MIT Course 8.01)[11][12]
The first law states that if the net force (the vector sum of all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity of the object is constant. Velocity is a vector quantity which expresses both the object's speed and the direction of its motion; therefore, the statement that the object's velocity is constant is a statement that both its speed and the direction of its motion are constant.
The first law can be stated mathematically when the mass is a non-zero constant, as,
∑ F = 0 ⇔ d v d t = 0. {\displaystyle \sum \mathbf {F} =0\;\Leftrightarrow \;{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=0.}
Consequently,
An object that is at rest will stay at rest unless a force acts upon it.
An object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless a force acts upon it.
This is known as uniform motion. An object continues to do whatever it happens to be doing unless a force is exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues in a state of rest (demonstrated when a tablecloth is skilfully whipped from under dishes on a tabletop and the dishes remain in their initial state of rest). If an object is moving, it continues to move without turning or changing its speed. This is evident in space probes that continuously move in outer space. Changes in motion must be imposed against the tendency of an object to retain its state of motion. In the absence of net forces, a moving object tends to move along a straight line path indefinitely.
Newton placed the first law of motion to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are applicable. The first law of motion postulates the existence of at least one frame of reference called a Newtonian or inertial reference frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is a straight line at a constant speed.[8][13] Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia. Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform motion of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that the total net force acting on it is zero. In this sense, the first law can be restated as:
In every material universe, the motion of a particle in a preferential reference frame Φ is determined by the action of forces whose total vanished for all times when and only when the velocity of the particle is constant in Φ. That is, a particle initially at rest or in uniform motion in the preferential frame Φ continues in that state unless compelled by forces to change it.[14]
Newton's first and second laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform motion with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, i.e. Galilean invariance or the principle of Newtonian relativity.[15]
Newton's second law
Play media
Explanation of Newton's second law, using gravity as an example (MIT OCW)[16]
The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force applied, and this change in momentum takes place in the direction of the applied force.
F = d p d t = d ( m v ) d t . {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} (m\mathbf {v} )}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
The second law can also be stated in terms of an object's acceleration. Since Newton's second law is valid only for constant-mass systems,[17][18][19] m can be taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant factor rule in differentiation. Thus,
F = m d v d t = m a , {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\,{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=m\mathbf {a} ,}
where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body's acceleration. Thus, the net force applied to a body produces a proportional acceleration. In other words, if a body is accelerating, then there is a force on it. An application of this notation is the derivation of G Subscript C.
Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular motion. The relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is zero, the momentum of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of change of the momentum.
Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum that is not the result of an external force. A different equation is necessary for variable-mass systems (see below).
Newton's second law requires modification if the effects of special relativity are to be taken into account, because at high speeds the approximation that momentum is the product of rest mass and velocity is not accurate.
Impulse
An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time Δt, and it is given by[20][21]
J = ∫ Δ t F d t . {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} =\int _{\Delta t}\mathbf {F} \,\mathrm {d} t.}
Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that
J = Δ p = m Δ v . {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} =\Delta \mathbf {p} =m\Delta \mathbf {v} .}
This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the second law.[22]
Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.[23]
Variable-mass systems
Main article: Variable-mass system
Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and ejecting spent gases, are not closed and cannot be directly treated by making mass a function of time in the second law;[18] that is, the following formula is wrong:[19]
F n e t = d d t [ m ( t ) v ( t ) ] = m ( t ) d v d t + v ( t ) d m d t . ( w r o n g ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{\mathrm {net} }={\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}{\big [}m(t)\mathbf {v} (t){\big ]}=m(t){\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}+\mathbf {v} (t){\frac {\mathrm {d} m}{\mathrm {d} t}}.\qquad \mathrm {(wrong)} }
The falsehood of this formula can be seen by noting that it does not respect Galilean invariance: a variable-mass object with F = 0 in one frame will be seen to have F ≠ 0 in another frame.[17] The correct equation of motion for a body whose mass m varies with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by applying the second law to the entire, constant-mass system consisting of the body and its ejected/accreted mass; the result is[17]
F + u d m d t = m d v d t {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} +\mathbf {u} {\frac {\mathrm {d} m}{\mathrm {d} t}}=m{\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} \over \mathrm {d} t}}
where u is the velocity of the escaping or incoming mass relative to the body. From this equation one can derive the equation of motion for a varying mass system, for example, the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. Under some conventions, the quantity u dm/dt on the left-hand side, which represents the advection of momentum, is defined as a force (the force exerted on the body by the changing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the quantity F. Then, by substituting the definition of acceleration, the equation becomes F = ma.
Newton's third law
An illustration of Newton's third law in which two skaters push against each other. The first skater on the left exerts a normal force N12 on the second skater directed towards the right, and the second skater exerts a normal force N21 on the first skater directed towards the left.
The magnitudes of both forces are equal, but they have opposite directions, as dictated by Newton's third law.
Play media
A description of Newton's third law and contact forces[24]
The third law states that all forces between two objects exist in equal magnitude and opposite direction: if one object A exerts a force FA on a second object B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB on A, and the two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction: FA = −FB.[25] The third law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies,[26][27] or different regions within one body, and thus that there is no such thing as a force that is not accompanied by an equal and opposite force. In some situations, the magnitude and direction of the forces are determined entirely by one of the two bodies, say Body A; the force exerted by Body A on Body B is called the "action", and the force exerted by Body B on Body A is called the "reaction". This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with FA called the "action" and FB the "reaction". In other situations the magnitude and directions of the forces are determined jointly by both bodies and it isn't necessary to identify one force as the "action" and the other as the "reaction". The action and the reaction are simultaneous, and it does not matter which is called the action and which is called reaction; both forces are part of a single interaction, and neither force exists without the other.[25]
The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type (e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force on an accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road).
From a conceptual standpoint, Newton's third law is seen when a person walks: they push against the floor, and the floor pushes against the person. Similarly, the tires of a car push against the road while the road pushes back on the tires—the tires and road simultaneously push against each other. In swimming, a person interacts with the water, pushing the water backward, while the water simultaneously pushes the person forward—both the person and the water push against each other. The reaction forces account for the motion in these examples. These forces depend on friction; a person or car on ice, for example, may be unable to exert the action force to produce the needed reaction force.[28]
History
Newton's 1st Law
From the original Latin of Newton's Principia:
“ Lex I: Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus a viribus impressis cogitur statum illum mutare. ”
Translated to English, this reads:
“ Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed.[29] ”
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had the view that all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy objects (such as rocks) wanted to be at rest on the Earth and that light objects like smoke wanted to be at rest in the sky and the stars wanted to remain in the heavens. He thought that a body was in its natural state when it was at rest, and for the body to move in a straight line at a constant speed an external agent was needed continually to propel it, otherwise it would stop moving. Galileo Galilei, however, realised that a force is necessary to change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no force is needed to maintain its velocity. In other words, Galileo stated that, in the absence of a force, a moving object will continue moving. (The tendency of objects to resist changes in motion was what Johannes Kepler had called inertia.) This insight was refined by Newton, who made it into his first law, also known as the "law of inertia"—no force means no acceleration, and hence the body will maintain its velocity. As Newton's first law is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had already described, Newton appropriately gave credit to Galileo.
The law of inertia apparently occurred to several different natural philosophers and scientists independently, including Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan.[30] The 17th century philosopher and mathematician René Descartes also formulated the law, although he did not perform any experiments to confirm it.[31][32]
Newton's 2nd Law
Newton's original Latin reads:
“ Lex II: Mutationem motus proportionalem esse vi motrici impressae, et fieri secundum lineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur. ”
This was translated quite closely in Motte's 1729 translation as:
“ Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impress'd. ”
According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his terminology,[33] this is understood, in modern terms, as an equivalent of:
The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is impressed.
This may be expressed by the formula F = p', where p' is the time derivative of the momentum p. This equation can be seen clearly in the Wren Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, in a glass case in which Newton's manuscript is open to the relevant page.
Motte's 1729 translation of Newton's Latin continued with Newton's commentary on the second law of motion, reading:
If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (being always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both.
The sense or senses in which Newton used his terminology, and how he understood the second law and intended it to be understood, have been extensively discussed by historians of science, along with the relations between Newton's formulation and modern formulations.[34]
Newton's 3rd Law
“ Lex III: Actioni contrariam semper et æqualem esse reactionem: sive corporum duorum actiones in se mutuo semper esse æquales et in partes contrarias dirigi. ”
Translated to English, this reads:
“ Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts. ”
Newton's Scholium (explanatory comment) to this law:
Whatever draws or presses another is as much drawn or pressed by that other. If you press a stone with your finger, the finger is also pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone tied to a rope, the horse (if I may so say) will be equally drawn back towards the stone: for the distended rope, by the same endeavour to relax or unbend itself, will draw the horse as much towards the stone, as it does the stone towards the horse, and will obstruct the progress of the one as much as it advances that of the other. If a body impinges upon another, and by its force changes the motion of the other, that body also (because of the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change, in its own motion, toward the contrary part. The changes made by these actions are equal, not in the velocities but in the motions of the bodies; that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered by any other impediments. For, as the motions are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made toward contrary parts are reciprocally proportional to the bodies. This law takes place also in attractions, as will be proved in the next scholium.[35]
In the above, as usual, motion is Newton's name for momentum, hence his careful distinction between motion and velocity.
Newton used the third law to derive the law of conservation of momentum;[36] from a deeper perspective, however, conservation of momentum is the more fundamental idea (derived via Noether's theorem from Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newton's third law appears to fail, for instance when force fields as well as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mechanics.
Importance and range of validity
Newton's laws were verified by experiment and observation for over 200 years, and they are excellent approximations at the scales and speeds of everyday life. Newton's laws of motion, together with his law of universal gravitation and the mathematical techniques of calculus, provided for the first time a unified quantitative explanation for a wide range of physical phenomena.
These three laws hold to a good approximation for macroscopic objects under everyday conditions. However, Newton's laws (combined with universal gravitation and classical electrodynamics) are inappropriate for use in certain circumstances, most notably at very small scales, very high speeds (in special relativity, the Lorentz factor must be included in the expression for momentum along with the rest mass and velocity) or very strong gravitational fields. Therefore, the laws cannot be used to explain phenomena such as conduction of electricity in a semiconductor, optical properties of substances, errors in non-relativistically corrected GPS systems and superconductivity. Explanation of these phenomena requires more sophisticated physical theories, including general relativity and quantum field theory.
In quantum mechanics, concepts such as force, momentum, and position are defined by linear operators that operate on the quantum state; at speeds that are much lower than the speed of light, Newton's laws are just as exact for these operators as they are for classical objects. At speeds comparable to the speed of light, the second law holds in the original form F = dp/dt, where F and p are four-vectors.
Relationship to the conservation laws
In modern physics, the laws of conservation of momentum, energy, and angular momentum are of more general validity than Newton's laws, since they apply to both light and matter, and to both classical and non-classical physics.
This can be stated simply, "Momentum, energy and angular momentum cannot be created or destroyed."
Because force is the time derivative of momentum, the concept of force is redundant and subordinate to the conservation of momentum, and is not used in fundamental theories (e.g., quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, general relativity, etc.). The standard model explains in detail how the three fundamental forces known as gauge forces originate out of exchange by virtual particles. Other forces, such as gravity and fermionic degeneracy pressure, also arise from the momentum conservation. Indeed, the conservation of 4-momentum in inertial motion via curved space-time results in what we call gravitational force in general relativity theory. The application of the space derivative (which is a momentum operator in quantum mechanics) to the overlapping wave functions of a pair of fermions (particles with half-integer spin) results in shifts of maxima of compound wavefunction away from each other, which is observable as the "repulsion" of the fermions.
Newton stated the third law within a world-view that assumed instantaneous action at a distance between material particles. However, he was prepared for philosophical criticism of this action at a distance, and it was in this context that he stated the famous phrase "I feign no hypotheses". In modern physics, action at a distance has been completely eliminated, except for subtle effects involving quantum entanglement.[citation needed] However, in modern engineering, in all practical applications involving the motion of vehicles and satellites, the concept of action at a distance is used extensively.
The discovery of the second law of thermodynamics by Carnot in the 19th century showed that not every physical quantity is conserved over time, thus disproving the validity of inducing the opposite metaphysical view from Newton's laws. Hence, a "steady-state" worldview based solely on Newton's laws and the conservation laws does not take entropy into account.
See also
Book: Isaac Newton
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Newton's laws of motion.
Euler's laws of motion
Hamiltonian mechanics
Lagrangian mechanics
List of scientific laws named after people
Mercury, orbit of
Modified Newtonian dynamics
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Principle of least action
Reaction (physics)
Principle of relativity
References and notes
Jump up ^ For explanations of Newton's laws of motion by Newton in the early 18th century, by the physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in the mid-19th century, and by a modern text of the early 21st century, see:-
Newton's "Axioms or Laws of Motion" starting on page 19 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation of the Principia;
Section 242, Newton's laws of motion in Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on natural philosophy, volume 1; and
Benjamin Crowell (2000), Newtonian Physics.
Jump up ^ Browne, Michael E. (July 1999). Schaum's outline of theory and problems of physics for engineering and science (Series: Schaum's Outline Series). McGraw-Hill Companies. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-07-008498-8.
Jump up ^ Holzner, Steven (December 2005). Physics for Dummies. Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-7645-5433-9.
Jump up ^ See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation
Jump up ^ Andrew Motte translation of Newton's Principia (1687) Axioms or Laws of Motion
Jump up ^ [...]while Newton had used the word 'body' vaguely and in at least three different meanings, Euler realized that the statements of Newton are generally correct only when applied to masses concentrated at isolated points; Truesdell, Clifford A.; Becchi, Antonio; Benvenuto, Edoardo (2003). Essays on the history of mechanics: in memory of Clifford Ambrose Truesdell and Edoardo Benvenuto. New York: Birkhäuser. p. 207. ISBN 3-7643-1476-1.
Jump up ^ Lubliner, Jacob (2008). Plasticity Theory (Revised Edition) (PDF). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-46290-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Galili, I.; Tseitlin, M. (2003). "Newton's First Law: Text, Translations, Interpretations and Physics Education". Science & Education. 12 (1): 45–73. Bibcode:2003Sc&Ed..12...45G. doi:10.1023/A:1022632600805.
Jump up ^ Benjamin Crowell. "4. Force and Motion". Newtonian Physics. ISBN 0-9704670-1-X.
Jump up ^ In making a modern adjustment of the second law for (some of) the effects of relativity, m would be treated as the relativistic mass, producing the relativistic expression for momentum, and the third law might be modified if possible to allow for the finite signal propagation speed between distant interacting particles.
Jump up ^ Walter Lewin (20 September 1999). Newton's First, Second, and Third Laws. MIT Course 8.01: Classical Mechanics, Lecture 6. (ogg) (videotape). Cambridge, MA USA: MIT OCW. Event occurs at 0:00–6:53. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
Jump up ^ For the Allure of Physics (9 December 2014), Lec 06: Newton's First, Second, and Third Laws | 8.01 Classical Mechanics, Fall 1999 (Walter Lewin), retrieved 12 July 2017
Jump up ^ NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity. London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 1-85233-426-6.
Jump up ^ Beatty, Millard F. (2006). Principles of engineering mechanics Volume 2 of Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics-The Analysis of Motion,. Springer. p. 24. ISBN 0-387-23704-6.
Jump up ^ Thornton, Marion (2004). Classical dynamics of particles and systems (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 53. ISBN 0-534-40896-6.
Jump up ^ Lewin, Newton’s First, Second, and Third Laws, Lecture 6. (6:53–11:06)
^ Jump up to: a b c Plastino, Angel R.; Muzzio, Juan C. (1992). "On the use and abuse of Newton's second law for variable mass problems". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 53 (3): 227–232. Bibcode:1992CeMDA..53..227P. ISSN 0923-2958. doi:10.1007/BF00052611. "We may conclude emphasizing that Newton's second law is valid for constant mass only. When the mass varies due to accretion or ablation, [an alternate equation explicitly accounting for the changing mass] should be used."
^ Jump up to: a b Halliday; Resnick. Physics. 1. p. 199. ISBN 0-471-03710-9. It is important to note that we cannot derive a general expression for Newton's second law for variable mass systems by treating the mass in F = dP/dt = d(Mv) as a variable. [...] We can use F = dP/dt to analyze variable mass systems only if we apply it to an entire system of constant mass having parts among which there is an interchange of mass. [Emphasis as in the original]
^ Jump up to: a b Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133–134. ISBN 0-07-035048-5. Recall that F = dP/dt was established for a system composed of a certain set of particles[. ... I]t is essential to deal with the same set of particles throughout the time interval[. ...] Consequently, the mass of the system can not change during the time of interest.
Jump up ^ Hannah, J, Hillier, M J, Applied Mechanics, p221, Pitman Paperbacks, 1971
Jump up ^ Raymond A. Serway; Jerry S. Faughn (2006). College Physics. Pacific Grove CA: Thompson-Brooks/Cole. p. 161. ISBN 0-534-99724-4.
Jump up ^ I. Bernard Cohen (Peter M. Harman & Alan E. Shapiro, Eds) (2002). The investigation of difficult things: essays on Newton and the history of the exact sciences in honour of D.T. Whiteside. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 353. ISBN 0-521-89266-X.
Jump up ^ WJ Stronge (2004). Impact mechanics. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 12 ff. ISBN 0-521-60289-0.
Jump up ^ Lewin, Newton’s First, Second, and Third Laws, Lecture 6. (14:11–16:00)
^ Jump up to: a b Resnick; Halliday; Krane (1992). Physics, Volume 1 (4th ed.). p. 83.
Jump up ^ C Hellingman (1992). "Newton's third law revisited". Phys. Educ. 27 (2): 112–115. Bibcode:1992PhyEd..27..112H. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/27/2/011. Quoting Newton in the Principia: It is not one action by which the Sun attracts Jupiter, and another by which Jupiter attracts the Sun; but it is one action by which the Sun and Jupiter mutually endeavour to come nearer together.
Jump up ^ Resnick & Halliday (1977). Physics (Third ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 78–79. Any single force is only one aspect of a mutual interaction between two bodies.
Jump up ^ Hewitt (2006), p. 75
Jump up ^ Isaac Newton, The Principia, A new translation by I.B. Cohen and A. Whitman, University of California press, Berkeley 1999.
Jump up ^ Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan:
That when a thing lies still, unless somewhat else stir it, it will lie still forever, is a truth that no man doubts. But [the proposition] that when a thing is in motion it will eternally be in motion unless somewhat else stay it, though the reason be the same (namely that nothing can change itself), is not so easily assented to. For men measure not only other men but all other things by themselves. And because they find themselves subject after motion to pain and lassitude, [they] think every thing else grows weary of motion and seeks repose of its own accord, little considering whether it be not some other motion wherein that desire of rest they find in themselves, consists.
Jump up ^ Cohen, I. B. (1995). Science and the Founding Fathers: Science in the Political Thought of Jefferson, Franklin, Adams and Madison. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 117. ISBN 978-0393315103.
Jump up ^ Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution: With Illustrations of the Transformation of Scientific Ideas. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 183–4. ISBN 978-0521273800.
Jump up ^ According to Maxwell in Matter and Motion, Newton meant by motion "the quantity of matter moved as well as the rate at which it travels" and by impressed force he meant "the time during which the force acts as well as the intensity of the force". See Harman and Shapiro, cited below.
Jump up ^ See for example (1) I Bernard Cohen, "Newton's Second Law and the Concept of Force in the Principia", in "The Annus Mirabilis of Sir Isaac Newton 1666–1966" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1967), pages 143–185; (2) Stuart Pierson, "'Corpore cadente. . .': Historians Discuss Newton’s Second Law", Perspectives on Science, 1 (1993), pages 627–658; and (3) Bruce Pourciau, "Newton's Interpretation of Newton's Second Law", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol.60 (2006), pages 157–207; also an online discussion by G E Smith, in 5. Newton's Laws of Motion, s.5 of "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in (online) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007.
Jump up ^ This translation of the third law and the commentary following it can be found in the Principia on page 20 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation.
Jump up ^ Newton, Principia, Corollary III to the laws of motion
Further reading and works cited
Crowell, Benjamin (2011), Light and Matter (2011, Light and Matter), especially at Section 4.2, Newton's First Law, Section 4.3, Newton's Second Law, and Section 5.1, Newton's Third Law.
Feynman, R. P.; Leighton, R. B.; Sands, M. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Pearson/Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-9049-9.
Fowles, G. R.; Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical Mechanics (6th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0-03-022317-2.
Likins, Peter W. (1973). Elements of Engineering Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-037852-5.
Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (1995). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems. Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0-03-097302-3.
NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special Relativity. London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 1-85233-426-6.
Historical
Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd Latin edition (1726), volume 1, containing Book 1, especially at the section Axioms or Laws of Motion, starting page 19.
Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd Latin edition (1726), volume 2, containing Books 2 & 3.
Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on natural philosophy, volume 1, especially at Section 242, Newton's laws of motion.
External links
MIT Physics video lecture on Newton's three laws
Light and Matter – an on-line textbook
Simulation on Newton's first law of motion
"Newton's Second Law" by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Newton's 3rd Law demonstrated in a vacuum on YouTube
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Way to Blue
Compilation album by Nick Drake
Released
31 May 1994
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1968 - 1974
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Hannibal
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Joe Boyd / John Wood
Nick Drake chronology
Time of No Reply
(1987)Time of No Reply1987 Way to Blue
(1994) Made to Love Magic
(2004)String Module Error: Match not found2004
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Allmusic [1]
Answers.com [2]
Rolling Stone favourable[3]
Way to Blue is a 1994 compilation album featuring tracks by English singer/songwriter Nick Drake, taken from his original three albums plus "Time of No Reply". The album reached gold certificate in the U.K. on 30 September 1999 after selling 100,000 copies. In United States in the year 2000 sales have jumped to 67,916 units. [4]
Track listing[edit]
All songs by Nick Drake.
"Cello Song" – 4:45
from Five Leaves Left, 1969
"Hazey Jane I" – 4:28
from Bryter Layter, 1971
"Way to Blue" – 3:09
from Five Leaves Left, 1969
"Things Behind the Sun" – 3:56
from Pink Moon, 1972
"River Man" – 4:20
from Five Leaves Left, 1969
"Poor Boy" – 6:06
from Bryter Layter, 1971
"Time of No Reply" – 2:44
from Time of No Reply, 1987
"From the Morning" – 2:30
from Pink Moon, 1972
"One of These Things First" – 4:50
from Bryter Layter, 1971
"Northern Sky" – 3:44
from Bryter Layter, 1971
"Which Will" – 2:56
from Pink Moon, 1972
"Hazey Jane II" – 3:44
from Bryter Layter, 1971
"Time Has Told Me" – 4:25
from Five Leaves Left, 1969
"Pink Moon" – 2:03
from Pink Moon, 1972
"Black Eyed Dog" – 3:25
from Time of No Reply, 1987
"Fruit Tree" – 4:45
from Five Leaves Left, 1969
Personnel[edit]
Nick Drake performs vocals and acoustic guitar on all songs and piano on "Pink Moon".
Also features (on various songs):
Robert Kirby - String Arrangements
Richard Thompson - Guitar
John Cale - Organ, Celeste
Chris McGregor - Piano
Paul Harris - Piano
Danny Thompson - Double Bass
Dave Pegg - Bass
Ed Carter - Bass
Mike Kowalski - Drums
Rocky Dzidzornu - Conga, Shaker
Doris Troy - Backing Vocals
P.P. Arnold - Backing Vocals
Patrick Arnold - Backing Vocals
Ray Warleigh - Saxophone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Unterberger, Richie. Way to Blue at AllMusic
Jump up ^ Answers review
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone review
Jump up ^ https://books.google.hr/books?id=VB35AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118&dq=nick+drake+soundscan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQ8Of5utXXAhVSJ-wKHc9FDb0Q6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=nick%20drake%20soundscan&f=false
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Love Island (2015 TV series)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For the most recent series, see Love Island (series 4).
Love Island
Genre
Reality
Created by
Richard Cowles[1]
Presented by
Caroline Flack
Narrated by
Iain Stirling
Music by
A-MNEMONIC Music Productions
Country of origin
United Kingdom
Original language(s)
English
No. of series
4
No. of episodes
158
Production
Executive producer(s)
Richard Cowles
Producer(s)
Sue Dunford
Production location(s)
Love Island Villa, Sant Llorenç des Cardassar Mallorca, Spain
Editor(s)
Paul Newton
Running time
60–90 minutes (incl. adverts)
Production company(s)
ITV Studios
Distributor
ITV Studios Global Entertainment
Release
Original network
ITV2
Picture format
16:9 (HDTV)
Audio format
Stereo
Original release
7 June 2015 (2015-06-07) – present
External links
Website
Love Island is a British dating reality show. It is a revival of the earlier series of the same name, which aired for two series in 2005 and 2006 on ITV. The series is presented by Caroline Flack,[2] and is narrated by Iain Stirling. The series launched on 7 June 2015 live on ITV2. Unlike the original series, the contestants are members of the public rather than celebrities.
The show returned for a second series on 30 May 2016 which ended on 11 July 2016.[3] On 11 July 2016, ITV confirmed that Love Island had been recommissioned for a third series which began on 5 June 2017.[4][5] The show returned with its fourth series which began on 4 June 2018.[6] A fifth series was confirmed on 30 July 2018, and will air in 2019.[7]
Contents
1 History
2 Format
3 Broadcast
4 Spin-offs
5 Villa
6 Series overview
7 International versions
8 Reception
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
On 13 February 2015, it was confirmed that Love Island would be returning, and would be aired on ITV2. However this series would include members of the public rather than celebrities.[8] On 18 April 2015, it was announced that Caroline Flack would be hosting the show.[9] The series finally returned on 7 June 2015 with a live special showing the new Islanders enter the villa. During the series a number of guests entered the villa including Calum Best, who was one of the Islanders in the original series back in 2005, and went on to win the series.[10] Mark Wright also made a guest appearance in this series DJing for Lauren Richardson's birthday party.[11] The series ended on 15 July 2015 and was won by Jess Hayes and Max Morley.[12] Islanders Cally Jane Beech and Luis Morrison became the first couple from the show to have a baby together.[13][14]
The second series was confirmed on 14 February 2016,[15] and began airing on 30 May 2016.[16] This series featured the first Islander to be removed from the villa. Malia Arkian only spent a matter of hours in the villa before she was removed from the series by the producers after an altercation with Kady McDermott.[17] It also included a number of Islanders who decided to voluntarily leave the villa, the first being Rykard Jenkins.[18] Also during the series, Islander Zara Holland was stripped of her Miss Great Britain title due to her behaviour in the villa.[19] The second series also included Sophie Gradon and Katie Salmon becoming the first same-sex couple in the show.[20] The series was eventually won by Cara De La Hoyde and Nathan Massey on 11 July 2016.[21] On 15th September 2018, the series runners-up Olivia Buckland and Alex Bowen married, becoming the first couple from Love Island to marry.
The third series was confirmed on 14 February 2017,[22] and began airing on 5 June 2017.[23] This series was the first series to include a second villa, which was brought into the series during a twist set to put the couples to the ultimate test.[24][25] This series also featured dumped Islanders Mike Thalassitis and Sam Gowland return to the villa after being voted back in by the public; a first for the show.[26] The series ended on 24 July 2017 and was won by Amber Davies and Kem Cetinay.[27] During the final Aftersun episode of the series, which was presented live from outside the villa, it was announced that there would be a one-off reunion special airing on 30 July 2017 which will include all of the Islanders from the series.[28]
The fourth series began on 4 June 2018, and launched with a record 4,050,000 viewers making it the most watched multichannel TV programme since the 2012 Summer Olympics were broadcast on BBC Three, and the most watched ever on ITV2.[29] The series included the reintroduction of "Casa Amor" following its success in the previous series.[30] The series concluded on 30 July 2018 and was won by Dani Dyer and Jack Fincham, who received a record breaking 79.66% of the final vote.[31][32] It was also confirmed that another one-off reunion special would air a week after the final.
Format[edit]
Love Island involves a group of contestants, referred to as Islanders, living in isolation from the outside world in a villa in Mallorca, constantly under video surveillance.[33] To survive in the villa the Islanders must be coupled up with another Islander, whether it be for love, friendship or money, as the overall winning couple receives £50,000. On the first day, the Islanders couple up for the first time based on first impressions, but over the duration of the series they are forced to "re-couple" where they can choose to remain in their current couple or swap and change.
Any Islander who remains single after the coupling is eliminated and dumped from the island. Islanders can also be eliminated via public vote, as during the series the public vote through the Love Island app available on smartphones for their favourite couple, or who they think is the most compatible. Couples who receive the fewest votes risk being eliminated. Often a twist has occurred where it's been up to the Islanders to eliminate couples. During the final week, the public vote for which couple they want to win the series and therefore take home £50,000.
During the first series, the Thursday episode was presented live by Caroline Flack where eliminations often took place and new Islanders entered the villa, however from the second series onwards the live episodes were axed except for the final.[34]
Whilst in the villa, each Islander has their own phone in which they can only contact other Islanders via text – or receive texts informing them of the latest challenges, dumping or recoupling.[35] Islanders and couples are typically faced with many games and challenges to take part in designed to test their physical and mental ability, with the winners getting special prizes afterwards. Some Islanders are also sent on dates outside the villa, or can win dates by winning challenges.
Broadcast[edit]
During the first series, the aired a nightly highlights show five days a week, from Sunday until Thursday. This is the only series to date to premiere on a Sunday, and to end on a Wednesday. The Thursday episodes in this series were live and often featured eliminations or new Islanders enter the villa.[35] The launch and the final episode were also live. From the second series onwards the live shows were axed except from the final.[34] The series was also extended to air six nights a week instead of five. The series can also be viewed from the ITV Hub, a branch of ITV, after it airs.
Series one and two have been made available to watch on Netflix.
Spin-offs[edit]
From the first series, a weekly re-cap episode entitled Love Island: The Weekly Hot List aired every Saturday and includes a round-up of everything that has happened in the villa over the past week.[36] This also includes unseen footage. On May 2017 it was confirmed that a new spin-off show Love Island: Aftersun would air during the third series.[37] It airs live on Sundays after the highlights episode and is hosted by main show host Caroline Flack. It also includes celebrity guests, former Islanders and a studio audience.[38] On 30 July 2017, Love Island: The Reunion was broadcast on ITV2, interviewing the islanders and remembering the most memorable moments from the third series. [28]
On 1 and 2 October 2017, Chris Hughes and Kem Cetinay starred in their own spin-off show, Chris & Kem: Straight Outta Love Island, which followed the popular double act as they write a rap song to perform at a Ministry of Sound club night. The two-part series also starred Chris and Kem's girlfriends from Love Island, Olivia Attwood[39] and Amber Davies. It was broadcast on ITV2. In March 2018, a fly-on-the-wall documentary spin-off titled Chris and Olivia: Crackin’ On was aired and followed the life about contestants; Chris Hughes and Olivia Attwood after Love Island and their dramatic split. Unlike the other spin-offs and the main show, it was broadcast on ITVBe.
Ahead of the fourth series in 2018, it was revealed that Kem would be returning alongside Arielle Free to present Love Island: The Morning After, a new daily podcast show delivering the freshest gossip to fans.[40]
Villa[edit]
The villa is located in Sant Llorenç des Cardassar, Mallorca,[41] with 69 cameras watching the Islanders' every move. It only includes double beds forcing them to share with each other, but has a special Hideaway bedroom for couples to spend the night away from the others.[33][42] It also includes an interview room where the Islanders are allowed to have their say in private. This room is called "The Beach Hut".[35] "The Pod" is also located inside the villa where Islanders can receive video messages from home, or receive other information from inside or outside the villa. During the third series, a second villa was introduced.[43] The villa was called "Casa Amor" which translates to Love House, and is located not far from the main villa.[25] This was then reintroduced during the fourth series.
Series overview[edit]
Series
Start date
Finale date
Islanders
Winners
Prize money
Average viewers (millions)
Episodes
1 7 June 2015 15 July 2015 23 Jessica Hayes and Max Morley £50,000 0.57 29
2 30 May 2016 11 July 2016 26 Cara De La Hoyde and Nathan Massey 1.47 37
3 5 June 2017 24 July 2017 32 Amber Davies and Kem Cetinay 2.52 43
4 4 June 2018 30 July 2018 38 Dani Dyer and Jack Fincham 3.96 49
5 2019
International versions[edit]
On 11 September 2017 a German version premiered in RTL II. An Australian version was commissioned by the Nine Network for its secondary channel 9Go!.[44] On 8 August 2018 CBS ordered an American version of Love Island.
Legend:
Currently airing franchise
Franchise with an upcoming season
Franchise no longer aired
Status unknown
Country/Region
Local title
English title
Network(s)
Winners
Hosts
Australia Love Island Australia Nine Network
9Go! (1)
Channel 9 (2) Season 1, 2018: Grant Crapp & Tayla Damir
Season 2, 2019: Upcoming season
Sophie Monk
Denmark Love Island TV3 Season 1, 2018: Current season Lisbeth Østergaard
Finland Love Island Sub Season 1, 2018: Current season Shirly Karvinen
Germany Love Island RTL II
Season 1, 2017: Elena Miras & Jan Sokolowsky
Season 2, 2018: Tracy Candela & Marcellino "Lino" Kremers
Jana Ina
Norway Love Island TV3 Season 1, 2018: Andrea Sveinsdottir & Morten Dalhaug Tone Damli
Sweden Love Island Sweden TV4 Season 1, 2018: Jacob Olsson & Victoria Eklund Gustafsson Malin Stenbäck
United States Love Island CBS TBA TBA
Reception[edit]
In 2018, Love Island received the BAFTA TV Award for the 'Best Reality and Constructed Factual' category.[45]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jackman, Josh (24 July 2017). "Love Island's creator reveals he wants to make a gay version of the show". PinkNews. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Rigby, Sam (15 April 2015). "Caroline Flack confirmed to present new-look Love Island on ITV2". Digital Spy.
Jump up ^ Babbage, Rachel (14 February 2016). "Singletons rejoice! Love Island is returning to ITV2 this summer". Digital Spy. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Have you got what it takes to be an Islander and survive a summer in paradise?". itv.com.
Jump up ^ Harp, Justin (11 July 2016). "Love Island WILL return in 2017". Digital Spy.
Jump up ^ Percival, Ash (24 July 2017). "'Love Island' Series 4 Confirmed For 2018, Following Huge Ratings Success". HuffPost. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island". Itv.com. Retrieved 2018-07-30.
Jump up ^ "Love Island is BACK! 'Revamped' show to air on ITV2". TellyMix. 13 February 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Caroline Flack to host new Love Island on ITV2". TellyMix. 15 April 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island: Calum Best's back & hitting Magaluf". Digital Spy. 29 June 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mark Wright is jetting off to Love Island". Digital Spy. 12 July 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Max and Jess win Love Island 2015". Digital Spy. 15 July 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "The first EVER Love Island baby is on its way!". Digital Spy. 14 October 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island couple reveal traumatic birth of daughter". Digital Spy. 30 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "ITV2's Love Island to return this summer". Digital Spy. 14 February 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island finally has an air date: When is it back?". Digital Spy. 18 May 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island's new arrival has been kicked out ALREADY". 5 June 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island: Rykard returns to the villa". Digital Spy. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island: Zara has been told about her Miss GB axe". Digital Spy. 17 June 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Pocklington, Rebecca (4 July 2016). "Katie and Sophie become first official lesbian Love Island couple". Daily Mirror. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Nathan and Cara win Love Island 2016". Daily Star. 11 July 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Caroline Flack WILL be back for Love Island series 3". Digital Spy. 14 February 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island's return date is confirmed by ITV2". Digital Spy. 24 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Love Island boys look to stray in new villa". Digital Spy. 29 June 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Love Island unveils first look at new £2.5m villa". Digital Spy. 29 June 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island 2017: Mike Thalassitis and Sam Gowland return to the villa". 12 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "We now know the winners of Love Island 2017". Digital Spy. 24 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Love Island 2017 reunion show confirmed for next Sunday night". TellyMix. 23 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Mapstone, Lucy (13 June 2018). "First episode of Love Island was most-watched ITV2 programme ever". Irish Independent. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Harman, Abi; Sharp, Justin (27 June 2018). "Meet all the NEW singletons moving into Love Island". Digital Spy. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Love Island winners revealed". BBC News. 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2018-07-31.
Jump up ^ https://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/love-island-voting-figures-reveal-13009267
^ Jump up to: a b "Love Island: Your first look at the villa". 4 June 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Love Island: Why did they scrap the live eviction?". 27 May 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "14 secrets of the Love Island villa". 4 June 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island: The Weekly Hot List – S2". Radio Times. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Prepare to couple up with Love Island: Aftersun". itv.com.
Jump up ^ "Love Island gets spin-off show called Aftersun". Digital Spy. 13 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Olivia Attwood Bio". 22 Jan 2018.
Jump up ^ "Kem Cetinay lands Love Island presenting job". 27 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Love Island: Where was Jack from? And other questions answered". BBC News. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Step inside our Love Island villa". itv.com. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island drops huge twist bombshell". Digital Spy. 29 June 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Island Australia is Coming to 9GO! In 2018".
Jump up ^ "Love Island producer says LGBT show is possible". Digital Spy. 2018-05-13. Retrieved 2018-05-14.
External links[edit]
Love Island on IMDb
Official website
hide
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Love Island
Series
1
2
3
4
Contestants
Olivia Buckland
Kem Cetinay
Rachel Christie
Jon Clark
Dani Dyer
Sophie Gradon
Georgia Harrison
Zara Holland
Rykard Jenkins
Adam Maxted
Max Morley
Josh Ritchie
Marcel Somerville
Mike Thalassitis
Related articles
Love Island (2005 TV series)
Love Island Australia
Coordinates: 39°37′23″N 3°14′59″E / 39.62317°N 3.24977°E / 39.62317; 3.24977
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British dating and relationship reality television series
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