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Printing press
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This article is about the historical device created by Johannes Gutenberg. For the modern technology of printing, see printing.
Recreated Gutenberg press at the International Printing Museum, Carson, California
Part of a series on the
History of printing
Woodblock printing
200
Movable type
1040
Printing press
c. 1440
Etching
c. 1515
Mezzotint
1642
Aquatint
1772
Lithography
1796
Chromolithography
1837
Rotary press
1843
Hectograph
1869
Offset printing
1875
Hot metal typesetting
1884
Mimeograph
1886
Photostat and rectigraph
1907
Screen printing
1911
Spirit duplicator
1923
Dot matrix printing
1925
Xerography
1938
Phototypesetting
1949
Inkjet printing
1951
Dye-sublimation
1957
Laser printing
1969
Thermal printing
c. 1972
3D printing
1981
Solid Ink printing
1986
Digital printing
1991
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the cloth, paper or other medium was brushed or rubbed repeatedly to achieve the transfer of ink, and accelerated the process. Typically used for texts, the invention and global spread of the printing press was one of the most influential events in the second millennium.[1][2]
Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith by profession, developed, circa 1439, a printing system by adapting existing technologies to printing purposes, as well as making inventions of his own. Printing in East Asia had been prevalent since the Tang dynasty,[3][4] and in Europe, woodblock printing based on existing screw presses was common by the 14th century. Gutenberg's most important innovation was the development of hand-molded metal printing matrices, thus producing a movable type based printing press system. His newly devised hand mould made possible the precise and rapid creation of metal movable type in large quantities. Movable type had been hitherto unknown in Europe. In Europe, the two inventions, the hand mould and the printing press, together drastically reduced the cost of printing books and other documents, particularly in short print runs.
The printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries.[5] By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes.[5] In the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[5] The operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of printing, and lent its name to a new medium of expression and communication, "the press".[6]
In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass communication, which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities. The sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of proto-nationalism, and accelerated by the development of European vernacular languages, to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca.[7] In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale.[8]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Economic conditions and intellectual climate
1.2 Technological factors
2 Function and approach
3 Gutenberg's press
4 The Printing Revolution
4.1 Mass production and spread of printed books
4.2 Circulation of information and ideas
5 Industrial printing presses
5.1 Rotary press
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History
Main article: History of printing
Economic conditions and intellectual climate
See also: History of capitalism and Medieval university
Medieval university class (1350s)
The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg's improved version of the printing press: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made its impact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional work-processes. The sharp rise of medieval learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating.[9]
Technological factors
See also: History of Western typography and Medieval technology
Technologies preceding the press that led to the press's invention included: manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing, and distribution of eyeglasses.[10] At the same time, a number of medieval products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. Gutenberg took up these far-flung strands, combined them into one complete and functioning system, and perfected the printing process through all its stages by adding a number of inventions and innovations of his own:
Early modern wine press. Such screw presses were applied in Europe to a wide range of uses and provided Gutenberg with the model for his printing press.
The screw press which allowed direct pressure to be applied on flat-plane was already of great antiquity in Gutenberg's time and was used for a wide range of tasks.[11] Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed in agricultural production for pressing wine grapes and (olive) oil fruit, both of which formed an integral part of the mediterranean and medieval diet.[12] The device was also used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns.[13] Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked on the same mechanical principles.[14]
Gutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process.[15] Printing, however, put a demand on the machine quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the pressing power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the printing process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed.[16]
Movable type sorted in a letter case and loaded in a composing stick on top
The concept of movable type was not new in the 15th century; movable type printing had been invented in China during the Song dynasty, and was later used in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, where metal movable-type printing technology was developed in 1234.[3][4] In Europe, sporadic evidence that the typographical principle, the idea of creating a text by reusing individual characters, was well understood and employed in pre-Gutenberg Europe had been cropping up since the 12th century and possibly before. The known examples range from Germany (Prüfening inscription) to England (letter tiles) to Italy.[17] However, the various techniques employed (imprinting, punching and assembling individual letters) did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted.
Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps. A goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today.[18] The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a special hand mould, the matrix.[19] The Latin alphabet proved to be an enormous advantage in the process because, in contrast to logographic writing systems, it allowed the type-setter to represent any text with a theoretical minimum of only around two dozen different letters.[20]
Another factor conducive to printing arose from the book existing in the format of the codex, which had originated in the Roman period.[21] Considered the most important advance in the history of the book prior to printing itself, the codex had completely replaced the ancient scroll at the onset of the Middle Ages (500 AD).[22] The codex holds considerable practical advantages over the scroll format; it is more convenient to read (by turning pages), is more compact, less costly, and, in particular, unlike the scroll, both recto and verso could be used for writing − and printing.[23]
A paper codex of the acclaimed 42-line Bible, Gutenberg's major work
A fourth development was the early success of medieval papermakers at mechanizing paper manufacture. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to 1282,[24] allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[25] and Muslim papermaking.[26] Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; papermaking centers reached Germany a century later.[27]
Despite this it appears that the final breakthrough of paper depended just as much on the rapid spread of movable-type printing.[28] It is notable that codices of parchment, which in terms of quality is superior to any other writing material,[29] still had a substantial share in Gutenberg's edition of the 42-line Bible.[30] After much experimentation, Gutenberg managed to overcome the difficulties which traditional water-based inks caused by soaking the paper, and found the formula for an oil-based ink suitable for high-quality printing with metal type.[31]
Function and approach
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Early Press, etching from Early Typography by William Skeen
This woodcut from 1568 shows the left printer removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing around 3,600 pages in the process.[32]
A printing press, in its classical form, is a standing mechanism, ranging from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 m) long, 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, and 7 feet (2.1 m) tall. The small individual metal letters known as type would be set up by a compositor into the desired lines of text. Several lines of text would be arranged at once and were placed in a wooden frame known as a galley. Once the correct number of pages were composed, the galleys would be laid face up in a frame, also known as a forme.[33], which itself is placed onto a flat stone, 'bed,' or 'coffin.' The text is inked using two balls, pads mounted on handles. The balls were made of dog skin leather, because it has no pores,[34] and stuffed with sheep's wool and were inked. This ink was then applied to the text evenly. One damp piece of paper was then taken from a heap of paper and placed on the tympan. The paper was damp as this lets the type 'bite' into the paper better. Small pins hold the paper in place. The paper is now held between a frisket and tympan (two frames covered with paper or parchment).
These are folded down, so that the paper lies on the surface of the inked type. The bed is rolled under the platen, using a windlass mechanism. A small rotating handle is used called the 'rounce' to do this, and the impression is made with a screw that transmits pressure through the platen. To turn the screw the long handle attached to it is turned. This is known as the bar or 'Devil's Tail.' In a well-set-up press, the springiness of the paper, frisket, and tympan caused the bar to spring back and raise the platen, the windlass turned again to move the bed back to its original position, the tympan and frisket raised and opened, and the printed sheet removed. Such presses were always worked by hand. After around 1800, iron presses were developed, some of which could be operated by steam power.
The function of the press in the image on the left was described by William Skeen in 1872,
this sketch represents a press in its completed form, with tympans attached to the end of the carriage, and with the frisket above the tympans. The tympans, inner and outer, are thin iron frames, one fitting into the other, on each of which is stretched a skin of parchment or a breadth of fine cloth. A woollen blanket or two with a few sheets of paper are placed between these, the whole thus forming a thin elastic pad, on which the sheet to be printed is laid. The frisket is a slender frame-work, covered with coarse paper, on which an impression is first taken; the whole of the printed part is then cut out, leaving apertures exactly corresponding with the pages of type on the carriage of the press. The frisket when folded on to the tympans, and both turned down over the forme of types and run in under the platten, preserves the sheet from contact with any thing but the inked surface of the types, when the pull, which brings down the screw and forces the platten to produce the impression, is made by the pressman who works the lever,—to whom is facetiously given the title of “the practitioner at the bar.”.[35]
Gutenberg's press
See also: Letterpress printing
Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man who had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.[36] However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record existed; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.[36]
Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other known materials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered one of his most ingenious inventions,[36] a special matrix enabling the quick and precise molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to have contained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks, and so forth.[37]
Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both paper and vellum (high-quality parchment). In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies.[38] A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials.[39]
The Printing Revolution
The Printing Revolution occurred when the spread of the printing press facilitated the wide circulation of information and ideas, acting as an "agent of change" through the societies that it reached. (Eisenstein (1980))
Mass production and spread of printed books
See also: Global spread of the printing press and List of early modern newspapers
Spread of printing in the 15th century from Mainz, Germany
The European book output rose from a few million to around one billion copies within a span of less than four centuries.[40]
The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to a huge increase of printing activities across Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe by the end of the 15th century.[41] As early as 1480, there were printers active in 110 different places in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England, Bohemia and Poland.[5] From that time on, it is assumed that "the printed book was in universal use in Europe".[5]
In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known to be active. Despite this proliferation, printing centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published in Venice.[42]
By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million copies.[5] In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[5]
European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing about 1,500 impressions per workday.[43] By comparison, book printing in East Asia did not use presses and was solely done by block printing.[44]
Of Erasmus's work, at least 750,000 copies were sold during his lifetime alone (1469–1536).[45] In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionary potential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of books in Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies.[46]
The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers (see Relation) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.[47]
Incunable are surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the libraries in Europe and North America.[48]
Circulation of information and ideas
See also: The Gutenberg Galaxy
"Modern Book Printing" sculpture, commemorating Gutenberg's invention on the occasion of the 2006 World Cup in Germany
The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution.[citation needed] Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.[citation needed]
Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown.[citation needed] The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading.[citation needed] Over the next 200 years, the wider availability of printed materials led to a dramatic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.[49]
The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge.[50][51] Within 50 or 60 years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). More people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Book production became more commercialised, and the first copyright laws were passed.[52] On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing the dissemination of information which may have been incorrect.[53][54]
A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited[who?] as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe.
A third consequence of popularization of printing was on the economy. The printing press was associated with higher levels of city growth.[55] The publication of trade related manuals and books teaching techniques like double-entry bookkeeping increased the reliability of trade and led to the decline of merchant guilds and the rise of individual traders.[56]
Industrial printing presses
See also: History of printing
At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press were still essentially unchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%, while doubling the size of the printed area.[57] With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, the Stanhope press doubled the output of the old style press.[58] Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the traditional method of printing became obvious.
Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press
Two ideas altered the design of the printing press radically: First, the use of steam power for running the machinery, and second the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both elements were for the first time successfully implemented by the German printer Friedrich Koenig in a series of press designs devised between 1802 and 1818.[59] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807.[57] Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine."[57] The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer.
Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on 28 November 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today.
Rotary press
The steam powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe,[60] allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.
By the late 1930s or early 1940s, rotary presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.[citation needed]
Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average setup time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work).[citation needed] Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time.
Gallery
Model of the Common Press, used from 1650 to 1850
Printing press from 1811
Stanhope press from 1842
Imprenta Press V John Sherwin from 1860
See also
General
Imprimatur
Printing
Typography
Printing presses
Adana Printing Presses
Albion press
Columbian Printing Press
Flexography
Vertical print press
Other inventions
Color printing
Lithography
Offset printing
Desktop publishing
Electronic publishing
Computer printer
Composing stick
Notes
Jump up ^ For example, in 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine.; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium. The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.
Jump up ^ McLuhan 1962; Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002
^ Jump up to: a b Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin; Joseph Needham (1985). Paper and Printing. Science and Civilisation in China. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 158,201.
^ Jump up to: a b Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002) A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp.15–23, 61–73.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976): "The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800", London: New Left Books, quoted in: Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp. 58f.
Jump up ^ Weber 2006, p. 387:
At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was born.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp.63–76
Jump up ^ Gerhardt 1978, p. 217
Jump up ^ Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002
Jump up ^ Jones, Colin (1994-10-20). The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-521-43294-8.
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 21–35
Jump up ^ Onken 2009; White 1984, pp. 31f.; Schneider 2007, pp. 156–159
Jump up ^ Schneider 2007, p. 158
Jump up ^ Schulte 1939, p. 56
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 39f.
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 39–46
Jump up ^ Germany: Brekle 1995, pp. 23–26; Brekle 1997, p. 62; Brekle 2005, p. 25; England: Lehmann-Haupt 1940, pp. 93–97; Brekle 1997, p. 62; Italy: Lipinsky 1986, pp. 75–80; Koch 1994, p. 213. Lipinsky surmises that this typographical technique was known in Constantinople from the 10th to 12th century and that the Venetians received it from there (p. 78).
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing", retrieved 27 November 2006
Jump up ^ Childress 2008, pp. 51–55
Jump up ^ Childress 2008, pp. 51–55; Hellinga 2007, p. 208:
Gutenberg's invention took full advantage of the degree of abstraction in representing language forms that was offered by the alphabet and by the Western forms of script that were current in the fifteenth century.
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 24–30
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 1, 38–67, 75:
The most momentous development in the history of the book until the invention of printing was the replacement of the roll by the codex; this we may define as a collection of sheets of any material, folded double and fastened together at the back or spine, and usually protected by covers. (p. 1)
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 45–53. Technically speaking, a scroll could be written on its back side, too, but the very few ancient specimen found indicate that this was never considered a viable option. (p. 46)
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, p. 418
Jump up ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169; Tsien 1985, p. 68−73; Lucas 2005, p. 28, fn. 70
Jump up ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169; Burns 1996, pp. 414–417
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, p. 417
Jump up ^ Febvre & Martin 1997, pp. 41–44; Burns 1996, p. 419:
In the West, the only inhibiting expense in the production of writings for an increasingly literate market was the manual labor of the scribe himself. With his mechanization by movable-type printing in the 1440s, the manufacture of paper, until then relatively confined, began to spread very widely. The Paper Revolution of the thirteenth century thus entered a new era.
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 7f.:
Despite all that has been said above, even the strongest supporters of papyrus would not deny that parchment of good quality is the finest writing material ever devised by man. It is immensely strong, remains flexible indefinitely under normal conditions, does not deteriorate with age, and possesses a smooth, even surface which is both pleasant to the eye and provides unlimited scope for the finest writing and illumination.
Jump up ^ The ratio between paper and parchment copies is estimated at around 150 to 30 (Hanebutt-Benz 2000, pp. 158–189).
Jump up ^ Childress 2008, p. 60
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 67f.:
From old price tables it can be deduced that the capacity of a printing press around 1600, assuming a fifteen-hour workday, was between 3,200 and 3,600 impressions per day.
Jump up ^ Lyons 2011, p. 59
Jump up ^ [1] RIND Survey (The Press Institute of India- Research Institute for Newspaper Development) June 2015, p14
Jump up ^ Skeen, William (1872). Early Typography. Ceylon: Government Printer, Colombo. p. 122.
^ Jump up to: a b c Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
Jump up ^ Mahnke 2009, p. 290
Jump up ^ Kapr 1996, p. 172
Jump up ^ Kapr 1996, p. 203
Jump up ^ Buringh & van Zanden 2009, p. 417, table 2
Jump up ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Borsa 1976, p. 314; Borsa 1977, p. 166−169
Jump up ^ Pollak, Michael (1972). "The performance of the wooden printing press". The Library Quarterly. 42 (2): 218–264. JSTOR 4306163.
Jump up ^ Needham 1965, p. 211:
The outstanding difference between the two ends of the Old World was the absence of screw-presses from China, but this is only another manifestation of the fact that this basic mechanism was foreign to that culture.
Widmann 1974, p. 34, fn. 14:
In East Asia, both woodblock and movable type printing were manual reproduction techniques, that is hand printing.
Duchesne 2006, p. 83; Man 2002, pp. 112–115:
Chinese paper was suitable only for calligraphy or block-printing; there were no screw-based presses in the east, because they were not wine-drinkers, didn’t have olives, and used other means to dry their paper.
Jump up ^ Issawi 1980, pp. 492
Jump up ^ Duchesne 2006, p. 83
Jump up ^ Weber 2006, pp. 387f.
Jump up ^ The British Library Incunabula Short Title Catalogue gives 29,777 separate editions (not copies) as of 8 January 2008, which however includes some print items from the 16th century (retrieved 11 March 2010). According to Bettina Wagner: "Das Second-Life der Wiegendrucke. Die Inkunabelsammlung der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek", in: Griebel, Rolf; Ceynowa, Klaus (eds.): "Information, Innovation, Inspiration. 450 Jahre Bayerische Staatsbibliothek", K G Saur, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-598-11772-5, pp. 207–224 (207f.), the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue lists 28,107 editions published before 1501.
Jump up ^ Peck, Josh. “The State of Publishing: Literacy Rates.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency. McSweeney, 5 July 2011. Web. 28 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Malte Herwig, "Google's Total Library", Spiegel Online International, Mar. 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Howard Rheingold, "Moblogs Seen as a Crystal Ball for a New Era in Online Journalism", Online Journalism Review, Jul. 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ Eshgh, Amy. "Copyright Timeline: A History of Copyright in the United States | Association of Research Libraries® | ARL®". www.arl.org. Retrieved 2018-01-16.
Jump up ^ Julia C. Crick; Alexandra Walsham (2004). The uses of script and print, 1300–1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-81063-0. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Nick Bilton (14 September 2010). I Live in the Future & Here's How It Works: Why Your World, Work, and Brain Are Being Creatively Disrupted. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-307-59111-1. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Jeremiah Dittmar. "Information technology and economic change: The impact of the printing press". VoxEU. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Prateek Raj. "How the Postal System and the Printing Press Transformed European Markets". Evonomics. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130–133) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
Jump up ^ Bolza 1967, p. 80
Jump up ^ Bolza 1967, p. 88
Jump up ^ Meggs, Philip B. (1998). A History of Graphic Design (Third ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5.
References
On the effects of the printing press
Boruchoff, David A. (2012), "The Three Greatest Inventions of Modern Times: An Idea and Its Public", in Klaus Hock; Gesa Mackenthun, Entangled Knowledge: Scientific Discourses and Cultural Difference, Münster: Waxmann, pp. 133–163, ISBN 978-3-8309-2729-7
Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009), "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, 69 (2): 409–445, doi:10.1017/s0022050709000837
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29955-8
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (2005), The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (2nd, rev. ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-60774-2 [More recent, abridged version]
Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, London: Verso, ISBN 978-1-85984-108-2
Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World, London: Headline Review, ISBN 978-0-7472-4504-9
McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-6041-9
Technology of printing
Bechtel, G. (1992), Gutenberg et l'invention de l'imprimerie, Paris: Fayard, ISBN 978-2-213-02865-1
Bolza, Hans (1967), "Friedrich Koenig und die Erfindung der Druckmaschine", Technikgeschichte, 34 (1): 79–89
Borsa, Gedeon (1976), "Druckorte in Italien vor 1601", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 311–314
Borsa, Gedeon (1977), "Drucker in Italien vor 1601", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 166–169
Brekle, Herbert E. (1995), "Eine weitere Spur einer typographischen Werkstatt beim Kloster Prüfening im 12. Jahrhundert", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, 70: 23–26
Brekle, Herbert E. (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, 72: 58–63
Brekle, Herbert E. (2005), Die Prüfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine paläographisch-typographische Untersuchung (brief summary), Regensburg: Scriptorium Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft, ISBN 978-3-937527-06-2
Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800–1400", in Lindgren, Uta, Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422, ISBN 978-3-7861-1748-3
Childress, Diana (2008), Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press, Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, ISBN 978-0-7613-4024-9
Ch'on Hye-bong: "Typography in Korea", Koreana, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1993), pp. 10–19
Stearns, Peter N (ed.). Encyclopedia of World History (6 ed.). The Houghton Mifflin Company/ Bartleby.com. Citation
Crompton, Samuel Willard (2004), The Printing Press. Transforming Power of Technology, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7910-7451-0
Duchesne, Ricardo (2006), "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, 6 (1): 69–91, doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2006.00168.x
Fontaine, Jean-Paul (1999), L'aventure du livre: Du manuscrit medieval a nos jours, Paris: Bibliothèque de l'image
Gerhardt, Claus W. (1971), "Warum wurde die Gutenberg-Presse erst nach über 350 Jahren durch ein besseres System abgelöst?", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 43–57
Gerhardt, Claus W. (1978), "Besitzt Gutenbergs Erfindung heute noch einen Wert?", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 212–217
Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria (2000), "Gutenbergs Erfindungen", Gutenberg. Aventur und Kunst: Vom Geheimunternehmen zur ersten Medienrevolution, Mainz: Stadt Mainz, pp. 158–189
Hellinga, Lotte (2007), "The Gutenberg Revolutions", in Eliot, Simon; Rose, Jonathan, A Companion to the History of the Book, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 207–220, ISBN 978-1-4051-2765-3
Hind, Arthur M., An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0
Issawi, Charles (1980), "Europe, the Middle East and the Shift in Power: Reflections on a Theme by Marshall Hodgson", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22 (4): 487–504, doi:10.1017/s001041750000949x
Kapr, Albert (1996), Johannes Gutenberg. The Man and his Invention, Aldershot: Scolar, ISBN 978-1-85928-114-7
Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985–1991), Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel, 14, München, p. 213, ISBN 978-3-88612-114-4
Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1940), "Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 93–97
Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni con caratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto, 24: 75–80
Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
Lyons, Martyn (2011), Books: A Living History, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-083-4
Mahnke, Helmut (2009), Der kunstreiche Johannes Gutenberg und die Frühzeit der Druckkunst, Norderstedt: Books on Demand, ISBN 978-3-8370-5041-7
Needham, Joseph: "Science and Civilisation in China", Physics and Physical Technology (Vol. 4), Mechanical Engineering (Part 2), Cambridge University Press, 1965
Onken, Björn (2009), "Presses", in Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth, Brill's New Pauly
Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing". Retrieved 27 November 2006
Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983), The Birth of the Codex, London: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-726024-1
Schneider, Helmuth (2007), "Technology", in Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian; Saller, Richard, The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, pp. 144–171, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7
Schulte, Alfred (1939), "Papierpresse, Druckerpresse und Kelter", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 52–56
Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 314: 167–176, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x
Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper and Printing, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology (Vol. 5, Part 1), Cambridge University Press
Weber, Johannes (2006), "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, 24 (3): 387–412, doi:10.1191/0266355406gh380oa
White, K. D. (1984), Greek and Roman Technology, London: Thames and Hudson
Widmann, Hans (1974), "Der koreanische Buchdruck und Gutenbergs Erfindung", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 32–34
Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974), Geschichte der Druckpressen (1st ed.), Frankfurt/Main: Interprint
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Printing press.
Centre for the History of the Book
Gutenberg printing − Photos of Incunabula and the Gutenberg Bible (1455)
Internet Archive: Printing (1947) − a film from the Prelinger Archives explaining the printing industry
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text:
List of Power episodes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Power is an American television drama broadcast on Starz created by Courtney A. Kemp.[1] The series follows James St. Patrick (played by Omari Hardwick), nicknamed "Ghost", owner of a popular New York City nightclub, and a major player in one of the city's biggest illegal drug networks. He struggles to balance these two lives, and the balance topples when he realizes he wants to leave the drug ring in order to support his legitimate business, and commit to his mistress. The series premiered on June 7, 2014. As of September 9, 2018,[update] 49 episodes of Power have aired. The fifth season of Power premiered on July 1, 2018. Power has also been renewed for a sixth season.[2]
Contents
1 Series overview
2 Episodes
2.1 Season 1 (2014)
2.2 Season 2 (2015)
2.3 Season 3 (2016)
2.4 Season 4 (2017)
2.5 Season 5 (2018)
3 References
4 External links
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 8 June 7, 2014 (2014-06-07) August 2, 2014 (2014-08-02)
2 10 June 6, 2015 (2015-06-06) August 15, 2015 (2015-08-15)
3 10 July 17, 2016 (2016-07-17) September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
4 10 June 25, 2017 (2017-06-25) September 3, 2017 (2017-09-03)
5 10 July 1, 2018 (2018-07-01) September 9, 2018 (2018-09-09)
Episodes[edit]
Season 1 (2014)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
1 "Not Exactly How We Planned" Anthony Hemingway Courtney A. Kemp June 7, 2014 (2014-06-07) 0.462[3]
2
2 "Whoever He Is" Anthony Hemingway Courtney A. Kemp June 14, 2014 (2014-06-14) 0.614[4]
3
3 "This Is Real" John David Coles Lauren Schmidt Hissrich June 21, 2014 (2014-06-21) 0.472[5]
4
4 "Who Are You?" John David Coles Sascha Penn June 28, 2014 (2014-06-28) 0.557[6]
5
5 "I Gotta Go" George Tillman Jr. Randy Huggins July 12, 2014 (2014-07-12) 0.528[7]
6
6 "Who You With?" George Tillman Jr. Salvatore Stabile July 19, 2014 (2014-07-19) 0.745[8]
7
7 "Loyalty" Kari Skogland Raphael Jackson Jr. & Damione Macedon July 26, 2014 (2014-07-26) 0.754[9]
8
8 "Best Laid Plans" Kari Skogland Courtney A. Kemp & Vladimir Cvetko August 2, 2014 (2014-08-02) 1.08[10]
Season 2 (2015)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
9
1 "Consequences" Simon Cellan Jones Courtney A. Kemp June 6, 2015 (2015-06-06) 1.43[11]
10
2 "No Friends on the Street" Stefan Schwartz Gary Lennon June 13, 2015 (2015-06-13) 1.12[12]
11
3 "Like We're Any Other Couple" David Knoller Randy Huggins June 20, 2015 (2015-06-20) 1.11[13]
12
4 "You're the Only Person I Can Trust" Bill Johnson Lauren Schmidt June 27, 2015 (2015-06-27) 1.30[14]
13
5 "Who You Are and Who You Want to Be" David Knoller Raphael Jackson Jr. & Damione Macedon July 11, 2015 (2015-07-11) 1.25[15]
14
6 "Why Her?" Sanford Bookstaver Gary Lennon July 18, 2015 (2015-07-18) 1.25[16]
15
7 "You're Not the Man" Dennie Gordon Vladimir Cvetko July 25, 2015 (2015-07-25) 1.26[17]
16
8 "Three Moves Ahead" Rob Hardy Randy Huggins August 1, 2015 (2015-08-01) 1.04[18]
17
9 "Time's Up" Jim McKay Raphael Jackson Jr. & Damione Macedon August 8, 2015 (2015-08-08) 1.37[19]
18
10 "Ghost Is Dead" Michael J. Bassett Courtney A. Kemp & Safia Dirie August 15, 2015 (2015-08-15) 1.54[20]
Season 3 (2016)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
19
1 "Call Me James" George Tillman Jr. Courtney A. Kemp July 17, 2016 (2016-07-17) 2.26[21]
20
2 "It's Never Over" Sanford Bookstaver Gary Lennon July 24, 2016 (2016-07-24) 1.74[22]
21
3 "I Got This on Lock" Lukas Ettlin Randy Huggins July 31, 2016 (2016-07-31) 1.88[23]
22
4 "Don't Worry, Baby" Larysa Kondracki Heather Zuhlke August 7, 2016 (2016-08-07) 1.72[24]
23
5 "Help Me" Sanford Bookstaver Damione Macedon & Raphael Jackson Jr. August 14, 2016 (2016-08-14) 1.80[25]
24
6 "The Right Decision" Michael J. Bassett Vladimir Cvetko August 21, 2016 (2016-08-21) 2.11[26]
25
7 "Don't Go" Rob Hardy Safia M. Dirie August 28, 2016 (2016-08-28) 1.84[27]
26
8 "Trust Me" Jim McKay Gary Lennon September 4, 2016 (2016-09-04) 1.99[28]
27
9 "I Call the Shots" Magnus Martens Damione Macedon & Raphael Jackson Jr. September 18, 2016 (2016-09-18) 2.04[29]
28
10 "In My Best Interest" Michael J. Bassett Courtney A. Kemp & Jeff Dix September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25) 2.01[30]
Season 4 (2017)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
29
1 "When I Get Out" Stefan Schwartz Courtney A. Kemp June 25, 2017 (2017-06-25) 1.68[31]
30
2 "Things Are Going to Get Worse" Sanford Bookstaver Heather Zuhlke July 2, 2017 (2017-07-02) 1.44[32]
31
3 "The Kind of Man You Are" Larysa Kondracki Jeff Dix July 9, 2017 (2017-07-09) 1.72[33]
32
4 "We're in This Together" J. Michael Muro Warren Hsu Leonard July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16) 1.72[34]
33
5 "Don't Thank Me" Sanford Bookstaver Raphael Jackson, Jr. & Damione Macedon July 23, 2017 (2017-07-23) 1.79[35]
34
6 "New Man" Dennie Gordon Gary Lennon July 30, 2017 (2017-07-30) 1.83[36]
35
7 "You Lied to My Face" Sanford Bookstaver Vladimir Cvetko August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06) 1.69[37]
36
8 "It's Done" Hernán Otoño Raphael Jackson, Jr. & Damione Macedon August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13) 1.81[38]
37
9 "That Ain't Me" Victoria Mahoney Raphael Jackson, Jr. & Damione Macedon August 20, 2017 (2017-08-20) 1.90[39]
38
10 "You Can't Fix This" Rob Hardy Courtney A. Kemp & Monica Mitchell September 3, 2017 (2017-09-03) 2.00[40]
Season 5 (2018)[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
39
1 "Everyone Is Implicated" Stefan Schwartz Courtney A. Kemp July 1, 2018 (2018-07-01) 1.55[41]
40
2 "Damage Control" Solvan Naim and Naturi Naughton Heather Zuhlke July 8, 2018 (2018-07-08) 0.70[42]
41
3 "Are We On the Same Team?" Tina Mabry Vladimir Cvetko July 15, 2018 (2018-07-15) 1.50[43]
42
4 "Second Chances" Bart Wenrich Jeff Dix July 22, 2018 (2018-07-22) 1.36[44]
43
5 "Happy Birthday" Sanford Bookstaver Safia M. Dirie July 29, 2018 (2018-07-29) 1.35[45]
44
6 "A Changed Man?" Ami Canaan Mann Monica Mitchell August 5, 2018 (2018-08-05) 1.33[46]
45
7 "The Devil Inside" Rob Hardy Heather Zuhlke August 12, 2018 (2018-08-12) 1.41[47]
46
8 "A Friend of the Family" Hernán Otoño Vladimir Cvetko & Safia M. Dirie August 26, 2018 (2018-08-26) 1.46[48]
47
9 "There's a Snitch Among Us" Gary Lennon Gary Lennon September 2, 2018 (2018-09-02) 1.42[49]
48
10 "When This Is Over" MJ Bassett Courtney A. Kemp & Gabriela Uribe September 9, 2018 (2018-09-09) 1.53[50]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Sharktopus Vs. Pteracuda' Wins Night, 'Power', 'Hell on Wheels', 'Fairly Odd Summer' & More - Ratings - TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com". TVbytheNumbers. Retrieved April 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Saturday Cable Ratings: Boxing Wins Night, 'Power', Soccer, & More". TVbytheNumbers. Retrieved June 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Dragon Ball Z: Kai' Tops Night + 'Kill La Kill', 'Power', 'Jeff Ross Roasts Criminals', 'Sword Art Online' & More". TVbytheNumbers. June 7, 2015. Retrieved June 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (June 23, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'A Deadly Adoption' Wins Night, 'Kill la Kill', 'Power', Women's World Cup & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (June 30, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Perfect High' &'Dragon Ball Z: Kai' Top Night + 'Power', FIFA Women's World Cup & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (July 14, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: NASCAR & 'Power' Win Night, 'Kill La Kill', 'Cops', Wimbledon & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (July 21, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Power', 'Kill La Kill' & Golf Win Night, 'Hell on Wheels', 'Mythbusters' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (July 28, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Dragon Ball Z: Kai' Tops Night + 'Kill la Kill', 'Power', 'Sword Art Online' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (August 4, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: UFC & 'Kill La Kill' Win Night, 'Power', 'Sword Art Online', Boxing, 'Cops', 'Hell on Wheels' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (August 11, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Dragon Ball Z; Kai' Tops Night + 'Akame ga Kill', 'Mitchiko & Hatchin', 'Power', 'Sword Art Online' & Mroe [sic]". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (August 18, 2015). "Saturday Cable Ratings: 'Power', 'Akame ga Kill' & Preseason Football Win Night, 'Sword Art Online', 'Cops', 'Hell on Wheels' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (July 18, 2016). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Power' Season 3 premiere sets a record for Starz". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (July 26, 2016). "Sunday cable ratings: NASCAR races to No. 1, 'Power' stays strong". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 2, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.31.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved August 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 9, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.7.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 16, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.14.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved August 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 23, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.21.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved August 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 30, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.28.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 7, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.4.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved September 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 20, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.18.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved September 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 27, 2016). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.25.2016". ShowBuzzDaily. Retrieved September 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (June 27, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 6.25.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved June 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 5, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.2.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 11, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.9.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 18, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.16.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 25, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.23.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 1, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.30.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 8, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.6.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 15, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.13.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 22, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.20.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 6, 2017). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.3.2017". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved September 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 3, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.1.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 10, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.8.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 17, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.15.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 24, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.22.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (July 31, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 7.29.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 7, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.5.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 14, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.12.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (August 28, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 8.26.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved August 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 5, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.2.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved September 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ Metcalf, Mitch (September 11, 2018). "Updated: ShowBuzzDaily's Top 150 Sunday Cable Originals & Network Finals: 9.9.2018". Showbuzz Daily. Retrieved September 11, 2018.
External links[edit]
Official series website
List of Power episodes at the Internet Movie Database
List of Power episodes at TV.com
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Power_episodes&oldid=863398695"
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text:
Threat model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Threat modeling is a process by which potential threats, such as structural vulnerabilities can be identified, enumerated, and prioritized – all from a hypothetical attacker’s point of view. The purpose of threat modeling is to provide defenders with a systematic analysis of the probable attacker’s profile, the most likely attack vectors, and the assets most desired by an attacker. Threat modeling answers the questions “Where are the high-value assets?” “Where am I most vulnerable to attack?” “What are the most relevant threats?” “Is there an attack vector that might go unnoticed?”
Conceptually, most people incorporate some form of threat modeling in their daily life and don’t even realize it. Commuters use threat modeling to consider what might go wrong during the morning drive to work and to take preemptive action to avoid possible accidents. Children engage in threat modeling when determining the best path toward an intended goal while avoiding the playground bully. In a more formal sense, threat modeling has been used to prioritize military defensive preparations since antiquity.
Contents
1 Evolution of IT-Based Threat Modeling
2 Threat Modeling Methodologies for IT Purposes
2.1 STRIDE Methodology
2.2 P.A.S.T.A.
2.3 Trike
2.4 VAST
3 Generally Accepted IT Threat Modeling Processes
3.1 Visual Representations based on Data Flow Diagrams
3.2 Visual Representations based on Process Flow Diagrams
4 Threat Modeling Tools
5 Further fields of application
6 References
Evolution of IT-Based Threat Modeling[edit]
Shortly after shared computing made its debut in the early 1960s individuals began seeking ways to exploit security vulnerabilities for personal gain.[1] As a result, engineers and computer scientists soon began developing threat modeling concepts for information technology systems.
Early IT-based threat modeling methodologies were based on the concept of architectural patterns[2] first presented by Christopher Alexander in 1977. In 1988 Robert Barnard developed and successfully applied the first profile for an IT-system attacker.
In 1994, Edward Amoroso put forth the concept of a “threat tree” in his book, “Fundamentals of Computer Security Technology.[3]” The concept of a threat tree was based on decision tree diagrams. Threat trees graphically represent how a potential threat to an IT system can be exploited.
Independently, similar work was conducted by the NSA and DARPA on a structured graphical representation of how specific attacks against IT-systems could be executed. The resulting representation were called “attack trees.” In 1998 Bruce Schneier published his analysis of cyber risks utilizing attack trees in his paper entitled “Toward a Secure System Engineering Methodology.[4]” The paper proved to be a seminal contribution in the evolution of threat modeling for IT-systems. In Schneier’s analysis, the attacker’s goal is represented as a “root node,” with the potential means of reaching the goal represented as “leaf nodes.” Utilizing the attack tree in this way allowed cybersecurity professionals to systematically consider multiple attack vectors against any defined target.
In 1999, Microsoft cybersecurity professionals Loren Kohnfelder and Praerit Gard applied Schneier’s attack tree analysis to develop a methodical means to consider potential attacks relevant to the Microsoft Windows development environment. The resultant STRIDE[5] threat model (STRIDE is an acronym for Spoofing identity, Tampering with data, Repudiation, Information disclosure, Denial of service, Elevation of privilege) required security professionals to systematically determine how a potential attacker could utilize any threat categorized by the STRIDE acronym at each node of a Schneier-type attack tree.
In 2003, OCTAVE[6] (Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation) method, a risk-based assessment threat modeling methodology, was first introduced with a primary focus on organizational risk management.
In 2004, Frank Swiderski and Window Snyder wrote “Threat Modeling,” by Microsoft press. In it they developed the concept of using threat models to create secure applications.
In 2014 Ryan Stillions expressed the idea that cyber threats should be expressed with different semantic levels, and proposed the DML (Detection Maturity Level) model.[7] An attack is an instantiation of a threat scenario which is caused by a specific attacker with a specific goal in mind and a strategy for reaching that goal. The goal and strategy represent the highest semantic levels of the DML model. This is followed by the TTP (Tactics, Techniques and Procedures) which represent intermediate semantic levels. The lowest semantic levels of the DML model are the tools used by the attacker, host and observed network artefacts such as packets and payloads, and finally atomic indicators such as IP addresses at the lowest semantic level. Current SIEM tools typically only provide indicators at the lowest semantic levels. There is therefore a need to develop SIEM tools that can provide threat indicators at higher semantic levels.[8]
Threat Modeling Methodologies for IT Purposes[edit]
Conceptually a threat modeling practice flows from a methodology. Numerous threat modeling methodologies are available for implementation. Based on volume of published online content, the four methodologies discussed below are the most well known.
STRIDE Methodology[edit]
The STRIDE approach to threat modeling was introduced in 1999 at Microsoft, providing a mnemonic for developers to find 'threats to our products' [9] . STRIDE, Patterns and Practices, and Asset/entry point were amongst the threat modeling approaches developed and published by Microsoft. References to "the" Microsoft methodology commonly mean STRIDE.
P.A.S.T.A.[edit]
The Process for Attack Simulation and Threat Analysis (PASTA) is a seven-step, risk-centric methodology.[10] It provides a seven-step process for aligning business objectives and technical requirements, taking into account compliance issues and business analysis. The intent of the method is to provide a dynamic threat identification, enumeration, and scoring process. Once the threat model is completed security subject matter experts develop a detailed analysis of the identified threats. Finally, appropriate security controls can be enumerated. This methodology is intended to provide an attacker-centric view of the application and infrastructure from which defenders can develop an asset-centric mitigation strategy.
Trike[edit]
The focus of the Trike methodology[11] is using threat models as a risk-management tool. Within this framework, threat models are used to satisfy the security auditing process. Threat models are based on a “requirements model.” The requirements model establishes the stakeholder-defined “acceptable” level of risk assigned to each asset class. Analysis of the requirements model yields a threat model form which threats are enumerated and assigned risk values. The completed threat model is used to construct a risk model based on asset, roles, actions, and calculated risk exposure.
VAST[edit]
VAST is an acronym for Visual, Agile, and Simple Threat modeling.[12] The underlying principle of this methodology is the necessity of scaling the threat modeling process across the infrastructure and entire SDLC, and integrating it seamlessly into an Agile software development methodology. The methodology seeks to provide actionable outputs for the unique needs of various stakeholders: application architects and developers, cybersecurity personnel, and senior executives. The methodology provides a unique application and infrastructure visualization scheme such that the creation and use of threat models do not require specific security subject matter expertise.
Generally Accepted IT Threat Modeling Processes[edit]
All IT-related threat modeling processes start with creating a visual representation of the application and / or infrastructure being analyzed. The application / infrastructure is decomposed into various elements to aid in the analysis. Once completed, the visual representation is used to identify and enumerate potential threats. Further analysis of the model regarding risks associated with identified threats, prioritization of threats, and enumeration of the appropriate mitigating controls depends on the methodological basis for the threat model process being utilized.
Visual Representations based on Data Flow Diagrams[edit]
The Microsoft methodology, PASTA, and Trike each develop a visual representation of the application-infrastructure utilizing data flow diagrams (DFD).[13] DFDs were developed in the 1970s as tool for system engineers to communicate, on a high level, how an application caused data to flow, be stored, and manipulated by the infrastructure upon which the application runs. Traditionally, DFDs utilize only four unique symbols: data flows, data stores, processes, and interactors. In the early 2000s, an additional symbol, trust boundaries, were added to allow DFDs to be utilized for threat modeling.
Once the application-infrastructure system is decomposed into its five elements, security experts consider each identified threat entry point against all known threat categories. Once the potential threats are identified, mitigating security controls can be enumerated or additional analysis can be performed.
Visual Representations based on Process Flow Diagrams[edit]
The VAST methodology distinguished between application threat models (ATM) and operational or infrastructure threat models (OTM).[14]
Process Flow Diagram Application Threat Model
ATMs are built with process flow diagrams (PFD).[13] PFDs were developed in 2011 as a tool to allow Agile software development teams to create threat models based on the application design process. Applications are decomposed into their various features or use cases. Each feature is described in terms of the widgets or code building blocks required to build that feature. Features are then connected by communication protocols. The resulting visualization is a map of how a user moves through the various features of an application.
End-to-end Data Flow Operational Threat Model
OTMs are built with end-to-end data flow diagrams very similar to traditional DFDs. End to end data flow diagrams decompose an IT system into its various independent, grouped, and shared components. Each component is described in terms of specific attributes. Components are then connected by communication pathways and protocols.
Once the ATM or OTM is constructed, the methodology specifies how potential threats are identified, enumerated, prioritized, and associated with their relevant risks and mitigating security controls.
Threat Modeling Tools[edit]
There are currently five tools available for organizational threat modeling:
Microsoft’s free threat modeling tool – the Threat Modeling Tool (formerly SDL Threat Modeling Tool).[15] This tool also utilizes the Microsoft threat modeling methodology, is DFD-based, and identifies threats based on the STRIDE threat classification scheme. It is intended primarily for general use.
MyAppSecurity offers the first commercially available threat modeling tool - ThreatModeler[16] It utilizes the VAST methodology, is PFD-based, and identifies threats based on a customizable comprehensive threat library.[17] It is intended for collaborative use across all organizational stakeholders.
IriusRisk offers both a community and a commercial version of the tool. This tool focus on the creation and maintenance of a live Threat Model through the entire SDLC. It drives the process by using fully customizable questionnaires and Risk Pattern Libraries, and connects with other several different tools (OWASP ZAP, BDD-Security, Threadfix...) to empower automation.[18]
securiCAD is a threat modelling and risk management tool by the Scandinavian company foreseeti. It is intended for company cyber security management, from CISO, to security engineer, to technician. securiCAD conducts automated attack simulations to current and future IT architectures, identifies and quantifies risks holistically including structural vulnerabilities, and provides decision support based on the findings. securiCAD is offered in both commercial and community editions. [19]
SD Elements by Security Compass is a software security requirements management platform that includes automated threat modeling capabilities. A set of threats is generated by completing a short questionnaire about the technical details and compliance drivers of the application. Countermeasures are included in the form of actionable tasks for developers that can be tracked and managed throughout the entire SDLC.[20]
Further fields of application[edit]
Threat modeling is being applied not only to IT but also to other areas such as building and home automation.[21] In this context, threats to security and privacy like information about the inhabitant's movement profiles, working times, and health situations are modeled as well as physical or network-based attacks. The latter could make use of more and more available smart building features, i.e., sensors (e.g., to spy on the inhabitant) and actuators (e.g., to unlock doors).[21]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ McMillan, Robert (2012). "The World's First Computer Password? It Was Useless Too". Wired Business.
Jump up ^ Shostack, Adam (2014). "Threat Modeling: Designing for Security". John Wiley & Sons Inc: Indianapolis.
Jump up ^ Amoroso, Edward G (1994). "Fundamentals of Computer Security Technology". AT&T Bell Labs. Prentice-Hall: Upper Saddle River.
Jump up ^ Schneier, Bruce; et al. (1998). "Toward A Secure System Engineering Methodology" (PDF). National Security Agency: Washington. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ "The STRIDE Threat Mode". Microsoft. 2016.
Jump up ^ Alberts, Christopher (2003). "Introduction to the OCTAVE® Approach" (PDF). Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon: Pitsburg.
Jump up ^ Stillions, Ryan (2014). "The DML Model". Ryan Stillions security blog. Ryan Stillions.
Jump up ^ Bromander, Siri (2016). "Semantic Cyberthreat Modelling" (PDF). Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defence and Security (STIDS 2016).
Jump up ^ Kohnfelder, Loren; Garg, Praerit. "Threats to Our Products". Microsoft. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Ucedavélez, Tony and Marco M. Morana (2015). "Risk Centric Threat Modeling: Process for Attack Simulation and Threat Analysis". John Wiley & Sons: Hobekin.
Jump up ^ Eddington, Michael, Brenda Larcom, and Eleanor Saitta (2005). "Trike v1 Methodology Document". Octotrike.org.
Jump up ^ Agarwal, Anurag “Archie,” etal. VAST Methodology: Visual, Agile, and Simple Threat Modeling. Various Interviews. Transformational Opportunities: Prescott Valley. 2016
^ Jump up to: a b Agarwal, Anurag "Archie" (2016). "Threat Modeling – Data Flow Diagram vs Process Flow Diagram". ThreatModeler.com.
Jump up ^ Agarwal, Anurag "Archie" (2016). "Application Threat Modeling vs Operational Threat Modeling". ThreatModeler.com.
Jump up ^ "What's New with Microsoft Threat Modeling Tool 2016". Microsoft Secure Blog. Microsoft. 2015.
Jump up ^ "ThreatModeler Home". ThreatModeler.
Jump up ^ Agarwal, Anurag “Archie,” etal. Comprehensive Threat Library. Various Interviews. Transformational Opportunities: Prescott Valley. 2016
Jump up ^ "Irius Risk Risk Management Tool". Continuum Security. 2016.
Jump up ^ "Cyber Threat Modelling and Risk Management - securiCAD by foreseeti". foreseeti.
Jump up ^ "SD Elements by Security Compass". www.securitycompass.com. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Meyer, D.; Haase, J.; Eckert, M.; Klauer, B. (2016-07-01). "A threat-model for building and home automation". 2016 IEEE 14th International Conference on Industrial Informatics (INDIN): 860–866. doi:10.1109/INDIN.2016.7819280.
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