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Humus
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This article is about the organic matter in soil. For the food, see Hummus. For the band, see Humus (band).
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Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color and is organic due to an accumulation of organic carbon. The three major horizons are: (A) surface, (B) subsoil and (C) substratum. Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface. Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.
In soil science, humus (coined 1790–1800; from the Latin humus: earth, ground[1]) refers to the fraction of soil organic matter that is amorphous and without the "cellular cake structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals."[2] Humus significantly influences the bulk density of soil and contributes to moisture and nutrient retention. Soil formation begins with the weathering of humus. In agriculture, humus is sometimes also used to describe mature, or natural compost extracted from a forest or other spontaneous source for use to amend soil.[3] It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic matter (humus type,[4] humus form,[5] humus profile).[6]
Humus is the dark organic matter that forms in the soil when plant and animal matter decays. Humus contains many useful nutrients for healthy soil, nitrogen being the most important of all.
Contents
[hide]
1 Nature (humus)
2 Humification
2.1 Transformation of organic matter into humus
2.2 Stability
2.3 Horizons
3 Benefits of soil organic matter and humus
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Nature (humus)[edit]
A great part of the organic material that reaches the soil is broken down by the action of microorganisms, resulting in mineral components that can be taken by the roots of plants. In this way the nitrogen (nitrogen cycle) and the other nutrients (nutrient cycle) are recycled. This process is called mineralization. Depending on the conditions in which the breakdown is carried out, a fraction of the organic matter does not continue into mineralization, but instead goes in the contrary direction, forming new organic chains (polymers). These organic polymers are stable, that is resistant to the action of microorganisms, and constitute humus. This stability implies that once formed humus integrates the permanent structure of soil, contributing to its improvement.[7]
It is difficult to define humus precisely; it is a highly complex substance, which is still not fully understood. Humus should be differentiated from decomposing organic matter. The latter is rough-looking material and remains of the original plant are still visible. Fully humified organic matter, on the other hand, has a uniform dark, spongy, jelly-like appearance, and is amorphous. It may remain like this for millennia or more.[8] It has no determinate shape, structure or character. However, humified organic matter, when examined under the microscope may reveal tiny plant, animal or microbial remains that have been mechanically, but not chemically, degraded.[9] This suggests a fuzzy boundary between humus and organic matter. In most literature, humus is considered an integral part of soil organic matter.[10]
Humification[edit]
Transformation of organic matter into humus[edit]
The process of humification can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost. Organic matter is degraded into humus by a combination of saprotrophic fungi, bacteria, microbes and animals such as earthworms, nematodes, protozoa and various arthropods.[11][better source needed] The importance of chemically stable humus is thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense,[12] though some agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as its ability to suppress disease.[13] It helps the soil retain moisture[14] by increasing microporosity,[15] and encourages the formation of good soil structure.[16][17] The incorporation of oxygen into large organic molecular assemblages generates many active, negatively charged sites that bind to positively charged ions (cations) of plant nutrients, making them more available to the plant by way of ion exchange.[18] Humus allows soil organisms to feed and reproduce, and is often described as the "life-force" of the soil.[19][20]
Plant remains (including those that passed through an animal gut and were excreted as faeces) contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins, and organic acids. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates, which break down easily as detritivores initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining cellulose and lignin break down more slowly.[21] Simple proteins, organic acids, starches and sugars break down rapidly, while crude proteins, fats, waxes and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. Lignin, which is quickly transformed by white-rot fungi,[22] is one of the main precursors of humus,[23] together with by-products of microbial[24] and animal[25] activity. The end-product of this process, the humus, is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions and benefits in the soil. Earthworm humus (vermicompost) is considered by some to be the best organic manure there is.[26]
Stability[edit]
Much of the humus in most soils has persisted for more than a hundred years (rather than having been decomposed to CO2), and can be regarded as stable; this is organic matter that has been protected from decomposition by microbial or enzyme action because it is hidden (occluded) inside small aggregates of soil particles or tightly attached (sorbed or complexed) to clays.[27] Most humus that is not protected in this way is decomposed within ten years and can be regarded as less stable or more labile. Thus stable humus contributes little to the pool of plant-available nutrients in the soil, but it does play a part in maintaining its physical structure.[28] A very stable form of humus is formed from the slow oxidation of soil carbon, after the incorporation of finely powdered charcoal into the topsoil. This process is thought to have been important in the formation of the fertile Amazonian dark earths or Terra preta do Indio.[29]
Horizons[edit]
Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color and is organic due to an accumulation of organic carbon. Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the master horizons, and lowercase letters for distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have three major horizons—the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum (C). Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also be buried. The master horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a significant loss of minerals (eluviation). Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.
Benefits of soil organic matter and humus[edit]
The process that converts raw organic matter into humus feeds the soil population of microorganisms and other creatures, thus maintains high and healthy levels of soil life.[19][20]
The rate at which raw organic matter is converted into humus promotes (when fast) or limits (when slow) the coexistence of plants, animals, and microbes in soil.
Effective humus and stable humus are further sources of nutrients to microbes, the former provides a readily available supply, and the latter acts as a longer-term storage reservoir.
Decomposition of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to be slowly oxidized (lignin-like humus) or to break down into simpler forms (sugars and amino sugars, aliphatic, and phenolic organic acids), which are further transformed into microbial biomass (microbial humus) or are reorganized, and further oxidized, into humic assemblages (fulvic and humic acids), which bind to clay minerals and metal hydroxides. There has been a long debate about the ability of plants to uptake humic substances from their root systems and to metabolize them. There is now a consensus about how humus plays a hormonal role rather than simply a nutritional role in plant physiology.[30][31]
Humus is a colloidal substance, and increases the soil's cation exchange capacity, hence its ability to store nutrients by chelation. While these nutrient cations are accessible to plants, they are held in the soil safe from being leached by rain or irrigation.[18]
Humus can hold the equivalent of 80–90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought conditions.[32][33]
The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate – or buffer – excessive acid or alkaline soil conditions.[34]
During the humification process, microbes secrete sticky gum-like mucilages; these contribute to the crumb structure (tilth) of the soil by holding particles together, and allowing greater aeration of the soil.[35] Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and so prevented from entering the wider ecosystem.[36]
The dark color of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in Spring.
See also[edit]
Humus profile
Humus horizon
Humus diagnostic horizon
Humus form
Humus system
Soil horizon
Soil organic matter
Mineralization (soil science)
Biomass
Biochar
Terra preta
Biotic material
Detritus
Glomalin
Humic acid
Organic matter
Plant litter
Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage
Compost
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "humus." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 23 Sep 2008. Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/humus.
Jump up ^ Whitehead, D. C.; Tinsley, J. (1963). "The biochemistry of humus formation". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 14 (12): 849–857. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740141201. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "humus." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Taco Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 24 Nov 2011. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276408/humus>.
Jump up ^ Chertov, O.G.; Kornarov, A.S.; Crocker, G.; Grace, P.; Klir, J.; Körschens, M.; Poulton, P.R.; Richter, D. (1997). "Simulating trends of soil organic carbon in seven long-term experiments using the SOMM model of the humus types". Geoderma. 81: 121–135. doi:10.1016/S0016-7061(97)00085-2.
Jump up ^ Baritz, R., 2003. Humus forms in forests of the northern German lowlands. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, Germany, 145 pp.[1]
Jump up ^ Bunting, B.T.; Lundberg, J. (1995). "The humus profile-concept, class and reality". Geoderma. 40: 17–36. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(87)90011-5.
Jump up ^ Brady, N. C.; Weil, R. R. (1999). The nature and properties of soils. Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Jump up ^ Di Giovanni1, C.; Disnar, J.R.; Bichet, V.; Campy, M. (1998). "Sur la présence de matières organiques mésocénozoïques dans des humus actuels (bassin de Chaillexon, Doubs, France)". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, Series IIA, Earth and Planetary Science. 326: 553–559. doi:10.1016/S1251-8050(98)80206-1.
Jump up ^ Nicolas Bernier and Jean-François Ponge (1994). "Humus form dynamics during the sylvogenetic cycle in a mountain spruce forest" (PDF). Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 26 (2): 183–220. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(94)90161-9.
Jump up ^ Humintech® | Definition Of Soil Organic Matter & Humic Acids Based Products
Jump up ^ Soil biology
Jump up ^ Hargitai, L (1993). "The soil of organic matter content and humus quality in the maintenance of soil fertility and in environmental protection". Landscape and Urban Planning. 27 (2–4): 161–167. doi:10.1016/0169-2046(93)90044-E.
Jump up ^ Hoitink, H.A.; Fahy, P.C. (1986). "Basic for the control of soilborne plant pathogens with composts". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 24: 93–114. doi:10.1146/annurev.py.24.090186.000521.
Jump up ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Abiotic factor. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment Archived 8 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. Washington DC
Jump up ^ De Macedo, J.R.; Do Amaral, Meneguelli; Ottoni, T.B.; Araujo, Jorge Araújo; de Sousa Lima, J. (2002). "Estimation of field capacity and moisture retention based on regression analysis involving chemical and physical properties in Alfisols and Ultisols of the state of Rio de Janeiro". Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 33 (13–14): 2037–2055. doi:10.1081/CSS-120005747.
Jump up ^ Hempfling, R.; Schulten, H.R.; Horn, R. (1990). "Relevance of humus composition to the physical/mechanical stability of agricultural soils: a study by direct pyrolysis-mass spectrometry". Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 17 (3): 275–281. doi:10.1016/0165-2370(90)85016-G.
Jump up ^ Soil Development: Soil Properties Archived 28 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Szalay, A (1964). "Cation exchange properties of humic acids and their importance in the geochemical enrichment of UO2++ and other cations". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 28: 1605–1614. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(64)90009-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Elo, S.; Maunuksela, L.; Salkinoja-Salonen, M.; Smolander, A.; Haahtela, K. (2006). "Humus bacteria of Norway spruce stands: plant growth promoting properties and birch, red fescue and alder colonizing capacity". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 31: 143–152. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2000.tb00679.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Vreeken-Buijs, M.J.; Hassink, J.; Brussaard, L. (1998). "Relationships of soil microarthropod biomass with organic matter and pore size distribution in soils under different land use". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 30: 97–106. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(97)00064-3.
Jump up ^ Berg, B., McClaugherty, C., 2007. Plant litter: decomposition, humus formation, carbon sequestration, 2nd ed. Springer, 338 pp., ISBN 3-540-74922-5
Jump up ^ Levin, L.; Forchiassin, F.; Ramos, A.M. (2002). "Copper induction of lignin-modifying enzymes in the white-rot fungus Trametes trogii". Mycologia. 94: 377–383. doi:10.2307/3761771.
Jump up ^ González-Pérez, M.; Vidal Torrado, P.; Colnago, L.A.; Martin-Neto, L.; Otero, X.L.; Milori, D.M.B.P.; Haenel Gomes, F. (2008). "13C NMR and FTIR spectroscopy characterization of humic acids in spodosols under tropical rain forest in southeastern Brazil". Geoderma. 146: 425–433. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.06.018.
Jump up ^ Knicker, H.; Almendros, G.; González-Vila, F.J.; Lüdemann, H.D.; Martin, F. (1995). "13C and 15N NMR analysis of some fungal melanins in comparison with soil organic matter". Organic Geochemistry. 23: 1023–1028. doi:10.1016/0146-6380(95)00094-1.
Jump up ^ Muscoloa, A.; Bovalob, F.; Gionfriddob, F.; Nardi, S. (1999). "Earthworm humic matter produces auxin-like effects on Daucus carota cell growth and nitrate metabolism". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 31: 1303–1311. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00049-8.
Jump up ^ Vermiculture
Jump up ^ Dungait, J. A.; Hopkins, D. W.; Gregory, A. S.; Whitmore, A. P. (2012). "Soil organic matter turnover is governed by accessibility not recalcitrance" (PDF). Global Change Biology. 18 (6): 1781–1796. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02665.x. Retrieved 30 August 2014. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Oades, J. M. (1984). "Soil organic matter and structural stability: mechanisms and implications for management". Plant and soil. 76: 319–337. doi:10.1007/BF02205590. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Lehmann, J., Kern, D.C., Glaser, B., Woods, W.I., 2004. Amazonian Dark Earths: origin, properties, management. Springer, 523 pp. ISBN 978-1-4020-1839-8
Jump up ^ Eyheraguibel, B.; Silvestrea, J. Morard (2008). "Effects of humic substances derived from organic waste enhancement on the growth and mineral nutrition of maize". Bioresource Technology. 99: 4206–4212. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.08.082.
Jump up ^ Zandonadi, D. B.; Santos, M. P.; Busato, J. G.; Peres, L. E. P.; Façanha, A. R. (2013). "Plant physiology as affected by humified organic matter". Theoretical and Experimental Plant Physiology. 25: 13–25. doi:10.1590/S2197-00252013000100003. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Olness, A.; Archer, D. (2005). "Effect of organic carbon on available water in soil". Soil Science. 170: 90–101. doi:10.1097/00010694-200502000-00002.
Jump up ^ Effect of Organic Carbon on Available Water in Soil : Soil Science
Jump up ^ Kikuchi, R (2004). "Deacidification effect of the litter layer on forest soil during snowmelt runoff: laboratory experiment and its basic formularization for simulation modeling". Chemosphere. 54 (8): 1163–1169. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.10.025. PMID 14664845.
Jump up ^ Caesar-Tonthat, T.C. (2002). "Soil binding properties of mucilage produced by a basidiomycete fungus in a model system". Mycological Research. 106 (8): 930–937. doi:10.1017/S0953756202006330.
Jump up ^ Huang, D.L.; Zeng, G.M.; Feng, C.L.; Hu, S.; Jiang, X.Y.; Tang, L.; Su, F.F.; Zhang, Y.; Zeng, W.; Liu, H.L. (2008). "Degradation of lead-contaminated lignocellulosic waste by Phanerochaete chrysosporium and the reduction of lead toxicity". Environmental Science and Technology. 42 (13): 4946–4951. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.4946H. doi:10.1021/es800072c. PMID 18678031.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutHumusat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Quotations from Wikiquote
Jerzy Weber. "Types of humus in soils". Agricultural University of Wroclaw, Poland. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
Wershaw, R.L. "Evaluation of conceptual models of natural organic matter (humus) from a consideration of the chemical and biochemical processes of humification" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
IHSS. "What are Humic Substances?". International Humic Substances Society. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humus&oldid=826600148"
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text:
Aileron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the band, see The Ailerons.
An aircraft 'rolling', or 'banking', with its ailerons
An aileron and roll trim tab of a light aircraft
An aileron (French for "little wing" or "fin") is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal axis), which normally results in a change in flight path due to the tilting of the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or 'banking'.
The modern aileron was invented and patented by the British scientist Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in 1868, based on his 1864 paper On Aërial Locomotion. Even though there was extensive prior art in the 19th century for the aileron and its functional analog, wing warping, in 1906 the United States granted an expansive patent to the Wright Brothers of Dayton, Ohio, for the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated an airplane's control surfaces. Considerable litigation ensued within the United States over the legal issues of lateral roll control, until the First World War compelled the U.S. Government to legislate a legal resolution.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Other early aileron designers
1.2 Patents and lawsuits
1.3 Ongoing controversy
2 Flight dynamics
3 Aileron components
3.1 Horns and aerodynamic counterbalances
3.2 Trim tabs
3.3 Spades
3.4 Mass balance weights
4 Types of ailerons
4.1 Single acting ailerons
4.2 Wingtip ailerons
4.3 Frise ailerons
4.4 Differential ailerons
5 Roll control without ailerons
5.1 Wing warping
5.2 Differential spoilers
5.3 Roll induced by rudder
5.4 Other methods
6 Combinations with other control surfaces
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Further information: Matthew Piers Watt Boulton
Boulton's 1864 paper, "On Aërial Locomotion" describing several designs including ailerons.
The name "aileron", from French, meaning "little wing", also refers to the extremities of a bird's wings used to control their flight.[1][2] It first appeared in print in the 7th edition of Cassell's French-English Dictionary of 1877, with its lead meaning of "small wing".[3] In the context of powered airplanes it appears in print about 1908. Prior to that, ailerons were often referred to as rudders, their older technical sibling, with no distinction between their orientations and functions, or more descriptively as horizontal rudders (in French, gouvernails horizontaux). Among the earliest printed aeronautical use of 'aileron' was that in the French aviation journal L'Aérophile of 1908.[4]
Ailerons had more or less completely supplanted other forms of lateral control, such as wing warping, by about 1915, well after the function of the rudder and elevator flight controls had been largely standardised. Although there were previously many conflicting claims over who first invented the aileron and its function, i.e., lateral or roll control,[4] the flight control device was invented and described by the British scientist and metaphysicist Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in his 1864 paper On Aërial Locomotion. He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868.[4][5][6][7]
Boulton's description of his lateral flight control system was both clear and complete. It was "the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from [passive lateral stability].... With this invention of Boulton's we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control" as was praised by Charles Manly.[8] This was also endorsed by C.H. Gibbs-Smith.[9][10] Boulton's British patent, No. 392 of 1868, issued about 35 years before ailerons were "reinvented" in France, became forgotten and lost from sight until after the flight control device was in general use.[11][Note 1] Gibbs-Smith stated on several occasions that if the Boulton patent had been revealed at the time of the Wright brothers' legal filings, they might not have been able to claim priority of invention for the lateral control of flying machines. The fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boulton's lost and forgotten invention.[9]
Boulton had described and patented ailerons in 1868 and they were not used on manned aircraft until they were employed on Robert Esnault-Pelterie’s glider in 1904,[4][12] although in 1871 a French military engineer, Charles Renard, built and flew an unmanned glider incorporating ailerons on each side (which he termed ‘winglets’), activated by a Boulton-style pendulum controlled single-axis autopilot device.[13]
The pioneering U.S. aeronautical engineer Octave Chanute published descriptions and drawings of the Wright brothers' 1902 glider in the leading aviation periodical of the day, L'Aérophile, in 1903. This prompted Esnault-Pelterie, a French military engineer, to build a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing warping.[4] The French journal L’Aérophile then published photos of the ailerons on Esnault-Pelterie’s glider which were included in his June 1905 article, and its ailerons were widely copied afterward.[7][14][15]
The Wright brothers used wing warping instead of ailerons for roll control on their glider in 1902, and about 1904 their Flyer II was the only aircraft of its time able to do a coordinated banked turn. During the early years of powered flight the Wrights had better roll control on their designs than airplanes that used movable surfaces. From 1908, as aileron designs were refined it became clear that ailerons were much more effective and practical than wing warping. Ailerons also had the advantage of not weakening the airplane's wing structure as did the wing warping technique,[4] which was one reason for Esnault-Pelterie's decision to switch to ailerons.[15]
By 1911 most biplanes used ailerons rather than wing warping—by 1915 ailerons had become almost universal on monoplanes as well. The U.S. Government, frustrated by the lack of its country's aeronautical advances in the years leading up to World War I, enforced a patent pool effectively putting an end to the Wright brothers patent war.[16][17][18] The Wright company quietly changed its aircraft flight controls from wing warping to the use of ailerons at that time as well.
Other early aileron designers[edit]
Others who were previously thought to have been the first to introduce ailerons included:
American John J. Montgomery included spring-loaded trailing edge flaps on his second glider (1885): these were operable by the pilot as ailerons. In 1886 his third glider design used rotation of the entire wing rather than just a trailing edge portion for roll control. By his own accounts all of these changes in addition to his use of an elevator for pitch control provided "entire control of the machine in the wind, preventing it from upsetting."[19]
New Zealander Richard Pearse reputedly made a powered flight in a monoplane that included small ailerons as early as 1902, but his claims are controversial—and sometimes inconsistent—and, even by his own reports, his aircraft were not well controlled.
A 1912 Farman HF.20 biplane with single acting ailerons hinged from the rear spar. The ailerons hang down when at rest and are pushed up into position when flying by the force of the air, being pulled down by cable to provide control.
In 1906 Alberto Santos-Dumont's 14-bis was one of the earliest aileron-equipped aircraft to fly, as it was modified to have added octagonal-planform interplane ailerons in its outermost wing bays in November of that year for its concluding flight sessions at the Chateau de Bagatelle's grounds; but those roll control surfaces were not true "trailing-edge" ailerons hinged directly to the wing panels' framework—for the 14-bis, these were instead pivoted around a horizontal axis centred on the forward outboard interplane struts, and protruded forward past the wings' leading edges.
On May 18, 1908, engineer and aircraft designer Frederick Baldwin, a member of the Aerial Experiment Association headed by Alexander Graham Bell, flew their first aileron-controlled aircraft, the AEA White Wing,[6] which was later copied by the U.S. aeronautical pioneer Glenn Curtiss.[20]
Henry Farman's ailerons on his 1909 Farman III were the first to resemble ailerons on modern aircraft as they were hinged directly to the wing planform structure, and thus were viewed as having a reasonable claim as the ancestor of the modern-day aileron.[6]
Wingtip ailerons were also used on the contemporary Bleriot VIII—the first known flightworthy aircraft to use the joystick and rudder bar pioneering form of modern flight controls[21] in a single airframe, and the 1911-vintage Curtiss Model D pusher biplane had spanwise rectangular interplane ailerons of a similar nature to those on the final form of the Santos-Dumont 14-bis,[15] but mounted on, and pivoted from the outer rear interplane struts instead.
Another very late contestant included the American, William Whitney Christmas, who claimed to have invented the aileron in the 1914 patent for what would become the Christmas Bullet which was built in 1918.[22] Both "Bullet" prototypes crashed during their first "flights" when their wings broke off in flight due to flutter as a result of being deliberately unbraced.
Patents and lawsuits[edit]
Regardless of the 1868 Boulton patent and the extensive prior art created by multiple other experimenters, the Wright Brothers' Ohio patent attorney Henry Toulmin filed an expansive patent application, and on May 22, 1906, they were granted U.S. Patent 821393.[23] The patent's importance lay in its claim of a new and useful method of controlling an airplane. The patent application included the claim for the lateral control of aircraft flight that was not limited to wing warping, but through any manipulation of the "....angular relations of the lateral margins of the airplanes [wings].... varied in opposite directions". Thus the patent explicitly stated that other methods besides wing-warping could be used for adjusting the outer portions of an airplane's wings to different angles on its right and left sides to achieve lateral roll control. Curiously, John J. Montgomery was granted U.S. Patent 831173 [24] at nearly the same time for his methods of wing warping. Both the Wright Brothers patent and Montgomery's patent were reviewed and approved by the same patent examiner at the United States Patent Office, William Townsend.[25] At the time Townsend indicated that both methods of wing warping were invented independently and were sufficiently different to each justify their own patent award.
Multiple U.S. court decisions favoured the expansive Wright patent, which the Wright Brothers sought to enforce with licensing fees starting from $1,000 per airplane,[4][26] and astoundingly said to range up to $1,000 per day.[27] According to Louis S. Casey, a former curator of the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum in Washington, D.C., and other researchers, due to the patent they had received the Wrights stood firmly on the position that all flying using lateral roll control, anywhere in the world, would only be conducted under license by them.[27]
The Wrights subsequently became embroiled with numerous lawsuits they launched against every recalcitrant aircraft builder which used lateral flight controls (essentially all manufacturers not paying them their demanded royalties), and the brothers were consequently blamed for playing "...a major role in the lack of growth and aviation industry competition in the United States comparative to other nations like Germany leading up to and during World War I".[26] Years of protracted legal guerrilla warfare ensued with many other aircraft builders until the United States entered World War I, when its government imposed a legislated agreement between all U.S. parties which resulted in royalty payments of 1% to the Wrights.[27]
Further information: Wright brothers patent war and Matthew Piers Watt Boulton
Ongoing controversy[edit]
There are still conflicting claims today over who first invented the aileron. Other 19th century engineers and scientists, including Charles Renard, Alphonse Pénaud, and Louis Mouillard, had described similar flight control surfaces, possibly serving as further inspiration to Boulton aside from Count d'Esterno. Another technique for lateral flight control, wing warping, was also described or experimented with by several people including Jean-Marie Le Bris, John Montgomery, Clement Ader, Edson Gallaudet, D.D. Wells, and Hugo Mattullath.[4][28] Aviation historian C.H. Gibbs-Smith wrote that the aileron was "....one of the most remarkable inventions... of aeronautical history, which was immediately lost sight of".[4]
In 1906 the Wright brothers obtained a patent not for the invention of an airplane (which had existed for a number of decades in the form of gliders) but for the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces, including lateral flight control,[29] although rudders, elevators and ailerons had been invented long before their efforts began. Irrespective of such controversies it was Boulton, undisputedly, who was the first to patent ailerons, doing so in 1868. The ailerons used by Esnault-Pelterie in 1904 followed Boulton's concept, although it is not known whether he had studied the 1868 patent or if he independently reinvented them.
Flight dynamics[edit]
A Yak-52 using ailerons to roll counter-clockwise during an aerobatic maneuver
Pairs of ailerons are typically interconnected so that when one is moved downward, the other is moved upward: the down-going aileron increases the lift on its wing while the up-going aileron reduces the lift on its wing, producing a rolling (also called 'banking') moment about the aircraft's longitudinal axis (which extends from the nose to the tail of an airplane).[30] Ailerons are usually situated near the wing tip, but may sometimes also be situated nearer the wing root. Modern airliners may also have a second pair of ailerons on their wings, and the terms 'outboard aileron' and 'inboard aileron' are used to describe these positions respectively.
An unwanted side effect of aileron operation is adverse yaw—a yawing moment in the opposite direction to the roll. Using the ailerons to roll an aircraft to the right produces a yawing motion to the left. As the aircraft rolls, adverse yaw is caused partly by the change in drag between the left and right wing. The rising wing generates increased lift, which causes increased induced drag. The descending wing generates reduced lift, which causes reduced induced drag. Profile drag caused by the deflected ailerons may add further to the difference, along with changes in the lift vectors as one rotates back while the other rotates forward.
A 1937 Waco VKS-7 cabin-class biplane with its pairs of quadruple ailerons linked by an external vertical connector to simplify its aileron control system. The ailerons on each side thus move either up or down together.
In a coordinated turn, adverse yaw is effectively compensated by the use of the rudder, which results in a sideforce on the vertical tail that opposes the adverse yaw by creating a favorable yawing moment. Another method of compensation is 'differential ailerons', which have been rigged such that the down-going aileron deflects less than the up-going one. In this case the opposing yaw moment is generated by a difference in profile drag between the left and right wingtips. Frise ailerons accentuate this profile drag imbalance by protruding beneath the wing of an upward-deflected aileron, most often by being hinged slightly behind the leading edge and near the bottom of the surface, with the lower section of the aileron surface's leading edge protruding slightly below the wing's undersurface when the aileron is deflected upwards, substantially increasing profile drag on that side. Ailerons may also be designed to use a combination of these methods.[30]
With ailerons in the neutral position, the wing on the outside of the turn develops more lift than the opposite wing due to the variation in airspeed across the wing span, which tends to cause the aircraft to continue to roll. Once the desired angle of bank (degree of rotation about the longitudinal axis) has been obtained, the pilot uses opposite aileron to prevent the angle of bank from increasing due to this variation in lift across the wing span. This minor opposite use of the control must be maintained throughout the turn. The pilot also uses a slight amount of rudder in the same direction as the turn to counteract adverse yaw and to produce a "coordinated" turn wherein the fuselage is parallel to the flight path. A simple gauge on the instrument panel called the slip indicator, also known as "the ball", indicates when this coordination is achieved.[30]
Aileron components[edit]
Horns and aerodynamic counterbalances[edit]
Aileron horn visible extending from the wingtop on the top wing of a Fokker Dr. I
Particularly on larger or faster aircraft, control forces may be extremely heavy. Borrowing a discovery from boats that extending a control surface's area forward of the hinge lightens the forces needed first appeared on ailerons during World War I when ailerons were extended beyond the wingtip and provided with a horn ahead of the hinge. Known as overhung ailerons, possibly the best known examples are the Fokker Dr.I and Fokker D.VII. Later examples brought the counterbalance in line with the wing to improve control and reduce drag. This is seen less often now, due to the Frise type aileron[clarification needed] which provides the same benefit.
Trim tabs[edit]
Main article: Trim tab
Trim tabs are small movable sections resembling scaled down ailerons located at or near the trailing edge of the aileron. On most propeller powered aircraft, the rotation of the propeller(s) induces a counteracting roll movement due to Newton's third law of motion, in that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. To relieve the pilot of having to provide continuous pressure on the stick in one direction (which causes fatigue) trim tabs are provided to adjust or trim out the pressure needed against any unwanted movement. The tab itself is deflected in relation to the aileron, causing the aileron to move in the opposite direction. Trim tabs come in two forms, adjustable and fixed. A fixed trim tab is manually bent to the required amount of deflection, while the adjustable trim tab can be controlled from within the cockpit so that different power settings or flight attitudes can be compensated for. Some large aircraft from the 1950s (including the Canadair Argus) used free floating control surfaces that the pilot controlled only through the deflection of trim tabs, in which case additional tabs were also provided to fine-tune the control to provide straight and level flight.
Spades[edit]
Extra 300L aircraft, from below, showing light coloured quadrilateral spades at roughly midwing.
Spades are flat metal plates, usually attached to the aileron lower surface, ahead of the aileron hinge, by a lever arm. They reduce the force needed by the pilot to deflect the aileron and are often seen on aerobatic aircraft. As the aileron is deflected upward, the spade produces a downward aerodynamic force, which tends to rotate the whole assembly so as to further deflect the aileron upward. The size of the spade (and its lever arm) determines how much force the pilot needs to apply to deflect the aileron. A spade works in the same manner as a horn but is more efficient due to the longer moment arm.
Mass balance weights[edit]
Mass balancing of the Frise-hinged ailerons on a Messerschmitt Bf 110 "zerstörer"
To prevent control surface flutter (aeroelastic flutter), the center of lift of the control surface should be behind the center of gravity of that surface. To achieve this, lead weights may be added to the front of the aileron. In some aircraft the aileron construction may be too heavy to allow this system to work without huge weight increases. In this case, the weight may be added to a lever arm to move the weight well out in front to the aileron body. These balance weights are tear drop shaped (to reduce drag), which make them appear quite different from spades, although both project forward and below the aileron. In addition to reducing flutter, mass balances also reduce the stick forces required to move the control surface in flight.
Types of ailerons[edit]
Single acting ailerons[edit]
Used during aviation's pre-war "pioneer era" and into the early years of the First World War, these ailerons were each controlled by a single cable, which pulled the aileron up. When the aircraft was at rest, the ailerons hung vertically down. This type of aileron was used on the Farman III biplane 1909 and the Short 166. A "reverse" version of this, utilizing wing-warping, existed on the later version of the Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, which only warped the wingtips "downward".[31] One of the disadvantages of this setup was a greater tendency to yaw than even with basic interconnected ailerons.[32] During the 1930s a number of light aircraft used single acting controls but used springs to return the ailerons to their neutral positions when the stick was released.
Wingtip ailerons[edit]
The Blériot VIII with wingtip ailerons in 1908, deflected for a slight right bank.
Used on the first-ever airframe to have the combination of "joystick/rudder-bar" controls that directly led to the modern flight control system, the Blériot VIII in 1908,[33] some designs of early aircraft used "wingtip" ailerons, where the entire wingtip was rotated to achieve roll control as a separate, pivoting roll-control surface—the AEA June Bug used a form of these, with both the experimental German Fokker V.1 of 1916 and the earlier versions of the Junkers J 7 all-duralumin metal demonstrator monoplane using them—the J 7 led directly to the Junkers D.I all-duralumin metal German fighter design of 1918, which had conventionally hinged ailerons. The main problem with this type of aileron is the dangerous tendency to stall if used aggressively, especially if the aircraft is already in danger of stalling, hence the use primarily on prototypes, and their replacement on production aircraft with more conventional ailerons.
Frise ailerons[edit]
Engineer Leslie George Frise (1897–1979) of the Bristol Aeroplane Company [34] developed an aileron shape that is pivoted at about its 25 to 30% chord line and near its bottom surface [1], in order to decrease stick forces as aircraft became faster during the 1930s. When the aileron is deflected up (to make its wing go down), the leading edge of the aileron starts to protrude below the underside of the wing into the airflow beneath the wing. The moment of the leading edge in the airflow helps to move up the trailing edge, which decreases the stick force. The down moving aileron also adds energy to the boundary layer. The edge of the aileron directs air flow from the underside of the wing to the upper surface of the aileron, thus creating a lifting force added to the lift of the wing. This reduces the needed deflection of the aileron. Both the Canadian Fleet Model 2 biplane of 1930 and the 1938 popular US Piper J-3 Cub monoplane possessed Frise ailerons as designed and helped introduce them to a wide audience.
A claimed benefit of the Frise aileron is the ability to counteract adverse yaw. To do so, the leading edge of the aileron has to be sharp or bluntly rounded, which adds significant drag to the upturned aileron and helps counterbalance the yaw force created by the other aileron turned down. This can add some unpleasant, nonlinear effect and/or potentially dangerous aerodynamic vibration (flutter).[35] Adverse yaw moment is basically countered by aircraft yaw stability and also by the use of differential aileron movement.[36]
Differential ailerons[edit]
By careful design of the mechanical linkages, the up aileron can be made to deflect more than the down aileron (e.g., US patent 1,565,097).[37] This helps reduce the likelihood of a wing tip stall when aileron deflections are made at high angles of attack. In addition, the consequent differential in drag reduces adverse yaw[38] (as also discussed above). The idea is that the loss of lift associated with the up aileron carries no penalty while the increase in lift associated with the down aileron is minimized. The rolling couple on the aircraft is always the difference in lift between the two wings. A designer at de Havilland invented a simple and practical linkage and their de Havilland Tiger Moth classic British biplane became one of the best-known aircraft, and one of the earliest, to use differential ailerons.[39]
Roll control without ailerons[edit]
Wing warping[edit]
Main article: Wing warping
On the earliest Pioneer Era aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer and the later, 1909-origin Blériot XI and Etrich Taube,[40] lateral control was effected by twisting the outboard portion of the wing so as to increase or decrease lift by changing the angle of attack. This had the disadvantages of stressing the structure, being heavy on the controls, and of risking stalling the side with the increased angle of attack during a maneuver. By 1916, most designers had abandoned wing warping in favor of ailerons. Researchers at NASA and elsewhere have been taking a second look at wing warping again, although under new names. The NASA version is the X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing while the United States Air Force tested the Adaptive Compliant Wing.[41][42] It is probably significant that none of the aircraft designed after those experiments implemented this type of control.
Differential spoilers[edit]
Main article: Spoiler (aeronautics)
Spoilers are devices that when extended into the airflow over a wing, disrupt the airflow and reduce the amount of lift generated. Many modern aircraft designs, especially jet aircraft, use spoilers in lieu of, or to supplement ailerons, such as the F4 Phantom II and Northrop P-61 Black Widow, which had almost full width flaps (there were very small conventional ailerons at the wingtips as well).
Roll induced by rudder[edit]
All aircraft with dihedral have some form of yaw-roll coupling to promote stability. Common trainers like the Cesssna 152/172 series can be roll controlled with rudder alone. The rudder of the Boeing 737 has more roll authority over the aircraft than the ailerons at high angles of attack. This led to two notable incidents when the rudder jammed in the fully deflected position causing rollovers Boeing 737 rudder issues.
Some aircraft such as the Fokker Spin and model gliders lack any type of lateral control. Those aircraft use a higher amount of dihedral than conventional aircraft. Deflecting the rudder gives yaw and a lot of differential wing lift, giving a yaw induced roll moment. This type of control system is most commonly seen in the Flying Flea family of small aircraft and on simpler 2-function (pitch and yaw control) glider models or 3-function (pitch, yaw and throttle control) model powered aircraft, such as radio-controlled versions of "Old Timer" free-flight engine-powered model aircraft.
Other methods[edit]
Weight-shift control is widely used in hang gliders, powered hang gliders, and ultralight aircraft.
Flight with disabled controls has been successful in a small number of aviation incidents.
Reaction control valves as used in the Harrier jump jet family of military aircraft.
Top rudder: this device was fitted to the British Army Aeroplane No 1. It comprised an all-flying fin mounted above the upper wing and pivoted about a vertical axis. In operation it applied a side force approximately above the centre of pressure, causing the craft to roll. The design also had all-flying ailerons between the wing planes, but these were removed at the time it made the first official flight of a British aircraft and roll control during the flight was achieved solely by use of the top rudder.[43]
Combinations with other control surfaces[edit]
A USAF F-16 displaying its rear tailerons, which move independently of each other to provide both pitch and roll control. Note the different attack angles visible.
A control surface that combines an aileron and flap is called a flaperon. A single surface on each wing serves both purposes: Used as an aileron, the flaperons left and right are actuated differentially; when used as a flap, both flaperons are actuated downwards. When a flaperon is actuated downward (i.e., used as a flap), there is enough freedom of movement left to be able to still use the aileron function.
Some aircraft have used differentially controlled spoilers or spoilerons to provide roll instead of conventional ailerons. The advantage is that the entire trailing edge of the wing may be devoted to flaps, providing better low speed control. The Northrop P-61 Black Widow used spoilers in this manner, in conjunction with full span zap flaps and some modern airliners use spoilers to assist the ailerons.
On delta-winged aircraft, the ailerons are combined with the elevators to form an elevon.
Several modern fighter aircraft may have no ailerons on their wings but provide roll control with an all moving horizontal tailplane. When horizontal tailplane stabilators can move differentially to perform the roll control function of ailerons, as they do on some modern fighter aircraft, they are termed 'tailerons' or 'rolling tails'. Tailerons additionally permit wider flaps on the aircraft's wings.
Aileron struts combined movable surfaces with an airfoil shaped wing strut.[44] Acting in the propeller slipstream increased their effectiveness, although their mechanical advantage is lowered due to the inboard location.[45]
See also[edit]
Aircraft flight control system
Elevator (aeronautics)
Flap
Flaperon, a control surface combining both a flap and an aileron
Spoiler, a flight control surface occasionally confused with ailerons
Rudder
Trailing edge
The Wright brothers patent war
References[edit]
Footnotes
Jump up ^ . Aviation historian C.H. Gibbs-Smith wrote that the aileron was "....one of the most remarkable inventions... of aeronautical history, which was immediately lost sight of".[4]
Citations
Jump up ^ aileron (n.), Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Aileron, nom masculin, Larousse online French dictionary. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Parkin 1964, p. 66.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Crouch, Tom. Oldies and Oddities: Where Do Ailerons Come From?, Air & Space magazine, September 2009.
Jump up ^ Magoun, F. Alexander and Eric Hodgins. A History of Aircraft, Whittlesey House, 1931, p. 308.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yoon, Joe. Origins of Control Surfaces, Aerospaceweb.org, November 17, 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b Gibbs-Smith, C.H.. Aviation: An Historical Survey From Its Origins To The End Of The Second World War, Science Museum, 1960 [2000], p.54, ISBN 1-900747-52-9, ISBN 978-1-900747-52-3. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Kinzer, Bruce. "Flying Under The Radar: The Strange Case Of Matthew Piers Watt Boulton", Times Literary Supplement, 1 May 2009, p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b Gibbs-Smith, C.H. Correspondence: The First Aileron, U.K.: Flight magazine, 11 May 1956, pp. 598. Retrieved from FlightGlobal.com, January 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jump up ^ A Complete New Historical Assessment, U.K.: Flight magazine, 16 September 1960, pp. 478. Retrieved from FlightGlobal.com, January 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Yoon, Joe. M.P.W. Boulton and the Aileron, Aerospaceweb.org, 20 July 2003.
Jump up ^ Ransom, Sylvia and Jeff, James. World Power, Bibb County, Georgia, U.S.: Bibb County School District. April 2002.
Jump up ^ Bullmer 2009, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Esnault-Pelterie, Robert. "Expériences d'aviation, exécutées en 1904, en vérification de celles des frères Wright" (Aviation experiments performed in 1904, verifying those of the Wright brothers), L'Aérophile, June 1905, pp. 132–138. (French)
^ Jump up to: a b c Parkin 1964, p. 65.
Jump up ^ "Patent thickets and the Wright Brothers". ipbiz.blogspot.com. 2006-07-01. Retrieved 2009-03-07. In 1917, as a result of a recommendation of a committee formed by the Assistant Secretary of the Navy (The Honorable Franklin D. Roosevelt), an aircraft patent pool was privately formed encompassing almost all aircraft manufacturers in the United States. The creation of the Manufacturer's Aircraft Association was crucial to the U.S. government because the two major patent holders, the Wright Company and the Curtiss Company, had effectively blocked the building of any new airplanes, which were desperately needed as the United States was entering World War I.
Jump up ^ "The Wright Brothers, Patents, and Technological Innovation". buckeyeinstitute.org. Retrieved 2009-03-07. This unusual arrangement could have been interpreted as a violation of antitrust law, but fortunately it was not. It served a clear economic purpose: preventing the holder of a single patent on a critical component from holding up creation of an entire aircraft. Practically, the pool had no effect on either market structure or technological advances. Speed, safety, and reliability of US made airplanes improved steadily over the years the pool existed (up to 1975). Over that time several firms held large shares of the commercial aircraft market: Douglas, Boeing, Lockheed, Convair, and Martin, but no one of them dominated it for very long.
Jump up ^ "THE CROSS-LICENSING AGREEMENT". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
Jump up ^ Harwood, CS and Fogel, GB "Quest for Flight: John J. Montgomery and the Dawn of Aviation in the West," University of Oklahoma Press, 2012. pp. 36–45.
Jump up ^ Parkin 1964, pp. 54–69.
Jump up ^ Crouch, Tom (1982). Blériot XI, The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-87474-345-1.
Jump up ^ Yoon, Joe. Christmas Bullet, Aerospaceweb.org, August 5, 2001.
Jump up ^ "Flying-Machine". 1903-03-29. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Patent #831,173".
Jump up ^ Harwood CS, Fogel GB, "Quest for Flight: John J. Montgomery and the Dawn of Aviation in the West, University of Oklahoma Press, 2012. p. 124.
^ Jump up to: a b Hayes, Brittany. Innovation & Infringement: The Wright Brothers, Glenn H. Curtiss, and the Aviation Patent Wars, USHistoryScene.com website, June 7, 2012. Retrieved November 11, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b c Casey 1981, Preface pp. xi–xii.
Jump up ^ Harwood, Craig S. and Fogel, Gary B. Quest for Flight: John J. Montgomery and the Dawn of Aviation in the West, University of Oklahoma Press, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Flying Machine patent", Patents. Retrieved: 21 September 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kermode, A.C. (1972), Mechanics of Flight, Chapter 9 (8th edition), Pitman Publishing Limited, London. ISBN 0-273-31623-0
Jump up ^ "1910 Popular Mechanics drawing of the No.20 Demoiselle, showing downwards-only wing warping cables".
Jump up ^ Answers to Correspondents: A. W. D. (Fareham), Flight Magazine, March 8, 1917, p. 227.
Jump up ^ Crouch, Tom (1982). Blériot XI, The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 0-87474-345-1.
Jump up ^ http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1979/1979%20-%203906.html
Jump up ^ NACA WRL 325, Ailerons Frise, Conclusions, 1943
Jump up ^ NACA TR 422, Slotted ailerons and Frise ailerons, 1932
Jump up ^ United States Patent 1565097, Mummert 1925
Jump up ^ Simons, Martin (1987). Model Aircraft Aerodynamics (Second ed.). Hemel Hempstead: Argus Books. p. 188. ISBN 0 85242 915 0.
Jump up ^ De Havilland, G.; "Sky Fever", 2nd Edition, Wren's Park (1999).
Jump up ^ The Etrich Monoplane Flight, 11 November 1911, p.276
Jump up ^ Scott, William B. (27 November 2006), "Morphing Wings", Aviation Week & Space Technology
Jump up ^ Kota, Sridhar; Osborn, Russell; Ervin, Gregory; Maric, Dragan; Flick, Peter; Paul, Donald. "Mission Adaptive Compliant Wing – Design, Fabrication and Flight Test" (PDF). Ann Arbor, MI; Dayton, OH, U.S.A.: FlexSys Inc., Air Force Research Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Walker, P.; "Early Aviation at Farnborough, Volume II: The First Aeroplanes", Macdonald (1974).
Jump up ^ "Aileron Strut patent 1650954".
Jump up ^ Ronald J. Wanttaja. "Patent Safari". Sport Aviation.
Bibliography
Bullmer, Joe. The WRight Story: The True Story of the Wright Brothers' Contribution to Early Aviation, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, ISBN 1439236208, ISBN 978-1439236208, 2009.
Casey, Louis S. Curtiss, The Hammondsport Era, 1907-1915, New York: Crown Publishers, 1981, pp. 12–15, ISBN 0-517543-26-5, ISBN 978-0-517543-26-9.
Parkin, John H. Bell and Baldwin: Their Development of Aerodromes and Hydrodromes at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ailerons.
Look up aileron in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
NASA Glenn Research Center aileron article with Java demo and more pictures
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