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Serena van der Woodsen
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Serena van der Woodsen
Gossip Girl character
Blake Lively as Serena van der Woodsen
First appearance
Novel:
Gossip Girl
Television:
"Pilot"
(episode 1.01)
Last appearance
Novel:
I Will Always Love You
Television:
"New York, I Love You XOXO"
(episode 6.10)
Created by
Character
Cecily von Ziegesar
Developed for Television
Josh Schwartz
Stephanie Savage
Portrayed by
Blake Lively
Information
Full name
Serena Celia van der Woodsen
Aliases
S
Gossip Girl 3.0
Occupation
Novels:
Fashion model
High school student
Dutch shipping heiress
Television:
Socialite
Fashion model (former)
Publicist (former)
High school student
(at Constance Billard; graduated)
College student
(at Columbia)
Gossip Girl (former)
Family
William van der Woodsen
(father)
Lillian "Lily" van der Woodsen
(mother)
Eric van der Woodsen
(brother)
Television:
Bartholomew "Bart" Bass
(former stepfather; deceased)
Rufus Humphrey
(former stepfather)
Scott Rosson
(maternal half-brother)
Charles "Chuck" Bass
(former stepbrother / adoptive brother)
Henry Bass
(nephew, via Chuck and Blair)
Rick and Celia "CeCe" Rhodes
(maternal grandparents)
Spouse(s)
Television:
Daniel Humphrey
(husband; flash-forward)
Relatives
Carol Rhodes
(maternal aunt)
Charlotte "Lola" Rhodes
(three-quarter sister)
Serena Celia van der Woodsen is a main character in the Gossip Girl novel series and its TV adaptation, in which she is portrayed by Blake Lively. Serena is featured on the blog of the series' mysterious narrator, "Gossip Girl." Serena is Blair Waldorf's best friend and is a character that appears to easily get whatever she wants, because of her good looks, energy and charisma. She is also known as the "It Girl" in the series.
Contents
[hide]
1 Novel series
2 Television series
2.1 Characterization
2.2 Music
2.3 Season 1
2.4 Season 2
2.5 Season 3
2.6 Season 4
2.7 Season 5
2.8 Season 6
3 Reception
3.1 Television
4 References
Novel series[edit]
Serena is a tall, blonde, slim teenage girl from the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. Many of the girls at the Constance Billard school accuse her of using her good looks as a means to secure everything she wants. She is not particularly academically skilled, but she is often told that she is not meeting her full potential. Her father runs the same Dutch shipping firm his great-great-grandfather founded in the 18th century, and her mother, Lillian van der Woodsen, is a socialite, art collector, and philanthropist. Her parents are on the boards of all major charities and art organizations in the city. The van der Woodsens reside at 994 Fifth Avenue, a ritzy, white-gloved doorman building directly across the street from The Met and Central Park. Serena and her family own half the top floor in a 14-room penthouse.
Serena has a nail-biting habit and also cuts her split ends off, mainly during her classes at Constance Billard. Though exposed and aware of the on-goings in the fashion world, she, unlike Blair, is not as meticulous about her fashion choices and wardrobe. She is described to have an effortless way about her. Serena is charismatic, charming, talented, funny, kind, care-free and laid-back. These attributes help her to thrive and often, whether wittingly or unwittingly, attract older men.
Despite all of her attributes, Janet Malcolm of The New Yorker considers her "incandescently beautiful, exceptionally kind, and, in the end, it has to be said, somewhat boring." [1]
Television series[edit]
Characterization[edit]
People compares her character with Josh Schwartz's original it-girl creation, Marissa Cooper, stating that Serena "seems to have it all, but in addition to a party girl reputation, dark family secrets and a disregard for high society, Serena one-ups the sulky Coop with a history of BFF betrayal." [2] Jason Gay of Rolling Stone describes Serena as "the bad girl gone good(ish) who serves as Gossip Girl's wobbly moral compass." He added praise while describing her early strained relationship with Blair, stating, "Lively's Serena is a former queen bee who mysteriously disappeared from campus, only to return and find her spiteful ex-best friend, Blair (Meester), in charge."[3] With regards to her character's direction in the show, actress Blake Lively commented on her character's adventurous storylines during an interview with NYLON saying "I feel ridiculous at times with her, because I'm, you know, killing someone or marrying someone, but I look like me. I'm like, 'Oh, this is absurd.' " [4][5][6] Vogue magazine considers Lively's upbringing to be advantageous to her character background and finds her "dazzling and worldly and optimistic". Her mother, a former model from Georgia would dress her differently and her differing fashion choices drew the attention of her classmates from the L.A. private school she enrolled in. "It was the only school where people were just downright mean to me," Lively stated. "They would make fun of my clothes because I dressed differently than the other kids." [7]
Music[edit]
In November 2012 concept music artist Marty McKay released a single called "Serena" featuring former Dr. Dre / Aftermath producer Focus.... The song is based on Serena's character in Gossip Girl. Due to a lack of promotion, the song did not garner much attention.[8]
Season 1[edit]
Main article: List of Gossip Girl episodes
The first season introduces Serena as the beautiful, wealthy daughter of divorced parents who returns from boarding school. Her return sparks her old rivalry with her best friend, Blair. Serena's return is due to her younger brother, Eric van der Woodsen, who attempted suicide, and is considered unwelcome, most so by her old best friend Blair, who has always seen Serena as a threat to her reign as Queen Bee of Constance. After Serena successfully reconciles with her, Chuck Bass reveals to Serena that he knows the cause of her sudden departure prior to the first season - taking Nate Archibald's (Blair's boyfriend) virginity during a wedding,[9] and he attempts to kiss her. Serena manages to escape and runs into Dan, a St. Jude's student from Brooklyn, who often expresses cynicism about the lifestyle his wealthier classmates lead. Serena also finds a friend in Jenny Humphrey, Dan's younger sister. Nate eventually reveals his tryst with Serena to Blair, and Serena is ostracized in the first few episodes of the show.[10] Blair and Serena consistently fight and reconcile throughout the show's subsequent episodes, often dealing with Serena's tendency to overshadow Blair.[11] Serena and Blair reconcile after a heartfelt confrontation that prompted Serena to admit her mistake with Nate and leaving Blair in her time of need.[12]
Serena encounters a myriad of problems as her mother becomes engaged to Bart Bass[13] who forces her family to adjust living with Chuck, then discovering her mother's relationship with Dan's father, Rufus Humphrey, and the complications of embarking on a relationship with Dan that is met with disapproval of her mother and her peers. Her relationship with Dan further reaches complications with the arrival of Georgina Sparks, a longtime friend who slowly reveals to viewers the real reason why Serena left Manhattan. Georgina drives her to commit the same mistakes she did before leaving Manhattan, ranging from partying excessively to drinking heavily, causing Serena to miss the SATs.[14] Serena confronts Georgina, only to draw her anger, prompting Georgina to destroy her relationship with Dan and blackmail her with knowledge of a particular event in the past: she accidentally killed a man.[15][16] Serena's constant lying in order to keep Dan from discovering her past eventually takes its toll on their relationship and Dan breaks up with her.
Blair eventually retaliates against Georgina with the help of Chuck and Nate and the intervention of Vanessa, successfully driving Georgina out of Manhattan.[15][17] Serena finally tells Dan the truth only to discover during Lily's wedding, that he wants to end their relationship. A disappointed Serena attempts to move on throughout the summer.
Season 2[edit]
The second season shows Serena spending the summer with her family and Blair in the Hamptons, attempting to move on from her failed relationship with Dan. During a dramatic party, she and Dan briefly reconcile their relationship and return to New York.[18] Their relationship becomes public again but ends sooner than expected during a blackout as both are unable to move past the problems that previously ruined their relationship.[19] After a disastrous double date with Dan and a new transfer, Amanda, that ends with two of Blair's mean girls throwing Nair at Amanda and Dan accusing Serena of being behind it, Serena takes matters into her own hands and easily re-establishes herself as Queen, thus reigniting her rivalry with Blair. She has Dan publicly ostracized throughout the school.[20] Exposing herself to New York's high society, she meets Poppy Lifton, a socialite, and further strains her relationship with Blair during Eleanor Waldorf's fashion show when she and Poppy participate in it.[21] Serena and Blair eventually reconcile during a trip to Yale, where she didn't originally want to apply to but then took the opportunity to do so after Blair told her she couldn't possibly get in.[22]
An exhibit in Rufus' gallery has Serena finding new love with a childhood friend and artist, Aaron Rose.[23] She eventually reconciles with Dan but their friendship soon threatens her new love with Aaron, prompting him to escort her to a ball where Serena receives news from her mother of Bart's death.[24] During Bart's funeral, Aaron notices her continually drawn towards Dan and invites her to come with him to Argentina, which she accepts.[25] Upon their return, Serena breaks up with Aaron and she is free to pursue a relationship with Dan. The two reunite only to face the awkward discovery that they share a sibling.[26] Dan and Serena's relationship further suffers when she realizes their diverging college choices,[27] her continuous mistrust in him, and Dan's affair with a teacher that drives her to prematurely end their relationship.[28]
After throwing a disastrous Sweet Sixteen party for Jenny, Serena retreats to Spain with Poppy and Poppy's boyfriend, Gabriel Edwards. She returns to New York pursued by Gabriel after he broke up with Poppy and finds herself in a new relationship. During a party held by her mother, Serena discovers that Gabriel and Poppy have conned her mother's guests and calls on Blair's aid to obtain their stolen money, breaking up with Gabriel as she pursues Poppy. Blair reluctantly teams up with Chuck and a reformed Georgina, ignoring Lily's wishes that they let her handle it herself, ending with the plan completely back-firing: Serena is arrested, Poppy escapes and Georgina, becoming the scapegoat, eases back into her old ways.
A stubborn Serena chooses to stay in prison, until Dan bails her out and the two go to prom together. Her arrest soon adds to her fame as she becomes a local celebrity. On the day of graduation, Gossip Girl sends a blast that further ruins Serena and her friends' reputations. Declaring war on Gossip Girl, Serena finds herself the center of blame when a ticked-off Gossip Girl decides to drop every unreleased piece of gossip she had in store, creating further divide within the group. Sending a text to Gossip Girl, Serena calls a bluff that she knows Gossip Girl's identity, only for Gossip Girl to escape and warning everyone that she'll be pursuing them in college. She spends the summer leaving New York with Carter in pursuit of her father.
Season 3[edit]
Serena returns from her European adventure and a complicated relationship with Carter that indicates a possible romance. The Los Angeles Times noted her character's penchant for secrecy but stated "It initially seems as though Bad Serena is back, but we all know her highway of crazy behavior is always paved with good intentions."[29] Serena's relationship with Carter earns the disapproval of her peers but discovers redeeming qualities in him. Lily first assumes that she's preparing to go to Brown but defers from entering, preferring to stay in the city and find herself. During Lily's wedding, she discovers Carter's previous transgressions and she loses him when he chooses to make amends for his mistakes, breaking her heart in the process.
Serena eventually makes her time in New York useful by taking a job as a publicist, one that is short-lived as her relationships with both her friends and her family begin to erode. Her friendship with Blair and Nate crumble due to her job but finds even more trouble when she falls for Nate's married congressman cousin, Trippp van der Bilt (Aaron Tveit). Her relationship with him is tumultuous as both Nate and Blair fail in persuading her from continuing the affair. The affair ends when an offer to become a mistress from Trippp's wife makes her come to her senses. As Serena and Trippp return to New York, their car crashes, leaving her hospitalized. She survives and Nate proves his love for her and the two begin a relationship.
When Chuck's mother returns, Serena's resolve to find her father is reignited. Her decision slowly damages her relationship with Nate as she reconnects with Carter who is back to his old habits. Knowing that he has information regarding her father, the two work together to find him but is no longer interested in a relationship with Carter. Jenny's growing feelings for Nate also threaten her relationship with him when she makes every effort to steal Nate from her. During Dorota's wedding, Serena leaves with Carter and gives Jenny a message telling Nate that she has found her father. Serena soon finds out that Carter has been delaying her in an attempt to get close to her and leaves him, flies alone. Upon arriving, she is shocked to find her mother answering the hotel door, assuming that she had been in Canyon Ranch the entire time.
William van der Woodsen (William Baldwin) returns, making Serena happy but is unknowingly dragged into her father's plot to win back his ex-wife. The plot nearly works until Jenny, Blair, Nate and Chuck scheme against William, who had been trying to frame Rufus for adultery and intentionally misdiagnosing Lily, and William leaves. Her father's departure leads to Dan comforting her and reignites her feelings for him. Serena sleeps over at Dan's and wake up to find themselves in a compromising position, one that Jenny photographs and sends to Gossip Girl. As the photo spreads, Nate and Serena temporarily end their relationship and she joins Blair for a summer in Paris.
Season 4[edit]
Serena is seen spending her summer in Paris with Blair, reluctant to tell Blair that she has enrolled in Columbia, something that Blair fears will have them return to their high school pettiness, when she receives news that Chuck might be dead. After an unfortunate double date involving a handsome royal, Blair eventually forgives her. Chuck's arrival and a visit to a Parisian morgue confirms that he is alive but Serena pursues him in hopes of convincing him to return to New York when he tries to run away to London. She returns to New York having made her decision between Dan and Nate but her decision becomes irrelevant when she sees them with their new respective significant others, Vanessa and Juliet Sharp (Katie Cassidy), a girl with a personal vendetta against Serena.
Serena's enrollment in Columbia has her face Juliet's many attempts at getting rid of her, ranging from excluding her from an exclusive society along with driving Blair against her, exposing her relationship with her professor, Colin Forrester (Sam Page), who happens to be Juliet's cousin to get her kicked out, and spreading various rumors about Serena, who manages to evade these attempts. Juliet then recruits Jenny and Vanessa and succeed in gaslighting her into toying with Dan and Nate's feelings, attempting to take a foundation position from Blair, and returning to her old partying habits. Serena is rehabilitated while Dan and Blair subsequently discover Juliet's reasons for ruining Serena. Serena was supposedly in an illicit, but not ever consummated, relationship with Juliet's half-brother and Serena's boarding school English teacher, Ben Donovan (David Call) and was arrested when Lily forged an affidavit that falsely accused Ben of statutory rape, out of concern for Serena.
The holidays has Serena trying to figure out how to release Ben from prison and her relationship with Lily is yet again strained. Serena and Dan put a possible return to their relationship on hold, knowing that they might not have the same chance of loving and trusting each other. Meanwhile, Ben's release from prison reignites Serena's feelings for him and they pursue a loving, yet troubled relationship. Serena's relationship with Ben slowly erodes when she receives news from Vanessa that he is responsible for hurting Nate's father in prison and when Ben's mother, Cynthia, raises Ben's personal troubles while at the same time seeking to exonerate him. Serena becomes proud of her mother when Lily decides to face the consequences of sending an innocent Ben to prison. Serena and Ben's relationship eventually ends due to family complications.
Serena's cousin, Charlie Rhodes, comes to stay with Serena's family for a while. Charlie helps Serena find out that Dan and Blair have had a secret romance, causing a fight between Serena and Blair. Serena continues to use Charlie as a spy until noticing that Charlie is starting to act exactly as Serena and steals Serena's dress. In the season finale, Serena gets Charlie help with a medical condition, though it is later revealed that Charlie is really Ivy, and Ivy is just acting. Later, while walking the streets of Los Angeles, Serena gets offered a job in Hollywood where she decides to move to.
Season 5[edit]
This section is too long. Consider splitting it into new pages, adding subheadings, or condensing it. (March 2015)
At the start of season 5, Serena has been working in Los Angeles as an assistant to a film producer while spending time bonding with Nate and Chuck. She struggles to please her boss, Marshall, but his boss, Jane, grants her a promotion after completing a difficult task that Marshall could not. She soon runs into Charlie and convinces her to move back to New York with her.
When Dan brings Serena, Nate, Blair, Chuck, Rufus and Lily together and reveals to them that he wrote a book about his life and all of their parts in it, Serena is offended when he portrays her as a self-centered, promiscuous party-girl and is even more upset when Blair tells her that's exactly who she's been. After this revelation, she stops speaking to Dan. This cannot last, however, when her boss, Jane, requires Serena to get the movie rights to Dan's book. He agrees eventually saying that he trusts her and she genuinely gives him her word to protect him and his work. However when Serena's boss tries to distort Dan's character and his real life image in the movie ,she kills the deal in order to protect him ,but when Dan finds out ,he accuses her of killing the movie in fear of the portrayal of her own image. Heartbroken at this unjust accusation ,she reveals to him how the real reason for killing his movie was to protect him alone ,and walks away.
After being fired by Jane, Serena is hired by Nate's boss, Diana Payne, to start a blog based on her life in order to take down Gossip Girl. Later, Nate and Serena discover a list of sources for Gossip Girl, which would be the silver bullet in Diana's campaign against Gossip Girl. They struggle over whether or not to use it and ultimately decide it would be too damaging to release. The list is leaked anyway and the two accuse each other before Blair discovers that it was Louis who leaked Gossip Girl's list of sources. Charlie encourages Serena to start dating in order to motivate her for her blog and she begins dating a guy named Max that she met on the street, not knowing that Max is actually Charlie's ex-boyfriend. Diana arranges for Max to meet Serena at the opening of Chuck's premiere of 'Sleep No More' in order to make it look like Max has stood her up. Serena forgives Max for standing her up, and the two begin dating.
Charlie finds out the two are dating and convinces her to slow down the relationship. Serena's aunt Carol returns and Serena overhears an argument between the two about Carol forcing Charlie to live under the name 'Ivy Dickens'. Serena makes the connection between Max and Charlie when she remembers that Max's ex-girlfriend's name was Ivy. She demands the truth from Charlie and Max. Ivy as Charlie and Carol manage to convince Serena and the family that Max is lying and Serena tells Max to leave before she calls the police.
As Serena and Lily prepare Charlie for her debut into New York society, Dan tells Serena that he is going to tell Blair how he feels about her. In order to make Dan see that Blair's happy ending will be with Louis, she sends Louis to the Humphrey loft. When she finds Dan with Blair and Chuck later, she realizes that he gave up his desire for Blair for Blair's own happiness with Chuck and realizes that Blair is still in love with Chuck. Later that night, after Charlie's debutante party, Serena receives a call from Nate that Blair and Chuck have been in an accident. This causes Serena to declare war on Gossip Girl, using Nate's power at the Spectator, and Dan.
With Gossip Girl gone, Serena finds that Gossip Girl's tipsters have begun sending their blasts to her via her blog. Nate encourages her to use the blasts productively, but Serena is reluctant to become the next Gossip Girl. Meanwhile, Serena is concerned for Blair's well-being and confronts her at Nate's New Year's Eve party where Blair tells her that the accident was God's way of telling her that she and Chuck are not meant to be together and that she made a promise with God that if Chuck lived, she would marry Louis and that Dan has been going to church with her since. In order to cover Blair, Serena pretends that she has rekindled her romance with Dan. This "romance" becomes the focus of her soon-to-be-launched blog which causes problems for Dan, as while Dan thinks that their romance is fake, Serena is shown to have genuine feelings for Dan again.
Serena is humiliated at the press premiere of her new blog, being photographed holding a tablet that shows "Site not found." Upset, she is told the time wasn't right for her blog, but she ultimately discovers that Nate had it shut down as a favour to Gossip Girl. In return, Gossip Girl would help him find out the truth about Blair and Chuck's car accident. Serena doesn't agree with Nate's suspicions that Trippp was responsible, and confronts the latter over at the Waldorf residence. This is revealed to be a set-up brought about by Nate, Serena and Nate's grandfather as a way for Tripp to admit that he was behind the accident thinking that Nate was going to be in the car instead.
Following this, Serena finds out that Blair was arrested at her own bachelorette party, and rushes to her aide. Blair tells her that she's alright, and that since she's going to go through with her wedding, Serena doesn't have to pretend to be together with Dan anymore. Serena, however, decides to keep this truth from Dan a little while longer.
On Blair's wedding day, Serena tries to convince Blair not to marry Louis. Blair goes through with her wedding anyway, even after Gossip Girl launches a video of Blair professing her true feelings to Chuck. After the vows are said, Serena, Dan and Nate confront Georgina and she blames each of them in a vague manner before leaving. When Blair goes missing after her wedding, Serena and Chuck search for her, and find her in a motel in Queens with Dan, which upsets Serena as she still has feelings for him. When Georgina arrives, Serena is revealed to have Georgina's video camera that was used to record Blair's confession and she takes the fall for the video.
Following this, Blair and Serena are in yet another rut, but forgive each other and Serena is unknowingly set up on a blind date with Dan, after she told him her feelings and he rejected her. At a party later, she and Georgina find Dan and Blair kissing, which causes another rift between her and Blair. After her grandmother's death and shocking news of her will, Serena starts a vendetta against Ivy (who received the major part of CeCe's estate), trying to win back her family fortunes. In a surprising turn of events, she gets a package from former Gossip Girl, Georgina Sparks, containing a computer and the means necessary to become the next Gossip Girl. Serena accepts.
After losing the reins to Gossip Girl and her unintentional role in exposing Blair's diary to the Upper East side, Serena attempts to deceive Blair by having sex with Dan. The plan almost works only for Dan to realize what has happened. Serena once again tells Dan that she loves him but Dan tells her that he does not feel anything for her. A depressed Serena is last seen leaving the city with one of Damien Dalgaard's drug dealers, a flashback to her days before she returned to the Upper East Side in season one.
Season 6[edit]
In season 6, Serena is seen together with a new boyfriend, Steven Spence (who is significantly older than her.) She is seen leading a happy, peaceful life away from the UES. Confronted by Blair, she simply says that she doesn't see how they could ever be friends again. Serena ultimately moves back to the UES with Steven, and his jealous daughter Sage. Sage uses every chance she gets to sabotage her father's relationship with Serena, and proves herself to be on par, scheming-wise, with Georgina and Blair. After some shocking revelations, including the fact that Steven has slept with Lily when her last name was Müller, they decide to end things.
Serena is re-united with Dan again in a last attempt to make things work. Dan, on his hand, has been writing a scathingly honest sequel to "Inside" with the help of Georgina. One of his last and most poignant chapters is The Serena Chapter, which is released during the Thanksgiving party. Serena is, in the chapter, described as a "Golden girl" who lives for attention and love, and dramatically ends things with Dan. She decides to move away from New York, but is intercepted by Dan, who tries to convince her that he has always loved her and always will. Hurt and upset, she doesn't believe him, and leaves. Before she leaves, Dan slides a file into her bag, which she opens on the plane before take-off. It is revealed that Dan wrote two chapters on Serena, and that the second one was the "Good Serena Chapter". She gets off the plane and goes to talk things through thoroughly with Dan.
In the finale, Dan reveals to her how they first met at a party at Blair's, and how he fell in love at first sight. He had then realised that he could never pull her out of her world and into his, so he found a way to enter her world by creating a UES blog. This blog, launching Serena's rise to legend, became known as Gossip Girl. Serena realises that Gossip Girl was only ever a manifestation of Dan's love for her, and that he practically wrote them all a seven-year-long love letter.
A scene set in the future shows everyone reunited at the Bass-Waldorf residence, witnessing the marriage of Dan and Serena.
Reception[edit]
Television[edit]
Serena's style has earned noteworthy praise from periodicals such as InStyle[30] and NYLON.[31] EW's Meeta Agrawal places Blake Lively's Serena van der Woodsen amongst the wearers of the 20 Knockout Dresses of the '00s. Her Tory Burch designed dress in the pilot earning the 2nd spot on the list.[32] People magazine references an issue of NYLON, reporting that even the actress herself admits to liking her character's style and wardrobe and InStyle's Joyann King praises "Serena’s vixen-like style and Lively’s smoldering off-screen choices".[30][33] In an interview for Vanity Fair, costume designers Eric Daman and Meredith Markworth-Pollack considered fashion model Kate Moss and New York socialites Tinsley Mortimer and Arden Wohl as a muse when dressing Lively and when asked if they were influenced by New York socialites, respectively.[34] TV Guide named her the fifth most fashionable TV character.[35] Glamour listed her as one of the 12 Most Stylish TV Characters.[36]
Blair and Serena's friendship was praised as "it offered a relationship whose depth and complexity approached Rory and Paris' [from Gilmore Girls]."[37] Vanity Fair considered Serena's murder storyline to be "unrealistic" and "an obvious ratings ploy," going on to compare it to a dramatic scene in The O.C., in which Marissa shot Ryan Atwood's brother, stating that the show may have possibly jumped the shark.[38]
For her portrayal of Serena van der Woodsen, Blake Lively won the 2008 Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Actress Drama and was nominated for the same award in 2009 and 2010, losing to her co-star, Leighton Meester, who portrays Blair Waldorf.[39] She, however, won the award again in 2011. Lively also earned a People's Choice Award nomination for Favorite TV Drama Actress in 2011 and 2012.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Malcolm, Janet (3 October 2008). "The Wicked Joy of the Gossip Girl Novels". The New Yorker. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
Jump up ^ DeSimone, Andrea (6 January 2011). "Gossip Girl: The New O.C.". People. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007.
Jump up ^ Gay, Jason. "Dirty Pretty Things". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2010-11-23.
Jump up ^ Vena, Jocelyn (6 January 2011). "Blake Lively Says Playing Serena On 'Gossip Girl' Can Be 'Absurd'". MTV. Archived from the original on 17 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "Blake Lively Wants to Kill Serena Van Der Woodsen". New York. 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 8 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Blake Lively Wants To Quit Gossip Girl". 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Blake Lively: East Side Story". Vogue. 8 January 2011. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Marty McKay feat. Focu - Serena". 10 June 2013. Archived from the original on 28 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (17 May 2010). "Gossip Girl". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on 5 September 2007.
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Jump up ^ "‘Gossip Girl’: There Are Only Eight Colleges in America". New York. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Gossip Girl: "Woman on the Verge Episode Recap"". TV.com. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "All About My Brother"". TV Guide. Retrieved 2009-08-25.
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl: "Much I Do About Nothing"". TV Guide. Retrieved 2009-08-25.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (8 September 2008). "Gossip Girl' recap: Summer Lovin". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (16 September 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: Going Dark". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (23 September 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: School Daze". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (30 September 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: Fashion War". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (16 October 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: Campus Brawl". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (28 October 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: Smells Like Teen Spirit". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (2 December 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: One Wedding a and Funeral". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (9 December 2008). "'Gossip Girl' recap: One Wedding a and Funeral". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (6 January 2009). "'Gossip Girl' recap: Sweet Child of Mine". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (20 January 2009). "'Gossip Girl' recap: The Blair War Project". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Stack, Tim (3 February 2009). "'Gossip Girl' recap: Hot for Teacher". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Portugez, Enid (15 September 2009). "'Gossip Girl': Season premiere welcomes us back". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 15 September 2009. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
^ Jump up to: a b King, Joyann (17 May 2010). "Blake Lively Likes Serena’s Style". InStyle. Archived from the original on 3 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "NEWSLETTER 11.04.09". NEWSLETTER, NYLON. 17 May 2010. Archived from the original on 4 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Agrawal, Meeta (17 May 2010). "20 Knockout Dresses of the '00s". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on 20 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Blake Lively on Her Signature Style: "I Dress Just like Serena!"". People. 17 May 2010. Archived from the original on 2 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "Welcome Back, Gossip Girl". Vanity Fair. 17 March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Serena Van Der Woodsen Pictures – Photo Gallery: Who Are the Most Fashionable TV Characters?". TV Guide. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "12 Most Stylish TV Characters". Glamour. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ Li, Shirley (October 1, 2014). "When Paris Met Rory: TV's Last Great Teenage-Girl Friendship". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "OMFG: Has Gossip Girl Jumped—er—Killed the Shark?". Vanity Fair. 17 March 2011. Archived from the original on 7 May 2008.
Jump up ^ West, Kelly (17 May 2010). "11th Teen Choice Awards – 2009 Nominees". Archived from the original on 16 June 2009.
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Absolute zero
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the minimum temperature possible. For other uses, see Absolute Zero (disambiguation).
Zero kelvin (−273.15 °C) is defined as absolute zero.
Absolute zero is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reaches its minimum value, taken as 0. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units),[1][2] which equates to −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units).[3] The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.
It is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest enthalpy state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter (solid) at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal energy.
The laws of thermodynamics indicate that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically, and a system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero. The kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed.
Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity and superfluidity.
Contents
[hide]
1 Thermodynamics near absolute zero
2 Relation with Bose–Einstein condensates
3 Absolute temperature scales
4 Negative temperatures
5 History
5.1 Limit to the "degree of cold"
5.2 Lord Kelvin's work
5.3 The race to absolute zero
6 Very low temperatures
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Thermodynamics near absolute zero[edit]
At temperatures near 0 K (−273.15 °C; −459.67 °F), nearly all molecular motion ceases and ΔS = 0 for any adiabatic process, where S is the entropy. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals as T → 0. Max Planck's strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as T → 0:
lim T → 0 Δ S = 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{T\to 0}\Delta S=0}
The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value.
The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T = 0 as coincident with the adiabat S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189–190)
A mathematical proof exists that shows the temperature of absolute zero cannot be physically achieved because it's impossible for the entropy (or disorder) of a system to cool a system to absolute zero in a finite time.[4]
A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.
Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous material inclusions, can and do simply get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.
Using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T 3, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T 4. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their T = 0 limiting values and approach with zero slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell's relations show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated.
Since the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy (G), the enthalpy (H) and the entropy is
Δ G = Δ H − T Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta G=\Delta H-T\Delta S\,}
thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other (so long as ΔS is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilibrium. If ΔS and/or T are small, the condition ΔG < 0 may imply that ΔH < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough.
Moreover, the slopes of the derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T = 0. This ensures that ΔG and ΔH are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat, i.e., an actual process is the most exothermic one. (Callen, pp. 186–187)
One model that estimates the properties of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas. The electrons, being Fermions, must be in different quantum states, which leads the electrons to get very high typical velocities, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by Boltzmann's constant, and is of the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century.
Relation with Bose–Einstein condensates[edit]
Main article: Bose–Einstein condensate
Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms at a temperature within a few billionths of a degree above absolute zero. Left: just before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate. Center: just after the appearance of the condensate. Right: after further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate.
A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale.[5]
This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which published it. Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers.[6]
Seventy years later, in 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST-JILA lab, using a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK)[7] (6993170000000000000♠1.7×10−7 K).[8]
A record cold temperature of 450 ±80 pK in a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT.[9] The associated black-body (peak emittance) wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.
Absolute temperature scales[edit]
Absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature is conventionally measured in kelvins (Celsius-scaled increments) and in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit-scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined by a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the degree, so the ratios of two absolute temperatures, T2/T1, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition of this standard comes from the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. It can also be found in Fermi–Dirac statistics (for particles of half-integer spin) and Bose–Einstein statistics (for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over kT, with k representing the Boltzmann constant and T representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level.[1]
Negative temperatures[edit]
Main article: Negative temperature
Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain systems can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) can be of a negative quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than any system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive-temperature system.[10]
Most familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added.[10] As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state energy. Therefore, no complete system, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state[citation needed], so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (e.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable.
On 3 January 2013, physicists announced that they had created a quantum gas made up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom for the first time.[11]
History[edit]
Robert Boyle pioneered the idea of an absolute zero.
One of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, articulated the dispute known as the primum frigidum.[12] The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four classical elements), others within water, others air, and some more recently within nitre. But all of them seemed to agree that, "There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality."[13]
Limit to the "degree of cold"[edit]
The question whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air-thermometer. His instrument indicated temperatures by the height at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury—the volume, or "spring" of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing. He used a scale that marked the boiling-point of water at +73 and the melting-point of ice at 51, so that the zero was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale.[14]
This close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C[1] for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that −270 °C (−454.00 °F; 3.15 K) might be regarded as absolute cold.[15]
Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3000 °C as the natural zero of temperature.
Lord Kelvin's work[edit]
After James Prescott Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on Carnot's theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault.[16] It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273 °C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air-thermometer.[14] This value was not immediately accepted; values ranging from −271.1 °C (−455.98 °F) to −274.5 °C (−462.10 °F), derived from laboratory measurements and observations of astronomical refraction, remained in use in the early 20th century.[17]
The race to absolute zero[edit]
See also: Timeline of low-temperature technology
Commemorative plaque in Leiden
With a better theoretical understanding of absolute zero, scientists were eager to reach this temperature in the lab.[18] By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new record for lowest temperatures by reaching −130 °C (−202 °F; 143 K). Faraday believed that certain gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, were permanent gases and could not be liquified.[19] Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, but only under conditions of very high pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air −195 °C (−319.0 °F; 78.1 K). This was followed in 1883 by the production of liquid oxygen −218 °C (−360.4 °F; 55.1 K) by the Polish professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.
Scottish chemist and physicist James Dewar and rival Heike Kamerlingh Onnes took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases hydrogen and helium. In 1898, after 20 years of effort, Dewar was first to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new low temperature record of −252 °C (−421.6 °F; 21.1 K). However Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the Hampson–Linde cycle. He lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium −269 °C (−452.20 °F; 4.15 K). By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium he achieved an even lower temperature, near 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on earth at the time and his achievement earned him the Nobel Prize in 1913.[20] Onnes would continue to study the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time.
Very low temperatures[edit]
The rapid expansion of gases leaving the Boomerang Nebula, a bi-polar, filamentary, likely proto-planetary nebula in Centaurus, causes the lowest observed temperature outside a laboratory: 1 K
The average temperature of the universe today is approximately 2.73 kelvins (−270.42 °C; −454.76 °F), based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation.[21][22]
Absolute zero cannot be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators, and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures less than a billionth of a kelvin.[23] At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation. To study such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures.
The current world record was set in 1999 at 100 picokelvins (pK), or 0.000 000 000 1 of a kelvin, by cooling the nuclear spins in a piece of rhodium metal.[24]
In November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab in Espoo, Finland. However, this was the temperature of one particular degree of freedom – a quantum property called nuclear spin – not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom.[25][26]
In February 2003, the Boomerang Nebula was observed to have been releasing gases at a speed of 500,000 km/h (over 300,000 mph) for the last 1,500 years. This has cooled it down to approximately 1 K, as deduced by astronomical observation, which is the lowest natural temperature ever recorded.[27]
In May 2005, the European Space Agency proposed research in space to achieve femto-kelvin temperatures.[28]
In May 2006, the Institute of Quantum Optics at the University of Hannover gave details of technologies and benefits of femto-kelvin research in space.[29]
In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to have achieved temperatures below absolute zero ("negative temperatures") in gases; the gas reportedly became hotter rather than colder.[30]
In September 2014, scientists in the CUORE collaboration at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to 0.006 kelvins (−273.144 °C; −459.659 °F) for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous volume.[31]
In June 2015, experimental physicists at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) successfully cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvins, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules a bit further.[32]
See also[edit]
Physics portal
Absolute hot
Heat
ITS-90
Orders of magnitude (temperature)
Planck temperature
Thermodynamic (absolute) temperature
Triple point
Ultracold atom
Kinetic energy
Entropy
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". SI Brochure, 8th edition. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 13 March 2010 [1967]. Section 2.1.1.5. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2017. Note: The triple point of water is 0.01 °C, not 0 °C; thus 0 K is −273.15 °C, not −273.16 °C.
Jump up ^ Arora, C. P. (2001). Thermodynamics. Tata McGraw-Hill. Table 2.4 page 43. ISBN 0-07-462014-2.
Jump up ^ Zielinski, Sarah (1 January 2008). "Absolute Zero". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2012-01-26.
Jump up ^ Masanes, Lluís; Oppenheim, Jonathan (14 March 2017), "A general derivation and quantification of the third law of thermodynamics", Nature Communications, 8 (14538), doi:10.1038/ncomms14538
Jump up ^ Donley, Elizabeth A.; Claussen, Neil R.; Cornish, Simon L.; Roberts, Jacob L.; Cornell, Eric A.; Wieman, Carl E. (2001). "Dynamics of collapsing and exploding Bose–Einstein condensates". Nature. 412 (6844): 295–299. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..295D. PMID 11460153. arXiv:cond-mat/0105019  . doi:10.1038/35085500.
Jump up ^ Clark, Ronald W. "Einstein: The Life and Times" (Avon Books, 1971) pp. 408–9 ISBN 0-380-01159-X
Jump up ^ "New State of Matter Seen Near Absolute Zero". NIST. Archived from the original on 1 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Levi, Barbara Goss (2001). "Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose–Einstein Condensates". Search & Discovery. Physics Today online. Archived from the original on 2007-10-24. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
Jump up ^ Leanhardt, A. E.; Pasquini, TA; Saba, M; Schirotzek, A; Shin, Y; Kielpinski, D; Pritchard, DE; Ketterle, W (2003). "Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin" (PDF). Science. 301 (5639): 1513–1515. Bibcode:2003Sci...301.1513L. PMID 12970559. doi:10.1126/science.1088827.
^ Jump up to: a b Chase, Scott. "Below Absolute Zero -What Does Negative Temperature Mean?". The Physics and Relativity FAQ. Retrieved 2010-07-02.
Jump up ^ Merali, Zeeya (2013). "Quantum gas goes below absolute zero". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.12146.
Jump up ^ Stanford, John Frederick (1892). The Stanford Dictionary of Anglicised Words and Phrases.
Jump up ^ Boyle, Robert (1665). New Experiments and Observations touching Cold.
^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cold". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1779). Pyrometrie. Berlin. OCLC 165756016.
Jump up ^ Thomson, William (1848). "On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's observations.". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 1: 66–71.
Jump up ^ Newcomb, Simon (1906), A Compendium of Spherical Astronomy, New York: The Macmillan Company, p. 175, OCLC 64423127
Jump up ^ "ABSOLUTE ZERO - PBS NOVA DOCUMENTARY (full length)". YouTube. Retrieved November 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Cryogenics. Scienceclarified.com. Retrieved on 2012-07-22.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1913: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes". Nobel Media AB. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (25 September 2003). "Coldest Place in the Universe 1". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2012-09-24.
Jump up ^ "What's the temperature of space?". The Straight Dope. 3 August 2004. Retrieved 2012-09-24.
Jump up ^ Catchpole, Heather (2008-09-04). "Cosmos Online – Verging on absolute zero". Archived from the original on 22 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "World record in low temperatures". Archived from the original on 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
Jump up ^ Knuuttila, Tauno (2000). Nuclear Magnetism and Superconductivity in Rhodium. Espoo, Finland: Helsinki University of Technology. ISBN 951-22-5208-2. Archived from the original on 28 April 2001. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
Jump up ^ "Low Temperature World Record" (Press release). Low Temperature Laboratory, Teknillinen Korkeakoulu. 8 December 2000. Archived from the original on 2008-02-18. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
Jump up ^ Sahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997). "The Boomerang Nebula: The Coldest Region of the Universe?". The Astrophysical Journal. 487 (2): L155–L159. Bibcode:1997ApJ...487L.155S. doi:10.1086/310897. hdl:2014/22450.
Jump up ^ "Scientific Perspectives for ESA’s Future Programme in Life and Physical sciences in Space" (PDF). esf.org.
Jump up ^ "Atomic Quantum Sensors in Space" (PDF). University of California, Los Angeles.
Jump up ^ "Atoms Reach Record Temperature, Colder than Absolute Zero". livescience.com.
Jump up ^ "CUORE: The Coldest Heart in the Known Universe.". INFN Press Release. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "MIT team creates ultracold molecules". Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, Cambridge.
Further reading[edit]
Herbert B. Callen (1960). "Chapter 10". Thermodynamics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-13035-4. OCLC 535083.
Herbert B. Callen (1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics (Second ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-86256-8.
E.A. Guggenheim (1967). Thermodynamics: An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists (Fifth ed.). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing. ISBN 0-444-86951-4. OCLC 324553.
George Stanley Rushbrooke (1949). Introduction to Statistical Mechanics. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 531928.
External links[edit]
"Absolute zero": a two part NOVA episode originally aired January 2008
"What is absolute zero?" Lansing state journal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Absolute_zero&oldid=796888148"
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