text:
Biosphere 2
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Biosphere 2
Exterior of Biosphere 2
Location within Arizona
Biosphere 2 (the US)
Show map of Arizona Show map of the US Show all
Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
General information
Type
Research facility
Location
Oracle, Arizona, USA
Address
32540 S Biosphere Rd, Oracle, AZ 85739
Coordinates
32°34′44″N 110°51′02″W / 32.578778°N 110.850594°W / 32.578778; -110.850594Coordinates: 32°34′44″N 110°51′02″W / 32.578778°N 110.850594°W / 32.578778; -110.850594
Elevation
3,820 ft (1,164 m)
Construction started
1987
Completed
1991
Owner
The University of Arizona
Technical details
Floor area
3.14 acres (12,700 m2)
Grounds
40 acres (160,000 m2)
Website
biosphere2.org
Biosphere 2 is an American Earth system science research facility located in Oracle, Arizona. It has been owned by the University of Arizona since 2011. Its mission is to serve as a center for research, outreach, teaching, and lifelong learning about Earth, its living systems, and its place in the universe. It is a 3.14-acre (1.27-hectare)[1] structure originally built to be an artificial, materially closed ecological system, or vivarium. It remains the largest closed system ever created.[2]
Biosphere 2 was originally meant to demonstrate the viability of closed ecological systems to support and maintain human life in outer space.[3] It was designed to explore the web of interactions within life systems in a structure with different areas based on various biological biomes. In addition to the several biomes and living quarters for people, there was an agricultural area and work space to study the interactions between humans, farming, technology and the rest of nature as a new kind of laboratory for the study of the global ecology. Its mission was a two-year closure experiment with a crew of eight humans ("biospherians").[4] Long-term it was seen as a precursor to gain knowledge about the use of closed biospheres in space colonization. As an experimental ecological facility it allowed the study and manipulation of a mini biospheric system without harming Earth's biosphere. Its seven biome areas were a 1,900-square-meter (20,000 sq ft) rainforest, an 850-square-meter (9,100 sq ft) ocean with a coral reef, a 450-square-meter (4,800 sq ft) mangrove wetlands, a 1,300-square-metre (14,000 sq ft) savannah grassland, a 1,400-square-meter (15,000 sq ft) fog desert, and two anthropogenic biomes: a 2,500-square-meter (27,000 sq ft) agricultural system and a human habitat with living spaces, laboratories and workshops. Below ground was an extensive part of the technical infrastructure. Heating and cooling water circulated through independent piping systems and passive solar input through the glass space frame panels covering most of the facility, and electrical power was supplied into Biosphere 2 from an onsite natural gas energy center.[5]
Biosphere 2 was only used twice for its original intended purposes as a closed-system experiment: once from 1991 to 1993, and the second time from March to September 1994. Both attempts, though heavily publicized, ran into problems including low amounts of food and oxygen, die-offs of many animals and plants included in the experiment (though this was anticipated since the project used a strategy of deliberately "species-packing" anticipating losses as the biomes developed), group dynamic tensions among the resident crew, outside politics and a power struggle over management and direction of the project. Nevertheless, the closure experiments set world records in closed ecological systems, agricultural production, health improvements with the high nutrient and low caloric diet the crew followed, and insights into the self-organization of complex biomic systems and atmospheric dynamics.[6] The second closure experiment achieved total food sufficiency and did not require injection of oxygen.[7]
In June 1994, during the middle of the second experiment, the managing company, Space Biosphere Ventures, was dissolved, and the facility was left in limbo. Columbia University assumed management of the facility in 1995 and used it to run experiments until 2003. It then looked in danger of being demolished to make way for housing and retail stores, but was taken over for research by the University of Arizona in 2007 and they took full ownership of the structure in 2011.
Contents
1 Planning and construction
2 Location
3 Engineering
4 First mission
5 Group dynamics: psychology, conflict, and cooperation
5.1 Challenges
6 Second mission
7 Science
7.1 Praise and criticism
8 Columbia University
9 Site sold
10 Acquisition by University of Arizona
11 Current research
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Planning and construction[edit]
Biosphere 2 was originally constructed between 1987 and 1991 by Space Biosphere Ventures, a joint venture whose principal officers were John P. Allen, inventor and executive chairman; Margaret Augustine, CEO; Marie Harding, vice-president of finance; Abigail Alling, vice president of research; Mark Nelson, director of space and environmental applications, William F. Dempster, director of system engineering, and Norberto Alvarez-Romo, vice president of mission control. Project funding came primarily from the joint venture's financial partner, Ed Bass's Decisions Investment. The project cost US$200 million from 1985 to 2007.[citation needed]
It was named "Biosphere 2" because it was meant to be the second fully self-sufficient biosphere, after the Earth itself.
Location[edit]
Biosphere 2 sits on a sprawling 40-acre (16-hectare) science campus that is open to the public
Exterior showing parts of the rainforest biome and of the habitat, with the West lung in the background.
The glass and spaceframe facility is located in Oracle, Arizona at the base of the Santa Catalina Mountains, about 50 minutes north of Tucson. Its elevation is around 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above sea level.[8]
Engineering[edit]
Biosphere 2, view from the thornscrub, a transition zone between Savannah and Desert (foreground) and Ocean (background) sections.
The fog desert section of Biosphere in 2005
The tropical rainforest biome in February, 2017
The above-ground physical structure of Biosphere 2 was made of steel tubing and high-performance glass and steel frames. The frame and glazing materials were designed and made to specification by a firm run by a one-time associate of Buckminster Fuller, Peter Jon Pearce (Pearce Structures, Inc.).[9][10] The window seals and structures had to be designed to be almost perfectly airtight, such that the air exchange would be extremely low, permitting tracking of subtle changes over time. The patented airtight sealing methods, developed by Pearce and William Dempster, achieved a remarkable leak rate of less than 10% per year. Without such tight closure, the slow decline of oxygen which occurred at a rate of less than 1/4% per month during the first two-year closure experiment might not have been observed.[11][12]
During the day, the heat from the sun caused the air inside to expand and during the night it cooled and contracted. To avoid having to deal with the huge forces that maintaining a constant volume would create, the structure had large diaphragms kept in domes called "lungs" or variable volume structures.[13]
Since opening a window was not an option, the structure also required a sophisticated system to regulate temperatures within desired parameters, which varied for the different biomic areas. Though cooling was the largest energy need, heating had to be supplied in the winter and closed loop pipes and air handlers were key parts of the energy system. An energy center on site provided electricity and heated and cooled water, employing natural gas and backup generators, ammonia chillers and water cooling towers.[14]
First mission[edit]
The first closed mission lasted from September 26, 1991 to September 26, 1993. The crew were: medical doctor and researcher Roy Walford, Jane Poynter, Taber MacCallum, Mark Nelson, Sally Silverstone, Abigail Alling, Mark Van Thillo, and Linda Leigh.[15]
The agricultural system produced 83% of the total diet, which included crops of bananas, papayas, sweet potatoes, beets, peanuts, lablab and cowpea beans, rice, and wheat.[16][17] No toxic chemicals could be used, since they would impact health and water and nutrients were recycled back into the farm soils. Especially during the first year the eight inhabitants reported continual hunger. Calculations indicated that Biosphere 2's farm was amongst the highest producing in the world "exceeding by more than five times that of the most efficient agrarian communities of Indonesia, southern China, and Bangladesh.”[18]
They consumed the same low-calorie, nutrient-dense diet which Roy Walford had studied in his research on extending lifespan through diet. [19] Medical markers indicated the health of the crew during the two years was excellent. They showed the same improvement in health indices such as lowering of blood cholesterol, blood pressure, enhancement of immune system. They lost an average of 16% of their pre-entry body weight before stabilizing and regaining some weight during their second year.[20] Subsequent studies showed that the biospherians' metabolism became more efficient at extracting nutrients from their food as an adaptation to the low-calorie, high nutrient diet.[21] "The overall health of the biospherians crews inside Biosphere 2 confirm that the original design of the Biosphere 2 technosphere systems did avoid a buildup of toxins, and the bioregenerative technologies and life systems inside Biosphere 2 maintained a healthy environment."[22][23]
Some of the domestic animals that were included in the agricultural area during the first mission included four African pygmy goats and one billy goat, 35 hens and three roosters (a mix of Indian jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), Japanese silky bantam, and a hybrid of these), two sows and one boar Ossabaw dwarf pigs, as well as tilapia fish grown in a rice and azolla pond system originating millennia ago in China.[24]
A strategy of "species-packing" was practiced to ensure that food webs and ecological function could be maintained if some species did not survive. The fog desert area became more chaparral in character due to condensation from the space frame. The savannah was seasonally active; its biomass was cut and stored by the crew as part of their management of carbon dioxide. Rainforest pioneer species grew rapidly, but trees there and in the savannah suffered from etiolation and weakness caused by lack of stress wood, normally created in response to winds in natural conditions. Corals reproduced in the ocean area, and crew helped maintain ocean system health by hand-harvesting algae from the corals, manipulating calcium carbonate and pH levels to prevent the ocean becoming too acidic, and by installing an improved protein skimmer to supplement the algae turf scrubber system originally installed to remove excess nutrients.[25] The mangrove area developed rapidly but with less understory than a typical wetland possibly because of reduced light levels.[26] Nevertheless, it was judged to be a successful analogue to the Everglades area of Florida where the mangroves and marsh plants were collected.[27]
Biosphere 2 because of its small size and buffers, concentration of organic materials and life, had greater fluctuations and more rapid biogeochemical cycles than are found in Earth's biosphere.[28] Most of the introduced vertebrate species and virtually all of the pollinating insects died, though there was reproduction of plants and animals.[29] Insect pests, like cockroaches, flourished. Many insects had been included in original species mixes in the biomes but a globally invasive tramp ant species, Paratrechina longicornis, unintentionally sealed in, had come to dominate other ant species.[30] The planned ecological succession in the rainforest and strategies to protect the area from harsh incident sunlight and salt aerosols from the ocean worked well, and a surprising amount of the original biodiversity persisted.[31] Biosphere 2 in its early ecological development was likened to an island ecology.[32]
Group dynamics: psychology, conflict, and cooperation[edit]
View of part of the crew dining room, serving counter from kitchen and stairway up to an entertainment area.
The crew's kitchen as it originally looked during the first mission.
Much of the evidence for isolated human groups comes from psychological studies of scientists overwintering in Antarctic research stations.[33] The study of this phenomenon is "confined environment psychology", and according to Jane Poynter[34][35] it was known to be a challenge and often crews split into factions.[36]
Before the first closure mission was half over, the group had split into two factions and, according to Poynter, people who had been intimate friends had become implacable enemies, barely on speaking terms.[37] Others point out that the crew continued to work together as a team to achieve the experiment's goals, mindful that any action that harmed Biosphere 2 might imperil their own health. This is in contrast to other expeditions where internal frictions can lead to unconscious sabotage of each other and the overall mission. All of the crew felt a very strong and visceral bond with their living world.[38] They kept air and water quality, atmospheric dynamics and health of the life systems constantly in their attention in a very visceral and profound way. This intimate “metabolic connection” enabled the crew to discern and respond to even subtle changes in the living systems.[39] (Alling et al., 2002; Alling and Nelson, 1993). "Appreciation of the value of biosphere interconnectedness and interdependency was appreciated as both an everyday beauty and a challenging reality",[40] Walford later acknowledged “I don’t like some of them, but we were a hell of a team. That was the nature of the factionalism…but despite that, we ran the damn thing and we cooperated totally”.[41]
The factions inside the bubble formed from a rift and power struggle between the joint venture partners on how the science should proceed, as biospherics or as specialist ecosystem studies (perceived as reductionist). The faction that included Poynter felt strongly that increasing research should be prioritized over degree of closure. The other faction backed project management and the overall mission objectives. On February 14, a portion of the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) resigned.[42] Time Magazine wrote: "Now, the veneer of credibility, already bruised by allegations of tamper-prone data, secret food caches and smuggled supplies, has cracked ... the two-year experiment in self-sufficiency is starting to look less like science and more like a $150 million stunt".[43] In fact, the SAC was dissolved because it had deviated from its mandate to review and improve scientific research and became involved in advocating management changes. A majority of the SAC members chose to remain as consultants to Biosphere 2. The SAC's recommendations in their report were implemented including a new Director of Research [Dr. Jack Corliss], allowing import/export of scientific samples and equipment through the facility airlocks to increase research and decrease crew labor, and to generate a formal research program. Some sixty-four projects were included in the research program that Walford and Alling spearheaded developing.[44]
Undoubtedly the lack of oxygen and the calorie-restricted, nutrient-dense diet[45] contributed to low morale.[46] The Alling faction feared that the Poynter group were prepared to go so far as to import food, if it meant making them fitter to carry out research projects. They considered that would be a project failure by definition.
In November 1992, the hungry Biospherians began eating seed stocks that had not been grown inside the Biosphere 2.[47] Poynter made Chris Helms, PR Director for the enterprise, aware of this. She was promptly dismissed by Margret Augustine, CEO of Space Biospheres Ventures, and told to come out of the biosphere. This order was, however, never carried out. Poynter writes[48] that she simply decided to stay put, correctly reasoning that the order could not be enforced without effectively terminating the closure.
Isolated groups tend to attach greater significance to group dynamic and personal emotional fluctuations common in all groups. Some reports from polar station crews exaggerated psychological problems.[49] So, although some of the first closure team thought they were depressed, psychological examination of the biospherians showed no depression and fit the explorer/adventurer profile, with both women and men testing very similar to astronauts.[50] One of the psychologists noted, "If I was lost in the Amazon and was looking for a guide to get out, and to survive with, then [the biospherian crew] would be top choices."[51]
Challenges[edit]
Among the problems and miscalculations encountered in the first mission were unanticipated condensation making the "desert" too wet, population explosions of greenhouse ants and cockroaches, morning glories overgrowing the rainforest area, blocking out other plants and less sunlight (40-50% of outside light) entering the facility than originally anticipated. Biospherians intervened to control invasive plants when needed to preserve biodiversity, functioning as "keystone predators". In addition, construction itself was a challenge; for example, it was difficult to manipulate the bodies of water to have waves and tidal changes.[52][53] Engineers came up with innovative solutions to supplement natural functions the Earth's biosphere normally performs, e.g. vacuum pumps to create gentle waves in the ocean without endangering marine biota, sophisticated heating and cooling systems. All the technology was selected to minimize outgassing and discharge of harmful substances which might damage Biosphere 2's life.[54][55]
There was controversy when the public learned that the project had allowed an injured member to leave and return, carrying new material inside. The team claimed the only new supplies brought in were plastic bags, but others accused them of bringing food and other items. More criticism was raised when it was learned that, likewise, the project injected oxygen in January 1993 to make up for a failure in the balance of the system that resulted in the amount of oxygen steadily declining.[56] Some thought that these criticisms ignored that Biosphere 2 was an experiment where the unexpected would occur, adding to knowledge of how complex ecologies develop and interact, not a demonstration where everything was known in advance.[57] H.T. Odum noted: “The management process during 1992-1993 using data to develop theory, test it with simulation, and apply corrective actions was in the best scientific tradition. Yet some journalists crucified the management in the public press, treating the project as if it was an Olympic contest to see how much could be done without opening the doors”.[58]
The oxygen inside the facility, which began at 20.9%, fell at a steady pace and after 16 months was down to 14.5%. This is equivalent to the oxygen availability at an elevation of 4,080 meters (13,400 ft).[59] Since some biospherians were starting to have symptoms like sleep apnea and fatigue, Walford and the medical team decided to boost oxygen with injections in January and August 1993. The oxygen decline and minimal response of the crew indicated that changes in air pressure are what trigger human adaptation responses. These studies enhanced the biomedical research program.[60]
Managing CO2 levels was a particular challenge, and a source of controversy regarding the Biosphere 2 project's alleged misrepresentation to the public. Daily fluctuation of carbon dioxide dynamics was typically 600 ppm because of the strong drawdown during sunlight hours by plant photosynthesis, followed by a similar rise during the nighttime when system respiration dominated. As expected, there was also a strong seasonal signature to CO2 levels, with wintertime levels as high as 4,000-4,500 ppm and summertime levels near 1,000 ppm. The crew worked to manage the CO2 by occasionally turning on a CO2 scrubber, activating and de-activating the desert and savannah through control of irrigation water, cutting and storing biomass to sequester carbon, and utilizing all potential planting areas with fast-growing species to increase system photosynthesis.[61] In November 1991, investigative reporting in the Village Voice alleged that the crew had secretly installed the CO2 scrubber device, and claimed that this violated Biosphere 2's advertised goal of recycling all materials naturally.[62] Others pointed out there was nothing secret about the carbon dioxide device and it constituted another technical system augmenting ecological processes. The carbon precipitator could reverse the chemical reactions and thus release the stored carbon dioxide in later years when the facility might need additional carbon.[63]
Many suspected the drop in oxygen was due to microbes in the soil.[citation needed] The soils were selected to have enough carbon to provide for the plants of the ecosystems to grow from infancy to maturity, a plant mass increase of perhaps 20 tons (18,000 kg).[64] The release rate of that soil carbon as carbon dioxide by respiration of soil microbes was an unknown that the Biosphere 2 experiment was designed to reveal. Subsequent research showed that Biosphere 2's farm soils had reached a more stable ratio of carbon and nitrogen, lowering the rate of CO2 release, by 1998.[65]
The respiration rate was faster than the photosynthesis (possibly in part due to relatively low light penetration through the glazed structure and the fact that Biosphere 2 started with a small but rapidly increasing plant biomass) resulting in a slow decrease of oxygen. A mystery accompanied the oxygen decline: the corresponding increase in carbon dioxide did not appear. This concealed the underlying process until an investigation by Jeff Severinghaus and Wallace Broecker of Columbia University's Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory using isotopic analysis showed that carbon dioxide was reacting with exposed concrete inside Biosphere 2 to form calcium carbonate, thereby sequestering both carbon and oxygen.[66]
Second mission[edit]
During the transition period between missions, extensive research and system improvements had been undertaken. Concrete was sealed to prevent uptake of carbon dioxide. The second mission began on March 6, 1994, with an announced run of ten months. The crew was Norberto Alvarez-Romo (Capt.), John Druitt, Matt Finn, Pascale Maslin, Charlotte Godfrey, Rodrigo Romo and Tilak Mahato. The second crew achieved complete sufficiency in food production.[67]
On April 1, 1994 a severe dispute within the management team led to the ousting of the on-site management by federal marshals serving a restraining order, and financier Ed Bass hired Stephen Bannon, manager of the Bannon & Co. investment banking team from Beverly Hills, California, to run Space Biospheres Ventures.[68] Some biospherians and staff were concerned about Bannon, who had previously investigated cost overruns at the site. Two former Biosphere 2 crew members flew back to Arizona to protest the hire and broke into the compound to warn current crew members that Bannon and the new management would jeopardize their safety.[69]
At 3 am on April 5, 1994, Abigail Alling and Mark Van Thillo, members of the first crew, allegedly vandalized the project from outside,[70] opening one double-airlock door and three single door emergency exits, leaving them open for approximately fifteen minutes. Five panes of glass were also broken. Alling later told the Chicago Tribune that she "considered the Biosphere to be in an emergency state... In no way was it sabotage. It was my responsibility."[71] About 10% of the biosphere's air was exchanged with the outside during this time, according to systems analyst Donella Meadows, who received a communication from Ms. Alling in which she explained that she and Van Thillo judged it their ethical duty to give those inside the choice of continuing with the drastically changed human experiment or leaving, as they didn't know what the crew had been told of the new situation. “On April 1, 1994, at approximately 10 AM … limousines arrived on the biosphere site … with two investment bankers hired by Mr. Bass … They arrived with a temporary restraining order to take over direct control of the project … With them were 6-8 police officers hired by the Bass organization … They immediately changed locks on the offices … All communication systems were changed (telephone and access codes), and [we] were prevented from receiving any data regarding safety, operations, and research of Biosphere 2.” Alling emphasized several times in her letter that the “bankers” who suddenly took over “knew nothing technically or scientifically, and little about the biospherian crew.”[72]
Four days later, the captain Norberto Alvarez-Romo (by then married to Biosphere 2 chief executive Margaret Augustine) precipitously left the Biosphere for a "family emergency" after his wife's suspension.[71] He was replaced by Bernd Zabel, who had been nominated as captain of the first mission but who was replaced at the last minute. Two months later, Matt Smith replaced Matt Finn.[citation needed]
The ownership and management company Space Biospheres Ventures was officially dissolved on June 1, 1994. This left the scientific and business management of the mission to the interim turnaround team, who had been contracted by the financial partner, Decisions Investment Co.[59]
Mission 2 was ended prematurely on September 6, 1994. No further total system science has emerged from Biosphere 2 as the facility was changed by Columbia University from a closed ecological system to a "flow-through" system where CO2 could be manipulated at desired levels.[59]
Steve Bannon left Biosphere 2 after two years, but his departure was marked by a civil lawsuit filed against Space Biosphere Ventures by the former crew members who had broken in.[73] During a 1996 trial, Bannon testified that he had called one of the plaintiffs, Abigail Alling, a "self-centered, deluded young woman" and a "bimbo."[74] He also testified that when the woman submitted a five-page complaint outlining safety problems at the site, he promised to shove the complaint "down her fucking throat." Bannon attributed this to "hard feelings and broken dreams."[75] At the end of the trial, the jury found for the plaintiffs and ordered Space Biosphere Ventures to pay them $600,000, but also ordered the plaintiffs to pay the company $40,089 for the damage they had caused.[69] Some[who?] have observed that Bannon orchestrated the hostile take-over and destruction of Biosphere 2 as a revolutionary total system global ecology laboratory, not because of any interest in ecological science.[76]
Science[edit]
A special issue of the Ecological Engineering journal edited by Marino and Howard T. Odum (1999), published as "Biosphere 2: Research Past and Present" (Elsevier, 1999) represents the most comprehensive assemblage of collected papers and findings from Biosphere 2. The papers range from calibrated models that describe the system metabolism, hydrologic balance, and heat and humidity, to papers that describe rainforest, mangrove, ocean, and agronomic system development in this carbon dioxide-rich environment.[77][78] Though several dissertations and many scientific papers used data from the early closure experiments at Biosphere 2, much of the original data has never been analyzed and is unavailable or lost, perhaps due to scientific politics and in-fighting.[22][44]
Some of the controversy at Biosphere 2 stemmed from the long-standing division in science between analytic, reductionist science and integrative, holistic science.
Rebecca Reider expanded her history of science thesis at Harvard into a book on Biosphere 2. She noted that because Biosphere 2's creators were perceived as outsiders to academic science, the project was scrutinized but sometimes poorly understood in the media. She noted that Biosphere 2 broke a number of unspoken taboos: “’Science’ could be performed only by official scientists, only the right high priests could interpret nature for everyone else….’Science’ was separate from art (and the thinking mind was separate from the emotional heart)…’Science’ required some neat intellectual boundary between humans and nature; it did not necessarily involve humans learning to live with the world around them. Finally, ‘science’ must follow a specific method: think up a hypothesis, test it and get some numbers to prove you were right”. After Columbia University assumed management, the scrutiny ceased because it was assumed they were "proper" scientists.[79]
The dichotomy is a false one as there are many valid approaches to science. John Allen, the inventor of Biosphere 2, wrote: “Four basic ways uneasily co-exist in science to deal with understanding complex systems: [1] prolonged naturalist observation, description of observed regularities and classification of parts… [2] analyzing component parts of the object of study, formulating restricted hypotheses, and then, holding all else other than the chosen part as constant as possible, measure changes produced by measured impacts...[3] accept complexity as an irreducible element, and then to search for the organized structure that enables us to examine the entity as a whole, to ascertain its specific laws or regularities…[4] Put into an operating model a synthesis of these three approaches, together with test principles of engineering, to test the validity of the existent thinking’s predictive powers, and to provide a fecund base for new observations. This full interplay of observation, analysis and structuring to make a working apparatus in order to test and extend our knowledge of biospherics is the approach we used to create Biosphere 2. This interplay of all four scientific approaches is required to study Earth’s biosphere, the most complex entity yet encountered.”[80]
Praise and criticism[edit]
One view of Biosphere 2 was that it was "the most exciting scientific project to be undertaken in the U.S. since President John F. Kennedy launched us toward the moon".[81] Others called it "New Age drivel masquerading as science".[82] John Allen and Roy Walford did have mainstream credentials. John Allen held a degree in Metallurgical-Mining Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, and an MBA from the Harvard Business School.[24][83] Roy Walford received his doctorate of medicine from the University of Chicago and taught at UCLA as a Professor of Pathology for 35 years. Mark Nelson obtained his Ph.D. in 1998 under Professor H.T. Odum in ecological engineering further developing the constructed wetlands used to treat and recycle sewage in Biosphere 2,[84] to coral reef protection along the Yucatán coast where the corals were collected.[85] Linda Leigh obtained her PhD with a dissertation on biodiversity and the Biosphere 2 rainforest working with Odum.[86] Abigail Alling, Mark van Thillo and Sally Silverstone helped start the Biosphere Foundation where they worked on coral reef and marine conservation and sustainable agricultural systems.[87] Jane Poynter and Taber MacCallum co-founded Paragon Space Development Corporation which has studied the first mini-closed system and the first full animal life cycle in space and assisted in setting world records in high altitude descents.[88]
Questioning the credentials of the participants (despite the contribution in the preparation phase of Biosphere 2 of worldwide top-level scientists and among others the Russian Academy of Sciences), Marc Cooper wrote that "the group that built, conceived, and directs the Biosphere project is not a group of high-tech researchers on the cutting edge of science but a clique of recycled theater performers that evolved out of an authoritarian—and decidedly non-scientific—personality cult".[89] He was referring to the Synergia Ranch in New Mexico, where indeed many of the Biospherians did practice theater under John Allen's leadership, and began to develop the ideas behind Biosphere 2.[90] They also founded the Institute of Ecotechnics[91] and began innovative field projects in challenging biomes to advance the healthy integration of human technologies and the environment where many of the biospherian candidates gained experience in operating real-time complex projects.[92][93]
One of their own scientific consultants was earlier critical. Dr. Ghillean Prance, director of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew, designed the rainforest biome inside the Biosphere. Although he later changed his opinion, acknowledging the unique scope of this experiment and contributed to its success as a consultant, in a 1983 interview (8 years before the start of the experiment), Prance said, "I was attracted to the Institute of Ecotechnics because funds for research were being cut and the institute seemed to have a lot of money which it was willing to spend freely. Along with others, I was ill-used. Their interest in science is not genuine. They seem to have some sort of secret agenda, they seem to be guided by some sort of religious or philosophical system." Prance went on in the 1991 newspaper interview to say "they are visionaries.,.And maybe to fulfill their vision they have become somewhat cultlike. But they are not a cult, per se....I am interested in ecological restoration systems. And I think all sorts of scientific things can come of this experiment, far beyond the space goal... When they came to me with this new project, they seemed so well organized, so inspired, I simply decided to forget the past. You shouldn't hold their past against them." [94]
Poynter in her memoir rebuts the critique that because some of the creative team of Biosphere 2 weren't highly credentialed scientists, that that ad hominem argument invalidates the results of the endeavor. "“Some reporters hurled accusations that we were unscientific. Apparently because many of the SBV managers were not themselves degreed scientists, this called into question the entire validity of the project, even though some of the world’s best scientists were working vigorously on the project’s design and operation. The critique was not fair. Since leaving Biosphere 2, I have run a small business for ten years that sent experiments on the shuttle and to the space station, and is designing life support systems for the replacement shuttle and future moon base. I do not have a degree, not even an MBA from Harvard, as John [Allen] had. I hire scientists and top engineers. Our company’s credibility is not called into question because of my credentials: we are judged on the quality of our work”.[95] H.T. Odum noted that mavericks, outsiders have often contributed to the development of science: “The original management of Biosphere 2 was regarded by many scientists as untrained for lack of scientific degrees, even though they had engaged in a preparatory study program for a decade, interacting with the international community of scientists including the Russians involved with closed systems. The history of science has many examples where people of atypical background open science in new directions, in this case implementing mesocosm organization and ecological engineering with fresh hypotheses”.[96]
The Biosphere 2 Science Advisory Committee, chaired by Tom Lovejoy of the Smithsonian Institution, in its report of August 1992 reported: "The committee is in agreement that the conception and construction of Biosphere 2 were acts of vision and courage. The scale of Biosphere 2 is unique and Biosphere 2 is already providing unexpected scientific results not possible through other means (notably the documented, unexpected decline in atmospheric oxygen levels.) Biosphere 2 will make important scientific contributions in the fields of biogeochemical cycling, the ecology of closed ecological systems, and restoration ecology." Columbia University assembled outside scientists to evaluate the potential of the facility after they took over management, and concluded the following: "A group of world-class scientists got together and decided the Biosphere 2 facility is an exceptional laboratory for addressing critical questions relative to the future of Earth and its environment."[97]
Columbia University[edit]
In December 1995 the Biosphere 2 owners transferred management to Columbia University of New York City which embarked on a successful eight-year run at the Biosphere 2 campus.[98] Columbia ran Biosphere 2 as a research site and campus until 2003.[99] Subsequently, management reverted to the owners.
In 1996, Columbia University changed the virtually airtight, materially closed structure designed for closed system research, to a "flow-through" system, and halted closed system research. They manipulated carbon dioxide levels for global warming research, and injected desired amounts of carbon dioxide, venting as needed.[100] During Columbia's tenure, students from Columbia and other colleges and universities would often spend one semester at the site.[101]
Important research during Columbia's tenure demonstrated the devastating impacts on coral reefs from elevated atmospheric CO2 and acidification that will result from continued global climate change.[102] Frank Press, former president of the National Academy of Sciences, described these interactions between atmosphere and ocean, taking advantage of the highly controllable ocean mesocosm of Biosphere 2, as the “first unequivocal experimental confirmation of the human impact on the planet”.[103]
Studies in Biosphere 2’s terrestrial biomes showed that a saturation point was reached with elevated CO2 beyond which they are unable to uptake more. The studies' authors noted that the striking differences between the Biosphere 2 rainforest and desert biomes in their whole system responses “illustrates the importance of large-scale experimental research in the study of complex global change issues".[104]
Site sold[edit]
In January 2005, Decisions Investments Corporation, owner of Biosphere 2, announced that the project's 1,600-acre (650 ha) campus was for sale. They preferred a research use to be found for the complex but were not excluding buyers with different intentions, such as big universities, churches, resorts, and spas.[105] In June 2007 the site was sold for $50 million to CDO Ranching & Development, L.P. 1,500 houses and a resort hotel were planned, but the main structure was still to be available for research and educational use.[106]
Acquisition by University of Arizona[edit]
On June 26, 2007, the University of Arizona announced it would take over research at the Biosphere 2. The announcement ended fears that the structure would be demolished. University officials said private gifts and grants enabled them to cover research and operating costs for three years with the possibility of extending funding for ten years.[107] It was extended for ten years, and is now engaged in research projects including research into the terrestrial water cycle and how it relates to ecology, atmospheric science, soil geochemistry, and climate change. In June 2011, the university announced that it would assume full ownership of Biosphere 2, effective July 1.[108]
Biosphere 2, 2015
CDO Ranching & Development donated the land, Biosphere buildings and several other support and administrative buildings. The Philecology Foundation (a nonprofit research foundation founded by Ed Bass) pledged US$20 million for the ongoing science and operations.[108]
Current research[edit]
There are many small-scale research projects at Biosphere 2, as well as several large-scale research projects including:
the Landscape Evolution Observatory (LEO), a project which uses 1800 sensors to monitor millions of pounds of abiotic volcanic rock to track how this nonliving soil slowly develops over several years into a rich soil which is able to support microbial and vascular plant life.
the Lunar Greenhouse, a second prototype of the Controlled Environment Agriculture Center which seeks to understand how to grow vegetables on Mars by developing a bioregenerative life support system which recycles and purifies water through plant transpiration.
a vertical farming project to be built in Biosphere 2's west lung, in collaboration with the private company Civic Farms,[109] in an effort to develop an indoor plant growth cycle with LED lamps configured to specific wavelengths aimed at the goal of increasing water efficiency, producing zero farm runoff, with no pests or pesticides, and zero effect from external weather conditions.[110]
See also[edit]
Bio-Dome, a 1996 film parody of Biosphere 2
BIOS-3 a closed ecosystem at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, Russia
Eden Project
Institute of Ecotechnics
Mars analog habitats:
Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS)
Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS)
MARS-500, ground-based experiment simulating a manned flight to Mars
HI-SEAS
The Terranauts, a 2016 novel by author T.C. Boyle which is a fictionalized version of the Biosphere experiment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Biosphere 2 - Fast Facts
Jump up ^ Bahr, Jeff (2009) p.238
Jump up ^ "Biosphere II Project facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Biosphere II Project". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2017-02-09.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark; Burgess, T.; et al. "Using a closed ecological system to study Earth's biosphere: Initial results from Biosphere 2". BioScience. 43(4): 225–236 – via Elsevier Science Direct. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ UASCIENCE Fast Facts
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark (2018). Pushing the Limits: Insights from Biosphere 2. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona. ISBN 978-0-8165-3732-7.
Jump up ^ Marino, Bruno; et. al. "The agricultural biome of Biosphere 2:: Structure, composition and function" (PDF). Ecological Engineering. 13(1-4) (1999): 199–234 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Specials
Jump up ^ John Allen, FLS. "Buckminster Fuller's Synergetic Algorithm and Challenges of the Twenty-First Century".
Jump up ^ Paul Makovsky. "The Fuller Effect". Retrieved 21 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Dempster, William. "Methods for measurement and control of leakage in CELSS and their application and performance in the Biosphere 2 facility". Advances in Space Research. (1994) 14 (11): 331–335 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Dempster, William. "Tightly closed ecological systems reveal atmospheric subtleties–experience from Biosphere 2". Advances in Space Research. 42 (12) (2008): 1951–1956 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Zabel, Berndt. "Construction and engineering of a created environment: overview of the Biosphere 2 closed system 13.1 (1999): 43-63". Ecological Engineering. 13(1) (1999): 43–63. – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Dempster, William. "Biosphere 2 engineering design". Ecological Engineering. 13(1) (1999): 31–42 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Biospherics.org - 3. SEPTEMBER 26, 1991 TO APRIL 1, 1994 BIOSPHERE 2 ORGANIZATION
Jump up ^ Turner, Christopher (Spring 2011). "Ingestion / Planet in a Bottle". Cabinet Magazine. Retrieved 2011-10-20.
Jump up ^ Silverstone, S. and M. Nelson. 1996. "Food Production and Nutrition in Biosphere 2: Results from the First Mission September 1991 to September 1993." Adv. Space Res. Vol. 18, No. 4/5 pp. 49-61
Jump up ^ Harwood, Richard. ""There Is No Away" Biosphere 2 Newsletter". Biosphere 2 Newsletter. 3 (3) (1993).: 9.
Jump up ^ Walford, R., Mock D, Verdery R, MacCallum T. 2002. "Calorie Restriction in Biosphere 2 Alterations in Physiologic, Hematologic, Hormonal, and Biochemical Parameters in Humans Restricted for a 2-Year Period". The Journals of Gerontology, Series A, Volume 57, Issue 6, Pp. B211-B224.
Jump up ^ Walford, R.L., S.B. Harris, and M.W. Gunion. 1992. Calorically restricted low-fat nutrient-dense diet in Biosphere 2 significantly lowers blood glucose, total leukocyte count, cholesterol, and blood pressure in humans. Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences, USA, V. 89, n. 23: 11533-11537
Jump up ^ Christian Weyer, Roy L Walford, Inge T Harper, Mike Milner, Taber MacCallum, P Antonio Tataranni and Eric Ravussin, Energy metabolism after 2 y of energy restriction: the Biosphere 2 experiment, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 72, No. 4, 946-953, October 2000
^ Jump up to: a b Allen, John; et. al. "The legacy of Biosphere 2 for the study of biospherics and closed ecological systems". Advances in Space Research. (2003) 31(7): 1629–1640 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Allen, John; Nelson, Mark. "Biospherics and Biosphere 2, mission one (1991-1993)". Ecological Engineering. (1999) 13 (1): 15–29 – via Elsevier Science Director.
^ Jump up to: a b Allen, John. Biosphere 2 the human experiment.
Jump up ^ Nelson, M. and W. Dempster. 1996. "Living in Space: Results from Biosphere 2's Initial Closure, an Early Testbed for Closed Ecological Systems on Mars." American Astronautical Society: Science & Technology Series. Vol. 86, pp.363-390. AAS 95-488
Jump up ^ Finn, M. 1996. Comparison of mangrove forest structure and function in a mesocosm and Florida. Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, Washington D.C
Jump up ^ Finn, Matt; Adey, W. and Pat Kangas. "Mangrove ecosystem development in Biosphere 2". Ecological Engineering. 13(1) (1999): 173–178 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark; et. al. "he Water Cycle in Closed Ecological Systems: Perspectives from the Biosphere 2 and Laboratory Biosphere Systems". Advances in Space Research. (2009) 44(12): 1404–1412 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ college-level textbook Biology by Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Jump up ^ Wetterer, James; et. al. "Ecological dominance by Paratrechina longicornis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), an invasive tramp ant, in Biosphere 2" (PDF). Florida Entomologist. (1999): 381–388 – via www.antwiki.org.
Jump up ^ Leigh, Linda; et. al. "Tropical rainforest biome of Biosphere 2: Structure, composition and results of the first 2 years of operation" (PDF). Ecological Engineering. 13.1 (1999): 65–93 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Joel; Tilman, David. "Biosphere 2 and biodiversity: The lessons so far". Science. (1996 Nov 15) 274(5290): 1150–51.
Jump up ^ Science Notes 2000 - Only the Lonely
Jump up ^ Poynter, op. cit.
Jump up ^ YouTube - Biosphere 2 crewmember & author Jane Poynter interview
Jump up ^ Analog Studies for Long Duration Human Spaceflight. A Comprehensive Literature Review. Strasbourg, France.: (International Space University. 2009. pp. 11–29.
Jump up ^ Poynter, pp.267-8
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark; et. al. "Group dynamics challenges: Insights from Biosphere 2". Life Sciences in Space Research. (2015) 6: 79–86 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Alling, Abigail; et. al. "Human factor observations of the Biosphere2, 1991–1993, closed life support human experiment and its application to a long-term manned mission to Mars". Life Support and Biosphere Scence. 8: 71–78.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark; et. al. "2015. Group dynamics challenges: Insights from Biosphere 2". Life Sciences in Space Research. (2015) 6: 79–86.
Jump up ^ Reider, Rebecca (2009). Dreaming the Biosphere. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 9780826346742.
Jump up ^ Poynter, p. 270
Jump up ^ Poynter, p. 270, quoting Time Magazine.
^ Jump up to: a b Nelson, Mark. Pushing Our Limits: Insights from Biosphere 2. op. cit.
Jump up ^ "Calorie Restriction in Biosphere 2: Alterations in Physiologic, Hematologic, Hormonal, and Biochemical Parameters in Humans Restricted for a 2-Year Period -- Walford et al. 57 (6): 211 -- Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences". ...despite the selective restriction in calories and marked weight loss, all crew members remained in excellent health and sustained a high level of physical and mental activity throughout the entire 2 years.
Jump up ^ Poynter, pp.167-173
Jump up ^ Poynter, p. 247.
Jump up ^ Poynter, p.249
Jump up ^ Oliver, D. (1991). Psychological effects of isolation and confinement of a winter-over group at McMurdo station Antarctica. In: Harrison, A.A., Clearwater, Y.A., McKay, C.P. (Eds.), From Antarctica to Outer Space: Life in Isolation and Confinement. NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 217–227. ISBN 9780387973104.
Jump up ^ Bechtel, Robert; et. al. (1997). Environmental psychology and Biosphere2. In: Handbook of Japan–United States Environment-Behavior Research. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 235–244. ISBN 9780306453403.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark. Pushing our Limits. op. cit. p. 204.
Jump up ^ Biosphere 2
Jump up ^ Highfield, Roger (14 January 2004). "Big trouble in the bio bubble..." The Daily Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Alling, Abigail; Nelson, Mark (1993). Life Under Glass. Oracle AZ: the Biosphere Press. ISBN 1882428072.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark (2018). Pushing Our Limits: Insights from Biosphere 2. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816537327.
Jump up ^ Biosphere 2 Members 'aired out'
Jump up ^ Dempster, William (June 24, 2017). "Biosphere 2 was science not a stunt". Vice Motherboard. Retrieved January 5, 2018. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Odum, H.T. "Scales of ecological engineering". Ecological Engineering. (1996) 6: 7–19.
^ Jump up to: a b c "BIOSPHERE 2: The Experiment". Biospherics.org. Retrieved 2017-01-14.
Jump up ^ Walford, Roy. "Biospheric medicine" as viewed from the two-year first closure of Biosphere 2". Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. (1996) 67(7): 609–617.
Jump up ^ Nelson, M, W. F. Dempster, N. Alvarez-Romo, T. MacCallum. 1994, Atmospheric Dynamics and bioregenerative technologies in a soil-based ecological life support system: Initial results from Biosphere 2. Advances in Space Research14 (11):417-426)
Jump up ^ Broad, William J. (November 12, 1991). "Recycling Claim by Biosphere 2 Experiment Is Questioned". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark; et. al. "Atmospheric Dynamics and bioregenerative technologies in a soil-based ecological life support system: Initial results from Biosphere 2". Advances in Space Research. (1994) 14(11): 417–426 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Nelson and Dempster, 1996, op cit.
Jump up ^ Torbert, H.A.; Johnson, H.B. "Soil of the intensive agriculture biome of Biosphere 2". Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. (2001)., 56(1): 4–11.
Jump up ^ Severinghaus, J.P., W. Broecker, W. Dempster, T. MacCallum, and M. Wahlen. 1994. Oxygen Loss in Biosphere 2. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 75, no. 3, pp. 33, 35-37
Jump up ^ Marino, B.D.V., Mahato, T.R. et al., 1999, The agricultural biome of Biosphere 2: structure, composition and function, Ecological Engineering 13: 199-234
Jump up ^ The project was put into receivership and an outside management team was installed for the receiver to turn around the floundering project. The reason for the dispute was threefold. Mismanagement of mission had caused terrible publicity, financial mismanagement and lack of research. People alleged gross financial mismanagement of the project, leading to a loss of $25 million in fiscal 1992. Poynter, pp. 325–26
^ Jump up to: a b Murphy, Tim (August 26, 2016). "Trump's Campaign CEO Ran a Secretive Sci-Fi Project in the Arizona Desert". Mother Jones.
Jump up ^ "Two Former Biosphere Workers Are Accused of Sabotaging Dome". The New York Times. April 5, 1994. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b de Lama, George (April 16, 1994). "Biosphere 2 Proves A Hothouse For Trouble: Project Yields A Crop Of Rivalry, Confusion". Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ The Donella Meadows Archive: Biosphere 2 Teaches Us Another Lesson
Jump up ^ Stern, Eric (May 24, 1996). "Manager vowed revenge on Alling, her lawyer says". Tucson Citizen.
Jump up ^ "Abigail Kingsley Alling Resume". Retrieved January 6, 2108. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Cole, Samantha (November 15, 2016). "The Strange History of Steve Bannon and the Biosphere 2 Experiment". Vice: Motherboard.
Jump up ^ Mayer, Ralo. "How Steve Bannon Wrecked a World well before he went for this one". Retrieved January 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ For a complete list of Biosphere 2 scientific papers and publications see "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-12-25. Retrieved 2009-02-19. .
Jump up ^ For research projects and consultants during the first closure experiment: "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-01-10. Retrieved 2009-02-19.
Jump up ^ Reider, Rebecca. Dreaming the Biosphere. op. cit.
Jump up ^ Allen, John P. "Biospheric Theory and Report on Overall Biosphere 2, Design and Performance During Mission One (1991-1993)". Life Support and Biosphere Science. (1997) 4 (3/4): 95–108.
Jump up ^ Discover, May 1987.
Jump up ^ Ecology, 73(2), 1992, p.713
Jump up ^ Ibid.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark. "Bioregenerative recycle of wastewater in Biosphere 2 using a created wetland: two year results". Ecological Engineering. (1999) 13: 189–197 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark. 1998. Limestone Wetland Mesocosm for Recycling Saline Wastewater in Coastal Yucatan, Mexico. PhD dissertation, University of Florida. http://www.cep.ees.ufl.edu/emergy/documents/dissertations_theses/Nelson_1998_Dissertation.pdf
Jump up ^ Leigh, Leigh (1999). Basis for Rainforest Diversity and Biosphere 2. University of Florida Ph.D. Dissertation.
Jump up ^ "The Biosphere Foundation".
Jump up ^ "Paragon Space Development Corporation". Retrieved January 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Marc. "Take This Terrarium and Shove It", Village Voice, 1991.
Jump up ^ Poynter, pp. 17–20
Jump up ^ "The Institute of Ecotechnics". Retrieved 2 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Allen, John; et. al. "Institute of Ecotechnics". The Environmentalist. 4 (1985): 205–218.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Mark. Pushing our Limits: Insights from Biosphere 2. op. cit.
Jump up ^ Phoenix New Times, June 19, 1991.
Jump up ^ Poynter, Jane. The Human Experiment: Two Years and Twenty Minutes Inside Biosphere 2. op. cit.
Jump up ^ Odum, H.T. "Scales of Ecological Engineering". op. cit.
Jump up ^ Dr. Michael Crow, Vice-Provost of Columbia University, Press Release December 20, 1994.
Jump up ^ Broad, William J. (1996-11-19). "Paradise Lost: Biosphere Retooled as Atmospheric Nightmare". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Arenson, Karen W. (2003-09-09). "Columbia University Ends Its Association With Biosphere 2". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Marino, B.D.V., and Odum, H.T., Biosphere 2, Introduction and research progress, Ecological Engineering, 13, 314, 1999
Jump up ^ Crook, Kendra. "Columbia University Establishes 10 Earth Institute Scholarships". Columbia News. Columbia University. Retrieved 28 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Langdon, Chris; et. al. "Effect of calcium carbonate saturation state on the calcification rate of an experimental coral reef". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. (2000) 14(2): 639–654.
Jump up ^ Harris, W.C; Graumlich, Lisa. "Biosphere 2: sustainable research for a sustainable planet". Retrieved 10 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Lin, G. "Ecosystem carbon exchange in two terrestrial ecosystem mesocosms under changing atmospheric CO2 concentrations,". Oecologia. (1999) 119: 97–108.
Jump up ^ Trembath-Reichert, Elizabeth (2005-02-04). "Biosphere 2 Now for Sale to Highest Bidder". Columbia Daily Spectator. Retrieved 2016-03-13.
Jump up ^ "Biosphere 2 bubble sold to developers". MSNBC. 2007-06-05.
Jump up ^ Ryman, Anne (2007-06-26). "UA to take over Biosphere 2 research". The Arizona Republic.
^ Jump up to: a b "Biosphere 2 to Have a Permanent Home With the UA". Office of University Communications, The University of Arizona. 2011-06-27. Retrieved 2011-06-27.
Jump up ^ McKay, Betsy (2017-05-14). "A Farm Grows in the City". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2017-07-03.
Jump up ^ Washington, John (March 2017). "Scaling Earth". Edible Baja Arizona. p. 102.
Bibliography
Allen, John P. (2009). Me and the Biospheres: A Memoir by the Inventor of Biosphere 2. Synergetic Press. ISBN 978-0-90779-137-9.
Alling, Abigail; Nelson, Mark (1993). Life Under Glass: The Inside Story of Biosphere 2. Synergetic Press. ISBN 978-1-88242-807-6.
Bahr, Jeff (2009). Amazing and Unusual USA. Publications International, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4127-1683-3.
Marino, Bruno D. V.; Odum, Howard T. (1999). "Biosphere 2: Research Past and Present". Ecological Engineering Special Issue (2 ed.). Elsevier Science. 13 (1–4). ISBN 978-0-08-043208-3. ISSN 0925-8574.
Poynter, Jane (2006). The Human Experiment: Two Years and Twenty Minutes Inside Biosphere 2. Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 978-1-56025-775-2.
{{subst:saved_book}} Nelson, Mark Pushing Our Limits: Insights from Biosphere 2 University of Arizona Press Tucson AZ 2018
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Biosphere 2.
Official website
Biosphere 2: Our World – a film made during 1st Biosphere mission by Mark Van Thillo, one of the crew on YouTube
Website on biospherics and Biosphere 2
Biosphere 2: Story of the Original Design and Building told by Project CoFounders
"Biosphere 2: Why an Eccentric Ecological Experiment Still Matters 25 Years Later" -- a forum featuring Linda Leigh, Peder Anker, Dana Fritz, Lisa Ruth Rand, and Shawn Rosenheim
"Patent for "Pressure balancing a closed ecological system"". U.S. Patent & Trademark Office. Retrieved December 15, 2005. - Patent for the expanding chambers used to equalize pressure in Biosphere 2.
Me and the Biospheres website
Vice Motherboard story on Biosphere 2
Paragon Space Development Corporation, formed with a team of engineers by Biosphere 2 crew-members, while still enclosed.
Biosphere 2 bubble sold to develop
Biosphere 2 Astronomical Observatory Illustrated history of its founding, operations, closing under Columbia University rule, and disposition with image galleries of its construction in 1999 and removal in 2008.
Life in Biosphere 2 A talk by Jane Poynter at TED.
Dreaming the Biosphere by Rebecca Reider, ISBN 978-0-8263-4673-5
Sign Posts of Dr. Roy Walford, Voyage of Biosphere 2 by Roy Walford, Chris Rowland
"A West World of Outreach, Biosphere 2 a Zion for Science" by John de Dios, Tucson Weekly
New York Times video: Biosphere 2: An American Space Odyssey June 10th, 2013
Mark Nelson discusses life in Biosphere 2
The Wastewater Gardener by Mark Nelson
show
v
t
e
State of Arizona
Phoenix (capital)
Topics
Index
Delegations
Senators
Representatives
Geography
Government
Constitution
Governor
Legislature
History
World War II
Museums
Music
People
Transportation
Tourist attractions
Society
Culture
Crime
Demographics
Economy
Education
Politics
Regions
Arizona Strip
Arizona Sun Corridor
Coconino Plateau
Colorado Plateau
Grand Canyon
Kaibab Plateau
Mogollon Plateau
Mogollon Rim
Mojave Desert
Monument Valley
North Central Arizona
Northeast Arizona
Northern Arizona
Oak Creek Canyon
Phoenix Metropolitan Area
Safford area
San Francisco Volcanic Field
Sonoran Desert
Southern Arizona (Traditional Arizona)
Transition zone
Verde Valley
White Mountains
Counties
Apache
Cochise
Coconino
Gila
Graham
Greenlee
La Paz
Maricopa
Mohave
Navajo
Pima
Pinal
Santa Cruz
Yavapai
Yuma
Cities
Buckeye
Casa Grande
Chandler
Flagstaff
Gilbert
Glendale
Kingman
Lake Havasu City
Mesa
Peoria
Phoenix
Prescott
Scottsdale
Sierra Vista
Tempe
Tucson
Yuma
show
v
t
e
University of Arizona
Located in: Tucson, Arizona
Academics
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
College of Education
College of Engineering
College of Fine Arts
College of Humanities
College of Medicine
College of Nursing
College of Optical Sciences
College of Pharmacy
College of Science
College of Social and Behavioral Sciences
Eller College of Management
Graduate College
Honors College
James E. Rogers College of Law
Mel and Enid Zuckerman Arizona College of Public Health
Outreach College
UA South
Athletics
and traditions
Football
Arizona Stadium
Men's basketball
Women's basketball
McKale Center
Baseball
Hi Corbett Field
Jerry Kindall Field at Frank Sancet Stadium (former baseball venue)
Softball
Rita Hillenbrand Memorial Stadium
The Pride of Arizona
Rivalries
State Farm Territorial Cup Series
Territorial Cup
Kit Carson Rifle (defunct)
Bear Down
Fight! Wildcats! Fight!
Wilbur and Wilma Wildcat
"A" Mountain
ZonaZoo
Campus
Main Campus
University of Arizona South
University Medical Center
Libraries
Student Union Memorial Center
Krutch Cactus Garden
Arizona State Museum
Flandrau Science Center
Lunar and Planetary Laboratory
Steward Observatory
Kitt Peak National Observatory
Biosphere 2
University of Arizona Museum of Art
Center for Creative Photography
Centennial Hall
Student Recreation Center
University Boulevard (Tucson)
Boyce Thompson Arboretum State Park
Media
Arizona Daily Wildcat
KUAT-TV (PBS)
KUAT-FM
KAMP
KUAZ (NPR)
The Tombstone Epitaph
University of Arizona Press
People
Alumni & Faculty
Founded: 1885
Students: 43,625
Endowment: 660.7 million
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biosphere_2&oldid=854093509"
Categories:
Controlled ecological life support systems
Artificial ecosystems
Buildings and structures in Pinal County, Arizona
Santa Catalina Mountains
Human spaceflight analogs
Greenhouses in the United States
Ecological experiments
Agricultural buildings and structures in Arizona
Space farming
Tourist attractions in Pinal County, Arizona
University of Arizona
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al.
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from February 2018
CS1 errors: dates
Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata
Coordinates on Wikidata
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2013
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2018
Articles containing video clips
Pages with maps
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Български
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
한국어
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Magyar
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Slovenščina
Suomi
Svenska
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
19 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 August 2018, at 22:40 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: th

attrs: colspan class style

value: tr

value: img

values: Biosphere 2 Habitat & Lung 2009-05-10.jpg

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: colspan style

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/File:USA_Arizona_location_map.svg
image
Biosphere 2 is located in Arizona

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/File:Usa_edcp_location_map.svg
image
Biosphere 2 is located in the US

values: display: none; width:240px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto width:240px;padding:0

attrs: class role title tabindex aria-disabled rel

values:
oo-ui-buttonElement-button
button
Show in full screen
0
false
nofollow

values: oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-framed oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget

attrs: class mw-data data-style data-width data-height data-zoom data-lat data-lon data-overlays style href

values: mw-kartographer-map mw-kartographer-container center mw-kartographer-link

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values:
nofollow
external text
http://biosphere2.org

values:
/wiki/Passive_solar
mw-redirect
Passive solar

values:
/wiki/Electrical_power
mw-redirect
Electrical power

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Gallus_gallus
mw-redirect
Gallus gallus

values:
/wiki/Paratrechina_longicornis
mw-redirect
Paratrechina longicornis

values: Edit section: Group dynamics: psychology, conflict, and cooperation

values:
/wiki/Keystone_predator
mw-redirect
Keystone predator

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2015)

values:
/wiki/Lamont_Doherty_Earth_Observatory
mw-redirect
Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory

values:
/wiki/Bannon_%26_Co.
mw-redirect
Bannon & Co.

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2018)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values: Edit section: Acquisition by University of Arizona

values: Controlled Environment Agriculture Center

values:
/wiki/The_Terranauts_(novel)
mw-redirect
The Terranauts (novel)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://b2science.org/who/fact

values: Category:CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al.

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.b2science.org/who/fact

values:
nofollow
https://biospherefoundation.org/resume/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://biospheres.com/publications.html

values:
nofollow
https://biospherefoundation.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.paragonsdc.com/who-we-are/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://ecotechnics.edu/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19055888

values:
nofollow
external text
http://uanews.org/node/40358

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0925-8574

values:
nofollow
http://biosphere2.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.biospherics.org

values:
nofollow
http://edgeeffects.net/biosphere-2/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.meandthebiospheres.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.paragonsdc.com

values:
nofollow
http://www.company7.com/mccmo/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://dreamingthebiosphere.com

values:
nofollow
http://www.wastewatergardener.com/
external text

values: United States congressional delegations from Arizona

values: List of United States Senators from Arizona

values: List of United States Representatives from Arizona

values:
navbox-image
5
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Culture_of_Arizona
mw-redirect
Culture of Arizona

values:
/wiki/Economy_of_Arizona
mw-redirect
Economy of Arizona

values:
/wiki/Education_in_Arizona
mw-redirect
Education in Arizona

values:
/wiki/Politics_of_Arizona
mw-redirect
Politics of Arizona

values:
/wiki/Safford_micropolitan_area
mw-redirect
Safford micropolitan area

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: background-color:#AB0520;color:white;-moz-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #002147, inset -2px -2px 0 #002147; -webkit-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #002147, inset -2px -2px 0 #002147; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #002147, inset -2px -2px 0 #002147;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;

values: background-color:#AB0520;color:white;-moz-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #002147, inset -2px -2px 0 #002147; -webkit-box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #002147, inset -2px -2px 0 #002147; box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #002147, inset -2px -2px 0 #002147;;width:1%

values: University of Arizona College of Agriculture and Life Sciences (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Education (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Engineering (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Fine Arts (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Humanities (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Medicine

values: University of Arizona College of Nursing (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Optical Sciences

values: University of Arizona College of Pharmacy

values: University of Arizona College of Science (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona College of Social and Behavioral Sciences (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona Graduate College (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona Honors College (page does not exist)

values: Mel and Enid Zuckerman Arizona College of Public Health (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona Outreach College (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona South (page does not exist)

values: Jerry Kindall Field at Frank Sancet Stadium

values:
/wiki/State_Farm_Territorial_Cup_Series
mw-redirect
State Farm Territorial Cup Series

values:
/wiki/Territorial_Cup
mw-redirect
Territorial Cup

values:
/wiki/Kit_Carson_Rifle
mw-redirect
Kit Carson Rifle

values: University of Arizona Main Campus (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/University_of_Arizona_Library
mw-redirect
University of Arizona Library

values: University of Arizona Student Union Memorial Center (page does not exist)

values: Flandrau Science Center (page does not exist)

values: University of Arizona Student Recreation Center (page does not exist)

values: University Boulevard (Tucson) (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/National_Public_Radio
mw-redirect
National Public Radio

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Controlled ecological life support systems

values: Category:Buildings and structures in Pinal County, Arizona

values: Category:Greenhouses in the United States

values: Category:Agricultural buildings and structures in Arizona

values: Category:Tourist attractions in Pinal County, Arizona

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from February 2018

values: Category:Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2013

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2018

values: Category:Articles containing video clips

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Biosphere_2
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: بيوسفير 2 – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: زیست‌کره ۲ – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: 바이오스피어 2 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: ביוספירה 2 – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Биосфера-2 – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Biosphere_2 rootpage-Biosphere_2 skin-vector action-view


text:
7 Days to Die
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
7 Days to Die
Developer(s)
The Fun Pimps
Publisher(s)
The Fun Pimps
Telltale Publishing (consoles)
Engine
Unity
Platform(s)
Linux
Microsoft Windows
Mac OS X
PlayStation 4
Xbox One
Release
Microsoft Windows, OS X
December 13, 2013
Linux
November 22, 2014
PlayStation 4, Xbox One
NA: June 28, 2016
EU: July 1, 2016
AU: July 8, 2016
Genre(s)
Survival horror
Mode(s)
Single-player, multiplayer
7 Days to Die is a survival horror video game set in an open world developed by The Fun Pimps. It was released through Early Access on Steam for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X on December 13, 2013, and for Linux on November 22, 2014. Versions for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were released in 2016 through Telltale Publishing.
Contents
1 Story
2 Gameplay
2.1 Multiplayer
3 Development
3.1 Alpha
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Story[edit]
The game's events happen after a nuclear Third World War that destroyed an extremely large part of the world, except for some areas such as the fictional county of Navezgane, Arizona. The player is a survivor of the war who must survive by finding shelter, food and water, as well as scavenging supplies to fend off the numerous zombies (hinted to be the consequence of nuclear fallout) that populate Navezgane. Though there is no real objective except surviving at this moment, the developers hinted at a possible storyline that will be added in future updates.[citation needed]
Gameplay[edit]
In 7 Days to Die, the player spawns into a randomly-generated world or the present world of Navezgane, Arizona, with the objective of surviving for as long as possible against the elements and the zombie hordes. As a survival game, the player character is in constant need of water and food for sustenance, as well as being vulnerable to injury and illness. The game is voxel-based (similar in some respects to Minecraft), allowing for simple building, and destruction of objects in a physics-simulated environment (for example, building a structure with no support such as pillars and walls can lead to its collapse).[1][2] Objects in the world degrade through use, so the player has to search for or make new tools as the game progresses. The player can also gather and create materials—from nature and the remnants of human civilization—to construct these necessary items.[3][4]
While the game includes wildlife that can be hunted for food or will hunt the player, the main hazard is zombies, which are affected by the game's day/night cycle—during the day they are relatively slow-moving and easy targets that can only detect the player at relatively close ranges, but at night they become feral, which makes them move much faster and thus greatly increases their threat. As the in-game days progress, tougher and more aggressive variants begin to appear.[5] Stealth and distraction can be used to avoid unnecessary conflict, while carrying foods that have a smell (such as raw meat) will attract zombies. They are also drawn to areas of human (i.e. player) activity, and will relentlessly attack anything that impedes their movement until they are killed or the obstacle is destroyed—this includes player fortifications. Should they detect the player, zombies will apply the same single-minded pursuit until the player is either dead, or leaves the immediate area.
The game's title is a reference to an important event that occurs every seventh day of in-game time, whereby hordes of zombies attack the player's current location en masse—unless sufficient preparation has been made and defences constructed, the player will quickly be overwhelmed.
Multiplayer[edit]
Multiplayer is available through player-hosted servers and enables multiple players to interact and communicate with each other on a single world. Interactions can be cooperative or hostile depending on the used server options. Players can run their own servers or use a hosting provider. Single player worlds have local area network support, allowing players to join worlds on locally interconnected computers without a server setup. Players are also able to provide Wide Area Network support via single player worlds. 7 Days to Die servers can run on consoles, Windows and Linux.[6] There are two supported game modes for multiplayer: Survival (both randomly generated and standard) and Creative.
Development[edit]
The Windows alpha version of the game was released on August 16, 2013, for people who pre-ordered the game on either Kickstarter or PayPal. As of August 11, 2013, development of the game is ongoing with a Kickstarter campaign ending on August 15.[7] The estimated release date was May 2014 for Microsoft Windows; Macintosh and Linux versions were planned for later in the year.[8]
The game was also greenlit on Steam[9] after 23 days getting over 75,000 yes votes, 8,340 followers, and 8,700 favorites. It was number one on Steam Greenlight, after only 16 days with over 56,000 votes.[10] The Mac version was released on September 13, 2013 at the same time as update Alpha 1.1.[11]
Alpha[edit]
7 Days To Die was released to the public on Alpha 1.0. Only users who had backed the game via the Kickstarter Campaign or who bought it via PayPal had access to the Alpha until Alpha 5.0 which was released on Steam as an Early Access game on December 13, 2013.[12]
Since the Alpha release of 7 Days To Die there were multiple game changing updates that contained features such as a new snow biome, forging systems, new weapons, general graphical changes and smoother terrains which would be completed by Alpha 8.
Alpha 7.8 was released on April 4, 2014 and was promptly followed by Alpha 7.9 on April 8, 2014.[13] Alpha 7.10 was later added on April 19, 2014. Alpha 8 was released on May 7, 2014 which updated the visuals to zombie animations and smoothed the terrain for a final time.[14] Alpha Version 9 was released on August 19, 2014 and added random generated worlds, new injuries, new light effects, and new graphics.[citation needed] Alpha Version 10 was released on November 22, 2014 and added a new character creation system with face/body morphing and visible clothing, a new zombie horde world heat map system and a new wellness system.[15]
Alpha Version 11 was released on April 2, 2015, where the developers updated to Unity 5, which includes many graphical improvements, a new quality range system for guns, weapons, tools and armor and a new Zombie called "Feral".[16] Alpha 12 was released on July 3, 2015, and added a new vehicle system with a Mini Bike, first weather system, new sound and physic systems, among other fixes and additions.[17] Alpha 13 was released on December 10, 2015, adding temperature survival elements, a skill system, and a redesigned crafting system.[18] The difficulty of the game has increased, but it continues to be popular.[19]
Alpha 14 was released on March 26, 2016, with further improvements and more features, a lot of bug fixes, as well as some performance and graphic optimizations.[20] Alpha 15 was then released on October 5, 2016 with major improvements to random generated maps, a trader system, a new difficulty scaling and several more features. The UMA-Zombies that were introduced in this Alpha would be removed in Alpha 16.[21]
On June 6, 2017, Alpha 16 was released.[22] This release added electricity to the game for the first time and introduced various traps including electric fences and spinning blades.
In April 2016, the game was announced for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It was published by Telltale Publishing and released in June and July 2016.[23]
Reception[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2016)
Reception
Review scores
Publication
Score
PS4
Xbox One
Destructoid N/A 3/10[24]
GamesMaster 48%[25] N/A
GameSpot N/A 2/10[26]
IGN N/A 4.9/10[27]
OPM (UK) 5/10[28] N/A
The Digital Fix N/A 4/10[29]
Metro N/A 2/10[30]
Aggregate score
Metacritic 45/100[31] 35/100[32]
The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions of 7 Days to Die received "unfavorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.[31][32]
As of June 2018 the game scored a "very positive" review by over 46,000 reviews on Steam[33] and was one of the "Top 100 Selling games of 2017" on Steam, despite still being in alpha stage development.[34]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Vandell, Perry (May 29, 2013). "7 Days to Die adds crafting and voxels to your post-apocalyptic sandbox". PC Gamer. Future plc. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Matulef, Jeffery (August 16, 2016). "7 Days to Die combines a voxel-based sandbox with zombies". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Barnett, Ben (April 2, 2014). "Impressions: 7 Days To Die". Rock, Paper, Shotgun. Gamer Network. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Coldwell, Brendon (November 27, 2014). "Diary: Seven Days Of Dying In 7 Days To Die". Rock, Paper, Shotgun. Gamer Network. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Whitehead, Dan (January 28, 2016). "7 Days to Die alpha review". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Retrieved April 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nox (July 22, 2014). "7 Days to Die Server Setup". Game Server Setup.
Jump up ^ Matulef, Jeffrey (August 16, 2013). "7 Days to Die combines a voxel-based sandbox with zombies". Eurogamer.
Jump up ^ Schulenberg, Thomas (July 27, 2013). "7 Days to Die smells blood, rushes to Kickstarter". Engadget (Joystiq). Retrieved June 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Kubba, Sinan (August 9, 2013). "Steam gives Satellite Reign, 7 Days to Die and others the Greenlight". Engadget (Joystiq). Oath Inc. Retrieved June 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (August 2, 2013). "We're number one on Steam Greenlight!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (September 8, 2013). "Alpha1.1a Security Update is out!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ "Alpha 5". Envul.
Jump up ^ "Alpha 7.9". Envul.
Jump up ^ "Alpha 8 Patch Notes". Envul. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (November 22, 2014). "Alpha 10 Apocalypse Release Is Out!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (April 2, 2015). "Alpha 11 Annihilation Release Is Out!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (July 3, 2015). "Mini Bikes & Physics & Bears A12!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (December 10, 2015). "Alpha 13 Status And Release Notes!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ Jeffreys, Steve (December 5, 2015). "7 Days to Die Waiting for Alpha 13: The Struggle is Real". PowerLeveled. Nerd Interests LLC.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (March 26, 2016). "Alpha 14 Hits The Streets!". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (October 5, 2016). "Alpha 15 Release Notes". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ rhuenink (June 6, 2017). "Alpha 16 Is Out". 7 Days to Die.
Jump up ^ Matulef, Jeffrey (April 7, 2016). "Telltale to publish open-world survival game 7 Days to Die on consoles". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Retrieved April 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Devore, Jordan (July 11, 2016). "Review: 7 Days to Die (XOne)". Destructoid. Enthusiast Gaming. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ "7 Days to Die (PS4)". GamesMaster. Future plc. September 2016. p. 74.
Jump up ^ Gilroy, Joab (July 7, 2016). "7 Days to Die Review (XOne)". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Leif (July 13, 2016). "7 Days to Die Review (Xbox One)". IGN. Ziff Davis. Retrieved July 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "7 Days to Die". PlayStation Official Magazine – UK. Future plc. September 2016. p. 103.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Peter (July 19, 2016). "7 Days to Die Review (XOne)". The Digital Fix. Poisonous Monkey. Archived from the original on July 22, 2016. Retrieved June 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ "7 Days To Die review - undead on arrival (XOne)". Metro. DMG Media. July 5, 2016. Retrieved June 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "7 Days to Die for PlayStation 4 Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "7 Days to Die for Xbox One Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "7 Days to Die". Steam. Valve Corporation.
Jump up ^ Meer, Alec (January 2, 2018). "These are the top 100 Steam games of 2017". Rock, Paper, Shotgun. Retrieved June 29, 2018.
External links[edit]
Official website
7 Days to Die at MobyGames
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=7_Days_to_Die&oldid=865475374"
Categories:
2016 video games
Early access video games
Horror video games
Indie video games
Kickstarter-funded video games
Linux games
Open world video games
MacOS games
PlayStation 4 games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Steam Greenlight games
Survival video games
Unity (game engine) games
Windows games
Xbox One games
Zombie video games
Split-screen multiplayer games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Arizona
Hidden categories:
Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters
Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018
Articles to be expanded from September 2016
All articles to be expanded
Articles using small message boxes
Articles using Video game reviews template in multiple platform mode
Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
日本語
Polski
Português
Русский
Suomi
中文
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 October 2018, at 05:37 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: i

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href title

attrs: scope style

value: li

values:
/wiki/Telltale_Publishing
mw-redirect
Telltale Publishing

values: width:22em;float: right; width: 22em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left; border-spacing: 3px;

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Third_World_War
mw-redirect
Third World War

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2018)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Steam_Greenlight
mw-redirect
Steam Greenlight

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)

values: plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content

values: background:transparent;padding:0em;margin:0em 1em 1em 1em;text-align:center;float:right;clear:right

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
https://7daystodie.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.mobygames.com/game/7-days-to-die

values: Category:Video games developed in the United States

values: Category:Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters

values: Category:Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from September 2016

values: Category:Articles using small message boxes

values: Category:Articles using Video game reviews template in multiple platform mode

values: Category:Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/7_Days_to_Die
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: سفن دايز تو داي – Arabic

values: ۷ روز تا مرگ – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-7_Days_to_Die rootpage-7_Days_to_Die skin-vector action-view