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Upper Peninsula of Michigan
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"The UP" redirects here. For other uses, see Up (disambiguation).
Upper Peninsula
Michigan
The Lake of the Clouds in the Porcupine Mountains of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Nickname: The UP, The 906
Country
United States
State
Michigan
Highest point
- location Mount Arvon
- elevation 1,979 ft (603 m)
Area
16,377 sq mi (42,416 km2)
Population
311,361 (2010)
Density
19/sq mi (7/km2)
Area code
906
The Upper Peninsula is bordered by the Lower Peninsula, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Ontario
Upper Peninsula welcome sign
The Upper Peninsula (the UP), also known as Upper Michigan, is the northern of the two major peninsulas that make up the U.S. state of Michigan. The peninsula is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, on the east by the St. Marys River, on the southeast by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the southwest by Wisconsin.
The Upper Peninsula contains 29% of the land area of Michigan but just 3% of its total population. Residents are frequently called Yoopers (derived from "U.P.-ers") and have a strong regional identity. Large numbers of French Canadian, Finnish, Swedish, Cornish, and Italian immigrants came to the Upper Peninsula, especially the Keweenaw Peninsula, to work in the area's mines and lumber industry. The peninsula includes the only counties in the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry.[1]
Ordered by size, the peninsula's largest cities are Marquette, Sault Ste. Marie, Escanaba, Menominee, Houghton, and Iron Mountain. The land and climate are not very suitable for agriculture because of the long harsh winters. The economy has been based on logging, mining, and tourism. Most mines have closed since the "golden age" from 1890 to 1920. The land is heavily forested and logging remains a major industry.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
2.1 Wildlife
2.2 Climate
2.3 Time zones
3 Government
3.1 Politics
3.2 Proposed statehood
4 Demographics
5 Economy
5.1 Industries
5.2 Notable attractions
5.3 Casinos
6 Transportation
6.1 Highways
6.1.1 Interstate Highways
6.1.2 U.S. Highways
6.1.3 State Trunkline Highways
6.1.4 Special road designations
6.2 Airports
6.3 Ferries and bridges
6.4 Railways
6.5 Bus systems
7 Education
8 Culture
8.1 Regional identity
8.2 Cuisine
9 Notable people
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
History[edit]
Main articles: Timeline of Michigan history and History of Michigan
The Upper Falls of the Tahquamenon River, near the northern shore of the peninsula.
The first known inhabitants of the Upper Peninsula were tribes speaking Algonquian languages. They arrived roughly around A.D. 800 and subsisted chiefly from fishing. Early tribes included the Menominee, Nocquet, and the Mishinimaki. Étienne Brûlé of France was probably the first European to visit the peninsula, crossing the St. Marys River around 1620 in search of a route to the Far East.[2] French colonists laid claim to the land in the 17th century, establishing missions and fur trading posts such as Sault Ste. Marie and St. Ignace. Following the end of the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War) in 1763, the territory was ceded to Great Britain. Sault Ste Marie, Michigan is the oldest European settlement in Michigan and the site of Native American settlements for centuries.
American Indian tribes formerly allied with the French were dissatisfied with the British occupation, which brought new territorial policies. Whereas the French cultivated alliances among the Indians, the British postwar approach was to treat the tribes as conquered peoples. In 1763, tribes united in Pontiac's Rebellion to try to drive the British from the area. American Indians captured Fort Michilimackinac, near present-day Mackinaw City, Michigan, then the principal fort of the British in the Michilimackinac region, as well as others and killed hundreds of British. In 1764, they began negotiations with the British which resulted in temporary peace and changes in objectionable British policies.
Although the Upper Peninsula nominally became United States territory with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British did not give up control until 1797 under terms of the Jay Treaty. As an American territory, the Upper Peninsula was still dominated by the fur trade. John Jacob Astor founded the American Fur Company on Mackinac Island in 1808; however, the industry began to decline in the 1830s as beaver and other game were overhunted.[3]
When the Michigan Territory was first established in 1805, it included only the Lower Peninsula and the eastern portion of the Upper Peninsula. In 1819, the territory was expanded to include the remainder of the Upper Peninsula, all of Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota (previously included in the Indiana and Illinois Territories). When Michigan was preparing for statehood in the 1830s, the boundaries proposed corresponded to the original territorial boundaries, with some proposals even leaving the Upper Peninsula out entirely. Meanwhile, the territory was involved in a border dispute with the state of Ohio in a conflict known as the Toledo War.
The people of Michigan approved a constitution in May 1835 and elected state officials in late autumn 1835. Although the state government was not yet recognized by the United States Congress, the territorial government effectively ceased to exist. A constitutional convention of the state legislature refused a compromise to accept the full Upper Peninsula in exchange for ceding the Toledo Strip to Ohio. A second convention, hastily convened by Governor Stevens Thomson Mason, consisting primarily of Mason supporters, agreed in December 1836 to accept the U.P. in exchange for the Toledo Strip.
In January 1837, the U.S. Congress admitted Michigan as a state of the Union. At the time, Michigan was considered the losing party in the compromise. The land in the Upper Peninsula was described in a federal report as a "sterile region on the shores of Lake Superior destined by soil and climate to remain forever a wilderness."[2]
Smelter at Quincy Hill, Hancock, Michigan circa 1906
This belief changed when rich mineral deposits (primarily copper and iron) were discovered in the 1840s. The Upper Peninsula's mines produced more mineral wealth than the California Gold Rush, especially after shipping was improved by the opening of the Soo Locks in 1855 and docks in Marquette in 1859. The Upper Peninsula supplied 90% of America's copper by the 1860s. It was the largest supplier of iron ore by the 1890s, and production continued to a peak in the 1920s, but sharply declined shortly afterward. The last copper mine closed in 1995, although the majority of mines had closed decades before. Some iron mining continues near Marquette.[2] The Eagle Mine, a nickel-copper mine, opened in 2014.[4]
Thousands of Americans and immigrants moved to the area during the mining boom, prompting the federal government to create Fort Wilkins near Copper Harbor to maintain order. The first wave were the Cornish from England, with centuries of mining experience; followed by Irish, Germans, and French Canadians. During the 1890s, Finnish immigrants began settling there in large numbers, forming the population plurality in the northwestern half of the peninsula. In the early 20th century, 75% of the population was foreign-born.[3]
From 1861 to 1865, 90,000 Michigan men fought in the American Civil War, including 1,209 from the Upper Peninsula. Houghton County contributed 460 soldiers, while Marquette County, Michigan sent 265.[5]
Geography[edit]
Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore
Lake Superior
The Upper Peninsula contains 16,377 square miles (42,420 km2),[6] about 29 percent of the land area of the state (exclusive of territorial waters, which constitute about 40% of Michigan's total jurisdictional area). The maximum east–west distance in the Upper Peninsula is about 320 miles (510 km), and the maximum north–south distance is about 125 miles (201 km). It is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, on the east by St. Mary's River, on the south by Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and on the west by Wisconsin and (counting the water border on Lake Superior) by Minnesota. It has about 1,700 miles (2,700 km) of continuous shoreline with the Great Lakes. There are about 4,300 inland lakes, the largest of which is Lake Gogebic, and 12,000 miles (19,000 km) of streams.[7]
The peninsula is divided between the flat, swampy areas in the east, part of the Great Lakes Plain, and the steeper, more rugged western half, called the Superior Upland, part of the Canadian Shield.[8] The rock in the western portion is the result of volcanic eruptions and is estimated to be at least 3.5 billion years old (much older than the eastern portion) and contains the region's ore resources. Banded-iron formations were deposited 2 billion years ago; this is the Marquette Range Supergroup. A considerable amount of bedrock is visible. Mount Arvon, the highest point in Michigan, is found in the region, as well as the Porcupine and Huron mountains. All of the higher areas are the remnants of ancient peaks, worn down over millions of years by erosion and glaciers.[9]
The Keweenaw Peninsula is the northernmost part of the peninsula. It projects into Lake Superior and was the site of the first copper boom in the United States, part of a larger region of the peninsula called the Copper Country.[10] Copper Island is its northernmost section.
About one third of the peninsula is government-owned recreational forest land today, including the Ottawa National Forest and Hiawatha National Forest. Although heavily logged in the 19th century, the majority of the land was forested with mature trees by the 1970s.[2]
Further information: Protected areas of Michigan
Wildlife[edit]
The Upper Peninsula contains a large variety of wildlife. Some of the mammals found in the U.P. include shrews, moles, mice, white-tailed deer, moose, black bears, cougar, gray and red foxes, wolves, river otters, martens, fishers, muskrats, bobcats, coyotes, snowshoe hares, cotton-tail rabbits, porcupines, chipmunks, squirrels, raccoons, opossum and bats. There is a large variety of birds, including hawks, osprey, owls, gulls, hummingbirds, chickadees, robins, woodpeckers, warblers, and bald eagles. In terms of reptiles and amphibians, the U.P. has common garter snakes, red bellied snakes, pine snakes, northern water snakes, brown snakes, eastern garter snakes, eastern fox snakes, eastern ribbon back snakes, green snakes, northern ringneck snakes, Eastern Milk Snakes (Mackinac and Marquette counties) and Eastern Hognose snakes (Menominee County only), plus snapping turtles, wood turtles, and painted turtles (the state reptile), green frogs, bullfrogs, northern leopard frogs, and salamanders. Lakes and rivers contain many fish such as walleye, muskie, northern pike, trout, salmon, bullhead catfish, and bass. Invasive species like the alewife and sea lamprey can be found in the Great Lakes. The U.P. also contains many shellfish, such as clams, aquatic snails, and crayfish. The American Bird Conservancy and the National Audubon Society have designated several locations as internationally Important Bird Areas.[citation needed]
Golden Eagle in the Keweenaw Peninsula
There is significant controversy over the presence of Eastern Cougars in the U.P.[11] Historically, the last of the species, or subspecies, was extirpated near Newberry in 1906, although there have been sightings of the creatures over the years since.[12][13] These reports increased in number over the first decade of the 21st century. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DNRE)[a] formed a four-person team to investigate sightings in the state. The biologists with the DNRE currently do not believe that there is a breeding population anywhere in the state, rather that the sighted animals are visitors to the state.[15] As late as January 2007, the DNRE's official position was that no cougars lived in Michigan.[16] Several residents in the state disagree with both current and previous positions on the part of the DNRE.[16][17] Researchers at Central Michigan University and the Michigan Wildlife Conservancy in 2006 published the findings of a study using DNA analysis of fecal samples taken in the Upper and Lower peninsulas that showed the presence of cougars at the time.[18] These results were disputed in a second journal article in 2007 by other researchers from Eastern Michigan University and the U.S. Forest Service.[19] A citizen's group, the Michigan Citizens for Cougar Recognition (MCCR), independently tracked sightings and in 2009 listed Delta County as the location with the greatest number of reports in the state.[20] The DNRE verified five sets of tracks and two trail camera photos in Delta, Chippewa, Marquette, and Menominee counties since 2008.[21] DNRE officials acknowledge that there are cougars in the UP, but not elsewhere in the state. Critics of the DNRE's position on the species, including the founder of the MCCR, say that the department is attempting to "avoid paying for a cougar management program".[17]
There are also many invasive species that are primarily brought in the ballast water of foreign ships, usually from the ocean bordering Northeastern Asia. This water is dumped directly into the Great Lakes, depositing a variety of fresh and salt water fish and invertebrates, most notably the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha. There are also many plant species that have been transported to the Great Lakes, including Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria[22] and Phragmites australis, both of which are considered to be a threat to native hydrophyte wetland plants.[23][24]
The Emerald ash borer was first reported in the U.P. at Brimley State Park,[25] and is considered to be a serious ecological threat to the habitat and economy.
Climate[edit]
A cabin in the U.P. after a snowfall
The Upper Peninsula has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification system). The Great Lakes have a great effect on the larger part of the peninsula. Winters tend to be long, cold, and snowy for most of the peninsula, and because of its northern latitude, the daylight hours are short—around 8 hours between sunrise and sunset in the winter. Lake Superior has the greatest effect on the area, especially the northern and western parts. Lake-effect snow causes many areas to get in excess of 100–250 inches (250–640 cm) of snow per year—especially in the Keweenaw Peninsula and Gogebic County, and to a lesser extent Baraga, Marquette and Alger counties, making the western U.P. a prominent part of the midwestern snow belt.
Records of 390 inches (990 cm) of snow or more have been set in many communities in this area.[26] The Keweenaw Peninsula averages more snowfall than any other location east of the Mississippi River.[27] Because of the howling storms across Lake Superior, which cause dramatic amounts of precipitation, it has been said that the lake-effect snow makes the Keweenaw Peninsula the snowiest place east of the Rockies. Herman averages 236 inches (600 cm) of snow every year.[28] Lake-effect snow can cause blinding whiteouts in just minutes, and some storms can last for days. Hancock is found frequently on lists of the snowiest cities in America.[29]
The banana belt along the Wisconsin border has a more continental climate since most of its weather does not arrive from the lakes. Summers tend to be warmer and winter nights much colder. Coastal communities have temperatures tempered by the Great Lakes. In summer, it might be 10 °F (5.6 °C) cooler at lakeside than it is inland, and the opposite effect is seen in winter. The area of the Upper Peninsula north of Green Bay though Menominee and Escanaba (and extending west to Iron River) does not have the extreme weather and precipitation found to the north.[2] The coldest temperature officially recorded in the Upper Peninsula was −48 °F (−44 °C) in Humboldt in January 1915.[30]
Time zones[edit]
Like the entire Lower Peninsula of Michigan, most of the Upper Peninsula observes Eastern Time. However, the four counties bordering Wisconsin are in the Central Time zone.
In 1967, when the Uniform Time Act came into effect, the Upper Peninsula went under year-round CST, with no daylight saving time.[31] In 1973, the majority of the peninsula switched to Eastern Time;[32] only the four western border counties of Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee continue to observe Central Time. Daylight savings time is observed peninsula-wide.
Government[edit]
There are 15 counties in the Upper Peninsula (see map). Note that the counties extend into the Great Lakes with precise, well defined boundaries.[citation needed]
State prisons are located in Baraga, Marquette, Munising, Newberry, Marenisco and Kincheloe.
Politics[edit]
Historically, the Upper Peninsula has tended to vote for the United States' Democratic Party due to its legacy of mining and historically high union membership. However, as Democrats have shifted toward social liberalism and as union strength in the peninsula has declined, the region has become steadily less receptive to the Democratic party, and has alternately swung toward either party in recent years. Split-ticket voting has become a common practice in the peninsula. In 2012, for example, Democratic U.S. Senator Debbie Stabenow carried every county in the peninsula in her 2012 reelection campaigns, but Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney carried all but two counties in the 2012 presidential election. Donald Trump swept all counties across the Upper Peninsula except Marquette County.
2012 presidential election[33][34]
County
Registered voters
Votes cast
Romney/Ryan
Obama/Biden
Result
Alger
4,671 4,618 2,330 2,212 REP
Baraga
3,540 3,490 1,866 1,574 REP
Chippewa
15,790 15,564 8,278 7,100 REP
Delta
18,968 18,050 9,534 8,330 REP
Dickinson
12,950 12,810 7,688 4,952 REP
Gogebic
7,689 7,576 3,444 4,058 DEM
Houghton
15,477 15,282 8,196 6,801 REP
Iron
6,065 5,988 3,224 2,687 REP
Keweenaw
1,411 1,392 774 582 REP
Luce
3,401 2,596 1,580 991 REP
Mackinac
6,170 6,099 3,397 2,652 REP
Marquette
32,551 32,194 13,606 18,115 DEM
Menominee
11,043 10,923 5,564 5,242 REP
Ontonagon
3,599 3,539 1,906 1,586 REP
Schoolcraft
4,104 4,048 2,142 1,865 REP
Total
147,429 144,168 73,529 70,639 REP
All counties in the U.P. are part of Michigan's 1st congressional district. Jack Bergman, a Republican, has been the U.S. Representative for this district since January 2017.
Upper Peninsula vote
by party in presidential elections [35]
Year
REP
DEM
Others
2016[36] 56.40% 82,018 37.77% 54,923 5.83% 8,476
2012[37] 50.80% 73,529 47.49% 68,747 1.71% 2,477
2008[38] 46.12% 69,647 51.82% 78,257 2.06% 3,108
2004[39] 51.52% 78,276 47.31% 71,888 1.17% 1,781
2000[40] 50.61% 70,256 45.95% 63,791 3.43% 4,768
In Michigan's 2010 gubernatorial election Republican Rick Snyder carried every U.P. county but one, Gogebic, on his way to victory over his Democratic opponent, Virg Bernero.[41]
Proposed statehood[edit]
Main article: Superior (proposed U.S. state)
Due to the geographic separation and perceived cultural and political differences from the Lower Peninsula, at various times there have been proposals for the Upper Peninsula to secede from Michigan as a 51st state named Superior, sometimes including portions of northern Wisconsin and/or the northern Lower Peninsula. Several prominent legislators, including the region's long-serving state representative Dominic Jacobetti, attempted unsuccessfully to gain passage of such a bill in the 1970s.[42] It would be the least populous state in the union, and as stronger connections to the rest of Michigan have developed since completion of the Mackinac Bridge in the 1950s, the proposal's future is vague.[43]
Demographics[edit]
The Upper Peninsula remains a predominantly rural region. As of the 2010 census, the region had a population of 311,361—scarcely more than 3% of Michigan's total population.[44]
According to the 2010 census, 103,211 people live in the 12 towns of at least 4,000 people, covering 96.5 square miles (250 km2). A total of 116,548 people live in the 18 towns and villages of at least 2,000 people, which cover 108.5 square miles (281 km2)—less than 1% of the peninsula's land area.
Cities and villages of the Upper Peninsula[44]
City
Population
Area
(sq mi)
Area
(km²)
Marquette
21,355 11.4 30
Sault Ste. Marie
14,144 14.8 38
Escanaba
12,616 12.7 33
Menominee
8,599 5.2 13
Houghton
7,708 4.3 11
Iron Mountain
7,624 7.2 19
Ishpeming
6,470 8.7 23
Ironwood
5,387 6.6 17
Kingsford
5,133 4.3 11
Gladstone
4,973 5.0 13
Hancock
4,634 2.5 6.5
Negaunee
4,568 13.8 36
Manistique
3,097 3.2 8.3
Iron River
3,029 3.5 9.1
Norway
2,845 8.8 23
St. Ignace
2,452 2.7 7.0
Munising
2,355 5.4 14
Baraga
2,053 2.2 5.7
L'Anse
2,011 2.6 6.7
Total
118,601 96.5 250
Upper Peninsula land area and population density by county[6]
County
Population
Land area (sq mi)
Land area (km²)
Population density
(per sq mi)
Population density
(per km²)
Alger
9,601 915 2,370 10.5 4.1
Baraga
8,860 898 2,330 9.8 3.8
Chippewa
38,520 1,558 4,040 24.7 9.5
Delta
37,069 1,171 3,030 31.6 12.2
Dickinson
26,168 761 1,970 34.4 13.3
Gogebic
16,427 1,101 2,850 14.9 5.8
Houghton
36,628 1,009 2,610 36.3 14.0
Iron
11,817 1,166 3,020 10.1 3.9
Keweenaw
2,156 540 1,400 4.0 1.5
Luce
6,631 899 2,330 7.3 2.8
Mackinac
11,113 1,021 2,640 10.8 4.2
Marquette
67,077 1,808 4,680 37.1 14.3
Menominee
24,029 1,044 2,700 23.0 8.9
Ontonagon
6,780 1,311 3,400 5.1 2.0
Schoolcraft
8,485 1,171 3,030 7.2 2.8
Total
311,361 16,377 42,420 19.0 7.3
Ruins found in the western Upper Peninsula
The Upper Peninsula has experienced population decline, although this has not been the case for every county. In some areas of the Upper Peninsula the population has declined more than in others, with the six westernmost counties having witnessed the largest decrease, from a 1920 population of 153,674 to a 2010 population of 82,668. Some ghost towns exist in the region.[45]
The population of the Upper Peninsula grew throughout the 19th century and then leveled off and experienced decline during the 20th century.[46][47] A " " indicates an increase in population from the previous census, and a " " indicates a decrease in population from the previous census.
Population by census year of the Upper Peninsula by county
County
1830
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Alger
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 01238 !1,238 05868 !5,868 07675 !7,675 09983 !9,983 09327 !9,327 10167 !10,167 10007 !10,007 09250 !9,250 08568 !8,568 09225 !9,225 08972 !8,972 09862 !9,862 09601 !9,601
Baraga
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 01804 !1,804 03036 !3,036 04320 !4,320 06125 !6,125 07662 !7,662 09168 !9,168 09356 !9,356 08037 !8,037 07151 !7,151 07789 !7,789 08494 !8,484 07954 !7,954 08735 !8,735 08864 !8,860
Chippewa
00626 !626 00534 !534 00898 !898 01603 !1,603 01689 !1,689 05248 !5,248 12018 !12,018 21338 !21,338 24472 !24,472 24818 !24,818 25047 !25,047 27807 !27,807 29206 !29,206 32655 !32,655 32412 !32,412 29029 !29,029 34604 !34,604 38413 !38,543 38520 !38,520
Delta
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 01172 !1,172 02542 !2,542 06812 !6,812 15330 !15,330 23881 !23,881 30108 !30,108 30909 !30,909 32280 !32,280 34037 !34,037 32913 !32,913 34298 !34,298 35924 !35,924 38947 !38,947 37780 !37,780 38510 !38,520 37069 !37,069
Dickinson
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 17890 !17,890 20524 !20,524 19456 !19,456 29941 !29,941 28731 !28,731 24844 !24,844 23917 !23,917 23753 !23,753 25341 !25,341 26831 !26,831 27427 !27,427 26168 !26,168
Gogebic
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 13166 !13,166 16738 !16,738 23333 !23,333 33225 !33,225 31577 !31,577 31797 !31,797 27053 !27,053 24730 !24,370 20676 !20,676 19686 !19,686 18052 !18,052 17370 !17,370 16427 !16,427
Houghton
00000 !— 00000 !— 00708 !708 09234 !9,234 13879 !13,879 22473 !22,473 35389 !35,389 66063 !66,063 88098 !88,098 71930 !71,930 52851 !52,851 47631 !47,631 39771 !39,771 34654 !34,654 34652 !34,652 37872 !37,872 35446 !35,446 36016 !36,016 36268 !36,628
Iron
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 04432 !4,432 08990 !8,990 15164 !15,164 22107 !22,107 20805 !20,805 20243 !20,243 17692 !17,692 17184 !17,184 13813 !13,813 13635 !13,635 13175 !13,175 13138 !13,138 11817 !11,817
Keweenaw
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 04205 !4,205 04270 !4,270 02894 !2,894 03217 !3,217 07156 !7,156 06322 !6,322 05076 !5,076 04004 !4,004 02918 !2,918 02417 !2,417 02264 !2,264 01963 !1,963 01701 !1,701 02301 !2,301 02156 !2,156
Luce
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 02455 !2,455 02983 !2,983 04004 !4,004 06149 !6,149 06528 !6,528 07423 !7,423 08147 !8,147 07827 !7,827 06789 !6,789 06659 !6,659 05763 !5,763 07024 !7,024 06631 !6,631
Mackinac
00877 !877 00923 !923 03598 !3,598 01938 !1,938 01716 !1,716 02902 !2,902 07830 !7,830 07703 !7,703 09249 !9,249 08026 !8,026 08783 !8,783 09438 !9,438 09287 !9,287 10853 !10,853 09660 !9,660 10178 !10,178 10674 !10,674 11943 !11,943 11113 !11,113
Marquette
00000 !— 00000 !— 00136 !136 02821 !2,821 15033 !15,033 25394 !25,394 39521 !39,521 41239 !41,239 46739 !46,739 45786 !45,786 44076 !44,076 47144 !47,144 47654 !47,654 56154 !56,154 64686 !64,686 74101 !74,101 70887 !70,887 64634 !64,634 67077 !67,077
Menominee
00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 00000 !— 01791 !1,791 11987 !11,987 33639 !33,639 27046 !27,046 25648 !25,648 23778 !23,778 23652 !23,652 24883 !24,883 25299 !25,299 24685 !24,685 24587 !24,587 26201 !26,201 24920 !24,920 25109 !25,109 24029 !24,029
Ontonagon
00000 !— 00000 !— 00389 !389 04568 !4,568 02845 !2,845 02565 !2,565 03756 !3,756 06197 !6,197 08650 !8,650 12428 !12,428 11114 !11,114 11359 !11,359 10282 !10,282 10584 !10,584 10548 !10,548 09861 !9,861 08854 !8,854 07818 !7,818 06780 !6,780
Schoolcraft
00000 !— 00000 !— 00016 !16 00078 !78 00000 !— 01575 !1,575 05818 !5,818 07889 !7,889 08681 !8,681 09977 !9,977 08451 !8,451 09524 !9,524 09148 !9,148 08953 !8,953 08226 !8,226 08575 !8,575 08302 !8,302 08903 !8,903 08485 !8,485
Total
1,503 1,457 5,745 21,414 43,700 85,030 180,522 261,362 325,626 332,556 318,676 323,544 302,258 304,952 304,347 319,757 313,915 317,213 311,361
Economy[edit]
Industries[edit]
The Quincy Mine near Hancock mined copper until 1945
The Upper Peninsula is rich in mineral deposits including iron, copper, nickel and silver. Small amounts of gold have also been discovered and mined. In the 19th century, mining dominated the economy, and the U.P. became home to many isolated company towns. For many years, mines in the Keweenaw Peninsula were the world's largest producers of copper (see Copper mining in Michigan). The mines began declining as early as 1913, with most closing temporarily during the Great Depression. Mines reopened during World War II, but almost all quickly closed after the war ended. The last copper mine in the Copper Country was the White Pine mine, which closed in 1995.
From approximately 1870 to 1915, about thirty-two quarries mined Jacobsville Sandstone in the Upper Peninsula, particularly near Marquette and the town of Jacobsville. The sandstone was used in many buildings, both locally and around the United States.[48]
Ever since logging of white pine began in the 1880s, timber has been an important industry.[49] However, the stands of hemlock and hardwood went under-exploited until the mid-twentieth century as selection cutting was practiced in the western reaches of the forest. Because of the highly seasonal climate and the short growing season, agriculture is limited in the Upper Peninsula, though potatoes, strawberries and a few other small fruits are grown.
Tourism has become the main industry in recent decades. In 2005, ShermanTravel, LLC listed the Upper Peninsula as No. 10 in its assessment of all travel destinations worldwide.[50] The article was republished in April 2006 by MSN.com.[51] The peninsula has extensive coastline on the Great Lakes, large tracts of state and national forests, cedar swamps, more than 150 waterfalls, and low population densities. Because of the camping, boating, fishing, snowmobiling, hunting, and hiking opportunities, many Lower Peninsula and Wisconsin families spend their vacations in the U.P. Tourists also go there from Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and other metropolitan areas. The opening of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957 (see below) has made the Upper Peninsula easily accessible to tourists and has helped make the UP a year-round tourist destination.
Notable attractions[edit]
Au Train Falls
Bond Falls
Calumet Theatre
Calumet Downtown Historic District
Castle Rock
Copper Harbor
Copper Peak, Ironwood Township
DeYoung Family Zoo
Fayette Historic State Park
Fort Mackinac
Garlyn Zoo
Grand Hotel (Mackinac Island)
Grand Island National Recreation Area
The Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum
Iron County Historical Museum Complex – Caspian
Iron Industry Museum – Negaunee
Iron Mountain Iron Mine – Vulcan
Isle Royale National Park
The Keystone Bridge- Ramsay, Michigan
Keweenaw National Historical Park
Keweenaw Waterway and Portage Lake Lift Bridge
Kitch-iti-kipi
Lake Superior
Lake Superior State University, Lakers
Laughing Whitefish Falls
Mackinac Bridge
Mackinac Island
Marquette Arts and Culture Center – Marquette
The Marquette Lighthouse
Marquette Mountain Ski Resort
Michigan Technological University, Huskies
Mount Bohemia ski center (with the highest vertical drop, 900 feet (270 m), in the Midwest)
Munising Falls
National Ski Hall of Fame
Northern Michigan University, Wildcats
Marquette Ore Dock
Paulding Light
Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore
Pine Mountain ski jump in Iron Mountain is one of the largest artificial ski jumps in the world.[52]
Porcupine Mountains State Park
Quincy Copper Mine offering guided tours
Seney National Wildlife Refuge
Ski Brule in Iron River
The Soo Locks
Suicide Hill Ski Jump, Ishpeming, Michigan[53]
Sylvania Wilderness
Tahquamenon Falls State Park
Upper Peninsula Children's Museum – Marquette
Casinos[edit]
American Indian casinos contribute to the tourist attractions and are popular in the U.P. Originally the casinos were simple, one-room affairs. Some of the casinos are now quite elaborate and are being developed as part of resort and conference facilities, including features such as golf courses, pool and spa, dining, and rooms to accommodate guests.
Bay Mills Resort & Casino – Brimley
Island Resort & Casino – Harris
Kewadin Casinos – Christmas; Hessel; Manistique; St. Ignace; Sault Ste. Marie
Kings Club Casino – Brimley
Lac Vieux Desert Casino – Watersmeet
Ojibwa Casinos – Baraga; Marquette
Transportation[edit]
Straits of Mackinac and bridge in winter looking south from St. Ignace
The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower by the Straits of Mackinac, five miles (8 km) across at the narrowest, and is connected to it by the Mackinac Bridge at St. Ignace, one of the longest suspension bridges in the world. Until the bridge was completed in 1957, travel between the two peninsulas was difficult and slow (and sometimes even impossible during winter months). In 1881, the Mackinac Transportation Company was established by three railroads, the Michigan Central Railroad, the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad, and the Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette Railroad, to operate a railroad car ferry across the Straits. Beginning in 1923, the State of Michigan operated automobile ferries between the two peninsulas. At the busiest times of year the wait was several hours long.[54] In winter, travel was possible over the ice only after the straits had solidly frozen.
Highways[edit]
Interstate Highways[edit]
I-75 crosses the eastern portion of the Upper Peninsula from the Straits of Mackinac on the south to Sault Ste. Marie and the border with Canada on the north. There it connects with the Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge across to Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
U.S. Highways[edit]
US 2 crosses into Michigan from Wisconsin at Ironwood and runs east to Crystal Falls, where it dips back into Wisconsin. The highway crosses back into Michigan for a second time at Iron Mountain and runs east to its terminus at St. Ignace.
US 8 enters the state from Wisconsin at Dickinson County's Norway township, crossing the Menominee River and proceeding north into the city of Norway where it ends at US 2.
US 41 enters at Menominee and goes north to Copper Harbor.
US 45 crosses into Michigan south of Watersmeet and ends in Ontonagon.
US 141 enters the state south of Quinnesec. US 141 runs concurrently with US 2 through the Iron Mountain area and crosses back into Wisconsin. US 141 separates from US 2 at Crystal Falls and runs north to US 41 at Covington in Baraga County.
State Trunkline Highways[edit]
Of the many "M-" prefixed trunklines crisscrossing the U.P., the four longest (in order of length) are,
M-28 runs from Wakefield east across the U.P. to south of Sault Ste. Marie. At 290.373 miles (467.310 km) in length, it is the state's longest trunkline with an M- prefix.
M-35 runs from Menominee north to Negaunee.
M-26 runs from Rockland north to Copper Harbor.
M-123 runs from St. Ignace north and then makes a southward U-turn before terminating at Newberry.
Special road designations[edit]
Markers for Federal Forest Highway 16, the Great Lakes Circle Tour, and a Pure Michigan Byway
The U.S. Forest Service and Federal Highway Administration have designated certain roads within the several National Forests in the U.P. as Federal Forest Highways.[55]
State-maintained highways closest to the Upper Peninsula's Great Lakes shorelines are marked by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) with signs indicating that they are part of the Great Lakes Circle Tour, a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[56]
MDOT has designated five UP highways as Pure Michigan Byways for their historic, recreational or scenic qualities.[57][58] They are: US 2 in Iron County (Iron County Heritage Trail), US 41 from Houghton to Copper Harbor (Copper County Trail, also a National Scenic Byway), M-35 (UP Hidden Coast Recreational Heritage Trail), and M-123 (Tahquamenon Scenic Heritage Route') and M-134 (M-134 North Huron Byway)
Airports[edit]
Main article: Airports of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
There are 43 airports in the Upper Peninsula. Of these, six airports have commercial passenger service: Gogebic-Iron County Airport north of Ironwood, Houghton County Memorial Airport southwest of Calumet, Ford Airport west of Iron Mountain, Sawyer International Airport south of Marquette, Delta County Airport in Escanaba, and Chippewa County International Airport south of Sault Ste. Marie. There are 19 other public use airports with a hard surface runway. These are used for general aviation and charter. Notably, Mackinac Island, Beaver Island, and Drummond Island are all accessible by airports. There are five public access airports with turf runways and thirteen airports for the private use of their owners.[citation needed] There is only one control tower in the Upper Peninsula, at Sawyer.[59]
Ferries and bridges[edit]
The Eastern Upper Peninsula Transportation Authority operates car ferries in its area. These include ferries for Sugar Island, Neebish Island, and Drummond Island. Three ferry companies run passenger ferries from St. Ignace to Mackinac Island.
The three major bridges in the Upper Peninsula are:
Mackinac Bridge, connecting the Lower Peninsula of Michigan with the Upper;
Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge, which connects the city of Sault Ste. Marie to its twin city of Sault Ste. Marie in Canada; and
Portage Lift Bridge, which crosses Portage Lake. The Portage Lift Bridge is the world's heaviest and widest double-decked vertical lift bridge. Its center span "lifts" to provide 100 feet (30 m) of clearance for ships. Since rail traffic was discontinued in the Keweenaw, the lower deck is used to accommodate snowmobile traffic in the winter. As the only land-based link between the north and south sections of the Keweenaw Peninsula, the bridge is crucial to transportation.
Railways[edit]
Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad: Transports iron ore over a 16-mile (26 km) line from the Empire-Tilden Mine (operated by Cliffs Natural Resources), south of Ishpeming, to Marquette's port on Lake Superior.
Two railroads originally crossed the Upper Peninsula east to west: the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railway, informally known as the Soo Line, running west from Sault Ste. Marie roughly along the Lake Michigan shore, and the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railroad running west from St. Ignace roughly along the Lake Superior shore. In 1960, both railroads were merged into the Soo Line Railroad, the U.S. arm of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Soo Line trackage in the Upper Peninsula was purchased by the Wisconsin Central Railroad in 1987. In 1997, the Wisconsin Central also purchased from the Union Pacific Railroad the former Chicago and North Western Railway line running into the Upper Peninsula from Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Central was in turn purchased by the Canadian National Railway in 2001. The Canadian National now operates much of the remaining railroad trackage in the Upper Peninsula.
Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad: Chartered in 1898, the E&LS is an industrial beltline railroad with 347 miles (558 km) of trackage connecting Escanaba, Ontonagon, Republic, and Green Bay, Wisconsin, with a common junction at Channing, and a spur to Nestoria from Sidnaw.
Bus systems[edit]
Despite its rural character, there are public buses in several counties of the Upper Peninsula.[60]
Education[edit]
The Upper Peninsula of Michigan has three state universities (Lake Superior State University in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan Technological University in Houghton, and Northern Michigan University in Marquette), one private university (Finlandia University located in Hancock, Michigan, on the Keweenaw Peninsula), and five community colleges (Bay Mills Community College in Brimley, Bay de Noc Community College in Escanaba and Iron Mountain, Gogebic Community College in Ironwood, and Keweenaw Bay Ojibwa Community College in Baraga).
Culture[edit]
"Da Yoopers Tourist Trap", near Ishpeming, features a host of gaudy items in its museum and store that play up Yooper stereotypes
Early settlers included multiple waves of people from Nordic countries, and people of Finnish ancestry make up 16% of the peninsula's population; the UP is home to the highest concentration of Finns outside Europe and the only counties of the United States where a plurality of residents claim Finnish ancestry. The Finnish sauna and the concept of sisu have been adopted widely by residents of the Upper Peninsula. The television program Finland Calling was for a long period the only Finnish-language television broadcast in the United States; it aired on Marquette station WLUC-TV from March 25, 1962, until March 29, 2015.[61] Finlandia University, America's only college with Finnish roots, is located in Hancock.[62] Street signs in Hancock appear in English and Finnish to celebrate this heritage.
Other sizable ethnic communities in the Upper Peninsula include French-Canadian, German, Cornish, Italian, and Ojibwe ancestry.
Upper Peninsula natives speak a dialect influenced by Scandinavian and French-Canadian speech. A popular bumper sticker, a parody of the "Say YES to Michigan" slogan promoted by state tourism officials, shows an outline of the Upper Peninsula and the slogan, "Say ya to da U.P., eh!" The dialect and culture are captured in many songs by Da Yoopers, a comedy music and skit troupe from Ishpeming, Michigan.
Throughout the Upper Peninsula there are newspapers, such as The Daily News in Iron Mountain, The Menominee County Journal in Stephenson, The Daily Mining Gazette in Houghton, The Daily Press in Escanaba, and the Sault Ste. Marie Evening News that serve the rest of the U.P. The Mining Journal, based in Marquette, is the only daily newspaper that publishes a Sunday edition, which is distributed, with the exception of Chippewa and eastern Mackinac counties, across the entire U.P. (the other six days are distributed in its local area only).
The Keweenaw Peninsula is home to several ski areas. Mont Ripley, just outside Houghton, is popular among students of Michigan Technological University (the university actually owns the mountain). Further up the peninsula in the small town of Lac La Belle is Mt. Bohemia. A skiing purist's resort, Bohemia is a self-proclaimed "experts only" mountain, and it does not groom its heavily gladed slopes.[63] Other ski areas are Pine Mountain located in Iron Mountain, Norway Mountain in the town of the same name, and the Porcupine Mountains located in Ontonagon.
Regional identity[edit]
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A Yooper pasty (beef)
Today, the Upper Peninsula is home to 299,184 people—only about 3% of the state's population— living in almost one-third of the state's land area. Residents are known as Yoopers (from "U.P.ers"), and many consider themselves Yoopers before they consider themselves Michiganders. (People living in the Lower Peninsula are commonly called "trolls" by Upper Peninsula residents, as they live "Under the Bridge".) This regionalism is not only a result of the physical separation of the two peninsulas, but also the history of the state.
Residents of the western Upper Peninsula take on some of the cultural identities of both Wisconsin and Michigan. In terms of sports fandom, residents may support Detroit professional teams or those of Wisconsin—particularly the Green Bay Packers. This is a result of both proximity and the broadcast and print media of the area. The four counties that border Wisconsin are also in the Central Time Zone, unlike the rest of Michigan, which is on Eastern time.
Cuisine[edit]
The Upper Peninsula has a distinctive local cuisine. The pasty (pronounced "pass-tee"), a kind of meat turnover originally brought to the region by Cornish miners, is popular among locals and tourists alike. Pasty varieties include chicken, venison, pork, hamburger, and pizza. Many restaurants serve potato sausage and cudighi, a spicy Italian meat.
Finnish immigrants contributed nisu, a cardamom-flavored sweet bread; pannukakku, a variant on the pancake with a custard flavor; viili (sometimes spelled "fellia"), a stretchy, fermented Finnish milk; and korppu, hard slices of toasted cinnamon bread, traditionally dipped in coffee. Some Finnish foods such as juustoa (squeaky cheese, essentially a cheese curd, like Leipäjuusto) and saunamakkara (a ring-bologna sausage) have become so ubiquitous in Upper Peninsula cuisine that they are now commonly found in most grocery stores and supermarkets.
Maple syrup is a highly prized local delicacy.[64] Fresh Great Lakes fish, such as the lake trout, whitefish, and (in the spring) smelt are widely eaten. There is minimal concern about contamination of fish from Lake Superior waters.[65] Smoked fish is also popular. Thimbleberry jam and chokecherry jelly is a treat.[66]
Notable people[edit]
Robert J. Flaherty, a filmmaker who directed and produced the first commercially successful feature-length documentary film, Nanook of the North, in 1922, is from Iron Mountain.
George Gipp, the "Gipper"—immortalized in the film Knute Rockne, All American by Ronald Reagan—was born in Laurium.[67] He was the first All-American player of the Notre Dame football program.
Crystal Hayes, 2005 Miss Michigan, is originally from Rock.
Tom Izzo, Michigan State basketball coach and Hall of Famer; a native of Iron Mountain, went to Northern Michigan University.
Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson, aircraft engineer and aeronautical innovator, was born in Ishpeming.
John Lautner, a native of Marquette and alumnus of Northern Michigan University, was one of Frank Lloyd Wright's most successful Taliesin fellows. His Modernist residence, Chemosphere, is a Los Angeles landmark.
Mitchell Leisen, film director, was born Menominee in 1898. He directed the films Midnight, Easy Living, and other screwball comedies.
Steve Mariucci, former San Francisco 49ers and Detroit Lions head coach; a native of Iron Mountain, went to Northern Michigan University, where Mariucci was quarterback of the Wildcats' 1975 NCAA Division II national championship team.
Terry O'Quinn, actor, was born in Sault Ste. Marie in 1952 and grew up in Newberry. O'Quinn most notably played John Locke in the hit TV show Lost. He also currently plays a recurring role as Joe White in CBS police drama Hawaii Five-0.
Chase Osborn was the only Governor of Michigan from the Upper Peninsula (1911–1913).
Pam Reed is an ultrarunner who currently resides in Tucson, Arizona. She grew up in Palmer, and graduated from Michigan Technological University.
Gene Ronzani was a professional football running back for the Chicago Bears and head coach of the Green Bay Packers from 1950–53; born in Iron Mountain.
Glenn T. Seaborg, a Nobel Prize-winning chemist and major contributor in the discovery of several of the transuranium elements, was born in Ishpeming.[68] Before his death in 1999, he was the only living person to have a chemical element named after him (seaborgium, abbreviated as Sg and with atomic number 106). This name caused controversy because Seaborg was still alive, but eventually it was accepted by international chemists. Though he lived most of his life in California, the Seaborg Center at Northern Michigan University is named in his honor.
Howard Schultz, chairman of Starbucks Coffee Co., is a Northern Michigan University alumnus.
Mike Shaw, professional wrestler, was born in Skandia. He wrestled in the WWF as Bastion Booger and in the WCW as Norman the Lunatic.
Matthew Songer, founder of Pioneer Surgical Technology, lives in Marquette.
Mary Chase Perry Stratton, founder of Pewabic Pottery, was born in Hancock.[69]
Lou Thesz, professional wrestler who held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship longer than anyone in history, was born in Banat, on April 24, 1916.
James Tolkan, an actor often cast as a strict, overbearing, bald-headed authority who appeared in Back to the Future and Top Gun, was born in Calumet, Michigan.
Art Van Damme, jazz accordionist, was born in Norway.[70]
Hon. John D. Voelker, Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court, wrote the best-selling book Anatomy of a Murder under the pen name Robert Traver. The film—shot in Big Bay and Ishpeming with some courtroom scenes in Marquette—was directed by Otto Preminger.
See also[edit]
Michigan portal
List of counties in Michigan
Heikki Lunta, mythological character
Stormy Kromer cap
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The DNRE was split back into the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) on January 4, 2011.[14]
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Further reading[edit]
Burt, Williams A. & Hubbard, Bela (1846). Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior. Buffalo: L. Danforth. ISBN 0-665-51009-8. 113 pages.
Harrison, Jim (November 30, 2013). "Imprint: My Upper Peninsula". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
Lankton, Larry (2010). Hollowed Ground: Copper Mining and Community Building on Lake Superior, 1840s–1990s. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 376 pages.
Magnaghi, Russell M. & Marsden, Michael T., eds. (1997). A Sense of Place: Michigan’s Upper Peninsula: Essays in Honor of William and Margery Vandament. Northern Michigan University Press. ISBN 0-918616-20-4. 270 pages.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Upper Peninsula.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Upper Peninsula.
Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Bibliography on Michigan, arranged by counties and regions
Great Lakes Coast Watch
Michigan Department of Natural Resources website, harbors, hunting, resources and more
Map of Upper Peninsula Counties and Minor Civil Divisions
Michigan Historic Markers
Michigan's Official Economic Development and Travel Site, including interactive map, information on attractions, museums, etc.
Upper Peninsula of Michigan Nature Tourism | The Great Waters of Michigan
Upper Peninsula of Michigan Travel
Western Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Finland Calling the WLUC TV-6 weekly Sunday morning show that has aired since 1962, hosted by Carl Pellonpaa.
The Upper Peninsula in the Civil War
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Federal Acquisition Regulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"F.A.R." redirects here. For other uses, see FAR (disambiguation).
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) is the principal set of rules in the Federal Acquisition Regulations System.[1] The FAR System governs the "acquisition process" by which executive agencies of the United States federal government acquire (i.e., purchase or lease) goods and services by contract with appropriated funds.[1][2][3] The process consists of three phases:[4]
Need recognition and acquisition planning;
Contract formation; and
Contract administration.
The FAR System regulates the activities of government personnel in carrying out that process. The FAR System is codified at Title 48, Chapter 1 of the Code of Federal Regulations. These requirements can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations at 48 C.F.R. 31.
While nearly all federal government executive agencies are required to comply with the FAR, some executive agencies are exempt (e.g., the Federal Aviation Administration[5][6] and the U.S. Mint[7][8]). In those cases, the agency promulgates its own specific procurement rules.[9][10] The remainder of the FAR System consists mostly of sets of regulations issued by executive agencies of the federal government of the United States to supplement the FAR.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Purpose
2 Procedure
3 Authority
4 Structure
5 Supplements
6 Criticisms
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Purpose[edit]
The purpose of the FAR is to provide "uniform policies and procedures for acquisition."[11] Among its guiding principles is to have an acquisition system that satisfies customer's needs in terms of cost, quality, and timeliness; minimize administrative operating costs; conduct business with integrity, fairness, and openness; and fulfill other public policy objectives.[12]
Procedure[edit]
When a federal government agency issues a solicitation, it will specify the applicable FAR provisions, which may be numerous. In order to be awarded a contract, an offeror must either comply with the provisions, demonstrate that it will be able to comply with them at the time of award, or claim an exemption from them. As an example, Part 30 (Cost Accounting Standards Administration) allows for small businesses to be exempt from those requirements. If the offeror demonstrates that it meets the small business criteria, Part 30 does not apply.
The largest single part of the FAR is Part 52, which contains standard solicitation provisions and contract clauses. Solicitation provisions are certification requirements, notices, and instructions directed at firms that might be interested in competing for a specific contract. These provisions and clauses are of six types: (i) required solicitation provisions; (ii) required-when-applicable solicitation provisions; (iii) optional solicitation provisions; (iv) required contract clauses; (v) required-when-applicable contract clauses; and (vi) optional contract clauses."[13]
If the FAR requires that a clause be included in a government contract, but that clause is omitted, case law may provide that the missing clause is deemed to be included. This is known as the Christian Doctrine, which is based on the underlying principle that certain government regulations have the force and effect of law,[14] and government personnel may not deviate from the law without proper authorization. Prospective contractors are presumed to know the law, including the limits of the authority of government personnel. Thus, a mandatory clause that expresses a significant or deeply ingrained strand of public procurement policy will be incorporated into a Government contract by operation of law, even if the parties intentionally omitted it.
A contract award can be challenged and set aside if a protester can prove that either the contracting agency or the contract awardee did not comply with the requirements of the solicitation. A successful protest can result in reconsideration of the decision to award the contract or award of the contract to the protester in lieu of the original awardee. Even though a successful protester may not ultimately be awarded the contract, the government agency may have to pay the protester's bid and proposal costs.
Authority[edit]
The FAR was issued pursuant to the Office of Federal Procurement Policy Act of 1974.[15] Statutory authority to issue and maintain the FAR resides with the Secretary of Defense, the Administrator of General Services, and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,[16] subject to the approval of the Administrator of Federal Procurement Policy.[17]
Structure[edit]
The Federal Acquisition Regulation is contained within Chapter 1 of Title 48 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).[18] Chapter 1 is divided into Subchapters A-H, which encompass Parts 1-53. Chapter 1 appears in two volumes, with Subchapters A-G appearing in Volume 1 while Subchapter H occupies all of Volume 2.[19][20] The volumes are not formal subdivisions of Title 48, but refer instead to the fact that the FAR is printed by the Government Printing Office in two volumes for convenience.
The single most heavily regulated aspect of acquisition is contract pricing, which is addressed throughout the FAR, but especially in Subpart 15.4, Parts 30 and 31, and Subparts 42.7, 42.8, and 42.17. A large part of the FAR, Subchapter D, describes various socio-economic programs, such as the various small business programs, purchases from foreign sources, and laws written to protect laborers and professionals working under government contracts.
The final three chapters of Title 48 (61, 63 and 99) establish the Civilian Board of Contract Appeals, the Department of Transportation Board of Contract Appeals, and the Cost Accounting Standards Board, respectively. The Armed Services Board of Contract Appeals has been established by charter within the Department of Defense.
The proper way to cite a regulation within the FAR is by part, subpart, section, subsection, without respect to chapter or subchapter.[21] For instance, the FAR rule on legislative lobbying costs is found at FAR Part 31, Section 205, Subsection 22 (cited as "FAR 31.205-22").
The table of contents, as of the edition published October 1, 2012, is as follows:[19][20]
In Volume 1:
Subchapter A: General
Part 1. Federal Acquisition Regulations System
Part 2. Definitions of Words and Terms
Part 3. Improper Business Practices and Personal Conflicts of Interest
Part 4. Administrative Matters
Subchapter B: Acquisition Planning
Part 5. Publicizing Contract Actions
Part 6. Competition Requirements
Part 7. Acquisition Planning
Part 8. Required Sources of Supplies and Services
Part 9. Contractor Qualifications
Part 10. Market Research
Part 11. Describing Agency Needs
Part 12. Acquisition of Commercial Items
Subchapter C: Contracting Methods and Contract Types
Part 13. Simplified Acquisition Procedures
Part 14. Sealed Bidding
Part 15. Contracting by Negotiation
Part 16. Types of Contracts
Part 17. Special Contracting Methods
Part 18. Emergency Acquisitions
Subchapter D: Socioeconomic Programs
Part 19. Small business programs
Parts 20-21. Reserved
Part 22. Application of Labor Laws to Government Acquisitions
Part 23. Environment, Energy and Water Efficiency, Renewable Energy Technologies, Occupational Safety, and Drug-Free Workplace
Part 24. Protection of Privacy and Freedom of Information
Part 25. Foreign Acquisition
Part 26. Other Socioeconomic Programs
Subchapter E: General Contracting Requirements
Part 27. Patents, Data, and Copyrights
Part 28. Bonds and Insurance
Part 29. Taxes
Part 30. Cost Accounting Standards Administration
Part 31. Contract Cost Principles and Procedures
Part 32. Contract Financing
Part 33. Protests, Disputes, and Appeals
Subchapter F: Special Categories of Contracting
Part 34. Major System Acquisition
Part 35. Research and Development Contracting
Part 36. Construction and Architect-Engineer Contracts
Part 37. Service Contracting
Part 38. Federal Supply Schedule Contracting
Part 39. Acquisition of Information Technology
Part 40. Reserved
Part 41. Acquisition of Utility Services
Subchapter G: Contract Management
Part 42. Contract Administration and Audit Services
Part 43. Contract Modifications
Part 44. Subcontracting Policies and Procedures
Part 45. Government Property
Part 46. Quality Assurance
Part 47. Transportation
Part 48. Value Engineering
Part 49. Termination of Contracts
Part 50. Extraordinary Contractual Actions and the Safety Act
Part 51. Use of Government Sources by Contractors
In Volume 2:
Subchapter H: Clauses and Forms
Part 52. Solicitation Provisions and Contract Clauses
Part 53. Forms
Parts 54-99. Reserved
Supplements[edit]
As the original purpose of the FAR was to consolidate the numerous individual agency regulations into one comprehensive set of standards which would apply government-wide, the issuance of supplemental regulations is closely governed by the FAR. Nearly every major cabinet-level department (and many agencies below them) has issued such regulations, which often place further restrictions or requirements on contractors and contracting officers.
One of the best-known examples of an agency supplement is the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement (DFARS), used by the Department of Defense, which constitutes Chapter 2. Chapter 3 is the Department of Health and Human Services Acquisition Regulation; Chapter 4 is the Department of Agriculture's Acquisition Regulation; etc.
The required format for agency FAR supplements is to follow the basic FAR format.[22] To continue the example above, the supplemental DFARS section on legislative lobbying costs is DFARS Subpart 231, Section 205, Subsection 22 (cited as "DFARS 231.205-22").
Criticisms[edit]
Some have suggested that the complexity of complying with the FAR discourages competition, especially by small companies. See, e.g., Government Accountability Office, Managing the Supplier Base in the 21st Century (Report GAO-06-533SP) at 7.
See also[edit]
Government procurement in the United States
Title 48 of the Code of Federal Regulations
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c 48 C.F.R. 1.101.
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1.104.
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 2.101 (see definitions of "acquisition," "contract," and "executive agency").
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 2.101 (see definition of "acquisition").
Jump up ^ 49 U.S.C. § 40110(d)(2); Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriations Act for FY1996, Pub.L. 104–50, § 348, 109 Stat. 460-61 (Nov. 15, 1995).
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1201.104(d).
Jump up ^ 31 U.S.C. § 5136.
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1001.104.
Jump up ^ E.g., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Acquisition Management System (AMS).
Jump up ^ Federal Aviation Administration Life Cycle Acquisition Management System, 61 FR 15155 (April 4, 1996).
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1.101 (2012).
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1.102 (2012).
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 52.101(e) (2012).
Jump up ^ See Davies Precision Machining, Inc. v. U.S., 35 Fed. Cl. 651 (1995)
Jump up ^ Pub.L. 93–400 and Title 41 of the United States Code, Chapter 7
Jump up ^ 41 U.S.C. § 421(c)(1)
Jump up ^ 41 U.S.C. § 405
Jump up ^ 48 CFR Table of Contents, vol. 1 p. 1 (2010).
^ Jump up to: a b 48 CFR 1 Table of Contents, vol. 1 p. 3-4 (2010).
^ Jump up to: a b 48 CFR 1 Table of Contents, vol. 2. p. 3 (2010).
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1.105-2 (2012).
Jump up ^ 48 C.F.R. 1.303
External links[edit]
Federal Acquisition Regulations
Defense FAR Supplement
NASA FAR Supplement
FARSite
eCFR
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