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Production (economics)
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Production is a process of combining various material inputs and immaterial inputs (plans, know-how) in order to make something for consumption (the output). It is the act of creating output, a good or service which has value and contributes to the utility of individuals.[1]
Economic well-being is created in a production process, meaning all economic activities that aim directly or indirectly to satisfy human wants and needs. The degree to which the needs are satisfied is often accepted as a measure of economic well-being. In production there are two features which explain increasing economic well-being. They are improving quality-price-ratio of goods and services and increasing incomes from growing and more efficient market production.
The most important forms of production are :-
market production
public production
household production
In order to understand the origin of the economic well-being, we must understand these three production processes. All of them produce commodities which have value and contribute to well-being of individuals.
The satisfaction of needs originates from the use of the commodities which are produced. The need satisfaction increases when the quality-price-ratio of the commodities improves and more satisfaction is achieved at less cost. Improving the quality-price-ratio of commodities is to a producer an essential way to improve the competitiveness of products but this kind of gains distributed to customers cannot be measured with production data. Improving the competitiveness of products means often to the producer lower product prices and therefore losses in incomes which are to compensated with the growth of sales volume.
Economic well-being also increases due to the growth of incomes that are gained from the growing and more efficient market production. Market production is the only production form which creates and distributes incomes to stakeholders. Public production and household production are financed by the incomes generated in market production. Thus market production has a double role in creating well-being, i.e. the role of producing goods and services and the role of creating income. Because of this double role market production is the “primus motor” of economic well-being and therefore here under review.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 As a source of economic well-being
1.1 Stakeholders of production
1.2 Main processes of a producing company
1.3 Production growth and performance
1.4 Absolute (total) and average income
2 Production models
2.1 Production income model
2.2 Production analysis model
2.3 Accounting and interpreting
3 Objective functions
3.1 The procedure for formulating objective functions
3.2 The dual approach for the formulation
4 Footnotes
5 See also
6 References
7 Further references and external links
As a source of economic well-being[edit]
In principle there are two main activities in an economy, production and consumption. Similarly there are two kinds of actors, producers and consumers. Well-being is made possible by efficient production and by the interaction between producers and consumers. In the interaction, consumers can be identified in two roles both of which generate well-being. Consumers can be both customers of the producers and suppliers to the producers. The customers’ well-being arises from the commodities they are buying and the suppliers’ well-being is related to the income they receive as compensation for the production inputs they have delivered to the producers.
Stakeholders of production[edit]
Stakeholders of production are persons, groups or organizations with an interest in a producing company. Economic well-being originates in efficient production and it is distributed through the interaction between the company’s stakeholders. The stakeholders of companies are economic actors which have an economic interest in a company. Based on the similarities of their interests, stakeholders can be classified into three groups in order to differentiate their interests and mutual relations. The three groups are as follows:
Interactive contributions of a company’s stakeholders (Saari, 2011,4)
Customers
Suppliers
Producers.
The interests of these stakeholders and their relations to companies are described briefly below. Our purpose is to establish a framework for further analysis.
Customers
The customers of a company are typically consumers, other market producers or producers in the public sector. Each of them has their individual production functions. Due to competition, the price-quality-ratios of commodities tend to improve and this brings the benefits of better productivity to customers. Customers get more for less. In households and the public sector this means that more need satisfaction is achieved at less cost. For this reason the productivity of customers can increase over time even though their incomes remain unchanged.
Suppliers
The suppliers of companies are typically producers of materials, energy, capital, and services. They all have their individual production functions. The changes in prices or qualities of supplied commodities have an effect on both actors’ (company and suppliers) production functions. We come to the conclusion that the production functions of the company and its suppliers are in a state of continuous change.
Producer community
The incomes are generated for those participating in production, i.e., the labour force, society and owners. These stakeholders are referred to here as producer communities or, in shorter form, as producers. The producer communities have a common interest in maximizing their incomes. These parties that contribute to production receive increased incomes from the growing and developing production.
The well-being gained through commodities stems from the price-quality relations of the commodities. Due to competition and development in the market, the price-quality relations of commodities tend to improve over time. Typically the quality of a commodity goes up and the price goes down over time. This development favourably affects the production functions of customers. Customers get more for less. Consumer customers get more satisfaction at less cost. This type of well-being generation can only partially be calculated from the production data. The situation is presented in this study. The producer community (labour force, society, and owners) earns income as compensation for the inputs they have delivered to the production. When the production grows and becomes more efficient, the income tends to increase. In production this brings about an increased ability to pay salaries, taxes and profits. The growth of production and improved productivity generate additional income for the producing community. Similarly the high income level achieved in the community is a result of the high volume of production and its good performance. This type of well-being generation – as mentioned earlier - can be reliably calculated from the production data.
Main processes of a producing company[edit]
A producing company can be divided into sub-processes in different ways; yet, the following five are identified as main processes, each with a logic, objectives, theory and key figures of its own. It is important to examine each of them individually, yet, as a part of the whole, in order to be able to measure and understand them. The main processes of a company are as follows:
Main processes of a producing company (Saari 2006,3)
real process.
income distribution process
production process.
monetary process.
market value process.
Production output is created in the real process, gains of production are distributed in the income distribution process and these two processes constitute the production process. The production process and its sub-processes, the real process and income distribution process occur simultaneously, and only the production process is identifiable and measurable by the traditional accounting practices. The real process and income distribution process can be identified and measured by extra calculation, and this is why they need to be analyzed separately in order to understand the logic of production and its performance.
Real process generates the production output from input, and it can be described by means of the production function. It refers to a series of events in production in which production inputs of different quality and quantity are combined into products of different quality and quantity. Products can be physical goods, immaterial services and most often combinations of both. The characteristics created into the product by the producer imply surplus value to the consumer, and on the basis of the market price this value is shared by the consumer and the producer in the marketplace. This is the mechanism through which surplus value originates to the consumer and the producer likewise. It is worth noting that surplus values to customers cannot be measured from any production data. Instead the surplus value to a producer can be measured. It can be expressed both in terms of nominal and real values. The real surplus value to the producer is an outcome of the real process, real income, and measured proportionally it means productivity.
The concept “real process” in the meaning quantitative structure of production process was introduced in Finnish management accounting in 1960´s. Since then it has been a cornerstone in the Finnish management accounting theory. (Riistama et al. 1971)
Income distribution process of the production refers to a series of events in which the unit prices of constant-quality products and inputs alter causing a change in income distribution among those participating in the exchange. The magnitude of the change in income distribution is directly proportionate to the change in prices of the output and inputs and to their quantities. Productivity gains are distributed, for example, to customers as lower product sales prices or to staff as higher income pay.
The production process consists of the real process and the income distribution process. A result and a criterion of success of the owner is profitability. The profitability of production is the share of the real process result the owner has been able to keep to himself in the income distribution process. Factors describing the production process are the components of profitability, i.e., returns and costs. They differ from the factors of the real process in that the components of profitability are given at nominal prices whereas in the real process the factors are at periodically fixed prices.
Monetary process refers to events related to financing the business. Market value process refers to a series of events in which investors determine the market value of the company in the investment markets.
Production growth and performance[edit]
Main article: Economic growth
Economic growth is often defined as a production increase of an output of a production process. It is usually expressed as a growth percentage depicting growth of the real production output. The real output is the real value of products produced in a production process and when we subtract the real input from the real output we get the real income. The real output and the real income are generated by the real process of production from the real inputs.
The real process can be described by means of the production function. The production function is a graphical or mathematical expression showing the relationship between the inputs used in production and the output achieved. Both graphical and mathematical expressions are presented and demonstrated. The production function is a simple description of the mechanism of income generation in production process. It consists of two components. These components are a change in production input and a change in productivity.[2]
Components of economic growth (Saari 2006,2)
The figure illustrates an income generation process(exaggerated for clarity). The Value T2 (value at time 2) represents the growth in output from Value T1 (value at time 1). Each time of measurement has its own graph of the production function for that time (the straight lines). The output measured at time 2 is greater than the output measured at time one for both of the components of growth: an increase of inputs and an increase of productivity. The portion of growth caused by the increase in inputs is shown on line 1 and does not change the relation between inputs and outputs. The portion of growth caused by an increase in productivity is shown on line 2 with a steeper slope. So increased productivity represents greater output per unit of input.
The growth of production output does not reveal anything about the performance of the production process. The performance of production measures production’s ability to generate income. Because the income from production is generated in the real process, we call it the real income. Similarly, as the production function is an expression of the real process, we could also call it “income generated by the production function”.
The real income generation follows the logic of the production function. Two components can also be distinguished in the income change: the income growth caused by an increase in production input (production volume) and the income growth caused by an increase in productivity. The income growth caused by increased production volume is determined by moving along the production function graph. The income growth corresponding to a shift of the production function is generated by the increase in productivity. The change of real income so signifies a move from the point 1 to the point 2 on the production function (above). When we want to maximize the production performance we have to maximize the income generated by the production function.
The sources of productivity growth and production volume growth are explained as follows. Productivity growth is seen as the key economic indicator of innovation. The successful introduction of new products and new or altered processes, organization structures, systems, and business models generates growth of output that exceeds the growth of inputs. This results in growth in productivity or output per unit of input. Income growth can also take place without innovation through replication of established technologies. With only replication and without innovation, output will increase in proportion to inputs. (Jorgenson et al. 2014,2) This is the case of income growth through production volume growth.
Jorgenson et al. (2014,2) give an empiric example. They show that the great preponderance of economic growth in the US since 1947 involves the replication of existing technologies through investment in equipment, structures, and software and expansion of the labor force. Further they show that innovation accounts for only about twenty percent of US economic growth.
In the case of a single production process (described above) the output is defined as an economic value of products and services produced in the process. When we want to examine an entity of many production processes we have to sum up the value-added created in the single processes. This is done in order to avoid the double accounting of intermediate inputs. Value-added is obtained by subtracting the intermediate inputs from the outputs. The most well-known and used measure of value-added is the GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is widely used as a measure of the economic growth of nations and industries.
Absolute (total) and average income[edit]
The production performance can be measured as an average or an absolute income. Expressing performance both in average (avg.) and absolute (abs.) quantities is helpful for understanding the welfare effects of production. For measurement of the average production performance, we use the known productivity ratio
Real output / Real input.
The absolute income of performance is obtained by subtracting the real input from the real output as follows:
Real income (abs.) = Real output – Real input
The growth of the real income is the increase of the economic value which can be distributed between the production stakeholders. With the aid of the production model we can perform the average and absolute accounting in one calculation. Maximizing production performance requires using the absolute measure, i.e. the real income and its derivatives as a criterion of production performance.
Maximizing productivity also leads to the phenomenon called "jobless growth" This refers to economic growth as a result of productivity growth but without creation of new jobs and new incomes from them. A practical example illustrates the case. When a jobless person obtains a job in market production we may assume it is a low productivity job. As a result, average productivity decreases but the real income per capita increases. Furthermore, the well-being of the society also grows. This example reveals the difficulty to interpret the total productivity change correctly. The combination of volume increase and total productivity decrease leads in this case to the improved performance because we are on the “diminishing returns” area of the production function. If we are on the part of “increasing returns” on the production function, the combination of production volume increase and total productivity increase leads to improved production performance. Unfortunately we do not know in practice on which part of the production function we are. Therefore, a correct interpretation of a performance change is obtained only by measuring the real income change.
Production models[edit]
A production model is a numerical description of the production process and is based on the prices and the quantities of inputs and outputs. There are two main approaches to operationalize the concept of production function. We can use mathematical formulae, which are typically used in macroeconomics (in growth accounting) or arithmetical models, which are typically used in microeconomics and management accounting. We do not present the former approach here but refer to the survey “Growth accounting” by Hulten 2009.
We use here arithmetical models because they are like the models of management accounting, illustrative and easily understood and applied in practice. Furthermore, they are integrated to management accounting, which is a practical advantage. A major advantage of the arithmetical model is its capability to depict production function as a part of production process. Consequently, production function can be understood, measured, and examined as a part of production process.
There are different production models according to different interests. Here we use a production income model and a production analysis model in order to demonstrate production function as a phenomenon and a measureable quantity.
Production income model[edit]
Profitability of production measured by surplus value (Saari 2006,3)
The scale of success run by a going concern is manifold, and there are no criteria that might be universally applicable to success. Nevertheless, there is one criterion by which we can generalise the rate of success in production. This criterion is the ability to produce surplus value. As a criterion of profitability, surplus value refers to the difference between returns and costs, taking into consideration the costs of equity in addition to the costs included in the profit and loss statement as usual. Surplus value indicates that the output has more value than the sacrifice made for it, in other words, the output value is higher than the value (production costs) of the used inputs. If the surplus value is positive, the owner’s profit expectation has been surpassed.
The table presents a surplus value calculation. We call this set of production data a basic example and we use the data through the article in illustrative production models. The basic example is a simplified profitability calculation used for illustration and modelling. Even as reduced, it comprises all phenomena of a real measuring situation and most importantly the change in the output-input mix between two periods. Hence, the basic example works as an illustrative “scale model” of production without any features of a real measuring situation being lost. In practice, there may be hundreds of products and inputs but the logic of measuring does not differ from that presented in the basic example.
In this context we define the quality requirements for the production data used in productivity accounting. The most important criterion of good measurement is the homogenous quality of the measurement object. If the object is not homogenous, then the measurement result may include changes in both quantity and quality but their respective shares will remain unclear. In productivity accounting this criterion requires that every item of output and input must appear in accounting as being homogenous. In other words, the inputs and the outputs are not allowed to be aggregated in measuring and accounting. If they are aggregated, they are no longer homogenous and hence the measurement results may be biased.
Both the absolute and relative surplus value have been calculated in the example. Absolute value is the difference of the output and input values and the relative value is their relation, respectively. The surplus value calculation in the example is at a nominal price, calculated at the market price of each period.
Production analysis model[edit]
Production Model Saari 2004 (Saari 2006,4)
A model [3] used here is a typical production analysis model by help of which it is possible to calculate the outcome of the real process, income distribution process and production process. The starting point is a profitability calculation using surplus value as a criterion of profitability. The surplus value calculation is the only valid measure for understanding the connection between profitability and productivity or understanding the connection between real process and production process. A valid measurement of total productivity necessitates considering all production inputs, and the surplus value calculation is the only calculation to conform to the requirement. If we omit an input in productivity or income accounting, this means that the omitted input can be used unlimitedly in production without any cost impact on accounting results.
Accounting and interpreting[edit]
The process of calculating is best understood by applying the term ceteris paribus, i.e. "all other things being the same," stating that at a time only the impact of one changing factor be introduced to the phenomenon being examined. Therefore, the calculation can be presented as a process advancing step by step. First, the impacts of the income distribution process are calculated, and then, the impacts of the real process on the profitability of the production.
The first step of the calculation is to separate the impacts of the real process and the income distribution process, respectively, from the change in profitability (285.12 – 266.00 = 19.12). This takes place by simply creating one auxiliary column (4) in which a surplus value calculation is compiled using the quantities of Period 1 and the prices of Period 2. In the resulting profitability calculation, Columns 3 and 4 depict the impact of a change in income distribution process on the profitability and in Columns 4 and 7 the impact of a change in real process on the profitability.
The accounting results are easily interpreted and understood. We see that the real income has increased by 58.12 units from which 41.12 units come from the increase of productivity growth and the rest 17.00 units come from the production volume growth. The total increase of real income (58.12) is distributed to the stakeholders of production, in this case 39.00 units to the customers and to the suppliers of inputs and the rest 19.12 units to the owners.
Here we can make an important conclusion. Income formation of production is always a balance between income generation and income distribution. The income change created in a real process (i.e. by production function) is always distributed to the stakeholders as economic values within the review period. Accordingly, the changes in real income and income distribution are always equal in terms of economic value.
Based on the accounted changes of productivity and production volume values we can explicitly conclude on which part of the production function the production is. The rules of interpretations are the following:
The production is on the part of “increasing returns” on the production function, when
productivity and production volume increase or
productivity and production volume decrease
The production is on the part of “diminishing returns” on the production function, when
productivity decreases and volume increases or
productivity increases and volume decreases.
In the basic example the combination of volume growth (+17.00) and productivity growth (+41.12) reports explicitly that the production is on the part of “increasing returns” on the production function (Saari 2006 a, 138–144).
Another production model (Production Model Saari 1989) also gives details of the income distribution (Saari 2011,14). Because the accounting techniques of the two models are different, they give differing, although complementary, analytical information. The accounting results are, however, identical. We do not present the model here in detail but we only use its detailed data on income distribution, when the objective functions are formulated in the next section.
Objective functions[edit]
An efficient way to improve the understanding of production performance is to formulate different objective functions according to the objectives of the different interest groups. Formulating the objective function necessitates defining the variable to be maximized (or minimized). After that other variables are considered as constraints or free variables. The most familiar objective function is profit maximization which is also included in this case. Profit maximization is an objective function that stems from the owner’s interest and all other variables are constraints in relation to maximizing of profits in the organization.
Summary of objective function formulations (Saari 2011,17)
The procedure for formulating objective functions[edit]
The procedure for formulating different objective functions, in terms of the production model, is introduced next. In the income formation from production the following objective functions can be identified:
Maximizing the real income
Maximizing the producer income
Maximizing the owner income.
These cases are illustrated using the numbers from the basic example. The following symbols are used in the presentation: The equal sign (=) signifies the starting point of the computation or the result of computing and the plus or minus sign (+ / -) signifies a variable that is to be added or subtracted from the function. A producer means here the producer community, i.e. labour force, society and owners.
Objective function formulations can be expressed in a single calculation which concisely illustrates the logic of the income generation, the income distribution and the variables to be maximized.
The calculation resembles an income statement starting with the income generation and ending with the income distribution. The income generation and the distribution are always in balance so that their amounts are equal. In this case it is 58.12 units. The income which has been generated in the real process is distributed to the stakeholders during the same period. There are three variables which can be maximized. They are the real income, the producer income and the owner income. Producer income and owner income are practical quantities because they are addable quantities and they can be computed quite easily. Real income is normally not an addable quantity and in many cases it is difficult to calculate.
The dual approach for the formulation[edit]
Here we have to add that the change of real income can also be computed from the changes in income distribution. We have to identify the unit price changes of outputs and inputs and calculate their profit impacts (i.e. unit price change x quantity). The change of real income is the sum of these profit impacts and the change of owner income. This approach is called the dual approach because the framework is seen in terms of prices instead of quantities (ONS 3, 23).
The dual approach has been recognized in growth accounting for long but its interpretation has remained unclear. The following question has remained unanswered: “Quantity based estimates of the residual are interpreted as a shift in the production function, but what is the interpretation of the price-based growth estimates?” (Hulten 2009, 18). We have demonstrated above that the real income change is achieved by quantitative changes in production and the income distribution change to the stakeholders is its dual. In this case the duality means that the same accounting result is obtained by accounting the change of the total income generation (real income) and by accounting the change of the total income distribution.
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Brown, L., and Adam, S. (2006) Marketing, 7th Ed. Pearson Education Australia/Prentice Hall.
Jump up ^ Genesca & Grifell 1992, Saari 2006
Jump up ^ Courbois & Temple 1975, Gollop 1979, Kurosawa 1975, Saari 1976, 2006
See also[edit]
Adaptive strategies
A list of production functions
Assembly line
Johann Heinrich von Thünen
Division of labour
Industrial Revolution
Cost-of-production theory of value
Computer-aided manufacturing
Distribution (economics)
Factors of production
Outline of industrial organization
Outline of production
Output (economics)
Price
Prices of production
Pricing strategies
Production function
Production theory basics
Production possibility frontier
Productive and unproductive labour
Productive forces
Productivism
Productivity
Productivity model
Productivity improving technologies (historical)
Microeconomics
Mode of production
Mass production
Second Industrial Revolution
References[edit]
Courbois, R.; Temple, P. (1975). La methode des "Comptes de surplus" et ses applications macroeconomiques. 160 des Collect,INSEE,Serie C (35). p. 100.
Craig, C.; Harris, R. (1973). "Total Productivity Measurement at the Firm Level". Sloan Management Review (Spring 1973): 13–28.
Genesca, G.E.; Grifell, T. E. (1992). "Profits and Total Factor Productivity: A Comparative Analysis". Omega. the International Journal of Management Science. 20 (5/6): 553–568. doi:10.1016/0305-0483(92)90002-O.
Gollop, F.M. (1979). "Accounting for Intermediate Input: The Link Between Sectoral and Aggregate Measures of Productivity Growth". Measurement and Interpretation of Productivity. National Academy of Sciences.
Hulten, C.R. (January 2000). "TOTAL FACTOR PRODUCTIVITY: A SHORT BIOGRAPHY" (PDF). NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH.
Hulten, C.R. (September 2009). "GROWTH ACCOUNTING" (PDF). NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH.
Jorgenson, D.W.; Ho, M.S.; Samuels, J.D. (2014). Long-term Estimates of U.S. Productivity and Growth (PDF). Tokyo: Third World KLEMS Conference.
Kurosawa, K (1975). "An aggregate index for the analysis of productivity". Omega. 3 (2): 157–168. doi:10.1016/0305-0483(75)90115-2.
Loggerenberg van, B.; Cucchiaro, S. (1982). "Productivity Measurement and the Bottom Line". National Productivity Review. 1 (1): 87–99. doi:10.1002/npr.4040010111.
Pineda, A. (1990). A Multiple Case Study Research to Determine and respond to Management Information Need Using Total-Factor Productivity Measurement (TFPM). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Riistama, K.; Jyrkkiö E. (1971). Operatiivinen laskentatoimi (Operative accounting). Weilin + Göös. p. 335.
Saari, S. (2006a). Productivity. Theory and Measurement in Business. Productivity Handbook (In Finnish). MIDO OY. p. 272.
Saari, S. (2011). Production and Productivity as Sources of Well-being. MIDO OY. p. 25.
Saari, S. (2006). Productivity. Theory and Measurement in Business (PDF). Espoo, Finland: European Productivity Conference.
Further references and external links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Production (economics)
Moroney, J. R. (1967) Cobb-Douglass production functions and returns to scale in US manufacturing industry, Western Economic Journal, vol 6, no 1, December 1967, pp 39–51.
Pearl, D. and Enos, J. (1975) Engineering production functions and technological progress, The Journal of Industrial Economics, vol 24, September 1975, pp 55–72.
Robinson, J. (1953) The production function and the theory of capital, Review of Economic Studies, vol XXI, 1953, pp. 81–106
Anwar Shaikh, "Laws of Production and Laws of Algebra: The Humbug Production Function", in The Review of Economics and Statistics, Volume 56(1), February 1974, p. 115-120. http://homepage.newschool.edu/~AShaikh/humbug.pdf
Anwar Shaikh, "Laws of Production and Laws of Algebra—Humbug II", in Growth, Profits and Property ed. by Edward J. Nell. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980. http://homepage.newschool.edu/~AShaikh/humbug2.pdf
Anwar Shaikh, "Nonlinear Dynamics and Pseudo-Production Functions", published?, 2008. http://homepage.newschool.edu/~AShaikh/Nonlinear%20Dynamics%20and%20Pseudo-Production%20Functions.pdf
Shephard, R (1970) Theory of cost and production functions, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ.
Thompson, A. (1981) Economics of the firm, Theory and practice, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. ISBN 0-13-231423-1
Elmer G. Wiens: Production Functions - Models of the Cobb-Douglas, C.E.S., Trans-Log, and Diewert Production Functions.
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Persona 4: Dancing All Night
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Persona 4: Dancing All Night
North American cover art
Developer(s)
Atlus
Publisher(s)
JP/NA: Atlus
EU: NIS America
AU: Bandai Namco Entertainment
Director(s)
Kazuhisa Wada
Producer(s)
Kazuhisa Wada
Artist(s)
Shigenori Soejima
Composer(s)
Ryota Koduka
Series
Megami Tensei (Main)
Persona (Sub-series)
Platform(s)
PlayStation Vita
Release
JP: June 25, 2015
NA: September 29, 2015
PAL: November 6, 2015
Genre(s)
Rhythm
Mode(s)
Single-player
Persona 4: Dancing All Night[a] is a rhythm video game developed and published by Atlus for the PlayStation Vita.[1] The game is a spin-off of the 2008 role-playing game, Persona 4, which is part of the Persona series of Megami Tensei games. The game was released in Japan in June 2015, in North America in September 2015, and in Europe in November 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
2 Story
3 Development
4 Reception
5 Sequels
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Gameplay[edit]
Persona 4: Dancing All Night is a rhythm game in which the characters of Persona 4 dance to music from the Persona series, including original and rearranged songs. The game is split into two main modes; Story, where the players experience the game's story which is split up by various music stages, and Free Dance, in which players can pick any song they have unlocked and perform at various difficulties, unlocking more songs by clearing each stage.
The game is played using six face buttons; the up, left, and down directional buttons and the triangle, circle, and cross buttons, and the analogue sticks. As each stage plays, notes will appear from the center of the screen, requiring the player to hit the corresponding button in time with the music. Some notes require the player to hit two buttons at the same time, or hold the button down the duration of the note. In addition to the notes, Scratch Rings appear which require the player to flick either analogue stick to hit. Although missing Scratch Rings will not count as a miss, hitting enough pink Fever Rings will allow players to enter Fever Mode during certain parts of each song, allowing them to earn more points. The player's success is represented by a Hype Gauge at the top of screen, with the song ending in failure if it drops too low, or is not at a high enough level by the end of the song. If the player's Hype Gauge is high enough upon entering Fever Mode, Bond Fever will activate and a partner character may join the main character in their dance.
Upon clearing a song, players receive in-game money which they can use to purchase new items, costumes, and accessories. Some items may only be unlocked after clearing certain requirements, such as clearing a certain number or songs or making a certain amount of purchases. Costumes and accessories can be used to customise each character's appearance during their songs in Free Dance mode. Items, on the other hand, can be used to alter the gameplay to make it easier or more challenging, which in turn increases or decreases the score and money earned from each level. Additional songs, costumes, and accessories can be purchased as downloadable content.
Story[edit]
See also: List of Persona 4 characters
Taking place roughly a month following the epilogue of Persona 4 Golden, Rise Kujikawa, who has since returned to the idol industry, asks Yu Narukami and all her other friends to dance alongside her in the upcoming Love Meets Bonds Festival. As Yu, along with Naoto Shirogane, join up with Rise at her dance studio and are introduced to fellow idol Kanami Mashita, they learn that Kanami's idol group, Kanamin Kitchen, has mysteriously gone missing. Looking into a rumor concerning a video that shows up on the LMB website at midnight, allegedly showing a dead idol, Yu, Rise, and Naoto check out the video themselves and are sucked into the Midnight Stage, a world separate from the TV world they are used to. There, they discover a mysterious entity is using strange ribbons and a song to force Shadows to form a bond with her, effectively brainwashing anyone who comes into contacts with the ribbons. Unable to use violence in this world, the group discover that they can use the power of song and dance to express their feelings to the Shadows, freeing them from the voice's control.
The next day, as the rest of the Investigation Team are assembled at the dance studio, the mysterious voice attempts to pull Kanami into the Midnight Stage, but ends up grabbing producer Kyoka Ochimizu instead. Following in after them, the Investigation Team split up in order to rescue the captured members of Kanamin Kitchen as the voice attempts to force a fake bond with them. As each member is rescued and taken to a safe dressing room, the team discover pages from a diary. Coming across Ochimizu as well, the group deduce that the world is somehow tied to Yuko Osada, an idol who committed suicide years ago, while the Shadows they encounter are people who got dragged into the world after watching the video. Back in the real world, Kanami comes across Ryotaro and Nanako, who become curious about the whereabouts of Yu and the others. As Ryotaro helps Kanami look into the strange circumstances surrounding the incident, Nanako is recognised for her dancing talent and is chosen to appear alongside Kanami in the LMB Festival. During this time, Kanami experiences painful flashbacks as she ponders over the lyrics of her upcoming song, "Calystegia", which was originally intended for Yuko. To her shock, Kanami eventually discovers that the diary she had been carrying all this time belonged to Yuko, who she had witnessed killing herself when she came to the studio to audition years ago. Traumatized over the repressed memories, Kanami is overcome by despair and pulled into the Midnight Stage.
Back in the Midnight Stage, Ochimizu, who was Yuko's producer back when she was alive, is swayed by the voice but brought to her senses by Yu and the others. Discovering the song sung by the Shadows to be a reversed recording of Calystegia, the team discover the voice to be a Shadow version of Kanami, who has pulled the real Kanami, along with the entire LMB audience, into the Midnight Stage. Although the team manage to save Kanami and bring her to her senses, the Shadow Kanami, revealed to be a god of desire named Mikuratana-no-Kami, bonds itself with the rest of the audience. Determined to get their feelings across, Rise combines her strength with Kanami and the Kanamin Kitchen girls to power up her Persona, Himiko, transforming it into a giant stage for Yu and the others to express themselves. Finally understanding their feelings, Mikuratana-no-Kami releases everyone and returns them to the real world, where Kanami prepares to finish off the festival with a performance of Calystegia.[1][2][3]
Development[edit]
Persona 4: Dancing All Night was announced alongside Persona 5 and Persona Q: Shadow of the Labyrinth during an Atlus event in Japan on November 24, 2013.[4][5] The game was originally announced as being developed by the combination of Atlus and Dingo, the latter being chosen for their work in the similar gameplay of Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA series, although Dingo was later dropped from the project after the game's development staff was reshuffled.[6] A North American release was later announced for 2015.[2] During Tokyo Game Show 2014, it was announced that the Japanese version would also be released in 2015, when it was previously announced to be released in Fall 2014.[7] On June 28, 2015, it was announced that NIS America would be publishing the game in Europe in Fall 2015.[8] Following this announcement, Bandai Namco announced on their official Twitter account that the game would also be released in Australia and New Zealand on November 5, 2015.[9] Rise Kujikawa is played by Ashly Burch in the game due to conflicting schedules which prevented Laura Bailey, Rise's English voice actress in previous Persona games, from reprising her role.[10][11]
The soundtrack was supervised and directed by series regular, Shoji Meguro, with original compositions by Ryota Koduka.[12] The game features over 30 tracks, including remixes of previous songs in the franchise by other musicians such as Tetsuya Komuro, Daisuke Asakura, Shinichi Osawa, Towa Tei, De De Mouse, Narasaki, Banvox, Norihiko Hibino, Yuu Miyake, Akira Yamaoka, and Lotus Juice.[3][13] The game features multiple playable characters, including all eight members of Persona 4's Investigation Team, along with Nanako Dojima, Margaret and Kanami Mashita from Persona 4, the lattermost of whom being playable for the first time. Additionally, the Persona 4 character Tohru Adachi and the Persona 4 Golden character Marie are available through downloadable content.[14] An additional DLC track features Vocaloid character Hatsune Miku as a playable character.[15]
Reception[edit]
Reception
Aggregate score
Aggregator
Score
Metacritic 76/100[16]
Review scores
Publication
Score
Famitsu 33/40[17]
GameSpot 5/10[18]
IGN 8.4/10[19]
The Japanese video game magazine Famitsu gave the game the review score 33 of 40, consisting of the sub-scores 8, 8, 8, and 9.[17] Heath Hindman of PlayStation LifeStyle gave the game 8 out of 10, praising the soundtrack and unique feel of the game.[20] The game sold 94,036 physical retail copies within its debut week of release within Japan, placing second within the Japanese software sales charts for that particular week.[21] IGN awarded it 8.4 out of 10, saying "Persona 4: Dancing All Night highlights the wonderful music from the Persona series while building a solid story".[19]
However, Heidi Kemps of GameSpot gave the game a 5 out of 10, and stated that "Dancing All Night might have sounded like a fun idea on paper, but it simply doesn’t hold a candle to better portable rhythm games." She also stated that the "story is disappointing, the gameplay is mediocre, and the only thing that really feels fun is playing dress-up with characters and their various outfits."[18]
Sequels[edit]
In August 2017, Atlus announced two followups to the game, titled Persona 3: Dancing Moon Night and Persona 5: Dancing Star Night, which are respectively based on the characters and setting of Persona 3 and Persona 5. Both are planned for release on the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita in Q2 2018.[22] Wada, Soejima, and Koduka returned as producer, character designer and composer, respectively.[23]
Beginning development simultaneously following the success of Dancing All Night, the team intended to make refinements to both gameplay and graphics. Initially wanting to work on a game based on Persona 3, the development of Persona 5 and fan anticipation encouraged them to make games based on both titles. Because of this, they decided to release the games simultaneously. A major difference is the lack of a story mode, with rhythm sequences instead taking place within the events of Persona 3 and Persona 5 around character-based interactions.[24][25]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Perusona Fō: Danshingu Ōru Naito (Japanese: ペルソナ４ ダンシングオールナイト)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "P4D - ペルソナ4 ダンシング・オールナイト - 公式サイト". Retrieved 14 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin, John (February 25, 2014). "Persona 5 and More Confirmed for PS3 in North America". PlayStation Blog. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Persona 4: Dancing All Night story, characters detailed". Gematsu. December 2, 2013. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Farokhmanesh, Megan (November 24, 2013). "Persona 5 coming to Japan winter 2014, spin-off titles announced". Polygon. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Moriarty, Colin (November 24, 2013). "Persona 4: Dancing All Night Announced For PlayStation Vita". IGN. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Martin, Michael. "TGS 2014: Atlus Takes Over Lead Development On Persona 4: Dancing All Night". IGN. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Romano, Sal. "Persona 4: Dancing All Night delayed to 2015". Game. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Donaldson, Alex. "NIS America is bringing Persona 4 Dancing All Night to Europe this Fall.". RPG Site. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Bandai Namco AU. "Bandai Namco AU confirms Australian release date of November 5th". Bandai Namco AU. Retrieved September 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bailey, Laura (June 16, 2015). "Laura Bailey on Twitter". Twitter. Archived from the original on July 22, 2015. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Resume". Ashly Burch. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
Jump up ^ James, Thomas. "Japanese Persona Magazine interviews Atlus staff on Persona 5, Dancing All Night". Gematsu. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
Jump up ^ McWhertor, Michael. "Persona 4: Dancing All Night's two new trailers are just really fun". Polygon. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Spencer (June 23, 2015). "Persona 4: Dancing All Night Has Marie And Adachi As DLC Characters". Siliconera. Retrieved June 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ McWhertor, Michael (July 23, 2015). "Hatsune Miku is joining the cast of the Persona dancing game". Polygon. Retrieved August 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Persona 4: Dancing All Night". Metacritic. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Romano, Sal (June 17, 2015). "Famitsu Review Scores: Issue 1385". Gematsu. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Kemps, Heidi (September 22, 2015). "Persona 4: Dancing All Night Review". GameSpot. Retrieved May 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Sanchez, Miranda (September 22, 2015). "Persona 4: Dancing All Night review". IGN. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hindman, Heath (July 9, 2015). "Persona 4: Dancing All Night Review – The Shadow Whirled". PlayStation LifeStyle. Retrieved July 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Media Create Sales: 6/22/15 – 6/28/15". Gematsu. July 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bell, Alice (2017-08-02). "Atlus announces rhythm games for Persona 5 and Persona 3". VideoGamer.com. Archived from the original on 2017-08-02. Retrieved 2017-08-02.
Jump up ^ 『ペルソナ3』、『ペルソナ5』のリズムゲームが2018年春同時発売決定！ 『ペルソナQ2（仮題）』も開発中 (in Japanese). Famitsu. 2017-08-02. Archived from the original on 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2017-08-09.
Jump up ^ Dengeki PlayStation (in Japanese). ASCII Media Works (644): 106–109. 2017-08-10.
Jump up ^ Famitsu (in Japanese). Enterbrain (1497): 24–27. 2017-08-10.
External links[edit]
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Soviet Empire
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The informal term "Soviet Empire" has two meanings. In the narrow sense, it expresses a view in Western Sovietology that the Soviet Union as a state was a colonial empire. The onset of this interpretation is traditionally attributed to Richard Pipes's book The Formation of the Soviet Union (1954).[1] In the wider sense, it refers to the country's perceived imperialist foreign policy during the Cold War.[citation needed] The nations said to be part of the Soviet Empire (in the wider sense) were officially independent countries with separate governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to remain within certain limits decided by the Soviet Union and enforced by threat of intervention by the Warsaw Pact (Hungary 1956, Czechoslovakia 1968 and Poland 1980). Countries in this situation are often called satellite states.
Contents
1 Characteristics
2 Influence
2.1 Soviet satellite states
2.2 Independent communist states
2.3 Soviet involvement in the Third World
2.4 Neutral states
3 See also
4 References
Characteristics[edit]
Remains of the "iron curtain" in Devínska Nová Ves, Bratislava (Slovakia)
Though the Soviet Union was not ruled by an emperor and declared itself anti-imperialist and a people's democracy, critics[2][3] argue that it exhibited tendencies common to historic empires. Some scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires and nation states.[2] It has also been argued that the Soviet Union practiced colonialism as did other imperial powers.[3] Maoists argued that the Soviet Union had itself become an imperialist power while maintaining a socialist façade.
The other dimension of "Soviet imperialism" is cultural imperialism. The policy of Soviet cultural imperialism implied the Sovietization of culture and education at the expense of local traditions.[4]
The penetration of the Soviet influence into the "socialist-leaning countries" was also of the political and ideological kind as rather than getting hold on their economic riches, the Soviet Union pumped enormous amounts of "international assistance" into them in order to secure influence,[5] eventually to the detriment of its own economy. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when Russia declared itself successor it recognized $103 billion of Soviet foreign debt while claiming $140 billion of Soviet assets abroad.[5]
Influence[edit]
The Soviet Empire is considered to have included the following states.[6][7]
Soviet satellite states[edit]
The Soviet Union is seen in red while states in light pink were satellites; Yugoslavia, a communist state that was a Soviet ally until 1948, is marked in purple; and Albania, a communist state which ceased being allied to the Soviet Union in the 1960s after the Sino-Soviet split, is marked in orange
These countries were the closest allies of the Soviet Union. They were often members of the Comecon, a Soviet-led economic community founded in 1949. In addition, the ones located in Eastern Europe were also members of the Warsaw Pact. They were sometimes called the Eastern bloc in English and were widely viewed as Soviet satellite states.
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
Albania (ended participation in Comecon after 1961 due to Soviet–Albanian split)
People's Republic of Angola after the Soviet intervention in the Angolan Civil War
Bulgaria
China (before the Sino-Soviet split)
Cuba
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Hungary
Iraq
Mongolia
Nicaragua (due to the Nicaraguan Revolution)
North Korea (1945–1991; after Chinese intervention in the Korean War in 1950, North Korea remained a Soviet ally,[8] but used the Juche ideology to balance Chinese and Soviet influence, pursuing a highly isolationist foreign policy and not joining the Comecon or any other international organization of communist states following the withdrawal of Chinese troops in 1958)
Poland
Romania
South Yemen
North Vietnam/Vietnam (after 1976)
United Arab Republic
Yugoslav Partisans/Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (ended affiliation with the Soviet Union in 1948 due to Tito–Stalin Split)
Independent communist states[edit]
Communist state alignments in 1980: pro-Soviet (red); pro-Chinese (yellow); and the non-aligned North Korea and Yugoslavia (black); Somalia had been pro-Soviet until 1977; and Cambodia (Kampuchea) had been pro-China until 1979
Some communist states were sovereign from the Soviet Union and criticized many policies of the Soviet Union. Relations were often tense, sometimes even to the point of armed conflict.
Yugoslavia (Informbiro period; 1948–1955)
Albania (following the Soviet–Albanian split in 1955 to the Sino-Albanian split in 1972)
China (following the Sino-Soviet split)
Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979; due to the Cambodian-Vietnamese War)
Somali Democratic Republic (1977–1991; due to the Ogaden War)
Soviet involvement in the Third World[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Socialist-leaning countries
Some countries in the Third World had pro-Soviet governments during the Cold War. In the political terminology of the Soviet Union, these were "countries moving along the socialist road of development" as opposed to the more advanced "countries of developed socialism", which were mostly located in Eastern Europe, but also included Vietnam and Cuba.
They received some aid, either military or economic, from the Soviet Union and were influenced by it to varying degrees. Sometimes, their support for the Soviet Union eventually stopped for various reasons and in some cases the pro-Soviet government lost power while in other cases the same government remained in power, but ended its alliance with the Soviet Union.
States that had communist governments in red, states that the Soviet Union believed at one point to be "moving toward socialism" in orange and other socialist nations in yellow (not all of the bright red states remained Soviet allies)
Some of these countries were not communist states. They are marked in italic.
Egypt (1954–1973)
Syria (1955–1991)
Equatorial Guinea (1968–1979)
Iraq (1958–1963, 1968–1991)
Guinea (1960–1978)
Mali (1960–1968)
Burma (1962–1988)
Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1977; at the outbreak of the Somali invasion of Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviet Union ceased to support Somalia, with the corresponding change in rhetoric, but Somalia broke diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and the United States adopted Somalia as a Cold War ally)[9]
Algeria (1962–1990)
Ghana (1964–1966)
Peru (1968–1975)
Sudan (1968–1972)
Libya (1969–1991)
People's Republic of the Congo (1969–1991)
Chile (1970–1973)
Cape Verde (1975–1990)
Sao Tome and Principe (1975–1991)
South Yemen (1967–1990)
Uganda (1972–1979)
Indonesia (1959–1965)
India (1971–1989)
People's Republic of Bangladesh (1971–1975)
Democratic Republic of Madagascar (1972–1991)
Guinea Bissau (1973–1991)
Derg (1974–1987)/ People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1987–1991)
Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975–1991)
People's Republic of Benin (1975–1990)
People's Republic of Mozambique (1975–1990)
People's Republic of Angola (1975–1991)
Seychelles (1977–1991)
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1991)
People's Revolutionary Government (Grenada) (1979–1983)
Nicaragua (1979–1990)
People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989)
Burkina Faso (1983–1987)
In addition, Guyana, Tanzania, Portugal and Sri Lanka constitutionally declared themselves to be socialist, even though the Soviet Union has never believed them to be "moving toward socialism".[citation needed]
Neutral states[edit]
The position of Finland was complex. In World War II, Finland had successfully resisted Soviet attack in 1944 and remained in control of most of its territory at the end of the war. Finland also had a market economy, traded on the Western markets and joined the Western currency system. Nevertheless, although Finland was considered neutral, the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 significantly limited the freedom of operation in Finnish foreign policy. It required Finland to defend the Soviet Union from attacks through its territory, which in practice prevented Finland from joining NATO and effectively gave the Soviet Union a veto in Finnish foreign policy. The Soviet Union could thus exercise "imperial" hegemonic power even towards a neutral state.[10] The Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine sought to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union and extensive bilateral trade developed. In the West, this led to fears of the spread of "Finlandization", where Western allies would no longer reliably support the United States and NATO.[11]
See also[edit]
American imperialism
Anti-Russian sentiment
Captive Nations
Chinese imperialism
Cominform
Communist state
Evil Empire speech
Greater Germanic Reich
Imperialism
Index of Soviet Union-related articles
Red Empire
Sino-Soviet split
Western betrayal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nelly Bekus (2010). Struggle Over Identity: The Official and the Alternative "Belarusianness". p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b Mark R. Beissinger (2006). "Soviet Empire as 'Family Resemblance'". Slavic Review. 65 (2). 294–303.
Bhavna Dave (2007). Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, Language and Power. Abingdon, New York: Routledge.
^ Jump up to: a b Caroe, O. (1953). "Soviet Colonialism in Central Asia". Foreign Affairs. 32 (1): 135–144. JSTOR 20031013.
Jump up ^ Natalia Tsvetkova. Failure of American and Soviet Cultural Imperialism in German Universities, 1945-1990. Boston, Leiden: Brill, 2013
^ Jump up to: a b Dmitri Trenin (2011). Post-Imperium: A Eurasian Story. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 144-145.
Jump up ^ Cornis-Pope, Marcel (2004). History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe: Junctures and disjunctures in the 19th and 20th centuries. John Benjamins. p. 29. ISBN 978-90-272-3452-0.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Andrew H. (1986). Planning in Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-7099-0863-0.
Jump up ^ Shin, Gi-Wook (2006). Ethnic nationalism in Korea: genealogy, politics, and legacy. Stanford University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8047-5408-8.
Jump up ^ Richard Crockatt (1995). The Fifty Years War: The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics. London and New York City, New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10471-5.
Jump up ^ "The Empire Strikes Out: Imperial Russia, "National" Identity, and Theories of Empire" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Finns Worried About Russian Border".
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