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Samson
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This article is about the biblical figure. For other uses, see Samson (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Sampson, Sanson, or Samsun.
Samson
Samson's Fight with the Lion (1525) by Lucas Cranach the Elder
Predecessor
Abdon
Successor
Eli
Parents
Manoah (father)
not named (mother)
שופטים
Judges in the Bible
Italics indicate individuals not explicitly described as judges
Book of Joshua
Joshua
Book of Judges
Othniel
Ehud
Shamgar
Deborah
Gideon
Abimelech
Tola
Jair
Jephthah
Ibzan
Elon
Abdon
Samson
First Book of Samuel
Eli
Samuel
v
t
e
Samson (/ˈsæmsən/; שִׁמְשׁוֹן, Shimshon, "man of the sun")[1][a] was the last of the judges of the ancient Israelites mentioned in the Book of Judges in the Hebrew Bible (chapters 13 to 16) and one of the last of the leaders who "judged" Israel before the institution of the monarchy. He is sometimes considered to be an Israelite version of the popular Near Eastern folk hero also embodied by the Sumerian Enkidu and the Greek Heracles.
The biblical account states that Samson was a Nazirite, and that he was given immense strength to aid him against his enemies and allow him to perform superhuman feats,[2] including slaying a lion with his bare hands and massacring an entire army of Philistines using only the jawbone of a donkey. However, if Samson's long hair was cut, then his Nazirite vow would be violated and he would lose his strength.[3]
Samson was betrayed by his lover Delilah, who ordered a servant to cut his hair while he was sleeping and turned him over to his Philistine enemies, who gouged out his eyes and forced him to grind grain in a mill at Gaza. When the Philistines took Samson into their temple of Dagon, Samson asked to rest against one of the support pillars; after being granted permission, he prayed to God and miraculously recovered his strength, allowing him to grasp hold of the columns and tear them down, killing himself and all the Philistines with him. In some Jewish traditions, Samson is believed to have been buried in Tel Tzora in Israel overlooking the Sorek valley.
Samson has been the subject of both rabbinic and Christian commentary, with some Christians viewing him as a type of Jesus, based on similarities between their lives. Notable depictions of Samson include John Milton's closet drama Samson Agonistes and Cecil B. DeMille's 1949 Hollywood film Samson and Delilah. Samson also plays a major role in Western art and traditions.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical narrative
1.1 Birth
1.2 Marriage to a Philistine
1.3 Delilah
1.4 Death
2 Religious interpretations
2.1 Rabbinic literature
2.2 Christian interpretations
3 Scholarly interpretations
4 Cultural influence
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Biblical narrative[edit]
Birth[edit]
See also: Nazirite
The Sacrifice of Manoah (1640-1650) by Eustache Le Sueur
According to the account in the Book of Judges, Samson lived during a time of repeated conflict between Israel and Philistia, when God was disciplining the Israelites by giving them "into the hand of the Philistines".[4] Manoah was an Israelite from Zorah, descended from the Danites,[5] and his wife had been unable to conceive.[6][7] The Angel of the Lord appeared to Manoah's wife and proclaimed that the couple would soon have a son who would begin to deliver the Israelites from the Philistines.[8]
The Angel of the Lord stated that Manoah's wife was to abstain from all alcoholic drinks, and her promised child was not to shave or cut his hair. He was to be a Nazirite from birth. In ancient Israel, those wanting to be especially dedicated to God for a time could take a Nazirite vow which included abstaining from wine and spirits, not cutting hair or shaving, and other requirements.[6][7][8] The wife believed the Angel of the Lord; her husband was not present, so he prayed and asked God to send the messenger once again to teach them how to raise the boy who was going to be born.
After the Angel of the Lord returned, Manoah asked him his name, but he said, "Why do you ask my name? It is beyond understanding."[9] Manoah then prepared a sacrifice, but the Angel of the Lord would only allow it to be for God. He touched it with his staff, miraculously engulfing it in flames, and then ascended into the sky in the fire. This was such dramatic evidence of the nature of the Messenger that Manoah feared for his life, since it was said that no one could live after seeing God. However, his wife convinced him that, if God planned to slay them, he would never have revealed such things to them. In due time, their son Samson was born, and he was raised according to the provisions.[7][8]
Marriage to a Philistine[edit]
See also: Samson's riddle
When he was a young adult, Samson left the hills of his people to see the cities of Philistia. He fell in love with a Philistine woman from Timnah, whom he decided to marry, ignoring the objections of his parents, who were concerned because the Israelites were forbidden to marry Gentiles.[7][8][10][11] In the development of the narrative, the intended marriage was shown to be part of God's plan to strike at the Philistines.[8]
According to the biblical account, Samson was repeatedly seized by the "Spirit of the Lord," who blessed him with immense strength. The first instance of this is seen when Samson was on his way to ask for the Philistine woman's hand in marriage, when he was attacked by a lion. He simply grabbed it and ripped it apart, as the spirit of God divinely empowered him. However, Samson kept it a secret, not even mentioning the miracle to his parents.[8][12][13] He arrived at the Philistine's house and became betrothed to her. He returned home, then came back to Timnah some time later for the wedding. On his way, Samson saw that bees had nested in the carcass of the lion and made honey.[8][13] He ate a handful of the honey and gave some to his parents.[8]
At the wedding feast, Samson told a riddle to his thirty groomsmen (all Philistines). If they could solve it, he would give them thirty pieces of fine linen and garments, but if they could not solve it, they would give him thirty pieces of fine linen and garments.[7][8] The riddle was a veiled account of two encounters with the lion, at which only he was present:[8][13]
Out of the eater came something to eat.
Out of the strong came something sweet.[14]
The Philistines were infuriated by the riddle.[8] The thirty groomsmen told Samson's new wife that they would burn her and her father's household if she did not discover the answer to the riddle and tell it to them.[8][13] At the urgent and tearful imploring of his bride, Samson told her the solution, and she told it to the thirty groomsmen.[7][8]
Samson Slays a Thousand Men with the Jawbone of a Donkey (c. 1896–1902) by James Tissot
Before sunset on the seventh day they said to him,
What is sweeter than honey?
and what is stronger than a lion?
Samson said to them,
If you had not plowed with my heifer,
you would not have solved my riddle.[15]
Samson then traveled to Ashkelon (a distance of roughly 30 miles) where he slew thirty Philistines for their garments; he then returned and gave those garments to his thirty groomsmen.[7][13][16] In a rage, Samson returned to his father's house. The family of his would-have-been bride instead gave her to one of the groomsmen as wife.[7][13][16] Some time later, Samson returned to Timnah to visit his wife, unaware that she was now married to one of his former groomsmen. But her father refused to allow Samson to see her, offering to give Samson a younger sister instead.[7][16]
Samson went out, gathered 300 foxes, and tied them together in pairs by their tails. He then attached a burning torch to each pair of foxes' tails and turned them loose in the grain fields and olive groves of the Philistines.[17] The Philistines learned why Samson burned their crops and burned Samson's wife and father-in-law to death in retribution.[7][16][18]
In revenge, Samson slaughtered many more Philistines, saying, "I have done to them what they did to me."[7][16] Samson then took refuge in a cave in the rock of Etam.[7][16][19] An army of Philistines came to the Tribe of Judah and demanded that 3,000 men of Judah deliver them Samson.[7][19] With Samson's consent, they tied him with two new ropes and were about to hand him over to the Philistines when he broke free of the ropes.[18][19] Using the jawbone of a donkey, he slew 1,000 Philistines.[18][19][20]
Delilah[edit]
Samson and Delilah (1887) by Jose Etxenagusia
Later, Samson travels to Gaza, where he stays at a harlot's house.[16][21] His enemies wait at the gate of the city to ambush him, but he tears the gate from its very hinges and frame and carries it to "the hill that is in front of Hebron".[16][21]
He then falls in love with Delilah in the valley of Sorek.[16][18][21][22] The Philistines approach Delilah and induce her with 1,100 silver coins to find the secret of Samson's strength so that they can capture their enemy,[16][21] but Samson refuses to reveal the secret and teases her, telling her that he will lose his strength if he is bound with fresh bowstrings.[16][21] She does so while he sleeps, but when he wakes up he snaps the strings.[16][21] She persists, and he tells her that he can be bound with new ropes. She ties him up with new ropes while he sleeps, and he snaps them, too.[16][21] She asks again, and he says that he can be bound if his locks are woven into a weaver's loom.[16][21] She weaves them into a loom, but he simply destroys the entire loom and carries it off when he wakes.[16][21]
Delilah, however, persists and Samson finally wears down and tells Delilah that God supplies his power because of his consecration to God as a Nazirite, symbolized by the fact that a razor has never touched his head, and that if his hair is cut off he will lose his strength.[23][24][16][22] Delilah then woos him to sleep "in her lap" and calls for a servant to shave his hair.[16] Samson loses his strength and he is captured by the Philistines who blind him by gouging out his eyes.[16] They then take him to Gaza, imprison him, and put him to work turning a large millstone and grinding corn.[21]
Pushing or pulling?
According to the biblical narrative, Samson died when he grasped two pillars of the Temple of Dagon and "bowed himself with all his might" (Judges 16:30, KJV). This has been variously interpreted as Samson pushing the pillars apart (left) or pulling them together (right).
Death[edit]
One day, the Philistine leaders assemble in a temple for a religious sacrifice to Dagon, one of their most important deities, for having delivered Samson into their hands.[21][25] They summon Samson so that people can watch him perform for them. The temple is so crowded that people are even climbing onto the roof to watch—and all the rulers of the entire government of Philistia have gathered there too, some 3,000 people in all.[22][25][26] Samson is led into the temple, and he asks his captors to let him lean against the supporting pillars to rest. He prays for strength and God gives him strength to break the pillars, causing the temple to collapse, killing him and the people inside.[27]
After his death, Samson's family recovered his body from the rubble and bury him near the tomb of his father Manoah.[25] A tomb structure which some attribute to Samson and his father stands on the top of the mountain in Tel Tzora.[28] At the conclusion of Judges 16, it is said that Samson had "judged" Israel for twenty years.[19] The Bible does not mention the fate of Delilah.[22]
Religious interpretations[edit]
Rabbinic literature[edit]
The Blinded Samson (1912) by Lovis Corinth
Main article: Samson in rabbinic literature
Rabbinic literature identifies Samson with Bedan,[7] a Judge mentioned by Samuel in his farewell address (1 Samuel 12:11) among the Judges who delivered Israel from their enemies.[29] However, the name "Bedan" is not found in the Book of Judges.[29] The name "Samson" is derived from the Hebrew word šemeš, which means "sun",[7][1][30] so that Samson bore the name of God, who is called "a sun and shield" in Psalms 84:11;[7] and as God protected Israel, so did Samson watch over it in his generation, judging the people even as did God.[7] Samson's strength was divinely derived (Talmud, Tractate Sotah 10a).[7][31]
Jewish legend records that Samson's shoulders were sixty cubits broad.[7] (Many Talmudic commentaries, however, explain that this is not to be taken literally, for a person that size could not live normally in society. Rather, it means that he had the ability to carry a burden 60 cubits wide (approximately 30 meters) on his shoulders).[32] He was lame in both feet[33] but, when the spirit of God came upon him, he could step with one stride from Zorah to Eshtaol, while the hairs of his head arose and clashed against one another so that they could be heard for a like distance.[7][34] Samson was said to be so strong that he could uplift two mountains and rub them together like two clods of earth,[35] yet his superhuman strength, like Goliath's, brought woe upon its possessor.[7][36]
In licentiousness, he is compared with Amnon and Zimri, both of whom were punished for their sins.[7][37] Samson's eyes were put out because he had "followed them" too often.[7][38] It is said that, in the twenty years during which Samson judged Israel, he never required the least service from an Israelite,[39] and he piously refrained from taking the name of God in vain.[7] Therefore, as soon as he told Delilah that he was a Nazarite of God, she immediately knew that he had spoken the truth.[7][38] When he pulled down the temple of Dagon and killed himself and the Philistines, the structure fell backward so that he was not crushed, his family being thus enabled to find his body and to bury it in the tomb of his father.[7][40]
In the Talmudic period, some seem to have denied that Samson was a historical figure, regarding him instead as a purely mythological personage. This was viewed as heretical by the rabbis of the Talmud, and they attempted to refute this. They named Hazelelponi as his mother in Numbers Rabbah Naso 10 and in Bava Batra 91a and stated that he had a sister named "Nishyan" or "Nashyan".[7]
Christian interpretations[edit]
Samson in the Treadmill (1863) by Carl Bloch
Samson's story has also garnered commentary from a Christian perspective; the Epistle to the Hebrews praises him for his faith.[41] Ambrose, following the portrayal of Josephus and Pseudo-Philo,[42] represents Delilah as a Philistine prostitute,[42] and declares that "men should avoid marriage with those outside the faith, lest, instead of love of one's spouse, there be treachery."[42] Caesarius of Arles interpreted Samson's death as prefiguring the crucifixion of Jesus,[42] remarking: "Notice here an image of the cross. Samson extends his hands spread out to the two columns as to the two beams of the cross."[42] He also equates Delilah with Satan,[42] who tempted Christ.[42]
Following this trend, more recent Christian commentators have viewed Samson as a type of Jesus Christ, based on similarities between Samson's story and the life of Jesus in the New Testament.[43][44] Samson's and Jesus' births were both foretold by angels,[43] who predicted that they would save their people.[43] Samson was born to a barren woman,[43] and Jesus was born of a virgin.[43] Samson defeated a lion; Jesus defeated Satan, whom the First Epistle of Peter describes as a "roaring lion looking for someone to devour".[45] Samson's betrayal by Delilah has also been compared to Jesus' betrayal by Judas Iscariot;[44] both Delilah and Judas were paid in pieces of silver for their respective deeds.[46] Ebenezer Cobham Brewer notes in his A Guide to Scripture History: The Old Testament that Samson was "blinded, insulted [and] enslaved" prior to his death, and that Jesus was "blindfolded, insulted, and treated as a slave" prior to his crucifixion.[47] Brewer also compares Samson's death among "the wicked" with Christ being crucified between two thieves.[47]
Scholarly interpretations[edit]
Samson Slaying the Lion (1628) by Peter Paul Rubens
Academics have interpreted Samson as a demigod (such as Heracles or Enkidu) enfolded into Jewish religious lore,[48] or as an archetypical folk hero.[30]
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some comparative mythologists interpreted Samson as a euhemerized solar deity,[49][50][51][30] arguing that Samson's name is derived from the Hebrew word šemeš, meaning "sun",[30][1] and that his long hair might represent the sun's rays.[30] These solar theorists also pointed out that the legend of Samson is set within the general vicinity of Beth Shemesh, a village whose name means "Temple of the Sun".[30] They argued that the name Delilah may have been a wordplay with the Hebrew word for night, layla, which "consumes" the day.[52] Although this hypothesis is still sometimes promoted in scholarly circles,[30] it has generally fallen out of favor due to the superficiality of supporting evidence.[30]
An interpretation far more popular among current scholars holds that Samson is a Hebrew variant of the same international Near Eastern folk hero which inspired the earlier Mesopotamian Enkidu and the later Greek Heracles (and, by extension, his Roman Hercules adaptation).[53][30][1] Heracles and Samson both slew a lion bare-handed (the former killed the Nemean lion).[30][1] Likewise, they were both believed to have once been extremely thirsty and drunk water which poured out from a rock,[53] and to have torn down the gates of a city.[53] They were both betrayed by a woman (Heracles by Deianira, Samson by Delilah),[30] who led them to their respective dooms.[30] Both heroes, champions of their respective peoples, die by their own hands:[30] Heracles ends his life on a pyre; whereas Samson makes the Philistine temple collapse upon himself and his enemies.[30] In this interpretation, the annunciation of Samson's birth to his mother is a censored account of divine conception.[53] Samson also strongly resembles Shamgar,[30] another hero mentioned in the Book of Judges,[30] who, in Judges 3:31, is described as having slain 600 Philistines with an ox-goad.[30]
A monument of Samson in Poland
These views are disputed by traditional and conservative biblical scholars who consider Samson to be a literal historical figure and thus reject any connections to mythological heroes.[30] The concept of Samson as a "solar hero" has been described as "an artificial ingenuity".[54] Joan Comay, co-author of Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament, believes that the biblical story of Samson is so specific concerning time and place that Samson was undoubtedly a real person who pitted his great strength against the oppressors of Israel.[55] In contrast, James King West considers that the hostilities between the Philistines and Hebrews appear to be of a "purely personal and local sort".[56] He also considers that Samson stories have, in contrast to much of Judges, an "almost total lack of a religious or moral tone".[56] Conversely, Elon Gilad of Haaretz writes "some biblical stories are flat-out cautions against marrying foreign women, none more than the story of Samson".[57] Gilad notes how Samson's parents disapprove of his desire to marry a Philistine woman and how Samson's relationship with Delilah leads to his demise.[57] He contrasts this with what he sees as a more positive portrayal of intermarriage in the Book of Ruth.[57]
In August 2012, archaeologists from Tel Aviv University announced the discovery of a circular stone seal,[58] approximately 15 millimetres in diameter,[58] which was found on the floor of a house at Beth Shemesh[58] and appears to depict a long-haired man slaying a lion.[58] The seal is dated to the 12th century BCE.[58] Professor Shlomo Bunimovitz, a co-director of the dig, was reported as saying that the artifact helps "anchor the story [of Samson] in an archaeological setting."[58]
Zvi Lederman, the other co-director of the dig, believes that Beth Shemesh was a cultural meeting point on the border of Israelite, Canaanite, and Philistine areas[58] and calls the stories of Samson "border sagas",[58] noting that Samson could cross boundaries to seek out a Philistine wife, but also to fight and kill Philistines:[58] "When you cross the border, you have to fight the enemy and you encounter dangerous animals. You meet bad things. These are stories of contact and conflict, of a border that is more cultural than political."[58] According to Haaretz, "excavation directors Prof. Shlomo Bunimovitz and Dr. Zvi Lederman of Tel Aviv University say they do not suggest that the human figure on the seal is the biblical Samson. Rather, the geographical proximity to the area where Samson lived, and the time period of the seal, show that a story was being told at the time of a hero who fought a lion, and that the story eventually found its way into the biblical text and onto the seal."[59]
Cultural influence[edit]
Statue of Samson and the lion in Peterhof, Russia
Samson parade Mauterndorf, Austria
Alleged site of Samson's tomb in the Zorah (Tzora) forest
Main article: Cultural references to Samson
As an important biblical character, Samson has been referred to in popular culture and depicted in a vast array of films, artwork, and popular literature. John Milton's closet drama Samson Agonistes is an allegory for the downfall of the Puritans and the restoration of the English monarchy[60] in which the blinded and imprisoned Samson represents Milton himself,[60] the "Chosen People" represent the Puritans,[60] and the Philistines represent the English Royalists.[60] The play combines elements of ancient Greek tragedy and biblical narrative.[61] Samson is portrayed as a hero,[62] whose violent actions are mitigated by the righteous cause in whose name they are enacted.[62] The play casts Delilah as an unrepentant, but sympathetic, deceiver[63] and speaks approvingly of the subjugation of women.[63]
In 1735, George Frideric Handel wrote the opera Samson,[64] with a libretto by Newburgh Hamilton, based on Samson Agonistes.[64] The opera is almost entirely set inside Samson's prison[64] and Delilah only briefly appears in Act II.[64] In 1877, Camille Saint-Saëns composed the opera Samson and Delilah with a libretto by Ferdinand Lemaire in which the entire story of Samson and Delilah is retold.[64] In the libretto, Delilah is portrayed as a seductive femme fatale,[64] but the music played during her parts invokes sympathy for her.[64]
The 1949 biblical drama Samson and Delilah, directed by Cecil B. DeMille and starring Victor Mature and Hedy Lamarr in the titular roles, was widely praised by critics for its cinematography, lead performances, costumes, sets, and innovative special effects.[65] It became the highest-grossing film of 1950,[66] and was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning two.[67] According to Variety, the film portrays Samson as a stereotypical "handsome but dumb hulk of muscle".[68]
Samson has been especially honored in Russian artwork[69] because the Russians defeated the Swedes in the Battle of Poltava on the feast day of St. Sampson, whose name is homophonous with Samson's.[69] The lion slain by Samson was interpreted to represent Sweden, as a result of the lion's placement on the Swedish coat of arms.[69] In 1735, C. B. Rastrelli's bronze statue of Samson slaying the lion was placed in the center of the great cascade of the fountain at Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg.[69]
Samson is the emblem of Lungau, Salzburg[70] and parades in his honor are held annually in ten villages of the Lungau and two villages in the north-west Styria (Austria).[70] During the parade, a young bachelor from the community carries a massive figure made of wood or aluminum said to represent Samson.[70] The tradition, which was first documented in 1635,[70] was entered into the UNESCO list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Austria in 2010.[70][71] Samson is one of the giant figures at the "Ducasse" festivities, which take place at Ath, Belgium.[72]
See also[edit]
Gilgamesh
Samson Option
Samson Unit
Shamash
Strength (Tarot card)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Greek: Σαμψών
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Van der Toorn, Karel; Pecking, Tom; van der Horst, Peter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 404. ISBN 9780802824912.
Jump up ^ Comay, Joan; Brownrigg, Ronald (1993). Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament. New York: Wing Books. pp. Old Testament, 316–317. ISBN 0-517-32170-X.
Jump up ^ Judges 16:17
Jump up ^ Judges 13
Jump up ^ Judges 13:2
^ Jump up to: a b Rogerson, John W. (1999). Chronicle of the Old Testament Kings: the Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers of Ancient Israel. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 58. ISBN 0-500-05095-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Samson". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Comay, Joan; Brownrigg, Ronald (1993). Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament. New York: Wing Books. pp. Old Testament, 317. ISBN 0-517-32170-X.
Jump up ^ Judges 13
Jump up ^ Deuteronomy 7:3
Jump up ^ Judges 14
Jump up ^ Judges 14:6
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Rogerson, John W. (1999). Chronicle of the Old Testament Kings: the Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers of Ancient Israel. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 59. ISBN 0-500-05095-3.
Jump up ^ Judges 14:14
Jump up ^ Judges 14:18
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Comay, Joan; Brownrigg, Ronald (1993). Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament. New York: Wing Books. pp. Old Testament, 318. ISBN 0-517-32170-X.
Jump up ^ Judges 15
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rogerson, John W. (1999). Chronicle of the Old Testament Kings: The Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers of Ancient Israel. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 61. ISBN 0-500-05095-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Judges 16
Jump up ^ Porter, J. R. (2000). The Illustrated Guide to the Bible. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 75. ISBN 0-7607-2278-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Judges 16
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rogerson, John W. (1999). Chronicle of the Old Testament Kings: The Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers of Ancient Israel. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 62. ISBN 0-500-05095-3.
Jump up ^ Judges 16:17
Jump up ^ Judges 16:16 (ESV)
^ Jump up to: a b c Comay, Joan; Brownrigg, Ronald (1993). Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament. New York: Wing Books. pp. Old Testament, 319. ISBN 0-517-32170-X.
Jump up ^ Judges 16:27
Jump up ^ Judges 16:28–30, JPS (1917)
Jump up ^ I. M. Levinger; Kalman Neuman (2008). IsraGuide 2007/2008 (pb). Feldheim Publishers. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-59826-154-7.
^ Jump up to: a b BibleGateway – Quick search: Bedan
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Mobley, Gregory (2006). Samson and the Liminal Hero in the Ancient Near East. New York City, New York and London, England: T & T Clark. pp. 5–12. ISBN 978-0-567-02842-6.
Jump up ^ Midrash Genesis Rabbah xcviii. 18
Jump up ^ Ben Yehoyada and Maharal, in commentary to Talmud, tractate "sotah" 10a
Jump up ^ (Talmud tractate Sotah 10a)
Jump up ^ Midrash Leviticus Rabbah viii. 2
Jump up ^ (ibid.; Sotah 9b)
Jump up ^ Midrash Eccl. Rabbah i., end
Jump up ^ (Leviticus Rabbah. xxiii. 9)
^ Jump up to: a b (Sotah l.c.)
Jump up ^ (Midrash Numbers Rabbah ix. 25)
Jump up ^ (Midrash Genesis Rabbah l.c. § 19)
Jump up ^ Hebrews 11:32-11:34
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Newsome, Carol Ann; Ringe, Sharon H.; Lapsley, Jacqueline E., eds. (2012) [1992]. Women's Bible Commentary (third ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-664-23707-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thomson, Edward (1838). "Prophecy, Types, And Miracles, The Great Bulwarks Of Christianity: Or A Critical Examination And Demonstration Of Some Of The Evidences By Which The Christian Faith Is Supported". Hatchard & Son. p. 299–300. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Heaster, Duncan (2017). "Micah: Old Testament New European Christadelphian Commentary". Retrieved October 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Beasley, Robert C. (2008). "101 Portraits of Jesus in the Hebrew Scriptures". Signalman Publishing. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lynn G, S (2008). "A Study of the Good the Bad and the Desperate Women in the Bible". p. 46. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham. "A Guide to Scripture History. The Old Testament". Trinity Hall, Cambridge. p. 190. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Leviton, Richard (2014). The Mertowney Mountain Interviews. iUniverse. p. 244. ISBN 9781491741290.
Jump up ^ Jastrow, Morris (1898). The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. Boston: Ginn & Company.
Jump up ^ Charles Fox Burney, The Book of Judges, with Introduction and Notes (London: Rivingtons, 1918).
Jump up ^ Graves, Robert (1955) The Greek Myths cf Herakles.
Jump up ^ Freedman, David Noel, ed. (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of The Bible. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 336 (entry for 'Delilah'). ISBN 0-8028-2400-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wajdenbaum, P. (2014). Argonauts of the Desert: Structural Analysis of the Hebrew Bible. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. pp. 223–227. ISBN 978-1-84553-924-5.
Jump up ^ Cooke, George Albert (1913). The Book of Judges. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Comay, Joan; Brownrigg, Ronald (1993). Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament. New York: Wing Books. pp. Old Testament, 320. ISBN 0-517-32170-X.
^ Jump up to: a b West, James King (1971). Introduction to the Old Testament. New York City, New York: MacMillan Company. p. 183.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gilad, Elon (June 4, 2014). "Intermarriage and the Jews: What Would the Early Israelites Say?". Haaretz. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "Ancient Seal May Add Substance to the Legend of Samson". Science Daily. 13 August 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Hasson, Nir (Jul 30, 2012). "National Seal found by Israeli archeologists may give substance to Samson legend". Haaretz. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Smith, Preserved (1930). A History of Modern Culture. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 387. ISBN 978-1-108-07464-3.
Jump up ^ Teskey, Gordon (2006). Delirious Milton: The Fate of the Poet in Modernity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 144. ISBN 9780674010697.
^ Jump up to: a b Lieb, Michael (1994). Milton and the Culture of Violence. London, England: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801429033.
^ Jump up to: a b Guillory, John (1986). "Dalila's House: Samson Agonistes' and the Sexual Division of Labor". In Ferguson, Margaret; Quilligan, Maurren; Vickers, Nancy. Rewriting the Renaissance: The Discourses of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226243146.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Leneman, Helen (2000). "Portrayals of Power in the Stories of Delilah and Bathsheba: Seduction in Song". In Aichele, George. Culture, Entertainment, and the Bible. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, Ltd. p. 153. ISBN 1-84127-075-X.
Jump up ^ McKay, James (2013). The Films of Victor Mature. McFarland & Company. p. 76. ISBN 9780786449705.
Jump up ^ Barton, Ruth (2010). Hedy Lamarr: The Most Beautiful Woman in Film. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 174. ISBN 9780813126104.
Jump up ^ "23rd Academy Awards Winners". www.oscars.org.
Jump up ^ Variety staff (31 December 1949). "Variety – Review: Samson and Delilah". Variety.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wortman, Richard S. (2006). Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy: From Peter the Great to the Abdication of Nicholas II. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-691-12374-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Samson:Emblem of Lungau". lungau.at. Saliburger Lungau.
Jump up ^ Samsontragen im Lungau und Bezirk Murau Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine., Nationalagentur für das Immaterielle Kulturerbe, Österreichische UNESCO-Kommission
Jump up ^ see fr:Samson (Géant processionnel)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Samson.
Catalogue entry for Samson (1887) by Solomon Solomon, National Museums Liverpool
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Spinning jenny
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 10 June 2018.
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Model of spinning jenny in the Museum of Early Industrialisation, Wuppertal, Germany
The spinning jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire in England. The device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced. The yarn produced by the jenny was not very strong until Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered 'water frame', which produced yarn harder and stronger than that of the initial spinning jenny. It started the factory system.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Components
1.2 The politics of cotton
1.3 The economics of Northern England in 1750
2 Success
3 Origin and myth
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
History[edit]
The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. He was born in Oswaldtwistle, near Blackburn, around 1720. Blackburn was a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of "Blackburn greys," cloths of linen warp and cotton weft initially imported from India. They were usually sent to London to be printed.
At the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand of the textile industry, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle (John Kay 1733) had increased yarn demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity,[2] and now the spinning jenny could supply that demand by increasing the spinners' productivity even more. The machine produced coarse thread.
The improved spinning jenny that was used in textile mills
Components[edit]
The idea was developed by Hargreaves as a metal frame with eight wooden spindles at one end. A set of eight rovings was attached to a beam on that frame. The rovings when extended passed through two horizontal bars of wood that could be clasped together. These bars could be drawn along the top of the frame by the spinner's left hand thus extending the thread. The spinner used his right hand to rapidly turn a wheel which caused all the spindles to revolve, and the thread to be spun. When the bars were returned, the thread wound onto the spindle. A pressing wire (faller) was used to guide the threads onto the right place on the spindle.[3]
The politics of cotton[edit]
In the 17th century, England was famous for its woollen and worsted cloth. That industry was centred in the east and south in towns such as Norwich which jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny: in 1701 only 1,985,868 pounds (900,775 kg) of cotton-wool was imported into England, and by 1730 this had fallen to 1,545,472 pounds (701,014 kg). This was due to commercial legislation (Calico Acts) to protect the woollen industry.[4] Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from "Hindustan", became popular. In 1700 an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused grey cloth (calico that hadn't been finished - dyed or printed) to be imported instead, and these were printed in southern England with popular patterns. Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, which they sent to London to be finished.[4] Cotton-wool imports recovered and by 1720 were almost back to 1701 levels. Again the woollen manufacturers claimed this was taking jobs from workers in Coventry.[5] Another law was passed, to fine anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico; muslins, neckcloths and fustians were exempted. It was this exemption that the Lancashire manufacturers exploited.
The use of coloured cotton weft, with linen warp was permitted in the 1736 Manchester Act. There now was an artificial demand for woven cloth. In 1764, 3,870,392 pounds (1,755,580 kg) of cotton-wool was imported.[6]
The economics of Northern England in 1750[edit]
In England, before canals, and before the turnpikes, the only way to transport goods such as calicos, broadcloth or cotton-wool was by packhorse. Strings of packhorses travelled along a network of bridle paths. A merchant would be away from home most of the year, carrying his takings in cash in his saddlebag. Later a series of chapmen would work for the merchant, taking wares to wholesalers and clients in other towns, with them would go sample books.[7]
Before 1720, the handloom weaver spent part of each day visiting neighbours buying any weft they had. Carding and spinning could be the only income for that household, or part of it. The family might farm a few acres and card, spin and weave wool and cotton.[8] It took three carders to provide the roving for one spinner, and up to three spinners to provide the yarn for one weaver. The process was continuous, and done by both sexes, from the youngest to the oldest. The weaver would go once a week to the market with his wares and offer them for sale.
A change came about 1740 when fustian masters gave out raw cotton and warps to the weavers and returned to collect the finished cloth (→ Putting-out system). The weaver organised the carding, spinning and weaving to the master's specification.[9] The master then dyed or printed the grey cloth, and took it to shopkeepers. Ten years later this had changed and the fustian masters were middle men, who collected the grey cloth and took it to market in Manchester where it was sold to merchants who organised the finishing.
To handweave a 12-pound (5.4 kg) piece of eighteenpenny weft took 14 days and paid 36 shillings in all. Of this nine shillings was paid for spinning, and nine for carding.[8] So by 1750, a rudimentary manufacturing system feeding into a marketing system emerged.
In 1738 John Kay started to improve the loom. He improved the reed, and invented the raceboard, the shuttleboxes and the picker which together allowed one weaver to double his output. This invention is commonly called the fly-shuttle. It met with violent opposition and he fled from Lancashire to Leeds.[10] Though the workers thought this was a threat to their jobs, it was adopted and the pressure was on to speed up carding and spinning.
The shortage of spinning capacity to feed the more efficient looms provided the motivation to develop more productive spinning techniques such as the spinning jenny, and triggered the start of the Industrial Revolution.
Success[edit]
Hargreaves kept the machine secret for some time, but produced a number for his own growing industry. The price of yarn fell, angering the large spinning community in Blackburn. Eventually they broke into his house and smashed his machines, forcing him to flee to Nottingham in 1768. This was a centre for the hosiery industry, and knitted silks, cottons and wool. There he set up shop producing jennies in secret for one Mr Shipley, with the assistance of a joiner named Thomas James. He and James set up a textile business in Mill Street. On 12 July 1770, he took out a patent (no. 962) on his invention, the Spinning Jenny—a machine for spinning, drawing and twisting cotton.[11] [12] By this time a number of spinners in Lancashire were using copies of the machine, and Hargreaves sent notice that he was taking legal action against them. The manufacturers met, and offered Hargreaves £3,000. He at first demanded £7,000, and stood out for £4,000, but the case eventually fell apart when it was learned he had sold several in the past.[13]
The spinning jenny succeeded because it held more than one ball of yarn, making more yarn in a shorter time and reducing the overall cost. The spinning jenny would not have been such a success if the flying shuttle had not been invented and installed in textile factories. Its success was limited in that it required the rovings to be prepared on a wheel, and this was limited by the need to card by hand.[1] It continued in common use in the cotton and fustian industry until about 1810.[14] The spinning jenny was superseded by the spinning mule. The jenny was adapted for the process of slubbing, being the basis of the Slubbing Billy.[15]
Origin and myth[edit]
The most common story told about the invention of the device and the origin of the Jenny in the machine's name is that a daughter (or his wife) named Jenny knocked over one of their own spinning wheels. The device kept working as normal, with the spindle now pointed upright. Hargreaves realized there was no particular reason the spindles had to be horizontal, as they always had been, and he could place them vertically in a row.[16]
The name is variously said to derive from this tale. The Registers of Church Kirk show that Hargreaves had several daughters, but none named Jenny (neither was his wife). A more likely explanation of the name is that 'Jenny' was an abbreviation of 'engine'.[17]
Thomas Highs of Leigh has claimed to be the inventor[18] and the story is repeated using his wife's name.
Another myth has Thomas Earnshaw inventing a spinning device of a similar description - but destroying it after fearing he might be taking bread out of the mouths of the poor.[19]
See also[edit]
Cotton mill
Luddite
Spinning mule
Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution
Textile manufacturing
Timeline of clothing and textiles technology
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Espinasse 1874, p. 322
Jump up ^ Timmins 1993, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Baines 1835, p. 157
^ Jump up to: a b Espinasse 1874, p. 296
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 298
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 299
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 300
^ Jump up to: a b Espinasse 1874, p. 306
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 304
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 313
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 325
Jump up ^ Aiken, John. "John Aitken on the industrialization in and around Manchester, 1795". Retrieved 2016-11-26.
Jump up ^ Baines 1835, p. 162
Jump up ^ Guest 1828 and could produce both weft and warp for the woollen industry.
Jump up ^ Marsden 1884, p. 219
Jump up ^ Bellis, Mary: «Spinning Jenny - James Hargreaves», About.com
Jump up ^ Harling, Nick. "James Hargreaves 1720-1778". Cotton Town: Blackburn with Darwen. Archived from the original on 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2009-05-17.
Jump up ^ Baines 1835, p. 155
Jump up ^ Espinasse 1874, p. 316
Bibliography[edit]
Baines, Edward (1835). History of the cotton manufacture in Great Britain;. London: H. Fisher, R. Fisher, and P. Jackson.
Nasmith, Joseph (1895). Recent Cotton Mill Construction and Engineering (Elibron Classics ed.). London: John Heywood. ISBN 1-4021-4558-6.
Marsden, Richard (1884). Cotton Spinning: its development, principles and practice. George Bell and Sons 1903. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
Marsden, ed. (1909). Cotton Yearbook 1910. Manchester: Marsden and Co. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
Espinasse, Francis (1874). Lancashire Worthies. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co. Retrieved 2010-12-01.
Guest, Richard (1828). The British Cotton Manufactures: and a Reply to an Article on the Spinning Contained in a Recent Number of the Edinburgh Review. London: E. Thomson & Sons and W. & W. Clarke and Longman, Rees, & Co.
Timmins, Geoffrey (1993), The Last Shift:The decline of handloom weaving in nineteenth-century Lancashire, Manchester: Manchester University Press, p. 253, ISBN 0 7190-3725-5
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spinning jennies.
Essay from www.cottontown.org on Hargreaves and the spinning jenny.
Essay[permanent dead link] from www.cottonttimes.co.uk on Highs and the spinning jenny.
Source for alternate name of spinning ginny
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Lego tire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A Lego tire on a wheel.
A Lego tire is a rubber tire manufactured by the toy building block company The Lego Group for use on vehicles within their Lego building sets. The tires are available in a range of sizes depending on the application. Lego first began manufacturing tires in 1962 and included them in what would become their most popular set at the time. Previously, the only tire options for Lego users were either purchasing complete car kits from Lego, or building their own tires out of existing Lego blocks. Lego produced 318 million tires in 2011, making them the world's largest tire manufacturer by number of units produced.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Production
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
Before Lego began manufacturing its own tires, it made "pre-molded mini cars"[2] in the early 1950s,[3] and users sometimes made their own,[2] fashioning eight Lego bricks into a wheel.[4] In 1962 tires were first made available as part of "set #400".[3][5] The set went on to become the most popular of Lego's line of products. The smallest Lego tire was produced in 1969 and was available in two sets that year. At 107 millimetres (4.2 inches) in diameter, the largest tire produced became available in 2000.[2]
Production[edit]
All tires (and wheels) for Lego products are manufactured by Lego, which has produced tires between 14.4 and 107 millimetres (0.57 and 4.21 inches) in diameter. In 2006 the Lego Group produced 15 billion individual pieces of Lego, which included 306 million tires.[6][7] By 2011 Lego's annual production was increased to 318 million[1], over 50 percent more than any of the other tire companies, including Bridgestone, Michelin, and Goodyear.[5]
Company
Tires produced (2011)
Lego 318 million
Bridgestone 190 million
Michelin 184 million
Goodyear 181 million
Lego portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "LEGO Group officially the world's largest tyre manufacturer". Retrieved 2017-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c Terdiman, Daniel (4 April 2012). "Rolling, rolling, rolling: Lego, the world's biggest tire maker". CNET. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Good Oil: Sporting chance for smaller Z". New Zealand Herald. 13 April 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lego viert 50e verjaardag als bandenproducent". Automobielmanagement.nl. 1 May 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Shift of emphasis". Rubber World. 1 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Pisani, Joseph. "The Making of…a LEGO". Business Week. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Bender, Jonathan (2010). Lego: A Love Story. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-470-40702-8.
External links[edit]
CNET photo gallery showing the original 1962 tires, and the pre-modelled cars
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