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Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly
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Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly
13th Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh
Type
Type
Unicameral
Term limits
5 years
Leadership
Speaker
Rajeev Bindal, BJP
Since 27 December 2017
Deputy Speaker
Hans Raj[1], BJP
Since 27 December 2017
Leader of the House
(Chief Minister)
Jai Ram Thakur, BJP
Since 27 December 2017
Leader of the Opposition
Mukesh Agnihotri, INC
Since 5 January 2018
Structure
Seats
68
Political groups
Government (44)
BJP (44)
Opposition (24)
INC (21)
CPI(M) (1)
Independents (2)
Elections
Voting system
First past the post
Last election
9 November 2017
Meeting place
Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
Website
Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly
The Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly or the Himachal Pradesh Vidhan Sabha is the unicameral legislature of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh.[2] The present strength of the Vidhan Sabha is 68.
Contents
1 List of Assemblies
2 Council of Ministers (2017-22)
3 Current Party Composition
4 See also
5 References
List of Assemblies[edit]
Election Year
Assembly
Party
Chief Minister
1952-1957 Legislative Assembly of Part-C State of Himachal Pradesh Indian National Congress Yashwant Singh Parmar
1957-1962 Territorial Council Indian National Congress Thakur Karam Singh
1962–1967 First Assembly Indian National Congress Yashwant Singh Parmar
1967–1972 Second Assembly Indian National Congress Yashwant Singh Parmar
1972–1977 Third Assembly Indian National Congress Yashwant Singh Parmar
1977–1982 Fourth Assembly Janata Party Shanta Kumar
1982–1985 Fifth Assembly Indian National Congress Ram Lal Thakur
Virbhadra Singh
1985–1990 Sixth Assembly Indian National Congress Virbhadra Singh
1990–1992 Seventh Assembly Bharatiya Janata Party Shanta Kumar
1993–1998 Eighth Assembly Indian National Congress Virbhadra Singh (2)
1998–2003 Ninth Assembly Bharatiya Janata Party Prem Kumar Dhumal
2003–2007 Tenth Assembly Indian National Congress Virbhadra Singh (3)
2007-2012 Eleventh Assembly Bharatiya Janata Party Prem Kumar Dhumal (2)
2012–2017 Twelfth Assembly Indian National Congress Virbhadra Singh (4)
2017-Current Thirteenth Assembly Bharatiya Janata Party Jai Ram Thakur
Council of Ministers (2017-22)[edit]
Council of Ministers
Designation
Department
Name
Chief Minister Finance, General Administrations, Home, Planning, Personnel and All other Departments not allotted to any other Minister Jai Ram Thakur
Irrigation & Public Health Minister Irrigation & Public Health, Horticulture, Sainik Welfare Mahender Singh Thakur
Food, Civil Supplies & Consumer Affairs Minister Food, Civil Supplies & Consumer Affairs, Election Kishan Kapoor
Education Minister Higher Education, Elementary Education, Parliamentary Affairs, Law and Legal Remembrancer Suresh Bhardwaj
MPP and Power Minister Multi Purpose Projects and Power Minister, Non-Conventional Energy Sources Anil Sharma
Urban Development Minister Urban Development, Town & Country Planning, Housing Sarveen Chaudhary
Agriculture Minister Agriculture, Tribal Development, Information and Technology Ram Lal Markanda
Health and Family Welfare Minister Health and Family Welfare, Medical Education, Ayurveda, Science and Technology Vipin Singh Parmar
Rural Development & Panchayati Raj Minister Rural Development, Panchayati Raj, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries Virender Kanwar
Industries Minister Industries, Labour & Employment, Technical Education, Vocational & Industrial Training Bikram Singh
Forest Minister Forest, Transport, Youth Services and Sports Govind Singh
Social Justice & Empowerment Minister Social Justice & Empowerment, Corporate Rajiv Saizal
Current Party Composition[edit]
Party
Members
BJP 44
INC 21
CPI(M) 1
Independent 2
Total
68
See also[edit]
Government of Himachal Pradesh
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/two-time-churah-mla-hans-raj-deputy-speaker-hp-assembly-1502562450.html
Jump up ^ Himachal Legislative Assembly
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text:
Anglo-Scottish border
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"Border country" redirects here. For the novel, see Border Country (novel).
Map of the modern border: Scotland is to the north and west and England is to the south and east
The border at Marshall Meadows Bay on the East Coast Main Line railway
A boundary wall marking the border on the A1
A fence marking the border
History of the border
The Anglo-Scottish border between England and Scotland runs for 96 miles (154 km) between Marshall Meadows Bay on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. It is Scotland's only land border with another country, and one of England's two (the other being with Wales).
The Firth of Forth was the border between the Picto-Gaelic Kingdom of Alba and the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria in the early 10th century. It became the first Anglo-Scottish border with the annexation of Northumbria by Anglo-Saxon England in the mid 10th century. In 973, Kenneth, King of Scots attended the English king, Edgar the Peaceful, at his council in Chester. After Kenneth had reportedly done homage, Edgar rewarded Kenneth by granting him Lothian.[1] Despite this transaction, the control of Lothian was not finally settled and the region was taken by the Scots at the Battle of Carham in 1018 and the River Tweed became the de facto Anglo-Scottish border. The Solway–Tweed line was legally established in 1237 by the Treaty of York between England and Scotland.[2] It remains the border today, with the exception of the Debatable Lands, north of Carlisle, and a small area around Berwick-upon-Tweed, which was taken by England in 1482. It is thus one of the oldest extant borders in the world, although Berwick was not fully annexed into England until 1746, by the Wales and Berwick Act 1746.[3]
For centuries until the Union of the Crowns the region on either side of the boundary was a lawless territory suffering from the repeated raids in each direction of the Border Reivers.
Following the Treaty of Union 1706, ratified by the Acts of Union 1707, which united Scotland with England and Wales to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, the Border continues to form the boundary of two distinct legal jurisdictions as the treaty between the two countries guaranteed the continued separation of English law and Scots law.[4]
The age of legal capacity under Scots law is 16, while it was previously 18 under English law. The border settlements of Gretna Green to the west, and Coldstream and Lamberton to the east, were convenient for elopers from England who wanted to marry under Scottish laws, and marry without publicity.
The marine boundary was adjusted by the Scottish Adjacent Waters Boundaries Order 1999 so that the boundary within the territorial waters (up to the 12-mile (19 km) limit) is 0.09 km north of the boundary for oil installations established by the Civil Jurisdiction (Offshore Activities) Order 1987.[5]
Contents
1 History
2 Second War of Scottish Independence
2.1 Clans
2.2 Scottish Marches
2.3 Middle Shires
3 References in popular culture
4 The Ba Green
5 Controversial territories
6 Migration
7 List of places on the border, or associated with it
7.1 On the border
7.2 England
7.2.1 Cumbria
7.2.2 Northumberland
7.3 Scotland
7.3.1 Dumfries and Galloway
7.3.2 Borders
7.4 Rivers
7.5 Mountains
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
See also: Scottish Marches, Border Reivers, and Debatable Lands
The border country, historically known as the Scottish Marches, is the area either side of the Anglo-Scottish border including parts of the modern council areas of Dumfries and Galloway and the Scottish Borders, and parts of the English counties of Cumbria and Northumberland. It is a hilly area, with the Scottish Southern Uplands to the north, and the Cheviot Hills forming the border between the two countries to the south. From the Norman conquest of England until the reign of James VI of Scotland, who in the course of his reign became James I of England while retaining the more northerly realm, border clashes were common and the monarchs of both countries relied on Scottish Earls of March and Lord Warden of the Marches to defend and control the frontier region.
Second War of Scottish Independence[edit]
Territory ceded to England by the 1334 Treaty of Newcastle.
In 1333, during the Second War of Scottish Independence, Scotland was defeated at the Battle of Halidon Hill. Thereafter, Edward Balliol, the titular King of Scots, made formal his promises to the English king, Edward III and yielded a considerable portion of southern Scotland to England at the 1334 Treaty of Newcastle.[6]
Clans[edit]
A 16th-century Act of the Scottish Parliament talks about the chiefs of the border clans, and a late 17th-century statement by the Lord Advocate uses the terms "clan" and "family" interchangeably. Although Lowland aristocrats may have increasingly liked to refer to themselves as "families", the idea that the term "clan" should be used of Highland families alone is a 19th-century convention.[7]
Historic Border clans include the following: Armstrong, Beattie, Bannatyne, Bell, Briar, Douglas, Elliot, Graham, Hedley of Redesdale, Henderson, Home or Hume, Irvine, Jardine, Johnstone, Kerr, Little, Moffat, Nesbitt, Ogilvy, Porteous, Routledge, Scott, Tweedie.
Scottish Marches[edit]
Main article: Scottish Marches
During late medieval and early modern eras—from the late 13th century, with the creation by Edward I of England of the first Lord Warden of the Marches to the early 17th century and the creation of the Middle Shires, promulgated after the personal union of England and Scotland under James VI of Scotland (James I of England)—the area around the border was known as the Scottish Marches.
For centuries the Marches on either side of the boundary was an area of mixed allegiances, where families or clans switched which country or side they supported as suited their family interests at that time, and lawlessness abounded. Before the personal union of the two kingdoms under James, the border clans would switch allegiance between the Scottish and English crowns depending on what was most favourable for the members of the clan. For a time a powerful local clan dominated a region on the border between England and Scotland. It was known as the Debatable Lands and neither monarch's writ was heeded.[citation needed]
Middle Shires[edit]
Following the 1603 Union of the Crowns, King James VI & I decreed that the Borders should be renamed 'the Middle Shires'. In the same year the King placed George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar in charge of pacification of the borders. Courts were set up in the towns of the Middle Shires and known reivers were arrested. The more troublesome and lower classes were executed without trial; known as "Jeddart justice" (after the town of Jedburgh in Roxburghshire). Mass hanging soon became a common occurrence. In 1605 he established a joint commission of ten members, drawn equally from Scotland and England, to bring law and order to the region. This was aided by statutes in 1606 and 1609, first to repeal hostile laws on both sides of the border, and then to more easily prosecute cross-border raiders.[8] Reivers could no longer escape justice by crossing from England to Scotland or vice versa.[9] The rough-and-ready Border Laws were abolished and the folk of the middle shires found they had to obey the law of the land like all other subjects.
In 1607 James felt he could boast that "the Middle Shires" had "become the navel or umbilic of both kingdoms, planted and peopled with civility and riches". After ten years King James had succeeded; the Middle Shires had been brought under central law and order. By the early 1620s the Borders were so peaceful that the Crown was able to scale down its operations.
Despite these improvements, the Joint Commission continued its work, and as late as 25 September 1641 under King Charles I, Sir Richard Graham, a local laird and English MP, was petitioning the Parliament of Scotland "for regulating the disorders in the borders".[10] Conditions along the border generally deteriorated during the Commonwealth and Protectorate periods, with the development of Moss-trooper raiders. Following the Restoration, on-going border lawlessness was dealt with by reviving former legislation, renewed continually in eleven subsequent acts, for periods ranging from five to eleven years, up until the late 1750s.[8]
References in popular culture[edit]
Sections of Hadrian's Wall near Greenhead and along the route, restored in Victorian times. Other large sections have been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects.
Hadrian's Wall, for centuries the boundary between Roman Britannia (roughly modern England and Wales with the exception of the parts of England north of the wall) and Caledonia (modern Scotland) is often used as a popular reference to the border, especially in humorous contexts.[a] However Britannia occasionally extended as far north as the later Antonine Wall, and Hadrian's Wall lies to the south of the modern border, entirely in England, and has never formed the actual border between England and Scotland.[11][12]
It has been proposed that a new sculpture, to be called the Star of Caledonia, be sited near Gretna to mark the English-Scottish Border.[13]
The Ba Green[edit]
At the River Tweed the border runs down the middle of the river, however between the villages of Wark and Cornhill the Scottish border comes south of the river to enclose a small riverside meadow of approximately 2 acres (0.81 hectares) to 3 acres (1.2 hectares). This piece of land is known as the Ba Green. It is said locally that every year the men of Coldstream (to the North of the river) would play the men of Wark (to the South of the river) at ba, and the winning side would claim the Ba Green for their country. As Coldstream grew to have a larger population than Wark, the Coldstream men always defeated the Wark men at the game, and so the land became a permanent part of Scotland.[14][15][16]
Controversial territories[edit]
Although the border has been amongst the most stable in history, it has not been without its controversies, notably the Debatable Lands and Berwick-upon-Tweed. Berwickshire is in Scotland while the town is in England, although both Berwick and the lands up to the Firth of Forth belonged to the Kingdom of Northumbria in the Early Middle Ages.[17] The artist Wendy Wood moved the border signs south to the middle of the River Tweed as a protest.[18]
The Debatable Lands, on the other hand, were long a hideaway for criminals.[citation needed]
Migration[edit]
Cumbria and Northumberland have amongst the largest Scottish-born communities in the world outside Scotland. 16,628 Scottish born people were residing in Cumbria in 2001 (3.41% of the county's population) and 11,435 Scottish born people were residing in Northumberland (3.72% of the county's population); the overall percentage of Scottish-born people in England is 1.62%.[19]
List of places on the border, or associated with it[edit]
On the border[edit]
Solway Firth
Union Bridge (Tweed)
Pennine Way
Scots' Dike
St Cuthbert's Way
England[edit]
"Welcome to England & Cumbria"
"Welcome to Northumberland"
Cumbria[edit]
Main article: Cumbria
Arthuret
Blackpool Gate
Carlisle
Hethersgill
County of Cumberland
Kershopefoot
Longtown
Skitby
Stapleton
Northumberland[edit]
Main article: Northumberland
Ancroft
Barmoor Castle
Barrow Burn
Beadnell
Belford
Berwick-upon-Tweed, and the former borough
Bowsden
Branxton
Byrness
Carham
Catcleugh Reservoir
Chatton
Chillingham Castle
Cornhill-on-Tweed
Crookham
Doddington
Duddo and Duddo Tower
Etal and Etal Castle
Fowberry Tower
Goswick
Greystead
Haggerston and Haggerston Castle
Horncliffe
Howtel
Islandshire
Kielder, Kielder Forest and Kielder Water
Kilham
Kirknewton
Lilburn and Lilburn Tower
Lindisfarne and Lindisfarne Castle
Lowick
Middleton
Milfield
Mindrum
Norham and Norham Castle
North Sunderland
Otterburn
Redesdale & River Rede
Scremerston
Spittal
Twizell Castle
Wark on Tweed
Wooler
Yeavering
Scotland[edit]
A sign marking entry to Scotland on the A7, on the border of Dumfries and Galloway
The bridge over the Tweed at Coldstream
Dumfries and Galloway[edit]
Main article: Dumfries and Galloway
Auchenrivock Tower
Canonbie
Gilnockie Tower
Gretna
Gretna Green
Langholm
Rowanburn
Borders[edit]
Main article: Scottish Borders
Allanton
Ayton
Birgham
Cessford Castle
Chirnside
Coldstream
Dinlabyre
Duns
Eccles
Eden Water
Edgerston
Ednam
Edrington
Edrom
Ettrick
Eyemouth
Fogo
Foulden
Galashiels
Hawick
Hermitage and Hermitage Castle
Hilly Linn
Hilton
Hume Castle
Hutton
Jedburgh
Kelso
Kirk Yetholm & Town Yetholm
Ladykirk
Lamberton
Leitholm
Liddesdale
Mordington
Morebattle
Mowhaugh
Newcastleton
Oxnam
Paxton
Roxburgh and Roxburgh Castle
Saughtree
Southdean
Swinton
Timpanheck
Whitsome
Rivers[edit]
River Esk
River Rede
River Sark
River Teviot
River Tweed
Whiteadder Water
Liddel Water
Mountains[edit]
The Cheviot
Carter Bar & Carter Fell
Windy Gyle
See also[edit]
Anglo
Cheviot Hills
Southern Uplands
Border Reivers
Border ballad
Border pipes
ITV Border
Border Collie
Border Terrier
Both sides the Tweed
Scottish Marches
Scotch Corner
Debatable Lands
Wales-England border
Welsh Marches
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Three examples of a humorous reference to Hadrian's Wall:
"and there are plans for an electrified fence along Hadrian's Wall to prevent emigration from the rump republic" (Sandbrook 2012 quoting Robert Moss in The Collapse of Democracy (1975));
"a situation that the (notional) electrification of Hadrian’s Wall is unlikely to change" (Ijeh 2014);
A cartoon: "Hadrian's Wall Extension Plan" showing an extension of Hadrian’s Wall around the coastline of England and Wales (Hughes 2014).
Jump up ^ Rollason, David W. (2003). Northumbria, 500 - 1100: Creation and Destruction of a Kingdom. Cambridge University Press. p. 275. ISBN 0521813352.
Jump up ^ "Scotland Conquered, 1174-1296". The National Archives. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Blackstone, William; Stewart, James (1839). The rights of persons, according to the text of Blackstone:. Edmund Spettigue. p. 92. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Collier, J.G. (2001). Conflict of Laws (PDF). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-521-78260-0. For the purposes of the English conflict of laws, every country in the world which is not part of England and Wales is a foreign country and its foreign laws. This means that not only totally foreign independent countries such as France and Russia... are foreign countries but also British Colonies such as the Falkland Islands. Moreover, the other parts of the United Kingdom—Scotland and Northern Ireland—are foreign countries for present purposes, as are the other British Islands, the Isle of Man, Jersey, and Guernsey.
Jump up ^ Scottish Parliament Official Report 26 April 2000[permanent dead link]. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=AnbWsXyzpTkC&pg=PA321&lpg=PA321#v=onepage&q&f=false
Jump up ^ Agnew, Crispin (13 August 2001). "Clans, Families and Septs". Electric Scotland. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b See: Border Reivers#Legislation
Jump up ^ Act anent fugitive persones of the borders to the in countrey (1609): Forsamekle as the kingis majestie is resolved to purge the mydele schyres of this isle, heirtofoir callit the bordouris of Scotland and England, of that barbarous crueltie, wickednes and incivilitie whilk be inveterat custome almaist wes become naturall to mony of the inhabitantis thairof... (Translated: Forasmuch as the king's majesty is resolved to purge the middle shires of this isle, heretofore called the borders of Scotland and England, of that barbarous cruelty, wickedness and incivility which by inveterate custom almost was become natural to many of the inhabitants thereof...)
Jump up ^ Petition of Sir Richard Graham regarding the middle shires: I am desired by Sir Richard Graham to move your majesty and this house of parliament that some present course may be taken for regulating the disorders that are now in the middle shires, this being the best time whilst the English commissioners are here that order may be given to the commissioners of both kingdoms to call the border landlords now in town to inform themselves what course has been formerly held for the suppressing of disorder and apprehending of felons and fugitives.
Jump up ^ Financial Times. Borders held dear to English and Scots Retrieved 18 March 2017.
Jump up ^ English Heritage. 30 Surprising Facts About Hadrian's Wall Retrieved 18 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Star of Caledonia: Scotland-England landmark plan approved". BBC News. 27 February 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Crofton, Ian (2012). A dictionary of Scottish phrase and fable. Edinburgh: Birlinn. p. 25. ISBN 9781841589770.
Jump up ^ Moffat, Alistair (2011-07-01). The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn. ISBN 9780857901156.
Jump up ^ "(Showing Scottish border south of the Tweed) - Berwickshire Sheet XXIX.SW (includes: Coldstream) -". National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 2018-06-30.
Jump up ^ Kerr, Rachel (8 October 2004). "A tale of one town". BBC News. Retrieved 13 April 2007.
Jump up ^ "Swapping sides: the English town that wants to be Scottish". The Independent. 13 February 2008. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2009. It was Berwick which became the focal point for the direct action of one of the first modern Scottish nationalists, Wendy Wood in the 1950s. Controversially...she was regularly arrested for moving the border signs over the Tweed.
Jump up ^ "Neighbourhood Statistics Home Page". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
References[edit]
Hughes, Alex (5 September 2014), Hadrian’s Wall Extension Plan, alexhughescartoons.co.uk, retrieved 15 December 2014
Ijeh, Ike (27 August 2014), "What did Scotland do for architecture?", Building Design online, retrieved 7 October 2016
Sandbrook, Dominic (2012), "Chapter 6: Could it happen here?", Seasons in the Sun: The Battle for Britain, 1974-1979 (illustrated ed.), UK: Penguin, p. about 214, ISBN 9781846140327
Further reading[edit]
Aird, W.M. (1997) "Northern England or southern Scotland? The Anglo-Scottish border in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and the problem of perspective" In: Appleby, J.C. and Dalton, P. (Eds) Government, religion and society in Northern England 1000-1700, Stroud : Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-1057-7, p. 27–39
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about The Borders.
Media related to Border of England-Scotland at Wikimedia Commons
The Border Clans and their Emigration to America at Hodgson Clan
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Jacobean era
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Jacobean era
1567 (1603) – 1625
King James I by Mijtens (1621)
Preceded by
Elizabethan era
Followed by
Caroline era
Monarch(s)
James VI and I
Periods in English history
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Prehistoric Britain until c. 43
Roman Britain c. 43–410
Anglo-Saxon c. 500–1066
Norman 1066–1154
Plantagenet 1154–1485
Tudor 1485–1603
Elizabethan
1558–1603
Stuart 1603–1714
Jacobean
1603–1625
Caroline
1625–1649
(Interregnum)
1649–1660
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1660–1714
Georgian 1714–1837
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1811–1837
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The Jacobean era refers to the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland (1567–1625), who also inherited the crown of England in 1603 as James I.[1] The Jacobean era succeeds the Elizabethan era and precedes the Caroline era, and is often used for the distinctive styles of Jacobean architecture, visual arts, decorative arts, and literature which characterized that period.
Contents
[hide]
1 James as king of England
1.1 Royal finances
1.2 Foreign-policy
2 High culture
2.1 Literature
2.2 Science
2.3 Arts and architecture
3 See also
4 Popular culture
5 Notes
6 Further reading
6.1 Historiography
6.2 Primary sources
7 External links
James as king of England[edit]
The practical if not formal unification of England and Scotland under one ruler was an important shift of order for both nations, and would shape their existence to the present day. Another development of crucial significance was the foundation of the first British colonies on the North American continent, at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, in Newfoundland in 1610, and at Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620, which laid the foundation for future British settlement and the eventual formation of both Canada and the United States of America. In 1609 the Parliament of Scotland began the Plantation of Ulster.
A notable event of James' reign occurred on 5 November 1605. On that date, a group of English Catholics (including Guy Fawkes) attempted to assassinate the King and destroy Parliament in the Palace of Westminster. However, the Gunpowder Plot was exposed and prevented, and the convicted plotters were hanged, drawn, and quartered.
Historians have long debates the curious characteristics of the king's ruling style. Croft says:
The pragmatism of 'little by little' was coming to characterise his style of governance. At the same time, the curious combination of ability and complacency, idleness and shrewd judgement, warm emotions and lack of discretion so well described by Fontenay remained typical of James throughout his life.[2]
Royal finances[edit]
Political events and developments of the Jacobean era cannot be understood separately from the economic and financial situation. James was deeply in debt in Scotland,[3] and after 1603 he inherited an English debt of £350,000 from Elizabeth. By 1608 the English debt had risen to £1,400,000 and was increasing by £140,000 annually. Through a crash program of selling off Royal demesnes, Lord Treasurer Robert Cecil reduced the debt to £300,000 and the annual deficit to £46,000 by 1610—but could not follow the same method of relief much farther. The result was a series of tense and often failed negotiations with Parliament for financial supports, a situation that deteriorated over the reigns of James and his son and heir Charles I until the crisis of the English Civil War.[4]
The Jacobean era ended with a severe economic depression in 1620–1626, complicated by a serious outbreak of bubonic plague in London in 1625.
Foreign-policy[edit]
King James I was sincerely devoted to peace, not just for his three kingdoms but for Europe as a whole. He called himself "Rex Pacificus" ("King of peace.")[5] He disliked Puritans and Jesuits alike because of their eagerness for warfare. Europe was deeply polarized, and on the verge of the massive Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), with the smaller established Protestant states facing the aggression of the larger Catholic empires. On assuming the throne, James made peace with Catholic Spain, and made it his policy to marry his daughter to the Spanish prince. The marriage of James' daughter Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine on 14 February 1613 was more than the social event of the era; the couple's union had important political and military implications. Across Europe, the German princes were banding together in the Union of German Protestant Princes, headquartered in Heidelberg, the capital of the Palatine. King James Calculated that his daughter's marriage would give him diplomatic leverage among the Protestants.[6] He thus would have a foot in both camps and be able to broker peaceful settlements. In his naïveté, he did not realize that both sides were playing him as a tool for their own goal of achieving destruction of the other side. The Catholics in Spain, as well as the Emperor Ferdinand II, the Vienna-based leader of the Habsburgs who controlled the Holy Roman Empire were both heavily influenced by the Catholic counter-Reformation. They had the goal of expelling Protestantism from their domains. Lord Buckingham, who increasingly was the actual ruler of Britain, wanted an alliance with Spain. Buckingham took Charles with him to Spain to woo the Princess. However, Spain's terms were that James must drop Britain’s anti-Catholic intolerance or no marriage. Buckingham and Charles were humiliated and Buckingham became the leader of the widespread British demand for a war against Spain. Meanwhile, the Protestant princes looked to Britain, since it was the strongest of all the Protestant countries, to give military support for their cause. His son-in-law and daughter became king and queen of Bohemia, which outraged Vienna. The Thirty Years' War began, as the Habsburg Emperor ousted the new king and queen of Bohemia, and massacred their followers. Catholic Bavaria then invaded the Palatine, and James’s son-in-law begged for James’s military intervention. James finally realized his policies had backfired and refused these pleas. He successfully kept Britain out of the European-wide war that proved so heavily devastating for three decades. James's backup plan was to marry his son Charles to a French Catholic princess, who would bring a handsome dowry. Parliament and the British people were strongly opposed to any Catholic marriage, were demanding immediate war with Spain, and strongly favored with the Protestant cause in Europe. James had alienated both elite and popular opinion in Britain, and Parliament was cutting back its financing. Historians credit James for pulling back from a major war at the last minute, and keeping Britain in peace.[7][8]
Frederick and Elizabeth's election as King and Queen of Bohemia in 1619, and the conflict that resulted, marked the beginning of the disastrous Thirty Years' War. King James' determination to avoid involvement in the continental conflict, even during the "war fever" of 1623, appears in retrospect as one of the most significant, and most positive, aspects of his reign.[9]
High culture[edit]
Literature[edit]
In literature, some of Shakespeare's most prominent plays, including King Lear (1605), Macbeth (1606), and The Tempest (1610), were written during the reign of James I. Patronage came not just from James, but from James' wife Anne of Denmark. Also during this period were powerful works by John Webster, Thomas Middleton, John Ford and Ben Jonson. Ben Jonson also contributed to some of the era's best poetry, together with the Cavalier poets and John Donne. In prose, the most representative works are found in those of Francis Bacon and the King James Bible.
In 1617 George Chapman completed his monumental translation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey into English verse, which were the first ever complete translations of either poem, both central to the Western Canon, into the English language. The wildly popular tale of the Trojan War had until then been available to readers of English only in Medieval epic retellings such as Caxton's Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye.
Jonson was also an important innovator in the specialised literary subgenre of the masque, which went through an intense development in the Jacobean era. His name is linked with that of Inigo Jones as co-developers of the literary and visual/technical aspects of this hybrid art. (For Jonson's masques, see: The Masque of Blackness, The Masque of Queens, etc.) The high costs of these spectacles, however, positioned the Stuarts far from the relative frugality of Elizabeth's reign, and alienated the middle classes and the Puritans with a prospect of waste and self-indulgent excess.
Science[edit]
Francis Bacon had a strong influence in the evolution of modern science, which was entering a key phase in this era, as the work of Johannes Kepler in Germany and Galileo Galilei in Italy brought the Copernican revolution to a new level of development. Bacon laid a foundation, and was a powerful and persuasive advocate, for objective inquiry about the natural world in place of the Medieval scholastic authoritarianism that still influenced the culture of British society in his lifetime. On practical rather than general levels, much work was being done in the areas of navigation, cartography, and surveying—John Widdowes' A Description of the World (1621) being one significant volume in this area—as well as in continuing William Gilbert's work on magnetism from the previous reign. Scholarship and the sciences, or "natural philosophy", had important royal patrons in this era—not so much in the King but in his son, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, and even his wife, Anne of Denmark (the Danish Court, from which she derived, had a strong patronage tradition in intellectual matters).
Arts and architecture[edit]
The fine arts were dominated by foreign talent in the Jacobean era, as was true of the Tudor and Stuart periods in general. Daniel Mytens was the most prominent portrait painter during the reign of James, as Anthony van Dyck would be under the coming reign of his son. Yet the slow development of a native school of painting, which had made progress in the previous reign, continued under James, producing figures like Robert Peake the Elder (died 1619), William Larkin (fl. 1609–19), and Sir Nathaniel Bacon (1585–1627). Some would also claim, as part of this trend, Cornelius Johnson, or Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen, (1593–1661), born and trained in London and active through the first two Stuart reigns.[10]
The decorative arts — furniture, for example — became increasingly rich in color, detail, and design. Materials from other parts of the world, like mother-of-pearl, were now available by worldwide trade and were used as decoration.[11] Even familiar materials, such as wood and silver, were worked more deeply in intricate and intensely three-dimensional designs.[11]
Architecture in the Jacobean era was a continuation of the Elizabethan style with increasing emphasis on classical elements like columns. European influences include France, Flanders, and Italy.[12] Inigo Jones may be the most famous English architect of this period, with lasting contributions to classical public building style; some of his works include the Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall. St Paul’s Cathedral designed by Sir Christopher Wren in London. See also: Jacobean architecture.
See also[edit]
Early modern Britain
Popular culture[edit]
In the domain of customs, manners, and everyday life, the Jacobean era saw a distinctly religious tone.[13] Virginia tobacco became popular. James I published his A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, but the book had no discernible effect; by 1612, London had 7000 tobacconists and smoking houses. The Virginia colony survived because the English acquired the nicotine habit.[14]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Jacobean" is derived from Jacobus, the Ecclesiastical Latin form of the English name James. See "Jacobean". in Oxford Living Dictionaries.
Jump up ^ Pauline Croft, King James (2003) p. 20.
Jump up ^ Julian Goodare, "The debts of James VI of Scotland." Economic History Review 62.4 (2009): 926-952.
Jump up ^ Melissa D. Aaron, Global Economics, Newark, DE, University of Delaware Press, 2020; pp. 83–4.
Jump up ^ Malcolm Smuts, "The making of Rex Pacificus: James VI and I and the Problem of Peace in an Age of Religious War," in Daniel Fischlin and Mark Fortier, eds., Royal Subjects: Essays on the Writings of James VI and I (2002) pp 371-87
Jump up ^ W. B. Patterson, "King James I and the Protestant cause in the crisis of 1618–22." Studies in Church History 18 (1982): 319-334.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Scott, England's Troubles: 17th-century English Political Instability in European Context (Cambridge UP, 2000), pp 98-101
Jump up ^ Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts: 1603-1660 (1959), pp 47-67
Jump up ^ G.M.D. Howat, Stuart and Cromwellian Foreign Policy (1974) pp 17-42.
Jump up ^ Eliis Waterhouse, Painting in Britain 1530 to 1790, fourth edition, New York, Viking Penguin, 1978; pp. 42–66.
^ Jump up to: a b "Learn About Style: Jacobean". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 5 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Cibelli, Dr. Deborah H. "Jacobean Architecture, 1603-25". The Arts and Architecture of the British Renaissance. Nicolls State University. Retrieved 5 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Patrick Collinson, "Elizabethan and Jacobean puritanism as forms of popular religious culture." in Christopher Durston and Jacqueline Eales, eds. The Culture of English Puritanism, 1560–1700 (Macmillan Education UK, 1996) pp 32-57.
Jump up ^ Churchill, Winston (2002). The Great Republic: A History of America. London: Cassell & Co. p. 27. ISBN 0-304-35792-8.
Further reading[edit]
Anderson, Roberta. "‘Well Disposed to the Affairs of Spain?’ James VI & I and the Propagandists: 1618–1624." British Catholic History 25.4 (2001): 613-635.
Burgess, Glenn, Rowland Wymer, and Jason Lawrence, eds. The Accession of James I: historical and cultural consequences (Springer, 2016).
Coward, Barry. The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714 (4th ed. 2014) excerpt
Croft, Pauline King James (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003)
Davies, Godfrey The Early Stuarts: 1603-1660 (2nd ed 1959), pp 1-80.
Fincham, Kenneth, and Peter Lake. "The ecclesiastical policy of King James I." Journal of British Studies 24.2 (1985): 169-207.
Fischlin, Daniel and Mark Fortier, eds. Royal Subjects: Essays on the Writings of James VI and I (2002)
Fraser, Antonia. The gunpowder plot: Terror and faith in 1605 (Hachette UK, 2010).
Gardiner, S.R. "Britain under James I" in The Cambridge Modern History (1907) v 3 ch 17 online
Houlbrooke, Ralph Anthony, ed. James VI and I: Ideas, Authority, and Government (Ashgate, 2006).
Howat, G.M.D. Stuart and Cromwellian Foreign Policy (1974)
Houston, S. J. James I (Routledge, 2014).
Lee, Maurice. Great Britain's Solomon: James VI and I in his three kingdoms (U of Illinois Press, 1990).
Lindquist, Eric N. "The Last Years of the First Earl of Salisbury, 1610–1612." Albion 18.1 (1986): 23-41.
Lockyer, Roger. James VI and I (1998).
Lockyer, Roger. Tudor and Stuart Britain: 1485-1714 (3rd ed. 2004), 576 pp excerpt
Perry, Curtis. The Making of Jacobean Culture: James I and the Renegotiation of Elizabethan Literary Practice (Cambridge UP, 1997).
Stilma, Astrid. A King Translated: The Writings of King James VI & I and their Interpretation in the Low Countries, 1593–1603 (Routledge, 2016).
Waurechen, Sarah. "Imagined Polities, Failed Dreams, and the Beginnings of an Unacknowledged Britain: English Responses to James VI and I's Vision of Perfect Union." Journal of British Studies 52.3 (2013): 575-596.
Wormald, Jenny. "James VI and I (1566–1625)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14592
Historiography[edit]
Coward, Barry ed., A Companion to Stuart Britain (2003) contents
Lee, Maurice. "James I and the Historians: Not a Bad King After All?." Albion 16.2 (1984): 151-163. in JSTOR
Schwarz, Marc L. "James I and the Historians: Toward a Reconsideration." Journal of British Studies 13.2 (1974): 114-134. in JSTOR
Underdown, David. "New ways and old in early Stuart history," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 99-140.
Wormald, Jenny. "James VI and I: Two Kings or One?" History 68#223 (1983), 187-209. in JSTOR
Young, Michael B. "James VI and I: Time for a Reconsideration?" Journal of British Studies 51.3 (2012): 540-567.
Primary sources[edit]
Akrigg, G. P. V., ed. Letters of King James VI & I (U of California Press, 1984).
Coward, Barry and Peter Gaunt, eds. English Historical Documents, 1603–1660 (2011).
Rhodes, Neil; Richards, Jennifer; Marshall, Joseph, eds. King James VI and I: Selected Writings (Ashgate, 2003).
External links[edit]
Jacobean Science.
Science and Patronage in Early Modern England.
"Jacobean Style Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
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