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Punjab
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This article is about the geographical region. For the province of Pakistan, see Punjab, Pakistan. For the state of India, see Punjab, India. For other uses, see Punjab (disambiguation).
Region in see below,
Punjab
پنجاب • ਪੰਜਾਬ
Region

Location of Punjab in south Asia
Countries
Pakistan
India
Areas
see below
Area
• Total
355,591 km2 (137,294 sq mi)
Demonym(s)
Punjabi
Time zones
PKT (Pakistan) (UTC+5)
IST (India) (UTC+05:30)
Language(s)
Punjabi
Part of a series on the
Culture of the Punjab
History
Folklore
Language
Dialects
Punjab
Punjabis
Nationalism
Topics
Cinema
Clothing
Cuisine
Dance
Festivals
Literature
Media
Music
Religion
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Television

Punjab portal
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The Punjab (/pʌnˈdʒɑːb/ ( listen), /-ˈdʒæb/, /ˈpʌndʒɑːb/, /-dʒæb/), also spelled Panjab (land of "five rivers";[1] Punjabi: پنجاب (Shahmukhi); ਪੰਜਾਬ (Gurumukhi); Greek: Πενταποταμία, Pentapotamia) is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a political unit, the boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts.
Until the Partition of Punjab in 1947, the British Punjab Province encompassed the present-day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Delhi, and the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Islamabad Capital Territory. It bordered the Balochistan and Pashtunistan regions to the west, Kashmir to the north, the Hindi Belt to the east, and Rajasthan and Sindh to the south.
The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis, and their principal language is Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism, and Hinduism. Other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Ravidassia. The Punjab region has been inhabited by the Indus Valley Civilisation, Indo-Aryan peoples, and Indo-Scythians, and has seen numerous invasions by the Persians, Greeks, Kushans, Ghaznavids, Timurids, Mughals, Pashtuns, British, and others. Historic foreign invasions mainly targeted the most productive central region of the Punjab known as the Majha region,[2] which is also the bedrock of Punjabi culture and traditions.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Political geography
2.1 1947 definition
2.1.1 Present day maps
2.1.2 Major cities
2.2 Older 1846–1849 definition
2.2.1 Major cities
2.3 Greater Punjab
3 Climate
4 History
4.1 Timeline
5 People
5.1 Ethnic background
5.2 Languages
5.3 Religions
5.4 Punjabi festivals
5.5 Punjabi clothing
6 Economy
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology[edit]
The region was originally called Sapta Sindhu,[4] the Vedic land of the seven rivers flowing into the ocean.[5] The Classical Sanskrit name for the region, as mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata for example, was Panchanada which means "Land of the Five Rivers", and was translated to Persian as Punjab after the Muslim conquests.[6] The later name of the region, Punjab, is a compound of two Persian words,[1][7] Panj (five) and āb (water), introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors[8] of India, and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire.[9][10] Punjab thus means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.[11] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest.
Political geography[edit]
There are two main definitions of the Punjab region: the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. A third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the older definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis and ancient river movements.
1947 definition[edit]
The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan. In Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana,[12] and Himachal Pradesh.
Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab borders the Balochistan and Pashtunistan regions to the west, Kashmir to the north, the Hindi Belt to the east, and Rajasthan and Sindh to the south. Accordingly, the Punjab region is very diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains and to the Cholistan Desert.
Present day maps[edit]
Punjab, Pakistan
Punjab, India, 2014
Haryana, India
Himachal Pradesh, India
Major cities[edit]
Main article: List of cities in the Punjab region by population
Badshahi Mosque, Lahore
A moment at Golden Temple
Golden Temple, Amritsar
Clock Tower, Faisalabad
Aerial view of Multan Ghanta Ghar chawk
Open Hand monument, Chandigarh
Faisal Masjid (Margalla Hills)
Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the major cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad and Ludhiana.
Older 1846–1849 definition[edit]
The Punjab, 1849
The Panjab, 1880
Punjab Province (British India), 1909
The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire and the creation of the British Punjab province between 1846 and 1849. According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur[13] and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (especially Peshawar[14][15] known in the Punjab region as Pishore).[16] In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division.[17][18]
Using the older definition of the Punjab region, the Punjab region covers a large territory and can be divided into five natural areas:[1]
the eastern mountainous region including Jammu Division and Azad Kashmir;
the trans-Indus region including Peshawar;
the central plain with its five rivers;
the north-western region, separated from the central plain by the Salt Range between the Jhelum and the Indus rivers;
the semi-desert to the south of the Sutlej river.
The formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are still moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres (0.2 in) per year.
The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year. Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and further south. The mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the mountain range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains, which consequently are very fertile.[19]
Major cities[edit]
According to the older definition, some of the major cities include Jammu, Peshawar and parts of Delhi.
Bahu Fort, Jammu, India
Peshawar Museum
Jama Masjid, Delhi
City view, Mirpur
Greater Punjab[edit]
The third definition of the Punjab region adds to the definitions cited above and includes parts of Rajasthan[20][21][22][23] on linguistic lines and takes into consideration the location of the Punjab rivers in ancient times. In particular, the Sri Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts are included in the Punjab region.[24]
Anupgarh fort in Anupgarh city
Bhatner fort in Hanumangarh city
Climate[edit]
The snow-covered Himalayas
The climate is a factor contributing to the economy of the Punjab. It is not uniform over the whole region, with the sections adjacent to the Himalayas receiving heavier rainfall than those at a distance.[25]
There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season, from about mid April to the end of June, the temperature may reach 49 °C (120 °F). The monsoon season, from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and irrigation systems. The transitional period after the monsoon is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to 5 °C (41 °F) at night and 12 °C (54 °F) by day. During the transitional period from winter to the hot season, sudden hailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.[26]
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Punjab
Taxila in Pakistan is a World Heritage Site
The Punjab region of India and Pakistan has a historical and cultural link to Indo-Aryan peoples as well as partially to various indigenous communities. As a result of several invasions from Central Asia and the Middle East, many ethnic groups and religions make up the cultural heritage of the Punjab.
In prehistoric times, one of the earliest known cultures of South Asia, the Indus Valley civilisation was located in the region.
The epic battles described in the Mahabharata are described as being fought in what is now the State of Haryana and historic Punjab. The Gandharas, Kambojas, Trigartas, Andhra, Pauravas, Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab), Yaudheyas and others sided with the Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra.[27] According to Dr Fauja Singh and Dr L. M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab".[28]
Menander I Soter (165/155 –130 BCE), conqueror of the Punjab, carved out a Greek kingdom in the Punjab and ruled the Punjab until his death in 130 BC.[29][30]
In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great invaded Pauravas and defeated King Porus. His armies entered the region via the Hindu Kush in northwest Pakistan and his rule extended up to the city of Sagala (present-day Sialkot in northeast Pakistan). In 305 BCE the area was ruled by the Maurya Empire. In a long line of succeeding rulers of the area, Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka stand out as the most renowned. The Maurya presence in the area was then consolidated in the Indo-Greek Kingdom in 180 BCE. Menander I Soter "The Saviour" (known as Milinda in Indian sources) is the most renowned leader of the era, he conquered the Punjab and made Sagala the capital of his Empire.[29] Menander carved out a Greek kingdom in the Punjab and ruled the region till his death in 130 BCE.[30] The neighbouring Seleucid Empire rule came to an end around 12 BCE, after several invasions by the Yuezhi and the Scythian people.
In 711–713 CE, the 18-year-old Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim of Taif, a city in what is now Saudi Arabia, came by way of the Arabian Sea with Arab troops to defeat Raja Dahir. Bin Qasim then led his troops to conquer the Sindh and Punjab regions for the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, making him the first to bring Islam to the region.
A section of the Lahore Fort built by the Mughal emperor Akbar
During the establishment and consolidation of the Muslim Turkic Mughal Empire prosperity, growth, and relative peace were established, particularly under the reign of Jahangir. Muslim empires ruled the Punjab for approximately 1,000 years. The period was also notable for the emergence of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism.
In 1758, Punjab came under the rule of Marathas, who captured the region by defeating the Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Abdali's Indian invasion weakened the Maratha influence, but he could not defeat the Sikhs. After the death of Ahmad Shah, the Punjab was freed from the Afghan yoke by Sikhs between 1773 and 1818. At the time of the formation of the Dal Khalsa in 1748 at Amritsar, the Punjab had been divided into 36 areas and 12 separate Sikh principalities, called misl. From this point onward, the beginnings of a Punjabi Sikh Empire emerged. Out of the 36 areas, 22 were united by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The other 14 accepted British sovereignty. After Ranjit Singh's death, assassinations and internal divisions severely weakened the empire. Six years later the British East India Company was given an excuse to declare war, and in 1849, after two Anglo-Sikh wars, the Punjab was annexed by the British.
In the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the Sikh rulers backed the East India Company, providing troops and support,[31] but in Jhelum 35 British soldiers of HM XXIV regiment were killed by the local resistance, and in Ludhiana a rebellion was crushed with the assistance of the Punjab chiefs of Nabha and Malerkotla.
The British Raj had political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Muhammad Iqbal, Chaudhary Rehmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai.
At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[32] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following the end of the British Raj, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[citation needed]
Timeline[edit]
3300–1500 BCE: Harappan civilisation
1500–1000 BCE: (Rigvedic) Vedic civilisation
1000–500 BCE: Middle and late Vedic Period
599 BCE: Birth of Mahavira
567–487 BCE: Time of Gautama Buddha
550 BCE – 600 CE: Buddhism remained prevalent
326 BCE: Alexander's Invasion of Punjab
322–298 BCE: Chandragupta I, Maurya period
273–232 BCE: Reign of Ashoka
125–160 BCE: Rise of the Sakas
2 BCE: Beginning of Rule of the Sakas
45–180: Rule of the Kushans
320–550: Gupta Empire
500: Hunnic Invasion
510–650: Vardhana's Era
711–713: Muhammad bin Qasim conquers Sindh and small part of Punjab region
713–1200: Rajput states, Kabul Shahi & small Muslim kingdoms
1206–1290: Mamluk dynasty established by Mohammad Ghori
1290–1320: Khalji dynasty established by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji
1320–1413: Tughlaq dynasty established by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
1414–1451: Sayyid dynasty established by Khizr Khan
1451–1526: Lodhi dynasty established by Bahlul Khan Lodhi
1469–1539: Guru Nanak
1526–1707: Mughal rule
1526–1530: Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur
1530–1540: Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun
1540–1545: Sher Shah Suri of Afghanistan
1545–1554: Islam Shah Suri
1555–1556: Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun
1556–1556: Hem Chandra Vikramaditya
1556–1605: Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar
1605–1627: Nooruddin Muhammad Jahangir
1627–1658: Shahaabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan
1658–1707: Mohiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir
1539–1675: Period of 8 Sikh Gurus from Guru Angad Dev to Guru Tegh Bahadur
1675–1708: Guru Gobind Singh (10th Sikh Guru)
1699: Birth of the Khalsa
1708–1713: Conquests of Banda Bahadur
1722: Birth of Ahmed Shah Durrani, either in Multan in Mughal Empire or Herat in Afghanistan
1714–1759: Sikh chiefs (Sardars) war against Afghans & Mughal Governors
1739: Invasion by Nader Shah and defeat of weakened Mughal Empire
1747–1772: Durrani Empire led by Ahmad Shah Durrani
1756–1759: Sikh and Maratha Empire cooperation in the Punjab
1761: The Third Battle of Panipat, between the Durrani Empire against the Maratha Empire.
1762: 2nd massacre (Ghalughara) from Ahmed Shah's 2nd invasion
1765–1801: Rise of the Sikh Misls which gained control of significant swathes of Punjab
1801–1839: Sikh Empire also known as Sarkar Khalsa, Rule by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
1845–1846: First Anglo-Sikh War
1846: Jammu joined with the new state of Jammu and Kashmir
1848–1849: Second Anglo-Sikh War
1849: Complete annexation of Punjab into British India
1849–1947: British rule
1901: Peshawar and adjoining districts separated from the Punjab Province
1911: Parts of Delhi separated from Punjab Province
1947: The Partition of India divided Punjab into two parts. The Eastern part (with two rivers) became the Indian Punjab and the Western part (three rivers) the Pakistan Punjab
1966: Indian Punjab divided into three parts: Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
1973–1995: Punjab insurgency
People[edit]
Main article: Punjabi people
Ethnic Punjabis in Pakistan
Ethnic background[edit]
Ethnic ancestries of modern Punjabis include a mixture of Indo-Aryan and Indo-Scythian. Semitic ancestries can also be found in lesser numbers. With the advent of Islam, settlers from Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir have also integrated into the Muslim Punjabi society. However, the majority of Punjab is still made up of the Arains, Dalits, Gujjars, Jats, Khatris, Tarkhans, Brahmins, Bhats, Awans, Kambojs, Rajputs Sainis, Kumhars, and others.[citation needed] In the past, the most densely populated area has been the Majha region of Punjab.
[show]
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Ethnic groups, social groups and tribes of the Punjab
Agrawal
Bansal
Arains
Dhankhar
Brahmins
Punjabi Brahmins
Saraswat Brahmins
Bali
Chhibber
Datt
Mohan
Mohyal
Scheduled Castes
Ad-Dharmi
Balmiki
Bazigar
Chamar
Khateek
Mazhabi Sikh
Mochi
Mirasi
Nat
Ramdasia Sikh
Ravidasi
Ahirs
Yaduvanshi Ahirs
Ahirs
Ghosi
Hindu Ghosi
Aharwar
Ranghar
Gurjars
Gurjar Parihar
Bhati
Baisla
Jats
Aulakh
Bajwa
Chaudhary
Chohan
Dhankhar
Kharal
Khokhar
Khullar
Randhawa
Sandhu
Sidhu
Sial
Sodhi
Sohal
Virk
Labana
Labana
Khatris
Ahuja
Babbar
Khukhrain
Kohli
Malhotra
Malik
Oberoi
Roshan
Sabharwal
Sahni
Sethi
Sodhi
Vohra
Rajputs
Awan
Bais
Butta
Bhatti
Janjua
Mair
Manhas
Parmar
Ranial
Shaktawat
Tarkhans
Panesar
Ramgharia
Sohal
Arora
Bagga
Bakarwal
Bania
Kamboj
Kumhar
Sansi
Sayyid
Languages[edit]
Dialects of Punjabi
Main article: Punjabi language
The major language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi. In the Indian Punjab this is written in the Gurmukhi script. Pakistan uses the Shahmukhi script, that is closer to Urdu script. Hindi, written in the Devanagri script, is used widely in the Indian states of Himanchal Pradesh and Haryana. Several dialects of Punjabi are spoken in the different regions. The Majhi dialect is considered to be textbook Punjabi and is shared by both countries.
Religions[edit]
The vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include large minority faiths mostly Shia Muslim, Ahmadi Muslim and Christians.
The Indian states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh are mostly Hindu-majority. Sikhism, founded in the late 15th century, is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 60% of the population of Punjab state is Sikh, 37% is Hindu, and the rest are Muslims, Christians, and Jains.[33] However, due to large scale migration from Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Bengal and Odisha the demographics have become more skewed than reported earlier. Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of Amritsar, Anandpur Sahib, Tarn Taran Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib and Chamkaur Sahib.
The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints, and Sufism is well established in the region.[34] Also, Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.[35]
Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of British India (1881–1941)[36]
Religious
group
Population
% 1881
Population
% 1891
Population
% 1901
Population
% 1911
Population
% 1921
Population
% 1931
Population
% 1941
Islam
47.6% 47.8% 49.6% 51.1% 51.1% 52.4% 53.2%
Hinduism
43.8% 43.6% 41.3% 35.8% 35.1% 30.2% 29.1%
Sikhism
8.2% 8.2% 8.6% 12.1% 12.4% 14.3% 14.9%
Christianity
0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.8% 1.3% 1.5% 1.5%
Other religions / No religion
0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 1.6% 1.3%

Religion in Punjab Region including Indian States Punjab, India,Chandigarh,Himachal Pradesh & Haryana) & Punjab,Pakistan (2011)[37]
Sikhism (15.04%)
Hinduism (19.05%)
Islam (64.8%)
Others (0.75%)
Punjabi festivals[edit]
See also: Punjabi festivals, List of Sikh festivals, Hindu Punjabi Festivals, and Festivals in Lahore
Punjabis celebrate the following cultural, seasonal and religious festivals:
Maghi
Lohri
Maha Shivratri
Holi
Vaisakhi
Teeyan
Raksha Bandhan
Shab-e-Miraj
Diwali
Gurpurab
Hola Mohalla
Mela Chiraghan
Bandi Chhor Divas
Dussehra
Karwa Chauth
Eid
Christmas
Navratri
Punjabi clothing[edit]
Traditional Punjabi clothing includes the following:
Salwar (Punjabi) Suit
Patiala salwar
Punjabi Tamba and Kurta
Phulkari
Punjabi Ghagra
Shalwar kameez
Kurta
Economy[edit]
Phulkari embroidery from Patiala
Main articles: Economy of Punjab, Pakistan and Economy of Punjab, India
The historical region of Punjab is considered to be one of the most fertile regions on Earth. Both east and west Punjab produce a relatively high proportion of India and Pakistan's food output respectively.
The region has been used for extensive wheat farming, in addition rice, cotton, sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.
The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab are considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. Indian Punjab has been estimated to be the second richest state in India.[38] Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's food grain production.[39] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.[40]
Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the world's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.[41] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.
Gallery[edit]
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The Mughal era Badshahi Mosque, Lahore
The fort at Bathinda
The main gate of the Qila Mubarak, Patiala
The Golden Temple in Amritsar
The Baradari of Ranjit Singh, built in the Hazuri Bagh
The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh
The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673, is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort.
The Phuara Chowk (lit. Fountain Crossing) in Patiala
The memorial to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Jalandhar railway station reception block
Irrigated land in the Punjab
The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam
The Shalimar Gardens in Lahore
Mohindra College in Patiala at night
The Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore
The Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, a tribute to Jahangir's favourite antelope
The tomb of Nur Jahan in Lahore
The tomb of Jahangir in Lahore
The Noor Mahal (Palace of Light) in Bahawalpur
The Jhelum River, one of the major rivers of the Punjab
The Mankiala stupa near Islamabad
The Open Hand monument in Chandigarh
Closer view of Amar Mahal Museum, Jammu
Ghainta ghar, Peshawar
Dakhni Sarai, Nakodar (gate)
Shrine Baba Budda Ji Nakodar
See also[edit]
Punjab portal
Chak (village)
Dhani (settlement type)
Music of Punjab
Punjabi culture
Punjabi language
Punjabi cuisine
Punjabi dance
Sikhism
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c H K Manmohan Siṅgh. "The Punjab". The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Editor-in-Chief Harbans Singh. Punjabi University, Patiala. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Jatiinder Aulakh. Archaeological History of Majha: Research Book about Archaeology and Mythology with Rare Photograph. Createspace Independent Pub, 2014
Jump up ^ Arrain, Anabasis, V.22, p.115
Jump up ^ D. R. Bhandarkar, 1989, Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture: Sir WIlliam Meyers Lectures, 1938-39, Asia Educational Services, p. 2.
Jump up ^ A.S. valdiya, "River Sarasvati was a Himalayn-born river", Current Science, vol 104, no.01, ISSN 0011-3891.
Jump up ^ http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?p.1:375.hobson
Jump up ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1 ("Introduction"). ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0.
Jump up ^ Canfield, Robert L. (1991). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 1 ("Origins"). ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5.
Jump up ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0.
Jump up ^ Shimmel, Annemarie (2004). The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture. London, United Kingdom: Reaktion Books Ltd. ISBN 1-86189-1857.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. 20, Punjab, p.107
Jump up ^ Darpan, Pratiyogita (1 October 2009). "Pratiyogita Darpan". Pratiyogita Darpan. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ History of Panjab Hill States, Hutchison, Vogel 1933 Mirpur was made a part of Jammu and Kashmir in 1846
Jump up ^ Changes in the Socio-economic Structures in Rural North-West Pakistan By Mohammad Asif Khan [1] Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Peshawar was separated from Punjab Province in 1901.
Jump up ^ Gill, Pritam Singh (1978) History of Sikh nation: foundation, assassination, resurrection. New Academic Pub. Co. In June of 1984 year, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered a military assault on the most significant religious center for the Sikhs, Darbar Sahib (i.e., the Golden Temple) in Amritsar, Punjab. The attack killed thousands of civilians. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards id=8CVuAAAAMAAJ&q=peshawar+sikh+empire&dq=peshawar+sikh+empire&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw79Dr9vLNAhWICsAKHfA8AgcQ6AEITzAH Archived 7 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Nadiem, Ihsan H. (2007). Peshawar: heritage, history, monuments. Sang-e-Meel Publications. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Jammu and Kashmir". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Epilogue, Vol 4, Issue 11". Archived from the original on 4 February 2016.
Jump up ^ G. S. Gosal. "Physical Geography of the Punjab" (PDF). University of California, Santa Barbara. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 June 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
Jump up ^ The Times Atlas of the World, Concise Edition. London: Times Books. 1995. p. 36. ISBN 0 7230 0718 7.
Jump up ^ Grewal, J S (2004). Historical Geography of the Punjab (PDF). Punjab Research Group, Volume 11, No 1. Journal of Punjab Studies. pp. 4, 7, 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2012.
Jump up ^ see the Punjab Doabs
Jump up ^ Pritam Singh and Shinder S. Thandi, ed. (1996). Globalisation and the region: explorations in Punjabi identity. Coventry Association for Punjab Studies, Coventry University. p. 361.
Jump up ^ Balder Raj Nayat (1966). Minority Politics in the Punjab. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Maps of India, Climate of Punjab Archived 30 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Royal Geographical Society Climate and Landscape of the Punjab Archived 30 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Buddha Parkash, Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, p 36.
Jump up ^ History of Panjab, Vol I, p. 4, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh.
^ Jump up to: a b Hazel, John (2013). Who's Who in the Greek World. Routledge. p. 155. ISBN 9781134802241. Menander king in India, known locally as Milinda, born at a village named Kalasi near Alasanda (Alexandria-in-the-Caucasus), and who was himself the son of a king. After conquering the Punjab, where he made Sagala his capital, he made an expedition across northern India and visited Patna, the capital of the Mauraya empire, though he did not succeed in conquering this land as he appears to have been overtaken by wars on the north-west frontier with Eucratides.
^ Jump up to: a b Ahir, D. C. (1971). Buddhism in the Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh. Maha Bodhi Society of India. p. 31. OCLC 1288206. Demetrius died in 166 B.C., and Apollodotus, who was a near relation of the King died in 161 B.C. After his death, Menander carved out a kingdom in the Punjab. Thus from 161 B.C. onward Menander was the ruler of Punjab till his death in 145 B.C. or 130 B.C.
Jump up ^ Ganda Singh (August 2004). "The Truth about the Indian Mutiny". Sikh Spectrum. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. . Daily Times (10 May 2012). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Census Reference Tables, C-Series Population by religious communities". Census of India. 2001. Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Sufi Saints of the Punjab". Punjabics.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved January 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Kirpal Singh, Sant. "The Punjab – Home of Master Saints". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved January 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Gopal Krishan. "Demography of the Punjab (1849–1947)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Population by religion community - 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Punjab second richest state in country: CII", Times of India, 8 April 2004.
Jump up ^ Pakistani government statistics Archived 8 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine., retrieved 14 April 2007.
Jump up ^ Provincial Accounts of Pakistan: Methodology and Estimates 1973-2000 Template:Date=June 2016
Jump up ^ Yadav, Kiran (11 February 2013). "Punjab". Agropedia. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Narang, K.S.; Gupta, Dr H.R. (1969). History of the Punjab 1500-1858 (PDF). U. C. Kapur & Sons, Delhi. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
[Quraishee 73] Punjabi Adab De Kahani, Abdul Hafeez Quaraihee, Azeez Book Depot, Lahore, 1973.
[Chopra 77] Punjab as a Sovereign State, Gulshan Lal Chopra, Al-Biruni, Lahore, 1977.
Patwant Singh. 1999. The Sikhs. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-50206-0.
The Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, 1971, Buddha Parkash.
Social and Political Movements in ancient Panjab, Delhi, 1962, Buddha Parkash.
History of Porus, Patiala, Buddha Parkash.
History of the Panjab, Patiala, 1976, Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi (Ed).
The Legacy of the Punjab, 1997, R. M. Chopra.
The Rise Growth and Decline of Indo-Persian Literature, R. M. Chopra, 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi. 2nd revised edition, published in 2013.
Sims, Holly. "The State and Agricultural Productivity: Continuity versus Change in the Indian and Pakistani Punjabs." Asian Survey, 1 April 1986, Vol. 26(4), pp. 483–500
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display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjab
Panjab – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjab
Panjab – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Παντζάμπ – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panyab
Panyab – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: منطقه پنجاب – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendjab
Pendjab – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: पंजाब क्षेत्र – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ia
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values: Пенжаб – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengabum
Pengabum – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: पंजाब प्रदेश – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ms
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: पञ्जाब (स्पष्टता) – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjab
Panjab – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjob
Panjob – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਪੰਜਾਬ (ਖੇਤਰ) – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panjabe
Panjabe – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pt
display: none;

values: Пенджаб (регион) – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: پنجاب جو خطو – Sindhi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values: Панџаб – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab
Punjab – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: பஞ்சாப் பகுதி – Tamil

values: Пәнҗаб – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: పంజాబ్ ప్రాంతం – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: ภูมิภาคปัญจาบ – Thai

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencap
Pencap – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Пенджаб (регіон) – Ukrainian

values: خطۂ پنجاب – Urdu

values: پەنجاب – Uyghur

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Punjab rootpage-Punjab skin-vector action-view