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Memorial Day
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For other uses, see Memorial Day (disambiguation).
"Decoration Day" redirects here. For other uses, see Decoration Day (disambiguation).
Memorial Day
The gravestones at Arlington National Cemetery are decorated by U.S. flags on Memorial Day weekend in 2008.
Official name
Memorial Day
Observed by
United States
Type
National
Observances
Remembrance of American war dead
Date
Last Monday in May
2016 date
May 30 (2016-05-30)
2017 date
May 29 (2017-05-29)
2018 date
May 28 (2018-05-28)
2019 date
May 27 (2019-05-27)
Frequency
Annual
Memorial Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the people who died while serving in the country's armed forces.[1] The holiday, which is currently observed every year on the last Monday of May, was held on May 29, 2017. The holiday was held on May 30 from 1868 to 1970.[2] It marks the start of the unofficial summer vacation season,[3] while Labor Day marks its end.
Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service. Many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries.
Memorial Day is not to be confused with Veterans Day; Memorial Day is a day of remembering the men and women who died while serving, while Veterans Day celebrates the service of all U.S. military veterans.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 In the North
1.2 In the South
1.3 At Gettysburg
2 Name and date
3 20th century
3.1 Poppies
4 As civil religious holiday
5 In film, literature, and music
5.1 Films
5.2 Music
5.3 Poetry
6 Observance dates 1971–2099
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
1870 Decoration Day parade in St. Paul, Minnesota
The practice of decorating soldiers' graves with flowers is an ancient custom.[5] Soldiers' graves were decorated in the U.S. before[6] and during the American Civil War.
Some believe that an annual cemetery decoration practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day" idea.[7] Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are still held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather, put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic-like "dinner on the grounds," the traditional term for a potluck meal at a church.[7]
On June 3, 1861 Warrenton, Virginia was the location of the first Civil War soldier's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper article in 1906.[8] In 1862 women in Savannah, Georgia decorated Confederate soldiers' graves oer the Savannah Republican.[9] The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania.[10] and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.[11]
In April 1865, following President Abraham Lincoln's assassination, commemorations were ubiquitous. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.[12]
A decoration day observance on May 1, 1865 in Charleston, South Carolina led historian David W. Blight to claim that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina",[13] based on accounts in the Charleston Daily Courier and coverage by the New York Tribune. In 2012 Blight stated that he "has no evidence" that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country.[14] Accordingly, Snopes labeled the claim that the holiday began in Charleston "false."[15]
In 1868, General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of Union veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois, established Decoration Day as a time for the nation to decorate the graves of the Union war dead with flowers.[16] By the 20th century, various Union and Confederate memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service.[1]
On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official" birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York.[17] The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. Snopes and Live Science discredit the Waterloo account.[18][19]
In the North[edit]
The Tomb of the Unknowns located in Arlington National Cemetery
On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day" to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, the veterans' organization for Union Civil War veterans.[7] With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier.[20][21][22]
The first northern Memorial Day was observed on May 30, 1868. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle.[23] According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North.[24]
Memorial Day, Boston by Henry Sandham
The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869.[25] In 1871 Michigan made "Decoration Day" an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. The ceremonies were sponsored by the Women's Relief Corps, the women's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, D.C.[26]
Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities" of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that the German and Irish soldiers had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood" on the battlefield.[27]
Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania has run annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation's oldest continuously running; however, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin predates Doylestown's by one year.[28][29]
In the South[edit]
Confederate Memorial Monument in Montgomery, Alabama
The U.S. National Park Service[30] and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to the ladies of Columbus, Georgia.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37] On April 25, 1866, women in Columbus, Mississippi laid flowers on the graves of both the Union and Confederate dead in the city's cemetery.[38] The early southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries.[39]
Historians acknowledge the Ladies Memorial Association played a key role in these rituals of preservation of Confederate "memory."[40] Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks."[41]
In 1868, some southerners appended the label "Confederate" to what they originally called "Memorial Day" after northerners co-opted the holiday.[42] The tradition of observances were linked to the South, they served as the prototype for the national day of memory embraced by the nation in 1868.[30][43]
By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate south.[39] Changes in the ceremony's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate.[44]
At Gettysburg[edit]
Soldiers National Monument at the center of Gettysburg National Cemetery
Starting in 1868, the ceremonies and Memorial Day address at Gettysburg National Park became nationally known. In July 1913, veterans of the United States and Confederate armies gathered in Gettysburg to commemorate the fifty-year anniversary of the Civil War's bloodiest and most famous battle.[45]
The four-day "Blue-Gray Reunion" featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House after the War.[citation needed] James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address.[citation needed] Heflin was a noted orator; His choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers.[citation needed]
Since the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg occurred on November 19, that day (or the closest weekend) has been designated as their own local memorial day that is referred to as Remembrance Day.[46]
Name and date[edit]
"On Decoration Day" Political cartoon c 1900 by John T. McCutcheon. Caption: "You bet I'm goin' to be a soldier, too, like my Uncle David, when I grow up."
The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day" to "Memorial Day," which was first used in 1882.[47] Memorial Day did not become the more common name until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967.[48] On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three-day weekend.[49] The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971.[49] After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress' change of date within a few years.
Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocate returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in a 2002 Memorial Day Address:
Changing the date merely to create three-day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.[50]
Starting in 1987 Hawaii's Senator Daniel Inouye, a World War II veteran, introduced a measure to return Memorial Day to its traditional date. Inouye continued introducing the resolution until his death in 2012.[51]
20th century[edit]
On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half-staff position, where it remains only until noon.[52] It is then raised to full-staff for the remainder of the day.[53]
Memorial Day observances in small New England towns are often marked by dedications and remarks by veterans, state legislators, and selectmen.
The half-staff position remembers the more than one million men and women who gave their lives in service of their country. At noon, their memory is raised by the living, who resolve not to let their sacrifice be in vain, but to rise up in their stead and continue the fight for liberty and justice for all.
The National Memorial Day Concert takes place[when?] on the west lawn of the United States Capitol.[54] The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.
For many Americans, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities all over the country.[according to whom?] Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the National Guard and other servicemen participating along with veterans and military vehicles from various wars.[citation needed]
One of the longest-standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911.[55] It runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. Since 1961 NASCAR's Coca-Cola 600 has been held the same day.[citation needed] Since 1976 The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend.[citation needed] The final of the NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship is held on Memorial Day.[citation needed]
In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3:00 P.M.[56]
Poppies[edit]
Main article: Remembrance poppy
In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields". Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers' graves in Flanders.
In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.[57]
As civil religious holiday[edit]
Scholars,[58][59][60][61] following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion" – one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint – that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.[62]
Memorial Day has been called a "modern cult of the dead". It incorporates Christian themes of sacrifice while uniting citizens of various faiths.[63]
In film, literature, and music[edit]
Films[edit]
Memorial Day (2012) is a war film starring James Cromwell, Jonathan Bennett, and John Cromwell.
Music[edit]
Charles Ives's symphonic poem Decoration Day depicted the holiday as he experienced it in his childhood, with his father's band leading the way to the town cemetery, the playing of "Taps" on a trumpet, and a livelier march tune on the way back to the town. It is frequently played with three other Ives works based on holidays, as the second movement of A Symphony: New England Holidays.
Poetry[edit]
Poems commemorating Memorial Day include:
"Memorial Day" by Michael Anania(1994)[64]
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "Decoration Day" (1882) [65]
Joyce Kilmer's "Memorial Day"
Observance dates 1971–2099[edit]
Year
Memorial Day
1972 2000 2028 2056 2084 May 29
1973 2001 2029 2057 2085 May 28
1974 2002 2030 2058 2086 May 27
1975 2003 2031 2059 2087 May 26
1976 2004 2032 2060 2088 May 31
1977 2005 2033 2061 2089 May 30
1978 2006 2034 2062 2090 May 29
1979 2007 2035 2063 2091 May 28
1980 2008 2036 2064 2092 May 26
1981 2009 2037 2065 2093 May 25
1982 2010 2038 2066 2094 May 31
1983 2011 2039 2067 2095 May 30
1984 2012 2040 2068 2096 May 28
1985 2013 2041 2069 2097 May 27
1986 2014 2042 2070 2098 May 26
1987 2015 2043 2071 2099 May 25
1988 2016 2044 2072 May 30
1989 2017 2045 2073 May 29
1990 2018 2046 2074 May 28
1991 2019 2047 2075 May 27
1992 2020 2048 2076 May 25
1993 2021 2049 2077 May 31
1994 2022 2050 2078 May 30
1995 2023 2051 2079 May 29
1996 2024 2052 2080 May 27
1997 2025 2053 2081 May 26
1998 2026 2054 2082 May 25
1971 1999 2027 2055 2083 May 31
See also[edit]
Military of the United States portal
Holidays portal
A Great Jubilee Day, first held the last Monday in May 1783 (Revolutionary War)
ANZAC Day, an analogous observance in Australia and New Zealand on April 25 every year
Armistice Day
Confederate Memorial Day
Dodenherdenking ("Remembrance of the dead"), every year on May 4, commemorates all civilians and members of the armed forces of the Kingdom of the Netherlands who have died in wars or peacekeeping missions since the outbreak of World War II.
Heroes' Day
Memorial Day massacre of 1937
Nora Fontaine Davidson, credited with the first Memorial Day ceremony in Petersburg, Virginia
Patriot Day
Rudolf Anderson
United States military casualties of war
Remembrance Day, an analogous observance in Canada, the United Kingdom, and many other Commonwealth nations held on November 11 each year
Veterans Day
Volkstrauertag ( "People's Mourning Day" ), usually in November two Sundays ahead of 1. Advent, inaugurated in Germany in 1919 by the Weimar Republic, the German version of Memorial Day celebrated in the Weimar Republic and since 1949 in West Germany, a holiday with democratic context strictly different from the Imperial and Nazi-Era "Heldengedenktag", usually with a special event including the President in Bundestag
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Memorial Day". United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ 36 U.S.C. § 116
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Jump up ^ Kickler, Sarah (May 28, 2012). "Memorial Day vs. Veterans Day". baltimoresun.com. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Mary L'Hommedieu Gardiner (1842). "The Ladies Garland". J. Libby. p. 296. Retrieved May 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ In 1817, for example, a writer in the Analectic Magazine of Philadelphia urged the decoration of patriot's graves. E.J., "The Soldier's Grave," in The Analectic Magazine (1817), Vol. 10, 264.
^ Jump up to: a b c Alan Jabbour; Karen Singer Jabbour (May 31, 2010). Decoration Day in the Mountains: Traditions of Cemetery Decoration in the Southern Appalachians. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-8078-3397-1. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Times-Dispatch, 1906". Perseus.tufts.edu. July 15, 1906. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ ""A Beautiful Tribute", July 21, 1862". .uttyler.edu. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
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Jump up ^ "Boalsburg.com". Boalsburg.com. March 26, 1997. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
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Jump up ^ Blight, David W. "Lecture: To Appomattox and Beyond: The End of the War and a Search for Meanings, Overview". Oyc.yale.edu. Retrieved May 31, 2014. Professor Blight closes his lecture with a description of the first Memorial Day, celebrated by African Americans in Charleston, SC 1865.
Jump up ^ David Blight, cited by Campbell Robertson, "Birthplace of Memorial Day? That Depends Where You're From," New York Times, May 28, 2012– Blight quote from 2nd web page: "He has called that the first Memorial Day, as it predated most of the other contenders, though he said he has no evidence that it led to General Logan's call for a national holiday."
Jump up ^ Snopes Snopes.com, not dated
Jump up ^ Affairs, Office of Public and Intergovernmental. "Memorial Day History – Office of Public Affairs". va.gov.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Lyndon. "Presidential Proclamation 3727". Retrieved May 27, 2013.
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Jump up ^ The True Story Behind the First Memorial Day livescience.com, n.d.
Jump up ^ General John Logan, quoted by his wife. Books.google.com. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ "A Complicated Journey: The Story of Logan and Memorial Day" Tom English, The Southern Illinoisian, May 22, 2015
Jump up ^ "Memorial Day's Roots Traced To Georgia" Michael Jones, Northwest Herald, May 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hennig Cohen; Tristram Potter Coffin (1991). The Folklore of American holidays. Gale Research. p. 215.
Jump up ^ "Barack Obama, Weekly Address, May 29, 2010, transcript". Whitehouse.gov. May 29, 2010. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Blight (2004), pp.99–100
Jump up ^ "Interments in Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) National Cemeteries" (PDF). Washington, DC: National Cemetery Administration – Department of Veterans Affairs VA-NCA-IS-1. January 2011. After the Civil War, search and recovery teams visited hundreds of battlefields, churchyards, plantations and other locations seeking wartime interments that were made in haste. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Civil War dead were reinterred in 73 national cemeteries.
Jump up ^ Samito, Christian G. (2009). Becoming American Under Fire: Irish Americans, African Americans, and the Politics of Citizenship During the Civil War Era. Cornell University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-8014-4846-1. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ aaron.knapp@journaltimes.com, AARON KNAPP. "Rochester commemorates fallen soldiers in 150th Memorial Day parade". Journal Times. Retrieved 2017-06-01.
Jump up ^ says, Lisa. "Doylestown Hosts Oldest Memorial Day Parade In The Country". Retrieved 2017-06-01.
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service, "Flowers For Jennie" Retrieved February 24, 2015
Jump up ^ Daniel Bellware and Richard Gardiner, The Genesis of the Memorial Day Holiday in America (Columbus State University, 2014).
Jump up ^ Gary Gallagher, The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History, p. 190
Jump up ^ Kristina Dunn Johnson, No Holier Spot of Ground, p. 33
Jump up ^ Michael Kammen (Pulitzer Prize Winner), Mystic Chords of Memory, New York, Knopf 1991, 103.
Jump up ^ Tom English, "A Complicated Journey," The Southern Illinoisian, May 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mrs. Logan's Memoirs, p. 246. Books.google.com. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Birthplace of Memorial Day? That Depends Where You're From". The New York Times. May 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Did You Know? Little known Mississippi Facts". US Genealogy Network. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b University of Michigan; EBSCO Publishing (Firm) (2000). America, history and life. Clio Press. p. 190.
Jump up ^ Karen L. Cox (2003). Dixie's Daughters: The United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Preservation of Confederate Culture. Universbuttse Memorial Day.
Jump up ^ Blight (2001), Race and Reunion, pp. 272–273
Jump up ^ Gardiner and Bellware, p. 87
Jump up ^ Lucian Lamar Knight, "Memorial Day: Its True History". Books.google.com. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ David W. Blight (2001). Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory. Harvard U.P. p. 265.
Jump up ^ Warren Leon; Roy Rosenzweig (June 1, 1989). History Museums in the United States: A Critical Assessment. University of Illinois Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-252-06064-9.
Jump up ^ Glenn W. LaFantasie (March 1, 2008). Gettysburg Heroes: Perfect Soldiers, Hallowed Ground. Indiana University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-253-35071-8.
Jump up ^ Henry Perkins Goddard; Calvin Goddard Zon (2008). The Good Fight That Didn't End: Henry P. Goddard's Accounts of Civil War and Peace. Univ of South Carolina Press. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-57003-772-6.
Jump up ^ Alan Axelrod (June 1, 2007). Miracle at Belleau Wood: The Birth of the Modern U.S. Marine Corps. Globe Pequot. p. 233. ISBN 978-1-59921-025-4.
^ Jump up to: a b "Public Law 90-363". Retrieved April 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Mechant, David (April 28, 2007). "Memorial Day History". Retrieved May 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ E.g., 112th Congress (2011–2012), S.70
Jump up ^ Peggy Post; Anna Post; Lizzie Post; Daniel Post Senning (November 15, 2011). Emily Post's Etiquette, 18. HarperCollins. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-06-210127-3.
Jump up ^ Congress (October 22, 2009). United States Code, 2006, Supplement 1, January 4, 2007, to January 8, 2008. Government Printing Office. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-16-083512-4.
Jump up ^ Kevin J. Carnahan (May 1, 2004). Outdoor Escapes Washington, D.C.: A Four-Season Guide. Globe Pequot. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-7627-3056-8.
Jump up ^ Alan Wilson (October 1, 2011). Driven by Desire: The Desire Wilson Story. Veloce Publishing Ltd. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-84584-389-2.
Jump up ^ Scott, Ryan (May 24, 2015). "Memorial Day, 3 p.m.: Don't Forget". Forbes. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Where did the idea to sell poppies come from?". BBC News. November 10, 2006. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
Jump up ^ William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (1998). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Rowman Altamira. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1.
Jump up ^ Marcela Cristi (2001). From Civil to Political Religion: The Intersection of Culture, Religion and Politics. Wilfrid Laurier U.P. pp. 48–53. ISBN 978-0-88920-368-6.
Jump up ^ William M. Epstein (2002). American Policy Making: Welfare As Ritual. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-7425-1733-2.
Jump up ^ Corwin E. Smidt; Lyman A. Kellstedt; James L. Guth (2009). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics. Oxford Handbooks Online. pp. 142–3. ISBN 978-0-19-532652-9.
Jump up ^ Robert N. Bellah, "Civil Religion in America", Daedalus 1967 96(1): 1–21.
Jump up ^ Cherry, Conrad (2014-02-01). God's New Israel. ISBN 978-0-8078-6658-0.
Jump up ^ Anania, Michael (1994). "Memorial Day". PoetryFoundation.
Jump up ^ Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. "Memorial Day". The Atlantic.
Further reading[edit]
Albanese, Catherine. "Requiem for Memorial Day: Dissent in the Redeemer Nation", American Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Oct. 1974), pp. 386–398 in JSTOR
Bellah, Robert N. "Civil Religion in America". Daedalus 1967 96(1): 1–21. online edition
Bellware, Daniel, and Richard Gardiner, The Genesis of the Memorial Day Holiday in America (Columbus State University, 2014).
Blight, David W. "Decoration Day: The Origins of Memorial Day in North and South" in Alice Fahs and Joan Waugh, eds. The Memory of the Civil War in American Culture (2004), online edition pp 94–129; the standard scholarly history
Blight, David W. Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (2000) ch. 3, "Decorations" excerpt and text search
Buck, Paul H. The Road to Reunion, 1865–1900 (1937)
Cherry, Conrad. "Two American Sacred Ceremonies: Their Implications for the Study of Religion in America", American Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1969), pp. 739–754 in JSTOR
Dennis, Matthew. Red, White, and Blue Letter Days: An American Calendar (2002)
Jabbour, Alan, and Karen Singer Jabbour. Decoration Day in the Mountains: Traditions of Cemetery Decoration in the Southern Appalachians (University of North Carolina Press; 2010)
Myers, Robert J. "Memorial Day". Chapter 24 in Celebrations: The Complete Book of American Holidays. (1972)
Robert Haven Schauffler (1911). Memorial Day: Its Celebration, Spirit, and Significance as Related in Prose and Verse, with a Non-sectional Anthology of the Civil W. BiblioBazaar reprint 2010.
External links[edit]
Look up Memorial Day in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Memorial Day.
36 USC 116. Memorial Day (designation law)
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
In Memory of Our Honored Dead, US Memorial Day
National Moment of Remembrance Home Page
National Memorial Day Museum website
National Memorial Day Concert site
The History of Memorial Day
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Judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Judge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
Style
The Right Honourable
Lord or Lady
Appointer
The Queen, on advice of the Prime Minister
Term length
Life tenure; may be removed on the address of both Houses of Parliament
Formation
1 October 2009
Salary
£206,857[1]
Website
http://www.supremecourt.uk/
The Judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom include the President, the Deputy President, and Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.[2] The Supreme Court is the highest in the whole of the United Kingdom for civil matters, and for criminal matters from the United Kingdom jurisdictions of England and Wales and Northern Ireland. Judges are appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, who receives recommendations from a selection commission. The number of judges is set by s.23(2) Constitutional Reform Act 2005, which established the Court, but may be increased by the Queen through an Order in Council under s.23(3). There are currently 12 positions: one President, one Deputy President, and 10 Justices. Judges of the Court who are not already peers are granted the style Lord or Lady for life.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Qualification
2 Appointment
2.1 Selection commission
2.2 Selection procedure
2.3 Lord Chancellor's role
3 Original judges
3.1 List
4 Current judges
5 Acting judges and supplementary panel
6 Salary
7 Dress
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Qualification[edit]
The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 sets out conditions for appointment as a President, Deputy President or Justice of the Court. That person must have held high judicial office (judge of the Supreme Court, English High Court or Court of Appeal, Northern Irish High Court or Court of Appeal, or Scottish Court of Session) for at least two years,[5] or have held rights of audience at the higher courts of England, Scotland or Northern Ireland for at least fifteen years.[6] This means it is not necessary for someone applying to become a judge of the Supreme Court to have previous judicial experience (allowing Jonathan Sumption QC, a leading barrister to successfully apply for the role in 2011).
Appointment[edit]
Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by The Queen by the issue of letters patent,[7] on the advice of the Prime Minister, to whom a name is recommended by a special selection commission. The Prime Minister is required by the Constitutional Reform Act to recommend this name to the Queen and not permitted to nominate anyone else.[8]
Selection commission[edit]
The selection commission is made up of the President and Deputy President of the Court, and a member each from the Judicial Appointments Commission, the Judicial Appointments Board for Scotland and the Northern Ireland Judicial Appointments Commission.[9] Should either the President's or Deputy President's place on the commission be unfilled, that place is to be taken by the most senior ordinary judge of the court,[10] and should both offices be vacant, by the most senior and second most senior ordinary judges of the court.[11]
Selection procedure[edit]
Once the commission is formed, there are a number of people it is required to consult. The first group is a set of "senior judges" defined by the Act who do not wish to be considered for nomination.[12] Section 60 of the Act defines "the senior judges" as (a) the other judges of the Supreme Court, (b) the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, (c) the Master of the Rolls, (d) the Lord President of the Court of Session, (e) the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, (f) the Lord Justice Clerk, (g) the President of the Queen's Bench Division, (h) the President of the Family Division and (i) the Chancellor of the High Court. In the event that no judge from one of the UK's three jurisdictions has been consulted (e.g. if the Lord President and Lord Justice Clerk, the two most senior judges in Scotland, both wish to be considered for appointment, they will both be excluded from the consultation), the commission must consult the most senior judge in that jurisdiction who is not a member of the commission and does not wish to be considered for appointment.[13] The commission is then also required to consult the Lord Chancellor, the First Minister of Scotland, the First Minister for Wales and the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.[14]
The selection must be made on merit, in accordance with the qualification criteria of section 25 of the Act (above), of someone not a member of the commission, ensuring that the judges will have between them knowledge and experience of all three of the UK's distinct legal systems, having regard to any guidance given by the Lord Chancellor, and of one person only.[15]
Lord Chancellor's role[edit]
Once the commission has selected a nomination to make, this is to be provided in a report to the Lord Chancellor,[16] who is then required to consult the judges and politicians already consulted by the commission before deciding whether to recommend (in the Act, "notify") a name to the Prime Minister, who in turn advises the Queen to make the appointment. The Act provides for up to three stages in the Lord Chancellor's consideration of whether to do so. When the selection is first put forward (Stage One), the Lord Chancellor is entitled to accept the nomination, to reject it, or to ask the commission to reconsider it. If the nomination was rejected, the commission must put forward a new name for Stage Two, which the Lord Chancellor must either accept or ask the commission to reconsider. If instead the Lord Chancellor asked for reconsideration at Stage One, the commission may either put forward the same name or a new one. In either case, the Lord Chancellor must either accept or reject the name. In other words, the Lord Chancellor has one opportunity to reject and one to ask for reconsideration. At Stage Three (i.e. when the Lord Chancellor has both rejected and asked once for reconsideration), the name put forward by the commission must be accepted and forwarded to the Prime Minister, with one caveat: in the event the commission was asked to reconsider a name and then forwarded a new name, the Lord Chancellor may choose to accept the earlier name.[17]
Original judges[edit]
The Supreme Court was established on 1 October 2009 and assumed the former judicial functions of the House of Lords, which were removed by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, and the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary became judges of the Supreme Court,[18] except for Lord Scott of Foscote, who retired the day before the Court began business, and Lord Neuberger, who resigned to become Master of the Rolls.[19] The former Master of the Rolls, Lord Clarke, became a judge of the Supreme Court on its first day, the first Justice directly appointed to the Court,[20] and Sir John Dyson was appointed on 13 April 2010, the first Justice not to be a peer.
The Senior Law Lord on 1 October 2009, Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, became the Court's first President,[21] and the former Second Senior Law Lord, Lord Hope, the first Deputy President. The Court originally had one female Justice, Lady Hale, two Scottish Justices, Lord Hope and Lord Rodger, and one Northern Irish Justice, Lord Kerr. Of the original Justices, Lord Saville (on 30 September 2010) and Lord Collins (on 7 May 2011) were the first to retire, and Lord Rodger died in office. Their replacements were Lord Wilson and Lord Sumption. Lord Wilson was sworn in on 26 May 2011 and Lord Sumption on 11 January 2012. On 11 October 2011, it was announced that Lord Phillips would retire early, effective 30 September 2012.[22] On 20 December 2011, it was announced that the late Lord Rodger and the Lord Brown would be replaced by Lord Reed and Lord Justice Carnwath respectively.[23] Lords Phillips, Dyson (who retired 30 September 2012), Walker and Hope were replaced by Lords Neuberger (who became the new President), Hughes, Toulson and Hodge, and Lady Hale was appointed Deputy President after Lord Hope's retirement.
List[edit]
Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, first President (retired 30 September 2012)
Lord Hope of Craighead, first Deputy President (retired 26 June 2013)
Lord Saville of Newdigate (retired 30 September 2010)
Lord Rodger of Earlsferry (died in office 26 June 2011)
Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe (retired 17 March 2013)
Lady Hale of Richmond (now President)
Lord Brown of Eaton-under-Heywood (retired 9 April 2012)
Lord Mance
Lord Collins of Mapesbury (retired 7 May 2011)
Lord Kerr of Tonaghmore
Lord Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony (retired 4 September 2017)
Current judges[edit]
See also: List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
As of October 2017, there are 12 judges and no vacancies. Two judges are retired earlier in September 2017 and three new judges will be appointed to serve from October 2017.[24] The judges, in order of seniority, are as follows:
Name
Born
Alma mater
Invested
Mandatory
retirement
Prior senior judicial roles
Hale
of Richmond, The BaronessThe Baroness Hale
of Richmond
(President) 000000001945-01-31-000031 January 1945
(age 7001720000000000000♠72) Cambridge, GirtonGirton College, Cambridge 02009-10-01-031 October 2009 000000002020-01-31-000031 January 2020 Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (2004–2009)
Lord Justice of Appeal (1999–2003)
Justice of the High Court, FD (1994–1999)
Mance, The LordThe Lord Mance
(Deputy President) 000000001943-06-06-00006 June 1943
(age 7001740000000000000♠74) Oxford, UniversityUniversity College, Oxford 02009-10-01-041 October 2009 000000002018-06-06-00006 June 2018 Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (2005–2009)
Lord Justice of Appeal (1999–2005)
Justice of the High Court, QBD (1993–1999)
Kerr
of Tonaghmore, The LordThe Lord Kerr
of Tonaghmore 000000001948-02-22-000022 February 1948
(age 7001690000000000000♠69) Queen's University Belfast 02009-10-01-051 October 2009 000000002023-02-22-000022 February 2023 Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (2009)
Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland (2004–2009)
Justice of the High Court (NI) (1993–2004)
Wilson
of Culworth, LordLord Wilson
of Culworth 000000001945-05-09-00009 May 1945
(age 7001720000000000000♠72) Oxford, WorcesterWorcester College, Oxford 000000002011-05-26-000026 May 2011 000000002020-05-09-00009 May 2020 Lord Justice of Appeal (2005–2011)
Justice of the High Court, FD (1993–2005)
Sumption, LordLord Sumption 000000001948-12-09-00009 December 1948
(age 7001680000000000000♠68) Oxford, MagdalenMagdalen College, Oxford 000000002012-01-01-00001 January 2012 000000002018-12-09-00009 December 2018 None
Reed, LordLord Reed 000000001956-09-07-00007 September 1956
(age 7001610000000000000♠61) EdinburghUniversity of Edinburgh School of Law
Balliol College, Oxford 000000002012-02-06-00006 February 2012 000000002026-09-07-00007 September 2026 Senator of the College of Justice:
Inner House (2008–2012)
Outer House (1998–2008)
Carnwath
of Notting Hill, LordLord Carnwath
of Notting Hill 000000001945-03-15-000015 March 1945
(age 7001720000000000000♠72) Cambridge, TrinityTrinity College, Cambridge 000000002012-04-17-000017 April 2012 000000002020-03-15-000015 March 2020 Senior President of Tribunals (2007–2012)
Lord Justice of Appeal (2002–2012)
Justice of the High Court, CD (1994–2002)
Hughes
of Ombersley, LordLord Hughes
of Ombersley 000000001948-08-11-000011 August 1948
(age 7001690000000000000♠69) DurhamVan Mildert College, Durham 02013-04-09-014 April 2013 000000002018-08-11-000011 August 2018 Lord Justice of Appeal (2006–2013)
Justice of the High Court, QBD (2004–2006) and FD (1997–2003)
Hodge, LordLord Hodge 000000001953-05-19-000019 May 1953
(age 7001640000000000000♠64) Cambridge, CorpusCorpus Christi College, Cambridge
University of Edinburgh School of Law 000000002013-10-01-00001 October 2013 000000002023-05-19-000019 May 2023 Senator of the College of Justice,
Outer House (2005–2013)
Black
of Derwent, LadyLady Black
of Derwent 000000001954-06-01-00001 June 1954
(age 7001630000000000000♠63) Durham, TrevelyanTrevelyan College, Durham 000000002017-10-02-00002 October 2017 000000002024-06-01-00001 June 2024 Lady Justice of Appeal (2010–2017)
Justice of the High Court, FD (1999–2010)
Lloyd-Jones, LordLord Lloyd-Jones 000000001952-01-31-000031 January 1952
(age 7001650000000000000♠65) Cambridge, DowningDowning College, Cambridge 000000002017-10-02-00002 October 2017 000000002022-01-31-000031 January 2022 Lord Justice of Appeal (2012–2017)
Justice of the High Court, QBD (2005–2012)
Briggs
of Westbourne, LordLord Briggs
of Westbourne 000000001954-12-23-000023 December 1954
(age 7001620000000000000♠62) Oxford, MagdalenMagdalen College, Oxford 000000002017-10-02-00002 October 2017 000000002024-12-23-000023 December 2024 Lord Justice of Appeal (2013–2017)
Justice of the High Court, CD (2006–2013)
Acting judges and supplementary panel[edit]
Under section 38 of the Constitutional Reform Act, the President of the Court is empowered to request the service of additional judges on the Court, drawn from two categories of people: the first is any person serving as a "senior territorial judge", defined by section 38(8) as a judge of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, the Inner House of the Court of Session, or the Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland (unless the judge holds the latter office only by virtue of being a puisne judge of the High Court in Northern Ireland). Lord Judge[25][26] occasionally sat on cases in the Supreme Court when he was Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, as did Lord Neuberger when he was Master of the Rolls. Both Lord Reed (prior to his appointment to the Supreme Court) and Lord Clarke, judges of the Court of Session, sat on the Supreme Court during the last illness of Lord Rodger of Earlsferry.
The second category of additional judges is the supplementary panel: approved Supreme Court justices and territorial judges who have retired from judicial service within the past five years and are younger than 75.
The supplementary panel currently consists of:[27]
The Lord Clarke of Stone-cum-Ebony (former Justice of the Supreme Court)
Lord Dyson (former Justice of the Supreme Court; Master of the Rolls)
The Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury (former President of the Supreme Court; Justice of the Supreme Court; Master of the Rolls)
Salary[edit]
As of 1 April 2010, Justices of the Supreme Court, including the Deputy President, were in Group 2 of the judicial salary scheme, with an annual salary of £206,857. This is the same group as the Chancellor of the High Court, Lord Justice Clerk, President of the Family Division and President of the Queen's Bench Division.[1] The President of the Supreme Court, Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, Lord President of the Court of Session and Master of the Rolls make up Group 1.1 of the scale on £214,165, below only the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, who earns £239,845.[1]
Dress[edit]
On ceremonial occasions, such as the State Opening of Parliament and the ceremony at Westminster Abbey to mark the beginning of the judicial year, and also at the swearing in of a new member of the Court, the Justices wear ceremonial robes of black silk damask trimmed with gold lace and frogs in the same pattern as the Lord Chancellor's state robes. The robe has no train, and the flap collar and shoulder caps bear the Supreme Court insignia. The Justices do not wear wigs or court dress as others in the legal and official positions do, although Lady Hale has taken to wearing a black velvet Tudor bonnet with gold cord and tassel which is the common headwear for doctorates in British academical dress.[28] The robes were made by Ede & Ravenscroft with the embroidery by Hand & Lock.[29]
On other occasions, the Justices wear day dress. This follows the convention adopted by the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords, which was, technically, not a court but a committee of that House.
See also[edit]
Senator of the College of Justice
Lord Justice of Appeal
List of Lords Justices of Appeal
High Court judges
List of High Court judges of England and Wales
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Judicial salaries from 1 April 2012" (PDF). Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 5 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, s.23(6)
Jump up ^ "Warrant under the Royal Sign Manual". London Gazette. 1 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Press release: Courtesy titles for Justices of the Supreme Court" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 25(1)(a)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 25(1)(b)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 23(2)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, sections 26(2)&(3)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, schedule 8 para 1(1)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, schedule 8 para 2
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, schedule 8 para 3
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 27(2)(a)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 27(3)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 27(2)(b)-(e)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 27(5)-(10)
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 28.
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 29.
Jump up ^ Constitutional Reform Act 2005, section 24(a)
Jump up ^ Gibb, Frances (23 July 2009). "Lord Neuberger named Master of the Rolls". London: The Times. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Lord Clarke appointed Justice of the UK Supreme Court". 10 Downing Street. 20 April 2009. Archived from the original on 8 April 2010. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers appointed as senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary". 10 Downing Street. 1 April 2008. Archived from the original on 8 December 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
Jump up ^ BBC news – Lord Phillips, Supreme Court president, to retire early
Jump up ^ – Supreme Court Appointments, 20 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Appointment of Justices of the Supreme Court: 21 July 2017". Prime Minister's Office, 10 Downing Street. 21 July 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Press Summary: R (Noone) v HMP Drake Hall" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. 30 June 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Press Summary: Norris v USA" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. 24 February 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Supplementary List". The Supreme Court. Retrieved 7 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "£140,000 bill for Supreme Court robes judges will hardly wear". Daily Mail. 13 December 2009. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Supreme Court". Hand & Lock. 2 October 2009. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
External links[edit]
The Supreme Court website
Biographies of the Justices
Former Justices
[hide]
v
t
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Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
Justices
President: Lady Hale
Deputy President: Lord Mance
Lord Kerr
Lord Wilson
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Research and development
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Cycle of research and development
Research and development (R&D, R+D, or R'n'D), also known in Europe as research and technological development (RTD), refers to innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products, or improving existing services or products.[1] Research and development constitutes the first stage of development of a potential new service or the production process.
R&D activities differ from institution to institution, with two primary models[1] of an R&D department either staffed by engineers and tasked with directly developing new products, or staffed with industrial scientists and tasked with applied research in scientific or technological fields, which may facilitate future product development. R&D differs from the vast majority of corporate activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk and an uncertain return on investment. However R&D is crucial for acquiring larger shares of the market through the marketisation of new products.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Business R&D
2.1 Benefit by sector
2.2 Global
3 Government expenditures
3.1 United States
3.2 European Union
3.3 Worldwide
4 See also
5 Notes and references
Background[edit]
New product design and development is more often than not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In a global industrial landscape that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and range of products. This is necessary as well due to the fierce competition and the evolving preferences of consumers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and networks to tap into the innovations of others.
A system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell.[citation needed] Market research is carried out, which establishes the needs of consumers and the potential niche market of a new product. If the development is technology driven, R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet needs.[citation needed]
In general, research and development activities are conducted by specialized units or centers belonging to a company, or can be out-sourced to a contract research organization, universities, or state agencies.[citation needed] In the context of commerce, "research and development" normally refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology, using similar techniques to scientific research but directed toward desired outcomes and with broad forecasts of commercial yield.[citation needed]
Statistics on organizations devoted to "R&D" may express the state of an industry, the degree of competition or the lure of progress.[citation needed] Some common measures include: budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are continuously maintained, public and reflect risk.[citation needed]
In the United States, a typical ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3.5% of revenues; this measure is called "R&D intensity".[citation needed] A high technology company, such as a computer manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co. 14.1% or Novartis 15.1%. Anything over 15% is remarkable, and usually gains a reputation for being a high technology company such as engineering company Ericsson 24.9%, or Allergan a biotech company, tops the spending table with 43.4% investment[2] Such companies are often seen as credit risks because their spending ratios are so unusual.[citation needed]
Generally such firms prosper only in markets whose customers have extreme high technology needs, like certain prescription drugs or special chemicals, scientific instruments, and safety-critical systems in medicine, aeronautics or military weapons.[citation needed]The extreme needs justify the high risk of failure and consequently high gross margins from 60% to 90% of revenues.[citation needed] That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, because so many individual projects yield no exploitable product. Most industrial companies get 40% revenues only.[citation needed]
On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and repackage advanced technologies as a way of amortizing the high overhead.[citation needed] They often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems.[citation needed]
Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program.[3]
Business R&D[edit]
Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, "higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share".[4]
Research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention.[5] One way entrepreneurs can reduce these uncertainties is to buy the licence for a franchise, so that the know-how is already incorporated in the licence.[6]
Benefit by sector[edit]
In general, it has been found that there is a positive correlation between the research and development and firm productivity across all sectors, but that this positive correlation is much stronger in high-tech firms than in low-tech firms.[7][8] In research done by Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli, high-tech firms were found to have "virtuous" Matthew effects while low-tech firms experienced "vicious" Matthew effects, meaning that high-tech firms were awarded subsidies on merit while low-tech firms most often were given subsidies based on name recognition, even if not put to good use.[9] While the strength of the correlation between R&D spending and productivity in low-tech industries is less than in high-tech industries, studies have been done showing non-trivial carryover effects to other parts of the marketplace by low-tech R&D.[10]
Global[edit]
Global R&D management is the discipline of designing and leading R&D processes globally, across cultural and lingual settings, and the transfer of knowledge across international corporate networks.[11]
Government expenditures[edit]
United States[edit]
President Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012, of which 21% was destined to fund basic research.[12]
European Union[edit]
Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon 2020, which is open to participation worldwide.[13]
A notable example is the European environmental research and innovation policy, based on the Europe 2020 strategy which will run from 2014 to 2020,[14] a multidisciplinary effort to provide safe, economically feasible, environmentally sound and socially acceptable solutions along the entire value chain of human activities.[15]
Worldwide[edit]
In 2015, research and development constituted an average 2.2% of the global GDP according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.[16]
See also[edit]
Basic research
Demonstration
Industrial laboratory
Innovation
List of business and finance abbreviations
List of countries by research and development spending
Neglected Tropical Disease Research and Development
Science of science policy
Science policy
Technological revolution
Technology life cycle
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Staff, Investopedia (2003-11-25). "Research And Development – R&D". Investopedia. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
Jump up ^ All figures UK R&D Scoreboard Archived 2005-10-27 at the Wayback Machine. as of 2006[update].
Jump up ^ Johansson; Lööf (December 2008). "The Impact of Firm's R&D Strategy on Profit and Productivity".
Jump up ^ "Aerospace and Defense: Inventing and Selling the Next Generation" (pdf). Center for Strategic and International Studies. Center for Strategic and International Studies, International Security Program. December 5, 2009. p. 1. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Investor-partner business partner finder Business dictionary".
Jump up ^ "Investor-partner business partner finder Business dictionary".
Jump up ^ Ortega-Argiles, Raquel; Potters, Lesley; Vivarelli, Marco (2011). "R&D and productivity: testing sectoral peculiarities using micro data". Empirical Economics. 41 (3): 817–839. doi:10.1007/s00181-010-0406-3.
Jump up ^ Ortega-Argiles, Raquel; Piva, Mariacristina; Vivarelli, Marco (2011). "Productivity Gains from R&D Investment: Are High-Tech Sectors Still Ahead?". IZA Discussion Papers. IZA (5975): 1–22.
Jump up ^ Crespi, Francesco; Antonelli, Cristiano (2011). "Matthew Effects and R&D Subsidies: Knowledge Cumulability in High-Tech and Low-Tech Industries". Working Papers. Università degli Studi Roma Tre (140): 1–24.
Jump up ^ Mendonca, Sandro (2009). "Brave Old World: Accounting for 'High-Tech' Knowledge in 'Low-Tech' Industries". Research Policy. 38 (3): 470–482. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2008.10.018.
Jump up ^ Chiesa, V. (2001). R&D Strategy and Organisation, Imperial College Press
Jump up ^ https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41098.pdf
Jump up ^ Horizon 2020 – the EU's new research and innovation programme
Jump up ^ "European Commission – PRESS RELEASES – Press release – Horizon 2020: Commission proposes €80 billion investment in research and innovation, to boost growth and jobs". europa.eu. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
Jump up ^ "EUR-Lex – 02013R1291-20150704 – EN – EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
Jump up ^ "Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2017-12-12.

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values: Moksliniai tyrimai ir taikomoji veikla – Lithuanian

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values:
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values: Research and development – Simple English

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values:
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values: ஆய்வும் விருத்தியும் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
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values: การวิจัยและพัฒนา – Thai

values:
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values: Науково-дослідні та дослідно-конструкторські роботи – Ukrainian

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R&D – Vietnamese
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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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