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James Hutton
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For other people named James Hutton, see James Hutton (disambiguation).
James Hutton
FRSE
Hutton painted by Sir Henry Raeburn (1776)
Born
3 June 1726[1]
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Died
26 March 1797(1797-03-26) (aged 70)[2]
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Nationality
Scottish
Citizenship
British
Alma mater
University of Edinburgh
University of Paris
Known for
Plutonic geology
Deep time
Live Earth
Scientific career
Fields
Geology
Influences
John Walker
Influenced
Charles Lyell
Notes
Member of the Royal Society of Agriculture of France
James Hutton FRSE ( /ˈhʌtən/; 3 June 1726[1] – 26 March 1797) was a Scottish geologist, physician, chemical manufacturer, naturalist, and experimental agriculturalist.[3] He originated the theory of uniformitarianism—a fundamental principle of geology—that explains the features of the Earth's crust by means of natural processes over geologic time. Hutton's work established geology as a science, and as a result he is referred to as the "Father of Modern Geology".[4][5]
Through observation and carefully reasoned geological arguments, Hutton came to believe that the Earth was perpetually being formed; he recognised that the history of Earth could be determined by understanding how processes such as erosion and sedimentation work in the present day. His theories of geology and geologic time,[6] also called deep time,[7] came to be included in theories which were called plutonism and uniformitarianism. Some of his writings anticipated the Gaia hypothesis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and career
1.1 Farming and geology
1.2 Edinburgh and canal building
2 Later life and death
3 Theory of rock formations
3.1 Search for evidence
4 Publication
5 Opposing theories
6 Acceptance of geological theories
7 Other contributions
7.1 Meteorology
7.2 Earth as a living entity
7.3 Evolution
8 Works
9 Recognition
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Early life and career[edit]
Hutton was born in Edinburgh on 3 June 1726, OS one of five children of Sarah Balfour and William Hutton, a merchant who was Edinburgh City Treasurer. Hutton's father died in 1729, when he was three.
He was educated at the High School of Edinburgh (as were most Edinburgh children) where he was particularly interested in mathematics and chemistry, then when he was 14 he attended the University of Edinburgh as a "student of humanity", studying the classics. He was apprenticed to the lawyer George Chalmers WS when he was 17, but took more interest in chemical experiments than legal work. At the age of 18, he became a physician's assistant, and attended lectures in medicine at the University of Edinburgh. After three years he went to the University of Paris to continue his studies, taking the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Leiden University in 1749 with a thesis on blood circulation.[8]:2
After his degree Hutton returned to London, then in mid-1750 went back to Edinburgh and resumed chemical experiments with close friend, James Davie. Their work on production of sal ammoniac from soot led to their partnership in a profitable chemical works,[8]:2 manufacturing the crystalline salt which was used for dyeing, metalworking and as smelling salts and had been available only from natural sources and had to be imported from Egypt. Hutton owned and rented out properties in Edinburgh, employing a factor to manage this business.[9]
Farming and geology[edit]
Hutton inherited from his father the Berwickshire farms of Slighhouses, a lowland farm which had been in the family since 1713, and the hill farm of Nether Monynut.[8]:2–3 In the early 1750s he moved to Slighhouses and set about making improvements, introducing farming practices from other parts of Britain and experimenting with plant and animal husbandry.[8]:2–3 He recorded his ideas and innovations in an unpublished treatise on The Elements of Agriculture.[8]:60
This developed his interest in meteorology and geology. In a 1753 letter he wrote that he had "become very fond of studying the surface of the earth, and was looking with anxious curiosity into every pit or ditch or bed of a river that fell in his way". Clearing and draining his farm provided ample opportunities. The mathematician John Playfair described Hutton as having noticed that "a vast proportion of the present rocks are composed of materials afforded by the destruction of bodies, animal, vegetable and mineral, of more ancient formation". His theoretical ideas began to come together in 1760. While his farming activities continued, in 1764 he went on a geological tour of the north of Scotland with George Maxwell-Clerk,[10] ancestor of the famous James Clerk Maxwell.[11]
Edinburgh and canal building[edit]
In 1768 Hutton returned to Edinburgh, letting his farms to tenants but continuing to take an interest in farm improvements and research which included experiments carried out at Slighhouses. He developed a red dye made from the roots of the madder plant.[12]
He had a house built in 1770 at St John's Hill, Edinburgh, overlooking Salisbury Crags. This later became the Balfour family home and, in 1840, the birthplace of the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne. Hutton was one of the most influential participants in the Scottish Enlightenment, and fell in with numerous first-class minds in the sciences including mathematician John Playfair, philosopher David Hume and economist Adam Smith.[13] Hutton held no position in the University of Edinburgh and communicated his scientific findings through the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He was particularly friendly with physician and chemist Joseph Black, and together with Adam Smith they founded the Oyster Club for weekly meetings.
Between 1767 and 1774 Hutton had close involvement with the construction of the Forth and Clyde canal, making full use of his geological knowledge, both as a shareholder and as a member of the committee of management, and attended meetings including extended site inspections of all the works. At this time he is listed as living on Bernard Street in Leith.[14] In 1777 he published a pamphlet on Considerations on the Nature, Quality and Distinctions of Coal and Culm which successfully helped to obtain relief from excise duty on carrying small coal.[15]
In 1783 he was a joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.[16]
Later life and death[edit]
The memorial to James Hutton at his grave in Greyfriars Kirkyard
From 1791 Hutton suffered extreme pain from stones in the bladder and gave up field work to concentrate on finishing his books. A dangerous and painful operation failed to resolve his illness.[17] He died in Edinburgh and was buried in the vault of Andrew Balfour, opposite the vault of his friend Joseph Black, in the now sealed south-west section of Greyfriars Kirkyard commonly known as the Covenanter's Prison.
Hutton did not marry and had no legitimate children.[16] Around 1747 he had a son by a Miss Edington, and though he gave his child James Smeaton Hutton financial assistance, he had little to do with the boy who went on to become a post-office clerk in London.[18]
Theory of rock formations[edit]
Hutton developed several hypotheses to explain the rock formations he saw around him, but according to Playfair he "was in no haste to publish his theory; for he was one of those who are much more delighted with the contemplation of truth, than with the praise of having discovered it". After some 25 years of work,[19] his Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe was read to meetings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in two parts, the first by his friend Joseph Black on 7 March 1785, and the second by himself on 4 April 1785. Hutton subsequently read an abstract of his dissertation Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration and Stability to Society meeting on 4 July 1785,[20] which he had printed and circulated privately.[21] In it, he outlined his theory as follows;
The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to conclude:
1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes.
2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,
Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at present.
Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been required;
1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;
2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.
Search for evidence[edit]
Hutton's Section on Edinburgh's Salisbury Crags
In 1785 at Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains in the Scottish Highlands, Hutton found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way which indicated that the granite had been molten at the time. This demonstrated to him that granite formed from the cooling of molten rock rather than it precipitating out of water as others at the time believed, and therefore the granite must be younger than the schists.[22][23]
He went on to find a similar penetration of volcanic rock through sedimentary rock in Edinburgh, at Salisbury Crags,[5] adjoining Arthur's Seat – this area of the Crags is now known as Hutton's Section.[24][25] He found other examples in Galloway in 1786, and on the Isle of Arran in 1787.
Hutton's Unconformity on Arran
Hutton Unconformity at Jedburgh. Photograph (2003) below Clerk of Eldin illustration (1787).
The existence of angular unconformities had been noted by Nicolas Steno and by French geologists including Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, who interpreted them in terms of Neptunism as "primary formations". Hutton wanted to examine such formations himself to see "particular marks" of the relationship between the rock layers. On the 1787 trip to the Isle of Arran he found his first example of Hutton's Unconformity to the north of Newton Point near Lochranza,[26][27] but the limited view meant that the condition of the underlying strata was not clear enough for him,[28] and he incorrectly thought that the strata were conformable at a depth below the exposed outcrop.[29]
Later in 1787 Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton or "Great" Unconformity at Inchbonny,[6] Jedburgh, in layers of sedimentary rock.[30] As shown in the illustrations to the right, layers of greywacke in the lower layers of the cliff face are tilted almost vertically, and above an intervening layer of conglomerate lie horizontal layers of Old Red Sandstone. He later wrote of how he "rejoiced at my good fortune in stumbling upon an object so interesting in the natural history of the earth, and which I had been long looking for in vain." That year, he found the same sequence in Teviotdale.[28]
An eroded outcrop at Siccar Point showing sloping red sandstone above vertical greywacke was sketched by Sir James Hall in 1788.
In the Spring of 1788 he set off with John Playfair to the Berwickshire coast and found more examples of this sequence in the valleys of the Tour and Pease Burns near Cockburnspath.[28] They then took a boat trip from Dunglass Burn east along the coast with the geologist Sir James Hall of Dunglass. They found the sequence in the cliff below St. Helens, then just to the east at Siccar Point found what Hutton called "a beautiful picture of this junction washed bare by the sea".[31][32] Playfair later commented about the experience, "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time".[33] Continuing along the coast, they made more discoveries including sections of the vertical beds showing strong ripple marks which gave Hutton "great satisfaction" as a confirmation of his supposition that these beds had been laid horizontally in water. He also found conglomerate at altitudes that demonstrated the extent of erosion of the strata, and said of this that "we never should have dreamed of meeting with what we now perceived".[28]
Hutton reasoned that there must have been innumerable cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion then undersea again for further layers to be deposited. On the belief that this was due to the same geological forces operating in the past as the very slow geological forces seen operating at the present day, the thicknesses of exposed rock layers implied to him enormous stretches of time.[6]
Publication[edit]
Though Hutton circulated privately a printed version of the abstract of his Theory (Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration, and Stability) which he read at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 4 July 1785;[21] the full account of his theory as read at 7 March 1785 and 4 April 1785 meetings did not appear in print until 1788. It was titled Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe and appeared in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. I, Part II, pp. 209–304, plates I and II, published 1788.[20] He put forward the view that "from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." This restated the Scottish Enlightenment concept which David Hume had put in 1777 as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and Charles Lyell memorably rephrased in the 1830s as "the present is the key to the past".[34] Hutton's 1788 paper concludes; "The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning,–no prospect of an end."[20] His memorably phrased closing statement has long been celebrated.[6][35] (It was quoted in the 1989 song “No Control" by songwriter and professor Greg Graffin.[36])
Following criticism, especially the arguments from Richard Kirwan who thought Hutton's ideas were atheistic and not logical,[20] Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795,[37][38] consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon.
The whole was entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy when the third volume was completed in 1794.[39] Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that "The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.”
Opposing theories[edit]
His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of Abraham Gottlob Werner, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "Plutonist" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory.
As well as combating the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept of deep time for scientific purposes, in opposition to Catastrophism. Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older, with a history extending indefinitely into the distant past.[22] His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, to allow time for the changes. Before long, scientific inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of years – still too short when compared with the accepted 4.6 billion year age in the 21st century, but a distinct improvement.
Acceptance of geological theories[edit]
It has been claimed that the prose of Principles of Knowledge was so obscure that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories.[40] Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s popularised the concept of an infinitely repeating cycle, though Lyell tended to dismiss Hutton's views as giving too much credence to catastrophic changes.
Other contributions[edit]
Meteorology[edit]
It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other.
Earth as a living entity[edit]
The idea that the Earth is alive is found in philosophy and religion, but the first scientific discussion was by James Hutton. In 1785, he stated that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology.[41] Although his views anticipated the Gaia hypothesis, proposed in the 1960s by scientist James Lovelock,[42] his idea of a living Earth was forgotten in the intense reductionism of the 19th century.[41]
Evolution[edit]
Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures – evolution, in a sense – and even suggested natural selection as a possible mechanism affecting them:
"...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race." – Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, volume 2.[39]
Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to preserve themselves, and to continue the race". Equally, if an acute sense of smell became "more necessary to the sustenance of the animal... the same principle [would] change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness". The same "principle of variation" would influence "every species of plant, whether growing in a forest or a meadow". He came to his ideas as the result of experiments in plant and animal breeding, some of which he outlined in an unpublished manuscript, the Elements of Agriculture. He distinguished between heritable variation as the result of breeding, and non-heritable variations caused by environmental differences such as soil and climate.[39]
Though he saw his "principle of variation" as explaining the development of varieties, Hutton rejected the idea that evolution might originate species as a "romantic fantasy", according to palaeoclimatologist Paul Pearson.[43] Influenced by deism,[44] Hutton thought the mechanism allowed species to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and provided evidence of benevolent design in nature. Studies of Charles Darwin's notebooks have shown that Darwin arrived separately at the idea of natural selection which he set out in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, but it has been speculated that he had some half-forgotten memory from his time as a student in Edinburgh of ideas of selection in nature as set out by Hutton, and by William Charles Wells and Patrick Matthew who had both been associated with the city before publishing their ideas on the topic early in the 19th century.[39]
Works[edit]
1785. Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the seventh of March, and fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Duration, and Stability. Edinburgh. 30pp. at Oxford Digital Library.
1788.The theory of rain. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 41–86.
1788. Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition, dissolution, and restoration of land upon the Globe. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 209–304. at Internet Archive.
1792. Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy. Edinburgh & London: Strahan & Cadell. at Google Books
1794. Observations on granite. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 3, pp. 77–81.
1794. A dissertation upon the philosophy of light, heat, and fire. Edinburgh: Cadell, Junior, Davies. at e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek)
1794. An investigation of the principles of knowledge and of the progress of reason, from sense to science and philosophy. Edinburgh: Strahan & Cadell. at (VIRGO) University of Virginia Library)
1795. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations. Edinburgh: Creech. 3 vols. at e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek)
1797. Elements of Agriculture. Unpublished manuscript.
1899. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations, vol III, Edited by Sir Archibald Geikie. Geological Society, Burlington House, London. at Internet Archive
Recognition[edit]
Street sign in the Kings Buildings complex in Edinburgh to the memory of James Hutton
A street was named after Hutton in the Kings Buildings complex (a series of science buildings linked to Edinburgh University) in the early 21st century.
The punk band Bad Religion quoted James Hutton with "no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end" in their song "No Control".[45]
See also[edit]
James Hutton Institute
Climate of Scotland
Geology of Scotland
Shen Kuo
Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle, a book by Stephen Jay Gould that reassesses Hutton's work
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b 14 June 1726 New Style.
Jump up ^ "James Hutton biography". Science Hall of Fame. National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
Jump up ^ Waterston, Charles D; Macmillan Shearer, A (2006). Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index (PDF). I. Edinburgh: The Royal Society of Edinburgh. ISBN 978-0-902198-84-5.
Jump up ^ University of Edinburgh. "Millennial Plaques: James Hutton". (Hutton's Millennial Plaque, which reads, "In honour of James Hutton 1726–1797 Geologist, chemist, naturalist, father of modern geology, alumnus of the University," is located at the main entrance of the Grant Institute). Archived from the original on 1 November 2007. External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b David Denby (11 October 2004). "Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh". The New Yorker. Review of James Buchan's Crowded With Genius (Capital of the Mind in the UK). In 1770, James Hutton, an experimental farmer and the owner of a sal ammoniac works, began poking into the peculiar shapes and textures of the Salisbury Crags, the looming, irregular rock formations in Edinburgh. Hutton noticed something astonishing—fossilized fish remains embedded in the rock. The remains suggested that volcanic activity had raised the mass from some depth in the sea. In 1785, he delivered a lecture to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, which included the remarkable statement that "with respect to human observation, this world has neither a beginning nor an end." Coolly discarding Biblical accounts of creation, the book that he eventually published, Theory of the Earth, helped to establish modern geology.
^ Jump up to: a b c d American Museum of Natural History (2000). "James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology". Earth: Inside and Out. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. "The result, therefore, of this physical enquiry", Hutton concluded, "is that we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end".
Jump up ^ Kenneth L. Taylor (September 2006). "Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time". The Historian (abstract). Book review of Stephen Baxter, ISBN 0-7653-1238-7. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dean 1992
Jump up ^ "Business and Related Interests". James Hutton.org.uk. Retrieved 11 April 2008. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Farming and Hutton the Geologist". James Hutton.org.uk. Retrieved 3 October 2010. [permanent dead link], Playfair
Jump up ^ Campbell, Lewis; Garnett, William (1882). The Life of James Clerk Maxwell. London: Macmillan and Company. p. 18.
Jump up ^ "Return to Edinburgh". James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hutton's Contemporaries and The Scottish Enlightenment". James Hutton.org.uk. Retrieved 11 April 2008. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Williamson's directory for the City of Edinburgh, Canongate, Leith and suburbs". National Library of Scotland. 1773–74. p. 36. Retrieved 2017-12-02. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Jump up ^ "The Forth and Clyde Canal". James Hutton.org.uk. Retrieved 11 April 2008. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN 0 902 198 84 X.
Jump up ^ http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/James_Hutton.aspx
Jump up ^ "Settled and Unsettled". James Hutton.org.uk. Retrieved 9 December 2010. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Theory of the Earth". James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Theory of the Earth full text (1788 version)
^ Jump up to: a b Concerning the System of the Earth Archived 7 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine. abstract
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Macfarlane (13 September 2003). "Glimpses into the abyss of time". The Spectator. Review of Repcheck's The Man Who Found Time. Hutton possessed an instinctive ability to reverse physical processes – to read landscapes backwards, as it were. Fingering the white quartz which seamed the grey granite boulders in a Scottish glen, for instance, he understood the confrontation that had once occurred between the two types of rock, and he perceived how, under fantastic pressure, the molten quartz had forced its way into the weaknesses in the mother granite.
Jump up ^ "Glen Tilt". Scottish Geology. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Scottish Geology – Hutton's Section at Salisbury Crags
Scottish Geology – Hutton's Rock at Salisbury Crags
Jump up ^ Cliff Ford (1 September 2003). "Hutton's Section at Hoyrood Park". Geos.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hutton's Unconformity". Isle of Arran Heritage Museum. 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Hutton's Unconformity – Lochranza, Isle of Arran, UK – Places of Geologic Significance on Waymarking.com". Retrieved 20 October 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Keith Montgomery (2003). "Siccar Point and Teaching the History of Geology" (PDF). University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 26 March 2008.
Jump up ^ Hugh Rance (1999). "Hutton's unconformities" (PDF). Historical Geology: The Present is the Key to the Past. QCC Press. Retrieved 20 October 2008.
Jump up ^ "Jedburgh: Hutton's Unconformity". Jedburgh online. Archived from the original on 9 August 2010. Whilst visiting Allar's Mill on the Jed Water, Hutton was delighted to see horizontal bands of red sandstone lying 'unconformably' on top of near vertical and folded bands of rock.
Jump up ^ "Hutton's Journeys to Prove his Theory". James-hutton.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hutton's Unconformity". Snh.org.uk. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ John Playfair (1999). "Hutton's Unconformity". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. V, pt. III, 1805, quoted in Natural History, June 1999. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Lincoln Mathieson (13 May 2002). "The Present is the Key to the Past is the Key to the Future". The Geological Society of America. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Keith Stewart Thomson. "Vestiges of James Hutton". American Scientist online, V. 89 No. 3 p. 212, May/June 2001 doi:10.1511/2001.3.212. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. It is ironic that Hutton, the man whose prose style is usually dismissed as unreadable, should have coined one of the most memorable, and indeed lyrical, sentences in all science: "(in geology) we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of an end." In those simple words, Hutton framed a concept that no one had contemplated, that the rocks making up the earth today have not, after all, been here since Creation. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ Greg Graffin (1989). "Lyrics, No Control". No Control. there's no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end (Hutton, 1795)
Jump up ^ Theory of the Earth, Volume 1 at Project Gutenberg
Jump up ^ Theory of the Earth, Volume 2 at Project Gutenberg
^ Jump up to: a b c d Paul N. Pearson (16 October 2003). "In Retrospect". Nature V. 425 #6959, p. 665. Comments on Hutton's 3-volume 1794 work, An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ Geikie, Archibald (1897). The Founders of Geology. London: Macmillan and Company. p. 166.
^ Jump up to: a b Lovelock, James (1979). GAIA – A new look at life on Earth. Oxford University Press. pp. viii, 10. ISBN 0-19-286030-5.
Jump up ^ Lovelock, J. E. (1965). "A physical basis for life detection experiments". Nature. 207 (7): 568–570. Bibcode:1965Natur.207..568L. doi:10.1038/207568a0. PMID 5883628.
Jump up ^ Connor, Steve (16 October 2003). "The original theory of evolution... were it not for the farmer who came up with it, 60 years before Darwin". The Independent. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Dean, Dennis R. (1992). James Hutton and the History of Geology. Cornell University Press. p. 265.
Jump up ^ Keith Stewart Thomson (May–June 2001). "Vestiges of James Hutton". American Scientist V. 89 #3 p. 212.
Further reading[edit]
Baxter, Stephen (2003). Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time. New York: Tor Books, 2004. ISBN 0-7653-1238-7. Published in the UK as Revolutions in the Earth: James Hutton and the True Age of the World. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-82975-0
Dean, Dennis R. (1992). James Hutton and the history of geology. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801426667.
Playfair, John (1822). "Biographical Account of the late James Hutton, M.D.". The Works of John Playfair, Esq. vol. IV. Edinburgh: Constable.
Repcheck, Jack (2003). The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-3189-9 (UK), ISBN 0-7382-0692-X (US)
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: James Hutton
Wikimedia Commons has media related to James Hutton.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Hutton, James.
Wikisource has the text of the 1885–1900 Dictionary of National Biography's article about Hutton, James (1726-1797).
James Hutton.org.uk, links to James Hutton – The Man and The James Hutton Trail.
James Hutton and Uniformitarianism (scroll down)
James Hutton's memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh
First Publication of Theory of the Earth
Accessible Historical Perspective on James Hutton at the Wayback Machine (archived 8 May 2006)
Gould, Stephen Jay. "B16: The History of Life: Source Book". pp. 137, 138, 139, 140. Retrieved 17 July 2014. |chapter= ignored (help)
Works by James Hutton at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about James Hutton at Internet Archive
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "James Hutton", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews .
Digitized volumes at the Linda Hall Library:
Hutton's (1788), "Theory of the Earth." Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 1, no. 20.
Hutton's (1795–1899), Theory of the earth, with proofs and illustrations, 3 vols.
John Playfair (1802), Illustrations of the Huttonian theory of the Earth
John Playfair (1815), Explication de Playfair sur la théorie de la terre par Hutton (French)
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Lindt & Sprüngli
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"Lindt" redirects here. For other uses, see Lindt (disambiguation).
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Not to be confused with Confiserie Sprüngli.
Chocoladefabriken Lindt & Sprüngli AG
Type
Aktiengesellschaft
Traded as
SIX: LISN
SIX: LISP
Industry
Confectionery
Founded
1845
Founder
David Sprüngli-Schwarz
Rudolf Sprüngli-Ammann
Headquarters
Kilchberg, Switzerland
Key people
Ernst Tanner (Chairman)
Dieter Weisskopf (CEO)[1]
Products
Chocolate, confectionery, ice cream
Revenue
3.65 billion CHF (2015)[2]
Net income
381 million CHF (2015)
Number of employees
13,180 (2015)
Subsidiaries
Ghirardelli
Russell Stover
Caffarel
Hofbauer
Küfferle
Website
www.lindt.ch
www.lindt-spruengli.com/investors/
Headquarters and factory in Kilchberg, Zürich
Chocoladefabriken Lindt & Sprüngli AG, more commonly known as Lindt, is a Swiss chocolatier and confectionery company founded in 1845 and known for its chocolate truffles and chocolate bars, among other sweets.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Founding and early years
1.2 Expansion
1.3 Recent developments
2 Factories
3 Lindt Chocolate Cafés
4 Products
4.1 Lindor
4.2 Seasonal confectioneries
4.3 Chocolate bars
4.4 Petits desserts
4.5 Liqueurs
4.6 Ice cream
5 Criticism
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Founding and early years[edit]
David Sprüngli
Share of the Chocoladefabrik Lindt & Sprüngli AG, issued 1 September 1930
The origins of the company date back to 1836, when David Sprüngli-Schwarz and his son Rudolf Sprüngli-Ammann bought a small confectionery shop in the old town of Zürich, producing chocolates under the name David Sprüngli & Son. Two years later, a small factory was added that produced chocolate in solid form. In 1845, they moved to the Paradeplatz.
With the retirement of Rudolf Sprüngli-Ammann in 1892, the business was divided between his two sons. The younger brother David Robert received two confectionery stores that became known under the name Confiserie Sprüngli. The elder brother Johann Rudolf received the chocolate factory. To raise the necessary finances for his expansion plans, Johann Rudolf converted his private company into "Chocolat Sprüngli AG" in 1899. In that same year, he acquired the chocolate factory of Rodolphe Lindt in Bern, and the company changed its name to "Aktiengesellschaft Vereinigte Berner und Züricher Chocoladefabriken Lindt & Sprüngli" (United Bern and Zurich Lindt and Sprungli Chocolate Factory Ltd.).[3]
Expansion[edit]
In 1994, Lindt & Sprüngli acquired the Austrian chocolatier, Hofbauer Österreich, and integrated it, along with its Küfferle brand, into the company. In 1997 and 1998, respectively, the company acquired the Italian chocolatier Caffarel and the American chocolatier Ghirardelli, and integrated both of them into the company as wholly owned subsidiaries. Since then, Lindt & Sprüngli has expanded the once-regional Ghirardelli to the international market.
On 17 March 2009, Lindt announced the closure of 50 of its 80 retail boutiques in the United States because of weaker demand in the wake of the late-2000s recession.[4]
Recent developments[edit]
After Lindt recorded net profits of $4.7 million in the 2011 calendar year, the marketing team stated that its market share amounted to 29%, surpassing its previous years. On 14 July 2014, Lindt bought Russell Stover Candies, maker of Whitman's Chocolate, for about $1.5 billion, the company's largest acquisition to date.[5]
Factories[edit]
Lindt & Sprüngli has six factories: Kilchberg, Switzerland; Aachen, Germany; Oloron-Sainte-Marie, France; Induno Olona, Italy; Gloggnitz, Austria; and Stratham, New Hampshire, in the United States. The factory in Gloggnitz, Austria, manufactures products under the Hofbauer & Küfferle brand in addition to the Lindt brand. Caffarel's factory is located in Luserna San Giovanni, Italy, and Ghirardelli's factory is located in San Leandro, California, in the United States.[6]
Lindt Chocolate Cafés[edit]
Lindt shop in Leeds
Lindt has opened eight chocolate cafés in Australia: four in Sydney and four in Melbourne. The cafés' menu offers breakfast and lunch, but mostly focuses on chocolate and desserts. They also sell handmade chocolates, macaroons, cakes, and ice cream.
Sydney: The first café opened at Martin Place in 2004. The second store opened in Cockle Bay Wharf in Darling Harbour in 2006. The third store is located in George Street and opened in 2007. A fourth store opened in Westfield Miranda in 2008. In December 2014, employees and customers in the Martin Place café were held hostage by a gunman, resulting in the deaths of two hostages and the perpetrator.[7]
Melbourne: Lindt opened a flagship chocolate café at 271 Collins Street[8] in July 2009, and a second store at Chadstone Shopping Centre in August 2009. In June 2011, Lindt opened their third café on Chapel Street in South Yarra and their fourth in November on Southbank.[citation needed]
United States: Wrentham, Massachusetts is in the early stages of planning the first chocolate café in the U.S.[citation needed]
Products[edit]
Lindor[edit]
Lindor milk chocolate truffles in red wrappers
A Lindor dark chocolate truffle in a blue wrapper
Originally, Lindor was a truffle ball that Lindt & Sprüngli introduced in 1949.[3] Lindor is a type of chocolate produced by Lindt, which is now characterized by a hard chocolate shell and a smooth chocolate filling. It comes in both a ball and a bar variety, as well as in a variety of flavours. Each flavour listed below has its own wrapper colour:[9]
Colour
Flavour
Black Extra Dark (60% cocoa outside and dark chocolate filling)
Black with Ghosts;
White and Blue Snowmen;
Lime Green with Pink, Purple, and Yellow Flowers and Butterflies;
Lime Green with White and Yellow Flowers;
Red with Hearts
Milk outside with smooth white filling (seasonal flavour)
Black with Green Dark Peppermint (Limited Edition)
Blue Dark Chocolate
Brown Hazelnut
Brown and Gold (with print 'St Moritz') Milk chocolate shell filled with sugared hazelnut chunks
Dark Brown (with print 'Café') Mocha
Dark Green with Red Peppermint
Gold and White White Chocolate
Gold with Blue Cinnamon
Red Milk Chocolate
Light Blue Stracciatella: white chocolate shell with cocoa pieces with a smooth white filling
Light Brown (with print 'Peanut Butter') Peanut Butter
Light Pink Irish Cream
Light Pink (with print 'Strawberries and Cream') Strawberries and Cream
Light Purple Almond Case
Lime Green Lemon (Limited Edition)
Amber Mango and Cream (Limited Edition)
Orange Dark chocolate shell filled with orange chocolate filling
Deep Pink Raspberry
Green Mint
Purple Vanilla
Turquoise Coconut
White with Gold Marc De Champagne
Sky Blue Sea Salt
Sky Blue with White Stripe (with print 'Latte') Milk and Cereal Crunch
Bronze (with print 'Caramel') Caramel
Dark Aqua Sea Salt & Caramel
Most of the US Lindor truffles are manufactured in Stratham, New Hampshire.[3]
In mid-2012, Swiss tennis star Roger Federer was named as Lindt's "global brand ambassador", and began appearing in a series of commercials endorsing Lindor.[10][unreliable source]
Seasonal confectioneries[edit]
Display of Lindt chocolate bunnies
Gold Bunny (Goldhase) advertisement on the Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft (ZSG) ship Wädenswil in Zürich
Lindt also produces the Gold Bunny, a hollow milk chocolate rabbit in a variety of sizes available every Easter since 1952.[11][12] Each bunny wears a small coloured ribbon bow around its neck identifying the type of chocolate contained within. The milk chocolate bunny wears a red ribbon, the dark chocolate bunny wears a dark brown ribbon, the hazelnut bunny wears a green ribbon, and the white chocolate bunny wears a white ribbon. Other chocolates are wrapped to look like carrots, chicks, or lambs. The lambs are packaged with four white lambs and one black lamb.
During the Christmas season, Lindt produces a variety of items, including chocolate reindeer (which somewhat resemble the classic bunny), Santa, snowmen figures of various sizes, bears, bells, advent calendars, and chocolate ornaments. Various tins and boxes are available in the Lindt stores, the most popular colour schemes being the red and blue. Other seasonal items include Lindt chocolate novelty golf balls.[13]
For Valentine's Day, Lindt sells a boxed version of the Gold Bunny, which comes as a set of two kissing bunnies.[14] Other Valentine's Day seasonal items include a selection of heart-shaped boxes of Lindor chocolate truffles.
Chocolate bars[edit]
Lindt sells a variety of chocolate bars. Flavours from the Excellence range include:[15]
Mint Intense: dark chocolate infused with mint
Orange Intense: dark chocolate infused with orange essence and almond flakes
Black Currant: dark chocolate infused with pieces of black currant and almond slivers
White Coconut: white chocolate with crisp flakes of fine coconut
Coconut: dark chocolate with crisp flakes of coconut
Almond: white chocolate with whole roasted almonds and caramelised almond pieces
Poire Intense: pear flavoured chocolate with almond flakes
Pineapple: dark chocolate with pineapple pieces and caramelised hazelnut pieces
Cherry Intense
Regular Dark Chocolate: available in 50%, 60%, 70%, 85%, 90%, or 99% cocoa varieties
Extra Creamy: milk chocolate
Toffee Crunch: crunchy toffee bits wrapped in milk chocolate
Caramel Crunchy: studded with crunchy caramel
Lindor: the famous balls but in cube form
Wasabi: an East Asian-inspired dark chocolate mixed with wasabi
Pistachio: milk chocolate with creamy pistachio filling
Mandarin: milk chocolate with creamy mandarin filling
Strawberry: milk chocolate with creamy white chocolate strawberry filling
Strawberry Margarita: capsule form with strawberry and margarita filling
White Strawberry: white chocolate with strawberry pieces
Orange: milk chocolate with creamy orange-flavoured filling
Cuba: 55% cocoa, single-origin Cuban cocoa
Madagascar: 70% cocoa, single-origin Madagascan cocoa
Ecuador: 75% cocoa, single-origin Ecuadoran cocoa
Vanilla: white chocolate with vanilla beans
Coffee
Chili: 70%-cocoa dark chocolate with red chili extract
Raspberry Intense Dark: dark chocolate with pieces of raspberries and almond slivers
A Touch of Sea Salt: dark chocolate seasoned with fleur de sel
Petits desserts[edit]
Lindt's "Petits Desserts" range embodies famous European desserts in a small cube of chocolate. Flavours include: Tarte au Chocolat, Crème Brulée, Tiramisu, Creme Caramel, Tarte Citron, Meringue, and Noir Orange.[16]
Lindt makes a "Creation" range of chocolate-filled cubes: Milk Mousse, Dark Milk Mousse, White Milk Mousse, Chocolate Mousse, Orange Mousse, and Cherry/Chili.[17]
Liqueurs[edit]
Bâtons Kirsch are Lindt Kirsch liqueur-filled, chocolate-enclosed tubes dusted in cocoa powder.[18]
Ice cream[edit]
In Australia, Lindt manufactures ice cream in various flavours:[19]
70% Dark Chocolate
White Chocolate Framboise
Sable Cookies and Cream
Chocolate Chip Hazelnut
White Chocolate and Vanilla Bean
Criticism[edit]
[hide]This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This section may lend undue weight to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. Please help to create a more balanced presentation. Discuss and resolve this issue before removing this message. (November 2017)
The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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In September 2017, an investigation[20] conducted by NGO Mighty Earth found that a large amount of the cocoa used in chocolate produced by Lindt and other major chocolate companies was grown illegally in national parks and other protected areas in Ivory Coast and Ghana.[21][22] The countries are the world’s two largest cocoa producers.[23][24]
The report documents how in several national parks and other protected areas, 90% or more of the land mass has been converted to cocoa.[25] Less than four percent of Ivory Coast remains densely forested, and the chocolate companies' laissez-faire approach to sourcing has driven extensive deforestation in Ghana, as well.[26]
See also[edit]
List of bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Group Management" (in German). Lindt Sprüngli AG. 10 October 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Key Figures" (in German). Lindt Sprüngli AG. 3 August 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Story of Lindt". LindtUSA. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Wiggins, Jenny (17 March 2009). "Lindt closes lid on most of its US stores". Financial Times. Retrieved 3 January 2016. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ MacLucas, Neil (14 July 2014). "Lindt & Spruengli to Buy Russell Stover Candies". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 24 October 2017. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Contact Us for Ghirardelli". Ghirardelli. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Police storm Sydney cafe to end hostage siege, 3 dead". AsiaOne. 15 December 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Marc Pallisco (31 May 2009). "Flagship Lindt Chocolat Cafe to Open in Collins Street, Melbourne". Real Estate Source. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "LINDOR". Lindt Chocolate. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Tennis-X.com. "Roger Federer Loses His Bag For Lindt Chocolate [Video]". Tennis-x.com. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "The LINDT GOLD BUNNY Story > History of chocolate > Secrets of Chocolate > Lindt & Sprüngli, Master Chocolatier since 1845". Lindt.com. 17 August 2010. Archived from the original on 6 September 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Charles Forelle (11 June 2008). "Europe's High Court tries on a chocolate bunny suit". The Australian. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Golf Balls 110g". Lindt. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Lindt Kissing Gold Bunny 100g". Lindt Shop. Wayback Machine. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "EXCELLENCE Bars". LindtUSA. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Boxed Chocolates". LindtUSA. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Popular Chocolate Sellers". Lindt. Wayback Machine. Archived from the original on November 21, 2015. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Single masterpieces... > Lindt & Sprüngli, Maître chocolatier suisse depuis 1845". Lindt.com. Wayback Machine. March 12, 2012. Archived from the original on December 15, 2014. Retrieved March 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ice Cream". Lindt Australia. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Higonett, Etelle; Bellantonio, Marisa; Hurowitz, Glenn (15 September 2017). "Chocloate's Dark Secret" (PDF). Mighty. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Olam to acquire global cocoa business of Archer Daniels Midland for $1.7 billion". The Straits Times. 16 December 2014. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Olam Livelihood Charter 2016" (PDF). Olam. September 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Wessel, Marius; Quist-Wessel, P.M. Foluke (December 2015). "Cocoa production in West Africa, a review and analysis of recent developments". NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.njas.2015.09.001. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Harris, Nancy; Payne, Octavia; Alix Mann, Sarah (6 August 2015). "How Much Rainforest Is in That Chocolate Bar?". World Resources Institute. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Bitty, E. Anderson; Bi, Sery Gonedele; Bene, Jean-Claude Koffi; Kouassi, Philippe K.; McGraw, W. Scott (1 March 2015). "Cocoa Farming and Primate Extirpation Inside Cote D'ivoire's Protected Areas". Tropical Conservation Science. pp. 95–113. doi:10.1177/194008291500800110. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Analyse qualitative des facteurs de" (PDF). 10 November 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lindt & Sprüngli.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2014 Sydney hostage crisis.
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Lindt Shop UK
Lindt Boutique France
Lindt Boutique España
Lindt Boutique Switzerland
Lindt Boutique Germany
Lindt Japan
Lindt Canada
Lindt Boutique USA
Lindt Australia
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