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History of Jhelum
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For other uses, see Jhelum (disambiguation).
Sohail Gate, Rohtas Fort.
The recorded history of Jhelum (Urdu: تاريخ جہلم), a district of modern-day Pakistan, covers thousands of years. It has since its creation been dominated by Persian, Greek, Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Sikh and British influences to present-day Pakistan.
Jhelum is near the site of the famous Battle of the Hydaspes between the armies of Alexander the Great and Raja Porus. This battle took place a few miles downstream from the city centre, along the river banks. The city was founded to commemorate the death of Alexander's horse, Bucephalus, and was originally called Bucephala. Nearby there is also the historic 16th century Rohtas Fort, another historic fort since Sikh era located at the backside of main bus stand near Railway Phatak Jhelum City now being used as stores under Railway Authorities and also Tilla Jogian; a centuries-long history of the area.
Contents
1 Early history
2 Greek period
3 Early Muslim period
4 Mughal era
5 Sikh era
6 British era
7 Independence
8 Military history
9 Etymology
10 References
Early history[edit]
The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical period of the Mahabharata. Hindu tradition represents the Salt Range as the refuge of the five Pandava brethren during the period of their exile, and every salient point in its scenery is connected with some legend of the national heroes. Modern research has fixed the site of the conflict between Alexander and Porus as within Jhelum district, though the exact spot at which the Macedonian king effected the passage of the Jhelum (or Hydespes) has been hotly disputed.
Greek period[edit]
Ancient graveyard of Alexander's period.
Alexander moved from ancient Taxila of Raja Ambhi, whom he subdued without fight, to Kalar Kahar. From there he moved over the Salt Range, turning left, along the western bank of River Jhelum, which he called Hydaspes. Opposite him on the other bank was a Raja Porus. They fought one of the biggest and most fierce battle of Alexander's whole campaign, which eventually Alexander won, after using a surprise move against the valiant Porus but with great difficulty and a heavy loss of life on Alexander's side too. Before moving further, along the river Alexander established a village on west bank of the River and ordered construction of 2000 boats. Greek Admiral Nearches was to arrange wood from nearby higher hills which would be floated down the River and hauled up at this point. He called this village as Boucephila (present-day Jhelum City). The Jhelum River passes vying with the residential areas of the city.
The mosque inside the river is a famous landmark most commuters on the Grand Trunk Road even today. Alexander's Naval Chief was assigned the task of boats building on a very large scale. Therefore, the craftsmen on a large scale were gathered, hence the modern colonies in the city were named as Machine Mohallahs (Number 1, 2 and 3), because of saw mills. Jhelum became timber market for whole of Punjab over the millenniums. It was only after construction of Mangla Dam that log wood does not float down the river and the city has lost this privilege. There is a plywood factory also, which is flourishing. Greeks left marks of their chivalry and martial spirit which mixed up well with the races and clans dwelling in the area.[1]
Early Muslim period[edit]
In 997 CE, Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi, took over the Ghaznavid dynasty empire established by his father, Sultan Sebuktegin, In 1005 he conquered the Shahis in Kabul in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of Punjab region in including the Jhelum District. The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire ruled the region. The Punjab region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of Punjab region.
The Janjuas and Jats, who now hold the Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively, appear to have been the earliest inhabitants.[2]
The Gakhars, who appear to represent an early wave of conquest from the west, and who still inhabit a large tract in the east of the District; while the Awans, who now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later invaders, the Gakhars were the dominant race during the early Muslim era and they long continued to retain their independence, both in Jhelum itself and in the neighbouring District of Rawalpindi.[2]
Mughal era[edit]
During the flourishing period of the Mughal dynasty, the Gakhar chieftains were among the most prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of Babar.The heirs of Mughal tribes spread with the bank of river Jhelum and the main locations of Mughal tribes started to live in Chak Nazar, Khardiyala and Mong Rasool, chotala, Motagarbi, shamasAbad, Pandoori, chak Mughlan, Qazi Chak, and else where. These Mughal tribes belong to highest clan "Barlas" Mughal. They even lived as open declared Mughal Tribes during the hard period of British. They did not lose their identity and lived with honours. After the 1923 Flood in river Jhelum.These Mughal Families migrated to different parts of Jhelum and Gujrat. As the record shows that they were known as big land owners in Jhelum and Gujrat.One of the family of Mirza Khan Muhammad and Mirza Doust Muhammad, shifted to village Aima Afghana, having lands denoted by the British Government.Mirza Khan Muhammad had four sons, named Mirza Sarwar Baig, Mirza Aslam Baig, Mirza Sadiq Baig and Mirza Bashir Baig.
Sikh era[edit]
A Fort in Jhelum City, built during Sikh era.
In 1765 Gujar Singh defeated the last independent Gakhars Chief, Muqarrrab Khan, and reduced the wild mountaineers of the Salt Range and the Murree Hills to subjection. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Sikh invaded and occupied Multan District. The Muslims faced severe restrictions during the Sikh rule. Gujar Singh's son succeeded to his dominions until 1810, when it fell to Ranjit Singh. Under the Lahore government the dominant classes of Jhelum suffered much from fiscal actions; and the Janjua, Gakhar and Awan families who had a feudal and aristocratic influence in the area, gradually lost their landed estates, which passed into the hands of their Jat dependents.[2]
British era[edit]
In 1847 Jhelum passed with the rest of the Sikh territories into the power of the British.In 1857 the 14th Native Infantry stationed at Jhelum town mutinied, and made a vigorous defence against a force sent from Rawalpindi to disarm them, but decamped on the night following the action, the main body. Being subsequently arrested by the Kashmir authorities, into whose territory they had escaped. British established administration at district level and Jhelum District, which originally was covering large area including Pindigheb and territory up to Indus river, was delimited later to include tehsils of Jhelum, Chakwal and Pind Dadan Khan, with District Headquarters shifting from Pind Dadan Khan to Jhelum. During the 20th Century, this city has a proud history of chivalry and achievements.[3]
During British rule, Jhelum was a district of Rawalpindi Division, and was larger than the current district of Jhelum. On April 1, 1914, the tehsil of Talagang was detached from the District and incorporated with the new District of Attock. The old Jhelum district (minus Talagang) covered an area of 2,813 square miles (7285 km2) and included Chakwal tehsil - it was bounded by Shahpur and Attock to the west, and by Rawalpindi to the north - the Jhelum River separated it from Kashmir to the north-east and from Gujrat and Shahpur to the south-east and south.[2]
During British rule, Jhelum was connected by the North-Western Railway to other cities in the Indian empire, 1,367 miles from Calcutta, 1,413 from Bombay, and 849 from Karachi. The population according to the 1901 census of India was 14,951.[4]
According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India:
"The present town is of modern origin, the old town, which may have been the Bucephala of Alexander having been, on the left or opposite bank of the river. Under Sikh rule the place was quite unimportant, being mainly occupied by a settlement of boatmen, and at the time of annexation contained about 500 houses. It was then chosen as the site of a cantonment and as the headquarters of the civil administration. For some years it was the seat of the Commissioner of the Division, but in 1859 his headquarters were transferred to Rawalpindi. Under British rule Jhelum has steadily advanced in prosperity; and it is the entrepôt for most of the trade of the District, though, since the completion of the Sind-Sāgar branch of the North-Western Railway; the salt trade no longer passes through it. It is an important timber dépôt, the timber from the Kashmir forests which is floated down the river being collected here. A good deal of boat-building is carried on. The cantonment, which is 3 miles from the civil station, contains the church and post office. The normal strength of the garrison is one Native cavalry and four Native infantry regiments. The municipality was founded 1867. During the ten years ending 1902-3 the receipts averaged Rs. 32,100, and the expenditure Rs, 31,900. Receipts and expenditure from cantonment funds in the same period averaged Rs. 31,900 and Rs. 6,100 respectively. The chief income of the municipality in 1903-4 was Rs. 34,200 chiefly from octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 41,000. The town has two Anglo vernacular schools, a municipal high school, and a middle school maintained by the American Presbyterian Mission. Besides the civil hospital, the mission also maintains a ."[4]
Marble Lectern in memory of 35 British soldiers.
During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny, 35 British soldiers of the Regular 24th Regiment of Foot were killed at the Battle of Jhelum by mutineers from the Honourable East India Companies 14th Bengal Native Infantry (roughly 500 of the soldiers mutinied with roughly 100 of the Sikh soldiers remaining loyal). Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring.[5]. A lectern inside St. John's Church Jhelum shows the names of those 35 soldiers. St. John's Church is located in the Jhelum Cantonment, Pakistan beside the river Jhelum. It was built in 1860 and remains a landmark in the city. It was built as a Protestant church, and was in use throughout the British period. For the past forty years it has been closed to the public and in poor condition, however it has since[when?] been renovated and reopened and is now maintained.
The British soldier William Connolly won a Victoria Cross for his bravery during this battle. Mirza Dildar Baig, also known as Khaki Shah, took part in the mutiny at Jhelum and was later celebrated by Indian Nationalists. He was captured and arrested with the remaining mutineers by authorities in Kashmir and later hanged near the river Jhelum. His grave is in a shrine in Jhelum Dildarnagar, and a small town in Uttar Pradesh is also named after him.
The railway bridge on the river Jhelum was built in 1873 by the British engineer William St. John Galwey. He also made the great Empress Bridge over the river Sutlej.
Independence[edit]
The predominantly Muslim population supported both the Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement. After the independence of Pakistan and partition from India in 1947, the minority Hindus and Sikhs were displaced to India while the Muslim refugees from India settled in the Jhelum District.
Military history[edit]
Jhelum has long been a key recruiting ground for the Armed Forces and has a history of providing large number of soldiers in particular. It has sent men to serve first in the Honourable East India Company Army then the British Army and more recently to the Pakistan Armed Forces. As a result it is known locally as city of soldiers or land of martyrs and warriors.[6] During the First World War, Jhelum was notable for providing a significant number of recruits to the Indian Expeditionary Force and, as a result, became a strong source of recruits for the British Indian Army right up to independence.
The first Victoria Cross to be awarded to a son of Jhelum (the highest Imperial, British and Commonwealth award for gallantry) was earned by Subedar Khuda Dad Khan during the First World War whilst fighting in Belgium. Later another son of Jhelum was to be awarded its equivalent; the Nishan-e-Haider of Pakistan. Major Muhammad Akram (Shaheed) received his award posthumously for his actions during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.
It is of note that when Pakistan declared independence in 1947, three out the four senior major generals of the new Pakistan Army were from Jhelum: Major General Muhammad Akbar, Major General Nazir Ahmed and Major General Muhammad Iftekhar. Other senior Pakistani military officers of note, who have originated from Jhelum, are; Air Commodore Muhammad Khan Janjua, General Asif Nawaz Janjua and Admiral Tariq Kamal Khan. Colonel Muhammad Khan, the author of Bajang Amad and Bazam Araian, also came from Jhelum.
Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen from Jhelum have distinguished themselves in combat from the time of the British Raj through the World Wars and the more recent conflicts with India. As a result several have won gallantry awards and accolades.[7]
Etymology[edit]
Anjum Sultan Shahbaz records some stories of the name Jhelum in his book Tareekh-e-Jhelum as:[8]
“ Many writers have different opinions about the name of Jhelum. One reason is that in ancient days Jhelum was known as Jalham. The word Jhelum is reportedly derived from the words Jal (pure water) and Ham (snow). The name thus refers to the waters of a river (flowing besides the City) which has its origin in the snow-capped Himalayas.[9]
However some writers says when “Dara-e-Azam” reached a certain place on the river bank by winning the many battles, he fixed his flag on that place and called that place “Ja-e-Alam” which mean “Place of Flag”. With the passage of time it became Jhelum from “Ja-e-Alam”.
According to a traditional story, Hazrat Saeed Bin Abi Waqas, brother of Hazrat Saad Bin Abi Waqas, was sent to China for preaching Islam, during his journey he reached at city of Jhelum, he saw the shadow of city in water of the river and said “هذا جهيلم” (this is jheelum), which means “City besides river, in full moon night”.
Here a notable point is that in English its spellings are Jhelum or Jheelum, not Jehlum.
Ahmed Shah Abdali also used “Jheelum” in place of Jhelum and “Harian” for Kharian in his Diary.
”
( Shahbaz, Anjum Sultan (September 2003). Tareekh-e-Jhelum (urdu). history of jhelum (2nd ed.). Book Corner, Main Bazar, Jhelum. p. 92. )
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greek era of Jhelum
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jhelum District Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14, p. 152
Jump up ^ http://pakistaniat.com/2007/02/24/pakistan-jehlum-alexander-taxila-hydaspes-porus-boucephila/
^ Jump up to: a b Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14, p. 159-160
Jump up ^ The London Gazette, 19 May 1858 http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/22141/pages/2492/page.pdf
Jump up ^ BBC NEWS - City of Soldiers
Jump up ^ Jhelum history
Jump up ^ Tareekh-e-Jhelum, page 92 by Anjum Sultan Shahbaz
Jump up ^ The District Jhelum Archived 2009-04-15 at the Wayback Machine.
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Coastal management
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about Coastal management aimed to prevent erosion and flooding. For broader management issues, see Integrated coastal zone management. For military defence of coastal areas, see Coastal defence and fortification.
Oosterscheldekering sea wall, the Netherlands.
Coastal management is defence against flooding and erosion, and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands.[1]
Coastal zones occupy less than 15% of the Earth's land area, while they host more than 40% of the world population. Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level, with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population.[2] With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025, human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts. Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities.
In the European Union, almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union's economic wealth. The fishing, shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe's most fragile and valuable natural habitats.
Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important, as sea level rise accelerates. Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems. Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Middle Ages
1.2 Modern Age
1.3 Twentieth century
1.3.1 European Code of Conduct
2 Planning approaches
2.1 Managed retreat
2.2 Hold the line
2.3 Move seaward
2.4 Limited intervention
3 Construction techniques
3.1 Hard Engineering Methods
3.1.1 Groynes
3.1.2 Seawalls
3.1.3 Revetments
3.1.4 Rock armour
3.1.5 Gabions
3.1.6 Offshore breakwater
3.1.7 Cliff stabilization
3.1.8 Entrance training walls
3.1.9 Floodgates
3.2 Soft engineering methods
3.2.1 Beach replenishment
3.2.2 Dune stabilisation
3.2.3 Beach drainage
3.2.4 Costs
4 Monitoring
4.1 Event warning systems
4.2 Shoreline mapping
4.2.1 Shoreline indicator
4.2.2 Importance and application
4.2.3 Data sources
4.2.3.1 Historical maps
4.2.3.2 Aerial photographs
4.2.3.2.1 Object space displacements
4.2.3.2.2 Radial lens distortion
4.2.3.2.3 Shoreline delineation
4.2.3.3 Beach profiling surveys
4.2.3.4 Remote sensing
4.2.3.5 Video analysis
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Coastal engineering of harbours began with the origin of maritime traffic, perhaps before 3500 B.C. Docks, breakwaters and other harbour works were built by hand, often in a grand scale.
Ancient harbour works are still visible. Most of the grander ancient harbor works disappeared following the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Most coastal efforts were directed to port structures. Venice and its lagoon is an example of measures not related to ports. Protection of the shore in Italy, England and the Netherlands began in the 6th century or earlier. The ancients understood phenomena such as Mediterranean currents and wind patterns and the wind-wave cause-effect link.
The Romans introduced many innovations in harbor design. They built walls underwater and constructed solid breakwaters. In some cases wave reflection was used to prevent silting. They used surface-height breakwaters to trip the waves before they reached the main breakwater. They were the first dredgers in the Netherlands to maintain the harbour at Velsen. Silting problems there were solved when the previously sealed solid piers were replaced with new "open"-piled jetties.
Middle Ages[edit]
Attack from the sea caused many coastal towns and their harbours to be abandoned. Other harbours were lost due to natural causes such as rapid silting, shoreline advance or retreat, etc. The Venetian Lagoon was one of the few populated coastal areas with continuous prosperity and development where written reports document the evolution of coastal protection works.
Modern Age[edit]
Little improvement took place beyond the Roman approach to harbour construction after the Renaissance. Then in the early 19th century, the advent of the steam engine, the search for new lands and trade routes, the expansion of the British Empire through her colonies, and other influences, all contributed to the revitalization of sea trade and a renewed interest in port works.
Twentieth century[edit]
Prior to the 1950s, the general practice was to use hard structures to protect against beach erosion or storm damages. These structures included seawalls and revetments or sand-trapping structures such as groynes. During the 1920s and '30s, private or local community interests protected many coastal areas using these techniques on an ad hoc basis. In certain resort areas, structures proliferated to such an extent that the protection impeded recreational uses. Erosion continued, but the structures remained, resulting in a loss of beach area.
The obtrusiveness and cost of these structures led in the late 1940s and early 1950s, to a more dynamic approach. Projects attempted to replicate the protective characteristics of natural beach and dune systems. The resultant use of artificial beaches and stabilized dunes as an engineering approach was economically viable and more environmentally friendly.
Limited knowledge of coastal sediment transport processes often resulted in inappropriate measures of coastal erosion mitigation. In many cases, measures worked locally, but exacerbated problems at other locations -up to tens of kilometers away- or generated other environmental problems.
European Code of Conduct[edit]
The essential source on coastal engineering is the European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones issued by the European Council in 1999. This document was prepared by the Group of Specialists on Coastal Protection and underlies national legislation and practice.
The Group of Specialists originated in 1995, pursuant to a decision by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. It emphasized the need for integrated management and planning, but that coastal areas continued to deteriorate. The Group claimed that this was due to difficulties in implementing the concept of "integrated management". The Group proposed that the Council of Europe, cooperate with the Coastal & Marine Union (EUCC) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Planning approaches[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Five general coastal management strategies
Five generic strategies are involved in coastal defense:[3]
Abandonment
Managed retreat or realignment, which plans for retreat and adopts engineering solutions that accommodate natural processes of adjustment
Armoring by constructing seawalls and other hard structures
Construct defenses seaward of the coast
Adapting vertically by elevating land and buildings
The choice of strategy is site-specific, depending on pattern of sea-level change, geomorphological setting, sediment availability and erosion, as well as social, economic and political factors.
Alternatively, integrated coastal zone management approaches may be used to prevent development in erosion- or flood-prone areas, reducing the need to address the changes. Growth management can be a challenge for local authorities who must provide the infrastructure required by new residents.[4]
Managed retreat[edit]
Main article: Managed retreat
Managed retreat is an alternative to constructing or maintaining coastal structures. Managed retreat allows an area to erode. Managed retreat is often a response to a change in sediment budget or to sea level rise. The technique is used when the land adjacent to the sea is low in value. A decision is made to allow the land to erode and flood, creating new shoreline habitats. This process may continue over many years.
The earliest managed retreat in the UK was an area of 0.8 ha at Northey Island flooded in 1991. This was followed by Tollesbury and Orplands in Essex, where the sea walls were breached in 1995.[5] In the Ebro Delta (Spain) coastal authorities planned a managed retreat.[6]
The main cost is generally the purchase of land to be abandoned. Relocation compensation may be needed. Human-made structures that will be engulfed by the sea may need to be removed. In some cases, armouring is used to protect land beyond the area to be flooded. Costs may be lowest if existing defences are left to fail naturally, but the realignment project may be more actively managed, for example by creating an artificial breach in existing defences to allow the sea in at a particular place in a controlled fashion, or by pre-forming drainage channels for created salt-marsh.
Hold the line[edit]
Holding the line typically involves shoreline hardening techniques, e.g., using permanent concrete and rock constructions. These techniques--seawalls, groynes, detached breakwaters, and revetments—represent more than 70% of protected shoreline in Europe.
Alternatively, soft engineering techniques supporting natural processes and relying on natural elements such as dunes and vegetation can prevent erosive forces from reaching the back-shore. These techniques include beach nourishment and sand dune stabilisation.
Historically coastal strategies were heavily based on static structures, while coastal areas otherwise reflect a dynamic equilibrium.[7] Armouring often has the unintended consequence of moving the problem to another part of the coast. Soft options such as beach nourishment protect coastlines and help to restore the natural dynamism, although they require repeated applications. Maintenance costs can eventually require a strategy change.
Move seaward[edit]
In some cases a seaward strategy can be adopted. Examples from erosion include: Koge Bay (Dk), Western Scheldt estuary (Nl), Chatelaillon (Fr) and Ebro delta (Sp).[3]
There is an obvious downside to this strategy. Coastal erosion is already widespread, and there are many coasts where exceptional high tides or storm surges result in encroachment on the shore, impinging on human activity. If the sea rises, many coasts that are developed with infrastructure along or close to the shoreline will be unable to accommodate erosion. They will experience a so-called "coastal squeeze" whereby ecological or geomorphological zones that would normally retreat landwards encounter solid structures and can migrate no further. Wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves and adjacent fresh water wetlands are particularly vulnerable to such a squeeze.
An upside to the strategy is that moving seaward (and upward) can create land of high value which can bring investment.
Limited intervention[edit]
Limited intervention is an action taken whereby the management only addresses the problem to a certain extent, usually in areas of low economic significance. Limited intervention often includes the succession of haloseres, including salt marshes and sand dunes. This normally results in protecting the land behind the halosere, as wave energy dissipates throughout the accumulated sediment and additional vegetation in the new habitat. Although the halosere is not strictly man-made, as many natural processes contribute to the succession, anthropogenic factors are partially responsible for the formation, since an initial factor was needed to help start the process of succession.
Construction techniques[edit]
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Hard Engineering Methods[edit]
Groynes[edit]
Groyne at Mundesley, Norfolk, UK
Main article: Groyne
Groynes are barriers or walls perpendicular to the coastline, often made of greenharts, concrete, rock or wood. Material builds up on the downdrift side, where littoral drift is predominantly in one direction, creating a wider and a more plentiful beach, thereby protecting the coast because the sand material filters and absorbs wave energy. However, there is a corresponding loss of beach material on the updrift side, requiring another groyne there. Groynes do not protect the beach against storm-driven waves and if placed too close together create currents that carry material offshore.
Groynes are cost-effective, require little maintenance and are one of the most common defences. However, groynes are increasingly viewed as detrimental to the aesthetics of the coastline and face opposition in many coastal communities.[8]
Groynes can be considered a "soft" solution because of the beach enhancement.
Groyne construction creates a problem known as terminal groyne syndrome. The terminal groyne prevents longshore drift from bringing material to other nearby places. This is a problem along the Hampshire and Sussex coastline in the UK; e.g., at Worthing.
Seawalls[edit]
Main article: Seawall
Walls of concrete or rock, are used to protect a settlement against erosion or flooding. They are typically about 3–5 metres (10–16 ft) high. Older-style vertical seawalls reflected all the energy of the waves back out to sea, and for this purpose were often given recurved crest walls which increased local turbulence, and thus increased entrainment of sand and sediment. During storms, sea walls help longshore drift.
Modern seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy in the form of sloping revetments, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence. Designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour (Seabees, SHEDs, Xblocs) with flights of steps for beach access.
The location of a seawall, must consider the swept prism of the beach profile, the consequences of long-term beach recession and amenity crest level, including cost implications.
Sea walls can cause beaches to dissipate. Their presence also alters the landscape that they are trying to protect.
Modern examples can be found at Cronulla (NSW, 1985-6),[9] Blackpool (1986–2001),[10] Lincolnshire (1992–1997)[11] and Wallasey (1983–1993).[12] At Sandwich, Kent the Seabee seawall is buried at the back of the beach under the shingle with crest level at road kerb level.
Sea walls typically cost £10,000 per metre (depending on material, height and width), £10,000,000 per km (depending on material, height and width).[citation needed]
Revetments[edit]
Main article: Revetments
Revetments are slanted or upright blockades, built parallel to the coast, usually towards the back of the beach to protect the area beyond. The most basic revetments consist of timber slants with a possible rock infill. Waves break against the revetments, which dissipate and absorb the energy. The shoreline is protected by the beach material held behind the barriers, as the revetments trap some of the material. They may be watertight, covering the slope completely, or porous, to allow water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated. Most revetments do not significantly interfere with transport of longshore drift. Since the wall absorbs energy instead of reflecting, the surf progressively erodes and destroys the revetment; therefore, maintenance is ongoing, as determined by the structural material and product quality.
Rock armour[edit]
Main article: Riprap
Rock armour is large rocks placed at the sea edge using local material. This is generally used to absorb wave energy and hold beach material. Although effective, this solution is unpopular for aesthetic reasons. Longshore drift is not hindered. Rock armour has a limited lifespan, is not effective in storm conditions and reduces recreational values.
Gabions[edit]
Main article: Gabion
Boulders and rocks are wired into mesh cages and placed in front of areas vulnerable to erosion: sometimes at cliffs edges or at right angles to the beach. When the ocean lands on the gabion, the water drains through leaving sediment, while the structure absorbs a moderate amount of wave energy.
Gabions need to be securely tied to protect the structure.
Downsides include wear rates and visual intrusiveness.
Offshore breakwater[edit]
Main article: Breakwater (structure)
Concrete blocks and/or boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and to filter wave and tide energy. The waves break further offshore and therefore lose erosive power. This leads to wider beaches, which further absorb wave energy. Dolos has replaced the use of concrete blocks because it is more resistant to wave action and requires less concrete to produce a superior result. Similar concrete objects like Dolos are A-jack, Akmon, Xbloc, Tetrapod and Accropode.
Cliff stabilization[edit]
Main article: Cliff stabilization
Cliff stabilization can be accomplished through drainage of excess rainwater of through terracing, planting and wiring to hold cliffs in place.
Entrance training walls[edit]
Main article: Training (civil)
Training walls are built to constrain a river or creek as it discharges across a sandy coastline. The walls stabilise and deepen the channel which benefits navigation, flood management, river erosion and water quality, but can cause coastal erosion by interrupting longshore drift. One solution is a sand bypassing system to pump sand under/around the training walls.
Floodgates[edit]
Main article: Floodgate
Storm surge barriers, or floodgates, were introduced after the North Sea Flood of 1953 and prevent damage from storm surges or any other type of natural disaster that could harm the area they protect. They are habitually open and allow free passage, but close under threat of a storm surge. The Thames Barrier is an example of such a structure.
Soft engineering methods[edit]
Beach replenishment[edit]
Main article: Beach replenishment
Beach replenishment/nourishment involves importing sand from elsewhere and adding it to the existing beach. The imported sand should be of a similar quality to the existing beach material so it can meld with the natural local processes and without adverse effects. Beach nourishment can be used in combination with groynes. The scheme requires repeated applications on an annual or multi-year cycle.
Dune stabilisation[edit]
Stabilising dunes can help protect beaches by catching windblown sand, increasing natural beach formation. Dune stabilisation/sand dune management employs public amenities such as car parks, footpaths, Dutch Ladders and boardwalks to reduce erosion and the removal of sand by humans. Noticeboards, leaflets and beach wardens explain to visitors how to avoid damaging the area. Beach areas can be closed to the public to reduce damage. Fences can allow sand traps to create blowouts and increase windblown sand capture. Plants such as Ammophila (Marram grass) can bind the sediment.
Beach drainage[edit]
Beach drainage or beach face dewatering lowers the water table locally beneath the beach face. This causes accretion of sand above the drainage system.[13]
Beach watertables have an important bearing on deposition/erosion across the foreshore.[14] In one study a high watertable coincided with accelerated beach erosion, while a low watertable coincided with pronounced aggradation of the foreshore. A lower watertable (unsaturated beach face) facilitates deposition by reducing flow velocities during backwash and prolonging laminar flow. With the beach in a saturated state, backwash velocity is accelerated by the addition of groundwater seepage out of the beach within the effluent zone.
However, no case studies provide indisputable evidence of positive results, although in some cases overall positive performance was reported. Long-term monitoring was not undertaken at a frequency high enough to discriminate the response to high energy erosive events.
A useful side effect of the system is that collected seawater is relatively pure because of sand's filtration effect. Such water may be discharged or be used to oxygenate stagnant inland lagoons/marinas or used as feed for heat pumps, desalination plants, land-based aquaculture, aquariums or swimming pools.
Beach drainage systems have been installed in many locations around the world to halt and reverse erosion trends in sand beaches. Twenty four beach drainage systems have been installed since 1981 in Denmark, USA, UK, Japan, Spain, Sweden, France, Italy and Malaysia.
Costs[edit]
The costs of installation and operation vary due to:
system length (non-linear cost elements)
pump flow rates (sand permeability, power costs)
soil conditions (presence of rock or impermeable strata)
discharge arrangement /filtered seawater utilization
drainage design, materials selection & installation methods
geographical considerations (location logistics)
regional economic considerations (local capabilities /costs)
study requirements /consent process.
Monitoring[edit]
Coastal managers must compensate for error and uncertainty in the information regarding the erosive processes. Video-based monitoring can collect data continuously and produce analyses of shoreline processes.
Event warning systems[edit]
Event warning systems, such as tsunami warnings and storm surge warnings, can be used to minimize the human impact of catastrophic events that cause coastal erosion. Storm surge warnings can help determine when to close floodgates.
Wireless sensor networks can aid monitoring.
Shoreline mapping[edit]
Defining the shoreline is a difficult task due to its dynamic nature and the intended application.[15][16] The relevant mapping scale is dependent on the context of the investigation.[16] Generally, the coast comprises the interface between land and sea, and the shoreline is represented by the margin between the two.[17] Investigators adopt the use of shoreline indicators to represent the true shoreline position.[16]
Shoreline indicator[edit]
Figure 1. A diagram representing the spatial relationship between many of the commonly used indicators.[18]
The choice of shoreline indicator is a primary consideration. Indicators must be easily identified in the field and on aerial photography.[19] Shoreline indicators may be morphological features such as the berm crest, scarp edge, vegetation line, dune toe, dune crest and cliff or the bluff crest and toe. Alternatively, non-morphological features may be used such as water level (high water line (HWL), mean high water line) wet/dry boundary and the physical water line.[20] Figure 1 provides a sketch of the spatial relationships between commonly used shoreline indicators.
The HWL (H in Figure 1) is the most commonly used shoreline indicator because it is visible in the field, and can be interpreted on both colour and grey scale aerial photographs.[19][21] The HWL represents the landward extent of the most recent high tide and is characterised by a change in sand colour due to repeated, periodic inundation by high tides. The HWL is portrayed on aerial photographs by the most landward change in colour or grey tone.[16]
Importance and application[edit]
The shoreline location and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers.[16] [20] Shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change.[22] More specifically the position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of coastal protection, to calibrate and verify numerical models to assess sea level rise, map hazard zones and to regulate coastal development. The location of the shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures, beach width, volume and rates of historical change.[16][20]
Data sources[edit]
A variety of data sources are available for examining shoreline position. However, the availability of historical data is limited at many coastal sites and so the choice of data source is largely limited to what is available for the site at a given time.[16] Shoreline mapping techniques have become more automated. The frequent changes in technology prevented the emergence of one standard mapping approach. Each data source and associated method have capabilities and shortcomings.[23]
Historical maps[edit]
In the event that a study requires the shoreline position from before aerial photographs, or if the location has poor photographic coverage, historical maps provide an alternative.[23] Many errors are associated with early maps and charts. Such errors may be associated with scale, datum changes, distortions from uneven shrinkage, stretching, creases, tears and folds, different surveying standards, different publication standards and projection errors.[16] The severity of these errors depends on the accuracy of the map and the physical changes that occurred after it was made.[24] The oldest reliable source of shoreline data in the United States dates is the U.S Coast and Geodetic Survey/National Ocean Service T-sheets and dates to the early-to-mid-19th century.[25] In the United Kingdom, many pre-1750 maps and charts were deemed to be inaccurate. The founding of the Ordnance Survey in 1791 improved mapping accuracy.
Aerial photographs[edit]
Aerial photographs began to be used in the 1920s to provide topographical data. They provide a good database for compilation of shoreline change maps. Aerial photographs are the most commonly used data source because many coastal areas have extensive aerial photo coverage.[23]Aerial photographs generally provide good spatial coverage. However, temporal coverage is site specific. The interpretation of shoreline position is subjective given the dynamic nature of the coastal environment. This combined with various distortions inherent in aerial photographs can lead to significant error levels.[23] The minimisation of further errors is discussed below.
Object space displacements[edit]
Figure 2. An example of relief displacement. All objects above ground level are displaced outwards from the centre of the photograph. The displacement becomes more evident near the edges.
Conditions outside of the camera can cause objects in an image to appear displaced from their true ground position. Such conditions may include ground relief, camera tilt and atmospheric refraction.
Relief displacement is prominent when photographing a variety of elevations. This situation causes objects above sea level to be displaced outward from the centre of the photograph and objects below ground level to be displaced toward the centre of the image (Figure 2). The severity of the displacement is negatively associated with decreases in flight altitude and as radial distance from the centre of the photograph increases. This distortion can be minimised by photographing multiple swaths and creating a mosaic of the images. This technique creates a focus for the centre of each photograph where distortion is minimised. This error is not common in shoreline mapping as the relief is fairly constant. It is however important to consider when mapping cliffs.[23]
Ideally aerial photographs are taken so the optical axis of the camera is perfectly perpendicular to the ground surface, thereby creating a vertical photograph. Unfortunately this is often not the case and virtually all aerial photographs experience tilt up to 3°.[26] In this situation the scale of the image is larger on the upward side of the tilt axis and smaller on the downward side. Many coastal researchers do not consider this in their work.[23]
Radial lens distortion[edit]
Lens distortion varies as a function of radial distance from the iso-centre of the photograph meaning that the centre of the image is relatively distortion free, but as the angle of view increases distortion. This is a significant source of error in earlier aerial photography. Such a distortion is impossible to correct for without knowing the details of the lens used to capture the image. Overlapping images can be used to resolve errors.[21]
Shoreline delineation[edit]
The dynamic nature of coasts compromises shoreline mapping. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the immediate tidal effects and a variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along shore littoral sediment movement. This affects the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position and predictions.[22] HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. Many errors are associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position.[19][23] Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line arise from tidal and seasonal changes. Erosion may cause the wet/dry line to migrate. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data.;[23] [19] Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates.[19] Errors may arise due to the difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph.
Beach profiling surveys[edit]
Beach profiling surveys are typically repeated at regular intervals along the coast in order to measure short-term (daily to annual) variations in shoreline position and beach volume.[27] Beach profiling is a very accurate source of information. However, measurements are generally subject to the limitations of conventional surveying techniques. Shoreline data derived from beach profiling is often spatially and temporally limited due to the high cost associated with that labour-intensive activity. Shorelines are generally derived by interpolating from a series of discrete beach profiles. The distance between the profiles is usually quite large, limiting the accuracy of the interpolating. Survey data is limited to smaller lengths of shoreline generally less than ten kilometres.[16] Beach profiling data is commonly available in from regional councils in New Zealand.[28]
Remote sensing[edit]
A range of airborne, satellite and land based remote sensing techniques can provide additional, mappable data.[27] Remotely sensed data sources include:
Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging
Microwave sensors
Global positioning system (GPS)
Airborne light detection and ranging technology (LIDAR)
Remote sensing techniques can be cost effective, reduce manual error and reduce the subjectivity of conventional field techniques.[29] Remote sensing is a relatively new concept, limiting extensive historical observations. Coastal morphology observations must be quantified by coupling remotely sensed data with other sources of information detailing historic shoreline position from archived sources.[22]
Video analysis[edit]
Video analysis provides quantitative, cost-effective, continuous and long-term monitoring beaches.[30] The advancement of coastal video systems in the twenty-first century enabled the extraction of large amounts of geophysical data from images. The data describes coastal morphology, surface currents and wave parameters. The main advantage of video analysis lies in the ability to reliably quantify these parameters with high resolution space and time coverage. This highlights their potential as an effective coastal monitoring system and an aid to coastal zone management.[31] Interesting case studies have been carried out using video analysis. One group used a video-based ARGUS coastal imaging system[30][32] to monitor and quantify the regional-scale coastal response to sand nourishment and construction of the world-first Gold Coast artificial surfing reef in Australia. Another assessed the added value of high resolution video observations for short-term predictions of near shore hydrodynamic and morphological processes, at temporal scales of meters to kilometres and days to seasons.[33]
Video analysis gives coastal zone managers the opportunity to obtain bathymetry.[34][35][36] It can be used to obtain inter-tidal topographies and sub-tidal bathymetries and measure coastal zone resilience [as in available beach volume as well as sub-tidal bar configuration]. Video-based depth estimations were applied in micro/meso tidal environments at DUCK, NC[35] and highly energetic wave climates with a macro tidal regime at Porthtowan in the United Kingdom.[36] The latter showed the application of video-based depth estimations during extreme storms.[37][38]
See also[edit]
Accropode
Beach evolution
Coastal development
Coastal erosion
Coastal geography
Coastal sediment supply
Coastal Zone Management Act
Cuspate foreland
Detention basin
Integrated coastal zone management
List of countries by length of coastline
Longshore transport
Sand dune stabilization
Xbloc
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b "Shoreline Management Guide".
Jump up ^ "Australian Coastal Councils Association".
Jump up ^ "The Tollesbury and Orplands Managed Retreat Sites". archive.uea.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-02-19.
Jump up ^ MMA 2005, Sitges, Meeting on Coastal Engineering; EUROSION project
Jump up ^ Schembri 2009.
Jump up ^ "£47.3m project to protect Bournemouth's beaches from erosion over next 100 years".
Jump up ^ Armour Units – Random Mass or Disciplined Array, – C.T.Brown ASCE Coastal Structures Specialty Conference, Washington, March 1979; The Design & Construction of Prince St. Seawall, Cronulla, EHW Hirst & D.N.Foster – 8th CCOE, Nov 1987, Launceston, Tasmania
Jump up ^ Blackpool South Shore Physical Model Studies, ABP Research Report R 526, December 1985
Jump up ^ Mablethorpe to Skegness, Model tests of three design options, P Holmes et al., Imperial College, September 1987
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Boak & Turner 2005.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e Leatherman 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b c Pajak & Leatherman 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b Crowell, Leatherman & Buckley 1991.
^ Jump up to: a b c Appeaning Addo, Walkden & Mills 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Moore 2000.
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Jump up ^ Camfield & Morang 1996.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith & Zarillo 1990.
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Appeaning Addo, K.; Walkden, M.; Mills, J. P. (2008). "Detection, measurement and prediction of shoreline recession in Acccra, Ghana'". Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing. 63: 543–558. doi:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2008.04.001.
Anders, F. J; Byrnes, M. R. (1991). "Accuracy of Shoreline change rates as determined from maps and aerial photographs". Shore and Beach. 59 (1): 17–26.
Bergsma, E.W.J. (November 2016). Application of an improved video-based depth inversion technique to a macrotidal sandy beach (Thesis). Plymouth University.
Bergsma, E. W. J.; Conley, D. C.; Davidson, M. A.; O'Hare, T. J. (2016). "Video-based nearshore bathymetry estimation in macro-tidal environments". Marine Geology (374): 31–41. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2016.02.001.
Boak, Elizabeth H.; Turner, Ian L. (2005-07-01). "Shoreline Definition and Detection: A Review". Journal of Coastal Research: 688–703. doi:10.2112/03-0071.1. ISSN 0749-0208.
Camfield, F. E.; Morang, A. (1996). "Defining and interpreting shoreline change". Ocean and Coastal Management. 32 (3): 129–151.
Castelle, B.; Marieu, V.; Bujana, S.; Splinter, K. D.; Robinet, A.; Snchal, N.; Ferreira, S. (2015). "Impact of the winter 20132014 series of severewestern europe storms on a double-barred sandy coast: Beach and dune erosion and megacusp embayments". Geomorphology. Bibcode:2015Geomo.238..135C. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.03.006.
Crowell, M.; Leatherman, S. P.; Buckley, M. K. (1991). "Historical Shoreline Change: Error Analysis and Mapping Accuracy". Journal of Coastal Research. 7 (3): 839–852. JSTOR 25736596.
Graham, D.; Sault, M.; Bailey, J. (2003). "National Ocean Service Shoreline – Past, Present and Future". Journal of Coastal Research (38): 14–32.
Holman, Rob; Plant, Nathaniel; Holland, Todd (2013-05-01). "cBathy: A robust algorithm for estimating nearshore bathymetry". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 118 (5): 2595–2609. doi:10.1002/jgrc.20199. ISSN 2169-9291.
Leatherman, S. P. (2003). "Shoreline Change Mapping and Management Along the U.S. East Coast". Journal of Coastal Research (38): 5–13. JSTOR 25736596.
Maiti, S.; Bhattacharya, A. K. (2009). "Shoreline change analysis & its application to prediction: A remote sensing and statistics based approach". Marine Geology (257): 11–23. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2008.10.006.
Masselink, Gerd; Scott, Tim; Poate, Tim; Russell, Paul; Davidson, Mark; Conley, Daniel (2016-03-15). "The extreme 2013/2014 winter storms: hydrodynamic forcing and coastal response along the southwest coast of England". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 41 (3): 378–391. doi:10.1002/esp.3836. ISSN 1096-9837.
Moore, J. (2000). "Shoreline Mapping Techniques". Journal of Coastal Research. 16 (1): 111–124.
Morton, R. A. (1991). "Accurate shoreline mapping: past, present, and future". Coastal Sediments. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1: 997–1010.
Pajak, M.J.; Leatherman, S. P. (2002). "The High Water Line as Shoreline Indicator". Journal of Coastal Research. 18 (2): 329–337.
Plant, N. G.; Holland, K. T.; Haller, M. C. (2008-09-01). "Ocean Wavenumber Estimation From Wave-Resolving Time Series Imagery". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 46 (9): 2644–2658. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2008.919821. ISSN 0196-2892.
Small, Christopher; Nicholls, Robert J. (2003). "A Global Analysis of Human Settlement in Coastal Zones". Journal of Coastal Research. 19 (3): 584–599. JSTOR 4299200.
Smit, M. W. J.; Aarninkhof, S. G. J.; Wijnberg, K. M.; Gonzalez, M. M; Kingstong, K. S.; Ruessink, B. G.; Holman, R. A.; Segle, E.; Davidson, M.; Medina, R. (2007). "The role of video imagery in predicting daily to monthly coastal evolution". Coastal Engineering (54): 539–553. doi:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2007.01.009.
Turner, Ian L.; Aarninkhof, S. G. J.; Dronkers, T. D. T.; McGrath, J. (2004-07-01). "CZM Applications of Argus Coastal Imaging at the Gold Coast, Australia". Journal of Coastal Research: 739–752. doi:10.2112/1551-5036(2004)20[739:CAOACI]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0749-0208.
Van Koningsveld, M.; Davidson, M.; Huntly, D.; Medina, R.; Aarninkhof, S.; Jimenez, J. A.; Ridgewell, J.; de Kruif, A. (2007). "A critical review of the CoastView project: Recent and future developments in coastal management video systems". Coastal Engineering (54): 567–576. doi:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2007.01.006.
Woodroffe, C. D. (2002). Coasts: Form, Process and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01183-9.
Further reading[edit]
The Rock Manual: The Use of Rock in Hydraulic Engineering. CIRIA. 2007. ISBN 978-0-86017-683-1.
Allsop, N. W. H. (2002). Breakwaters, Coastal Structures and Coastlines: Proceedings of the International Conference Organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers and Held in London, UK on 26-28 September 2001. Thomas Telford. pp. 198–. ISBN 978-0-7277-3042-8.
Turner, I.L.; Leatherman, S.P. (1997). "Beach Dewatering as a 'Soft' Engineering Solution to Coastal Erosion-A History and Critical Review". Journal of Coastal Research. 13 (4): 1050–1063.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coastal management.
Deltaworks Online - Coastal Defenses in the Netherlands
Coastal Zone Management Policy and Politics Class
Safecoast Knowledge exchange on coastal flooding and climate change in the North Sea region
Encora Coastal Wiki
Social & Economic Benefits of Coastal Resource Management from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative
Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island
Videos
Free Educational Videos about Coastal Policy and Zone Management
The Future of Coastal Policy textbook overview on YouTube
Images
‘What is Remote Sensing’, [Image] n.d. Retrieved 1 April 2010 from http://www.amesremote.com/images/nasa/LongBeach.jpg
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Cliffed coast
Coastal biogeomorphology
Coastal erosion
Concordant coastline
Current
Cuspate foreland
Discordant coastline
Emergent coastline
Feeder bluff
Fetch
Flat coast
Graded shoreline
Headlands and bays
Ingression coast
Large-scale coastal behaviour
Longshore drift
Marine regression
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Raised shoreline
Rip current
Rocky shore
Sea cave
Sea foam
Shoal
Steep coast
Submergent coastline
Surf break
Surf zone
Surge channel
Swash
Undertow
Volcanic arc
Wave-cut platform
Wave shoaling
Wind wave
Wrack zone
Management
Accretion
Coastal management
Integrated coastal zone management
Submersion
Related
Bulkhead line
Grain size
boulder
clay
cobble
granule
pebble
sand
shingle
silt
Intertidal zone
Littoral zone
Physical oceanography
Region of freshwater influence
Category
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