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Mohenjo-daro
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This article is about the archaeological site. For the 2016 film, see Mohenjo Daro (film).
Mohenjo-daro
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Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan)
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Location
Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan
Coordinates
27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889Coordinates: 27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889
Type
Settlement.
Area
250 ha (620 acres)[1]
History
Founded
26-25th century BCE
Abandoned
19th century BCE
Cultures
Indus Valley Civilization
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro
Criteria
Cultural: ii, iii
Reference
138
Inscription
1980 (4th Session)
Area
240 ha
Mohenjo-daro (Sindhi: موئن جو دڙو, Urdu: موئن جو دڑو, IPA: [muˑənⁱ dʑoˑ d̪əɽoˑ], Sindhi for Mound of the Dead Men;[2] English: /moʊˌhɛndʒoʊ ˈdɑːroʊ/) is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, and one of the world's earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Norte Chico. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.[3] The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Location
3 Historical context
4 Rediscovery and excavation
5 Architecture and urban infrastructure
5.1 Major buildings
5.2 Fortifications
5.3 Flooding and rebuilding
6 Notable artefacts
6.1 Dancing Girl
6.2 Priest-King
6.3 Pashupati seal
6.4 Seven-stranded necklace
7 Conservation and current state
7.1 2014 Sindh Festival
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 External links
Etymology
Mohenjo-daro, the modern name for the site, has been variously interpreted as "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi, and as "Mound of Mohan" (where Mohan is Krishna).[2][5] The city's original name is unknown. Based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the city's ancient name could have been Kukkutarma ("the city [-rma] of the cockerel [kukkuta]").[6] Cock-fighting may have had ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there for sacred purposes, rather than as a food source. Mohenjo-daro may also have been a point of diffusion for the eventual worldwide domestication of chickens.[7]
Location
Map showing the major sites and theorised extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation, including the location of the Mohenjo-daro site
Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, in a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River. It is sited on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres (17 mi) from the town of Larkana.[8] The ridge was prominent during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding flood, but subsequent flooding has since buried most of the ridge in silt deposits. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the western side is now dry.[9]
Historical context
Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE.[10] It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization,[11] which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. At its height, the Indus Civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, extending westwards to the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India and northwards to an outpost in Bactria, with major urban centers at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi. Mohenjo-daro was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning.[12] When the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned.[10][13]
Rediscovery and excavation
The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, visited the site in 1919–20, identifying the Buddhist stupa (150–500 CE) known to be there and finding a flint scraper which convinced him of the site's antiquity. This led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro led by Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in 1925–26.[14] In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar and Ernest Mackay. Further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler. The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales. After 1965 excavations were banned due to weathering damage to the exposed structures, and the only projects allowed at the site since have been salvage excavations, surface surveys, and conservation projects. However, in the 1980s, German and Italian survey groups led by Dr. Michael Jansen and Dr. Maurizio Tosi used less invasive archeological techniques, such as architectural documentation, surface surveys, and localized probing, to gather further information about Mohenjo-daro.[3] A dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistan's National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area.[15]
Architecture and urban infrastructure
Further information: Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilization
Regularity of streets and buildings suggests the influence of ancient urban planning in Mohenjo-daro's construction.
View of the site's Great Bath, showing the surrounding urban layout
Mohenjo-daro has a planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a grid plan.[16] Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick and wooden superstructures. The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares.[17] The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers a "weak" estimate of a peak population of around 40,000.[18]
The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization.[19] The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel – a mud-brick mound around 12 metres (39 ft) high – is known to have supported public baths, a large residential structure designed to house about 5,000 citizens, and two large assembly halls. The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual households or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably those of more prestigious inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace (known as a hypocaust), possibly for heated bathing. Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened onto side-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.[citation needed]
Major buildings
The Great Bath
In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified one large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary". Certain wall-divisions in its massive wooden superstructure appeared to be grain storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. According to Wheeler, carts would have brought grain from the countryside and unloaded them directly into the bays. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer noted the complete lack of evidence for grain at the "granary", which, he argued, might therefore be better termed a "Great Hall" of uncertain function.[13] Close to the "Great Granary" is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath. From a colonnaded courtyard, steps lead down to the brick-built pool, which was waterproofed by a lining of bitumen. The pool measures 12 metres (39 ft) long, 7 metres (23 ft) wide and 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) deep. It may have been used for religious purification. Other large buildings include a "Pillared Hall", thought to be an assembly hall of some kind, and the so-called "College Hall", a complex of buildings comprising 78 rooms, thought to have been a priestly residence.[citation needed]
Fortifications
Excavation of the city revealed very tall wells (left), which it seems were continually built up as flooding and rebuilding raised the elevation of street level.[20]
Mohenjo-daro had no series of city walls, but was fortified with guard towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa, it is postulated that Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout, and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, but the extent and functioning of an administrative center remains unclear.
Flooding and rebuilding
The city also had large platforms perhaps intended as defense against flooding.[19] According to a theory first advanced by Wheeler, the city could have been flooded and silted over, perhaps six times, and later rebuilt in the same location.[21]
Notable artefacts
Numerous objects found in excavation include seated and standing figures, copper and stone tools, carved seals, balance-scales and weights, gold and jasper jewellery, and children's toys.[22] Many important objects from Mohenjo-daro are conserved at the National Museum of India in Delhi and the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi. In 1939, a representative collection of artefacts excavated at the site was transferred to the British Museum by the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.[23]
Dancing Girl
Main article: Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro)
"The Dancing Girl", a bronze statuette at the National Museum, New Delhi
A bronze statuette dubbed the "Dancing Girl", 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in) high[24] and about 4,500 years old, was found in 'HR area' of Mohenjo-daro in 1926.[24] In 1973, British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler described the item as his favorite statuette:
"She's about fifteen years old I should think, not more, but she stands there with bangles all the way up her arm and nothing else on. A girl perfectly, for the moment, perfectly confident of herself and the world. There's nothing like her, I think, in the world."
John Marshall, another archeologist at Mohenjo-daro, described the figure as "a young girl, her hand on her hip in a half-impudent posture, and legs slightly forward as she beats time to the music with her legs and feet."[25] The archaeologist Gregory Possehl said of the statuette, "We may not be certain that she was a dancer, but she was good at what she did and she knew it". The statue led to two important discoveries about the civilization: first, that they knew metal blending, casting and other sophisticated methods of working with ore, and secondly that entertainment, especially dance, was part of the culture.[24]
Priest-King
"The Priest-King", a seated stone sculpture at the National Museum, Karachi
In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building with unusually ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche. Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-daro, archaeologists dubbed this dignified figure a "Priest-King." The sculpture is 17.5 centimetres (6.9 in) tall, and shows a neatly bearded man with pierced earlobes and a fillet around his head, possibly all that is left of a once-elaborate hairstyle or head-dress; his hair is combed back. He wears an armband, and a cloak with drilled trefoil, single circle and double circle motifs, which show traces of red. His eyes might have originally been inlaid.[26]
The Shiva Pashupati seal
Pashupati seal
Main article: Pashupati seal
A seal discovered at the site bears the image of a seated, cross-legged and possibly ithyphallic figure surrounded by animals. The figure has been interpreted by some scholars as a yogi, and by others as a three-headed "proto-Shiva" as "Lord of Animals".
Seven-stranded necklace
Sir Mortimer Wheeler was especially fascinated with this artifact, which he believed to be at least 4,500 years old. The necklace has an S-shaped clasp with seven strands, each over 4 ft long, of bronze-metal bead-like nuggets which connect each arm of the "S" in filigree. Each strand has between 220 and 230 of the many-faceted nuggets, and there are about 1,600 nuggets in total. The necklace weighs about 250 grams in total, and is presently held in a private collection in India.[citation needed]
Conservation and current state
An initial agreement to fund restoration was agreed through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris on 27 May 1980. Contributions were made by a number of other countries to the project:
Country
Contribution US$
Australia $62,650.00
Bahrain $3,000.00
Cameroon $1,000.00
Egypt $63,889.60
Germany $375,939.85
India $49,494.95
Iraq $9,781.00
Japan $200,000.00
Kuwait $3,000.00
Malta $275.82
Mauritius $2,072.50
Nigeria $8,130.00
Saudi Arabia $58,993.63
Sri Lanka $1,562.50
Tanzania $1,000.00
Surviving structures at Mohenjo-daro
Preservation work for Mohenjo-daro was suspended in December 1996 after funding from the Pakistani government and international organizations stopped. Site conservation work resumed in April 1997, using funds made available by the UNESCO. The 20-year funding plan provided $10 million to protect the site and standing structures from flooding. In 2011, responsibility for the preservation of the site was transferred to the government of Sindh.[27]
Currently the site is threatened by groundwater salinity and improper restoration. Many walls have already collapsed, while others are crumbling from the ground up. In 2012, Pakistani archaeologists warned that, without improved conservation measures, the site could disappear by 2030.[4][28]
2014 Sindh Festival
The Mohenjo-daro site was further threatened in January 2014, when Bilawal Bhutto Zardari of the Pakistan People's Party chose the site for Sindh Festival's inauguration ceremony. This would have exposed the site to mechanical operations, including excavation and drilling. Farzand Masih, head of the Department of Archaeology at Punjab University warned that such activity was banned under the Antiquity Act, saying "You cannot even hammer a nail at an archaeological site." On 31 January 2014, a case was filed in the Sindh High Court to bar the Sindh government from continuing with the event.[29][30]The festival was held by PPP at the historic site, despite all the protest by both national and international historians and educators.
See also
List of forts in Pakistan
List of Indus Valley Civilization sites
List of museums in Pakistan
List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Pakistan
Mehrgarh
References
Jump up ^ Crispin Bates; Minoru Mio (22 May 2015). Cities in South Asia. Routledge. ISBN 9781317565123.
^ Jump up to: a b Gregory L. Possehl (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. p. 80. ISBN 9780759116429.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mohenjo-Daro: An Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis".
^ Jump up to: a b "Mohenjo Daro: Could this ancient city be lost forever?". BBC. 27 June 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Mohenjo-Daro: An Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis"
Jump up ^ Iravatham Mahadevan. "'Address’ Signs of the Indus Script" (PDF). Presented at the World Classical Tamil Conference 2010. 23–27 June 2010. The Hindu.
Jump up ^ Poultry Breeding and Genetics. R. D. Crawford (1990). Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 10–11, 44.
Jump up ^ Roach, John. "Lost City of Mohenjo Daro". National Geographic. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sarasvati: Tracing the death of a river". DNA Pakistan. 12 June 2010. Retrieved 9 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Ancientindia.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-05-02.
Jump up ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black; Larry S. Krieger; Phillip C. Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.
Jump up ^ A H Dani (1992). "Critical Assessment of Recent Evidence on Mohenjo-daro". Second International Symposium on Mohenjo-daro, 24–27 February 1992.
^ Jump up to: a b Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). “Indus Cities, Towns and Villages”, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Islamabad: American Institute of Pakistan Studies. p. 65.
Jump up ^ Possehl, Gregory L (2010). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. AltaMira. p. 12. ISBN 978-0759101722.
Jump up ^ "'Findings show Moenjodaro was larger than unearthed ruins'". 14 November 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Mohan Pant and Shjui Fumo, "The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley: A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjodaro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Kathmandu Valley)"; Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineerng 59, May 2005.
Jump up ^ T.S. SUBRAMANIAN, Harappan surprises. 13 June 2014 – www.frontline.in
Jump up ^ Peter Clark (editor), The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History, Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 158–59; "since it is impossible to ascertain what proportion of the city was used for habitation the basis for this [population] estimate is weak." For lower area estimate of 85 hectares, see note 25, citing U. Singh, A History of Ancient and Medieval India, Delhi, Pearson Education, 2008, p. 149. See also FR Alchin and G Erdosy, The Archaeology of Early Historic Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 57.
^ Jump up to: a b McIntosh (2008), p. 389. "The enormous amount of labor involved in the creation of Mohenjo-daro's flood defense platforms (calculated at around 4 million man-days) indicates the existence of an authority able to plan the construction and to mobilize and feed the requisite labor force."
Jump up ^ McIntosh (2008), p. 118. "More than seven hundred wells were sunk at Mohenjo-daro when the city was built. Over the centuries houses were rebuilt and street levels rose; new courses of bricks were therefore added to the wells to keep their tops at the same height with respect to the street. The removal of earth and debris during the excavation of the city has left many wells standing like towers high above the exposed remnants of earlier streets."
Jump up ^ George F. Dales, "Civilization and Floods in the Indus Valley", Expedition Magazine, July 1965.
Jump up ^ Mohenjo-daro Tools and Artifacts Photo Gallery. Archaeology Online; retrieved 8 April 2012.
Jump up ^ British Museum Collection
^ Jump up to: a b c "Collections:Pre-History & Archaeology". National Museum, New Delhi. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Possehl, Gregory (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. AltaMira Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2.
Jump up ^ "Priest King, Mohenjo-daro". Glimpses of South Asia before 1947. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Responsibility to preserve Mohenjodaro transferred to Sindh", TheNews.com.pk, 10 February 2011; retrieved 14 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Moenjodaro in Danger of Disappearing, Says Pakistani Archaeologist" Archived 6 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Global Heritage Fund blog article; accessed 8 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Bilawal's 'cultural coup' threatens ancient ruins". AFP. Daily Dawn. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Sahoutara, Naeem. "Preserving heritage: Court instructs to take 'utmost' care in holding festival at Moen Jo Daro". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Bibliography
Chaudhury, N. C. Mohenjo-Daro and the Civilization of Ancient India with References to Agriculture. Calcutta: W. Newman & Co, 1937.
Mackay, E. J. H., ed. (1937). Further Excavations At Mohenjo-daro: Being an official account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro carried out by the Government of India between the years 1927 and 1931.
Volume I
Volume II
Marshall, John Hubert, ed. (1931). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an official account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro carried out by the Government of India between the years 1922 and 1927. Arthur Probsthain
Volume I
Volume II
Volume III
McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO, 2008. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2
External links
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mohenjo-daro.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mohenjo-daro.
Official website of Mohenjodaro
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
103 Slide Tour and Essay on Mohenjo-daro by Dr. J.M. Kenoyer
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The Fox and the Hound (novel)
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The Fox and the Hound
Cover of the first edition of The Fox and the Hound
Author
Daniel P. Mannix
Illustrator
John Schoenherr
Country
United States, Canada
Language
English
Genre
Novel
Published
September 11, 1967 (1967-09-11) (E.P. Dutton)
Media type
Print (hardcover)
Pages
255 pp (first edition)
OCLC
2047816
The Fox and the Hound is a 1967 novel written by American novelist Daniel P. Mannix and illustrated by John Schoenherr. It follows the lives of Tod, a red fox raised by a human for the first year of his life, and Copper, a half-bloodhound dog owned by a local hunter, referred to as the Master. After Tod causes the death of the man's favorite hound, man and dog relentlessly hunt the fox, against the dual backdrops of a changing human world and Tod's normal life in hunting for food, seeking a mate, and defending his territory. As preparation for writing the novel, Mannix studied foxes, both tame and wild, a wide variety of hunting techniques, and the ways hounds appear to track foxes, seeking to ensure his characters acted realistically.
The novel won the Dutton Animal Book Award in 1967, which resulted in its publication on September 11 that year by E.P. Dutton. It was a 1967 Reader's Digest Book Club selection and a winner of the Athenaeum Literary Award. It was well received by critics, who praised its detail and Mannix's writing style. Walt Disney Productions purchased the film rights for the novel when it won the Dutton award, though did not begin production on an adaptation until 1977. Heavily modified from the source material, Disney's The Fox and the Hound was released to theaters in July 1981 and became a box office success.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Development
3 Reception
4 Film adaptation
5 References
Plot
Copper, a bloodhound crossbred, was once the favorite among his Master's pack of hunting dogs in a rural country area. However, he now feels threatened by Chief, a younger, faster Black and Tan Coonhound. Copper hates Chief, who is taking Copper's place as pack leader. During a bear hunt, Chief protects the Master when the bear turns on him, while Copper is too afraid of the bear to confront him. The Master ignores Copper to heap praise on Chief and Copper's hatred and jealousy grow.
Tod is a red fox kit, raised as a pet by one of the human hunters who killed his mother and litter mates. Tod initially enjoys his life, but when he reaches sexual maturity he returns to the wild. During his first year, he begins establishing his territory, and learns evasion techniques from being hunted by local farm dogs. One day, he comes across the Master's house and discovers that his presence sends the chained pack of dogs into a frustrated frenzy. He begins to delight in taunting them, until one day when Chief breaks his chain and chases him. The Master sees the dog escape and follows with Copper. As Chief skillfully trails the fox, Tod flees along a railroad track while a train is approaching, waiting to jump to safety until the last minute. Chief is killed by the train.
With Chief buried and Master crying over a dead dog he trains Copper to ignore all foxes except for Tod. Over the span of the two animals' lives, man and dog hunt the fox, the Master using over a dozen hunting techniques in his quest for revenge. With each hunt, both dog and fox learn new tricks and methods to outsmart each other, Tod always escaping in the end. Tod mates with an older, experienced vixen who gives birth to a litter of kits. Before they are grown, the Master finds the den and gasses the kits to death. That winter, the Master sets out leg hold traps, which Tod carefully learns how to spring, but the vixen is caught and killed. In January, Tod takes a new mate, with whom he has another litter of kits. The Master uses a "still hunting" technique, in which he sits very quietly in the wood while playing a rabbit call to draw out the foxes. With this method, he kills the kits; then by using the sound of a wounded fox kit, he is also able to draw out and kill Tod's mate.
As the years pass, the rural area gives way to a more urbanized setting. New buildings and highways spring up, more housing developments are built, and the farmers are pushed out. Though much of the wildlife has left and hunting grows increasingly difficult, Tod stays because it is his home range. The other foxes that remain become unhealthy scavengers, and their natures change—life-bonds with their mates are replaced by promiscuity, couples going their separate ways once the mating act is over. The Master has lost most of his own land, and the only dog he owns now is Copper. Each winter they still hunt Tod, and in an odd way he looks forward to it as the only aspect of his old life that remains.
The Master spends most of his time drinking alcohol, and people begin trying to convince him to move into a nursing home, where no dogs are allowed. One summer, an outbreak of rabies spreads through the fox population. After one infected fox attacks a group of human children, the same people approach the Master and ask his help in killing the foxes. He uses traps and poison to try to kill as many foxes as possible; however, the poison also kills domestic animals. After a human child dies from eating it, the humans remove all of the poison, then the Master organizes a hunt in which large numbers of people line up and walk straight into the woods, flushing out foxes to be shot. The aging Tod escapes all three events, as well as an attempt at coursing him with greyhounds.
One morning, after Tod's escape from the greyhounds, the Master sends Copper on the hunt. After he picks up the fox's trail, Copper relentlessly pursues him throughout the day and into the next morning. Tod finally drops dead of exhaustion, and Copper collapses on top of him, close to death himself. The Master nurses Copper back to health, and both enjoy their new popularity, but after a few months the excitement over Copper's accomplishment dies down. The Master is left alone again, and returns to drinking. He is once again asked to consider living in a nursing home, and this time he agrees. Crying, he takes his shotgun from the wall, leads Copper outside, and pets him gently before ordering him to lie down. He covers the dog's eyes as Copper licks his hand trustingly.
Development
Desiring a realistic depiction of vulpine behavior and habits, Mannix spent more than a year studying the behaviors of a mated pair of foxes that he kept at his home.[1][2] He stated that they were "so tame [that he] could turn them loose and watch them hunt, fight, make love, and live an almost normal life."[1] Additionally, he studied wild foxes and interviewed trappers, hunters, game wardens, and "Masters of Hounds" to learn what they felt foxes would and would not do.[1][2] In the novel's postscript, Mannix discusses this research.[1] To defend his novel against charges of improbability, he recounts his observations of wild foxes and discusses other people's stories about fox behavior. Regarding the actions Tod takes in eluding the hunters, he details both witnessing wild foxes performing such acts and stories others shared with him that he used as a basis for some of the story's events. For example, he notes that while people have told him that foxes do not really run among sheep or cattle herds to escape hounds, he himself used to watch them do just that from his bedroom window. In the case of a fox running along train tracks as a train is approaching, Mannix drew on a story told to him by a master of hunting in the area of Whitford Sales—near Thorndale, Pennsylvania—who had to stop hunting in the area because of a fox who consistently killed pursuing hounds on the Trenton Cutoff using this method.[1][2]
Mannix felt it was nearly impossible for any writer to escape imparting some anthropomorphism in such a novel, as a human must guess at the way an animal's mind may work and what motivations it may have.[1][2] He felt animals think differently from humans, though are capable of reason on a "rudimentary level compared to a human."[1] In explaining his descriptions of hunting, he said it was hard to decide how a hound with non-human scenting ability interprets and responds to scents while tracking another animal.[1][2]
The last chapter of the novel, covering Copper's last hunt of Tod, was based on the story of Boston, a fourteen-month-old bloodhound–foxhound mix, and Old Baldy, a red fox known by hunters for having outrun numerous packs of hounds put on his trail.[3] Mannix originally read the story in a Recreation magazine article, which stated that in December 1887, near the James River in Virginia, Boston hunted a fox referred to as Baldy for a day and a half, covering 50 miles (80 km) of terrain.[1][3] According to Mannix, Boston and Baldy died together, and were buried together once found.[1] In the Recreation article, although Boston survived he never fully recovered and died when he was only three years old.[3] Copper himself was based on the favorite hunting dog of Bee Dee Adkins, a nationally renowned trainer of hunting dogs with whom Mannix hunted. Some of the novel's human characters were based on the lives and mannerisms on locals living in Oro Valley, a suburb of Tucson, Arizona.[4]
In 1967, E. P. Dutton selected Mannix's unpublished novel as the 1967 winner of its annual "Animal Book Award"—an international competition open to new authors in which an editorial panel evaluates submissions to find the "best book-length work of adult fiction or nonfiction on animals".[5][6] Along with a cash prize of $10,000, the company obtained the publication rights for the novel, releasing it in hardback form on September 11 that year.[5][7] The novel was published in the United States by Dutton and in Canada by Clarke, Irwin and Company, simultaneously. A reprint by Pocket Books followed in 1971.[8] The novel has been released in twelve other countries,[5] including Finland in 1968 by Otava, and in Germany by Hoffmann und Campe.[8][9]
Reception
The Fox and the Hound was selected as a Reader's Digest Book Club selection in 1967 and an abridged version was printed in the fourth volume of the publisher's Condensed Books series.[5][10] The same year, it was awarded the Athenaeum Literary Award.[11][12]
The Booklist called the novel one of "the highest level of books about animals" and praised its combination of "brilliant psychology, writing of rare beauty, and little-known hunting and animal lore".[13] According to the Booklist, Publishers Weekly gave the novel its "highest recommendation" and referred to it as a "marvelous evocation of the animal world".[13] Reviewing the novel for Best Sellers magazine, William B. Hill considered it a "corking good novel", praising it for its "simplicity and straightforwardness" with the dog and fox being "real" rather than allegories for social issues. While he felt the novel was overly detailed in a few places, as a whole he considered the story "credible, almost all fascinating" and the characters entertaining.[14]
Robert Ramsey of the Placerville, California, Mountain Democrat thought the book worthy of winning the Dutton award, characterizing the narrative as "always interesting" and principal characters Tod and Copper as "unforgettable", while praising Mannix's "ability to enter into the world of animals and portray it".[2] A reviewer for the Catholic Library World considered it a "memorable and delightful reading experience" written by a man "who knows the ways of foxes".[15] Author and sportsman Richard Alden Knight praised the novel, stating that it "surpasses any writing I have ever encountered on the thinking processes of animals"[16] and that the story of a duel between natural enemies is "told well and written with feeling".[17] A reviewer for the Reading Eagle felt Mannix wrote well enough to make a reader feel like they were the characters Tod and Copper and that the story was "really exciting" due to the "dramatic opposition" of the two animals.[18]
Film adaptation
Main article: The Fox and the Hound
Walt Disney Pictures purchased the film rights to The Fox and the Hound when it was awarded the Dutton Animal Book Award.[5] Production on a film adaptation began in 1977 and it would become the most expensive animated film produced at the time, at a cost of $12 million.[19][20] To craft the film, then Disney CEO Ron Miller decided to mainly use new talent to make their debuts with the film, as the pioneers of the company, referred to as the "Nine Old Men", were nearing retirement. The animators and screenplay writers were primarily new, as were the film directors Art Stevens, Ted Berman, and Richard Rich. It would be the last film Ollie Johnston, Frank Thomas, and Woolie Reitherman, considered "legends" of Disney, would work on. However, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used; however, the newer team backed Stevens, except Don Bluth, who felt Disney's work was stale. Bluth walked out, taking eleven others with him, and formed his own animation studio. The exodus of the animators forced the cancellation of the film's original Christmas 1980 premiere while new artists were hired.[21]
Along the way, the story was greatly modified to make it more suitable as a family film. By the time it was completed in 1981, the film had changed into a chronicle of the unlikely friendship of two creatures, who should be natural enemies and who learn society sometimes tries to determine their roles despite their better impulses.[22] In the original screenplay, Chief was slated to die the same as in the novel, but Stevens did not want to have an on-screen death and modified the film so that he survived.[21]
The film premiered theatrically in the United States on July 10, 1981.[21] It was an immediate success, grossing $39,900,000 to become the 14th top film of the year.[19][23][24] It was subsequently re-released theatrically on March 25, 1988,[24] and saw its first home video release on March 1, 1994.[25]
References
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Mannix, Daniel (September 1967). "Author's Note". The Fox and the Hound. E.P. Dutton. pp. 252–255.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Ramsey, Robert (January 18, 1968). "Tales Along the Trail with Robert Ramsey". Mountain Democrat. p. B-5. ISSN 0745-7677. OCLC 9434129.
^ Jump up to: a b c Herb (July 1898). "Boston and Baldy" (Google Books, digitized version of compendium edition). Recreation. George O. Shields, American Canoe Association. 9 (1): 3–7.
Jump up ^ Marriott, Barbara; Oro Valley Historical Society, Arizona Historical Foundation (2008). Oro Valley. Arcadia Publishing. pp. 64–67. ISBN 0-7385-4834-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Dutton Animal Award Goes To Mannix Book Set for Fall". The New York Times. May 20, 1967. p. 33.
Jump up ^ "Literary Awards". Publishers' World Yearbook: 1969-1970. R.R. Bowker Company. 1969. p. 133. ISSN 0552-5039. OCLC 269242570.
Jump up ^ The Book Buyer's Guide, Volume 70, Part 2. 1967. p. 107.
^ Jump up to: a b "Formats and Editions of The Fox and the Hound". WorldCat. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Fuchsspur" (in German). Hoffmann und Campe. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Christy/Life with Father/The Fox and the Hound/Nicholas and Alexandra/The Gabriel Hounds (Reader's Digest Condensed Books, Volume 4: 1967)". Amazon.com. Retrieved May 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ Weber, Olga S.; Calvert, Stephen J. (1980). "General Prizes". Literary and Library Prizes. R.R. Bowker: 59–61. ISSN 0075-9880. OCLC 6365352.
Jump up ^ Silvey, Anita (1995). "Entries: Schoenherr, John". Children's Books and Their Creators. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 577. ISBN 0-395-65380-0.
^ Jump up to: a b "Two Outstanding Animal Books From Dutton". The Booklist. 64: 247. 1967. ISSN 0006-7385.
Jump up ^ Hill, William B. (October 1, 1967). "Mannix, Daniel P. – The Fox and the Hound". Best Sellers. 27: 251. ISSN 0005-9625.
Jump up ^ "Mannix, Daniel. The Fox and the Hound". Catholic Library World. 39: 237. November 1968. ISSN 0008-820X.
Jump up ^ Knight, Richard Alden (November 28, 1967). "Outdoors with Richard Alden Knight". The Progress. p. 11.
Jump up ^ Alden Knight, Richard (November 26, 1967). "Required reading Suggested for Book on Animals". Reading Eagle. p. 62. Retrieved January 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Literary Guidepost: Salute to the Cowboy". Reading Eagle. September 10, 1967. p. 58.
^ Jump up to: a b ""The Fox and the Hound" Movie History". Disney Archives. Disney. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ Ansen, David (July 13, 1981). "Forest Friendship". Newsweek: 81.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beck, Jerry (2005). The Animated Movie Guide. Chicago Review Press. pp. 86–87. ISBN 1-55652-591-5.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (January 1, 1981). "The Fox and the Hound". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
Jump up ^ "1981 Yearly Box Office Results". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved May 31, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Fox and the Hound (1981): Releases". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved May 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Fox and the Hound (A Walt Disney Classic) (VHS) (1981)". Amazon.com. Retrieved May 31, 2009.
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