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Socialization
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This article is about the sociological concept. For other uses, see Socialization (disambiguation).
It has been suggested that Indoctrination be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since April 2017.
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In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".[1]:5[2] Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology.[3] Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.[4] Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.[5][6]
Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as regards the society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates predetermined by their environment;[7] scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and genes.[8][9][10][11] Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with his or her genotype to influence behavioral outcomes.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Stages of moral development
3 Stages of psychosocial development
4 Behaviorism
5 Primary socialization
5.1 Secondary socialization
6 Anticipatory socialization
7 Resocialization
8 Organizational socialization
9 Group socialization
9.1 Stages
10 Gender socialization
11 Racial socialization
12 Oppression socialization
13 Language socialization
14 Planned socialization
15 Natural socialization
16 Positive socialization
17 Negative socialization
18 Institutions
19 Productive processing of reality
20 Oversocialization
21 See also
22 References
23 Further reading
History[edit]
See also: History of sociology
Notions of society and the state of nature have existed for centuries.[1]:20 In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for socialism.[13][14][15][16] Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization".[17] In particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of association.[18] The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after World War II, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of Talcott Parsons.[19]
Stages of moral development[edit]
Main article: Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person (typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong, even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions.[20]
Stages of psychosocial development[edit]
Main article: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight to life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair.[21]
Behaviorism[edit]
See also: Reciprocal socialization
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the others' point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others.[22]
Primary socialization[edit]
Main article: Primary socialisation
Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the ground work for all future socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends. For example, if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.
Secondary socialization[edit]
Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in.[23] Schools require very different behavior from the home, and Children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them.[23] Secondary Socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Such examples of Secondary Socialization are entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society.
Anticipatory socialization[edit]
Main article: Anticipatory socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like.[24] Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner suggests that parents are the main source of anticipatory socialization in regards to jobs and careers.[25]
Resocialization[edit]
Main article: Resocialization
Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle.[26] Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity & 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity.[27] Other examples of this are the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. An extreme example would be the process by which a transsexual learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender role.
Organizational socialization[edit]
Main article: Onboarding
Organizational Socialization Chart
Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role.[28] As newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. This acquired knowledge about new employees' future work environment affects the way they are able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process.[29] They also learn about their work group, the specific people they work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices.
Group socialization[edit]
See also: Group dynamics
Group Socialization.
Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are the primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood.[30] Parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children.[31] Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do.[32] For example, twin brothers, whose genetic makeup are identical, will differ in personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences.[33] The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality.[34] As much as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error.[35] This suggests that only a very small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris claims that while it's true that siblings don't have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance.[30] Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.[30]
Entering high school is a crucial moment in many adolescent's lifespan involving the branching off from the restraints of their parents. When dealing with new life challenges, adolescents take comfort in discussing these issues within their peer groups instead of their parents.[36] Peter Grier, staff writer of the Christian Science Monitor describes this occurrence as,"Call it the benign side of peer pressure. Today's high-schoolers operate in groups that play the role of nag and nanny-in ways that are both beneficial and isolating."[37]
Stages[edit]
Individuals and groups change their evaluations and commitments to each other over time. There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur in order for an individual to transition through a group; investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other which leads to an increase or decrease in commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective, new, full, marginal, and ex member.[38]
Stage 1: Investigation This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (reconnaissance), while the group estimates the value of the potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the offer.
Stage 2: Socialization Now that the individual has moved from prospective member to new member, they must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group's norms, values, and perspectives (assimilation), and the group adapts to fit the new member's needs (accommodation). The acceptance transition point is then reached and the individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other members' reactions if they believe that they will be treated differently as a new comer.
Stage 3: Maintenance During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members (role negotiation). While many members remain in this stage until the end of their membership, some individuals are not satisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group's expectations (divergence).
Stage 4: Resocialization If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: differences are resolved and the individual becomes a full member again (convergence), or the group expels the individual or the individual decides to leave (exit).
Stage 5: Remembrance In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the group, and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the group's tradition.
Gender socialization[edit]
Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behaviour that is seen to be appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural and economic values in a given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are groups including friends, peers, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76). In peer group activities, stereotypic gender roles may also be rejected, renegotiated or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes.[39]
Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed (1982, 1990) that boys have a justice perspective meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men.[40]
As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.[41]
Sociologist of gender R.W. Connell contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants," when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an individual's gender (and general) identity.[42]
Racial socialization[edit]
Racial socialization has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group".[43] The existing literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other.[44] Cultural socialization refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is sometimes referred to as pride development. Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with a common humanity.[44]
Oppression socialization[edit]
Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality."[45] This action is a form of political socialization in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion." [45]
Language socialization[edit]
Based on comparative research in different societies, focusing on the role of language in child development, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin have developed the theory of language socialization.[46] They discovered that the processes of enculturation and socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all societies socialize children both to and through the use of language; acquiring competence in a language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language.
Planned socialization[edit]
Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others. This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy onward.[47]
Natural socialization[edit]
Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into life in a meaningful way.[47]
Positive socialization[edit]
Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs when desirable behaviours are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue exhibiting similar behaviours in the future.[47]
Negative socialization[edit]
Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.[47] There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life.[47]
Institutions[edit]
Main article: Institutions
In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of individuals within a given human collectivity. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior.[48]
Productive processing of reality[edit]
From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his book "Social Structure and Personality Development" (Hurrelmann 1989/2009), he develops the model of productive processing of reality. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's personality development. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity". (Hurrelmann1989/2009: 42)
Oversocialization[edit]
See also: Political socialization
The problem of order or Hobbesian problem questions the existence of social orders and asks if it is possible to oppose them. Emile Durkheim viewed society as an external force controlling individuals through the imposition of sanctions and codes of law. However, constraints and sanctions also arise internally as feelings of guilt or anxiety. If conformity as an expression of the need for belonging, the process of socialization is not necessarily universal. Behavior may not be influenced by society at all, but instead be determined biologically.[49] The behavioral sciences during the second half of the twentieth century were dominated by two contrasting models of human political behavior, homo economicus and cultural hegemony, collectively termed the standard social science model. The fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology developed in response notions such as dominance hierarchies, cultural group selection, and dual inheritance theory. Behavior is the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture, or genes and culture.[50] A focus on innate behavior at the expense of learning is termed undersocialization, while attributing behavior to learning when it is the result of evolution is termed oversocialization.[51]
See also[edit]
Acculturation
Authority bias
Circle of friends (disability)
Cultural assimilation
Enculturation
Guilt society
Indoctrination
Internalisation
Memetics
Mind shaping
Nature versus nurture
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Shame society
Social construction
Social identity
Social skills
Socialization of animals
Stereotype
Structure and agency
TPI-theory
Value (personal and cultural)
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Further reading[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Socialization
Library resources about
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Resources in your library
Hurrelmann, Klaus (1989, reissued 2009) Social Structure and Personality Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McQuail, Dennis (2005) McQuail's Mass Communication Theory: Fifth Edition, London: Sage.
White, Graham (1977) Socialisation, London: Longman.
Bogard, Kimber. "Citizenship attitudes and allegiances in diverse youth." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic minority Psychology14(4)(2008): 286-296.
Cromdal, Jakob. (2006) "Socialization" In: Keith Brown (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. North-Holland: Elsevier. 462–66.
Mehan, Hugh. "Sociological Foundations Supporting the Study of Cultural Diversity." 1991. National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Bambi B. Schieffelin, Elinor Ochs. 1987. Language Socialization across Cultures. Volume 3 of Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language. Publisher Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521339197, 9780521339193
Alessandro Duranti, Elinor Ochs, Bambi B. Schieffelin. 2011.The Handbook of Language Socialization, Volume 72 of Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. Publisher John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 1444342886, 9781444342888
Patricia A. Duff, Nancy H. Hornberger. 2010. Language Socialization: Encyclopedia of Language and Education, Volume 8. Publisher Springer, ISBN 9048194660, 9789048194667
Robert Bayley, Sandra R. Schecter. 2003. Publisher Multilingual Matters, 2003 ISBN 1853596353, 9781853596353
Claire Kramsch. 2003. Language Acquisition and Language Socialization: Ecological Perspectives .Advances in Applied Linguistics. Publisher Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003 ISBN 0826453724, 9780826453723
Bambi B. Schieffelin. 1990. The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language, Socialization of Kaluli Children. Publisher CUP Archive, 1990 ISBN 0521386543, 9780521386548
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High-voltage cable
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A high-voltage cable (HV cable) is a cable used for electric power transmission at high voltage. A cable includes a conductor and insulation, and is suitable for being run underground or underwater. This is in contrast to an overhead line, which does not have insulation. High-voltage cables of differing types have a variety of applications in instruments, ignition systems, and AC and DC power transmission. In all applications, the insulation of the cable must not deteriorate due to the high-voltage stress, ozone produced by electric discharges in air, or tracking. The cable system must prevent contact of the high-voltage conductor with other objects or persons, and must contain and control leakage current. Cable joints and terminals must be designed to control the high-voltage stress to prevent breakdown of the insulation. Often a high-voltage cable will have a metallic shield layer over the insulation, connected to the ground and designed to equalize the dielectric stress on the insulation layer.
Segments of high-voltage cables
High-voltage cables may be any length, with relatively short cables used in apparatus, longer cables run within buildings or as buried cables in an industrial plant or for power distribution, and the longest cables often run as submarine cables under the ocean for power transmission.
Contents
[hide]
1 Construction
2 AC power cable
2.1 Quality
3 HVDC cable
4 Cable terminals
5 Cable joints
6 X-ray cable
7 Testing of high-voltage cables
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Sources
9.2 Notes
10 External links
Construction[edit]
A cross-section through a 400 kV cable, showing the stranded segmented copper conductor in the center, semiconducting and insulating layers, copper shield conductors, aluminum sheath and plastic outer jacket
Like other power cables, high-voltage cables have the structural elements of one or more conductors, insulation, and a protective jacket. High-voltage cables differ from lower-voltage cables in that they have additional internal layers in the insulation jacket to control the electric field around the conductor.
For circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield may surround each insulated conductor. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916;[1] the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. The individual conductor shields of a cable are connected to the ground at the ends of the shield, and at splices. Stress relief cones are applied at the shield ends.
Cables for power distribution of 10 kV or higher may be insulated with oil and paper, and are run in a rigid steel pipe, semi-rigid aluminum or lead sheath. For higher voltages the oil may be kept under pressure to prevent formation of voids that would allow partial discharges within the cable insulation.
Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti was the first to demonstrate in 1887 that carefully dried and prepared paper could form satisfactory cable insulation at 11,000 volts. Previously paper-insulated cable had only been applied for low-voltage telegraph and telephone circuits. An extruded lead sheath over the paper cable was required to ensure that the paper remained absolutely dry.
Vulcanized rubber was patented by Charles Goodyear in 1844, but it was not applied to cable insulation until the 1880s, when it was used for lighting circuits.[1] Rubber-insulated cable was used for 11,000 volt circuits in 1897 installed for the Niagara Falls Power Generation project.
Mass-impregnated paper-insulated medium voltage cables were commercially practical by 1895. During World War II several varieties of synthetic rubber and polyethylene insulation were applied to cables.[2] Modern high-voltage cables use polymers or polyethylene, including (XLPE) for insulation.
AC power cable[edit]
High voltage is defined as any voltage over 1000 volts. Cables for 3000 and 6000 volts exist, but the majority of cables are used from 10 kV and upward.[3] Those of 10 to 33 kV are usually called medium voltage cables, those over 50 kV high voltage cables.
Figure 1, cross section of a high-voltage cable, (1) conductor (3) insulation (2) and (4) semiconducting layers (5) outer conductor and outer coat.
Modern HV cables have a simple design consisting of few parts. A conductor of copper or aluminum wires transports the current, see (1) in figure 1. (For a detailed discussion on copper cables, see main article: Copper wire and cable.)
Conductor sections up to 2000 mm2 may transport currents up to 2000 amperes. The individual strands are often preshaped to provide a smoother overall circumference. The insulation (3) may consist of cross-linked polyethylene, also called XLPE. It is reasonably flexible and tolerates operating temperatures up to 120 °C.
At the inner (2) and outer (4) sides of this insulation, semi-conducting layers are fused to the insulation.[4] The function of these layers is to prevent air-filled cavities between the metal conductors and the dielectric so that little electric discharges cannot arise and endanger the insulation material.[5]
The outer conductor or sheath (5) serves as an earthed layer and will conduct leakage currents if needed.
Most high-voltage cables for power transmission that are currently sold on the market are insulated by a sheath of XLPE. Some cables may have a lead or aluminium jacket in conjunction with XLPE insulation to allow for fiber optics. Before 1960, underground power cables were insulated with oil and paper and ran in a rigid steel pipe, or a semi-rigid aluminium or lead jacket or sheath. The oil was kept under pressure to prevent formation of voids that would allow partial discharges within the cable insulation. There are still many of these oil-and-paper insulated cables in use worldwide. Between 1960 and 1990, polymers became more widely used at distribution voltages, mostly EPDM (ethylene propylene diene M-class); however, their relative unreliability, particularly early XLPE, resulted in a slow uptake at transmission voltages. While cables of 330 kV are commonly constructed using XLPE, this has occurred only in recent decades.
Quality[edit]
During the development of HV insulation, which has taken about half a century, two characteristics proved to be paramount. First, the introduction of the semiconducting layers. These layers must be absolutely smooth, without even protrusions as small as a few µm. Further the fusion between the insulation and these layers must be absolute;[6] any fission, air-pocket or other defect - of the same micro-dimensions as above - is detrimental for the breakdown characteristics of the cable.
Secondly, the insulation must be free of inclusions, cavities or other defects of the same sort of size. Any defect of these types shortens the voltage life of the cable which is supposed to be in the order of 30 years or more.[7]
Cooperation between cable-makers and manufacturers of materials has resulted in grades of XLPE with tight specifications. Most producers of XLPE-compound specify an "extra clean" grade where the number and size of foreign particles are guaranteed. Packing the raw material and unloading it within a cleanroom environment in the cable-making machines is required. The development of extruders for plastics extrusion and cross-linking has resulted in cable-making installations for making defect-free and pure insulations. The final quality control test is an elevated voltage 50 or 60 Hz partial discharge test with very high sensitivity (in the range of 5 to 10 picoCoulombs) This test is performed on every reel of cable before it is shipped.
An extruder machine for making insulated cable
HVDC cable[edit]
A high-voltage cable for HVDC transmission has the same construction as the AC cable shown in figure 1. The physics and the test-requirements are different.[8] In this case the smoothness of the semiconducting layers (2) and (4) is of utmost importance. Cleanliness of the insulation remains imperative.
Many HVDC cables are used for DC submarine connections, because at distances over 30 km AC can no longer be used. The longest submarine cable today is the NorNed cable between Norway and Holland that is almost 600 km long and transports 700 megawatts, a capacity equal to a large power station.
Most of these long deep-sea cables are made in an older construction, using oil-impregnated paper as an insulator.
Cable terminals[edit]
Figure 2, the earth shield of a cable (0%) is cut off, the equipotential lines (from 20% to 80%) concentrate at the edge of the earth electrode, causing danger of breakdown.
Terminals of high-voltage cables must manage the electric fields at the ends.[9] Without such a construction the electric field will concentrate at the end of the earth-conductor as shown in figure 2.
Equipotential lines are shown here which can be compared with the contour lines on a map of a mountainous region: the nearer these lines are to each other, the steeper the slope and the greater the danger, in this case the danger of an electric breakdown. The equipotential lines can also be compared with the isobars on a weather map: the denser the lines, the more wind and the greater the danger of damage.
Figure 3, a rubber or elastomer body R is pushed over the insulation (blue) of the cable. The equipotential lines between HV (high voltage) and earth are evenly spread out by the shape of the earth electrode. Field concentrations are prevented in this way.
In order to control the equipotential lines (that is to control the electric field) a device is used that is called a stress-cone, see figure 3.[10] The crux of stress relief is to flare the shield end along a logarithmic curve. Before 1960, the stress cones were handmade using tape—after the cable was installed. These were protected by potheads, so named because a potting compound/dielectric was poured around the tape inside a metal/ porcelain body insulators. About 1960, preformed terminations were developed consisting of a rubber or elastomer body that is stretched over the cable end.[11] On this rubber-like body R a shield electrode is applied that spreads the equipotential lines to guarantee a low electric field.
The crux of this device, invented by NKF in Delft in 1964,[12] is that the bore of the elastic body is narrower than the diameter of the cable. In this way the (blue) interface between cable and stress-cone is brought under mechanical pressure, so that no cavities or air-pockets can be formed between cable and cone. Electric breakdown in this region is prevented in this way.
This construction can further be surrounded by a porcelain or silicone insulator for outdoor use,[13] or by contraptions to enter the cable into a power transformer under oil, or switchgear under gas-pressure.[14]
Cable joints[edit]
Connecting two high-voltage cables with one another poses two main problems. First, the outer conducting layers in both cables shall be terminated without causing a field concentration,[15] similar as with the making of a cable terminal. Secondly, a field free space shall be created where the cut-down cable insulation and the connector of the two conductors safely can be accommodated.[16] These problems have been solved by NKF in Delft in 1965[17] by introducing a device called bi-manchet.
Photograph of a section of a high-voltage joint, bi-manchet, with a high-voltage cable mounted at the right hand side of the device.
Figure 4 shows a photograph of the cross-section of such a device. At one side of this photograph the contours of a high-voltage cable are drawn. Here red represents the conductor of that cable and blue the insulation of the cable. The black parts in this picture are semi-conducting rubber parts. The outer one is at earth potential and spreads the electric field in a similar way as in a cable terminal. The inner one is at high-voltage and shields the connector of the conductors from the electric field.
The field itself is diverted as shown in figure 5, where the equipotential lines are smoothly directed from the inside of the cable to the outer part of the bi-manchet (and vice versa at the other side of the device).
Field distribution in a bi-manchet or HV joint.
The crux of the matter is here, like in the cable terminal, that the inner bore of this bi-manchet is chosen smaller than the diameter over the cable-insulation.[18] In this way a permanent pressure is created between the bi-manchet and the cable surface and cavities or electrical weak points are avoided.
Installing a terminal or bi-manchet is skilled work. Removing the outer semiconducting layer at the end of the cables, placing the field-controlling bodies, connecting the conductors, etc., require skill, cleanness and precision.
X-ray cable[edit]
X-ray cables[19] are used in lengths of several meters to connect the HV source with an X-ray tube or any other HV device in scientific equipment. They transmit small currents, in the order of milliamperes at DC voltages of 30 to 200 kV, or sometimes higher. The cables are flexible, with rubber or other elastomer insulation, stranded conductors, and an outer sheath of braided copper-wire. The construction has the same elements as other HV power cables.
Testing of high-voltage cables[edit]
There are different causes for faulty cable insulation when considering solid dielectric or paper insulation. Hence, there are various test and measurement methods to prove fully functional cables or to detect faulty ones. While paper cables are primarily tested with DC insulation resistance tests the most common test for solid dielectric cable system is the partial discharge test. One needs to distinguish between cable testing and cable diagnosis. While cable testing methods result in a go/no go statement cable diagnosis methods allow judgement of the cable's current condition. With some tests it is even possible to locate the position of the defect in the insulation before failure.
In some cases, Water trees can be detected by tan delta measurement. Interpretation of measurement results can in some cases yield the possibility to distinguish between new, strongly water treed cable. Unfortunately there are many other issues that can erroneously present themselves as high tangent delta and the vast majority of solid dielectric defects can not be detected with this method. Damages to the insulation and electrical treeing may be detected and located by partial discharge measurement. Data collected during the measurement procedure is compared to measurement values of the same cable gathered during the acceptance-test. This allows simple and quick classification of the dielectric condition of the tested cable. Just like with tangent delta, this method has many caveats but with good adherence to factory test standards, field results can be very reliable.
See also[edit]
Electric power transmission
High-voltage direct current
Power cable
VLF cable testing
References[edit]
Sources[edit]
Kreuger, Frederik H. (1991). Industrial High Voltage. Volume 1. Delft University Press. ISBN 90-6275-561-5.
Kreuger, Frederik H. (1991). Industrial High Voltage. Volume 2. Delft University Press. ISBN 90-6275-562-3.
Kuffel, E.; Zaengl, W.S.; Kuffel, J. (2000). High Voltage Engineering (2 ed.). Butterworth‐Heinemann/Newnes. ISBN 0-7506-3634-3.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Underground Systems Reference Book. Edison Electric Institute. 1957.
Jump up ^ Black, Robert M. (1983). The History of Electric Wires and Cables. Peter Pergrinus; London Science Museum. ISBN 0-86341-001-4.
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, pp. 133-137
Jump up ^ Kuffel 2000 and Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2, p. 118
Jump up ^ Kuffel 2000, sec. Discharges
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2, picture 8.1e
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2, pp. 87-91
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2, pp. 15-19
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, pp. 53,147,153
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, pp. 147-153
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, fig. 10.7
Jump up ^ Dutch Patent 123795, Netherlands Cable Works NKF, submitted 21-4-1964, granted 27-3-1968
Jump up ^ see a similar case in Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, p. 160
Jump up ^ see a similar case in Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, p. 157
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, p. 156
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, p. 154
Jump up ^ Dutch Patent 149955 of Netherlands Cable Works NKF, submitted 4-11-1965, granted 17-11-1976
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, p. 155
Jump up ^ Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1, pp. 65, 133
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to High-voltage cables.
Tan delta measurement of medium- and high-voltage cables
Partial discharge measurement to detect and locate electrical trees
On-site AC Withstand test for 200kV High Voltage Cable
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This page was last edited on 13 December 2017, at 23:02.
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