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List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada
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Supreme Court
of Canada
History
Act
Process
Current members
Richard Wagner (Chief Justice)
Rosalie Abella
Michael Moldaver
Andromache Karakatsanis
Clément Gascon
Suzanne Côté
Russell Brown
Malcolm Rowe
Sheilah Martin
All members
List of Chief Justices
List of all Justices
List of Justices by Court composition
Judgments
v
t
e
Richard Wagner is the current Chief Justice of Canada
Beverley McLachlin was the first woman to hold this position.
The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada. It was created in 1875 by a law passed by the Parliament of Canada, the Supreme and Exchequer Court Act.[1] Since 1949, the Court has been the final court of appeal in the Canadian justice system. Originally composed of six justices (the Chief Justice of Canada and five puisne justices), the Court was expanded to seven justices by the creation of an additional puisne justice position in 1927,[2] and then to nine justices by the creation of two more puisne justice positions in 1949.[3]
The justices are appointed by the Governor-in-Council (Governor General of Canada on the advice of the Cabinet). The first six justices of the Court were all appointed in 1875 by the then Governor General of Canada, the Earl of Dufferin, on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie.
Of the nine justices, three positions are required by law to be held by judges who are either judges of the superior courts of Quebec, or members of the Bar of Quebec, at the time of their appointment.[4][5] Traditionally, three of the remaining judges are appointed from Ontario, two from the four western provinces, and one from the Atlantic provinces. The judges from these provinces, other than Quebec, must have been a judge of a superior court, or a member of the bar of one of those provinces for ten or more years prior to the appointment.[6] A Supreme Court justice, as with all federal judges, has guaranteed tenure during good behaviour, and may sit on the bench until the age of 75 years.[7]
Contents
1 Justices
2 List of current justices by mandatory retirement date
3 List of justices by birthplace
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 Further reading
Justices[edit]
Richard Wagner is the current Chief Justice. He was appointed after Beverley McLachlin's retirement in 2017. She was the first woman to hold this position.[8]
In this list, justices are placed in the order in which they took the judicial oath of office and thereby started their term of office. While many of the justices' positions prior to appointment are simply listed as "lawyer", many had part-time positions, such as teaching, or acted as counsel to various levels of government.
† Denotes current justices
No.
Name
Province
Term of
active service
Term of
service
as Chief Justice
Length of
active service
Length
in days
as Chief Justice
Appointed on
advice of
Legal education
Position prior to appointment
1 Sir William Buell Richards
(1815–1889) Ontario September 30, 1875 – January 10, 1879 September 30, 1875 – January 10, 1879 1,199 1,199 Mackenzie (directly as Chief Justice) Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1837) Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas for Canada West
2 William Johnstone Ritchie
(1813–1892) New Brunswick September 30, 1875 – September 25, 1892 January 11, 1879 – September 25, 1892 6,206 5,007 Mackenzie (as puisne justice);
Macdonald (as Chief Justice) Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1837) Chief Justice of New Brunswick
3 Samuel Henry Strong
(1825–1909) Ontario September 30, 1875 – November 18, 1902 December 13, 1892 – November 18, 1902 9,911 3,627 Mackenzie (as puisne justice);
Thompson (as Chief Justice) Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1849) Ontario Court of Error & Appeal
4 Jean-Thomas Taschereau
(1814–1893) Quebec September 30, 1875 – October 6, 1878 — 1,103 — Mackenzie Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer; École de droit de Paris
(1837) Court of Queen's Bench of Quebec
5 Télesphore Fournier
(1823–1896) Quebec September 30, 1875 – September 12, 1895 — 7,288 — Mackenzie Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1846) Postmaster General
6 William Alexander Henry
(1816–1888) Nova Scotia September 30, 1875 – May 3, 1888 — 4,600 — Mackenzie Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1841) Lawyer
7 Sir Henri-Elzéar Taschereau
(1836–1911) Quebec October 7, 1878 – May 2, 1906 November 21, 1902 – May 2, 1906 10,069 1,259 Mackenzie (as puisne justice);
Laurier (as Chief Justice) — Quebec Superior Court
8 John Wellington Gwynne
(1814–1902) Ontario January 14, 1879 – January 7, 1902 — 8,394 — Macdonald Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1837) Ontario Court of Error & Appeal
9 Christopher Salmon Patterson
(1823–1893) Ontario October 27, 1888 – July 24, 1893 — 1,732 — Macdonald — Ontario Court of Error & Appeal
10 Robert Sedgewick
(1848–1906) Nova Scotia February 18, 1893 – August 4, 1906 — 4,915 — Thompson Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1872) Deputy Minister of Justice (Federal)
11 George Edwin King
(1839–1901) New Brunswick September 21, 1893 – May 8, 1901 — 2,786 — Thompson Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1865) Supreme Court of New Brunswick
12 Désiré Girouard
(1836–1911) Quebec September 28, 1895 – March 22, 1911 — 5,654 — Bowell McGill Law School
(1860) Member of Parliament for Jacques Cartier
13 Sir Louis Henry Davies
(1845–1924) Prince Edward Island September 25, 1901 – May 1, 1924 November 23, 1918 – May 1, 1924 8,255 1,987 Laurier (as puisne justice);
Borden (as Chief Justice) Inner Temple, London
(1866) Member of Parliament for West Queen's
14 David Mills
(1831–1903) Ontario February 8, 1902 – May 8, 1903 — 455 — Laurier University of Michigan
(1867) Minister of Justice (Canada)
and Leader of the Government in the Senate
15 John Douglas Armour
(1830–1903) Ontario November 21, 1902 – July 11, 1903 — 233 — Laurier Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1853) Chief Justice of Ontario
16 Wallace Nesbitt
(1858–1930) Ontario May 16, 1903 – October 4, 1905 — 873 — Laurier Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1881) Lawyer
17 Albert Clements Killam
(1849–1908) Manitoba August 8, 1903 – February 6, 1905 — 549 — Laurier Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1877) Chief Justice of Manitoba
18 John Idington
(1840–1928) Ontario February 10, 1905 – March 31, 1927 — 8,085 — Laurier University of Toronto
(1864) High Court of Justice of Ontario
19 James Maclennan
(1833–1915) Ontario October 5, 1905 – February 13, 1909 — 1,228 — Laurier Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1857) Court of Appeal for Ontario
20 Sir Charles Fitzpatrick
(1853–1942) Quebec June 4, 1906 – November 21, 1918 June 4, 1906 – November 21, 1918 4,554 4,554 Laurier (directly as Chief Justice) Université Laval, Faculté de droit
(1876) Minister of Justice (Canada)
21 Sir Lyman Poore Duff
(1865–1955) British Columbia September 27, 1906 – January 2, 1944 March 17, 1933 – January 2, 1944 13,617 3,949 Laurier (as puisne justice);
Bennett (as Chief Justice) Osgoode Hall Law School
Supreme Court of British Columbia
22 Francis Alexander Anglin
(1865–1933) Ontario February 23, 1909 – February 28, 1933 September 16, 1924 – February 28, 1933 8,772 3,088 Laurier (as puisne justice);
King (as Chief Justice) The Law Society of Upper Canada
(1888) High Court of Justice of Ontario (Exchequer Division)
23 Louis-Philippe Brodeur
(1862–1924) Quebec August 11, 1911 – October 10, 1923 — 4,444 — Laurier Université Laval à Montréal, Faculté de droit
(1884) Minister of the Naval Service
24 Pierre-Basile Mignault
(1854–1945) Quebec October 25, 1918 – September 30, 1929 — 3,994 — Borden McGill Law School
(1878) Member of the International Joint Commission
25 Arthur Cyrille Albert Malouin
(1857–1936) Quebec January 30, 1924 – October 1, 1924 — 246 — King Université Laval, Faculté de droit
(1882) Quebec Superior Court
26 Edmund Leslie Newcombe
(1859–1931) Nova Scotia September 16, 1924 – December 9, 1931 — 2,641 — King University of Halifax
(1881) Deputy Minister of Justice (federal)
27 Thibaudeau Rinfret
(1879–1962) Quebec October 1, 1924 – June 22, 1954 January 8, 1944 – June 22, 1954 10,857 3,819 King (as both puisne justice and later as Chief Justice) Université Laval à Montréal and McGill Law School
(1900) Quebec Superior Court
28 John Henderson Lamont
(1865–1936) Saskatchewan April 2, 1927 – March 10, 1936 — 3,266 — King University of Toronto Faculty of Law
(1893) Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan
29 Robert Smith
(1858–1942) Ontario May 18, 1927 – December 7, 1933 — 2,396 — King Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1885) Supreme Court of Ontario (Appellate Division)
30 Lawrence Arthur Dumoulin Cannon
(1877–1939) Quebec January 14, 1930 – December 25, 1939 — 3,633 — King Université Laval, Faculté de droit
(1899) Court of King's Bench for Quebec
31 Oswald Smith Crocket
(1868–1945) New Brunswick September 21, 1932 – April 13, 1943 — 3,857 — Bennett Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1892) Supreme Court of New Brunswick
32 Frank Joseph Hughes
(1883–1967) Ontario March 17, 1933 – February 13, 1935 — 699 — Bennett Osgoode Hall Law School (Law Society of Upper Canada)
(1911) Lawyer
33 Henry Hague Davis
(1885–1944) Ontario January 31, 1935 – June 30, 1944 — 3,439 — Bennett University of Toronto Faculty of Law
(1911) Court of Appeal for Ontario
34 Patrick Kerwin
(1889–1963) Ontario July 20, 1935 – February 2, 1963 July 1, 1954 – February 2, 1963 10,060 3,139 Bennett (as puisne justice);
St. Laurent (as Chief Justice) Osgoode Hall Law School (Law Society of Upper Canada)
(1911) High Court of Justice of Ontario
35 Albert Blellock Hudson
(1875–1947) Manitoba March 24, 1936 – January 6, 1947 — 3,941 — King University of Manitoba, Faculty of Law
(1898) Lawyer
36 Robert Taschereau
(1896–1970) Quebec February 9, 1940 – September 1, 1967 April 22, 1963 – September 1, 1967 10,067 1,549 King (as puisne justice);
Diefenbaker (as Chief Justice) Université Laval, Faculté de droit)
(1920) Lawyer
37 Ivan Cleveland Rand
(1884–1969) New Brunswick April 22, 1943 – April 27, 1959 — 5,850 — King Harvard Law School
(1912) Lawyer
38 Roy Lindsay Kellock
(1893–1975) Ontario October 3, 1944 – January 15, 1958 — 4,853 — King — Court of Appeal for Ontario
39 James Wilfred Estey
(1889–1956) Saskatchewan October 6, 1944 – January 22, 1956 — 4,126 — King Harvard Law School
(1915) Attorney General of Saskatchewan
40 Charles Holland Locke
(1887–1980) British Columbia June 3, 1947 – September 16, 1962 — 5,585 — King Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(1910) Lawyer
41 John Robert Cartwright
(1895–1979) Ontario December 22, 1949 – March 23, 1970 September 1, 1967 – March 23, 1970 7,397 935 St. Laurent (as puisne justice);
Pearson (as Chief Justice) Osgoode Hall Law School (Law Society of Upper Canada)
(1920) Lawyer
42 Joseph Honoré Gérald Fauteux
(1900–1980) Quebec December 22, 1949 – December 23, 1973 March 23, 1970 – December 23, 1973 8,768 1,372 St. Laurent (as puisne justice);
P. Trudeau (as Chief Justice) Université de Montréal Faculty of Law
(1925) Quebec Superior Court
43 Douglas Charles Abbott
(1899–1987) Quebec July 1, 1954 – December 23, 1973 — 7,116 — St. Laurent McGill Law School Minister of Finance (federal)
44 Henry Grattan Nolan
(1893–1957) Alberta March 1, 1956 – July 8, 1957 — 495 — St. Laurent Articles of clerkship with a senior lawyer
(English and Alberta bars) Lawyer
45 Ronald Martland
(1909–1997) Alberta January 15, 1958 – February 10, 1982 — 8,793 — Diefenbaker University of Alberta, University of Oxford
(1928, 1931) Lawyer
46 Wilfred Judson
(1902–1980) Ontario February 5, 1958 – July 20, 1977 — 7,106 — Diefenbaker Osgoode Hall Law School (Law Society of Upper Canada)
(1932) High Court of Justice of Ontario
47 Roland Almon Ritchie
(1910–1988) Nova Scotia May 5, 1959 – October 31, 1984 — 9,312 — Diefenbaker University of Oxford
(1932) Lawyer
48 Emmett Matthew Hall
(1898–1995) Saskatchewan November 23, 1962 – March 1, 1973 — 3,752 — Diefenbaker University of Saskatchewan College of Law
(1919) Chief Justice of Saskatchewan, Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan
49 Wishart Flett Spence
(1904–1998) Ontario May 30, 1963 – December 29, 1978 — 5,693 — Pearson Osgoode Hall Law School (Law Society of Upper Canada)
(1928) High Court of Justice of Ontario
50 Louis-Philippe Pigeon
(1905–1986) Quebec September 21, 1967 – February 8, 1980 — 4,524 — Pearson Université Laval, Faculté de droit
(1928) Lawyer
51 Bora Laskin
(1912–1984) Ontario March 23, 1970 – March 26, 1984 December 27, 1973 – March 26, 1984 5,118 3,739 P. Trudeau (as both puisne justice and later as Chief Justice) University of Toronto
(1936)
Harvard Law School
(1937)
Osgoode Hall Law School (Law Society of Upper Canada)
(1937) Court of Appeal for Ontario
52 Robert George Brian Dickson
(1916–1998) Manitoba March 26, 1973 – June 30, 1990 April 18, 1984 – June 30, 1990 6,306 2,265 P. Trudeau (as both puisne justice and later as Chief Justice) University of Manitoba Faculty of Law
(1938) Manitoba Court of Appeal
53 Jean Beetz
(1927–1991) Quebec January 1, 1974 – November 10, 1988 — 5,428 — P. Trudeau Université de Montréal Faculty of Law
(1950)
Pembroke College, Oxford
(1953) Quebec Court of Appeal
54 Louis-Philippe de Grandpré
(1917–2008) Quebec January 1, 1974 – October 1, 1977 — 1,370 — P. Trudeau McGill University Faculty of Law President of the Canadian Bar Association
55 Willard Zebedee Estey
(1919–2002) Ontario September 29, 1977 – April 22, 1988 — 3,859 — P. Trudeau University of Saskatchewan College of Law Chief Justice of Ontario
56 Yves Pratte
(1925–1988) Quebec October 1, 1977 – June 30, 1979 — 638 — P. Trudeau Université Laval (Faculté de droit (Université Laval)) and University of Toronto Chairman of Air Canada
57 William Rogers McIntyre
(1918–2009) British Columbia January 1, 1979 – February 15, 1989 — 3,699 — P. Trudeau University of Saskatchewan British Columbia Court of Appeal
58 Julien Chouinard
(1929–1987) Quebec September 24, 1979 – February 6, 1987 — 2,693 — Clark Université Laval Quebec Court of Appeal
59 Antonio Lamer
(1933–2007) Quebec March 28, 1980 – January 6, 2000 July 1, 1990 – January 6, 2000 7,224 3,477 P. Trudeau (as puisne justice);
Mulroney (as Chief Justice) Université de Montréal Quebec Court of Appeal
60 Bertha Wilson
(1923–2007) Ontario March 4, 1982 – January 4, 1991 — 3,229 — P. Trudeau Dalhousie Law School Court of Appeal for Ontario
61 Gerald Eric Le Dain
(1924–2007) Ontario May 29, 1984 – November 30, 1988 — 1,647 — P. Trudeau McGill University Faculty of Law Federal Court of Appeal
62 Gérard La Forest
(b. 1926) New Brunswick January 16, 1985 – September 30, 1997 — 4,641 — Mulroney University of New Brunswick Faculty of Law and Yale Law School New Brunswick Court of Appeal
63 Claire L'Heureux-Dubé
(b. 1927) Quebec April 15, 1987 – July 1, 2002 — 5,557 — Mulroney Université Laval (Faculté de droit (Université Laval)) Quebec Court of Appeal
64 John Sopinka
(1933–1997) Ontario May 24, 1988 – November 24, 1997 — 3,472 — Mulroney University of Toronto Lawyer
65 Charles Gonthier
(1928–2009) Quebec February 1, 1989 – August 1, 2003 — 5,295 — Mulroney McGill University Faculty of Law Quebec Court of Appeal
66 Peter Cory
(b. 1925) Ontario February 1, 1989 – June 1, 1999 — 3,773 — Mulroney Osgoode Hall Law School Court of Appeal for Ontario
67 Beverley McLachlin
(b. 1943) British Columbia March 30, 1989 – December 15, 2017 January 7, 2000 – December 15, 2017 10,488 6,553 Mulroney (as puisne justice);
Chrétien (as Chief Justice) University of Alberta Faculty of Law Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of British Columbia
68 William Stevenson
(b. 1934) Alberta September 17, 1990 – June 5, 1992 — 628 — Mulroney University of Alberta Faculty of Law Court of Appeal of Alberta
Court of Appeal for the Northwest Territories
69 Frank Iacobucci
(b. 1937) Ontario January 7, 1991 – June 30, 2004 — 4,924 — Mulroney University of British Columbia and Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge Chief Justice of the Federal Court
70 John C. Major
(b. 1931) Alberta November 13, 1992 – December 25, 2005 — 4,791 — Mulroney University of Toronto Court of Appeal of Alberta
71 Michel Bastarache
(b. 1947) New Brunswick September 30, 1997 – June 30, 2008 — 3,926 — Chrétien University of Ottawa Faculty of Law New Brunswick Court of Appeal
72 William Ian Corneil Binnie
(b. 1939) Ontario January 8, 1998 – October 21, 2011 — 5,034 — Chrétien Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge University of Toronto Lawyer
73 Louise Arbour
(b. 1947) Ontario September 15, 1999 – June 30, 2004 — 1,751 — Chrétien Université de Montréal Faculty of Law
University of Ottawa Faculty of Law Chief Prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda
74 Louis LeBel
(b. 1939) Quebec January 7, 2000 – November 30, 2014 — 5,442 — Chrétien Université Laval
University of Toronto Quebec Court of Appeal
75 Marie Deschamps
(b. 1952) Quebec August 7, 2002 – August 7, 2012 — 3,653 — Chrétien Université de Montréal McGill University Faculty of Law Quebec Court of Appeal
76 Morris J. Fish
(b. 1938) Quebec August 5, 2003 – August 31, 2013 — 3,680 — Chrétien McGill University Faculty of Law Quebec Court of Appeal
77 Rosalie Abella†
(b. 1946) Ontario October 4, 2004 – present — 7003504800000000000♠5,048[9] — Martin University of Toronto Court of Appeal for Ontario
78 Louise Charron
(b. 1951) Ontario October 4, 2004 – August 30, 2011 — 2,521 — Martin University of Ottawa Faculty of Law Court of Appeal for Ontario
79 Marshall Rothstein
(b. 1940) Manitoba March 1, 2006 – August 31, 2015 — 3,470 — Harper University of Manitoba Federal Court of Appeal
80 Thomas Cromwell
(b. 1952) Nova Scotia December 22, 2008 – September 1, 2016 — 2,810 — Harper Queen's University Faculty of Law
University of Oxford Nova Scotia Court of Appeal
81 Michael J. Moldaver†
(b. 1948) Ontario October 21, 2011 – present — 7003247500000000000♠2,475[9] — Harper University of Toronto Court of Appeal for Ontario
82 Andromache Karakatsanis†
(b. 1955) Ontario October 21, 2011 – present — 7003247500000000000♠2,475[9] — Harper Osgoode Hall Law School Court of Appeal for Ontario
83 Richard Wagner†
(b. 1957) Quebec October 5, 2012 – present December 18, 2017 – present 7003212500000000000♠2,125[9] 7002225000000000000♠225[9] Harper (as puisne justice);
J. Trudeau (as Chief Justice) University of Ottawa Faculty of Law Quebec Court of Appeal
84 Clément Gascon†
(b. 1960) Quebec June 9, 2014 – present — 7003151300000000000♠1,513[9] — Harper McGill University Faculty of Law Quebec Court of Appeal
85 Suzanne Côté†
(b. 1958) Quebec December 1, 2014 – present — 7003133800000000000♠1,338[9] — Harper Laval University Lawyer
86 Russell Brown†
(b. 1965) Alberta August 31, 2015 – present — 7003106500000000000♠1,065[9] — Harper University of Victoria
University of Toronto Court of Appeal of Alberta
87 Malcolm Rowe†
(b. 1953) Newfoundland and Labrador October 28, 2016 – present — 7002641000000000000♠641[9] — J. Trudeau Osgoode Hall Law School Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador (Court of Appeal)
88 Sheilah Martin†
(b. 1956) Alberta December 18, 2017 – present — 7002225000000000000♠225[9] — J. Trudeau McGill University Faculty of Law
University of Alberta Faculty of Law Court of Appeal of Alberta
Court of Appeal for the Northwest Territories
Court of Appeal of Nunavut
List of current justices by mandatory retirement date[edit]
When the Supreme Court was created, the justices of the Court had life tenure, meaning they could sit on the Court until they either retired or died. In 1927, a mandatory retirement age of 75 was introduced.[10] The retirement age applied to any judge who was already over age 75, which meant that Justice John Idington, aged 86, was forced to retire on the day the amendment came into force, March 31, 1927.
The mandatory retirement age is still set at 75 by the Supreme Court Act.[7] Justices can retire from the Court prior to the mandatory retirement date.
In this list, "Seniority" is based on the date of appointment to the Court.
Seniority
Justice
Birth date
Current Age
Mandatory Retirement Date
1 Rosalie Abella July 1, 1946 7004263280000000000♠72 July 1, 2021
2 Michael Moldaver December 23, 1947 7004257880000000000♠70 December 23, 2022
3 Andromache Karakatsanis October 3, 1955 7004229470000000000♠62 October 3, 2030
4 Richard Wagner April 2, 1957 7004224000000000000♠61 April 2, 2032
5 Clément Gascon September 5, 1960 7004211480000000000♠57 September 5, 2035
6 Suzanne Côté September 21, 1958 7004218630000000000♠59 September 21, 2033
7 Russell Brown September 15, 1965 7004193120000000000♠52 September 15, 2040
8 Malcolm Rowe 1953 64 or 65 during 2028
9 Sheilah Martin May 31, 1956 7004227060000000000♠62 May 31, 2031
List of justices by birthplace[edit]
Place
Justices Born There
Number
Canada:
Alberta[11] McLachlin; Nolan; Stevenson 3
British Columbia Brown; Iacobucci 2
Manitoba Locke; Rothstein 2
New Brunswick Anglin; Crocket; Estey, J.W.; King; La Forest; Rand 6
Newfoundland &
Labrador Rowe 1
Nova Scotia Henry; Killam; Newcombe; Ritchie, W.J.; Ritchie, R.A. 5
Ontario[12] Armour; Cartwright; Charron; Cory; Cromwell; Davis; Duff; Hudson; Hughes; Idington; Karakatsanis; Kellock; Kerwin; Lamont; Laskin; Maclennan; Major; Mills; Moldaver; Nesbitt; Richards; Smith; Spence 23
Prince Edward Island Davies 1
Quebec[13] Abbott; Arbour; Bastarache; Beetz; Binnie; Brodeur; Cannon; Chouinard; de Grandpré; Deschamps; Fauteux; Fish; Fitzpatrick; Fournier; Gascon; Girouard; Gonthier; Hall; Lamer; Le Dain; LeBel; L'Heureux-Dubé; Malouin; Martin; McIntyre; Pigeon; Pratte; Rinfret; Taschereau, H.-E.; Taschereau, J.-T.; Taschereau, R.; Wagner 32
Saskatchewan Dickson; Estey, W.Z.; Sopinka 3
Northwest Territories — 0
Nunavut — 0
Yukon — 0
United Kingdom: 7
England: 4 Judson; Martland; Patterson; Strong
Scotland: 2 Sedgewick; Wilson
Ireland:[14] 1 Gwynne
United States Mignault 1
Germany Abella 1
Total: 87

See also[edit]
List of Chief Justices of Canada
List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by court composition
List of Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by Position
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Supreme and Exchequer Court Act, S.C. 1875, c. 11.
Jump up ^ An Act to amend the Supreme Court Act, S.C. 1927, c. 38, s. 1
Jump up ^ An Act to amend the Supreme Court Act, S.C. 1949, c. 37, s.1
Jump up ^ Supreme Court Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. S‑26, s. 6.
Jump up ^ Reference re Supreme Court Act, ss. 5 and 6, 2014 SCC 21.
Jump up ^ Supreme Court Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. S-26, s. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Supreme Court Act, R.S.C. 1985, c. S-26, s. 9.
Jump up ^ Peter McCormick (2000). Supreme at Last: The Evolution of the Supreme Court of Canada. James Lorimer & Company. p. 154. ISBN 1550286927.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Current to most recent page update.
Jump up ^ An Act to amend the Supreme Court Act, S.C. 1927, c. 38, s. 2.
Jump up ^ Includes territory previously in the Northwest Territories prior to 1905.
Jump up ^ Includes the former colony of Upper Canada, and Canada West in the former Province of Canada.
Jump up ^ Includes the former colony of Lower Canada, and Canada East in the former Province of Canada.
Jump up ^ Includes all of Ireland as part of the United Kingdom, prior to 1922.
Bibliography[edit]
James G. Snell; Frederick Vaughan (1985). The Supreme Court of Canada: History of the Institution. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802034179.
Peter McCormick (2000). Supreme at Last: The Evolution of the Supreme Court of Canada. James Lorimer & Company. ISBN 1550286927.
Donald R. Songer (2008). The Transformation of the Supreme Court of Canada: An Empirical Examination. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802096891.
Further reading[edit]
Government of Canada. "Current and Former Puisne Judges". Judges of the Court. Supreme Court of Canada. Archived from the original on April 14, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
Government of Canada. "Current and Former Chief Justices". Judges of the Court. Supreme Court of Canada. Archived from the original on March 27, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_Canada&oldid=851042929"
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Why Don't We
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Why Don't We
Origin
Los Angeles, California, United States
Genres
Pop
Occupation(s)
Singers
Years active
2016–present
Labels
Atlantic
Website
whydontwemusic.com
Members
Jonah Marais
Corbyn Besson
Daniel Seavey
Jack Avery
Zach Herron
Why Don't We (commonly abbreviated as WDW) is an American pop boyband, that was assembled on September 27, 2016, consisting of Jonah Marais Roth Frantzich from Stillwater, Minnesota, Corbyn Matthew Besson from Fairfax, Virginia, Daniel James Seavey from Portland, Oregon, Jack Robert Avery from Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, and Zachary Dean Herron from Dallas, Texas, each of whom had previously recorded as solo artists.
Contents
[hide]
1 Career
1.1 2016–present
2 Discography
2.1 Extended plays
2.2 Singles
2.2.1 As lead artist
2.3 As a featured artist
2.4 Promotional singles
2.5 Music videos
3 References
Career
2016–present
The band originally formed on September 27, 2016, and announced it the next day via their YouTube account.[1] Since then, the band has released three EPs and five singles.
On October 7, 2016, the group released their debut single "Taking You", a track from their debut EP, Only the Beginning, which was released on November 25 of the same year. Their second EP, Something Different, was released on April 21, 2017. Its title track was released as the lead single the same day. They released their third EP, Why Don't We Just, on June 2, 2017.[citation needed] They finished their "Something Different" tour around the United States. Another single, "These Girls" was released on August 29, 2017.
They have appeared in vlogs from YouTuber and friend, Logan Paul.[citation needed] The band has currently been working with YouTube vlogger and friend, Logan Paul. Logan has currently directed three music videos for Why Don't We, one involving their collaboration "Help Me Help You." The band has made various appearances on Logan Paul's daily vlogs. They have also helped Logan Paul on a diss track about Jake Paul called "The Fall of Jake Paul". On November 23, 2017, they released a holiday EP called A Why Don’t We Christmas.
Discography
Extended plays
List of extended plays, with selected details, chart positions and sales
Title
Extended play details
Peaks
US
[2]
US
Heat
[3]
NZ
Heat
[4]
Only the Beginning
Released: November 25, 2016
Label: Signature
Format: Digital download
— — —
Something Different
Released: April 21, 2017
Label: Signature
Format: Digital download
— 6 —
Why Don't We Just
Released: June 2, 2017
Label: Signature
Format: Digital download
— 1 —
Invitation[5]
Released: September 26, 2017
Label: Signature
Format: Digital download
113 2 7
A Why Don't We Christmas[6]
Released: November 23, 2017
Label: Signature
Format: Digital download
— — —
"—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
Singles
As lead artist
List of singles as lead artist, with selected chart positions, showing year released and album
Title
Year
Peak chart positions
Album
US
Bub.
[7]
US
Pop
[8]
CAN
[9]
"Taking You"
2016 — — — Only the Beginning
"Nobody Gotta Know"
— — —
"Just to See You Smile"
— — —
"Free"
— — —
"You and Me at Christmas"
— — — Non-album single
"Something Different"
2017 22 33 — Something Different
"Why Don't We Just"
— — — Why Don't We Just
"These Girls"
4 — 82 Non-album single
"Trust Fund Baby"[10]
2018 20 30 — TBA
As a featured artist
Title
Year
Peak chart positions
Album
US
Bub.
[7]
AUS
[11]
"Help Me Help You"
(Logan Paul featuring Why Don't We)
2017 5 90 Non-album single
Promotional singles
Title
Year
Album
"The Fall of Jake Paul"
(Logan Paul featuring
Why Don't We)
2017 Non-album single
Music videos
Song
Year
Other artist(s)
Director
Ref
"Taking You"
2016 None Steven Taylor [12]
"Nobody Gotta Know"
2017 Logan Paul [13]
"Something Different"
[14]
"Help Me Help You"
Logan Paul [15]
"The Fall of Jake Paul"
Sebastian A. Guerra [16]
"These Girls"
None Eli Sokhn & Logan Paul [17]
"Trust Fund Baby"
2018 Jason Koenig [18]
References
Jump up ^ "Why Don't We • Our First Day As A Band". YouTube. Retrieved September 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Why Don't We Chart History: Billboard 200". Billboard. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Why Don't We Chart History: Heatseekers". Billboard. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "NZ Heatseekers Albums Chart". Recorded Music NZ. October 2, 2017. Retrieved September 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Invitation – EP by Why Don't We on iTunes". iTunes Store (US). Retrieved September 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "A Why Don't We Christmas – EP by Why Don't We on iTunes". iTunes Store (US). Retrieved November 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Why Don't We – Chart search on Billboard.biz". Billboard. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Why Don't We – Chart History: Pop Songs". Billboard. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Why Don't We – Chart History: Canadian Hot 100". Billboard. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Trust Fund Baby – Single by Why Don't We on Apple Music". iTunes. Retrieved February 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Chart Watch #424". auspOp. June 10, 2017. Retrieved June 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Taking You' Official Music Video • Why Don't We". YouTube. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Nobody Gotta Know – Why Don't We [Official Music Video]". YouTube. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Something Different – Why Don't We [Official Music Video]". YouTube. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Logan Paul – Help Me Help You ft. Why Don't We [Official Video]". YouTube. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Fall Of Jake Paul Feat. Why Don't We (Official Video) #TheSecondVerse". YouTube. Retrieved June 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "These Girls – Why Don't We [Official Music Video]". YouTube. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Trust Fund Baby - Why Don't We [Official Music Video]". YouTube. Atlantic Records. Archived from the original on March 2, 2018. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
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Cocoa bean
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses of "Cacao", see Cacao (disambiguation).
Pods at various stages of ripening
The cocoa bean, also called cacao bean,[1] cocoa (/ˈkoʊ.koʊ/), and cacao (/kəˈkaʊ/), is the dried and fully fermented seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and, because of the seed's fat, cocoa butter can be extracted.[2] The beans are the basis of chocolate, and of such Mesoamerican foods as mole and tejate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Varieties
4 Production
4.1 Harvesting
4.2 Harvest processing
4.3 World production
4.4 Child slavery
4.4.1 Attempt at reform
5 Cocoa trading
5.1 Fair trade
5.2 Consumption
6 Chocolate production
7 Health benefits
8 Environmental impact
8.1 Agroforestry
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Etymology[edit]
Aztec sculpture with cocoa pod
The word "cocoa" comes from the Spanish word cacao, which is derived from the Nahuatl word cacahuatl.[3][4] The Nahuatl word, in turn, ultimately derives from the reconstructed Proto Mije-Sokean word *kakaw~*kakawa.[5]
The term cocoa also means
the drink that also is commonly called hot chocolate[6]
cocoa powder, which is the dry powder made by grinding cocoa seeds and removing the cocoa butter from the cocoa solids, which are dark and bitter
a mixture of cocoa powder and cocoa butter[7][8]
History[edit]
The cacao tree is native to the Americas. It originated in Central America and parts of Mexico. More than 5,000 years ago, it was consumed by pre-Columbian cultures along the Yucatán, including the Mayans, and as far back as Olmeca civilization in spiritual ceremonies. It also grows in the foothills of the Andes in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America, in Colombia and Venezuela. Wild cacao still grows there. Its range may have been larger in the past; evidence of its wild range may be obscured by cultivation of the tree in these areas since long before the Spanish arrived. New chemical analysis of residue extracted from pottery excavated at an archaeological site at Puerto Escondido, in Honduras, indicates that cocoa products were first consumed there sometime between 1500 and 1400 BC. Evidence also indicates that, long before the flavor of the cacao seed (or bean) became popular, the sweet pulp of the chocolate fruit, used in making a fermented (5% alcohol) beverage, first drew attention to the plant in the Americas.[9] The cocoa bean was a common currency throughout Mesoamerica before the Spanish conquest.[10]
Cacao trees grow in a limited geographical zone, of about 20° to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world crop today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its botanical name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom, where he called it Theobroma ("food of the gods") cacao.
Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. A Spanish soldier who was part of the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés tells that when Moctezuma II, emperor of the Aztecs, dined, he took no other beverage than chocolate, served in a golden goblet. Flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. No fewer than 60 portions each day reportedly may have been consumed by Moctezuma II, and 2,000 more by the nobles of his court.[11]
Chocolate was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by the mid-17th century.[12] Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines.[13] It was also introduced into the rest of Asia and into West Africa by Europeans. In the Gold Coast, modern Ghana, cacao was introduced by a Ghanaian, Tetteh Quarshie.
Varieties[edit]
Three main varieties of cocoa: Criollo, Trinitario and Forastero
The three main varieties of cocoa plant are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario. The first is the most widely used, comprising 80-90% of the world production of cocoa. Cocoa beans of the Criollo variety are rarer and considered a delicacy.[14][15] Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela (Chuao and Porcelana). Trinitario (from Trinidad) is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties. It is considered to be of much higher quality than Forastero, has higher yields, and is more resistant to disease than Criollo.[15]
Production[edit]
Cocoa beans in a freshly cut cocoa pod
A cocoa pod (fruit) has a rough, leathery rind about 2 to 3 cm (0.79 to 1.18 in) thick (this varies with the origin and variety of pod) filled with sweet, mucilaginous pulp (called baba de cacao in South America) with a lemonade-like taste enclosing 30 to 50 large seeds that are fairly soft and a pale lavender to dark brownish purple color.
During harvest, the pods are opened, the seeds are kept, and the empty pods are discarded. The seeds are placed where they can ferment. Due to heat buildup in the fermentation process, cacao beans lose most of the purplish hue and become mostly brown in color, with an adhered skin which includes the dried remains of the fruity pulp. This skin is released easily after roasting by winnowing. White seeds are found in some rare varieties, usually mixed with purples, and are considered of higher value.[16][17][18]
Harvesting[edit]
Cocoa trees grow in hot, rainy tropical areas within 20° of latitude from the Equator.[19] Cocoa harvest is not restricted to one period per year and a harvest typically occurs over several months. In fact, in many countries, cocoa can be harvested at any time of the year.[20] Pesticides are often applied to the trees to combat capsid bugs, and fungicides to fight black pod disease.[21]
Immature cocoa pods have a variety of colours, but most often are green, red, or purple, and as they mature, their colour tends towards yellow or orange, particularly in the creases.[20][22] Unlike most fruiting trees, the cacao pod grows directly from the trunk or large branch of a tree rather than from the end of a branch, similar to jackfruit. This makes harvesting by hand easier as most of the pods will not be up in the higher branches. The pods on a tree do not ripen together; harvesting needs to be done periodically through the year.[20] Harvesting occurs between three and four times weekly during the harvest season.[20] The ripe and near-ripe pods, as judged by their colour, are harvested from the trunk and branches of the cocoa tree with a curved knife on a long pole. Care must be used when cutting the stem of the pod to avoid damaging the junction of the stem with the tree, as this is where future flowers and pods will emerge.[20][23] One person can harvest an estimated 650 pods per day.[21][24]
Harvest processing[edit]
"Dancing the cocoa", El Cidros, Trinidad, c. 1957
The harvested pods are opened, typically with a machete, to expose the beans.[20][21] The pulp and cocoa seeds are removed and the rind is discarded. The pulp and seeds are then piled in heaps, placed in bins, or laid out on grates for several days. During this time, the seeds and pulp undergo "sweating", where the thick pulp liquefies as it ferments. The fermented pulp trickles away, leaving cocoa seeds behind to be collected. Sweating is important[25] for the quality of the beans, which originally have a strong, bitter taste. If sweating is interrupted, the resulting cocoa may be ruined; if underdone, the cocoa seed maintains a flavor similar to raw potatoes and becomes susceptible to mildew. Some cocoa-producing countries distill alcoholic spirits using the liquefied pulp.[26]
A typical pod contains 20 to 50 beans[19] and about 400 dried beans are required to make one pound (880 per kilogram) of chocolate.[19] Cocoa pods weigh an average of 400 g (14 oz) and each one yields 35 to 40 g (1.2 to 1.4 oz) dried beans; this yield is 40–44% of the total weight in the pod.[21] One person can separate the beans from about 2000 pods per day.[21][24]
Cocoa beans drying in the sun
The wet beans are then transported to a facility so they can be fermented and dried.[21] They are fermented for four to seven days and must be mixed every two days.[21][24] They are dried for five to 14 days, depending on the climate conditions.[21][24] The fermented beans are dried by spreading them out over a large surface and constantly raking them. In large plantations, this is done on huge trays under the sun or by using artificial heat. Small plantations may dry their harvest on little trays or on cowhides. Finally, the beans are trodden and shuffled about (often using bare human feet) and sometimes, during this process, red clay mixed with water is sprinkled over the beans to obtain a finer color, polish, and protection against molds during shipment to factories in the United States, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and other countries. Drying in the sun is preferable to drying by artificial means, as no extraneous flavors such as smoke or oil are introduced which might otherwise taint the flavor.
The beans should be dry for shipment (usually by sea). Traditionally exported in jute bags, over the last decade, beans are increasingly shipped in "mega-bulk" parcels of several thousand tonnes at a time on ships, or in smaller lots around 25 tonnes in 20-ft containers. Shipping in bulk significantly reduces handling costs; shipment in bags, however, either in a ship's hold or in containers, is still common.
Throughout Mesoamerica where they are native, cocoa beans are used for a variety of foods. The harvested and fermented beans may be ground to-order at tiendas de chocolate, or chocolate mills. At these mills, the cocoa can be mixed with a variety of ingredients such as cinnamon, chili peppers, almonds, vanilla, and other spices to create drinking chocolate.[27] The ground cocoa is also an important ingredient in tejate and a number of savory foods, such as mole.
World production[edit]
Top cocoa bean producers
in 2013
(million metric tons)
Ivory Coast 1.448
Ghana 0.835
Indonesia 0.777
Nigeria 0.367
Cameroon 0.275
Brazil 0.256
Ecuador 0.128
Mexico 0.082
Peru 0.071
Dominican Republic 0.068
World total 4.585
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation
(FAO)[1]
Nearly 4,600,000 tonnes (4,500,000 long tons; 5,100,000 short tons) of cocoa are produced annually.
Cocoa bean output in 2012
The historical global production was :
1974: 1,556,484 tons,
1984: 1,810,611 tons,
1994: 2,672,173 tons,
2004: 3,607,052 tons,
2013: 4,585,552 tons.[28]
The production increased by 194.6% in 39 years, representing a compound annual growth rate of 2.81%.
About 4.585 million tonnes of cocoa beans were produced in the 2013–2014 growing year,[19] which runs from October to September.[29] Of this total, African nations produced 3.014 million tonnes (65.75%), Asia and Oceania produced 0.849 million tonnes (18.52%), and the Americas produced 0.721 million tonnes (15.73%).[19] Two African nations, Ivory Coast and Ghana, produce almost half of the world's cocoa, with 1.448 and 0.835 million tonnes, respectively (31.6% and 18.22%, respectively).[19]
Child slavery[edit]
Main articles: Children in cocoa production and Harkin–Engel Protocol
The first allegations that child slavery is used in cocoa production appeared in 1998.[30] In late 2000, a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa in West Africa.[30][31][32] Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa.[33][34]
According to a report by the International Labour Organization (ILO), in 2002, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms in Ivory Coast, some of them in "the worst forms of child labour".[35] The ILO later reported that 200,000 children were working in the cocoa industry in Ivory Coast in 2005.[36] The 2005 ILO report failed to fully characterize this problem, but estimated that up to 6% of the 200,000 children involved in cocoa production could be victims of human trafficking or slavery.[36] In the harvest seasons of 2008/09 and 2013/14, Tulane University did researches on child labor in the West African cocoa sector.
The results indicate that child labour is growing in some West African countries. In 2008/09, it was estimated that there were around 819,921 children working on cocoa farms in Ivory Coast alone; by the year 2013/14 the number went up to 1,303,009. During the same period in Ghana, the estimated number of children working on cocoa farms decreased from 997,357 to 957,398 children.[37]
Attempt at reform[edit]
The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking.[38] The Harkin–Engel Protocol is an effort to end these practices.[39] It was signed and witnessed by the heads of eight major chocolate companies, US Senators Tom Harkin and Herb Kohl, US Representative Eliot Engel, the ambassador of the Ivory Coast, the director of the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labor, and others.[39] It has, however, been criticized by some groups including the International Labor Rights Forum as an industry initiative which falls short.[40][41][42]
Cocoa trading[edit]
Cocoa beans from Ghana are traditionally shipped and stored in burlap sacks, in which the beans are susceptible to pest attacks.[43] Fumigation with methyl bromide was to be phased out globally by 2015. Additional cocoa protection techniques for shipping and storage include the application of pyrenoids as well as hermetic storage in sealed bags or containers with lowered oxygen concentrations.[44] Safe long-term storage facilitates the trading of cocoa products at commodity exchanges.
Cocoa beans, cocoa butter and cocoa powder are traded on two world exchanges: ICE Futures U.S. and NYSE Liffe Futures and Options. The London market is based on West African cocoa and New York on cocoa predominantly from Southeast Asia. Cocoa is the world's smallest soft commodity market.
The future price of cocoa butter and cocoa powder is determined by multiplying the bean price by a ratio. The combined butter and powder ratio has tended to be around 3.5. If the combined ratio falls below 3.2 or so, production ceases to be economically viable and some factories cease extraction of butter and powder and trade exclusively in cocoa liquor.
Fair trade[edit]
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Fair trade in cocoa is an important point in the cocoa industry. Customers are more interested in fairly traded goods. Many will investigate in fair trade now to improve the conditions of farmers on cocoa plants. In 2016 it was reported that the chocolate producer Ferrero will further invest in fair trade; the plan is to double the amount of cocoa originating from fair trade in the upcoming 3 years. Ferrero wants to invest in 40.000 MT of fair trade cocoa till 2020.[45]
Fair trade cocoa producer groups are established in Belize, Bolivia, Cameroon, the Congo,[46] Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic,[47] Ecuador, Ghana, Haiti, India, Ivory Coast, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Sierra Leone, and São Tomé and Príncipe.
The criollo cacao beans from Chuao in Aragua, Venezuela, are widely regarded as some of the finest in the world fairs. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from said region were awarded an appellation of origin under the title "Cacao de Chuao" (from Spanish-cacao of Chuao)[48] effectively making this one of the most expensive and sought-after types of cacao.
As of 2014, less than 1% of the chocolate market was fair trade.[49] Cadbury, one of the world's largest chocolate companies, has begun certifying its Dairy Milk bars as fair trade; according to Cadbury, in 2010 "around one quarter of ... global sales" of these bars will be fair trade.[50] In 2007, the United States imported approximately 1.95 million pounds of fairly traded cocoa.[51]
In order to purpose a sustainable and responsible coffee-production, established 1997 the Dutch coffee roaster Ahold Coffee Company in cooperation with coffeefarmers, the UTZ Certified-programme. To achieve this, they created the utz-certificate, which includes the counteracting against child labor and the exploitation of the workers. To receive this certificate, the included farm/company needs to follow a code of conduct in relation to social and environmental friendly factors. Furthermore, the UTZ-program focuses on an improvement of farming methods to increase the profits and salaries of farmers and distributors on site.[52]
UTZ Code of Conduct:
Children younger than 15 are not employed in any form.
Children younger than 18 do not conduct heavy or hazardous work, or any that could jeopardize their physical, mental or moral well-being.
On small scale/family run farms, children are allowed to help their families, but only if: the work does not interfere with schooling; it’s not physically demanding or hazardous; an adult relative always accompanies the child.
No forced, bonded or trafficked labor is allowed in any shape or form.[52]
Dutch investigative reporter Teun van de Keuken started a new chocolate company in 2005 called Tony's Chocolonely wholly dedicated to slave free and fair trade chocolate when his research unveiled the poor state of fair trade among companies that had previously signed the Harkin–Engel protocol.
Cocoa Life Program: FLO-Cert, a company established in 1997, which is working for the improvement of labelled Fairtrade and Mondelēz International, the third greatest food producer in the world, launched in 2012 the Cocoa Life Program. Because the conditions for cocoa farmers haven't changed much in the past 50 years, it is necessary to improve the supply chain. The Cocoa Life Program invests $400m in its cocoa supply chain over the next ten years. Approximately $100m of the money will be spent for the cocoa supply chain in Ivory Coast. This will improve the life of about 75,000 farmers. Furthermore, $100m will be spent to Ghana and the remaining $200m will be shared between Brazil, Dominican Republic and India. The company is not only investigating in the purchase of certificated cocoa, but focus more on the direct investment in the cocoa supply chain. The long-term goal of the Cocoa Life Program are: higher incomes for farmers, authorization, inspiring young people and conserving the environment.[53][54]
Consumption[edit]
People around the world enjoy cocoa in many different forms, consuming more than 3 million tons of cocoa beans yearly. Every consumer has a unique taste and preferences of the end product. Once the cocoa beans have been harvested, fermented, dried and transported they are processed in several components. Processor grindings serve as the main metric for market analysis. Processing is the last phase in which consumption of the cocoa bean can be equitably compared to supply. After this step all the different components are sold across industries to many manufacturers of different types of products.
Global market share for processing has remained stable, even as grindings increase to meet demand. One of the largest processing country by volume is the Netherlands, handling around 13% of global grindings. Europe and Russia as a whole handle about 38% of the processing market. Average year after year demand growth has been just over 3% since 2008. While Europe and North America are relatively stable markets, increasing household income in developing countries is the main reason of the stable demand growth. As demand is awaited to keep growing, supply growth may slow down due to changing weather conditions in the largest cocoa production areas.[55]
Chocolate production[edit]
Main article: Chocolate Production
Chocolate
To make 1 kg (2.2 lb) of chocolate, about 300 to 600 beans are processed, depending on the desired cocoa content. In a factory, the beans are roasted. Next, they are cracked and then deshelled by a "winnower". The resulting pieces of beans are called nibs. They are sometimes sold in small packages at specialty stores and markets to be used in cooking, snacking, and chocolate dishes. Since nibs are directly from the cocoa tree, they contain high amounts of theobromine. Most nibs are ground, using various methods, into a thick, creamy paste, known as chocolate liquor or cocoa paste. This "liquor" is then further processed into chocolate by mixing in (more) cocoa butter and sugar (and sometimes vanilla and lecithin as an emulsifier), and then refined, conched and tempered. Alternatively, it can be separated into cocoa powder and cocoa butter using a hydraulic press or the Broma process. This process produces around 50% cocoa butter and 50% cocoa powder. Standard[clarification needed] cocoa powder has a fat content around 10–12%.[dubious – discuss] Cocoa butter is used in chocolate bar manufacture, other confectionery, soaps, and cosmetics.
Treating with alkali produces Dutch-process cocoa powder, which is less acidic, darker, and more mellow in flavor than what is generally available in most of the world. Regular (nonalkalized) cocoa is acidic, so when cocoa is treated with an alkaline ingredient, generally potassium carbonate, the pH increases.[56] This process can be done at various stages during manufacturing, including during nib treatment, liquor treatment, or press cake treatment.
Another process that helps develop the flavor is roasting, which can be done on the whole bean before shelling or on the nib after shelling. The time and temperature of the roast affect the result: A "low roast" produces a more acid, aromatic flavor, while a high roast gives a more intense, bitter flavor lacking complex flavor notes.[57]
Health benefits[edit]
A roasted cocoa bean, the papery skin rubbed loose
Press cake of cocoa paste
In general, cocoa is considered to be a rich source of antioxidants such as procyanidins and flavanoids, which may impart antiaging properties.[2][58] Cocoa also contain a high level of flavonoids, specifically epicatechin, which may have beneficial effects on cardiovascular health.[59][60][61] Cocoa is a stimulant and contains the compounds theobromine and caffeine. The beans contain between 0.1% and 0.7% caffeine, whereas dry coffee beans are about 1.2% caffeine.[62]
The stimulant activity of cocoa comes from the compound theobromine which is less diuretic as compared to theophylline found in tea.[2] Prolonged intake of flavanol-rich cocoa has been linked to cardiovascular health benefits,[59][60][63] though this refers to raw cocoa and to a lesser extent, dark chocolate, since flavonoids degrade during cooking and alkalizing processes.[64] Short-term benefits in LDL cholesterol levels from dark chocolate consumption have been found.[65] The addition of whole milk to milk chocolate reduces the overall cocoa content per ounce while increasing saturated fat levels.[citation needed] Although one study[66] has concluded that milk impairs the absorption of polyphenolic flavonoids, e.g. epicatechin, a followup[67] failed to find the effect.
Hollenberg and colleagues of Harvard Medical School studied the effects of cocoa and flavanols on Panama's Kuna people, who are heavy consumers of cocoa. The researchers found that the Kuna people living on the islands had significantly lower rates of heart disease and cancer compared to those on the mainland who do not drink cocoa as on the islands. It is believed that the improved blood flow after consumption of flavanol-rich cocoa may help to achieve health benefits in hearts and other organs. In particular, the benefits may extend to the brain and have important implications for learning and memory.[68][69][70][71]
Foods rich in cocoa appear to reduce blood pressure according to an analysis of previously published research in the April 9, 2007 issue of Archives of Internal Medicine.[59][72]
A 15-year study of elderly men[73] published in the Archives of Internal Medicine in 2006 found a 50 percent reduction in cardiovascular mortality and a 47 percent reduction in all-cause mortality for the men regularly consuming the most cocoa, compared to those consuming the least cocoa from all sources.
Environmental impact[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of cocoa production
The relative poverty of many cocoa farmers means that environmental consequences such as deforestation are given little significance. For decades, cocoa farmers have encroached on virgin forest, mostly after the felling of trees by logging companies. This trend has decreased as many governments and communities are beginning to protect their remaining forested zones.[citation needed] In general, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides by cocoa farmers is limited. When cocoa bean prices are high, farmers may invest in their crops, leading to higher yields which, in turn tends to result in lower market prices and a renewed period of lower investment.
Cocoa production is likely to be affected in various ways by the expected effects of global warming. Specific concerns have been raised concerning its future as a cash crop in West Africa, the current centre of global cocoa production. If temperatures continue to rise, West Africa could simply become unfit to grow the beans.[74][75]
Cacao beans also have a potential to be used as a bedding material in farms for cows. Using cacao bean husks in bedding material for cows had beneficial effects on udder health (results in less bacterial growth) and ammonia levels (less ammonia levels on bedding).[76]
Agroforestry[edit]
Cocoa beans may be cultivated under shaded conditions, e.g. agroforestry. Agroforestry can reduce the pressure on existing protected forests for resources, such as firewood, and conserve biodiversity.[77] Agroforests act as buffers to formally protected forests and biodiversity island refuges in an open, human-dominated landscape. Research of their shade-grown coffee counterparts has shown that greater canopy cover in plots is significantly associated to greater mammal species richness and abundance.[78] The amount of diversity in tree species is fairly comparable between shade-grown cocoa plots and primary forests.[79] Farmers can grow a variety of fruit-bearing shade trees to supplement their income to help cope with the volatile cocoa prices.[80] Though cocoa has been adapted to grow under a dense rainforest canopy, agroforestry does not significantly further enhance cocoa productivity.[81]
See also[edit]
Cash crop
Catechin and epicatechin, flavonoids present in cocoa
Coenraad Johannes van Houten for Dutch process
Domingo Ghirardelli
Ghana Cocoa Board
International CoCoa Farmers Organization
Nacional (cocoa bean)
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cocoa beans.
International Cocoa Organization (ICCO)
International CoCoa Farmers Organization (ICCFO)[permanent dead link]
Roundtable for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy (RSCE) - working with all stakeholders from the cocoa economy towards a world cocoa economy that is economically viable, ecologically sound and socially acceptable
Harvard Study on Medical Aspects of Cocoa
Cocoa Producers' Alliance (COPAL)
Upcocoa project in Cameroon - A multi-stakeholder initiative on upgrading the capacities of cocoa farmers and their organisations.
Articles on cocoa trade at the Agritrade web site.
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Chocolate
Overview
Outline
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Theobroma
Theobroma cacao
Theobroma grandiflorum
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GND: 4307580-0
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cocoa_bean&oldid=816045530"
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