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Irrigation in India
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An irrigation canal in Gujarat. Irrigation contributes significantly to the agriculture in India.
Polavaram Project Right Canal in Andhra Pradesh
Irrigation in India includes a network of major and minor canals from Indian rivers, groundwater well based systems, tanks, and other rainwater harvesting projects for agricultural activities. Of these groundwater system is the largest.[1] In 2013-14, only about 47.7% of total agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated.[2] The largest canal in India is Indira Gandhi Canal, which is about 650 km long. About 2/3rd cultivated land in India is dependent on monsoons.[3] Irrigation in India helps improve food security, reduce dependence on monsoons, improve agricultural productivity and create rural job opportunities. Dams used for irrigation projects help produce electricity and transport facilities, as well as provide drinking water supplies to a growing population, control floods and prevent droughts.[4]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Ancient India
1.2 Islamic era
1.3 Colonial era
2 Irrigation trends since 1947
3 Statewise irrigation types, capacity and actual
4 Project classification
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Ancient India[edit]
The earliest mentions of irrigation are found in Rigveda chapters 1.55, 1.85, 1.105, 7.9, 8.69 and 10.101.[5] The Veda mentions only well-style irrigation,[6] where kupa and avata wells once dug are stated to be always full of water, from which varatra (rope strap) and cakra (wheel) pull kosa (pails) of water. This water was, state the Vedas, led into surmi susira (broad channels) and from there into khanitrima (diverting channels) into fields.[5]
Later, the 4th-century BCE Indian scholar Pāṇini, mentions tapping several rivers for irrigation.[5][7] The mentioned rivers include Sindhu, Suvastu, Varnu, Sarayu, Vipas and Chandrabhaga.[5] Buddhist texts from the 3rd century BCE also mention irrigation of crops.[6] Texts from the Maurya Empire era (3rd century BCE) mention that the state raised revenue from charging farmers for irrigation services from rivers.[5][8]
Patanjali, in Yogasutra of about the 4th century CE, explains a technique of yoga by comparing it to "the way a farmer diverts a stream from an irrigation canal for irrigation".[9][10] In Tamil Nadu, the Grand Anicut (canal) across the Kaveri river was implemented in the 3rd century CE, and the basic design is still used today.[8]
Islamic era[edit]
Waterworks were undertaken during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era from the 12th to 18th centuries. However, these were primarily to supply water to the palaces and parks of the sultans and other officials.[11]
Colonial era[edit]
Ganges irrigation canal built during the colonial era, and inaugurated in 1854.
In 1800, some 800,000 hectares was irrigated in India.[8] The British Raj by 1940 built significant number of canals and irrigation systems in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,[12] Punjab, Assam and Orissa.[13][14][15] The Ganges Canal reached 350 miles from Haridwar to Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. In Assam, a jungle in 1840, by 1900 had 4,000,000 acres under cultivation, especially in tea plantations. In all, the amount of irrigated land multiplied by a factor of eight. Historian David Gilmour states British colonial government had built irrigation network with Ganges canal and that, "by the end of the century the new network of canals in the Punjab" were in place.[16]
Much of the increase in irrigation during British colonial era was targeted at dedicated poppy and opium farms in India, for exports to China.[17][18][19] Poppy cultivation by the British Raj required reliable, dedicated irrigation system.[20] Large portions of the eastern and northern regions of India, namely United Provinces, Northwestern Provinces, Oudh, Behar, Bengal and Rewa were irrigated to ensure reliable supply of poppy and opium for China.[21] By 1850, the Asian opium trade created nearly 1,000 square kilometers of poppy farms in India in its fertile Ganges plains, which increased to over 500,000 acres by 1900.[21] This diversion of food crop land to cash crop use, state scholars, led to massive famines over the 1850 to 1905 period.[22][23]
Major irrigation canals were built after millions of people died each in a series of major famines in the 19th century in British India.[8][23] In 1900, British India (including Bangladesh and Pakistan) had about 13 million ha under irrigation. In 1901 the Viceroy, Lord Curzon, appointed a Commission chaired by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff to draw up a comprehensive irrigation plan for India. In 1903 the Commission's report recommended irrigation of an additional 2.6 million hectares.[24][25] By 1947, the irrigated area had increased to about 22 million ha.[8] In Northwestern British India region alone, with the colonial government's effort, 2.2 million hectares of previously barren land was irrigated by 1940s, most of which is now part of Pakistan.[26] Arthur Cotton led some irrigation canal projects in the Deccan peninsula, and landmarks are named after him in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. However, much of the added irrigation capacity during the colonial era was provided by groundwater wells and tanks, operated manually.[27]
Irrigation trends since 1947[edit]
One of the sections of Bhakra Canal system in north India. This canal network irrigates over 4 million hectares of land.[28]
India's irrigation covered crop area was about 22.6 million hectares in 1951, and it increased to a potential of 90 mha at the end of 1995, inclusive of canals and groundwater wells.[29] However, the potential irrigation relies of reliable supply of electricity for water pumps and maintenance, and the net irrigated land has been considerably short. According to 2001/2002 Agriculture census, only 58.1 million hectares of land was actually irrigated in India.[30] The total arable land in India is 160 million hectares (395 million acres). According to the World Bank, only about 35% of total agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated in 2010.[2]
The ultimate sustainable irrigation potential of India has been estimated in a 1991 United Nations' FAO report to be 139.5 million hectares, comprising 58.5 mha from major and medium river-fed irrigation canal schemes, 15 mha from minor irrigation canal schemes, and 66 mha from groundwater well fed irrigation.[29]
India's irrigation is mostly groundwater well based. At 39 million hectares (67% of its total irrigation), India has the world's largest groundwater well equipped irrigation system (China with 19 mha is second, USA with 17 mha is third).[1]
India has spent ₹ 16,590 crore on irrigation development between 1950 and 1985. Between 2000-2005 and 2005-2010, India proposed to invest a sum of ₹ 1,03,315 crore and 2,10,326 crore on irrigation and flood control in India.[31]
Statewise irrigation types, capacity and actual[edit]
State
Total crop area
(million hectares)
Groundwater irrigation
crop area
(million hectares)
Canal irrigation
crop area
(million hectares)
Total crop area
actually irrigated
(million hectares)
Andhra Pradesh 14.3 2.5 2.7 4.9
Arunachal Pradesh 0.4 0.07 0.05
Assam 3.0 0.13 0.1 0.22
Bihar 6.4 2.2 1.3 3.5
Chhattisgarh 5.1 0.17 0.74 0.85
Goa 0.1 0.1 0.1
Gujarat 9.9 3.1 0.5 3.2
Haryana 3.6 1.99 1.32 3.26
Himachal Pradesh 1.0 0.02 0.09 0.11
Jammu & Kashmir 0.9 0.02 0.38 0.37
Jharkhand 3.2 0.11 0.13 0.24
Karnataka 12.2 1.43 1.33 2.38
Kerala 1.5 0.18 0.21 0.39
Madhya Pradesh 15.8 2.74 1.70 4.19
Maharashtra 19.8 3.12 1.03 3.36
Manipur 0.2 0.05 0.05
Meghalaya 0.3 0.06 0.06
Mizoram 0.1 0.01 0.01
Nagaland 1.1 0.1 0.07
Odisha 4.9 0.17 1.07 1.24
Punjab 4.0 3.06 0.94 3.96
Rajasthan 21.1 3.98 1.52 5.12
Sikkim 0.1 0.01 0.01
Tamil Nadu 6.5 1.61 1.43 2.66
Tripura 0.3 0.02 0.05 0.07
Uttar Pradesh 17.6 10.64 4.21 14.49
Uttarakhand 0.8 0.22 0.14 0.35
West Bengal 5.5 2.09 1.22 2.98
All India 159.6 39.43 22.48 58.13
Note: The all India total includes land area for Union Territories of India that is not shown in the above table.
Project classification[edit]
An irrigation canal in western Rajasthan.
Irrigation Projects in India are classified on three major aspects into:[citation needed]
1. Minor Irrigation Projects
2. Medium Irrigation Projects
3. Major Irrigation Projects
Since 1950, irrigation works were classified on the basis of cost incurred for the projects' implementation, governing and dissemination. However, the Planning Commission of India adopted the classification of projects on the basis of culturable command area (CCA).
See also[edit]
Agriculture and Agronomy portal
Agriculture in India
Animal husbandry in India
Electricity sector in India
Farmers' suicides in India
Forestry in India
Indian Rivers Inter-link
Rural roads and infrastructure in India
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b S. Siebert et al (2010), Groundwater use for irrigation – a global inventory, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, pp. 1863–1880
^ Jump up to: a b Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land) The World Bank (2013)
Jump up ^ Economic Times: How to solve the problems of India's rain-dependent on agricultural land
Jump up ^ National Water Development Agency Ministry of Water Resources, Govt of India (2014)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e BN Puri, IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY IN ANCIENT INDIA, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 48/49 (1968), pp. 383-390
^ Jump up to: a b Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5.
Jump up ^ Gopal, Lallanji (2008). History of agriculture in India, up to c. 1200 A.D. p. 762. ISBN 978-81-8069-521-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e India - History of Irrigation FAO - United Nations (2014)
Jump up ^ White, David (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: a biography. Princeton University Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.
Jump up ^ Patañjali (Transl: Chip Hartranft) (2003). The Yoga-Sūtra of Patañjali: a new translation with commentary. Boston: Shambhala Publications. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-59030-023-7.
Jump up ^ Edward Balfour, The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, p. PA377, at Google Books
Jump up ^ Praveen Singh (2003), Colonising the Rivers: Colonial Technology, Irrigation and Flood Control in North Bihar, 1850–1950, Ph.D. thesis (Jawaharlal Nehru University), pp. 198–261
Jump up ^ Neil Charlesworth, British Rule and the Indian Economy, 1800-1914 (1981) pp 23-37
Jump up ^ Ian Stone, Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy (2002) pp 278-80
Jump up ^ for the historiography, see Rohan D’Souza, "Water in British India: the making of a ‘colonial hydrology’." History Compass (2006) 4#4 pp: 621-628. online
Jump up ^ David Gilmour (2007). The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 9.
Jump up ^ Thorner (1962), ‘Deindustrialization’ in India, 1881–1931, In: D. Thorner, and A. Thorner (Editors), Land and Labour in India, ISBN 978-8180280214
Jump up ^ T. Roy, London School of Economics, Globalization, Factor Prices and Poverty in Colonial India, Australian Economic History Review, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 73-94 (March 2007)
Jump up ^ Sarkar (1983), The colonial economy, In: S. Sarkar (Editor) Modern India: 1885–1947, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0333904251
Jump up ^ National and English Review, Volume 6, p. PA480, at Google Books, WH Allen & Co, London
^ Jump up to: a b The Parliamentary Debates, Volume 348, p. 1058, at Google Books, Hansard's, HM Government, Great Britain (14 August 1890), pp. 1054-1061
Jump up ^ Maddison, A. (1970), The historical origins of Indian poverty, PSL Quarterly Review, 23(92), pp. 31-81
^ Jump up to: a b Richard Hunt (1997), To End Poverty - The Starvation of the Periphery by the Core, Oxford, UK, ISBN 978-0952887201, pp. 145-148
Jump up ^ "Scott-Moncrieff Commission". www.britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Scott-Moncrieff, Sir Colin Campbell (1903). Report of the Indian Irrigation Commission, 1901-1903. London: H. M. Stationery Office.
Jump up ^ Jin-Bee Ooi (1983). Natural resources in tropical countries. Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-9971-69-063-2.
Jump up ^ Edward Balfour, The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia at Google Books, pp. 377-380
Jump up ^ Himachal Pradesh & Punjab - Bhakra and Gobindsagar FAO - United Nations
^ Jump up to: a b Irrigation in India FAO, United Nations
Jump up ^ Net Irrigated Area FAO, United Nations
Jump up ^ "PDF on 10th 5-Year Plan of India(2002-2007)" (PDF).
External links[edit]
Global Map of Irrigation Areas INDIA Irrigated land data by state and districts of India, FAO-United Nations and University of Bonn, Germany (2013)
Central Board of Irrigation and Power
Ministry of Water Resources Government of India
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
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Media vita in morte sumus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Media vita in morte sumus is the title and first line of a Latin antiphon, which translates as In the midst of life we are in death. It was erroneously attributed to Notker the Stammerer late in the Middle Ages, but was more probably written around 750 in France.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Latin liturgical use
3 Adaptations
3.1 German
3.2 English
3.3 Music
4 References
5 External links
Text[edit]
Media vita in morte sumus
quem quaerimus adjutorem
nisi te, Domine,
qui pro peccatis nostris
juste irasceris?

Sancte Deus,
sancte fortis,
sancte et misericors Salvator:
amarae morti ne tradas nos.
In the midst of life we are in death
of whom may we seek for succour,
but of thee, O Lord,
who for our sins
art justly displeased?

Yet, O Lord God most holy,
O Lord most mighty,
O holy and most merciful Saviour,
deliver us not into the bitter pains of eternal death.
Latin liturgical use[edit]
In the York Breviary Media vita was sung as an antiphon at Compline on the Fourth Sunday of Lent.[1] In the Sarum Breviary it was the antiphon from the Third to the Fifth Sundays of Lent.[2]
In addition to its uses in the ordinary liturgy, Media vita was sung as a hymn to ask God for aid in times of public need,[3] and sometimes even as a sort of curse. In 1455 a group of nuns in Wennigsen, resisting the attempt of the Augustinian canon Johannes Busch and Duke William of Brunswick to reform their house, "lay down on their bellies in the choir with the arms and legs stretched out in the form of a cross, and bawled all through, at the top of their voices, the anthem In the midst of life we are in death... Wherefore the Duke was afraid, and feared lest his whole land should go to ruin." Busch assured the Duke that no harm could come from the chant, so he responded to the nuns: "How were ye not afraid to sing the anthem Media Vita over me? I stretch my fingers to God's holy gospels, and swear that ye must reform yourselves, or I will not suffer you in my land."[4]
Adaptations[edit]
Popular in the Baroque period, the Latin phrase was translated into the vernacular early and has continued to circulate especially widely in German and English, in literature and in song.
German[edit]
Media vita appears in Hartmann von Aue's Middle High German narrative poem Der arme Heinrich (V.93f.).
In 1524, Martin Luther translated it as Mytten wir ym leben synd and consequently it is now in the Evangelischen Gesangbuch hymnbook as number 518, or 654 in the Gotteslob hymnbook.[5]
Later, the Bavarian 'Guglmänner' secret society used the phrase as its motto.
It is echoed in Rainer Maria Rilke's poem "Schlußstück": "Der Tod ist groß [...] Wenn wir uns mitten im Leben meinen/ wagt er zu weinen/ mitten in uns," as well as in the poem titled "Media in Vita" by Hermann Hesse.
English[edit]
The Latin phrase was translated by Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, whose English-language version became part of the burial service in the Book of Common Prayer. Cranmer's contemporary and fellow Anglican bishop Miles Coverdale wrote a poetic rendering of Luther's Mytten wir ym leben synd, beginning "In the myddest of our lyvynge."[6] Catherine Winkworth made another English version of Mytten wir ym leben synd in her Lyra Germanica: Hymns for the Sundays and Chief Festivals of the Christian Year, beginning "In the midst of life, behold."[7]
Music[edit]
The Book of Common Prayer text of 'In the Midst of Life we are in Death' has been set to music in the Booke of Common praier noted by John Merbecke[8] and in Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary by Henry Purcell
The Latin text was popularised anew by the Irish choir Anúna in a four-part harmony version, with the line of text "Juste irasceris" left out because, according to Michael McGlynn, "The particular piece of parchment I was working from was missing those lines".
"In the midst of life we are in debt etc." The Smiths – "Sweet and Tender Hooligan".
In Morte Sumus (2005) by Ignacio Segura is loosely based on the text of the antiphon, published in the album Signals & Noises by the group Delta Zero.[9][10]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Breviarium ad usum insignis Ecclesie Eboracensis. Vol. I. Surtees Society. 1880. p. 328.
Jump up ^ Procter, Francis; Wordsworth, Christopher (1879). Breviarium Ad Usum Insignis Ecclesiae Sarum. Fasciculus II.. pp. 229–230. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Digby, Kenelm Henry (1847). Mores Catholici: or, Ages of Faith. Volume 3. London: C. Dolman. p. 41. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Coulton, G. G. (1950). Five Centuries of Religion, Volume IV: The Last Days of Medieval Monachism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–124.
Jump up ^ German text of Mytten wir ym leben synd on Wikisource
Jump up ^ Pearson, George (1846). Remains of Miles Coverdale, Bishop of Exeter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 554–555.
Jump up ^ Winkworth, Catherine (1864). Lyra Germanica: Hymns for the Sundays and Chief Festivals of the Christian Year. Boston: E. P. Dutton and Company. pp. 236–237.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Common Prayer Noted (1550)". Society of Archbishop Justus. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "In Morte Sumus". Inspired by System Shock (1) game. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "In Morte Sumus". Signals & Noises album. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 2009. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
External links[edit]
Media related to Media vita in morte sumus at Wikimedia Commons
"Media vita in morte sumus", Liederkunde zum Evangelischen Gesangbuch, Google Books
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Media_vita_in_morte_sumus&oldid=773909821"
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