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FA Community Shield
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FA Community Shield
Organising body
The Football Association
Founded
1908; 109 years ago (1908)
Region
England
Number of teams
2
Current champions
Arsenal (15th title)
Most successful club(s)
Manchester United (21 titles)
Website
FA Community Shield
2017 FA Community Shield
The Football Association Community Shield (formerly the Charity Shield) is English football's annual match contested between the champions of the previous Premier League season and the holders of the FA Cup at Wembley Stadium. If the Premier League champions also won the FA Cup then the league runners-up provide the opposition. The fixture is a recognised competitive football super cup.
Organised by the Football Association, proceeds from the game are distributed to community-based initiatives and charities around the country. Revenue from the gate receipts and match programme sales is distributed to the 124 clubs who competed in The FA Cup from the First Round onwards, for onward distribution to charities and projects of their choice, while the remainder is distributed to the FA's national charity partners.[1] The fixture was first played in the 1908–09 season, replacing the Sheriff of London Charity Shield.
The current holders are Arsenal who defeated Chelsea in the 2017 match.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Rules
3 Status
4 Records
5 Venues
5.1 Permanent venues
5.2 Neutral and guest host venues
6 Winners
6.1 By year
6.2 By number of wins (clubs)
6.3 By number of wins (other)
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The Community Shield evolved from the Sheriff of London Charity Shield that had been introduced in 1898[2] as a professionals versus amateurs cup (the gentlemen and players tradition).[3] The Football Association Charity Shield, as it was known at the time, was designed to replace the Sheriff of London Charity Shield after the leading amateur clubs fell out with the FA.[4] The new format was to have the Football League First Division champions play the Southern League champions, and the first match was in 1908 between Manchester United (the First Division champions) and Queens Park Rangers (the Southern League champions). The match was drawn 1–1, so the game was replayed when Manchester United won 4–0. This is the only Charity Shield game to go to a replay. Both games were played at Stamford Bridge.[2]
The competition format varied over the years: in 1913 the Shield was contested between Amateurs and Professionals XIs, while in 1921 the Shield was contested between the Football League and FA Cup winners for the first time. The format continued to vary in the 1920s, usually along the lines of Amateurs v. Professionals, including one year (1927) where the Professionals were represented by the FA Cup holders Cardiff City and the Amateurs by the Corinthians, echoing the format of the trophy's predecessor, the Sheriff of London Charity Shield.
In 1930 the Football League winner v. FA Cup winner returned, and with a few exceptions, this format has remained to the present day. Notable exceptions include the 1950 Shield, which involved the England World Cup team against an FA team that had toured Canada that summer,[2] and the 1961 Shield, when Tottenham Hotspur became the first team of the 20th century to win the Double, and so played a Football Association XI.[5]
The game had been moved to the start of the season from 1959 onwards.[5] The question of which two teams should contest the Shield should one team win both the FA Cup and League continued to linger. In 1971, Arsenal became the second team to win the Double since the Shield's foundation, but owing to their previously arranged pre-season friendly matches, they could not take part. Leicester City were invited as Division Two champions to play FA Cup runners-up Liverpool instead and went on to win the trophy, despite having never won either the League or the FA Cup.
In 1972, league champions Derby County and FA Cup winners Leeds United both declined to take part in the Charity Shield, so Manchester City, who had finished in fourth in the First Division, and Third Division champions Aston Villa were invited to take part; Manchester City won 1–0. Despite finishing the season eleventh, City also contested the 1973 Charity Shield but lost 1-0 to Second Division champions Burnley.
In 1974 the then FA secretary, Ted Croker, created the current format with the match being played at Wembley Stadium, and being contested by the reigning League and FA Cup holders.[2]
Four drawn games in the 1980s and early 1990s resulted in each team holding the trophy for 6 months, but in 1993 penalties were re-introduced to decide drawn games.[2]
With the formation of a new top league, the FA Premier League, the Shield became a showcase match between the Premier League and FA Cup winners from the 1993 competition onwards.
In 2002, the Charity Commission found that the Football Association failed to meet its legal obligations under charity law, by failing to specify what money from ticket sales went to charity, and delaying payments to the charities nominated.[6] As a result, the competition was renamed the Community Shield.[7] Arsenal were the first winners of the renamed Community Shield with a 1–0 victory over Liverpool.[8]
In 2016, the FA's official silversmith Thomas Lyte restored and rebuilt the Football Association's original 1908 Charity Shield to mark 50 years since England beat West Germany in the 1966 FIFA World Cup.[9]
The trophy was sold at auction with the proceeds going to the Bobby Moore Fund for Cancer Research UK raising £40,000. The auction was held at The Royal Garden Hotel in Kensington, where the England team celebrated the 1966 victory. The Bobby Moore Fund became the FA's charity partner in July 2016. [10]
Rules[edit]
The rules of the Community Shield are generally the same as those for Premier League, with a team of 11 starting players and 7 substitutes. However, unlike in most other competitions where only three substitutions are permitted, teams in the Community Shield are permitted up to six substitutions. If the scores are level after 90 minutes, the teams play a penalty shootout. [11]
Status[edit]
An official honour in the English game, the Community Shield is regarded to be the first competitive game of the new English football season.[12][13] However, it has been considered by some to be a minor trophy and Community Shield games may not be as hotly contested as other trophy finals. The game has been described by some media sources, including Mark Lawrenson, as a "glorified friendly".[14][15][16] Prior to the 2008 FA Community Shield, Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson summarised his opinion of the competition: "It's always a game we never quite use as a do or die thing; we use it as a barometer for fitness".[17] On the other hand, many media, clubs and players continue to recognise the importance of the match as the first official game and trophy of the domestic season.[18][19][20] Ahead of the 2016 FA Community Shield against Manchester United, Leicester City manager Claudio Ranieri asked, "Why do you say this question, a friendly? When is the Community Shield a friendly? Of course we will be at the maximum and Manchester United will be at their maximum. The two teams want to win. I am very excited."[12] The following year, Chelsea manager Antonio Conte affirmed the significance of the cup, stating "It is not a friendly game. It is an official game and there is a trophy so for us it must be important" ahead of his side's clash with Arsenal, the team that had denied his club the double the previous season.[21]
Records[edit]
The most successful teams in the competition are Manchester United (17 outright wins, 4 shared), Arsenal (14 outright wins, 1 shared), Liverpool (10 outright wins, 5 shared) and Everton (8 outright wins, 1 shared).
The highest scoring game was Manchester United's 8–4 win against Swindon Town in 1911.[2]
Everton hold the record for most consecutive wins (4) from 1984 to 1987; however, the 1986 was shared with Liverpool. Manchester United hold the record for most consecutive losses (4) from 1998 to 2001. During this period Manchester United also held the record for most consecutive games played (6) from 1996 to 2001 in which they won 2.
Tottenham Hotspur goalkeeper Pat Jennings scored against Manchester United from his own penalty area in the 1967 Charity Shield, which was shared at 3-3.[2]
Brighton & Hove Albion are the only club to win just the Shield, never the FA Cup or the League.
Venues[edit]
Multiple guest and neutral hosts
Ground
Hosts
Years
Stamford Bridge, London 10 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1923, 1927, 1930, 1950,[2] 1955, 1970
Highbury, London 7 1924, 1934, 1935, 1938, 1948, 1949, 1953
White Hart Lane, London 6 1912, 1920, 1921, 1925, 1951, 1961
Old Trafford, Manchester 6 1922, 1928, 1952, 1957, 1965, 1967
Maine Road, Manchester 5 1926, 1937, 1956, 1968, 1973
Villa Park, Birmingham 3 1931, 1972, 2012
Goodison Park, Liverpool 3 1933, 1963, 1966
The Den, London 2 1913, 1929
Molineux, Wolverhampton 2 1954, 1959
For purposes of clarity, venues mentioned in italics in this section no longer exist.
Permanent venues[edit]
Since 1974, the Community Shield has been at a permanent home rather than guest venues.[22]
Empire Stadium (Old Wembley): 1974–2000
Millennium Stadium: 2001–2006
Wembley Stadium (New Wembley): 2007–2011, since 2013
Neutral and guest host venues[edit]
The fixture was originally played at various neutral grounds or the home ground of one of the teams competing. In total there have been seventeen host grounds other than the aforementioned permanent three. The first ground to host the fixture was Stamford Bridge in 1908 and the last ground which guest hosted the fixture was Villa Park in 2012, which was due to Wembley and the Millennium Stadium hosting the 2012 Olympics football tournament. Stadiums considered included St James' Park, and the Stadium of Light but Villa Park was chosen for the 2012 contest.[23]
There have been eight grounds which have hosted the fixture on one single occasion, these being: St James' Park in 1932, Roker Park in 1936, Burnden Park in 1958, Turf Moor in 1960, Portman Road in 1962, Anfield in 1964, Elland Road in 1969 and Filbert Street in 1971. Nine grounds have hosted the fixtures on multiple occasions.
Winners[edit]
By year[edit]
For a full list of the Shield results and scorers for each year, see List of FA Community Shield matches.
By number of wins (clubs)[edit]
[24]
The trophy
Team
Wins
(outright wins/shared titles)
Years (* title was shared)
Manchester United 21 (17/4) 1908, 1911, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1965*, 1967*, 1977*, 1983, 1990*, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016
Arsenal 15 (14/1) 1930, 1931, 1933, 1934, 1938, 1948, 1953, 1991*, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2014, 2015, 2017
Liverpool 15 (10/5) 1964*, 1965*, 1966, 1974, 1976, 1977*, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1986*, 1988, 1989, 1990*, 2001, 2006
Everton 9 (8/1) 1928, 1932, 1963, 1970, 1984, 1985, 1986*, 1987, 1995
Tottenham Hotspur 7 (4/3) 1921, 1951, 1961, 1962, 1967*, 1981*, 1991*
Chelsea 4 1955, 2000, 2005, 2009
Manchester City 4 1937, 1968, 1972, 2012
Wolverhampton Wanderers 4 (1/3) 1949*, 1954*, 1959, 1960*
Leeds United 2 1969, 1992
Burnley 2 (1/1) 1960*, 1973
West Bromwich Albion 2 (1/1) 1920, 1954*
Blackburn Rovers 1 1912
Bolton Wanderers 1 1958
Brighton & Hove Albion 1 1910
Cardiff City 1 1927
Derby County 1 1975
Huddersfield Town 1 1922
Leicester City 1 1971
Newcastle United 1 1909
Nottingham Forest 1 1978
Sheffield Wednesday 1 1935
Sunderland 1 1936
Aston Villa 1 (0/1) 1981*
Portsmouth 1 (0/1) 1949*
West Ham United 1 (0/1) 1964*
By number of wins (other)[edit]
[24]
Team
Wins
Years
English Professionals XI 4 1913, 1923, 1924, 1929
English Amateurs XI 2 1925, 1926
England 1950 FIFA World Cup XI 1 1950
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Where the money goes". The FA. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "The FA Community Shield history". The FA Cup & Competitions. The FA. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "4. THE CORINTHIAN ERA :: ISFA". www.isfa.org.uk. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Football Association Charity Shield". www.the-english-football-archive.com. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 22 May 2008. (Wayback machine)
^ Jump up to: a b Jonathan Swindlehurst (9 August 2009). "Community Shield Preview - A brief history". A different league. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Dronfield, Dylan (4 March 2002). "Charity Shield warning for FA". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "FA to rename Charity Shield". BBC Sport. 8 February 2002. Retrieved 2001-02-04.
Jump up ^ "Community Shield match details". The Football Association. 29 July 2002. Archived from the original on 15 June 2004. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Evening Standard: FA Charity Shield to be auctioned off to raise money for the Bobby Moore Fund
Jump up ^ The FA's new official charity partner is Bobby Moore Fund
Jump up ^ [1]
^ Jump up to: a b "Community Shield will not be a friendly game - Leicester's Claudio Ranieri". Espn Fc. 2015-08-03. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
Jump up ^ "Match Preview: 2016 FA Community Shield". Manutd.com. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
Jump up ^ Lawrenson, Mark (5 August 2007). "Lawro's Community Shield verdict". BBC Sport. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Bryant, Tom (9 August 2009). "Chelsea v Manchester United - Community Shield as it happened". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "Community Shield: Chelsea 2 Manchester United 2". Daily Record. 10 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "Relaxed Manchester United to take on Portsmouth at Wembley". 9 August 2008. Archived from the original on 13 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
Jump up ^ Banks, Tony. "Chelsea's John Terry rues Community Shield defeat to Arsenal". Express.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
Jump up ^ Tweedale, Alistair (2015-07-31). "Community Shield 2015: Why winning would give Chelsea or Arsenal an early edge in Premier League title race". Telegraph. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
Jump up ^ "After Arsenal's win, how often do Community/Charity Shield winners win the Premier League?". City A.M. 2014-08-11. Retrieved 2016-08-07.
Jump up ^ http://www.espnfc.com/chelsea/story/3169492/antonio-conte-chelsea-players-very-tired-following-preseason-tour-of-asia
Jump up ^ "History of the Charity Shield". BBC. 9 August 2001. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Stone, Simon (16 February 2011). "Old Trafford in pole for 2012 Community Shield". The Independent. London. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "List of Charity/Community Shield matches at RSSSF". Rsssf.com. 2015-08-06. Retrieved 2016-11-09.
External links[edit]
Official site at TheFA.com
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Aesthetics
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"Aesthetic" redirects here. For the 19th century art movement, see Aestheticism. For the cosmetology term, see Cosmetology § Esthetician. For the internet meme, see Vaporwave.
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Aesthetics (/ɛsˈθɛtɪks, iːs-/; also spelled esthetics) is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[1][2]
In its more technical epistemological perspective, it is defined as the study of subjective and sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[3] Aesthetics studies how artists imagine, create and perform works of art; how people use, enjoy, and criticize art; and what happens in their minds when they look at paintings, listen to music, or read poetry, and understand what they see and hear. It also studies how they feel about art-- why they like some works and not others, and how art can affect their moods, beliefs, and attitude toward life. [4] More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and nature".[5][6] In modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory: one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Aesthetics and the philosophy of art
3 Aesthetic judgment, universals and ethics
3.1 Aesthetic judgment
3.1.1 Factors involved in aesthetic judgment
3.2 Aesthetic universals
3.3 Aesthetic ethics
4 New Criticism and The Intentional Fallacy
5 Derivative forms of aesthetics
5.1 Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis
5.2 Recent aesthetics
5.3 Aesthetics and science
5.4 Truth in beauty and mathematics
5.5 Computational approaches
5.6 Evolutionary aesthetics
5.7 Applied aesthetics
6 Criticism
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός (aisthetikos, meaning "esthetic, sensitive, sentient, pertaining to sense perception"), which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι (aisthanomai, meaning "I perceive, feel, sense" and related to αἴσθησις (aisthēsis, "sensation").[8] The term "aesthetics" was appropriated and coined with new meaning by the German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in his dissertation Meditationes philosophicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus ("Philosophical considerations of some matters pertaining the poem") in 1735,[9] Baumgarten chose "aesthetics" because he wished to emphasize the experience of art as a means of knowing. Aesthetics, a not very tidy intellectual discipline, is a heterogeneous collection of problems that concern the arts primarily but also relate to nature. [10] even though his later definition in the fragment Aesthetica (1750) is more often referred to as the first definition of modern aesthetics.[11]
Aesthetics and the philosophy of art[edit]
Aesthetics is for the artist as Ornithology is for the birds.
—  Barnett Newman[12][13]
For some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art or an art work.
Philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an autonomous entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses (i. e. the etymology of aesthetics) and art is as such free of any moral or political purpose. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics: art as knowledge or art as action, but aesthetics is neither epistemology nor ethics.[14]
Aestheticians compare historical developments with theoretical approaches to the arts of many periods. They study the varieties of art in relation to their physical, social, and culture environments. Aestheticians also use psychology to understand how people see, hear, imagine, think, learn, and act in relation to the materials and problems of art. Aesthetic psychology studies the creative process and the aesthetic experience.[15]
Aesthetic judgment, universals and ethics[edit]
Aesthetic judgment[edit]
Judgments of aesthetic value rely on our ability to discriminate at a sensory level. Aesthetics examines our affective domain response to an object or phenomenon. Immanuel Kant, writing in 1790, observes of a man "If he says that canary wine is agreeable he is quite content if someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say instead: It is agreeable to me," because "Everyone has his own (sense of) taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere "agreeableness" because, "If he proclaims something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from others; he then judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things."
Aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination. For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely "the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition", but also our sensitivity "to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind." (Essays Moral Political and Literary. Indianapolis, Literary Classics 5, 1987.) Thus, the sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure. For Kant "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasure by engaging our capacities of reflective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once.
Viewer interpretations of beauty may on occasion be observed to possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of an education process and awareness of elite cultural values learned through exposure to mass culture. Bourdieu examined how the elite in society define the aesthetic values like taste and how varying levels of exposure to these values can result in variations by class, cultural background, and education.[16] According to Kant in his book on the Critique of Judgment, beauty is subjective and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone.[17] In the opinion of Władysław Tatarkiewicz, there are six conditions for the presentation of art: beauty, form, representation, reproduction of reality, artistic expression and innovation. However, one may not be able to pin down these qualities in a work of art.[18]
Factors involved in aesthetic judgment[edit]
Rainbows often have aesthetic appeal.
Judgments of aesthetical values seem often to involve many other kinds of issues as well. Responses such as disgust show that sensory detection is linked in instinctual ways to facial expressions, and even behaviours like the gag reflex. Yet disgust can often be a learned or cultural issue too; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in our physical reactions. For example, the awe inspired by a sublime landscape might physically manifest with an increased heart-rate or pupil dilation; physiological reaction may express or even cause the initial awe.
Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as being beautiful. Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus, judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value.[19] In a current context, one might judge a Lamborghini to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or we might judge it to be repulsive partly because it signifies for us over-consumption and offends our political or moral values.[20]
Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative. It is what a thing means or symbolizes for us that is often what we are judging. Modern aestheticians have asserted that will and desire were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed important aesthetics to some 20th-century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, "Beauty and the Critic's Judgment", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconscious behaviour, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these, depending on exactly which theory one employs.
A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. For instance, the source of a painting's beauty smacks differently from that of beautiful music, suggesting their aesthetics differ in kind.[21] The distinct inability of language to express aesthetic judgment and the role of Social construction further cloud this issue.
Aesthetic universals[edit]
The philosopher Denis Dutton identified six universal signatures in human aesthetics:[22]
Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recognize, and admire technical artistic skills.
Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and don't demand that it keep them warm or put food on the table.
Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style.
Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art.
Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of the world.
Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience.
Artists such as Hirschhorn have indicated that there are too many exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example, the installations of the contemporary artist Thomas Hirschhorn deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specific devotional functions. "Rules of composition" that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's 4′33″ do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the works' realization). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that Dutton's categories seek to universalize traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as André Malraux and others have pointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas (including the idea "art" itself) were non-existent.[23]
Aesthetic ethics[edit]
Aesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautiful and attractive. John Dewey[24] has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reflected in our understanding of behaviour being "fair"—the word having a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable. More recently, James Page[25][26] has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical rationale for peace education.
New Criticism and The Intentional Fallacy[edit]
During the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy," which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).[27]
As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic."[28] These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."[29]
Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself."[29]
Derivative forms of aesthetics[edit]
A large number of derivative forms of aesthetics have developed as contemporary and transitory forms of inquiry associated with the field of aesthetics which include the post-modern, psychoanalytic, scientific, and mathematical among others.
Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis[edit]
Example of the Dada aesthetic, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain 1917
Early-twentieth-century artists, poets and composers challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the scope of art and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism, the philosophy that reality itself is aesthetic, and that "The world, art, and self explain each other: each is the aesthetic oneness of opposites."[30][31]
Various attempts have been made to define Post-Modern Aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify "beauty" into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types, where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to comedy and the Rococo.
Croce suggested that "expression" is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickie suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities.[32] Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a "counter-environment" designed to make visible what is usually invisible about a society.[33] Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the role of the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Arthur Danto has described this reaction as "kalliphobia" (after the Greek word for beauty, κάλλος kallos).[34] André Malraux explains that the notion of beauty was connected to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance and was still dominant in the eighteenth century (but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics, which originated in the eighteenth century, mistook this transient state of affairs for a revelation of the permanent nature of art.[35] Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze and Guattari.[36] Walter Benjamin echoed Malraux in believing aesthetics was a comparatively recent invention, a view proven wrong in the late 1970s, when Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake analyzed links between beauty, information processing, and information theory. Dennis Dutton in "The Art Instinct" also proposed that an aesthetic sense was a vital evolutionary factor.
Jean-François Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlike kitsch realism, "... will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing pain."[37][38]
Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the "Uncanny" as aesthetical affect.[39] Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty,[40] Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of sublimation and the Thing.[41]
The relation of Marxist aesthetics to post-modern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate.
Recent aesthetics[edit]
Guy Sircello has pioneered efforts in analytic philosophy to develop a rigorous theory of aesthetics, focusing on the concepts of beauty,[42] love[43] and sublimity.[44] In contrast to romantic theorists Sircello argued for the objectivity of beauty and formulated a theory of love on that basis.
British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art aesthetics, Peter Osborne, makes the point that "'post-conceptual art' aesthetic does not concern a particular type of contemporary art so much as the historical-ontological condition for the production of contemporary art in general ...".[45] Osborne noted that contemporary art is 'post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered in 2010.
Gary Tedman has put forward a theory of a subjectless aesthetics derived from Karl Marx's concept of alienation, and Louis Althusser's antihumanism, using elements of Freud's group psychology, defining a concept of the 'aesthetic level of practice'.[46]
Gregory Loewen has suggested that the subject is key in the interaction with the aesthetic object. The work of art serves as a vehicle for the projection of the individual's identity into the world of objects, as well as being the irruptive source of much of what is uncanny in modern life. As well, art is used to memorialize individuated biographies in a manner that allows persons to imagine that they are part of something greater than themselves.[47]
Aesthetics and science[edit]
Initial image of a Mandelbrot set zoom sequence with continuously coloured environment
The field of experimental aesthetics was founded by Gustav Theodor Fechner in the 19th century. Experimental aesthetics in these times had been characterized by a subject-based, inductive approach. The analysis of individual experience and behaviour based on experimental methods is a central part of experimental aesthetics. In particular, the perception of works of art,[48] music, or modern items such as websites[49] or other IT products[50] is studied. Experimental aesthetics is strongly oriented towards the natural sciences. Modern approaches mostly come from the fields of cognitive psychology or neuroscience (neuroaesthetics[51]).
In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first to analyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and information theory.[52][53]
In the 1990s, Jürgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beauty which takes the subjectivity of the observer into account and postulates: among several observations classified as comparable by a given subjective observer, the aesthetically most pleasing one is the one with the shortest description, given the observer's previous knowledge and his particular method for encoding the data.[54][55] This is closely related to the principles of algorithmic information theory and minimum description length. One of his examples: mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a short description in their formal language. Another very concrete example describes an aesthetically pleasing human face whose proportions can be described by very few bits of information,[56][57] drawing inspiration from less detailed 15th century proportion studies by Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishes between what's beautiful and what's interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative of subjectively perceived beauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually tries to improve the predictability and compressibility of the observations by discovering regularities such as repetitions and symmetries and fractal self-similarity. Whenever the observer's learning process (which may be a predictive neural network; see also Neuroesthetics) leads to improved data compression such that the observation sequence can be described by fewer bits than before, the temporary interestingness of the data corresponds to the number of saved bits. This compression progress is proportional to the observer's internal reward, also called curiosity reward. A reinforcement learning algorithm is used to maximize future expected reward by learning to execute action sequences that cause additional interesting input data with yet unknown but learnable predictability or regularity. The principles can be implemented on artificial agents which then exhibit a form of artificial curiosity.[58][59][60][61]
Truth in beauty and mathematics[edit]
Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous,[62] as reflected in the statement "Beauty is truth, truth beauty" in the poem Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats, or by the Hindu motto "Satyam Shivam Sundaram" (Satya (Truth) is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced by processing fluency, which is the ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes equated with truth.[63] Indeed, recent research found that people use beauty as an indication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks.[64] However, scientists including the mathematician David Orrell[65] and physicist Marcelo Gleiser[66] have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scientists astray.
Computational approaches[edit]
In 1928, the mathematician George David Birkhoff created an aesthetic measure M = O/C as the ratio of order to complexity.[67]
Since about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality of images.[68][69][70][71] Typically, these approaches follow a machine learning approach, where large numbers of manually rated photographs are used to "teach" a computer about what visual properties are of relevance to aesthetic quality. The Acquine engine, developed at Penn State University, rates natural photographs uploaded by users.[72]
There have also been relatively successful attempts with regard to chess and music.[73] A relation between Max Bense's mathematical formulation of aesthetics in terms of "redundancy" and "complexity" and theories of musical anticipation was offered using the notion of Information Rate.[74]
Evolutionary aesthetics[edit]
Main article: Evolutionary aesthetics
Evolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in which the basic aesthetic preferences of Homo sapiens are argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success.[75] One example being that humans are argued to find beautiful and prefer landscapes which were good habitats in the ancestral environment. Another example is that body symmetry and proportion are important aspects of physical attractiveness which may be due to this indicating good health during body growth. Evolutionary explanations for aesthetical preferences are important parts of evolutionary musicology, Darwinian literary studies, and the study of the evolution of emotion.
Applied aesthetics[edit]
Main article: Applied aesthetics
As well as being applied to art, aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects, such as crosses or tools. For example, aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency[76] Art slides were linked to slides of pharmacological data, which improved attention and retention by simultaneous activation of intuitive right brain with rational left. It can also be used in topics as diverse as mathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website design.[77][78][79]
Criticism[edit]
The philosophy of aesthetics as a practice has been criticized by some sociologists and writers of art and society. Raymond Williams argues that there is no unique and or individual aesthetic object which can be extrapolated from the art world, but that there is a continuum of cultural forms and experience of which ordinary speech and experiences may signal as art. By "art" we may frame several artistic "works" or "creations" as so though this reference remains within the institution or special event which creates it and this leaves some works or other possible "art" outside of the frame work, or other interpretations such as other phenomenon which may not be considered as "art".
Pierre Bourdieu disagrees with Kant's idea of the "aesthetic". He argues that Kant's "aesthetic" merely represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to other possible and equally valid "aesthetic" experiences which lay outside Kant's narrow definition.
Timothy Laurie argues that theories of musical aesthetics "framed entirely in terms of appreciation, contemplation or reflection risk idealizing an implausibly unmotivated listener defined solely through musical objects, rather than seeing them as a person for whom complex intentions and motivations produce variable attractions to cultural objects and practices".[80]
See also[edit]
Art periods
History of aesthetics before the 20th century
Mise en scène
Theory of art
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Akiba, Fuminori (2013). "Preface: Natural Computing and Computational Aesthetics". Natural Computing and Beyond. Proceedings in Information and Communications Technology. 6: 117–118. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-54394-7_10. ISBN 978-4-431-54393-0.
Jump up ^ Datta, R.; Joshi, D.; Li, J.; Wang, J. (2006). "Studying aesthetics in photographic images using a computational approach". Europ. Conf. on Computer Vision. Springer. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.81.5178  .
Jump up ^ Wong, L.-K.; Low, K.-L. (2009). "Saliency-enhanced image aesthetic classification". Int. Conf. on Image Processing. IEEE.
Jump up ^ Wu, Y.; Bauckhage, C.; Thurau, C. (2010). "The good, the bad, and the ugly: predicting aesthetic image labels". Int. Conf. on Pattern Recognition. IEEE.
Jump up ^ Faria, J.; Bagley, S.; Rueger, S.; Breckon, T.P. (2013). "Challenges of Finding Aesthetically Pleasing Images". Proc. International Workshop on Image and Audio Analysis for Multimedia Interactive Services (PDF). IEEE. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine - Instant Impersonal Assessment of Photos". Penn State University. Archived from the original on 9 May 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Manaris, B., Roos, P., Penousal, M., Krehbiel, D., Pellicoro, L. and Romero, J.; A Corpus-Based Hybrid Approach to Music Analysis and Composition; Proceedings of 22nd Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-07); Vancouver, BC; 839-845 2007.
Jump up ^ Dubnov, S.; Musical Information Dynamics as Models of Auditory Anticipation; in Machine Audition: Principles, Algorithms and Systems, Ed. W. Weng, IGI Global publication, 2010.
Jump up ^ Shimura, Arthur P.; Palmer, Stephen E. (January 2012). Aesthetic Science: Connecting Minds, Brains, and Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 279.
Jump up ^ Giannini AJ (December 1993). "Tangential symbols: using visual symbolization to teach pharmacological principles of drug addiction to international audiences". Journal of clinical pharmacology. 33 (12): 1139–46. doi:10.1002/j.1552-4604.1993.tb03913.x. PMID 7510314.
Jump up ^ Moshagen, M. & Thielsch, M. T. (2010). Facets of visual aesthetics. In: International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68 (10), 689-709.
Jump up ^ "Visual Aesthetics". Interaction-design.org. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Lavie, T. & Tractinsky, N. (2004). Assessing dimensions of perceived visual aesthetics of web sites. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 60, 269–298.
Jump up ^ Laurie, Timothy (2014). "Music Genre As Method". Cultural Studies Review. 20 (2), pp. 283–292.
Further reading[edit]
Mario Perniola, 20th Century Aesthetics. Towards A Theory of Feeling, translated by Massimo Verdicchio, London-New Delhi-New York-Sydney, Bloomsbury, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4411-1850-9.
Chung-yuan, Chang (1963–1970). Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 0-06-131968-6.
Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics. Edited by Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester Embree. (Series: Contributions To Phenomenology, Vol. 59) Springer, Dordrecht / Heidelberg / London / New York 2010. ISBN 978-90-481-2470-1
Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
Ayn Rand, The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature, New York, NY, New American Library, 1971
Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, Andre Malraux's Theory of Art, Rodopi, 2009
Derek Allan. Art and Time, Cambridge Scholars, 2013.
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7 (has significant material on Art, Science and their philosophies)
John Bender and Gene Blocker Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings in Analytic Aesthetics 1993.
René Bergeron. L'Art et sa spiritualité. Québec, QC.: Éditions du Pelican, 1961.
Christine Buci-Glucksmann (2003), Esthétique de l'éphémère, Galilée. (French)
Noël Carroll (2000), Theories of Art Today, University of Wisconsin Press.
Mario Costa (1999) (in Italian), L'estetica dei media. Avanguardie e tecnologia, Milan: Castelvecchi, ISBN 88-8210-165-7.
Benedetto Croce (1922), Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic.
E. S. Dallas (1866), The Gay Science, 2 volumes, on the aesthetics of poetry.
Danto, Arthur (2003), The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art, Open Court.
Stephen Davies (1991), Definitions of Art.
Terry Eagleton (1990), The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16302-6
Susan Feagin and Patrick Maynard (1997), Aesthetics. Oxford Readers.
Penny Florence and Nicola Foster (eds.) (2000), Differential Aesthetics. London: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-1493-X
Berys Gaut and Dominic McIver Lopes (eds.), Routledge Companion to Aesthetics. 3rd edition. London and New York: Routledge, 2013.
Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert (1995), Einführung in die Ästhetik, Munich, W. Fink.
David Goldblatt and Lee B. Brown, ed. (2010), Aesthetics: A Reader in the Philosophy of the Arts. 3rd edition. Pearson Publishing.
Theodore Gracyk (2011), The Philosophy of Art: An Introduction. Polity Press.
Greenberg, Clement (1960), "Modernist Painting", The Collected Essays and Criticism 1957–1969, The University of Chicago Press, 1993, 85-92.
Evelyn Hatcher (ed.), Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1975), Aesthetics. Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T.M. Knox, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hans Hofmann and Sara T Weeks; Bartlett H Hayes; Addison Gallery of American Art; Search for the real, and other essays (Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1967) OCLC 1125858
Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.), Art History and Visual Studies. Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-300-09789-1
Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher (eds.), Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts: October Books/MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 0-262-01226-X
Kant, Immanuel (1790), Critique of Judgement, Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett Publishing Co., 1987.
Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 4 voll., pp. XVII-521, pp. 555, pp. 536, pp. 572; 2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos; ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5. Covers philosophical, historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics worldwide.
Alexander J. Kent, "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal, 42(2) 182-8, 2005.
Søren Kierkegaard (1843), Either/Or, translated by Alastair Hannay, London, Penguin, 1992
Peter Kivy (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics. 2004
Carolyn Korsmeyer (ed.), Aesthetics: The Big Questions. 1998
Lyotard, Jean-François (1979), The Postmodern Condition, Manchester University Press, 1984.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1969), The Visible and the Invisible, Northwestern University Press.
David Novitz (1992), The Boundaries of Art.
Mario Perniola, The Art and Its Shadow, foreword by Hugh J. Silverman, translated by Massimo Verdicchio, London-NewYork, Continuum, 2004.
Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values, 1974, paperpack, or hardback first edition ISBN 0-688-00230-7
Griselda Pollock, "Does Art Think?" In: Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003. 129-174. ISBN 0-631-22715-6.
Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-41374-5.
Griselda Pollock, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1.
George Santayana (1896), The Sense of Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory. New York, Modern Library, 1955.
Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton, 2001. ISBN 978-0-691-08959-1
Friedrich Schiller, (1795), On the Aesthetic Education of Man. Dover Publications, 2004.
Alan Singer and Allen Dunn (eds.), Literary Aesthetics: A Reader. Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2000. ISBN 978-0-631-20869-3
Jadranka Skorin-Kapov, The Intertwining of Aesthetics and Ethics: Exceeding of Expectations, Ecstasy, Sublimity. Lexington Books, 2016. ISBN 978-1-4985-2456-8
Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, The Hague, 1980. ISBN 978-90-247-2233-4
Władysław Tatarkiewicz, History of Aesthetics, 3 vols. (1–2, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.
Markand Thakar Looking for the 'Harp' Quartet: An Investigation into Musical Beauty. University of Rochester Press, 2011.
Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, Penguin Classics, 1995.
The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Aesthetics
John M. Valentine, Beginning Aesthetics: An Introduction To The Philosophy of Art. McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 978-0-07-353754-2
von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory," Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007.
Thomas Wartenberg, The Nature of Art. 2006.
John Whitehead, Grasping for the Wind. 2001.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Lectures on aesthetics, psychology and religious belief, Oxford, Blackwell, 1966.
Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29706-0
Wallace Dace (1963). "The Concept of "Rasa" in Sanskrit Dramatic Theory". Educational Theatre Journal. 15 (3): 249. doi:10.2307/3204783. JSTOR 3204783.
René Daumal (1982). Rasa, or, Knowledge of the self: essays on Indian aesthetics and selected Sanskrit studies. ISBN 978-0-8112-0824-6.
Natalia Lidova (2014). "Natyashastra". Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071.
Natalia Lidova (1994). Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1234-5.
Ananda Lal (2004). The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-564446-3.
Tarla Mehta (1995). Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1057-0.
Rowell, Lewis (2015). Music and Musical Thought in Early India. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73034-9.
Emmie Te Nijenhuis (1974). Indian Music: History and Structure. BRILL Academic. ISBN 90-04-03978-3.
Farley P. Richmond; Darius L. Swann; Phillip B. Zarrilli (1993). Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0981-9.
Kapila Vatsyayan (2001). Bharata, the Nāṭyaśāstra. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-1220-6.
Kapila Vatsyayan (1974). Indian classical dance. Sangeet Natak Akademi. OCLC 2238067.
Kapila Vatsyayan (2008). Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition. Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 978-8187586357. OCLC 286469807.
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Aesthetics
Resources in your library
Aesthetics at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Aesthetics at PhilPapers
"Aesthetics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Aesthetics in Continental Philosophy article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Medieval Theories of Aesthetics article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Revue online Appareil
Postscript 1980– Some Old Problems in New Perspectives
Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation
More about Art, culture and Education
An history of aesthetics
The Concept of the Aesthetic
Aesthetics entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Philosophy of Aesthetics entry in the Philosophy Archive
Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges: Introduction to Aesthetics
Art Perception Complete pdf version of art historian David Cycleback's book.
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https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estetika
Estetika – Afrikaans
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https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estetika
Estetika – Azerbaijani
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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estetika
Estetika – Bosnian
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Estetika – Czech
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https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estheteg
Estheteg – Welsh
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Esteetika – Estonian
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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estetiko
Estetiko – Esperanto
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Estetika – Basque
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Estetika – Croatian
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Estetiko – Ido
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Estetika – Indonesian
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Esthetica – Interlingua
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Estetika – Lithuanian
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Estetica – Ligurian
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Estetik – Malay
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Esthetica – Dutch
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Estetikk – Norwegian
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Estetikk – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Estetica – Occitan
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Estetika – Uzbek
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Estetika – Serbo-Croatian
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Estetik – Swedish
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Estetika – Tagalog
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Estetik – Turkish
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Estetika – Waray
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