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Digestive enzyme
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This article is about the naturally produced enzymes. For the medication, see Pancreatic enzymes (medication).
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Digestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining
Proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids.
Lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule.
Amylases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple sugars such as glucose.
Nucleases split nucleic acids into nucleotides.
In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the oral cavity, the stomach, and the small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by different exocrine glands including:
Salivary glands
Secretory cells in the stomach
Secretory cells in the pancreas
Secretory glands in the small intestine
Contents
[hide]
1 Mouth
2 Stomach
3 Pancreas
4 Small intestine
5 References
Mouth[edit]
Complex food substances that are taken by animals and humans must be broken down into simple, soluble, and diffusible substances before they can be absorbed. In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete an array of enzymes and substances that aid in digestion and also disinfection. They include the following:[1]
lingual lipase: Lipid digestion initiates in the mouth. Lingual lipase starts the digestion of the lipids/fats.
Salivary amylase: Carbohydrate digestion also initiates in the mouth. Amylase, produced by the salivary glands, breaks complex carbohydrates to smaller chains, or even simple sugars. It is sometimes referred to as ptyalin.
lysozyme: Considering that food contains more than just essential nutrients, e.g. bacteria or viruses, the lysozome offers a limited and non-specific, yet beneficial antiseptic function in digestion.
Of note is the diversity of the salivary glands. There are two types of salivary glands:
serous glands: These glands produce a secretion rich in water, electrolytes, and enzymes. A great example of a serous oral gland is the parotid gland.
Mixed glands: These glands have both serous cells and mucous cells, and include sublingual and submandibular glands. Their secretion is mucinous and high in viscosity.
Stomach[edit]
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The enzymes that are secreted in the stomach are gastric enzymes. The stomach plays a major role in digestion, both in a mechanical sense by mixing and crushing the food, and also in an enzymatic sense, by digesting it. The following are enzymes produced by the stomach and their respective function:
Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme. It is produced by the stomach cells called "chief cells" in its inactive form pepsinogen, which is a zymogen. Pepsinogen is then activated by the stomach acid into its active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down the protein in the food into smaller particles, such as peptide fragments and amino acids. Protein digestion, therefore, first starts in the stomach, unlike carbohydrate and lipids, which start their digestion in the mouth.
Gastric lipase: Gastric lipase is an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric lipase, together with lingual lipase, comprise the two acidic lipases. These lipases, unlike alkaline lipases (such as pancreatic lipase), do not require bile acid or colipase for optimal enzymatic activity. Acidic lipases make up 30% of lipid hydrolysis occurring during digestion in the human adult, with gastric lipase contributing the most of the two acidic lipases. In neonates, acidic lipases are much more important, providing up to 50% of total lipolytic activity.
Hormones or compounds produced by the stomach and their respective function:
Hydrochloric acid (HCl): This is in essence positively charged hydrogen atoms (H+), or in lay-terms stomach acid, and is produced by the cells of the stomach called parietal cells. HCl mainly functions to denature the proteins ingested, to destroy any bacteria or virus that remains in the food, and also to activate pepsinogen into pepsin.
Intrinsic factor (IF): Intrinsic factor is produced by the parietal cells of the stomach. Vitamin B12 (Vit. B12) is an important vitamin that requires assistance for absorption in terminal ileum. Initially in the saliva, haptocorrin secreted by salivary glands binds Vit. B, creating a Vit. B12-Haptocorrin complex. The purpose of this complex is to protect Vitamin B12 from hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach. Once the stomach content exits the stomach into the duodenum, haptocorrin is cleaved with pancreatic enzymes, releasing the intact vitamin B12. Intrinsic factor (IF) produced by the parietal cells then binds Vitamin B12, creating a Vit. B12-IF complex. This complex is then absorbed at the terminal portion of the ileum.
Mucin: The stomach has a priority to destroy the bacteria and viruses using its highly acidic environment but also has a duty to protect its own lining from its acid. The way that the stomach achieves this is by secreting mucin and bicarbonate via its mucous cells, and also by having a rapid cell turn-over.
Gastrin: This is an important hormone produced by the "G cells" of the stomach. G cells produce gastrin in response to stomach stretching occurring after food enters it, and also after stomach exposure to protein. Gastrin is an endocrine hormone and therefore enters the bloodstream and eventually returns to the stomach where it stimulates parietal cells to produce hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Intrinsic factor (IF).
Of note is the division of function between the cells covering the stomach. There are four types of cells in the stomach:
Parietal cells: Produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.
Gastric chief cells: Produce pepsinogen. Chief cells are mainly found in the body of stomach, which is the middle or superior anatomic portion of the stomach.
Mucous neck and pit cells: Produce mucin and bicarbonate to create a "neutral zone" to protect the stomach lining from the acid or irritants in the stomach chyme.
G cells: Produce the hormone gastrin in response to distention of the stomach mucosa or protein, and stimulate parietal cells production of their secretion. G cells are located in the antrum of the stomach, which is the most inferior region of the stomach.
Secretion by the previous cells is controlled by the enteric nervous system. Distention in the stomach or innervation by the vagus nerve (via the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system) activates the ENS, in turn leading to the release of acetylcholine. Once present, acetylcholine activates G cells and parietal cells.
Pancreas[edit]
Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function.
Two of the population of cells in the pancreatic parenchyma make up its digestive enzymes:
Ductal cells: Mainly responsible for production of bicarbonate (HCO3), which acts to neutralize the acidity of the stomach chyme entering duodenum through the pylorus. Ductal cells of the pancreas are stimulated by the hormone secretin to produce their bicarbonate-rich secretions, in what is in essence a bio-feedback mechanism; highly acidic stomach chyme entering the duodenum stimulates duodenal cells called "S cells" to produce the hormone secretin and release to the bloodstream. Secretin having entered the blood eventually comes into contact with the pancreatic ductal cells, stimulating them to produce their bicarbonate-rich juice. It is interesting to note that secretin also inhibits production of gastrin by "G cells", and also stimulates acinar cells of the pancreas to produce their pancreatic enzyme.
Acinar cells: Mainly responsible for production of the inactive pancreatic enzymes (zymogens) that, once present in the small bowel, become activated and perform their major digestive functions by breaking down proteins, fat, and DNA/RNA. Acinar cells are stimulated by cholecystokinin (CCK), which is a hormone/neurotransmitter produced by the intestinal cells (I cells) in the duodenum. CCK stimulates production of the pancreatic zymogens.
Pancreatic juice, composed of the secretions of both ductal and acinar cells, is made up of the following digestive enzymes:[2]
Trypsinogen, which is an inactive(zymogenic) protease that, once activated in the duodenum into trypsin, breaks down proteins at the basic amino acids. Trypsinogen is activated via the duodenal enzyme enterokinase into its active form trypsin.
Chymotrypsinogen, which is an inactive (zymogenic) protease that, once activated by duodenal enterokinase, turns into chymotrypsin and breaks down proteins at their aromatic amino acids. Chymotrypsinogen can also be activated by trypsin.
Carboxypeptidase, which is a protease that takes off the terminal amino acid group from a protein
Several elastases that degrade the protein elastin and some other proteins.
Pancreatic lipase that degrades triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
Sterol esterase
Phospholipase
Several nucleases that degrade nucleic acids, like DNAase and RNAase
Pancreatic amylase that breaks down starch and glycogen which are alpha-linked glucose polymers. Humans lack the cellulases to digest the carbohydrate cellulose which is a beta-linked glucose polymer.
Pancreas's exocrine function owes part of its immaculate function to bio-feedback mechanisms controlling secretion of its juice. The following significant pancreatic bio-feedback mechanisms are essential to the maintenance of pancreatic juice balance/production:[3]
Secretin, a hormone produced by the duodenal "S cells" in response to the stomach chyme containing high hydrogen atom concentration (high acidicity), is released into the blood stream; upon return to the digestive tract, secretion decreases gastric emptying, increases secretion of the pancreatic ductal cells, as well as stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release their zymogenic juice.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a unique peptide released by the duodenal "I cells" in response to chyme containing high fat or protein content. Unlike secretin, which is an endocrine hormone, CCK actually works via stimulation of a neuronal circuit, the end-result of which is stimulation of the acinar cells to release their content. CCK also increases gallbladder contraction, resulting in bile squeezed into the cystic duct, common bile duct and eventually the duodenum. Bile of course helps absorption of the fat by emulsifying it, increasing its absorptive surface. Bile is made by the liver, but is stored in the gallbladder.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) is produced by the mucosal duodenal cells in response to chyme containing high amounts of carbohydrate, proteins, and fatty acids. Main function of GIP is to decrease gastric emptying.
Somatostatin is a hormone produced by the mucosal cells of the duodenum and also the "delta cells" of the pancreas. Somatostatin has a major inhibitory effect, including on pancreatic production.
Small intestine[edit]
The following enzymes/hormones are produced in the duodenum:
secretin: This is an endocrine hormone produced by the duodenal "S cells" in response to the acidity of the gastric chyme.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a unique peptide released by the duodenal "I cells" in response to chyme containing high fat or protein content. Unlike secretin, which is an endocrine hormone, CCK actually works via stimulation of a neuronal circuit, the end-result of which is stimulation of the acinar cells to release their content.[4] CCK also increases gallbladder contraction, causing release of pre-stored bile into the cystic duct, and eventually into the common bile duct and via the ampulla of Vater into the second anatomic position of the duodenum. CCK also decreases the tone of the sphincter of Oddi, which is the sphincter that regulates flow through the ampulla of Vater. CCK also decreases gastric activity and decreases gastric emptying, thereby giving more time to the pancreatic juices to neutralize the acidity of the gastric chyme.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): This peptide decreases gastric motility and is produced by duodenal mucosal cells.
motilin: This substance increases gastro-intestinal motility via specialized receptors called "motilin receptors".
somatostatin: This hormone is produced by duodenal mucosa and also by the delta cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to inhibit a variety of secretory mechanisms.
Throughout the lining of the small intestine there are numerous brush border enzymes whose function is to further break down the chyme released from the stomach into absorbable particles. These enzymes are absorbed whilst peristalsis occurs. Some of these enzymes include:
Erepsin: converts peptones and polypeptides into amino acids.
Maltase: converts maltose into glucose.
Lactase: This is a significant enzyme that converts lactose into glucose and galactose. A majority of Middle-Eastern and Asian populations lack this enzyme. This enzyme also decreases with age. As such lactose intolerance is often a common abdominal complaint in the Middle-Eastern, Asian, and older populations, manifesting with bloating, abdominal pain, and osmotic diarrhea.
Sucrase: converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Other disaccharidases
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Brown, Thomas A. "Rapid Review Physiology." Mosby Elsevier, 1st Ed. p. 235
Jump up ^ Bowen, R. [1] "Exocrine Secretion of the Pancreas"
Jump up ^ Brown, Thomas A. "Rapid Review Physiology." Mosby Elsevier, 1st Ed. p. 244
Jump up ^ Morino, P; Mascagni, F; McDonald, A; Hökfelt, T (1994). "Cholecystokinin corticostriatal pathway in the rat: Evidence for bilateral origin from medial prefrontal cortical areas". Neuroscience. 59 (4): 939–52. doi:10.1016/0306-4522(94)90297-6. PMID 7520138.
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Lambert's Cafe
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Lambert's Cafe
Lambert's Cafe in Foley, Alabama
Restaurant information
Slogan
Home of Throwed Rolls
Established
1942
Food type
Southern/country cooking
Website
throwedrolls.com
Lambert's Cafe is a US restaurant chain with locations in Foley, Alabama; Sikeston, Missouri; and Ozark, Missouri.[1] It was founded in 1942. It is known for throwing hot rolls to the customers. It features Southern or country cooking (fried chicken, catfish, etc.); a variety of side dishes, called "pass arounds", are brought to the table to accompany each meal.[2] The restaurants have been cited as a prime example of "road food", and diners often arrive via tour bus.[3]
Contents
1 History
2 Legal issues
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
The cafe was started in Sikeston in 1942 by Earl Lambert, assisted by his wife Agnes, his brother Robert, and Robert's wife Ruby. In 1976 Earl's son Norman "'Ole Norm" Lambert, a former football coach at Sikeston High School, took over management. It was Norman who started the tradition of throwing rolls to customers. In 1981 he explained, "I started throwing rolls about four years ago when we were in our old cafe. It was too crowded one noon for me to serve the rolls to a customer and somebody yelled, 'Throw em.' So I threw them. So, now I do that about every noon meal and during the evenings too. The rolls are fresh, right out of the oven."[4]
Legal issues[edit]
In August 2015 the restaurant was sued by a customer who says he suffered permanent eye injuries after being struck by a hot roll thrown by a staff member.[5] A lawyer acting for the plaintiff said Lambert's has been sued similar injuries in the past.[6] A Lambert's spokesman confirmed that other customers have previously sought damages for similar claims, and in some cases medical expenses have been paid.[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Lambert's Cafe, Home of Throwed Rolls". throwedrolls.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "10 great places to take an exit to good eatin'". USA Today. May 25, 2006.
Jump up ^ Joyce, Denise (March 11, 2011). "Throwing fun food ideas to I-55 travelers". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Landis, Debra Chandler (September 29, 1981). "Norman Lambert Throws Rolls". Southeast Missourian. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2015/08/14/man-sues-restaurant-rolls-throwing/31703807/
Jump up ^ http://fox2now.com/2015/08/13/the-man-behind-the-throwed-roll-lawsuit-against-lamberts/
Jump up ^ http://www.kctv5.com/story/29775197/woman-suing-lamberts-cafe
External links[edit]
Official website
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lambert%27s_Cafe&oldid=798585818"
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Cuisine of the Southern United States
Buildings and structures in New Madrid County, Missouri
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Water supply and sanitation in Abu Dhabi
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The three cities of Abu Dhabi Emirate within the United Arab Emirates – the coastal city Abu Dhabi itself (more than one million inhabitants) as well as the inland oases Al Ain (0,4 million inhabitants) and Liwa (about 0,1 million inhabitants) – receive their drinking water supply entirely from desalinated seawater. Their wastewater is being treated and reused for the irrigation of green spaces.[1]
View of Abu Dhabi from Fort Qasr Als Hosn.
Contents
[hide]
1 Water resources
2 Water use
3 History
4 Responsibilities
5 Tariffs and cost recovery
6 Investment and financing
7 References
8 External links
Water resources[edit]
Map of the United Arab Emirates showing Abu Dhabi, Al Ain and Qutuf, a village in Liwa oasis.
There are two main sources of water in Abu Dhabi Emirate: Desalinated seawater and groundwater. While groundwater is used for agriculture in Al Ain and Liwa, drinking water is provided almost entirely from desalinated seawater across the Emirate. In 2008, groundwater contributed 71% to total water demand for all purposes, desalinated water 24% and treated wastewater 5%.[2]
Seawater desalination
In 2010, there were eight seawater desalination plants in Abu Dhabi owned and operated by eight joint ventures: Tawilah A, Tawilah B, the five Umm al Nar plants and the Al Mirfa plant. These joint ventures between the government and foreign companies, which are allowed to own up to 40% of the shares, are called Independent Water & Power Producers (IWPPs). They operate under Build-Own-Operate (BOO) contracts with the government and their energy is supplied by fossil fuels. In the model green city called Masdar City, four smaller pilot desalination plants that will use solar power are nearing completion as of early 2015.[3]
Groundwater
90% of groundwater in Abu Dhabi Emirate is saline, in some cases up to eight times as much as seawater. There are only two freshwater aquifers. Natural groundwater recharge is estimated at about 300 million cubic meters per year. Brackish groundwater is mostly used for the irrigation of date palms which are relatively salt-tolerant. Recharge dams have been built on wadis in order to prevent flood water to flow into the sea, recharging it instead to aquifers. Unplanned and uncontrolled groundwater withdrawals, especially for agriculture and forestry, total over 2,000 million cubic meters per year and have resulted in declining groundwater levels and quality.[4]
Groundwater recharge
Artificial groundwater recharge with desalinated has been piloted in 2003 near the Liwa Oasis and construction of large-scale recharge facilities has begun in 2008. The objective is to create a 90-day reserve instead of the current 48-hour reserve for drinking water supply, in order to protect the emirate against the risk of terrorist attacks or oil spills that would shut down the entire water supply. Recharge will occur during summer when the desalination plants generate surplus freshwater. Desalination plants in Abu Dhabi use the multi-stage flash distillation technology which uses steam from thermal power plants as an energy source. Their water production thus is proportional to electricity production and reaches a peak during the summer when electricity production is highest to power air conditioning. The recharge scheme is currently under construction and is due to be completed by 2013.[5][6]
Sanitation
Approximately 550,000 cubic metres of wastewater is generated in Abu Dhabi every day and treated in 20 wastewater treatment plants.[7] Almost all of the wastewater is being reused to irrigate green spaces.[1] While most wastewater treatment plants are publicly owned and operated, four large new plants have been built by joint ventures under build-own operate transfer (BOOT) arrangements. One such contract for two plants was awarded in 2008, one in Abu Dhabi itself with a capacity of 300,000 cubic meter per day and one in Al Ain with a capacity of 130,000 cubic meter per day.[8] Contracts for two other plants were awarded to Biwater under a similar structure. A Strategic Tunnel Enhancement Programme (STEP) is to be implemented between 2008 and 2014 to establish a tunnel that will comprise 40 kilometres of deep sewerage tunnel and two new large pumping stations to relieve Abu Dhabi Island.[9]
In Masdar City green spaces and agriculture near the city are to be irrigated with grey water and reclaimed water.
Water use[edit]
About half of the annual water production from all sources is used for irrigation of green spaces, as well as in agriculture. The other half is used for domestic uses. Freshwater use per capita is about 650 liters per day, including water supplied for the irrigation of green spaces.
As of 2009, in Al Ain "due to constraints on both the transmission and distribution networks, up to 45 percent of customers (were) on a restricted (intermittent) supply".[10]
History[edit]
Satellite view of Abu Dhabi.
Abu Dhabi has witnessed an explosion of wealth and population since its independence in 1971 and the oil boom of 1973. Before, groundwater was the only source of water supply. It was very scarce, since there is little recharge and most of the aquifers are highly saline. It was only through seawater desalination that the growth of Abu Dhabi became possible. Seawater desalination used thermal technologies that couple desalination with power production. Water was provided free of charge. The plants were initially owned and operated by the government through the Water and Electricity Department, and financing was provided by the state from oil revenues.
Sector reform
In the mid-1990s, the government decided to reorganize the water and electricity sector. The reform was inspired by the pro-private sector and pro-competition climate reigning during the 1990s, and it was implemented through foreign advisors. The reform of both sectors was based on the principle of unbundling production, transmission and distribution:
Production of electricity and desalinated water was to be the responsibility of private companies,
Transmission of bulk water to Al Ain and Liwa oasis was to be done by a public asset holding company and a private operating company,
Distribution was to be in the hands of two public companies, one for Abu Dhabi and Liwa, and the other for Al Ain.
The sector was to be regulated by a public agency with a certain degree of autonomy from the government. The new structure was formally adopted through law No (2) concerning the regulation of the water and electricity sector passed in 1998. The holding company ADWEA and the regulator, the Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB), were functionally established shortly afterwards. In 2000 the government signed the first contract for a private power and desalination plant.[7] The sanitation sector was initially left out of the reform and remained a responsibility of the municipality, despite heavy investments that were required for wastewater treatment and reuse. Only in 2005 a separate sanitation operator, Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company, was established.
Environmental awareness and water conservation
In the first decade of the 21st century, the protection of the environment gradually became more important in Abu Dhabi. In 2005 the Emirate created the Environment Department, which established a Strategic Water Master Plan published in 2009. When presenting the Master Plan, the chairman of the Environment Agency said that the future would be very challenging unless action was taken to reduce water consumption, which is among the highest per capita in the world.[11] The Plan describes the current status and the environmental and technical issues related to projections of demand and supply, groundwater abstraction, desalination, water supply and sanitation, irrigation, wastewater treatment and Emirati governance and institutions.[2] The government has run a media campaign to encourage people to save water. It has also distributed water-saving toilets and showerheads free of charge. The emirate also is in the process of expanding the use of reclaimed water.
Responsibilities[edit]
Policy. Abu Dhabi is ruled by a Sheikh. Below him is an Executive Council taking care of day-to-day policy-making. The Council is chaired by the Crown Prince. The Chairmen of four Departments and a number of Authorities are members of the Executive Council. The government structure is not comparable to the Western structure of Ministries and separate technical authorities under those Ministries. Authorities in Abu Dhabi are rather comparable to Ministries. Water supply and sanitation in Abu Dhabi is the responsibility of the Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Authority (ADWEA). As mentioned above, the Chairman of ADWEA is a member of the Executive Council and holds the rank of a Minister.
Legal framework
The sector is governed by two laws:
Law No (2) of 1998 Concerning the Regulation of the Water and Electricity Sector in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi and
Law No (17) of 2005 Concerning the Establishment of Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company (ADSSC).
Service provision
Eight private Independent Water and Power Production (IWPP) companies operate on the Build-Own-Operate (BOO) formula, producing and selling desalinated water to the Abu Dhabi Water & Electricity Company (ADWEC). ADWEC is owned by the government through ADWEA and is the single buyer of desalinated water and the single supplier of water for the distribution companies. The Abu Dhabi Transmission and Dispatch Company (TRANSCO), a public company, transports water from the desalination plants to the networks of the distribution companies. The Abu Dhabi distribution company (ADDC) sells water and electricity to approximately 216,000 customers in Abu Dhabi and its suburbs. The Al Ain distribution company does the same in Al Ain. The Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company is a public company in charge of sanitation.
Regulation
The Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB) for the Water and Electricity Sector in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi enforces relevant laws through licensing. It is in charge both of technical regulation and price regulation.[7]
Tariffs and cost recovery[edit]
As of January 1, 2015, UAE citizens pay 1.7 Dirham (0.46 USD) per cubic meter of water for a very generous first block of consumption, which is set at 700 liters per day for apartments and 7,000 liters per day for villas. Above these amounts, the tariff increases slightly to 1.89 Dirham (0.51 UD) per cubic meter. Previously, water was free of charge for UAE citizens. Foreign residents and commercial users were always charged for water, starting at 5.95 Dirham (USD 1.61) per cubic meter in the lowest consumption block. The introduction of water tariffs for residents aims at reducing subsidies, encourage the efficient use of water and raise awareness of the importance of reducing consumption.[12] It was combined with a large public relations campaign, as well as advice for customers who want to save water. Even before the change in tariff, bills highlighted water usage beyond a certain level in red and showed the subsidy paid by the state.
The two public distribution companies receive a government subsidy. In turn, they pay a bulk supply tariff reflecting the full economic cost to ADWEC, which in turn pays for the water received from the private IWPPs under Water and Power Purchase Agreements. Bulk supply tariffs are adjusted by the RSB every four years based on maximum allowable revenues.[7]
Investment and financing[edit]
Investment in desalination plants is financed by the private sector through BOO contracts. Investment in water distribution and sewerage infrastructure is financed by the government through subsidies to the respective public companies. Investment in both power and water production and distribution was more than US$36 billion from 1999 to 2008.[7] Since power and water are produced and distributed by the same companies, separate figures for investment in water infrastructure are not available.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Gulfnews.com: Abu Dhabi regulates water usage, 28 March 2009
^ Jump up to: a b UAE Interact:EAD warns against depletion of Abu Dhabi's water resources within next 50 years, 22 March 2009
Jump up ^ "Dubai gets ready to join the solar desal club". Global Water Intelligence, May 2015. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Environment Agency of Abu Dhabi: Abu Dhabi Water Resources Statistics 2006
Jump up ^ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: Viel Erdöl und wenig Wasser, Ein deutsches Projekt schafft in Abu Dhabi eine Wasserreserve unter dem Wüstensand, 17 June 2010
Jump up ^ GTZ: Artificial Recharge and Utilization of the Ground Water Resource in the Liwa Area, accessed on June 27, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Regulation and Supervision Bureau:Water and Electricity Sector Overview 2008-2009, accessed on June 27, 2010
Jump up ^ Cleantech group: Veolia, Abu Dhabi in wastewater deal, 31 July 2008
Jump up ^ UAE Interact: Tunnel planned to tackle capital wastewater issue, 30 June 2008
Jump up ^ Al Ain Distribution Company (AADC). "Water Distribution". Retrieved 6 June 2012.
Jump up ^ The National:Abu Dhabi faces water crisis, 22 March 2009
Jump up ^ "Abu Dhabi revises water and electricity tariff". gulfnews.com. 13 November 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
External links[edit]
Regulation and Supervision Bureau for the Water and Electricity Sector in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi
Environment Agency Abu Dhabi
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Abu_Dhabi&oldid=775049344"
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Bourbon Street
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the street in New Orleans. For the jazz club in Toronto, Ontario, see Bourbon Street (Toronto). For the themed street at West Edmonton Mall, see West Edmonton Mall § Themed streets.
Looking up Bourbon Street toward the Central Business District (CBD).
Tile mosaic explaining that the name of the street was Calle de Borbón when New Orleans was capital of the Spanish Province of Luisiana 1762-1803.
Street name done with tiles in the sidewalk
Bourbon Street (French: Rue Bourbon, Spanish: Calle Bourbon) is a street in the heart of New Orleans' oldest neighborhood, the French Quarter, in New Orleans, Louisiana. It extends 13 blocks from Canal to Esplanade Avenue.[1] Known for its bars and strip clubs, Bourbon Street's history provides a rich insight into New Orleans' past.[2]
Contents
1 History of Bourbon Street and environs
1.1 1700 to 1880
1.2 1880 to 1960
1.3 1960 to today
1.4 Impact of Hurricane Katrina
2 Entertainment, bars, and restaurants
3 Legal issues
4 See also
5 References
History of Bourbon Street and environs[edit]
Main article: History of New Orleans
1700 to 1880[edit]
The French claimed Louisiana as a colony in the 1690s. Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville was appointed as Director General in charge of developing a colony in the territory. He founded New Orleans in 1718. In 1721, the royal engineer, Adrien de Pauger, designed the city's street layout. He named the streets after French royal houses and Catholic saints. Bourbon Street paid homage to France's ruling family, the House of Bourbon.[3]
New Orleans was given to the Spanish in 1763 following the Seven Years' War. The Great New Orleans Fire of 1788 destroyed 80% of the city's building. The Spanish rebuilt many of the damaged structures, which are still standing today. For this reason, Bourbon Street and the French Quarter display more Spanish than French influence.[4]
The Americans gained control of the colony following the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.[5] They translated the French street names into English, with Rue Bourbon becoming Bourbon Street.[4]
New Orleans in the 19th century was both similar to and different from other Southern cities. It was similar in that its economy was based on selling cash crops such as sugar and tobacco. By 1840, newcomers whose wealth came from these enterprises turned New Orleans into the third largest metropolis in the country.[6] The city's port was the nation's second largest, with New York City being the largest.[7]
The main difference between New Orleans and other Southern cities was its unique cultural heritage as a result of formerly having been a French and Spanish possession. This cultural legacy in the form of its architecture, cuisine and traditions was emphasized by promoters to attract tourists.[6]
1880 to 1960[edit]
The French Quarter was central to this image and became the best-known part of the city. Recent arrivals in New Orleans criticized the perceived loose morals of the Creoles, a perception which persisted as many travelers came to New Orleans to drink, gamble and have sexual encounters in the city’s brothels, beginning in the 1880s.[6]
Bourbon Street was a premier residential area prior to 1900.[4] This changed in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when the Storyville red-light district was constructed on Basin Street adjacent to the French Quarter. The area became known for prostitution, gambling and vaudeville acts.[8] Jazz is said to have developed here, with artists such as King Oliver and Jelly Roll Morton providing musical entertainment at the brothels.
This was also the era when some of New Orleans' most eminent restaurants were founded, including Galatoire's, located at 209 Bourbon Street.[9] It was established by Jean Galatoire in 1905. Known for years by its characteristic line snaking down Bourbon Street, patrons waited for hours just to get a table — especially on Fridays.[9]
Before World War II, the French Quarter was emerging as a major asset to the city’s economy. While there was an interest in historic districts at the time, developers pressured to modernize the city. Simultaneously, with the wartime influx of people, property owners opened adult-centered nightclubs to capitalize on the city’s risqué image. This led to Bourbon Street becoming the new Storyville in terms of reputation.[6] By the 1940s and 1950s, nightclubs lined Bourbon Street. Over 50 different burlesque shows, striptease acts and exotic dancers could be found.[6]
1960 to today[edit]
There was a move in the 1960s under District Attorney Jim Garrison to clean up Bourbon Street. In August 1962, two months after he was elected, Garrison began raiding adult entertainment establishments on Bourbon. His efforts mirrored those of his predecessors, which had been largely unsuccessful, but he had more success. He forced closure on a dozen nightclubs convicted of prostitution and selling overpriced alcohol. Following this campaign, Bourbon Street was populated by peep shows and sidewalk beer stands.[10]
When Mayor Moon Landrieu came into office in 1970, he focused his efforts on stimulating tourism. He did so by making Bourbon Street a pedestrian mall, making it more inviting.[6] The 1980s and 1990s were characterized by a Disneyfication of Bourbon Street. Critics of the proliferation of souvenir shops and corporate ventures said that Bourbon Street had become Creole Disneyland. They also argued that the street’s authenticity had been lost in this process.[11]
On April 5, 2018 a giant saxophone of 3m30 high is inaugurated in the street. It was offered by the city of Namur (Belgium) to recall that the inventor of the instrument Adolphe Sax is from the region of Namur, specifically Dinant.[12]
Impact of Hurricane Katrina[edit]
Main article: Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans
Given Bourbon Street's high-ground location in the French Quarter, it was mostly intact following 2005's Hurricane Katrina. A major tourist attraction, Bourbon Street renovation was given high priority after the storm. However, New Orleans was still experiencing a dearth of visitors.[13] In 2004, the year before Katrina, the city had 10.1 million visitors. The year after the storm, that number was 3.7 million.[14]
Efforts to draw visitors back to the city were initiated by the New Orleans Tourism Marketing Corporation, featuring celebrities such as Emeril Lagasse and Patricia Clarkson with the slogan, "Come fall In love with Louisiana all over again." (One third of the city's operating budget, approximately $6 billion, came from visitors and conventions; officials saw the tourist draw as vital for post-disaster economic recovery.)[13] Travelers heard mixed messages in the media. Advertising campaigns gave the impression that New Orleans was thriving, while city leaders asked for increased Federal financial assistance and National Guard troops to help control municipal crime waves.[13]
New Orleans has been working its way back to pre-Katrina tourist numbers, as it attracted 9.5 million visitors in 2014 and 10.5 million visitors in 2016.[15] The 2016 record was the highest since 2004.[16]
In April 2017, the 100 block of Bourbon Street was closed off for reconstruction of the street and its underground utilities as part of the city's $6 million French Quarter infrastructure project.[17]
Entertainment, bars, and restaurants[edit]
Looking northeast from Iberville Street in 2015
Largely quiet during the day, Bourbon Street comes alive at night, particularly during the French Quarter's many festivals. Most famous of these is the annual Mardi Gras celebration, when the streets teem with thousands of people. Local open container laws allow drinking alcoholic beverages on the Quarter's streets. Popular drinks include the hurricane cocktail, the resurrection cocktail, the hand grenade and the profanely named "huge-ass beers" – a large plastic cup of draft beer marketed to tourists at a low price.
The most heavily visited section of Bourbon Street is "upper Bourbon Street" toward Canal Street, an eight-block section of visitor attractions[18] including bars, restaurants, souvenir shops, and strip clubs. In the 21st century Bourbon Street is the home of New Orleans Musical Legends Park, a free, outdoor venue for live jazz performances, with sculptures and other tributes to the city's legendary music personalities.
Most of the bars are located in the central section of Bourbon. Popular spots include Pat O'Brien's, Johnny White's, the Famous Door, Spirits on Bourbon, Channing Tatum's Saints and Sinners, Razzoo and The Cat's Meow.[19] Marie Laveau's House of Voodoo is located on the corner of St. Ann Street.
The most renowned restaurant on Bourbon Street is Galatoire's; it represents traditional New Orleans dining and has a dress code. Lafitte's Blacksmith Shop and the Old Absinthe House are two of the many casual eateries.[1]
"Lower Bourbon Street" (lower being a reference to downriver, or downstream Mississippi River), from the intersection of St. Ann Street, caters to New Orleans' thriving gay community, featuring such establishments as Oz and the city's largest gay nightclub, the Bourbon Pub. St. Ann Street has been referred to as "the Velvet Line"[20] or "the Lavender Line," the edge or approximate boundary of the French Quarter's gay community. Cafe-Lafitte-in-Exile is the oldest gay bar in the nation. The intersection of Bourbon and St. Ann Streets is also the center of the Labor Day weekend event Southern Decadence, commonly referred to as the Gay Mardi Gras, which attracts upwards of 100,000 participants.[21]
Legal issues[edit]
Bourbon Street, New Orleans, 2002
West Edmonton Mall's Bourbon Street. In the mid-2010s, renovations were done on WEM's Bourbon Street and was renamed to "BRBN St".
Historically, noise violations were the responsibility of the individual making the noise.[22] This changed in 1996 with Yokum v. 615 Bourbon Street. The case ruled that the property owner, not the noise-maker is responsible for noise violations. A 2010 city ordinance stipulates that no music may be played in the French Quarter between 8 pm and 9 am. Enforcement has been inconsistent, and critics claim its goals are vague. Some even state that the local law is unconstitutional.[23] Besides being difficult to enforce, music aficionados claim that noise ordinances threaten the city's notable music culture. Local jazz bands, such as the To Be Continued Brass Band, who play in the streets, would be prohibited from doing so under such ordinances.[23]
Aggressive-solicitation bans are a more recent issue on Bourbon Street. In 2011, an ordinance[24] was passed which prohibited individuals and groups from "disseminating any social, political or religious message" at night. The ordinance did not explain the justification for the rule.[25] On September 21, 2012, the ACLU of Louisiana won[26] a temporary restraining order against the ban, on behalf of Kelsey McCauley (Bohn), a woman who converted to Christianity through a religious group's activities on Bourbon Street. The group had several of its members arrested, some of whom were cited on September 14, 2012, for violating the anti-solicitation ordinance. A hearing was set for October 1, 2012.
On July 25, 2013, the New Orleans City Council voted 6-0[27] to amend the law and exempt Bourbon Street from the ban, with legal language found acceptable by the participating attorneys.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bourbon Street.
Route map:
KML file (edit • help)
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New Orleans portal
French Quarter
French Market
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Bourbon Street at West Edmonton Mall, in Canada
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b NewOrleansOnline Bourbon Street
Jump up ^ New Orleans French Quarter History, Architecture and Pictures
Jump up ^ Ashbury, Herbert. The French Quarter: An Informal History of the New Orleans Underworld. Garden City New York: Garden City Publishing Company, 1936. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b c NOLA History: Rue Bourbon Through the Years
Jump up ^ Primary Documents in American History - Louisiana Purchase
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f J. Mark Souther. New Orleans on Parade. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2006. Print
Jump up ^ "Coffee Trade and Port of New Orleans". www.crt.state.la.us. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
Jump up ^ Storyville - History
^ Jump up to: a b About Galatoire's Restaurant
Jump up ^ Savage, James. “Born on Bourbon Street: Jim Garrison’s French Quarter Fracas and the Shady Origins of a First Amendment Milestone, 1962-1964.” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 49.2 (2008): 133-162
Jump up ^ Gotham, Kevin Fox. "Authentic New Orleans: Touristm, Culture, and Race in the Big Easy." New York: New York University Press, 2007. Print
Jump up ^ https://www.rtbf.be/info/regions/namur/detail_un-saxophone-geant-namurois-inaugure-a-la-nouvelle-orleans-pour-celebrer-son-300e-anniversaire?id=9884447
^ Jump up to: a b c TIME Magazine - Will Bourbon Street Bring the Tourists Back to New Orleans?
Jump up ^ "New Orleans Breaks Tourism Records for Visitation and Visitor Spending in 2016". 2017-03-23. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
Jump up ^ NOLA - Fest-goers, older vacationers boost New Orleans tourist count in 2014
Jump up ^ "New Orleans Breaks Tourism Records for Visitation and Visitor Spending in 2016". 2017-03-23. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
Jump up ^ "Bourbon Street construction underway, photos". NOLA.com. Retrieved 2017-04-25.
Jump up ^ City-Data.com - Bourbon Street, New Orleans
Jump up ^ BBOnline - What Makes Bourbon Street, New Orleans A Top Attraction
Jump up ^ Discover New Orleans - Bourbon Street & the French Quarter
Jump up ^ Southern Decadence website
Jump up ^ Palermo, Gina. “Waking the Neighbors: Determining a Landowner’s Liability for Rowdy Tenants Under Louisiana Law.” Louisiana Law Review 70: 1339
^ Jump up to: a b NOLA - Bourbon Street music curfew enforcement draws complaints
Jump up ^ New Orleans City Council- Palmer Anti-aggressive Solicitation
Jump up ^ NOLA - Bible-thumping on Bourbon Street at night barred by ordinance
Jump up ^ 4WWL - Legal victory for Bourbon St. religious group against City of New Orleans Archived September 23, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ NOLA - New Orleans City Council ends ban on preaching on Bourbon Street after dark
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text:
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Rio Pact
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance.
Traité interaméricain d'assistance réciproque.
Tratado Interamericano de Assistência Recíproca.
Tratado Interamericano de Asistencia Recíproca.
Member states in dark blue, states that withdrew in cyan
Signed
2 September 1947[1]
Location
Rio de Janeiro[1]
Effective
12 March 1948[1]
Condition
ratifications of two-thirds of the Signatory States
Signatories
23[1]
Parties
18[1]
Depositary
Pan American Union
Languages
English, French, Portuguese and Spanish
The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (commonly known as the Rio Treaty, the Rio Pact, or by the Spanish-language acronym TIAR from Tratado Interamericano de Asistencia Recíproca) was an agreement signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro among many countries of the Americas.[2] The central principle contained in its articles is that an attack against one is to be considered an attack against them all; this was known as the "hemispheric defense" doctrine. The treaty was initially created in 1947 and came into force in 1948, in accordance with Article 22 of the treaty. The Bahamas was the most recent country to sign and ratify it in 1982.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Members
2 Background and history
3 See also
4 References
Members[edit]
Current Members:
Argentina (1948- )
Bahamas (1982- )
Brazil (1948- )
Chile (1948- )
Colombia (1948- )
Costa Rica (1948- )
Dominican Republic (1948- )
El Salvador (1948- )
Guatemala (1948- )
Haiti (1948- )
Honduras (1948- )
Panama (1948- )
Paraguay (1948- )
Peru (1948- )
Trinidad and Tobago (1967- )
United States (1948- )
Uruguay (1948- )
Former Members:
Bolivia (1948-2012)
Cuba (1948-2012) suspended before withdrawn
Ecuador (1948-2012) ratified in 2014
Nicaragua (1948-2012)
Mexico (1948-2004)
Venezuela (1948-2012)
Background and history[edit]
The United States maintained a hemispheric defense policy relative to European influence under the Monroe Doctrine since 1823, which became increasingly interventionist with the Roosevelt Corollary in 1904. During the 1930s the US had been alarmed by Axis overtures toward military cooperation with Latin American governments; apparent strategic threats against the Panama Canal were of particular concern. These were discussed in a series of meetings of the International Conference of American States and the 1936 Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace.[3] During the war Washington had been able to secure Allied support from all individual governments except Uruguay, which remained neutral, and Argentina, whose government was not recognized by the Allied powers.[3] Some countries had signed the Declaration by United Nations in early 1942 and more had signed by the end of 1945. At the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace, in Mexico City during February and March 1945, discussions of the post-war world order were held and produced the Act of Chapultepec.[3][4]
In light of the developing Cold War and following the statement of the Truman Doctrine, the US wished to make those new anti-communist commitments permanent. The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance was the first of many so-called 'mutual security agreements',[5] and the formalization of the Act of Chapultepec. The treaty was adopted by the original signatories on 2 September 1947 in Rio de Janeiro (hence the colloquial name "Rio Treaty"). It came into force on 3 December 1948 and was registered with the United Nations on 20 December 1948.[1]
The treaty was invoked numerous times during the 1950s and 1960s, in particular supporting the United States' naval blockade unanimously during the Cuban Missile Crisis. With the exceptions of Trinidad and Tobago (1967) and the Bahamas (1982), no countries that became independent after 1947 have joined the treaty; Canada is yet to become a member, though it already has separate defense commitments with the US. During the Falklands War (Malvinas in Spanish), the United States, despite having signed the Rio Treaty before the NATO alliance, arguing that Argentina was the aggressor, favoured the United Kingdom, as did Chile and Colombia. This was seen by most Latin American countries as the final failure of the treaty.[6][7] In 2001, the United States invoked the Rio Treaty after the September 11 attacks; however only four Latin American countries (Honduras, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and El Salvador) contributed troops to the Iraq War[8] while two others (Colombia and Panama) were members of the "Coalition of the Willing."[9] In September 2002, citing the Falklands example[10][11] and anticipating the Iraq War, Mexico formally withdrew from the treaty; after the requisite two years, Mexico ceased to be a signatory in September 2004.
On 2008, the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) created a new regional security council to take care of their own defence issues.[12][13]
On 5 June 2012, ALBA countries Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Venezuela, under the leadership of leftist governments, initiated the retirement from the TIAR,[14][15] a decision which the Obama Administration deplored as "unfortunate" but respected.[16] The treaty has been denounced by Nicaragua on 20 September 2012, Bolivia on 17 October 2012, Venezuela on 14 May 2013, and Ecuador on 19 February 2014.
See also[edit]
Military alliance
SICOFAA
Mutual Defense Assistance Act
Mutual Security Act
United States-Latin American relations
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "B-29: INTER-AMERICAN TREATY OF RECIPROCAL ASSISTANCE (RIO TREATY)". Organization of American States. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance definition of Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance in the Free Online Encyclopedia.
^ Jump up to: a b c Act of Chapultepec The Oxford Companion to World War II, 2001, I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot
Jump up ^ Act of Chapultepec: Declarations on Reciprocal Assistance and American Solidarity, March 3, 1945, Pillars of Peace, Documents Pertaining To American Interest In Establishing A Lasting World Peace: January 1941-February 1946, Book Department, Army Information School, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., May 1946
Jump up ^ Alliances, Coalitions, and Ententes - The American alliance system: an unamerican tradition
Jump up ^ the deep weakening of hemispheric relations occurred due to the American support, without mediation, to the United Kingdom in the Malvinas war in 1982, which definitively turned TIAR in dead letter The Brazilian foreign policy and the hemispheric security
Jump up ^ El episodio dejó un mal sabor de boca en muchas de las cancillerías latinoamericanas, que pensaban que el TIAR era un mero papel mojado o una herramienta sólo al servicio de EEUU.
Jump up ^ Wikipedia List of coalition countries do we need to repeat all sources here?
Jump up ^ White House.org: "Who are the current coalition members?" March 27, 2013
Jump up ^ OEA: México abandona el TIAR (BBC Mundo)
Jump up ^ OAS official document: He cited the 1982 conflict over the Malvinas Islands as a classic demonstration of the Treaty's failure
Jump up ^ Nace UNASUR y alianza militar sin EE.UU.
Jump up ^ La defensa regional en manos propias: UNASUR
Jump up ^ Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua y Venezuela dejan el mecanismo de defensa TIAR
Jump up ^ ALBA countries renounced the TIAR in OAS Assembly
Jump up ^ EEUU lamenta que Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua y Venezuela se retiren de TIAR
[hide]
v
t
e
Organization of American States (OAS)
Members
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Barbados
Brazil
Belize
Bahamas
Bolivia
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
St. Kitts and Nevis
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Uruguay
Renounced
Venezuela
Organization
Secretariat for Political Affairs
Secretariat for Multidimensional Security
General Assembly
Inter-American Commission of Women
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
Pan American Union Building
Politics
Charter
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance
American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
American Convention on Human Rights
Pan-American Conference
Summits of the Americas
Americas
Pan American Sports Organization
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance&oldid=811429755"
Categories:
20th-century military alliances
21st-century military alliances
Anti-communism
Cold War organizations
Cold War treaties
United States–South American relations
Treaties concluded in 1947
Treaties entered into force in 1948
Organization of American States treaties
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of the Bahamas
Treaties of the Second Brazilian Republic
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of Colombia
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Cuba
Cuba–United States relations
Treaties of El Salvador
Treaties of Guatemala
Treaties of Haiti
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of Peru
Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago
Treaties of the United States
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties of the Dominican Republic
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This page was last edited on 21 November 2017, at 15:29.
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values: Interamerikanischer Vertrag über gegenseitigen Beistand – German

values: Tratado Interamericano de Asistencia Recíproca – Spanish

values: Traité interaméricain d'assistance réciproque – French

values: Trattato interamericano di assistenza reciproca – Italian

values: 米州相互援助条約 – Japanese

values: Traktat międzyamerykański o pomocy wzajemnej – Polish

values: Tratado Interamericano de Assistência Recíproca – Portuguese

values: Межамериканский договор о взаимной помощи – Russian

values: Міжамериканський договір взаємної допомоги – Ukrainian

values: Hiệp ước Hỗ tương Liên Mỹ châu – Vietnamese

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