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Mexican War of Independence
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See also: Spanish American wars of independence
See also: Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010
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Mexican War of Independence
Part of the Spanish American wars of independence

Clockwise from top left: Miguel Hidalgo, José María Morelos, Embrace of Acatempan between Iturbide and Guerrero, Trigarante Army in Mexico City, Mural of independence by O'Gorman
Date
16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821
(11 years, 1 week and 4 days)
Location
Mexico
Result
Mexican independence
First Mexican Empire gains independence from Spain
Signing of the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire
Territorial
changes
Spain loses the continental area of Viceroyalty of New Spain
Belligerents
Insurgents
Army of the Three Guarantees (1821)
Spanish Empire
Mexican royalists
Commanders and leaders
Miguel Hidalgo (1810–11)
Ignacio Allende (1810–11)
Ignacio López R. † (1810–11)
José María Morelos (1810–15)
Vicente Guerrero (1810–21)
Mariano Matamoros (1811–14)
Guadalupe Victoria (1812–21)
Francisco Xavier
Mina
(1817)
Agustín de Iturbide (1821) Ferdinand VII
Francisco Venegas (1810–13)
Félix María Calleja (1813–16)
Juan Ruiz de A. (1816–21)
Francisco Novella (1821)
Juan O'Donojú (1821)
Strength
100,000 irregular
23,100 regular 17,000
Casualties and losses
2,000 killed
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Mexican War
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The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México) was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. The war had its antecedent in Napoleon's French invasion of Spain in 1808; it extended from the Grito de Dolores by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810, to the entrance of the Army of the Three Guarantees led by Agustín de Iturbide to Mexico City on September 27, 1821. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day.
The movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions. By that time the educated elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms and a deep economic crisis in New Spain caused discomfort among the native-born Creole elite.
The dramatic political events in Europe, the French Revolutionary Wars and the conquests of Napoleon deeply influenced events in New Spain. In 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were forced to abdicate in favor of the French Emperor, who then made his elder brother Joseph king. The same year, the ayuntamiento (city council) of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy; when it was suppressed, the leaders of the movement were jailed.
Despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of rebels met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. In 1810, after being discovered, Querétaro conspirators chose to take up arms on September 16 in the company of peasants and indigenous inhabitants of Dolores (Guanajuato), who were called to action by the secular Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo, former rector of the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo.
After 1810 the independence movement went through several stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. At first they[who?] recognized the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII over Spain and its colonies, but later the leaders took more radical positions, including such issues of social order as the abolition of slavery. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, which gave the insurgency its own legal framework. After the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur and Veracruz.
The reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain; they sought an alliance with the former insurgent resistance. Agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain. It called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27, 1821.
After that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a federal republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts and the separation of Central America from Mexico.
After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 First phase of the insurgency: the Hidalgo revolt
3 Second phase of the insurgency and independence
4 Construction of Historical Memory of Independence
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Background
Mexican resistance and struggle for independence began with the brutal Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire when Spanish conquerors had considerable autonomy from crown control. Don Martín Cortés (son of Hernán Cortés), the second marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, led a conspiracy of holders of encomiendas against the Spanish crown after it sought to eliminate privileges for the conquistadors, particularly putting limitations on encomiendas.[1] After the suppression of that mid-16th-century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810.
Elites in Mexico City in the seventeenth century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy, the Marqués de Gelves, following an urban riot in 1624 fomented by those elites. He attempted to eliminate corrupt practices by creole elites as well as rein in the opulent displays of the clergy's power, but ecclesiastical authorities in conjunction with creole elites mobilized urban plebeians to oust the viceroy.[2][3] The crowd was reported to shout, "Long live the King! Love live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic Lutheran [Viceroy Gelves]! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself.[4]
There was also a brief conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks, and indigenous against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman born William Lamport. Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition. There is a statue of Lamport in the mauseleum at the base of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City.
At the end of the seventeenth century, there was a major riot in Mexico City where a mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's palace and the archbishop's residence. A painting by Cristóbal Villalpando shows the damage of the 1692 tumulto. Unlike the earlier one in 1624 in which elites were involved, the viceroy ousted, and no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was by plebeians alone and racially charged. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans. "Kill the [American-born] Spaniards and the Gachupines [Iberian-born Spaniards] who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without confession! Is this not our land?"[5] The viceroy attempted to address the apparent cause of the riot, a rise of maize prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented class warfare that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica."[6]
The various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era were often to throw off crown rule, but they were not an independence movement as such. However, during the war of independence, issues at the local level in rural areas constituted what one historian has called "the other rebellion."[7]
American-born Spaniards in New Spain developed a special understanding and ties to their New World homeland, what has been seen the formation of Creole patriotism. They did not, however, pursue political independence from Spain until the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula and defeat of Spain destabilized the monarchy.[8][9] With the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms starting in the mid-eighteenth century, the Spanish crown sought to impose restrictions on creole elites.
In the early 19th century, Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to an outbreak of numerous revolts against colonial government across Spanish America. After the abortive Conspiracy of the Machetes in 1799, a massive revolt in the Bajío region was led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.[10] His Grito de Dolores was the first stage of the insurgency for Mexican independence.[10][11] Before 1810, there was no significant support for independence. Once the Hidalgo revolt was underway, it received major support only in the Bajío and parts of Jalisco.[12]
First phase of the insurgency: the Hidalgo revolt
See also: Cry of Dolores
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, by José Clemente Orozco, Jalisco Governmental Palace, Guadalajara.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest and member of a group of educated Criollos in Querétaro City, hosted secret gatherings in his home to discuss whether it was better to obey or to revolt against a tyrannical government, as he defined the Spanish colonial government in Mexico. Famed military leader Ignacio Allende was among the attendees. In 1810 Hidalgo concluded that a revolt was needed because of injustices against the poor of Mexico. By this time Hidalgo was known for his achievements at the prestigious San Nicolás Obispo school in Valladolid (now Morelia), and later service there as rector. He also became known as a top theologian. When his older brother died in 1803, Hidalgo took over as priest for the town of Dolores.[13]
Hidalgo was in Dolores on 15 September 1810, with other rebel leaders including commander Allende, when they learned their conspiracy had been discovered. Hidalgo ran to the church, calling for all the people to gather, where from the pulpit he called upon them to revolt. They all shouted in agreement. The people were a comparatively small group, and poorly armed with whatever was at hand, including sticks and rocks. On the morning of 16 September 1810, Hidalgo called upon the remaining locals who happened to be in the market, and again, from the pulpit, exhorted the people of Dolores to join him. Most did: Hidalgo had a mob of some 600 men within minutes. This became known as the Grito de Dolores or Cry of Dolores.
Hidalgo and Allende marched their little army through towns including San Miguel and Celaya, where the angry rebels killed all the Spaniards they found. Along the way they adopted the standard of the Virgin of Guadalupe as their symbol and protector. When they reached the town of Guanajuato on September 28, they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary. Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 Spanish and creoles, and marched on toward Mexico City.
The Viceroy quickly organized a defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and 2 cannons - all that could be found on such short notice. On October 30, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces, fought them, and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the City.
Despite having the advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error.[13]
Rebel survivors sought refuge in nearby provinces and villages. The insurgent forces planned a defensive strategy at a bridge on the Calderón River, pursued by the Spanish army. In January 1811, Spanish forces fought the Battle of the Bridge of Calderón and defeated the insurgent army, forcing the rebels to flee towards the United States–Mexican border, where they hoped to escape.[14]
But they were intercepted by the Spanish army. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján (Norias de Baján). All of the rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo. He was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the Inquisition. He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama and Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the granary of Guanajuato as a warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps.
Father José María Morelos
Following the execution of Hidalgo, José María Morelos took over leadership of the insurgency. He achieved the occupation of the cities of Oaxaca and Acapulco. In 1813, he convened the Congress of Chilpancingo to bring representatives together and, on 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America". A long period of war followed in the Siege of Cuautla. In 1815, Morelos was captured by Spanish colonial authorities, tried and executed for treason.[15]
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Father Hidalgo is today remembered as the Father of his Country, the great hero of Mexico's War for Independence. There are numerous hagiographic biographies of him.
The truth about Hidalgo is more complex. His was the first serious insurrection on Mexican soil against Spanish authority, and his achievements with his poorly armed mob were significant. He was a charismatic leader and worked well with Allende despite their differences. But Hidalgo's shortcomings make historians ask, "What if?" After decades of abuse of Creoles and poor mestizos, Hidalgo found that there was a vast well of resentment and hatred of the Spanish government. He provided the catalyst for Mexico's poor to vent their anger on the hated "gachipines" or Spaniards, but his "army" was impossible to manage or control.[citation needed]
His leadership decisions, most importantly his retreat from Mexico City, contributed to his defeat. Historians can only speculate about the result if Hidalgo had pushed into Mexico City in November 1810. Hidalgo appeared to be too proud or stubborn to listen to the sound military advice offered by Allende and others and press his advantage.[citation needed]
Finally, Hidalgo's approval of the violent sacking and looting by his forces in Guanajuato and other towns alienated the group most vital to any independence movement: middle-class and wealthy creoles like himself. They were needed to develop a new identity and government for Mexico, one that would allow Mexicans to break from Spain.[citation needed]
Hidalgo achieved mythic status after his death. His martyrdom was an example to others who picked up the fallen banner of freedom and independence. He influenced later fighters such as José María Morelos, Guadalupe Victoria and others. Today, Hidalgo's remains are held in a Mexico City monument known as "the Angel of Independence", along with other Revolutionary heroes.[citation needed]
Second phase of the insurgency and independence
Oil painting of Agustín de Iturbide, leader of independence who was declared Emperor Augustín I, in 1822 following independence
Flag of the Army of the Three Guarantees
Portrait of Vicente Guerrero, mixed-race guerrilla leader of independence and later president of Mexico
From 1815 to 1821 most of the fighting for independence from Spain was done by small and isolated guerrilla bands. From these, two leaders arose: Guadalupe Victoria (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos.[16]
In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now Morelia), had gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative criollo values; he was devoutly religious, and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to gain wealth.[17]
Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was an about-face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency. After an initial clash with Guerrero's forces, Iturbide assumed command of the royal army. At Iguala, he allied his formerly royalist force with Guerrero’s radical insurgents to discuss the renewed struggle for independence.
While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees," for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another Bourbon prince, or some other conservative European prince; criollos would be given equal rights and privileges to peninsulares; and the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land. After convincing his troops to accept the principles, which were promulgated on February 24, 1821 as the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this conservative independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions.[18]
Iturbide's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico. When the rebels' victory became certain, the Viceroy resigned. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala.[19] On September 27, 1821 the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire, as New Spain was henceforth to be called. The Treaty of Córdoba was not ratified by the Spanish Cortes. Iturbide included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown. Half of the new government employees appointed were Iturbide's followers.[20]
Flag of the Mexican Empire of Iturbide, the template for the modern Mexican flag with the eagle perched on a cactus. The crown on the eagle's head symbolizes monarchy in Mexico.
On the night of the May 18, 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded their commander-in-chief to accept the throne. The following day, the congress declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico. On October 31, 1822 Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta.[21]
Construction of Historical Memory of Independence
See also: Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010
In 1910, as part of the celebrations marking the centennial of the Hidalgo revolt of 1810, President Porfirio Díaz inaugurated the monument to Mexico's political separation from Spain, the Angel of Independence on Avenida Reforma. The creation of this architectural monument is part of the long process of the construction of historical memory of Mexican independence.
Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created emperor of Mexico. His short-lived reign from 1821–22 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked on September 27. Following his ouster, there were calls to commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States celebrated in grand style its Independence Day on July 4. The creation of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the Junta Patriótica, organized celebrations of both September 16, to commemorate Hidalgo's grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and September 27, to celebrate actual political independence.[22]
During the Díaz regime (1876–1911), the president's birthday coincided with the September 15/16 celebration of independence. The largest celebrations took place and continue to do so in the capital's main square, the zócalo, with the peeling of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City's bells. In the 1880s, government officials attempted to move the bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810 to gather parishioners in Dolores for what became his famous "grito". Initially the pueblo's officials said the bell no longer existed, but in 1896, the bell, known as the Bell of San José, was taken to the capital. It was renamed the "Bell of Independence" and ritually rung by Díaz. It is now an integral part of Independence Day festivities.[23]
See also
Spanish American wars of independence portal
Mexico portal
Afro-Mexicans in the Mexican War of Independence
List of wars involving Mexico
Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico
References
Jump up ^ John Charles Chasteen. Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America. New York, Norton, 2001. ISBN 978-0-393-97613-7
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico. Prentice Hall 2003, pp. 246-247.
Jump up ^ Jonathan I. Israel. Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610-1670. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1975.
Jump up ^ Altman et al, The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 247.
Jump up ^ quoted in Altman et al, The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 248.
Jump up ^ Altman et al, The Early History of Greater Mexico, p. 249.
Jump up ^ Eric Van Young, The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence, 1810-1821. Stanford: Stanfor University Press 2001.
Jump up ^ D.A. Brading, The First America: the Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1991.
Jump up ^ John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986.
^ Jump up to: a b Hugh Hamill, The Hidalgo Revolt. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1966, pp. 90-94.
Jump up ^ John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution, pp. 126-138.
Jump up ^ Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution, pp. 138-183.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Harvey (2000). Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence. Woodstock: The Overlook Press.
Jump up ^ Philip Young. History of Mexico: Her Civil Wars and Colonial and Revolutionary Annals. Gardners Books, [1847] 2007, pp. 84-86. ISBN 978-0-548-32604-6
Jump up ^ Leslie Bethell (1987). The Independence of Latin America. Cambridge University Press. p. 65.
Jump up ^ Timothy J. Henderson (2009). The Mexican Wars for Independence. pp. 115–16.
Jump up ^ .Christon I. Archer, "Royalist Scourge or Liberator of the Patria? Agustín de Iturbide and Mexico's War of Independence, 1810-1821," Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanos (2008) 24#2 pp 325-361
Jump up ^ Michael S. Werner (2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Francis. pp. 308–9.
Jump up ^ Nettie Lee Benson (1992). The Provincial Deputation in Mexico: Harbinger of Provincial Autonomy, Independence, and Federalism. University of Texas Press. p. 42.
Jump up ^ Philip Russell (2011). The History of Mexico: From Pre-Conquest to Present. Routledge. p. 132.
Jump up ^ Christon I. Archer (2007). The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780-1824. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 220.
Jump up ^ Michael Costeloe, "The Junta Patriótica and the Celebration of Independence in Mexico City, 1825-1855" in !Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia! Celebrations of September 16, eds. William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey. Wilmington: SR Books 2001, pp. 44-45.
Jump up ^ Isabel Fernández Tejedo and Carmen Nava Nava, "Images of Independence in the Nineteenth Century: The 'Grito de Dolores', History and Myth" in !Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia! Celebrations of September 16, eds. William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey. Wilmington: SR Books 2001, pp. 33-34.
Further reading
Anna, Timothy E. (1978). The Fall of Royal Government in Mexico City. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-0957-6.
Beezley, William H. and David E. Lorey, eds. !Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16. Wilmington DL: Scholarly Resources Books 2001.
Benjamin, Thomas. (2000). Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History (University of Texas Press). ISBN 978-0-292-70880-8
Christon I. Archer, ed. (2003). The Birth of Modern Mexico. Willmington, Delaware: SR Books. ISBN 0-8420-5126-0.
Dominguez, Jorge. Insurrection or Loyalty: the Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1980.
García, Pedro. Con el cura Hidalgo en la guerra de independencia en México. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1982.
Hamill, Jr. Hugh M. "Early Psychological Warfare in the Hidalgo Revolt," Hispanic American Historical Review (1961) 41#2 pp. 206–235 in JSTOR
Hamill, Hugh M. (1966). The Hidalgo Revolt: Prelude to Mexican Independence. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
Hamnett, Brian R. (1986). Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-3214-88.
Hamnett, Brian. "Royalist Counterinsurgency and the Continuity of Rebellion: Guanajuato and Michoacán, 1813-1820" Hispanic American Historical Review 62(1)February 1982, pp. 19–48.
Knight, Alan (2002). Mexico: The Colonial Era. Cambridge University Press.
Timmons, Wilbert H. (1963). Morelos: Priest, Soldier, Statesman of Mexico. El Paso: Texas Western College Press.
Jaime E. Rodríguez O, ed. (1989). The Independence of Mexico and the Creation of the New Nation. UCLA Latin American Studies. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications. ISBN 978-0-87903-070-4.
Tutino, John. From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexican_War_of_Independence&oldid=815529599"
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SundanceTV (formerly known as Sundance Channel) is an American digital cable and satellite television network that is owned by AMC Networks. The channel is devoted to airing documentaries, independent feature films, short films, world cinema, and original programs, such as news about the latest developments from each year's Sundance Film Festival. However, in recent years, it has incorporated scripted and reality series into its schedule. It has become fully ad-supported with commercials in 2013, with content being censored soon thereafter.[1]
As of July 2015, the channel is available to approximately 60.668 million households with television (52.1% of all subscribers) in the United States.[2] In March 2015, Dish Network's Sling TV announced it would soon begin making AMC channels available to cord cutters, including AMC, BBC America, IFC, SundanceTV, and WE tv.[3][4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 As Sundance Channel
1.1.1 As a premium movie channel (1996–2007)
1.1.2 Sale to Rainbow Media (2008–12)
1.1.2.1 2012 Dish Network carriage dispute
1.1.3 Expansion into original scripted programming (2012–2014)
1.2 As SundanceTV
1.2.1 Rebranding (2014–present)
2 International
2.1 Americas
2.2 Asia
2.3 Middle East and North Africa
2.4 Europe
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
As Sundance Channel[edit]
As a premium movie channel (1996–2007)[edit]
After negotiations during 1994 broke down to turn Robert Redford into a partner in AMC Networks predecessor Rainbow Media's Independent Film Channel,[6] Redford launched Sundance Channel in February 1996 as a joint venture between Showtime Networks (then a division of Viacom, now owned by CBS Corporation), NBCUniversal, and Redford (who also served as the creative director of the network).
The channel was initially launched on five cable systems in New York City; Los Angeles; Alexandria, Virginia; Chamblee, Georgia; and Pensacola, Florida.[7] It originally operated mainly as a premium channel, commonly packaged with Showtime and its sister networks The Movie Channel and Flix. The channel got its name from Redford's character in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and, while it is an extension of Redford's non-profit Sundance Institute, the channel operates independently of both the Sundance Institute and the Sundance Film Festival.
Strictly a movie channel in its early years, Sundance Channel expanded into original programming by the early 2000s. After limited attempts at original programming – City Of Men, House of Boateng, Iconoclasts, The Al Franken Show, The First Amendment Project. The Hill, and TransGeneration – Sundance Channel expanded its programming in 2007 by ordering One Punk Under God, Sin City Law, and a prime-time environmental block called "The Green." While the first two programs lasted only one season, the environmental block lasted until 2009.
Sale to Rainbow Media (2008–12)[edit]
Sundance Channel logo 2008–2014
On May 7, 2008, the Rainbow Media subsidiary of Cablevision (owners of AMC, IFC, WE tv, and News 12 Networks, and the defunct Voom HD Networks) announced that it had purchased Sundance Channel for $496 million.[8] The acquisition of Sundance Channel by Rainbow Media was completed in June 2008.[9] On July 1, 2011, Rainbow Media was spun off from Cablevision into a separate company, which was renamed AMC Networks.[10]
Sundance saw a rapid expansion of its documentary and unscripted series slate during this period; however, very few of the shows lasted beyond their first season, with the rest being cancelled after their second. 2010 did see the channel's first miniseries, Carlos, which could be credited as the start of the future shift in programming for the channel.
2012 Dish Network carriage dispute[edit]
Further information: AMC Networks § Dish Network carriage dispute
Expansion into original scripted programming (2012–2014)[edit]
2012 saw the premieres of two new unscripted series in the form of Get To Work and Push Girls, before the channel's second miniseries, Restless,[11] premiered in December. Restless went on to receive two Emmy Award nominations. It was also announced that Sundance had picked up its first solely owned original series, and former developmental project from sister channel AMC, Rectify, and its third miniseries Top of the Lake.
SundanceTV President Sarah Barnett at the 73rd Annual Peabody Awards with Peabody for ‘The Returned (French: Les Revenants)’
On March 4, 2013, Sundance began airing AMC's Breaking Bad, to which the channel has exclusive syndication rights, on Monday nights.[12] The seven-part miniseries Top of the Lake premiered on March 18, 2013, while gaining critical acclaim before eventually receiving eight Emmy nominations. Rectify then premiered on April 22, 2013, and was the third straight original scripted program from Sundance to receive critical praise. Continuing its push as a destination spot for series on Monday nights, the second season of Push Girls followed, before leading way to the new talk show The Writers' Room, where each episode features a behind-the-scenes look at the writing staff of a popular television series. October saw the premieres of Dream School[13] and The Returned and the channel become fully ad supported.[1]
As SundanceTV[edit]
Rebranding (2014–present)[edit]
On January 27, 2014, it was announced that the Sundance Channel would rebrand as SundanceTV on February 1, 2014 that featured a new logo.[14] 2014 featured the channel's fourth miniseries The Honourable Woman, the channel's second solely owned original scripted series The Red Road, the new reality series Loredana, ESQ, and the second seasons of Rectify, The Writer's Room, and The Returned.[15] This channel also picked up the series Hap and Leonard for 6 episodes based on the series of novels by Joe R. Lansdale. On June 27, 2016, the show was renewed for a second season.[16]
International[edit]
Over time, Sundance Channel has expanded its international distribution in the Americas, Asia, and Europe.
Americas[edit]
Hispanic America - Sundance Channel was launched in September 2013. It was renamed SundanceTV in January 2016.
Brazil - In the second half of 2014 a Brazilian version will be released of a channel fully dubbed in Portuguese.[17]
Canada - On March 1, 2010, a Canadian version of Sundance Channel was launched by Toronto-based media company Corus Entertainment. AMC Networks does not own any stake in the Canadian service, but maintains a brand licensing agreement with Corus Entertainment to allow the use of the Sundance Channel brand as well as access to programming from the U.S. service.[18]
Asia[edit]
Malaysia - Astro B.yond,[19] ceased broadcasting on July 1, 2016
Singapore - SingTel’s Singtel TV,[19] ceased broadcasting on March 11, 2017
South East Asia, South Korea - Sundance Channel launched in 2013[20] on KT and Skylife[19]
Middle East and North Africa[edit]
Arab Countries - OSN
Europe[edit]
Belgium - Telenet[19]
France - Sundance Channel launched in France in 2009 on Numericable,[21] also available on Free and carried on SFR.[19]
Greece - Sundance Channel launched in Greece on July 18, 2011 as a linear channel on Cosmote TV and broadcasts in HD via satellite as Sundance Channel HD.
Netherlands - Film1 Sundance launched in the Netherlands in March 2012, replacing the movie channel Film1 Festival.[19]
Poland - Sundance Channel launched in Poland on April 16, 2010, on UPC Polska [19]
Portugal - NOS. [19]
Romania - available on UPC Romania, Telekom and Orange TV.
Spain - Sundance Channel, previously known as Cinematk.[22]
Turkey - Digiturk. [19]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Thielman, Sam (24 March 2013). "Sundance Channel Goes Ad-Supported Next AMC?". Ad week. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "List of how many homes each cable network is in as of July 2015". TV by the Numbers. Zap2it. July 21, 2015. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Newman, Jared (March 4, 2015). "Sling TV bulks up base package with AMC and IFC". TechHive.
Jump up ^ Newman, Jared (January 30, 2015). "Sling TV brings back the linear video element that other cord-cutting services lack, but could use some polish and a few more features". TechHive.
Jump up ^ Paul, Ian Paul (February 9, 2015). "Sling TV's web-based live television opens to all cord cutters, adds AMC to lineup".
Jump up ^ Brown, Rich (January 23, 1995). "Redford, Showtime form movie channel". Broadcasting & Cable. HighBeam Research. Retrieved February 28, 2011. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Sundance readying for February debut". Broadcasting & Cable. HighBeam Research. December 4, 1995. Retrieved February 28, 2011. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Stelter, Brian (May 7, 2008). "Cablevision Unit Buys Sundance Channel". The New York Times. Retrieved October 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ Stelter, Brian (June 18, 2008). "Cablevision Buys Sundance". The New York Times. Retrieved October 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ AMC Networks Goes Public With Hot Shows, And Analysts Looking For A Sale Deadline New York July 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ "‘Restless,’ With Charlotte Rampling, on the Sundance Channel". December 6, 2012. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley. "'Breaking Bad' Lands on Sundance Channel in Syndication Deal". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sundance Channel Goes Back to School on October 7 with the Premiere of "Dream School"". The Futon Critic. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sundance Channel Rebrands As SundanceTV; Unveils New Logo". Deadline Hollywooid. January 27, 2014. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie. "TCA: Sundance Channel Picks Up Season 2 Of French Drama ‘The Returned’, Renews ‘Writers’ Room’". Deadline. Retrieved January 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hap and Leonard: Season Two Renewal for SundanceTV Series". TV Series Finale. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "In the second half of 2014 will be released a Brazilian version of the channel fully dubbed in Portuguese" (Press release).
Jump up ^ "Sundance Channel Rises in Canada" (Press release). Corus Entertainment. December 8, 2009. Retrieved October 8, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Briel, Robert (October 7, 2010). "Sundance expands international distribution". Broadband TV News. Retrieved October 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sundance Channel, WE tv expand across Asia".
Jump up ^ Briel, Robert (March 25, 2009). "Sundance Channel debuts on Numericable". Broadband TV News. Retrieved October 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ Dziadul, Chris (September 23, 2014). "AMC to rebrand Spanish channel". Broadband TV News. Retrieved September 8, 2017.
External links[edit]
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