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Beverly Hills Cop
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For other uses, see Beverly Hills Cop (disambiguation).
Beverly Hills Cop
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Martin Brest
Produced by
Don Simpson
Jerry Bruckheimer
Screenplay by
Daniel Petrie Jr.
Story by
Danilo Bach
Daniel Petrie, Jr.
Starring
Eddie Murphy
Music by
Harold Faltermeyer
Cinematography
Bruce Surtees
Edited by
Arthur Coburn
Billy Weber
Production
company
Don Simpson/Jerry Bruckheimer Films
Eddie Murphy Productions
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures
Release date
December 1, 1984 (1984-12-01) (Los Angeles)
December 5, 1984 (1984-12-05) (United States)
Running time
105 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$15 million[2]
Box office
$316.4 million[3]
Beverly Hills Cop is a 1984 American action comedy film directed by Martin Brest, written by Daniel Petrie Jr. and starring Eddie Murphy as Axel Foley, a street-smart Detroit cop who visits Beverly Hills, California to solve the murder of his best friend. Judge Reinhold, John Ashton, Ronny Cox, Lisa Eilbacher, Steven Berkoff and Jonathan Banks appear in supporting roles.
This first film in the Beverly Hills Cop series shot Murphy to international stardom, won the People's Choice Award for "Favorite Motion Picture" and was nominated for both the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1985. It earned $234 million at the North American domestic box office, making it the highest-grossing film released in 1984 in the U.S.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
5 Soundtrack
6 Awards and nominations
7 Legacy
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Young and reckless Detroit police detective Axel Foley's latest unauthorized sting operation goes sour when two uniformed officers intervene, resulting in a high-speed chase through the city which causes widespread damage. His boss Inspector Douglas Todd reprimands Axel for his behavior and threatens to fire him unless he changes his ways on the force. Axel arrives at his apartment to find it has been broken into by his childhood friend, Mikey Tandino. Mikey did time in prison, but ended up working as a security guard in Beverly Hills, thanks to a mutual friend, Jenny Summers. Mikey shows Axel some German bearer bonds and Axel wonders how he got them, but chooses not to question him about it. After hanging out at a bar, they return to Axel's apartment, where two men knock Axel unconscious and then confront Mikey about the bearer bonds, and kill him.
Axel asks to investigate Mikey's murder, but Inspector Todd refuses to allow it because of his close ties to Mikey. Axel uses the guise of taking vacation time to head to Beverly Hills to solve the crime alone. He finds Jenny working in an art gallery and learns about Mikey's ties to Victor Maitland, the gallery's owner. Posing as a flower deliveryman, Axel goes to Maitland's office and tries to question him about Mikey, but is thrown out a window by Maitland's bodyguards and arrested. At the police station, Lieutenant Andrew Bogomil assigns Sergeant John Taggart and Detective Billy Rosewood to follow Axel. Taggart and Rosewood have a humiliating encounter with Axel that night, and do not get along with him at first, but the three do begin to develop a mutual respect after they foil a robbery at a striptease bar.
On the trail of Mikey's killers, Axel sneaks into one of Maitland's warehouses, where he finds coffee grounds, which he suspects were used to pack drugs. He also discovers that many of Maitland's crates have not gone through customs. After being arrested again, this time after a scuffle at Maitland's country club, Axel admits to Bogomil that Maitland must be a smuggler. Police Chief Hubbard, who has learned of Axel's ill-advised investigative actions, orders that Axel be escorted out of town. However, Axel convinces Rosewood to pick up Jenny instead and take her with them to Maitland's warehouse, where a shipment is due to arrive that day.
Axel and Jenny break into the warehouse and discover several bags of cocaine inside a crate. Before Axel can get this new found evidence to Rosewood, Maitland and his associates arrive. Maitland takes Jenny and leaves Axel to be killed, but after some hesitation, Rosewood enters the warehouse and rescues Axel. Taggart tracks Axel and Rosewood to Maitland's estate, where he joins the two in their efforts to rescue Jenny and bring Maitland to justice. Together, the trio wipe out a number of Maitland's men, including Zack, Maitland's right-hand man and Mikey's killer. With Bogomil's help, Axel then fatally shoots Maitland and rescues Jenny. Bogomil fabricates a story to Hubbard that covers for all the participants without discrediting the Beverly Hills Police force. Realizing that he may be fired in Detroit, Axel asks Bogomil to speak to Inspector Todd and smooth things over for him. Later, Taggart and Rosewood meet Axel as he checks out of his hotel, and pay his bill. Axel invites them to join him for a farewell drink, and they accept.
Cast[edit]
Eddie Murphy as Axel Foley
Judge Reinhold as Detective Billy Rosewood
John Ashton as Sergeant Taggart
Lisa Eilbacher as Jenny Summers
Ronny Cox as Lieutenant Andrew Bogomil
Steven Berkoff as Victor Maitland
James Russo as Mikey Tandino
Stephen Elliott as Chief Hubbard
Paul Reiser as Jeffrey
Jonathan Banks as Zack
Gilbert R. Hill as Inspector Todd
Bronson Pinchot as Serge
Production[edit]
The Beverly Hills City Hall featured prominently in the Beverly Hills Cop films as the police headquarters.
In 1977, Paramount executive Don Simpson came up with a movie idea about a cop from East L.A. who transferred to Beverly Hills.[4] Screenwriter Danilo Bach was called in to write the screenplay. Bach pitched his idea to Simpson and Paramount in 1981 under the name Beverly Drive, about a cop from Pittsburgh named Elly Axel.[4] However, his script was a straight action film and Bach was forced to make changes to the script, but after a few attempts the project went stale.[4] With the success of Flashdance (1983), Simpson saw the Beverly Hills film as his next big project.[4] Daniel Petrie, Jr. was brought in to rewrite the script and Paramount loved Petrie's humorous approach to the project, with the lead character now called Axel Elly, from Detroit.[4] Producer Jerry Bruckheimer claimed that the role of Axel Foley was first offered to Mickey Rourke, who signed a $400,000 holding contract to do the film. When revisions and other preparations took longer than expected, Rourke left the project to do another film.
Sylvester Stallone was originally considered for the part of Foley.[5] Stallone gave the script a dramatic rewrite and made it into a straight action film.[4] In one of the previous drafts written for Stallone, the character of Billy Rosewood was called "Siddons" and was killed off half-way through the script during one of the action scenes.[6] Stallone had renamed the lead character to Axel Cobretti, with the character of Michael Tandino being his brother and Jenny Summers playing his love interest. Stallone has said that his script for Beverly Hills Cop would have "looked like the opening scene from Saving Private Ryan on the beaches of Normandy. Believe it or not, the finale was me in a stolen Lamborghini playing chicken with an oncoming freight train being driven by the ultra-slimy bad guy."[4] However, Stallone's ideas were deemed "too expensive" for Paramount to produce and Stallone ultimately pulled out two weeks before filming was to start. Two days later, the film's producers, Simpson and Bruckheimer, convinced Eddie Murphy to replace Stallone in the film, prompting more rewrites.[7] Besides Stallone and Rourke, other actors who were considered for the role of Axel Foley included Richard Pryor, Al Pacino, and James Caan.[8]
Reception[edit]
Beverly Hills Cop received critical acclaim upon its release, and is considered by many as one of the best films of 1984.[9][10][unreliable source?] Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote "Beverly Hills Cop finds Eddie Murphy doing what he does best: playing the shrewdest, hippest, fastest-talking underdog in a rich man's world. Eddie Murphy knows exactly what he's doing, and he wins at every turn".[11] Richard Schickel of Time magazine wrote that "Eddie Murphy exuded the kind of cheeky, cocky charm that has been missing from the screen since Cagney was a pup, snarling his way out of the ghetto".[12] Axel Foley became Murphy's signature role and was ranked No. 78 on Empire magazine's list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.[13] Also, Entertainment Weekly magazine ranked Beverly Hills Cop as the third best comedy film of the last 25 years. According to Christopher Hitchens, the British novelist and poet Kingsley Amis considered the film "a flawless masterpiece."[14]
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 44 critics to give the film a score of 84%, with an average score of 7.1/10. The site's consensus reads, "The buddy cop movie continues its evolution unabated with this Eddie Murphy vehicle that's fast, furious, and funny."[15] In 2003, the film was picked as one of the 1000 Best Movies Ever Made by The New York Times.[16]
Box office[edit]
The film was released on December 5, 1984 in 1,532 theaters.[3] It debuted in first place at the U.S. box office, making $15,214,805 in its first five days of release. It stayed at number one for 13 consecutive weeks and returned to number one in its 15th weekend making 14 non-consecutive weeks at number one tying Tootsie for the film with the most weeks at number one.[17] The film earned $234,760,478 in the United States, being the highest-grossing film released in 1984.[18] It also became the highest-grossing R rated film of all-time, a rank it would hold until The Matrix Reloaded in 2003. (Adjusted for inflation, Beverly Hills Cop is the third highest-grossing R rated film of all-time behind The Exorcist and The Godfather.)[19] Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 67 million tickets in the US.[20]
Soundtrack[edit]
"Axel F"
Performed by Harold Faltermeyer (7 seconds)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Main article: Beverly Hills Cop (soundtrack)
The soundtrack was released on MCA Records and won the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media (1986). The instrumental title tune, "Axel F", composed and performed by Harold Faltermeyer, is a cultural touchstone and has since been covered by numerous artists.
Awards and nominations[edit]
Academy Award
Nominated for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) - Danilo Bach and Daniel Petrie, Jr.
British Academy Film Awards
Nominated for Best Score - Harold Faltermeyer
Edgar Allan Poe Award
Nominated for Best Motion Picture - Daniel Petrie, Jr.
Golden Globe Award
Nominated for Best Motion Picture - Comedy/Musical
Nominated for Best Motion Picture Actor - Comedy/Musical - Eddie Murphy
Grammy Award
Won for Best Score Soundtrack Album - Marc Benno, Harold Faltermeyer, Keith Forsey, Micki Free, Jon Gilutin, Howard Hewett, Bunny Hull, Howie Rice, Sharon Robinson, Danny Sembello, Sue Sheridan, Richard Theisen, Allee Willis
People's Choice Award
Won for Favorite Motion Picture
Stuntman Award
Won for Best Vehicular Stunt (Motion Picture) - Eddy Donno
This film is No. 22 on Bravo's list of the 100 funniest films.[21][22]
American Film Institute Lists
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies - Nominated[23]
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs - #63
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains:
Detective Axel Foley - Nominated Hero[24]
Legacy[edit]
The film spawned a franchise with two sequels, Beverly Hills Cop II and Beverly Hills Cop III, both starring Eddie Murphy, in 1987 and 1994, respectively. Judge Reinhold reprised his role for the sequels. The second film met with mixed reviews but was a box office success, while the third film was unsuccessful both critically and commercially.
In 2013, a television series was reported to be in the works for CBS.[25] The pilot was written by Shawn Ryan and directed by Barry Sonnenfeld. Brandon T. Jackson was cast as Axel Foley's son.[26] The series was not picked up, but Ryan reported that it tested well enough for Paramount to put a fourth film into production.[27]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "BEVERLY HILLS COP (15)". British Board of Film Classification. December 10, 1984. Retrieved November 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Beverly Hills Cop Production Budget". The-Numbers.com. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Beverly Hills Cop". Box Office Mojo.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Cronin, Brian (2013-01-16). "Movie Legends Revealed: Sly Stallone as Axel Foley?". Comic Book Resources. Retrieved 2014-06-12.
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Sean. "Sylvester Stallone turns down Beverly Hills Cop Script according to book". Retrieved August 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Re-Cast: Five Blockbusters Completely Changed For Their Star". Empire Magazine. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
Jump up ^ Gruson, Linsey (1984-12-16). "EXIT STALLONE, ENTER EDDIE MURPHY". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-06-12.
Jump up ^ Gruson, Linsey (1984-12-16). "20 Fascinating Facts About The 'Beverly Hills Cop' Franchise". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-06-12.
Jump up ^ "The Greatest Films of 1984". AMC Filmsite.org. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Best Movies of 1984 by Rank". Films101.com. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Beverly Hills Cop, Film Review". The New York Times. April 29, 2003. Archived from the original on October 3, 2012. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Cinema: Eddie Goes to Lotusland". Time. December 10, 1984. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Empire's The 100 Greatest Movie Characters". Empire. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Amis Inheritance". New York Times. Retrieved September 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Beverly Hills Cop Movie Reviews, Pictures". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made". The New York Times. April 29, 2003. Retrieved April 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Longest Top Ranking Movies (Conesecutive Weeks". Box Office Mojo.
Jump up ^ "1984 Yearly Box Office Results - Box Office Mojo". Retrieved December 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Box Office Mojo All Time Grosses R-Rated tab
Jump up ^ "Beverly Hills Cop (1984)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved May 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Bravo's 100 Funniest Movies of All Time". Boston.com. July 25, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies"". listsofbests.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2010. Retrieved May 21, 2010.
Jump up ^ AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies Nominees
Jump up ^ AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains Nominees
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (February 22, 2013). "Hollywood Insider: What's Going on Behind the Scenes: TV's Pilot Season Goes (Very) High-Concept". Entertainment Weekly. New York: Time Inc. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Child, Ben (July 22, 2013). "Beverly Hills Cop TV series shot down". The Guardian. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Obenson, Tambay A. (July 22, 2013). "'Beverly Hills Cop' TV Series Officially Dead. BUT Pilot Tested Well, So 4th Movie In Development". Indiewire. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Beverly Hills Cop
Beverly Hills Cop on IMDb
Beverly Hills Cop at the TCM Movie Database
Beverly Hills Cop at Box Office Mojo
Beverly Hills Cop at Rotten Tomatoes
Beverly Hills Cop at Metacritic
show
v
t
e
Beverly Hills Cop series
Films
Beverly Hills Cop (1984)
Beverly Hills Cop II (1987)
Beverly Hills Cop III (1994)
Characters
Axel Foley
Music
Beverly Hills Cop
"Axel F"
"The Heat Is On"
"Neutron Dance"
"New Attitude"
"Stir It Up"
Beverly Hills Cop II
"Cross My Broken Heart"
"I Want Your Sex"
"Shakedown"
Beverly Hills Cop III
"Luv 4 Dem Gangsta'z"
"The Right Kinda Lover"
Other
Video game
show
v
t
e
Films directed by Martin Brest
Hot Tomorrows (1977)
Going in Style (1979)
Beverly Hills Cop (1984)
Midnight Run (1988)
Scent of a Woman (1992)
Meet Joe Black (1998)
Gigli (2003)
show
v
t
e
Films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer
Farewell, My Lovely (1975)
March or Die (1977)
Defiance (1980)
American Gigolo (1980)
Thief (1981)
Young Doctors in Love (1982)
Flashdance (1983)
Beverly Hills Cop (1984)
Thief of Hearts (1984)
Top Gun (1986)
Beverly Hills Cop II (1987)
Days of Thunder (1990)
The Ref (1994)
Dangerous Minds (1995)
Crimson Tide (1995)
Bad Boys (1995)
The Rock (1996)
Con Air (1997)
Enemy of the State (1998)
Armageddon (1998)
Remember the Titans (2000)
Coyote Ugly (2000)
Gone in 60 Seconds (2000)
Pearl Harbor (2001)
Black Hawk Down (2001)
Bad Company (2002)
Bad Boys II (2003)
Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003)
Veronica Guerin (2003)
Kangaroo Jack (2003)
National Treasure (2004)
King Arthur (2004)
Just Legal (2005)
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006)
Déjà Vu (2006)
Glory Road (2006)
Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (2007)
National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007)
G-Force (2009)
Confessions of a Shopaholic (2009)
Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2010)
The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010)
Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011)
The Lone Ranger (2013)
Deliver Us from Evil (2014)
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales (2017)
12 Strong (2018)
Gemini Man (2019)
Top Gun: Maverick (2020)
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Winemaking
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Wine grapes
Winemaking or vinification is the production of wine, starting with the selection of the fruit, its fermentation into alcohol, and the bottling of the finished liquid. The history of wine-making stretches over millennia. The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology. A winemaker may also be called a vintner. The growing of grapes is viticulture and there are many varieties of grapes
Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation — natural or injected). Red wine, white wine, and rosé are the other main categories. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other plants, see fruit wine. Other similar light alcoholic drinks (as opposed to beer or spirits) include mead, made by fermenting honey and water, and kumis, made of fermented mare's milk.
Contents
[hide]
1 Process
2 The grapes
3 Harvesting and destemming
4 Crushing and primary (alcoholic) fermentation
4.1 Pressing
4.2 Pigeage
5 Cold stabilization
6 Secondary (malolactic) fermentation and bulk aging
7 Malolactic fermentation
8 Laboratory tests
9 Blending and fining
10 Preservatives
11 Filtration
12 Bottling
13 Winemakers
14 See also
15 References
16 Further reading
17 External links
Process[edit]
Anatomy of a grape, showing the components extracted from each pressing.
After the harvest, the grapes are taken into a winery and prepared for primary ferment. At this stage red wine making diverges from white wine making. Red wine is made from the must (pulp) of red or black grapes and fermentation occurs together with the grape skins, which give the wine its color. White wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice; the skins are removed and play no further role. Occasionally white wine is made from red grapes; this is done by extracting their juice with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are either made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color (maceration or saignée) or by blending red wine with white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the tannins contained in the skins.
To start primary fermentation yeast may be added to the must for red wine or may occur naturally as ambient yeast on the grapes or in the air. Yeast may be added to the juice for white wine. During this fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, the yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is lost to the atmosphere.
After the primary fermentation of red grapes the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemaker's discretion. The wine is kept warm and the remaining sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
The next process in the making of red wine is malo-lactic conversion. This is a bacterial process which converts "crisp, green apple" malic acid to "soft, creamy" lactic acid softening the taste of the wine. Red wine is sometimes transferred to oak barrels to mature for a period of weeks or months; this practice imparts oak aromas and some tannin to the wine. The wine must be settled or clarified and adjustments made prior to bottling.
The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for wine of good structure with high levels of acid, tannin or sugar. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year.[1] Depending on the quality of grape and the target wine style, some of these steps may be combined or omitted to achieve the particular goals of the winemaker. Many wines of comparable quality are produced using similar but distinctly different approaches to their production; quality is dictated by the attributes of the starting material and not necessarily the steps taken during vinification.
Variations on the above procedure exist. With sparkling wines such as Champagne, an additional, "secondary" fermentation takes place inside the bottle, dissolving trapped carbon dioxide in the wine and creating the characteristic bubbles. Sweet wines or off-dry wines are made by arresting fermentation before all sugar has been converted into ethanol and allowing some residual sugar to remain. This can be done by chilling the wine and adding sulphur and other allowable additives to inhibit yeast activity or sterile filtering the wine to remove all yeast and bacteria. In the case of sweet wines, initial sugar concentrations are increased by harvesting late (late harvest wine), freezing the grapes to concentrate the sugar (ice wine), allowing or encouraging botrytis cinerea fungus to dehydrate the grapes or allowing the grapes to raisin either on the vine or on racks or straw mats. Often in these high sugar wines, the fermentation stops naturally as the high concentration of sugar and rising concentration of ethanol retard the yeast activity. Similarly in fortified wines, such as port wine, high proof neutral grape spirit (brandy) is added to arrest the ferment and adjust the alcohol content when the desired sugar level has been reached. In other cases the winemaker may choose to hold back some of the sweet grape juice and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done, a technique known in Germany as süssreserve.
The process produces wastewater, pomace, and lees that require collection, treatment, and disposal or beneficial use.
Synthetic wines, engineered wines or fake wines, are a product that do not use grapes at all and start with water and ethanol and then adds acids, amino acids, sugars, and organic compounds.[2]
The grapes[edit]
Vineyards in Italy
Harvested Cabernet Sauvignon grapes
The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor. Grape quality is affected by variety as well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method. The combination of these effects is often referred to as the grape's terroir.
Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard from early September until early November in the northern hemisphere, and mid February until early March in the southern hemisphere. In some cool areas in the southern hemisphere, for example Tasmania, harvesting extends into May.
The most common species of wine grape is Vitis vinifera, which includes nearly all varieties of European origin.
Harvesting and destemming[edit]
Main article: Harvest (wine)
See also: Ripeness in viticulture
A mechanical destemming machine in use at Chateau Montelena winery in Napa Valley
Harvest is the picking of the grapes and in many ways the first step in wine production. Grapes are either harvested mechanically or by hand. The decision to harvest grapes is typically made by the winemaker and informed by the level of sugar (called °Brix), acid (TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid equivalents) and pH of the grapes. Other considerations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor, tannin development (seed color and taste). Overall disposition of the grapevine and weather forecasts are taken into account.
Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle grapevine trellises and, using firm plastic or rubber rods, strike the fruiting zone of the grapevine to dislodge the grapes from the rachis. Mechanical harvesters have the advantage of being able to cover a large area of vineyard land in a relatively short period of time, and with a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton. A disadvantage of mechanical harvesting is the indiscriminate inclusion of foreign non-grape material in the product, especially leaf stems and leaves, but also, depending on the trellis system and grapevine canopy management, may include moldy grapes, canes, metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird nests. Some winemakers remove leaves and loose debris from the grapevine before mechanical harvesting to avoid such material being included in the harvested fruit. In the United States mechanical harvesting is seldom used for premium winemaking because of the indiscriminate picking and increased oxidation of the grape juice. In other countries (such as Australia and New Zealand), mechanical harvesting of premium winegrapes is more common because of general labor shortages.
Night harvest by hand of wine grapes in Napa, California
Manual harvesting is the hand-picking of grape clusters from the grapevines. In the United States, some grapes are picked into one- or two-ton bins for transport back to the winery. Manual harvesting has the advantage of using knowledgeable labor to not only pick the ripe clusters but also to leave behind the clusters that are not ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects. This can be an effective first line of defense to prevent inferior quality fruit from contaminating a lot or tank of wine.
Central component of a mechanical destemming. Paddles above the small circular slots rotate to remove the larger chunks of stems. Grapes are pulled off the stems and fall through the holes. Some small amount of stem particles are usually desired to be kept with the grapes for tannin structure.
Destemming is the process of separating stems from the grapes. Depending on the winemaking procedure, this process may be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the development of tannins and vegetal flavors in the resulting wine. Single berry harvesting, as is done with some German Trockenbeerenauslese, avoids this step altogether with the grapes being individually selected.
Crushing and primary (alcoholic) fermentation[edit]
Main article: Fermentation (wine)
In ancient times berries were crushed by foot in a barrel or pit
The corkscrew-shaped feed auger sits on top of a mechanical crusher-destemmer. Grape clusters are fed into the machine, where they are first crushed, then destemmed. Stems exit at the end, while juice, skins, seeds, and some debris exit the bottom.
Crushing is the process when gently squeezing the berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate the contents of the berries. Destemming is the process of removing the grapes from the rachis (the stem which holds the grapes). In traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also destem at the same time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used. The decision about destemming is different for red and white wine making. Generally when making white wine the fruit is only crushed, the stems are then placed in the press with the berries. The presence of stems in the mix facilitates pressing by allowing juice to flow past flattened skins. These accumulate at the edge of the press. For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal aroma (due to extraction of 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green bell peppers.) On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin than desired. This is more acceptable if the stems have 'ripened' and started to turn brown. If increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming. Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause excessive shearing or tearing of the skin tissues. In some cases, notably with "delicate" red varietals such as Pinot noir or Syrah, all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called "whole berry") to encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration.
Crushed grapes leaving the crusher
Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with the dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin) and therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction. Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice throughout the fermentation (maceration). It is possible to produce white (colorless) wines from red grapes by the fastidious pressing of uncrushed fruit. This minimizes contact between grape juice and skins (as in the making of Blanc de noirs sparkling wine, which is derived from Pinot noir, a red vinifera grape.)
Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either the skins or grapeseeds, as well as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries. In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to encourage protein precipitation without excessive Bentonite addition) as well as potassium ions, which participate in bitartrate precipitation (cream of tartar). It also results in an increase in the pH of the juice which may be desirable for overly acidic grapes. This was a practice more common in the 1970s than today, though still practiced by some Sauvignon blanc and Chardonnay producers in California.
In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation continues as if the winemaker was making a white wine.
Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery appearance of the grapes. The primary, or alcoholic fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable results depending on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the must. One of the main problems with the use of wild ferments is the failure for the fermentation to go to completion, that is some sugar remains unfermented. This can make the wine sweet when a dry wine is desired. Frequently wild ferments lead to the production of unpleasant acetic acid (vinegar) production as a by product.
A cap of grape skins forms on the surface of fermenting red wine.
During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation affects both the taste of the end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For red wines, the temperature is typically 22 to 25 °C, and for white wines 15 to 18 °C. For every gram of sugar that is converted, about half a gram of alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol concentration, the must should contain about 24% sugars. The sugar percentage of the must is calculated from the measured density, the must weight, with the help of a specialized type of hydrometer called a saccharometer. If the sugar content of the grapes is too low to obtain the desired alcohol percentage, sugar can be added (chaptalization). In commercial winemaking, chaptalization is subject to local regulations.
Alcohol of more than 12% can be achieved by using yeast that can withstand high alcohol. Some yeasts can produce 18% alcohol in the wine however extra sugar is added to produce a high alcohol content.
During or after the alcoholic fermentation, a secondary, or malolactic fermentation can also take place, during which specific strains of bacteria (lactobacter) convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fermentation is often initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria.
Pressing[edit]
Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace in order to separate juice or wine from grapes and grape skins. Pressing is not always a necessary act in winemaking; if grapes are crushed there is a considerable amount of juice immediately liberated (called free-run juice) that can be used for vinification. Typically this free-run juice is of a higher quality than the press juice.[3] Pressed juice is typically lesser in quality due to the release and increase of total phenolic compounds, as well as browning index and the C6-alcohol levels. These compounds are responsible for the herb-like taste perceived in wine with pressed grapes.[4] However, most wineries do use presses in order to increase their production (gallons) per ton, as pressed juice can represent between 15%-30% of the total juice volume from the grape.
Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters between a rigid surface and a movable surface and slowly decrease the volume between the two surfaces. Modern presses dictate the duration and pressure at each press cycle, usually ramping from 0 Bar to 2.0 Bar. Sometimes winemakers choose pressures which separate the streams of pressed juice, called making "press cuts." As the pressure increases the amount of tannin extracted from the skins into the juice increases, often rendering the pressed juice excessively tannic or harsh. Because of the location of grape juice constituents in the berry (water and acid are found primarily in the mesocarp or pulp, whereas tannins are found primarily in the exocarp, or skin, and seeds), pressed juice or wine tends to be lower in acidity with a higher pH than the free-run juice.
Antique wooden wine press in front of World Heritage vineyards
Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were basket presses made of wood and operated manually. Basket presses are composed of a cylinder of wooden slats on top of a fixed plate, with a moveable plate that can be forced downward (usually by a central ratcheting threaded screw.) The press operator would load the grapes or pomace into the wooden cylinder, put the top plate in place and lower it until juice flowed from the wooden slats. As the juice flow decreased, the plate was ratcheted down again. This process continued until the press operator determined that the quality of the pressed juice or wine was below standard, or all liquids had been pressed. Since the early 1990s, modern mechanical basket presses have been revived through higher-end producers seeking to replicate the gentle pressing of the historical basket presses. Because basket presses have a relatively compact design, the press cake offers a relatively longer pathway for the juice to travel before leaving the press. It is believed by advocates of basket presses that this relatively long pathway through the grape or pomace cake serves as a filter to solids that would otherwise affect the quality of the press juice.
With red wines, the must is pressed after primary fermentation, which separates the skins and other solid matter from the liquid. With white wine, the liquid is separated from the must before fermentation . With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case the must may be pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the wine is separated from the dead yeast and any solids that remained (called lees), and transferred to a new container where any additional fermentation may take place.
Pigeage[edit]
Main article: Maceration (wine)
Pigeage is a French winemaking term for the traditional grape stomping in open fermentation tanks. To make certain types of wine, grapes are put through a crusher and then poured into open fermentation tanks. Once fermentation begins, the grape skins are pushed to the surface by carbon dioxide gases released in the fermentation process. This layer of skins and other solids is known as the cap. As the skins are the source of the tannins, the cap needs to be mixed through the liquid each day, or "punched," which traditionally is done by stomping through the vat.
Cold stabilization[edit]
See also: Clarification and stabilization of wine
Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine. These tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as "wine crystals" or "wine diamonds". They are formed by the union of tartaric acid and potassium, and may appear to be [sediment] in the wine, though they are not. During the cold stabilizing process after fermentation, the temperature of the wine is dropped to close to freezing for 1–2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding vessel. When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left behind. They may also form in wine bottles that have been stored under very cold conditions.
Secondary (malolactic) fermentation and bulk aging[edit]
Stainless steel fermentation vessels and new oak barrels at the Three Choirs Vineyard, Gloucestershire, England
During the secondary fermentation and aging process, which takes three to six months, the fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless) tartrate crystals after bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes clear. The wine can be racked during this process to remove the lees.
The secondary fermentation usually takes place in large stainless steel vessels with a volume of several cubic meters, oak barrels or glass demijohns (also referred to as carboys), depending on the goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having no influence in the final taste of the wine. Depending on the desired taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine.
Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production of their wine; these vessels (sometimes called demijohns) have a capacity of 4.5–54 litres (0.99–11.88 imp gal; 1.2–14.3 US gal). The kind of vessel used depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the winemaker.
Malolactic fermentation[edit]
Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This is carried out either as an intentional procedure in which specially cultivated strains of such bacteria are introduced into the maturing wine, or it can happen by chance if uncultivated lactic acid bacteria are present.
Malolactic fermentation can improve the taste of wine that has high levels of malic acid, because malic acid, in higher concentration, generally causes an unpleasant harsh and bitter taste sensation, whereas lactic acid is more gentle and less sour. Lactic acid is an acid found in dairy products. Malolactic fermentation usually results in a reduction in the amount of total acidity of the wine. This is because malic acid has two acid radicals (-COOH) while lactic acid has only one. However, the pH should be monitored and not allowed to rise above a pH of 3.55 for whites or a pH of 3.80 for reds. pH can be reduced roughly at a rate of 0.1 units per 1 gram/litre of tartaric acid addition.
The use of lactic acid bacteria is the reason why some chardonnays can taste "buttery" due to the production of diacetyl by the bacteria. Most red wines go through complete malolactic fermentation, both to lessen the acid of the wine and to remove the possibility that malolactic fermentation will occur in the bottle. White wines vary in the use of malolactic fermentation during their making. Lighter aromatic wines such as Riesling, generally do not go through malolactic fermentation. The fuller white wines such as barrel fermented chardonnay, are more commonly put through malolactic fermentation. Sometimes a partial fermentation, for example, somewhere less than 50% might be employed.
Laboratory tests[edit]
Whether the wine is aging in tanks or barrels, tests are run periodically in a laboratory to check the status of the wine. Common tests include Brix, pH, titratable acidity, residual sugar, free or available sulfur, total sulfur, volatile acidity and percent alcohol. Additional tests include those for the crystallization of cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate) and the precipitation of heat unstable protein; this last test is limited to white wines. These tests may be performed throughout the making of the wine as well as prior to bottling. In response to the results of these tests, a winemaker can decide on appropriate remedial action, for example the addition of more sulfur dioxide. Sensory tests will also be performed and again in response to these a winemaker may take remedial action such as the addition of a protein to soften the taste of the wine.
Testing wine for sulphur dioxide level
Brix (°Bx) is one measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called total dissolved solids (TDS). Because sugar is the dominant compound in grape juice, these units are effectively a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes determines the final alcohol content of the wine as well as indirect index of grape maturity. °Bx is measured in grams per hundred grams of solution, so 20 °Bx means that 100 grams of juice contains 20gm of dissolved compounds. There are other common measures of sugar content of grapes, specific gravity, Oechsle (Germany) and Baumé (France). °Bx is usually measured with a refractometer while the other methods use a hydrometer which measures specific gravity. Generally, hydrometers are a cheaper alternative. In the French Baumé (Be° or Bé° for short) one Be° corresponds approximately to one percent alcohol. One Be° is equal to 1.8 °Bx, that is 1.8 grams of sugar per one hundred grams. Therefore, to achieve one percent alcohol the winemaker adds sugar at a rate of 1.8 grams per 100 ml (18 grams per liter) — a practice known as chaptalization, which is illegal in some countries and in California.
Volatile acidity test verifies if there is any steam distillable acids in the wine. Mainly present is acetic acid (the dominant component of vinegar), but lactic, butyric, propionic, and formic acid can also be found. Usually the test checks for these acids in a cash still, but there are other methods available such as HPLC, gas chromatography and enzymatic methods. The amount of volatile acidity found in sound grapes is negligible, because it is a by-product of microbial metabolism. Because acetic acid bacteria require oxygen to grow, eliminating any air in wine containers as well as addition of sulfur dioxide (SO2) will limit their growth. Rejecting moldy grapes also prevents possible problems associated with acetic acid bacteria. Use of sulfur dioxide and inoculation with a low-V.A. producing strain of Saccharomyces may deter acetic acid producing yeast. A relatively new method for removal of volatile acidity from a wine is reverse osmosis. Blending may also help—a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below the sensory threshold.
Sulphur dioxide can be readily measured with relatively simple laboratory equipment. There are several methods available; a typical test involves acidification of a sample with phosphoric acid, distillation of the liberated SO2, and capture by hydrogen peroxide solution. The SO2 and peroxide react to form sulphuric acid, which is then titrated with NaOH to an end point with an indicator, and the volume of NaOH required is used to calculate the SO2 level. This method has inaccuracies associated with red wine, inefficient condensers, and excessive aspiration rate, although the results are reproducible, having an accuracy with just a 2.5-5% error,[5] which is sufficient to control the level of sulphur dioxide in wine.[6]
Blending and fining[edit]
Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches that were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a consistent taste.
Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove tannins, reduce astringency and remove microscopic particles that could cloud the wines. The winemakers decide on which fining agents are used and these may vary from product to product and even batch to batch (usually depending on the grapes of that particular year).[7]
Gelatin [gelatine] has been used in winemaking for centuries and is recognized as a traditional method for wine fining, or clarifying. It is also the most commonly used agent to reduce the tannin content. Generally no gelatin remains in the wine because it reacts with the wine components, as it clarifies, and forms a sediment which is removed by filtration prior to bottling.
Besides gelatin, other fining agents for wine are often derived from animal products, such as micronized potassium casseinate (casein is milk protein), egg whites, egg albumin, bone char, bull's blood, isinglass (Sturgeon bladder), PVPP (a synthetic compound), lysozyme, and skim milk powder.[7]
Some aromatized wines contain honey or egg-yolk extract.[7]
Non-animal-based filtering agents are also often used, such as bentonite (a volcanic clay-based filter), diatomaceous earth, cellulose pads, paper filters and membrane filters (thin films of plastic polymer material having uniformly sized holes).
Preservatives[edit]
The most common preservative used in winemaking is sulfur dioxide (SO2), normally added in one of the following forms: liquid sulfur dioxide, sodium or potassium metabisulphite. Another useful preservative is potassium sorbate.
Sulfur dioxide has two primary actions, firstly it is an anti microbial agent and secondly an anti oxidant. In the making of white wine it can be added prior to fermentation and immediately after alcoholic fermentation is complete. If added after alcoholic ferment it will have the effect of preventing or stopping malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage and help protect against the damaging effects of oxygen. Additions of up to 100 mg per liter (of sulfur dioxide) can be added, but the available or free sulfur dioxide should be measured by the aspiration method and adjusted to 30 mg per liter. Available sulfur dioxide should be maintained at this level until bottling. For rose wines smaller additions should be made and the available level should be no more than 30 mg per liter.
In the making of red wine, sulfur dioxide may be used at high levels (100 mg per liter) prior to ferment to assist in color stabilization. Otherwise, it is used at the end of malolactic ferment and performs the same functions as in white wine. However, small additions (say, 20 milligrams per litre (7.2×10−7 lb/cu in)) should be used to avoid bleaching red pigments and the maintenance level should be about 20 mg/L. Furthermore, small additions (say 20 mg per liter) may be made to red wine after alcoholic ferment and before malolactic ferment to overcome minor oxidation and prevent the growth of acetic acid bacteria.
Without the use of sulfur dioxide, wines can readily suffer bacterial spoilage no matter how hygienic the winemaking practice.
Potassium sorbate is effective for the control of fungal growth, including yeast, especially for sweet wines in bottle. However, one potential hazard is the metabolism of sorbate to geraniol which is a potent and unpleasant by-product. The production of geraniol occurs only if sorbic acid is present during malo-lactic fermentation. To avoid this, either the wine must be sterile bottled or contain enough sulfur dioxide to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Sterile bottling includes the use of filtration.
Some winemakers practice natural wine making where no preservative is added. Once the wine is bottled and corked, the bottles are put into refrigeration with temperatures near 5 °C (41 °F).
Filtration[edit]
Filtration in winemaking is used to accomplish two objectives, clarification and microbial stabilization. In clarification, large particles that affect the visual appearance of the wine are removed. In microbial stabilization, organisms that affect the stability of the wine are removed therefore reducing the likelihood of re-fermentation or spoilage.
A wine labelling machine with adhesive labels in France
The process of clarification is concerned with the removal of particles; those larger than 5–10 millimetres (0.20–0.39 in) for coarse polishing, particles larger than 1–4 micrometers for clarifying or polishing. Microbial stabilization requires a filtration of at least 0.65 micrometers for yeast retention and 0.45 µm for bacteria retention. However, filtration at this level may lighten a wine's color and body. Microbial stabilization does not imply sterility, i.e. eliminating (removing) or killing (deactivating) of all forms of life and other biological agents. It simply means that a significant amount of yeast and bacteria has been removed to a harmless level for the wine stability.
Clarification of the wine can take place naturally by putting the wine into refrigeration at 35 °F (2 °C). The wine takes about a month to settle and it is clear. No chemicals are needed.
Bottling[edit]
A final dose of sulfite is added to help preserve the wine and prevent unwanted fermentation in the bottle. The wine bottles then are traditionally sealed with a cork, although alternative wine closures such as synthetic corks and screwcaps, which are less subject to cork taint, are becoming increasingly popular.[8] The final step is adding a capsule [9] to the top of the bottle which is then heated [10] for a tight seal.
Winemakers[edit]
Traditionally known as a vintner, a winemaker is a person engaged in making wine. They are generally employed by wineries or wine companies.
List of 15 largest winemakers by countries.[11] (Volume in thousands of hectoliters)
Country
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Italy 48,525 42,772 45,616 52,029 44,739 50,000 50,900 39,300
France 44,381 50,757 41,548 42,004 46,698 47,000 45,200 36,700
Spain 35,353 33,397 31,123 45,650 41,620 37,700 39,300 33,500
United States 20,887 19,140 21,650 23,590 22,300 21,700 23,600 23,300
Argentina 16,250 15,473 11,778 14,984 15,197 13,400 9,400 11,800
Australia 11,420 11,180 12,260 12,500 12,000 11,900 13,100 13,900
South Africa 9,327 9,725 10,569 10,982 11,316 11,200 10,500 10,800
China 13,000 13,200 13,511 11,780 11,178 11,500 11,400 11,400
Chile 8,844 10,464 12,554 12,820 10,500 12,900 10,100 9,500
Germany 6,906 9,132 9,012 8,409 9,334 8,900 9,000 8,100
Portugal 7,148 5,622 6,308 6,237 6,195 7,000 6,000 6,600
Russian Federation 6,400 6,353 6,400 5,300 4,900 5,600 5,600 5,600
Romania 3,287 4,058 3,311 5,100 3,700 3,600 3,300 5,300
Brazil - - - 2,700 2,600 2,700 1,300 3,400
Hungary - - - 2,600 2,400 2,800 2,800 2,900
Rest of the World
27,847
30,906
27,194
31,000
27,100
26,800
27,300
24,600
World
264,425
267,279
257,889
290,100
269,500
274,700
268,800
246,700
See also[edit]
Wine portal
Winery
Acids in wine
Glossary of wine terms
Governo
History of wine
Homebrewing
List of wine-producing countries
Speyer wine bottle
Sugars in wine
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jancis Robinson (2003). Jancis Robinson's WINE COURSE, A guide to the world of wine. BBC worldwide Ltd. p. 39.
Jump up ^ Sadler, Chris (17 November 2017). "I Tried a Bottle of the New Synthetic Wine". Slate. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Nagodawithana, Tilak W.; Reed, Gerald (1993). Enzymes in food processing (3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 9780125136303. OCLC 27034539.
Jump up ^ Selli, Serkan; Bagatar, Berfu; Sen, Kemal; Kelebek, Haşim. "Evaluation of Differences in the Aroma Composition of Free-Run and Pressed Neutral Grape Juices Obtained from Emir (Vitis vinifera L.)". Chemistry & Biodiversity. 8 (9): 1776–1782. doi:10.1002/cbdv.201100053.
Jump up ^ Buechsenstein, J. W.; Ough, C. S. (January 1978). "SO
2 Determination by Aeration-Oxidation: A Comparison with Ripper" . Am J Enol Vitic. 29: 161-164.
Jump up ^ "Required Analytical Tests for Wineries" (PDF). Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vineyards, Jost. "The Vegan wine guide". Tastebetter.com. Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
Jump up ^ Mary-Colleen Tinney (June 2006). "Sales of Screw-Capped Wine Grow 51 Percent Over 2005". Wine Business Monthly. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
Jump up ^ Cathy Fisher (September 2007). "Capsule Manufacturers Raise Quality Bar". Wine Business Monthly. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
Jump up ^ Bill Pregler (November 2006). "Successfully Applying Capsules on the Bottling Line". Wine Business Monthly. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
Jump up ^ "Top Fifteen Wine-Producing Countries". Italian Wine Central. Source: OIV, October 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Thomas Pinney, The Makers of American Wine: A Record of Two Hundred Years. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Winemaking
The dictionary definition of enology at Wiktionary
Media related to Wine production at Wikimedia Commons
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