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Assam
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Assam
State
Assam's Kaziranga National Park is home to most of the world's one-horned rhinoceroses, the state animal of Assam

Seal
Coordinates (Dispur): 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E / 26.14; 91.77Coordinates: 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E / 26.14; 91.77
Country
India
Statehood†
26 January 1960
Capital
Dispur
Largest city
Guwahati
Districts
33
Government
• Governor
Jagdish Mukhi[1]
• Chief Minister
Sarbananda Sonowal (BJP)
• Legislature
Unicameral (126 seats)
• Parliamentary constituency
14
• High Court
Gauhati High Court
Area
• Total
78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi)
Area rank
17th
Highest elevation
1,960 m (6,430 ft)
Lowest elevation
25 m (82 ft)
Population (2011)
• Total
31,205,576
• Rank
15th
• Density
397/km2 (1,030/sq mi)
GDP (2018-19)[2]
• Total
₹3.33 lakh crore (US$51 billion)
Time zone
IST (UTC+05:30)
ISO 3166 code
IN-AS
HDI
0.598 (medium)
HDI rank
15th (2016)
Literacy
72.19 % (19th)[3]
Official languages[4]
Assamese
Bengali (in 3 districts in the Barak Valley}
Website
assam.gov.in
† First recognised as an administrative division on 1 April 1911, and led to the establishment of Assam Province by partitioning Province of East Bengal and Assam.
^[*] Assam was one of the original provincial divisions of British India.
^[*] Assam has had a legislature since 1937.[5]
State symbols of Assam
Language
Assamese
Song
Ó Mür Apünar Dex
Dance
Bihu dance
Animal
One horned rhinoceros
Bird
White-winged wood duck
Flower
Rhynchostylis retusa
Tree
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus
River
Brahmaputra
Assam (English: /əˈsæm/, /-sɑːm/ listen (help·info)) is a state in Northeast India, situated south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi). The state is bordered by Bhutan and the state of Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur to the east; Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram and Bangladesh to the south; and West Bengal to the west via the Siliguri Corridor, a 22 kilometres (14 mi) strip of land that connects the state to the rest of India.
Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk. The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the wild water buffalo, pygmy hog, tiger and various species of Asiatic birds, and provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. The Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism to Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, which are World Heritage Sites. Sal tree forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, look green all year round. Assam receives more rainfall than most parts of India; this rain feeds the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a hydro-geomorphic environment.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Pre-history
2.2 Legendary
2.3 Ancient
2.4 Medieval
2.5 Colonial era
2.6 Modern history
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.1.1 Flooding
3.2 Fauna
3.3 Flora
3.4 Geology
4 Demographics
4.1 Population
4.2 Religions
4.3 Languages
5 Government and politics
5.1 Local government
6 Education
6.1 Universities
6.2 Medical colleges
6.3 Engineering and technological colleges
6.4 Law colleges
7 Economy
7.1 Tea plantations
7.2 Macro-economy
7.3 Employment
7.4 Agriculture
7.5 Industry
7.6 Tourism
8 Culture
8.1 Symbols
8.2 Festivals and traditions
8.3 Music, dance, and drama
8.4 Cuisine
8.5 Literature
8.6 Fine arts
8.7 Traditional crafts
9 Media
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Etymology[edit]
Main article: Etymology of Assam
The precise etymology of modern anglicised word "Assam" is ambiguous. In the classical period and up to the 12th century the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, and alternatively, Pragjyotisha.[6] In medieval times the Mughals used Asham (eastern Assam) and Kamrup (western Assam),[7][8][9] and during British colonialism, the English used Assam. Though many authors have associated the name with the 13th century Shan invaders[10] the precise origin of the name is not clear. It was suggested by some that the Sanskrit word Asama ("unequalled", "peerless", etc.) was the root, which has been rejected by Kakati,[11] and more recent authors have concurred that it is a latter-day Sanskritization of a native name.[12] Among possible origins are Tai (A-Cham)[13] and Bodo (Ha-Sam).[14]
History[edit]
Main article: History of Assam
Pre-history[edit]
Further information: Danava dynasty, Indo-Aryan migration to Assam, Bhauma dynasty, and Asura Kingdom
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 1,500–2,000 feet (460 to 615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.[15]
Legendary[edit]
According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century AD), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty, which was removed by Naraka who established the Naraka dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna. Naraka's son Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards east in central Assam, Asura Kingdom was ruled by indigenous line of kings of Mariachi dynasty.[16]
Ancient[edit]
Kamrupa kingdom at its height
Madan Kamdev ruins
Further information: Kamarupa
Samudragupta's 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam)[17] and Davaka (Central Assam)[18] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire.
Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[19]
The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties; the Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), the Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakasura.
In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 AD), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 AD by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 AD) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 AD) dynasties.[15]
Medieval[edit]
The Ahom Kingdom, c. 1826
Kareng ghar, the palace of the Ahom kings
First Ahom king Sworgodeu Chao-lung Siu-ka-phaa (Sukaphaa).
Further information: Kamata kingdom, Ahom kingdom, Chutiya kingdom, Kachari kingdom, and Baro-Bhuyan
Three later dynasties were the Ahoms, the Chutiya and the Koch.
The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Upper Assam[20] The Shans built their kingdom and consolidated their power in Eastern Assam with the modern town of Sibsagar as their capital and brought the whole tract down to the border of the modern district of Goalpara permanently under their sway. Ahoms ruled for nearly 600 years (1228–1826 AD) with major expansions in the early 16th century at the cost of Chutia and Dimasa Kachari kingdoms. Since c. the 13th century AD, the nerve centre of Ahom polity was upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended to the Karatoya River in the 17th or 18th century. It was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungphaa or Sworgodeu Rudra Sinha (c. 1696–1714 AD).
The Chutiya rulers (1187–1673 AD) held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from Vishwanath (north bank) and Buridihing (south bank), in Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It was partially annexed in the early 1500s by the Ahoms, finally getting absorbed in 1673 AD. The rivalry between the Chutiyas and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of battles between them from the early 16th century until the start of the 17th century, which saw great loss of men and money.
The Koch, a Tibeto-Burmese dynasty, established sovereignty in c. 1510 AD. The Koch kingdom in Western Assam and present North Bengal was at its zenith in the early reign of Nara Narayan (c. 1540–1587 AD). It split into two in c. 1581 AD, the western part as a Moghul vassal and the eastern as an Ahom satellite state. Later, in 1682, Koch Hajo was entirely annexed by the Ahoms.
Among other dynasties, the Kacharis (13th century-1854 AD) ruled from Dikhow River to central and southern Assam and had their capital at Dimapur. With expansion of Ahom kingdom, by the early 17th century, the Chutiya areas were annexed and since c. 1536 AD the Kacharis remained only in Cachar and North Cachar, and more as an Ahom ally than a competing force.
Despite numerous invasions, mostly by the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. Though the Mughals made seventeen attempts to invade, they were never successful. The most successful invader Mir Jumla, a governor of Aurangzeb, briefly occupied Garhgaon (c. 1662–63 AD), the then capital, but found it difficult to prevent guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. The decisive victory of the Assamese led by general Lachit Borphukan on the Mughals, then under command of Raja Ram Singha, at Saraighat in 1671 almost ended Mughal ambitions in this region. The Mughals were finally expelled from Lower Assam during the reign of Gadadhar Singha in 1682 AD.[citation needed]
Colonial era[edit]
Map of Assam during 1907–1909
A map of the British Indian Empire in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), showing British India in two shades of pink (coral and pale) and the princely states in yellow. The Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.
Further information: Colonial Assam and Assam Province
The discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London. The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations mushroomed in Eastern Assam,[21] where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.
Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited,[clarification needed] working and living under poor conditions.[clarification needed] Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India’s independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little.[22]
In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter,[23][24][25][26] in turn leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance.[27][28][29]
A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,[30][31][32][33] who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled Bengal.[34][35] The Burmese reached the East India Company's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo[36] in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region.
Initially Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was made a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.
The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province .[37]
After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.[38] Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the Muslim League, and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric Maulana Bhasani.[39]
The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.[40]
At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among major eight provinces of British India. The table below shows the major original provinces during British India covering the Assam Province under the Administrative Office of the Chief Commissioner.
The following table lists their areas and populations. It does not include those of the dependent Native States:[41]
[show]Province of British India[41]
Area ( '0002 miles)
Population (in millions)
Chief Administrative Officer
Burma 170 9 Lieutenant-Governor
Bengal 151 75 Lieutenant-Governor
Madras 142 38 Governor-in-Council
Bombay 123 19 Governor-in-Council
United Provinces 107 48 Lieutenant-Governor
Central Provinces and Berar 104 13 Chief Commissioner
Punjab 97 20 Lieutenant-Governor
Assam 49 6 Chief Commissioner
Showing an historical incident at Kanaklata Udyan, Tezpur
With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The district of Sylhet of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.
Modern history[edit]
Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, now a part of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.
The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states beginning in 1970 within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963 the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of Nagaland. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the Meghalaya Plateau, the districts embracing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.[citation needed]
Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain. Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation[42] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and changing the demographics of the Indigenous Assamese people and also provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the Indigenous Assamese people. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.[43]
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA)[42] and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups have grown. Panchayati Raj Institutions have been applied[clarification needed] in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.[citation needed]
Geography[edit]
Main article: Physical Geography of Assam
See also: Tourism in North East India
Environs: Assam, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.
A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam, is an antecedent river older than the Himalayas. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 10 mi/16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60 mi/80–100 km wide, 600 mi/1000 km long).[44] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.[44] In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 25–30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma River.
Urban Centres include Guwahati, one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.[45] Guwahati is the gateway to the North-East India. Silchar, (in the Barak valley) the 2nd most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business, education and tourism. Other large cities include Dibrugarh, an oil, natural gas, tea and tourism industry centre,[46] Jorhat, and Tinsukia.
Climate[edit]
With the "Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate", Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.[44][47] The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar–Apr) and autumn (Sept–Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.
Flooding[edit]
See also: 2016 Assam floods
Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the State.[48][49]
Fauna[edit]
See also: Biodiversity of Assam
An Indian rhino at Kaziranga National Park
An endangered golden langur
Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,[50] deciduous forests, riverine grasslands,[51] bamboo[52] orchards and numerous wetland[53] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests.
Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO World Heritage sites[54]-the Kaziranga National Park, on the bank of the Brahmaputra River, and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, near the border with Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and threatened species including the white-winged wood duck or deohanh, Bengal florican, black-breasted parrotbill, red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture, greater adjutant, Jerdon's babbler, rufous-necked hornbill, Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, pygmy hog, gaur, wild water buffalo, Indian hog deer, hoolock gibbon, golden langur, capped langur, barasingha, Ganges river dolphin, Barca snakehead, Ganges shark, Burmese python, brahminy river turtle, black pond turtle, Asian forest tortoise, and Assam roofed turtle. Threatened species that are extinct in Assam include the gharial, a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian, and the pink-headed duck (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area.[clarification needed][55] In addition to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park.
Assam has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the pygmy hog, tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites. The state contains Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted from earlier times. A land of high rainfall, Assam displays greenery. The Brahmaputra River tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with hydro-geomorphic environment.[citation needed]
The state has the largest population of the wild water buffalo in the world.[56] The state has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species.[57] With subspecies the number is as high as 946.[58] The mammal diversity in the state is around 190 species.[59]
Blooming of Kopou Orchid marks the beginning of festive season Bihu in Assam.
Flora[edit]
Assam is remarkably rich in Orchid species and the Foxtail orchid is the state flower of Assam.[60] The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity Park boasts more than 500 of the estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India.
Geology[edit]
Assam has petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such as magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, clay and feldspar.[61] A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.[61] Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399 million barrels (63,400,000 m3) of oil, 1,178 billion cubic feet (3.34×1010 m3) of gas and 67 million barrels (10,700,000 m3) of natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic Province.[62][citation needed]
The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, 1897, and 1950.
Demographics[edit]
Main articles: Assamese people and People of Assam
Population[edit]
District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001
[show]Population Growth
Census
Pop.
%±
1951 8,029,000
—
1961 10,837,000 35.0%
1971 14,625,000 35.0%
1981 18,041,000 23.4%
1991 22,414,000 24.2%
2001 26,656,000 18.9%
2011 31,169,272 16.9%
Source:Census of India[63]
The 1981 Census could not be held
in Assam. Total population for 1981
has been worked out by interpolation.
People gathered at Kamakhya Temple for the Ambubachi Mela
The total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001.[64] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darrang, and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million in 2011 and is expected to reach 34.18 million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.[65]
As per the 2011 census, the total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten years with a growth rate of 16.93%.[66]
Of the 32 districts, eight districts registered a rise in the decadal population growth rate. Religious minority-dominated districts like Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, and Hailakandi, recorded growth rates ranging from 20 per cent to 24 per cent during the last decade. Eastern Assamese districts, including Sivasagar and Jorhat, registered around 9 per cent population growth. These districts do not have any international border.[67]
In 2011, the literacy rate in the state was 73.18%. The male literacy rate was 78.81% and the female literacy rate was 67.27%.[66] In 2001, the census had recorded literacy in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. The urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.[68]
The growth of population in Assam has increased since the middle decades of the 20th century. The population grew from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941. It increased to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991.[64] The growth in the western and southern districts was high primarily due to the influx of people from East Pakistan, now Bangladesh.[43]
The mistrust and clashes between Indigenous Assamese people and Bengali Muslims started as early as 1952,[69][70] but is rooted in anti Bengali sentiments of the 1940s.[71] At least 77 people died[72] and 400,000 people was displaced in the 2012 Assam violence between indigenous Bodos and Bengali Muslims.[73]
The People of India project has studied 115 of the ethnic groups in Assam. 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were Austroasiatic and Dravidians speakers, followed by Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan speakers, and Tai–Kadai speakers.[74] Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), Sino-Tibetan (24) and Indo-European (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of bilingualism.[citation needed]
Religions[edit]
Kamakhya Temple
See also: Islam in Assam and Christianity in Assam
Religion in Assam (2011)[75]
Hinduism (61.47%)
Islam (34.22%)
Christianity (3.7%)
Buddhism (0.2%)
Jainism (0.01%)
Sikhism (0.01%)
Animism (0.01%)
Other or not religious (0.3%)
According to the 2011 census, 61.47% were Hindus, 34.22% were Muslims.[75][76] Christian minorities (3.7%) are found among the Scheduled Tribe population.[77] The scheduled Tribe population in Assam is around 13%, of which Bodos account for 40%.[78] Other religions followed include Jainism (0.1%), Buddhism (0.2%), Sikhism (0.1%) and Animism (amongst Khamti, Phake, Aiton etc. communities). Many Hindus in Assam are followers of the Ekasarana Dharma sect of Hinduism, which gave rise to Namghar, designed to be simpler places of worship than traditional Hindu temples.[citation needed]
Out of 32 districts of Assam, 9 are Muslim majority according to the 2011 census of India. The districts are Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, Karimganj, Hailakandi, Darrang and Bongaigaon.[79][80][81]
Languages[edit]
See also: Assamese language, Assamese literature, Bodo language, and Bengali language
7th–8th century specimen of Assamese (Kamrupi) literature
Languages of Assam in 2001[82][83][84]
Assamese (48.84%)
Bengali (27.56%)
Hindi (5.88%)
Bodo (4.86%)
Nepali (2.12%)
Mishing (1.9%)
Karbi (1.5%)
Santali (0.91%)
Deori (0.22%)
Kukish (0.11%)
Others (6.05%)
Assamese and Bodo are the major indigenous and official languages while Bengali is the indigenous and official language in the three districts in the Barak Valley and is the second most widely spoken language of the state.[83]
According to the language census of 2001 in Assam, out of a total population of 26,638,407, Assamese is spoken by 13,010,478 speakers (48.84%), Bengali is spoken by 7,343,388 speakers (27.56%), Hindi by 1,569,662 speakers (5.88%), Bodo by 1,296,162 speakers (4.86%), Nepali by 564,790 speakers (2.12%), Mishing by 506,129 speakers (1.9%), Karbi by 401,212 speakers (1.5%), Santali by 242,886 speakers (0.91%), Odia by 231,474 speakers (0.87%), Kukish by 33,399 speakers (0.11%) and 1,611,623 (6.05%) speak other languages.[85]
Traditionally, Assamese was the language of the common folk (of mixed origin – Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Prakrit) in the ancient Kamarupa kingdom and in the medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Chutiya, Borahi, Ahom and Koch. Traces of the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, and others, in Charyapada (c. 7th–8th century AD). Modern dialects such as Kamrupi and Goalpariya are remnants of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. The form used in upper Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.
Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form used near Sivasagar (Xiwôxagôr) district. Assamese (Ôxômiya) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature and unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese literature is also one of the richest.[citation needed]
The word Dimasa etymologically translates to "Son of the big river " (Di- Water, ma- suffix for great, sa-sons), the river being the mighty Brahmaputra. The Dimasa word "Di" for water forms the root word for many of the major rivers of Assam and the North East India like Dikrang which means green river, Dikhow which means "fetched water", Diyung (huge river) etc. The Brahmaputra River is known as Dilao (long river) among the Dimasas. Many of the towns and cities in Assam and Nagaland derived their names from Dimasa words.[citation needed] For example, Dimapur (a capital of Dimasa Kingdom), Dispur, Hojai, Diphu and Khaspur.[citation needed]
Bodo is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the North East Region with Bodo-Kachari words (e.g. Dihing, Dibru, Dihong, D/Tista, Dikrai, etc.) reveal that it was the most important language in the ancient times. Bodo is now spoken largely in the Western Assam (Bodo Territorial Council area). After years of neglect, now Bodo language is getting attention and its literature is developing. Other native languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are Deori [2], Mising, Karbi, Rabha, and Tiwa.[citation needed] Kukish is another native language of Assam belonging to the Tibeto-Burman group. However it does not belong to the Bodo-Kachari group.
There are approximately 5.64 lakhs Nepali speakers spread all over the state forming about 2.12% of Assam's total population according to 2001 census.
There are speakers of Tai languages in Assam. A total of six Tai language were spoken in Assam. Two are now extinct.[86]
Tai Phake
Tai Aiton
Khamti
Khamyang (critically endangered)
Ahom (extinct)
Turung (extinct)
Government and politics[edit]
1. Tinsukia, 2. Dibrugarh, 3. Dhemaji, 4. Charaideo, 5. Sivasagar, 6. Lakhimpur, 7. Majuli, 8. Jorhat, 9. Biswanath, 10. Golaghat, 11. Karbi Anglong East, 12. Sonitpur, 13. Nagaon, 14. Hojai, 15. Karbi Anglong West, 16. Dima Hassao, 17. Cachar, 18. Hailakandi, 19. Karimganj, 20. Morigaon, 21. Udalguri, 22. Darrang, 23. Kamrup Metro, 24. Baksa, 25. Nalbari, 26. Kamrup, 27. Barpeta, 28. Chirang, 29. Bongaigaon, 30. Goalpara, 31. Kokrajhar, 32. Dhubri, 33. South Salmara-Mankachar (as of 2016)
Main articles: Government of Assam and Politics of Assam
Assam has Governor Jagdish Mukhi as the head of the state,[1] the unicameral Assam Legislative Assembly of 126 members, and a government led by the Chief Minister of Assam. The state is divided into five regional divisions.
Local government[edit]
Main article: Districts of Assam
As of June 2016[update], the state has 33 administrative districts. On 15 August 2015, five new districts were formed in addition to former 27 districts. The five new districts are Biswanath (carved out of Sonitpur), Charaideo (of Sivasagar), Hojai (of Nagaon), South Salmara-Mankachar (of Dhubri) and West Karbi Anglong (of Karbi Anglong).[87][88] On 27 June 2016, Majuli declared as district (1st river island district of India).[89] These districts are further sub-divided into 54 "Sub-divisions" or Mahakuma.[88] Every district is administered from a district headquarters with the office of the Deputy Commissioner, District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a district court.
The districts are delineated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc. and majority of the newly constituted districts are sub-divisions of the earlier districts.
The local governance system is organised under the jila-parishad (District Panchayat) for a district, panchayat for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. There are now 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.[90] The 'town-committee' or nagar-somiti for small towns, 'municipal board' or pouro-sobha for medium towns and municipal corporation or pouro-nigom for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.
For the revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and mouzas; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or thana. As on 19 May 2016, BJP under the leadership of Sarbananda Sonowal won the Assembly elections, thus forming the first BJP led government in Assam.[91]
Guwahati is the largest metropolitan area and urban conglomeration administered under the highest form of urban local body – Guwahati Municipal Corporation in Assam. The Corporation administers an area of 216.79 km².[92] All other urban centres are managed under Municipal Boards.
A list of 9 oldest, classified and prominent, and constantly inhabited, recognised urban centres based on the earliest years of formation of the civic bodies, before the Indian independence of 1947 is tabulated below:
Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam[93]
Urban Centres
Civic Body
Year
Airport
Railway Station
Railway Junction
Road Networks
Category†
Notes
Guwahati
Guwahati Town Committee 1853 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – III
[show]
More
Guwahati, the first township of Assam.[94]
Guwahati Municipal Board 1873↑ Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Guwahati Municipal Corporation 1974↑ Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – I
[show]
More
Establishment of Guwahati Municipal Corporation.[95]
Dibrugarh
Dibrugarh Municipal Board 1873 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Dibrugarh, the second township of Assam.[96]
Goalpara
Goalpara Municipal Board 1875 No 1 Yes No 2 Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Goalpara Municipality, 1875.[97]
Dhubri
Dhubri Municipal Board 1883 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Dhubri Municipality, 1883.[98]
Nagaon
Nagaon Municipal Board 1893 No 3 Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Nagaon Municipality, 1893.[99]
Tezpur
Tezpur Municipal Board 1894 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Tezpur Municipality, 1894.[100]
Jorhat
Jorhat Municipal Board 1909 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Jorhat Municipality, 1909.[101]
Golaghat
Golaghat Municipal Board 1920 No 4 Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Golaghat Municipality, 1920.[102]
Silchar
Silchar Municipal Board 1922 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
[show]
More
Formation of Silchar Municipality, 1922.[103]
†Tier – I: a big city with an urban conglomeration (in the true sense) administered by a Municipal Corporation. Tier – II: a medium–sized city for an urban agglomeration administered by a Municipal Board.
Tier – III: a small town, larger than a township with a sizeable human settlement.
↑Upgraged to the next highest form of civic body.
Jointly shared with the other urban centre. ^1 and ^2 Shared with Guwahati. ^3 Shared with Tezpur. ^4 Shared with Jorhat.
The state has three autonomous councils.
Education[edit]
Main article: Education in Assam
See also: List of colleges affiliated to Gauhati University
See also: List of colleges affiliated to Assam University
See also: List of educational institutions in Assam
School girls in the classroom, Lakhiganj High School, Assam
Cotton College of Gauhati University
Academic complex of IIT Guwahati
Jorhat Engineering College of Dibrugarh University
Assam schools are run by the Indian government or by private organisations. Medium of instruction is mainly in Assamese, English or Bengali. Most of the schools follow the state’s examination board which is called the Secondary Education Board of Assam. Almost all private schools follow the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) and Indian School Certificate (ISC) syllabuses.[citation needed]
Assamese language is the main medium in educational institutions but Bengali language is also taught as a major Indian language. In Guwahati and Digboi, many Jr. basic School and Jr. high School are Nepali linguistic and all the teachers are British Gorkha. Nepali is included by Assam State Secondary Board, Assam Higher Secondary Education Council and Gauhati University in their HSLC, higher secondary and graduation level respectively. In some junior basic and higher secondary schools and colleges, Nepali language speaking British Gorkha teachers and lecturers are appointed.[citation needed]
The capital, Dispur, contains institutions of higher education for students of the north-eastern region. Cotton College, Guwahati, dates back to the 19th century. Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research.[citation needed]
Universities, Colleges and Institutions include:
Universities[edit]
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat
Assam Don Bosco University,[104] (private)
Assam down town University,[105] (private)
Assam University, Silchar
Assam Women's University,[106] Jorhat
Bodoland University,[107] Kokrajhar
Dibrugarh University,[108] Dibrugarh
Gauhati University,[109] Guwahati
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati (Deemed, Institute of National Importance)
Indian Statistical Institute, Tezpur
Kaziranga University,[110] Jorhat (private)
National Institute of Technology, Silchar (Deemed, Institute of National Importance)
National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam[citation needed]
Tezpur University,[111]Tezpur
Royal Global University
Medical colleges[edit]
Assam Medical College in Dibrugarh
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Medical College, Barpeta
Gauhati Medical College and Hospital in Guwahati
Jorhat Medical College and Hospital, Jorhat
Regional Dental College, Guwahati
Silchar Medical College and Hospital, Silchar
Tezpur Medical College & Hospital, Tezpur
Engineering and technological colleges[edit]
Assam Engineering College in Guwahati,[citation needed]
Assam Science and Technology University
Bineswar Brahma Engineering College, Kokrajhar
Central Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar,[citation needed]
Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology, Guwahati[112]
Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology, Tezpur
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Guwahati
Indian Institute of Technology in Guwahati,[citation needed]
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Dibrugarh University
Institute of Science and Technology, Guwahati University
Jorhat Institute of Science & Technology, Jorhat
Jorhat Engineering College in Jorhat.[citation needed]
National Institute of Technology, Silchar,[113]
NETES Institute of Technology & Science Mirza,[citation needed]
Law colleges[edit]
NEF Law College, Guwahati (Kamrup),
National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam
Research institutes present in the state include National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati,[114]
Economy[edit]
Main article: Economy of Assam
Assam historical
Assam's economy is based on agriculture and oil. Assam produces more than half of India's tea.[115] The Assam-Arakan basin holds about a quarter of the country's oil reserves, and produces about 12% of its total petroleum.[116] According to the recent estimates,[117] Assam's per capita GDP is ₹6,157 at constant prices (1993–94) and ₹10,198 at current prices; almost 40% lower than that in India.[118] According to the recent estimates,[117] per capita income in Assam has reached ₹6756 (1993–94 constant prices) in 2004–05, which is still much lower than India's.
A paddy field of Assam
A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. Darjeeling, Taiwanese) teas
Tea plantations[edit]
Main article: Assam tea
This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam
Macro-economy[edit]
The economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.[119] Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to 25% of India's petroleum needs, Assam’s growth rate has not kept pace with that of India; the difference has increased rapidly since the 1970s.[120] The Indian economy grew at 6% per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000; the growth rate of Assam was only 3.3%.[121] In the Sixth Plan period, Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78% when India's was positive at 6%.[120] In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the difference widened further.
According to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In 2001–02, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 4.5%, falling to 3.4% in the next financial year.[122] During 2003–04 and 2004–05, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 5.5% and 5.3% respectively.[122] The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 2005–06 at above 6%.[117] Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13 billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was 2.6% per annum over the 1980s, has fallen to 1.6% in the 1990s.[123] The manufacturing sector showed some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4% per annum than 2.4% in the 1980s.[123] For the past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates of the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in the 1980s.[123]
Employment[edit]
Unemployment is one of the major problems of Assam which can be attributed to overpopulation, and a faulty education system. Every year, large numbers of students obtain higher academic degrees but because of non-availability of proportional vacancies, most of these students remain unemployed.[124][125] A number of employers hire over-qualified or efficient, but under-certified, candidates, or candidates with narrowly-defined qualifications. The problem is exacerbated by the growth in the number of technical institutes in Assam which increases the unemployed community of the State. Many job-seekers are eligible for jobs in sectors like Railways and Oil India but don't get these jobs because of the appointment of candidates from outside of Assam to these posts. The reluctance on the part of the departments concerned to advertise vacancies in vernacular language has also made matters worse for local unemployed youths particularly for the job-seekers of Grade C and D vacancies.[126][127]
Reduction of the unemployed has been threatened by illegal immigration from Bangladesh. This has increased the workforce without a commensurate increase in jobs. Immigrants compete with local workers for jobs at lower wages, particularly in construction, domestics, Rickshaw-pullers, and vegetable sellers.[128][129] The government has been identifying (via NRC) and deporting illegals. Continued immigration is exceeding deportation.[130][131]
Agriculture[edit]
In Assam among all the productive sectors, agriculture makes the highest contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs 69% of workforce.[132] Assam's biggest contribution to the world is Assam tea. It has its own variety Camellia assamica. The state produces rice, rapeseed, mustard seed, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut, sugarcane and turmeric.[citation needed]
Assamese women busy in planting paddy seedlings in their agricultural field in Pahukata village in Nagaon district of Assam, India .
Assam’s agriculture is yet to experience modernisation in a real sense. With implications for food security, per capita food grain production has declined in the past five decades.[133] Productivity has increased marginally, but is still low compared to highly productive regions. For instance, the yield of rice (staple food of Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India’s 1927 kg per hectare in 2000–01[133] (which itself is much lower than Egypt’s 9283, US’s 7279, South Korea’s 6838, Japan’s 6635 and China’s 6131 kg per hectare in 2001[134]). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, and with 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,[135] fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.[136]
Flood in Assam greatly affects the farmers and the families dependent on agriculture because of large-scale damage of agricultural fields and crops by flood water.[48][49]Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the State.[137][138]
See also: 2016 Assam floods
Industry[edit]
Handlooming and handicraft continue.[citation needed]
Assam's proximity to some neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, benefits its trade. The major Border checkpoints through which border trade flows to Bangladesh from Assam are :- Sutarkandi (Karimganj), Dhubri, Mankachar (Dhubri) and Golokanj. To facilitate border trade with Bangladesh, Border Trade Centres have been developed at Sutarkandi and Mankachar. It has been proposed in the 11th five-year plan[clarification needed] to set up two more Border Trade Center, one at Ledo connecting China and other at Darrang connecting Bhutan. There are several Land Custom Stations (LCS) in the state bordering Bangladesh and Bhutan to facilitate border trade.[139]
The government of India has identified some thrust areas for industrial development of Assam:
Petroleum and natural gas based industries
Industries based on locally available minerals
Processing of plantation crops
Food processing industries
Agri-Horticulture products
Agri-Horticulture products
Herbal products
Biotech products
Pharmaceuticals
Chemical and plastic based industries
Export oriented industries
Electronic and IT base industries including services sector
Paper making industries
Textiles and sericulture
Engineering industries
Cane and bamboo based industries
Other handicrafts industry[140]
Although, the region in the eastern periphery of India is landlocked and is linked to the mainland by the narrow Siliguri Corridor (or the Chicken's Neck) improved transport infrastructure in all the three modes — rail, road and air — and developing urban infrastructure in the cities and towns of Assam are giving a boost to the entire industrial scene. The Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport at Guwahati, although is yet to be fully functional with international flights, was the 12th busiest airport of India in 2012.[141] The cities of Guwahati[142][143] in the West and Dibrugarh[144][145] in the East with good rail,[146][147] road and air connectivity are the two important nerve centres of Assam, to be selected by Asian Development Bank for providing $200 million for improvement of urban infrastructure.[148][149]
Assam is a producer of crude oil and it accounts for about 15% of India's crude output,[150] exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd.,[151] and natural gas in India and is the second place in the world (after Titusville in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Eastern Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries in Digboi (Asia's first and world's second refinery), Guwahati, Bongaigaon and Numaligarh and with a total capacity of 7 million metric tonnes (7.7 million short tons) per annum. Asia's first refinery was set up at Digboi and discoverer of Digboi oilfield was the Assam Railways & Trading Company Limited (AR&T Co. Ltd.), a registered company of London in 1881.[152] One of the biggest public sector oil company of the country Oil India Ltd. has its plant and headquarters at Duliajan.
There are several other industries, including a chemical fertiliser plant at Namrup, petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, Paper mills at Jagiroad, Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. Township Area Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, Cement plant at Bokajan and Badarpur, cosmetics plant of Hindustan Unilever (HUL) at Doom Dooma, etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, Assam silk, and silk mills. Many of these industries are facing loss and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.[153]
Tourism[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Assam
See also: Tourism in North East India
Wildlife, cultural, and historical destinations have attracted visitors.
Rang Ghar
An Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park
Statue of Ahom warriors near Sivasagar town, Assam
Shiva Dol
Vishnudol joysagar
Kamakhya Temple, Nilachal Hills, Guwahati
Karengghar of the Ahom Kings, Joysagar
Panbari Mosque, Dhubri
Culture[edit]
Main article: Culture of Assam
See also: Assamese cinema
Assamese culture is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups of Austric, Tibeto-Burman and Tai origin in the past. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.[154] The major milestones in evolution of Assamese culture are:
Dakhinpat Satra of Majuli
Presenting Gayan Bayan in Majuli, the Neo-Vaishnavite Cultural heritage of Assam
Assimilation in the Kamarupa Kingdom for almost 700 years (under the Varmans for 300 years, Salastambhas and Palas for each 200 years).[15]
Establishment of the Chutiya dynasty in the 12th century in eastern Assam and assimilation for next 400 years.[15]
Establishment of the Ahom dynasty in the 13th century AD and assimilation for next 600 years.[15]
Assimilation in the Koch Kingdom (15th–16th century AD) of western Assam and Kachari Kingdom (12th–18th century AD) of central and southern Assam.[15]
Vaishnava Movement led by Srimanta Shankardeva (Sonkordeu) and its contribution and cultural changes. Vaishanava Movement, the 15th century religio-cultural movement under the leadership of great Srimanta Sankardeva (Sonkordeu) and his disciples have provided another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed Hinduisation in local forms took place, which was initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the Ahom Kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such as namghar and sattra (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have become part of Assamese way life. The movement contributed greatly towards language, literature and performing and fine arts.[citation needed]
The modern culture was influenced by events in the British and the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American Baptist Missionaries such as Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits such as Hemchandra Barua with the form available in the Sibsagar (Sivasagar) District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom).[citation needed]
Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural groups (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a 'cultural system' with sub-systems. It is interesting that many source-cultures of Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, e.g. the ; Bodo or Karbi or Mishing. It is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time to focus on development of the sub-systems.
Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards areca-nut and betel leaves, symbolic (gamosa, arnai, etc.), traditional silk garments (e.g. mekhela chador, traditional dress of Assamese women) and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and bamboo culture are common.
Symbols[edit]
See also: List of Assam state symbols and Jaapi
A decorative Assamese Jaapi laid over a Gamosa
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of Assamese way of life. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. Tamulpan (the areca nut and betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austro-Asiatic culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.
There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of assamese-lion, dragon, flying-lion(Hindi-udta sher), etc. were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th–10th centuries AD) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of late medieval period display the use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.
Festivals and traditions[edit]
Main article: List of festivals in Assam
See also: Domahi, Bohag Bihu, Magh Bihu, and Bwisagu
A Bihu dancer blowing a pepa (horn)
Tribal – Mising girls dancing during Ali Ai Ligang (Spring Festival)
There are diversified important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam. It is the Assamese new year celebrated in April of the Gregorian calendar. Durga Puja is another festival celebrated with great enthusiasm. Muslims celebrate two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha) with much eagerness all over Assam.
Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals. Primarily a non-religious festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle. Three Bihus, rongali or bohag, celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; kongali or kati, the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the bhogali or magh, the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to rongali bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres.
Bwisagu is one of the popular seasonal festivals of the Bodos. Bwisagu start of the new year or age. Baisagu is a Boro word which originated from the word "Baisa" which means year or age, ang "Agu" that means starting or start.
Bushu Dima or simply Bushu is a major harvest festival of the Dimasa people. This festival is celebrated during the end of January. Officially 27 January has been declared as the day of Bushu Dima festival. The Dimasa people celebrate their festival by playing musical instruments- khram (a type of drum), muri ( a kind of huge long flute). The people dances to the different tunes called "murithai" and each dance has got its name, the prominent being the "Baidima" There are three types of Bushu celebrated among the Dimasas Jidap, Surem and Hangsou.
Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year on different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Some of these are:
Me-Dam-Me-Phi
Ali-Aye-Ligang
Rongker
Kherai
Garja
Bisu DEORI
Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai
Chojun/Swarak
Deusi Bhailo ( Traditional Nepalese songs that are sung during the festival of light " Dipavali and also called "Tihar" )
Sokk-erroi
Hacha-kekan
Hapsa Hatarnai
Porag
Bathow
Wangala
Bohuwa dance
Other few yearly celebrations are Doul Utsav of Barpeta, Brahmaputra Beach Festival, Guwahati, Kaziranga Elephant Festival, Kaziranga and Dehing Patkai Festival, Lekhapani, Karbi Youth Festival of Diphu and International Jatinga Festival, Jatinga can not be forgotten. Few yearly Mela's like Jonbeel Mela, began in the 15th century by the Ahom Kings, Ambubachi Mela, Guwahati etc.
Lachit Divas’ is celebrated to promote the ideals of Lachit Borphukan – the legendary general of Assam’s history. Sarbananda Sonowal, the chief minister of Assam took part in the Lachit Divas celebration at the statue of Lachit Borphukan at Brahmaputra riverfront on 24th November 2017. He said, the first countrywide celebration of ‘Lachit Divas’ would take place in New Delhi followed by state capitals such as Hyderabad, Bangalore and Kolkata in a phased manner.
Music, dance, and drama[edit]
See also: Music of Assam and Folk dances of Assam
Tribal – Bodo dance Bagurumba
Jhumur dance
Nagara
Bhupen Hazarika
Performing arts include: Ankia Naat (Onkeeya Naat), a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (Bhaona) popular since the 15th century AD.[citation needed] It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a Sutradhar (Xutrodhar) continues to narrate the story.[citation needed]
Besides Bihu dance and Huchory performed during the Bohag Bihu, dance forms of tribal minorities such as; Kushan nritra of Rajbongshi's, Bagurumba and Bordoicikhla dance of Bodos, Mishing Bihu, Banjar Kekan performed during Chomangkan by Karbis, Jhumur of Tea tribes are some of the major folk dances.[citation needed] Sattriya (Sotriya) dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya, Deodhoni Nritya, Ojapali, Beula Dance, Ka Shad Inglong Kardom, Nimso Kerung, etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many large theatre groups such as Kohinoor, Sankardev, Abahan, Bhagyadevi, Hengul, Brindabon, Itihas etc.[citation needed]
Actors of Abinaswar Gosthi performs the play"Surjya Mandirot Surjyasta" directed by Dipok Borah
The indigenous folk music has influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of artists like Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Bishnuprasad Rabha, Parvati Prasad Baruwa, Bhupen Hazarika, Pratima Barua Pandey, Anima Choudhury, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta, Deepali Borthakur, Ganashilpi Dilip Sarma, Sudakshina Sarma among many others. Among the new generation, Zubeen Garg, Jitul Sonowal, Angaraag Mahanta and Joi Barua.[citation needed] There is an award given in the honour of Bishnuprasad Rabha for achievements in the cultural/music world of Assam by the State Government.[citation needed]
Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Assamese cuisine
Assamese Thali
An ethnic preparation of Ghost chilly chicken curry of Assam
Assamese-Bengali dish: Vegetables, Mashed potato, Bhaji, Cooked rice and Dal.
Typically, an Assamese meal consists of many things such as bhat (rice) with dal (lentils), masoor jool (fish curry), with mangxô (meat curry) or xaak and bhaji (herbs and vegetables).[citation needed]
Rice is one of the main dishes of Assam, and a variety of different rices are grown and eaten in different ways: roasted, grounded, boiled or just soaked.[citation needed]
Fish curries made of free range wild fish as well as Bôralí, rôu, illish, or sitôl are the most popular. Fowl such as ducks and pigeon are used in dishes while pork(by tribals), chicken and mutton dishes are mainly popular among the younger generation.[citation needed]
Another favourite combination is luchi (fried flatbread), a curry which can be vegetarian or non-vegetarian, and asar (pickle).[citation needed]
The two main characteristics of a traditional meal in Assam are khar (an Alkali, named after its main ingredient) and the sour dish tenga. Khorika is the smoked or fired meat eaten with the meal. The various meats more commonly taken include mutton, fowl, duck/goose, fish, pigeon, beef and pork(among Muslim, Christian and tribal communities respectively) ; these being often involved with religious ceremonies. Other kinds of meat include grasshoppers, locusts, silkworms, snails, eels, wild fowl and other birds, deer meat and so on.[citation needed]
Khorisa (fermented bamboo shoots) are used at times to flavour curries while they can also be preserved and made into pickles. Koldil (banana flower) and squash can be cooked into sabji's.[citation needed]
Many tribal households still continue to brew their traditional drinks; variously known as Laupani, Xaaj, Paniyo, Jou, Joumai, Hor, Apang, and so on. During the time of the traditional festivities, guests are offered these drinks. Declining then is considered socially offensive.[citation needed]
The food is often served in bell metal dishes and platters like Knahi, Maihang and so on.[citation needed]
Literature[edit]
Main article: Assamese literature
Lal Bahadur Chettri
Most literary works are written in Assamese although other local language such as Boro and Dimasa are also represented.[citation needed] In the 19th and 20th century, Assamese and other literature was modernised by authors including Lakshminath Bezbaroa, Birinchi Kumar Barua, Hem Barua, Dr. Mamoni Raisom Goswami, Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, Hiren Bhattacharyya, Homen Borgohain, Bhabananda Deka, Rebati Mohan Dutta Choudhury, Mahim Bora, Lal Bahadur Chettri, Syed Abdul Malik, Surendranath Medhi, Hiren Gohain etc.
Fine arts[edit]
Main article: Fine Arts of Assam
Citra Bhagavata illustration
A page of manuscript painting from Assam; The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials such as the colours of hangool and haital and papers manufactured from aloewood bark
The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are the earliest examples (c. 300 BC to c. 100 AD) of ancient art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (Doporboteeya) archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in ancient Assam with influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period.[citation needed]
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. Xuanzang (7th century AD) mentions that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to Harshavardhana there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts such as Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings.[citation needed]
Traditional crafts[edit]
Main articles: Traditional crafts of Assam and Bell and brass metal crafts of Assam
See also: Assam silk
Bell metal made sorai and sophura are important parts of culture
Assam Knahor Knahi
Assam has a rich tradition of crafts;, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, and musical instruments making have remained as major traditions.[155]
Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as Sorai and Bota made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.[156][157] Hajo and Sarthebari (Sorthebaary) are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga – the natural golden silk, Pat – a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri – a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi (Xualkuchi), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in Western Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the region.
Media[edit]
Print media include Assamese dailies Amar Asom, Asomiya Khobor, Asomiya Pratidin, Dainik Agradoot, Dainik Janambhumi, Dainik Asam, Gana Adhikar, Janasadharan and Niyomiya Barta. Asom Bani, Sadin and Bhal Khabar are Assamese weekly newspapers. English dailies of Assam include The Assam Tribune, The Sentinel, The Telegraph, The Times of India and Eastern Chronicle. Thekar, in the Karbi language has the largest circulation of any daily from Karbi Anglong district. Bodosa has the highest circulation of any Bodo daily from BTC. Dainik Jugasankha is a Bengali daily with editions from Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Silchar and Kolkata. Dainik Samayik Prasanga, Dainik Prantojyoti, Dainik Janakantha and Nababarta Prasanga are other prominent Bengali dailies published in the Barak Valley towns of Karimganj and Silchar. Hindi dailies include Purvanchal Prahari, Pratah Khabar and Dainik Purvoday.
Broadcasting stations of All India Radio have been established in five big cities: Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Kokrajhar, Silchar and Tezpur. Local news and music are the main priority for that station.Assam has three public service broadcasting service radio stationsat Dibrugarh, Guwahati and Silchar. Guwahati is the headquarters of a number of electronic medias like Assam Talks, DY 365, News Live, News 18 Assam/North-East, Prag News and Pratidin Time.
See also[edit]
Outline of Assam – comprehensive topic guide listing articles about Assam.
List of districts of Assam
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Jagdish Mukhi: Few facts about Assam's new Governor". The New Indian Express. 30 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Assam Budget 2018-19" (PDF). Assam Finance Dept. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
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Jump up ^ http://www.assamassembly.gov.in/history.html
Jump up ^ "Prior to the thirteenth century the present region was called Kāmarūpa or, alternatively, Prāgjyotiṣapur", Lahiri, Nayanjot., Pre-Ahom Assam (Delhi 1991) p14
Jump up ^ Sukalpa Bhattacharjee, C Joshua Thomas,2013,Society, Representation and Textuality:The Critical Interface It deals with the expansion of the Mughal Empire in Bengal, Kamrup and Assam.
Jump up ^ Satish Chandra (2005), Medieval India:Fro Sultanate to the Mughals Part – II They had support of many Hindu Rajas of Jessore, Kamrup (Western Assam), Cachar, Tippera, etc.
Jump up ^ Peter Jackson,2003,The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History, P. 141, into the region of Assam the Muslims called Kamrup or Kamrud
Jump up ^ "The word 'Assamese' is an English one based on the anglicised form 'Assam' from the native word "Asam", which in its turn is connected with the Shans who invaded the Brahmaputra Valley in the 13th century." Kakati, Banikanta, Aspects of Early Assamese Literature (Gauhati University Press, 1953) p1; "Assam is the English form of 'Asama' (i.e. peerless) which is apparently a Sanskritised form of the tribal name Ahom", D C Sircar, Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa in The Comprehensive History of Assam Vol I (Guwahati, 1991) p59 cf1; Satyendra Nath Sharma, Assamese Literature (Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 1976) p1; "The term 'Assam' is, relatively speaking, of recent origin and traces back to the tradition of the Ahoms who entered the Brahmaputra valley in the thirteenth century", Nayanjot Lahir, Pre-Ahom Assam (Delhi 1991, based on PhD Thesis) p14; "These references show that the term 'Axom or Asom' was earlier used to mean the Shan community...Subsequently the term came to be used to mean also the territory they ruled", M Taher, Geography of Assam (Delhi, 2001) pp2-3
Jump up ^ "...but most probably Asama meaning peerless or unequalled is a latter day Sanskritisation of some earlier form like Āchām, Banikanta Kakati, Early Aspects of Assamese Literature (Gauhati, 1953) p2
Jump up ^ Satyendra Nath Sharma, Assamese Literature (Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 1976) p1
Jump up ^ "In Tai the root cham means "to be undefeated". With the privative Assamese affix ā the whole formation Āchām would mean undefeated.", Banikanta Kakati, Aspects of Early Assamese Literature (Gauhati University Press, 1953) p2
Jump up ^ "The Ahom domain of Upper Assam came to be known to the Dimasa and other Bodo people as Ha-Sam (the land of the Shams or Shans) in their language.", Amalendu Guha, The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228–1714) in Social Scientist Vol. 11, No. 12, (1983) p24
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Barpujari, H. K. (ed.) (1990), The Comprehensive History of Assam, 1st edition, Guwahati, India: Assam Publication Board CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
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Jump up ^ "Government of Assam | Department of Industries and Commerce". Investinassam.com. Archived from the original on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
Jump up ^ "Assam Economy – Economy of Assam, Business & Economy of Assam India". iloveindia.com. Archived from the original on 10 July 2010. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Kakati, Banikanta (1962), Assamese, Its Formation and Development, 2nd edition, Guwahati, India: Lawyer's Book Stall
Jump up ^ Assam Tourism 2002, Government of Assam. "Arts and Crafts of Assam in About Assam". Archived from the original on 7 April 2007. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Ranjan, M.P.; Iyer, Nilam; Pandya, Ghanshyam, Bamboo and Cane Crafts of Northeast India, National Institute of Design
Jump up ^ Nath, T.K., Bamboo Cane and Assam, Guwahati, India: Industrial Development Bank of India, Small Industries Development Bank of India
References[edit]
Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam, Assam at a Glance, archived from the original on 6 October 2007, retrieved 25 May 2007
National Commission for Women (2004), Situational Analysis of Women in Assam (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2007, retrieved 5 July 2006.
National Mission on Bamboo Applications, Assam, State Profile, archived from the original on 29 September 2007, retrieved 25 May 2007
Revenue Department, Government of Assam, Revenue Administration – Districts and Subdivisions, retrieved 25 May 2007
Singh, K. S (ed) (2003) People of India: Assam Vol XV Parts I and II, Anthropological Survey of India, Seagull Books, Calcutta
Sircar, D C (1990), "Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa", in Barpujari, H K, The Comprehensive History of Assam, I, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 59–78
UNDP (2004), Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty in Assam Human Development Report, 2003, Government of Assam, archived from the original on 20 February 2007
Wandrey, C. J. (2004), "Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam Composite Total Petroleum System, Assam Geologic Province, India" (PDF), US Geological Survey Bulletin, 2208-D
Further reading[edit]
Online Books and material
A statistical account of Assam (1879) by WW Hunter
Assam Attitude to Federalism (1984)by Girin Phukon
A Glimpse of Assam (1884) by Susan Ward
A history of Assam (1906) by Edward Gait
Physical and political geography of the province of Assam (1896) by Assam Secretariat Printing Office
Outline Grammar of the Kachári (Bārā) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam(1884) by Sidney Endle
An outline grammar of the Deori Chutiya language spoken in upper Assam(1895) by William Barclay Brown
Travels and adventures in the province of Assam, during a residence of fourteen years (1855) by John Butler
Language and literature
Bara, Mahendra (1981), The Evolution of the Assamese Script, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
Barpujari, H. K. (1983), Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1965), History of Assamese Literature, Guwahati: East-West Centre Press
Barua, Hem (1965), Assamese Literature, New Delhi: National Book Trust
Brown, William Barclay (1895), An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
Deka, Bhabananda (1961), Industrialisation of Assam, Guwahati: Gopal Das
Dhekial Phukan, Anandaram 1829–1859 (1977), Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
Endle, Sidney (1884), Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press
Gogoi, Lila (1972), Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji, Dibrugarh: New Book Stall
Gogoi, Lila (1986), The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam, New Delhi: Omsons Publications
Goswami, Praphulladatta (1954), Folk-Literature of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam
Gurdon, Philip Richard Thornhagh (1896), Some Assamese Proverbs, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office, ISBN 1-104-30633-6
Kakati, Banikanta (1959), Aspects of Early Assamese Literature, Guwahati: Gauhati University
Kay, S. P. (1904), An English-Mikir Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
Medhi, Kaliram (1988), Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
Miles, Bronson (1867), A Dictionary in Assamese and English, Sibsagar, Assam: American Baptist Mission Press
Morey, Stephen (2005), The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 0-85883-549-5
History
Antrobus, H. (1957), A History of the Assam Company, Edinburgh: Private Printing by T. and A. Constable
Barabaruwa, Hiteswara 1876–1939 (1981), Ahomar Din, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
Barooah, Nirode K. (1970), David Scott In North-East India, 1802–1831, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Barua, Harakanta 1813–1900 (1962), Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam
Barpujari, H. K. (1963), Assam in the Days of the Company, 1826–1858, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
Barpujari, H. K. (1977), Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam, Guwahati: Government of Assam
Barua, Kanak Lal, An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century, Guwahati: Lawyers Book Stall
Barua, Kanak Lal, Studies in the Early History of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
Baruah, Swarna Lata (1993), Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769–1826, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1949), Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771–1826, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Annals of the Delhi Badshahate, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1957), Atan Buragohain and His Times, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1962), Deodhai Asam Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1928), Early British Relations with Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Lachit Barphukan and His Times, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1964), Satasari Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Gauhati University
Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1975), Swargadew Rajeswarasimha, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
Buchanan, Francis Hamilton 1762–1829 (1963), An Account of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies
Duara Barbarua, Srinath (1933), Tungkhungia Buranji, Bombay: H. Milford, Oxford University Press
Gait, Edward Albert 1863–1950 (1926), A History of Assam, Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co.
Gogoi, Padmeswar (1968), The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms, Guwahati: Gauhati University
Guha, Amalendu (1983), The Ahom Political System, Calcutta: Centre for Studies in Social Sciences
Hunter, William Wilson 1840–1900 (1879), A Statistical Account of Assam, London: Trubner & Co.
Tradition and Culture
Barkath, Sukumar (1976), Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1969), A Cultural History of Assam, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1960), Sankardeva, Guwahati: Assam Academy for Cultural Relations
Gandhiya, Jayakanta (1988), Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac, Dibrugarh
Goswami, Praphulladatta (1960), Ballads and Tales of Assam, Guwahati: Gauhati University
Goswami, Praphulladatta (1988), Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
Mahanta, Pona (1985), Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama, Delhi: Mittal Publications
Medhi, Kaliram (1978), Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
External links[edit]
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VIAF: 144235172
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ISNI: 0000 0000 9745 4965
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Urban conglomeration

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Indian Independence Day

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Indian School Certificate

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Eid ul-Fitr

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Angaraag Mahanta

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Gupta empire

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values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2014

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2017

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values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015

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values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from June 2016

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2015

values: Category:Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters

values: Category:Pages using Columns-list with deprecated parameters

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2015

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Assam
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Assam&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

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Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Achinese
ace
ace
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ace
display: none;

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam
Asam – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-an
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-as
display: none;

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Асам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values: ཨཱསཱམ། – Tibetan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bo
display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam
Asam – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values: އާސާމު – Divehi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dv
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Ασσάμ – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asamo
Asamo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hif
display: none;

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gom
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam
Asam – Upper Sorbian
hsb
hsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb
display: none;

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: ಅಸ್ಸಾಂ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Pampanga
pam
pam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pam
display: none;

values: ასამის შტატი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ks
display: none;

values: Ассам – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lrc
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asama
Asama – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asama
Asama – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asamas
Asamas – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mai
display: none;

values:
https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Malagasy
mg
mg
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values: ასამიშ შტატი – Mingrelian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values: အာသံပြည်နယ် – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ce
display: none;

values:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-frr
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-or
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accom
Accom – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values: असमरज्जं – Pali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam
Asam – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: असमराज्यम् – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sd
display: none;

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81sam
Ásam – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Silesian
szl
szl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-szl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: அசாம் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: รัฐอัสสัม – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Ассам – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vec
display: none;

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam
Assam – Yoruba
yo
yo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dty
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Assam rootpage-Assam skin-vector action-view