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Conjunction (grammar)
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Not to be confused with Grammatical conjugation or Conjunctive mood.
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or CNJ) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjoining construction. The term discourse marker is mostly used for conjunctions joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle and it may or may not stand between the items in a conjunction.
The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function, e.g. "as well as", "provided that".
A simple literary example of a conjunction: "the truth of nature, and the power of giving interest". (Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Biographia Literaria)[1]
Conjunctions may be placed at the beginning of sentences:[2] "But some superstition about the practice persists".[3]
Contents
1 Coordinating conjunctions
2 Correlative conjunctions
3 Subordinating conjunctions
4 Starting a sentence
4.1 Examples
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Coordinating conjunctions[edit]
Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join, or coordinate, two or more items (such as words, main clauses, or sentences) of equal syntactic importance. In English, the mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the coordinators for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.[4] These are not the only coordinating conjunctions; various others are used, including[5]:ch. 9[6]:p. 171 "and nor" (British), "but nor" (British), "or nor" (British), "neither" ("They don't gamble; neither do they smoke"), "no more" ("They don't gamble; no more do they smoke"), and "only" ("I would go, only I don't have time"). Types of coordinating conjunctions include cumulative conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, alternative conjunctions, and illative conjunctions.[7]
Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions in English and what they do:
For – presents rationale ("They do not gamble or smoke, for they are ascetics.")
And – presents non-contrasting item(s) or idea(s) ("They gamble, and they smoke.")
Nor – presents a non-contrasting negative idea ("They do not gamble, nor do they smoke.")
But – presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, but they don't smoke.")
Or – presents an alternative item or idea ("Every day they gamble, or they smoke.")
Yet – presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, yet they don't smoke.")
So – presents a consequence ("He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.")
Correlative conjunctions[edit]
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are many different pairs of correlative conjunctions:
either...or
not only...but (also)
neither...nor
both...and
whether...or
just as...so
the...the
as...as
as much...as
no sooner...than
rather...than
Examples:
You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office. (Either do or prepare)
He is not only handsome but also brilliant. (Not only A but also B)
Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.
Both the cross country team and the swimming team are doing well.
You must decide whether you stay or you go.
Just as many Americans love basketball, so many Canadians love ice hockey.
The more you practice dribbling, the better you will be at it.
Football is as fast as hockey (is (fast)).
Football is as much an addiction as it is a sport.
No sooner did she learn to ski than the snow began to thaw.
I would rather swim than surf.
Subordinating conjunctions[edit]
Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join an independent clause and a dependent clause, and also introduce adverb clauses. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while.
Complementizers can be considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses: e.g. "I wonder whether he'll be late. I hope that he'll be on time". Some subordinating conjunctions (until and while), when used to introduce a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings.
The subordinating conjunction performs two important functions within a sentence: illustrating the importance of the independent clause and providing a transition between two ideas in the same sentence by indicating a time, place, or cause and therefore affecting the relationship between the clauses.[8]
In many verb-final languages, subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend. The equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of non-verb-final languages such as English are either
clause-final conjunctions (e.g. in Japanese); or
suffixes attached to the verb, and not separate words[9]
Such languages often lack conjunctions as a part of speech, because:
the form of the verb used is formally nominalised and cannot occur in an independent clause
the clause-final conjunction or suffix attached to the verb is a marker of case and is also used in nouns to indicate certain functions. In this sense, the subordinate clauses of these languages have much in common with postpositional phrases.
In other West Germanic languages like German and Dutch, the word order after a subordinating conjunction is different from that in an independent clause, e.g. in Dutch want ("for") is coordinating, but omdat ("because") is subordinating. The clause after the coordinating conjunction has normal word order, but the clause after the subordinating conjunction has verb-final word order. Compare:
Hij gaat naar huis, want hij is ziek. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")
Hij gaat naar huis, omdat hij ziek is. ("He goes home because he is ill.")
Similarly, in German, "denn" (for) is coordinating, but "weil" (because) is subordinating:
Er geht nach Hause, denn er ist krank. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")
Er geht nach Hause, weil er krank ist. ("He goes home, because he is ill.")
Starting a sentence[edit]
See also: Disputes in English grammar
It is now generally agreed that a sentence may begin with a coordinating conjunction like and,[10] but,[11] or yet.[12] However, there has been a mistaken belief in some sort of prohibition, or what Follett's Modern American Usage called a "supposed rule without foundation" and a "prejudice [that] lingers from a bygone time" that English sentences should not start with conjunctions.[13]
People associate this mistaken belief with their early school days. One conjecture is that it results from young children being taught to avoid simple sentences starting with and and encouraged to use more complex structures with subordinating conjunctions.[10] In the words of Bryan A. Garner, the "widespread belief ... that it is an error to begin a sentence with a conjunction such as and, but, or so" has "no historical or grammatical foundation",[14] and good writers have frequently started sentences with conjunctions.[15]
There is also a "myth" that a sentence should never begin with because. Because is a subordinating conjunction and introduces a dependent clause. It may start a sentence when the main clause follows the dependent clause.[16]
Examples[edit]
This list section may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (March 2018)
"But she must give security that she will not marry without royal consent, if she holds her lands of the Crown, or without the consent of whatever other lord she may hold them of."—Magna Carta (1215), translated into modern English)[17]
"But we, or our chief justice if we are not in England, are first to be informed."— Magna Carta (1215), translated into modern English"[17]
"And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor."[18]
"But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively."—United States Constitution (1787)[19]
"And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof."—United States Constitution (1787)[20]
"And this power has been exercised when the last act, required from the person possessing the power, has been performed."—United States Supreme Court Judgment (1803)[21]
"But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow this ground." Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address (1863)
"Yet, if God wills that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsman's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether."Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address (1865)[22]
"So the inquiries can coexist, though there is much overlap between them."[23]
"And it appears that it was this latter factor which underlay the dismissal of the appeal by the majority. But it seems to me that the question of whether it is fair, just and reasonable is better considered against the background of whether a sufficiently proximate relationship exists."[24]
"But the earlier decisions in Pratap Narain Singh Deo and Valsala K. were not brought to the notice of the Court in the two later decisions in Mubasir Ahmed and Mohd. Nasir."[25]
"And now we have Facebook and Twitter and Wordpress and Tumblr and all those other platforms that take our daily doings and transform them into media."[26]
"So any modern editor who is not paranoid is a fool".[27]
"And strikes are protected globally, existing in many of the countries with labour laws outside the Wagner Act model."[28]
See also[edit]
Asyndeton
Cohesion (linguistics)
Conjunctive adverb
Conjunctive mood, sometimes used with conjunctions
Genitive connector
Logical conjunction
On a white bus
Polysyndeton
Relativizer
Serial comma – the comma used immediately before a coordinating conjunction preceding the final item in a list of three or more items
So (sentence closer)
So (sentence opener)
Syndeton
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Greenblatt, Stephen (2006). The Norton Anthology of British Literature, 8th Ed. Vol. D. New York: Norton. p. 478.
Jump up ^ Richard Nordquist. "Is It Wrong to Begin a Sentence With "But"?". Grammar.about.com. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2001). Legal Writing in Plain English: A Text with Exercises. The University of Chicago Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-226-28418-2. : "[t]he idea that it is poor grammar to begin a sentence with Shahid Afridi or But" is "nonsense baggage that so many writers lug around".
Jump up ^ Paul; Adams, Michael (2009). How English Works: A Linguistic Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson Longman. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-205-60550-7.
Jump up ^ John, Algeo (2006). British or American English? A Handbook of Word and Grammar Patterns. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Jump up ^ Burchfield, R. W., ed. (1996). Fowler's Modern English Usage (3rd ed.).
Jump up ^ "Kinds of co-ordinating conjunctions".
Jump up ^ "What are Subordinating Conjunctions?". Gingersoftware.com. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ Dryer, Matthew S. (2005). "Order of adverbial subordinator and clause". In Haspelmath, Martin; Dryer, Matthew S.; Gil, David; Comrie, Bernard. The World Atlas of Language Structures. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-199-25591-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage. Penguin. 2002. p. 69. ISBN 9780877796336.
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage. Penguin. 2002. p. 151. ISBN 9780877796336.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2016). Garner's Modern English Usage. Oxford University Press. p. 979. ISBN 978-0-19-049148-2.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2016). Garner's Modern English Usage. Oxford University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-19-049148-2.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2010). "Grammar and Usage". The Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-226-10420-1.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2016). Garner's Modern English Usage. Oxford University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-19-049148-2.
Jump up ^ Garner, Bryan A. (2016). Garner's Modern English Usage. Oxford University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-19-049148-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Magna Carta (2012-03-10). "English translation of Magna Carta - The British Library". Bl.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ —United States Declaration of Independence (1776) Jefferson, Thomas (2012-03-10). "United States Declaration of Independence". Retrieved 11 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of the United States". Constitutioncenter.org. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Senate: Constitution of the United States". Senate.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Google Scholar". Scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Abraham Lincoln: Second Inaugural Address. U.S. Inaugural Addresses. 1989". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Google Scholar". Scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Michael and others v. The Chief Constable of South Wales Police and another, The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom" (PDF). Supremecourt.uk. 2015. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived January 19, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "An Optimist's Guide to Political Correctness". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "The case for liberal optimism". The Economist. 2015-01-31. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v. Saskatchewan - SCC Cases (Lexum)". Scc-csc.lexum.com. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
External links[edit]
Wiktionary lists of conjunctions by language
hide
v
t
e
Lexical categories and their features
Noun
Abstract / Concrete
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Attributive
Common / Proper
Countable / Mass / Collective
Initial-stress-derived
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Verbal / Deverbal
Verb
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Attributive
Converb
Gerund
Gerundive
Infinitive
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Supine
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Types
Accusative
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Anticausative
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Donkey
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Interrogative
Objective
Personal
Possessive
Prepositional
Reciprocal
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Relative
Resumptive
Subjective
Weak
Preposition/postposition
Inflected
Casally modulated
Stranded
Conjunction
Determiner
Article
Demonstrative
Interrogative
Possessive
Quantifier
Classifier
Measure word
Particle
Discourse
Interrogative
Modal
Noun
Possessive
Complementizer
Other
Yes and no
Copula
Coverb
Expletive
Interjection (verbal)
Preverb
Pro-form
Pro-sentence
Pro-verb
Procedure word
Prop-word
Authority control
NDL: 00576467
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Reabsorption
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Resorption.
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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In renal physiology, reabsorption or tubular reabsorption is the process by which the nephron removes water and solutes from the tubular fluid (pre-urine) and returns them to the circulating blood. It is called reabsorption (and not absorption) both because these substances have already been absorbed once (particularly in the intestines) and because the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is well on its way to becoming urine (that is, they will soon be lost to the urine unless they are reclaimed). Substances are reabsorbed from the tubule into the peritubular capillaries. This happens as a result of sodium transport from the lumen into the blood by the Na+/K+ATPase in the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells. Thus, the glomerular filtrate becomes more concentrated, which is one of the steps in forming urine. Reabsorption allows many useful solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids), salts and water that have passed through Bowman's capsule, to return to the circulation. These solutes are reabsorbed isotonically, in that the osmotic potential of the fluid leaving the proximal convoluted tubule is the same as that of the initial glomerular filtrate. However, glucose, amino acids, inorganic phosphate, and some other solutes are reabsorbed via secondary active transport through cotransport channels driven by the sodium gradient.
Renin–angiotensin system:
1. The kidneys sense low blood pressure.
2. Release renin into the blood.
3. Renin causes production of Angiotensin I.
4. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II.
5. Angiotensin II stimulates the release of Aldosterone, ADH, and thirst.
6. Aldosterone causes kidneys to reabsorb sodium; ADH increases the uptake of water.
7. Water follows sodium.
8. As blood volume increases, pressure also increases.
See also[edit]
Transepithelial potential difference driving reabsorption
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reabsorption&oldid=770123158"
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Renal physiology
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