text:
Bra size
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Measuring for bra size
The bra size (also known as brassiere measurement or bust size) is the measure which indicates the size characteristics of a bra. Bra sizes are usually expressed as scales, with a number of systems being in use around the world. The scales take into account the band length and the cup size. From the wearer's point of view, the main measures that are taken into account, in determining the best bra fit for the wearer, are the measures of the wearer around the torso below the breasts and over the breasts, which defines the band length. For convenience, because of the impracticality of measuring a woman's breast size, the volume of the bra cup is based on the difference between these two measures.
Determining the correct bra size is the process manufacturers engage in to design and manufacture bras that correctly fit a majority of women, and for individual women, the process of identifying a correctly fitting bra.[1] Bra sizes usually consist of one or more letters indicating the breast cup size and a number, indicating a band size around the woman's torso. Bra cup sizes were invented in 1932 and band sizes became popular in the 1940s.
The shape, size, position, symmetry, spacing, firmness, and amount of sagging of individual women's breasts vary considerably. Manufacturers' bra size labeling systems vary from country to country because no international standards exist. Even within a single country, one study found that the bra label size was consistently different from the measured size.[2] As a result, about 25% of women have a difficult time finding a properly fitted bra.[3] Some women choose to buy custom-made bras due to the unusual size or shape of their breasts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Measurement method origins
1.1 Cup design origins
1.2 Band measurement origins
1.3 Other innovations
2 Consumer fitting
2.1 Larger breasts and bra fit
2.2 Bad bra-fit symptoms
2.3 Obtaining best fit
2.4 Confirming bra fit
3 Consumer measurement difficulties
3.1 Asymmetrical breasts
3.2 Breast volume variation
3.3 Increases in average bra size
4 Consumer measurement methods
4.1 Band measurement methods
4.1.1 Underbust +0
4.1.2 Underbust +4
4.1.3 Sizing chart
4.1.4 Underarm/ upper bust method
4.2 Cup measurement methods
4.3 Cup sizes vary
4.4 Plastic Surgeon Measuring System
4.5 Consumer fit research
5 Manufacturer design standards
5.1 UK
5.2 Australia/New Zealand
5.3 United States
5.4 Continental Europe
5.5 South Korea/Japan
5.6 France/Belgium/Spain
5.7 Italy
5.8 Advertising and retail influence
5.9 Engineered Alternative to traditional bras
5.10 Calculating cup volume and breast weight
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
Measurement method origins[edit]
This 1932 ad by the S.H. Camp Company was the first to denote cup size and band measurement
Parisienne Madeleine Gabeau received a United States patent on 21 November 1911 for a brassiere with soft cups and a metal band that supported and separated the breasts. To avoid the prevailing fashion that created a single "monobosom"[citation needed], her design provided "that the edges of the material d may be carried close along the inner and under contours of the breasts, so as to preserve their form, I employ an outlining band of metal b which is bent to conform to the lower curves of the breast."[4]
Cup design origins[edit]
The term "cup" was not used to describe bras until 1916[5] when two patents were filed.[6]
In October 1932, the S.H. Camp and Company were the first to measure cup size by the letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, and D, though the letters represented how pendulous the breasts were and not their volume. Camp's advertising in the February 1933 issue of Corset and Underwear Review featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts. Cup sizes A through D were not intended to be used for larger-breasted women.[7]
Warner's 1944 advertisement for bra sizes A through D
In 1937, Warner introduced its Alphabet Bra with four cup sizes (A, B, C and D) to its product descriptions. Before long, these cup sizes got nicknames: egg cup, tea cup, coffee cup and challenge cup.[8] Two other companies, Model and Fay-Miss (renamed in 1935 as the Bali Brassiere Company) followed, offering A, B, C and D cup sizes in the late 1930s. Catalog companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium and Large through the 1940s.[9] Britain did not adopt the American cups in 1933, but resisted using cup sizes for its products until 1948. The Sears Company finally applied cup sizes to bras in its catalog in the 1950s.[10]
Band measurement origins[edit]
Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple hook and eye closures in the 1930s. Prior to the widespread use of bras, the undergarment of choice for Western women was a corset. To help women meet the perceived ideal female body shape, corset and girdle manufacturers used a calculation called hip spring, the difference between waist and hip measurement (usually 10–12 inches).[11]
The band measurement system was created by U.S. bra manufacturers just after World War II.
Other innovations[edit]
The underwire was first added to a strapless bra in 1937 by André, a custom-bra firm.[12] Patents for underwire-type devices in bras were issued in 1931 and 1932, but were not widely adopted by manufacturers until after World War II when metal shortages eased.[13]
In the 1930s, Dunlop chemists were able to reliably transform rubber latex into elastic thread. After 1940, "whirlpool," or concentric stitching was used to shape the cup structure of some designs.[14] The man-made fibres were quickly adopted by the industry because of their easy-care properties. Since a brassiere must be laundered frequently, easy-care fabric was in great demand.
Consumer fitting[edit]
For best results, the breasts should be measured twice: once when standing upright, once bending over at the waist with the breasts hanging down.[citation needed] If the difference between these two measurements is more than 10 cm, then the average is chosen for calculating the cup size.[citation needed] A number of reports, surveys and studies in different countries have found that between 80% to 85% of women wear incorrectly fitted bras.[15][unreliable source?]
In November 2005, Oprah Winfrey produced a show devoted to bras and bra sizes, during which she talked about research that eight out of ten women wear the wrong size bra.[16]
Larger breasts and bra fit[edit]
A woman wearing an Elle Macpherson brand 30E bra demonstrates correct band fit with incorrect cup fit. Her bra band is parallel to the ground and her breasts do not spill out under her arm, but she exhibits major spilling of her breast tissue over the top of the cup.
Studies have revealed that the most common mistake made by women when selecting a bra was to choose too large a back band and too small a cup, for example, 38C instead of 34E, or 34B instead of 30D.[17][18]
The heavier a person's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.[19]
In a study conducted in the United Kingdom of 103 women seeking mammoplasty, researchers found a strong link between obesity and inaccurate back measurement. They concluded that "obesity, breast hypertrophy, fashion and bra-fitting practices combine to make those women who most need supportive bras the least likely to get accurately fitted bras."[19]
One issue that complicates finding a correctly fitting bra is that band and cup sizes are not standardized, but vary considerably from one manufacturer to another, resulting in sizes that only provide an approximate fit.[20][21] Women cannot rely on labeled bra sizes to identify a bra that fits properly.[22][23] Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing may be inaccurate.[24]
Manufacturers cut their bras differently, so, for example, two 34B bras from two companies may not fit the same person.[25] Customers should pay attention to which sizing system is used by the manufacturer. The main difference is in how cup sizes increase, by 2 cm or 1 inch (= 2.54 cm, see below). Some French manufacturers also increase cup sizes by 3 cm.[26] Unlike dress sizes, manufacturers do not agree on a single standard.
British bras currently range from A to LL cup size (with Rigby&Peller recently introducing bras by Elila which go up to US-N-Cup), while most Americans can find bras with cup sizes ranging from A to G. Some brands (Goddess, Elila) go as high as N, a size roughly equal to a British JJ-Cup. In continental Europe, Milena Lingerie from Poland produces up to cup R. Larger sizes are usually harder to find in retail outlets. As the cup size increases, the labeled cup size of different manufacturers' bras tend to vary more widely in actual volume.[23] One study found that the label size was consistently different from the measured size.[27]
Even medical studies have attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit.[28] Research by plastic surgeons has suggested that bra size is imprecise because breast volume is not calculated accurately:
The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements.[29]
The use of the cup sizing and band measurement systems has evolved over time and continues to change. Experts recommend that women get fitted by an experienced person[30] at a retailer offering the widest possible selection of bra sizes and brands.
Bad bra-fit symptoms[edit]
If the straps dig into the shoulder, leaving red marks or causing shoulder or neck pain, the bra band is not offering enough support.[31] If breast tissue overflows the bottom of the bra, under the armpit, or over the top edge of the bra cup, the cup size is too small.[31] Loose fabric in the bra cup indicates the cup size is too big.[32] If the underwires poke the breast under the armpit or if the bra's center panel does not lie flat against the sternum,[33] the cup size is too small.[31] If the band rides up the torso at the back, the band size is too big. If it digs into the flesh, causing the flesh to spill over the edges of the band, the band is too small.[31] If the band feels tight, this may be due to the cups being too small; instead of going up in band size a person should try going up in cup size. Similarly a band might feel too loose if the cup is too big. It is possible to test whether a bra band is too tight or too loose by reversing the bra on her torso so that the cups are at the back and then check for fit and comfort. Generally, if the wearer must continually adjust the bra or experiences general discomfort, the bra is a poor fit and she should get a new fitting.[34]
Obtaining best fit[edit]
Bra extension for the band
Bra experts recommend that women, especially those whose cup sizes are D or larger, get a professional bra fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store.[30] However, even professional bra fitters in different countries including New Zealand[35] and the United Kingdom[36] produce inconsistent measurements of the same person. There is significant heterogeneity in breast shape, density, and volume. As such, current methods of bra fitting may be insufficient for this range of chest morphology.
A 2004 study by Consumers Reports in New Zealand found that 80% of department store bra fittings resulted in a poor fit.[37] However, because manufacturer's standards widely vary,[38] women cannot rely on their own measurements to obtain a satisfactory fit.[citation needed] Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a properly fitting bra is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much like shoes.
Bra fitters generally agree[citation needed] that a correctly fitting bra should meet the following criteria:
When viewed from the side, the edge of the chest band should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.
Each cup's underwire at the front should lie flat against the sternum (not the breast), along the inframammary fold, and should not dig into the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.
The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.
The apex of the breast, the nipple, must be in the center of the cup.
The breast should not bulge over the top or out the sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra.
The straps of a correctly fitted bra should not dig into or slip off the shoulder, which suggests a too-large band.
The back of the bra should not ride up and the chest band should remain parallel to the floor when viewed from the back.
The breasts should be supported primarily by the band around the rib cage, rather than by the shoulder straps.
The woman should be able to breathe and move easily without the bra slipping around.
Confirming bra fit[edit]
One method to confirm that the bra is the best fit has been nicknamed the Swoop and Scoop. After identifying a well-fitting bra, the woman bends forward (the swoop), allowing their breasts to fall into the bra, filling the cup naturally, and then fastening the bra on the outermost set of hooks.[39][40] When the woman stands up, she uses the opposite hand to place each breast gently into the cup (the scoop), and she then runs her index finger along the inside top edge of the bra cup to make sure her breast tissue does not spill over the edges.[31][41]
Experts suggest that women choose a bra band that fits well on the outermost hooks.[39][40] This allows the wearer to use the tighter hooks on the bra strap as it stretches during its lifetime of about eight months.[40] The band should be tight enough to support the bust, but the straps should not provide the primary support.[42]
Consumer measurement difficulties[edit]
A bra is one of the most complicated articles of clothing to make. A typical bra design has between 20 and 48 parts, including the band, hooks, cups, lining, and straps. Major retailers place orders from manufacturers in batches of 10,000. Orders of this size require a large-scale operation to manage the cutting, sewing and packing required.[43]
Constructing a properly fitting brassiere is difficult. Adelle Kirk, formerly a manager at the global Kurt Salmon management consulting firm that specializes in the apparel and retail businesses, said that making bras is complex:
Bras are one of the most complex pieces of apparel. There are lots of different styles, and each style has a dozen different sizes, and within that there are a lot of colors. Furthermore, there is a lot of product engineering. You've got hooks, you've got straps, there are usually two parts to every cup, and each requires a heavy amount of sewing. It is very component intensive.[44]
Asymmetrical breasts[edit]
Obtaining the correct size is complicated by the fact that up to 25% of women's breasts display a persistent, visible breast asymmetry,[45] which is defined as differing in size by at least one cup size.[citation needed] For about 5% to 10% of women, their breasts are severely different, with the left breast being larger in 62% of cases. Losken, Albert; Fishman, Inessa; Denson, Donald D.; Moyer, Hunter R.; Carlson, Grant W. (2005). "An Objective Evaluation of Breast Symmetry and Shape Differences Using 3-Dimensional Images". Annals of Plastic Surgery. 55 (6): 571–575. doi:10.1097/01.sap.0000185459.49434.5f. PMID 16327452. Minor asymmetry may be resolved by wearing a padded bra,[citation needed] but in severe cases of developmental breast deformity—commonly called "Amazon's Syndrome" by physicians, may require corrective surgery due to morphological alterations caused by variations in shape, volume, position of the breasts relative to the inframammary fold, the position of the nipple-areola complex on the chest, or both.[46]
Breast volume variation[edit]
Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of women's breasts change, if they experience menstrual cycles, during the cycle[15] and can experience unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size due to pregnancy, weight gain or loss, or medical conditions.[citation needed] Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements.[28]
Some women's breasts can change shape by as much as 20% per month:
"Breasts change shape quite consistently on a month-to-month basis, but they will individually change their volume by a different amount ... Some girls will change less than 10% and other girls can change by as much as 20%." Would it be better not to wear a bra at all then? "... In fact there are very few advantages in wearing existing bras. Having a bra that's generally supportive would have significant improvement particularly in terms of stopping them going south ... The skin is what gives the breasts their support"[47]
Increases in average bra size[edit]
In 2010, the most common bra size sold in the UK was 36D.[17][48] In 2004, market research company Mintel reported that bust sizes in the United Kingdom had increased from 1998 to 2004 in younger as well as older consumers, while a more recent study showed that the most often sold bra size in the US in 2008 was 36D.[49]
Researchers ruled out increases in population weight as the explanation [30] and suggested it was instead likely due to more women wearing the correct, larger size.[50]
Consumer measurement methods[edit]
Bra retailers recommend several methods for measuring band and cup size. These are based on two primary methods, either under the bust or over the bust, and sometimes both. Calculating the correct bra band size is complicated by a variety of factors. The American National Standards Institute states that while a voluntary consensus of sizes exists, there is much confusion to the ‘true’ size of clothing.[38] As a result, bra measurement can be considered an art and a science.[1] Online shopping and in-person bra shopping experiences may differ because online recommendations are based on averages and in-person shopping can be completely personalized so the shopper may easily try on band sizes above and below her between measured band size. For the woman with a large cup size and a between band size, they may find their cup size is not available in local stores so may have to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number.[51]
Band measurement methods[edit]
There are several possible methods for measuring the bust.
Underbust +0[edit]
A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size.[52][53]
Underbust +4[edit]
This method begins the same way as the underbust +0 method, where a measuring tape is pulled tight around the torso under the bust while remaining horizontal. If the measurement is even, 4 is added to calculate the band size. If it is odd, 5 is added. Kohl’s uses this method for its online fitting guide.[54]
Sizing chart[edit]
Currently, many large U.S. department stores determine band size by starting with the measurement taken underneath the bust similar to the aforementioned underbust +0 and underbust +4 methods. A sizing chart or calculator then uses this measurement to determine the band size.[55] Band sizes calculated using this method vary between manufacturers.
Underarm/ upper bust method[edit]
A measuring tape is pulled around the torso under the armpit and above the bust. Because band sizes are most commonly manufactured in even numbers, the wearer must round to the closest even number.[56]
Cup measurement methods[edit]
Pictogram for the European bra size 70B using EN 13402-1
Bra-wearers can calculate their cup size by finding the difference between their bust size and their band size.[55][57] The bust size, bust line measure, or over-bust measure is the measurement around the torso over the fullest part of the breasts, with the crest of the breast halfway between the elbow and shoulder,[58] usually over the nipples,[59] ideally while standing straight with arms to the side and wearing a properly fitted bra.[51] This practice assumes the current bra fits correctly. The measurements are made in the same units as the band size, either inches or centimetres. The cup size is calculated by subtracting the band size from the over-the-bust measurement.[60][61]
Cup sizes vary[edit]
Cup sizes vary from one country to another. The larger the cup size, the bigger the variation.[62]
Over the bust/band measurement difference and cup size [63][64]
Difference (inches) <1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Cupsize U.S. AA A B C D DD/E DDD/F DDDD/G H I J K L M N O — —
Cupsize Austr. AA A B C D DD E F G H I J K L M N
Cupsize UK AA A B C D DD E F FF G GG H HH J JJ K KK L
Surveys of bra sizes tend to be very dependent on the population studied and how it was obtained. For instance, one U.S. study reported that the most common size was 34B, followed by 34C, that 63% were size 34 and 39% cup size B. However, the survey sample was drawn from 103 Caucasian student volunteers at a Midwest U.S. university aged 18–25, and excluded pregnant and nursing women.[65]
Bra maker Triumph conducted a survey in 2007 to determine the percentage of women wearing four cup sizes, and found that 57% of British women, more than any other country, need a D cup.[66]
Triumph Survey
Country
D
C
B
A
UK 57% 18% 19% 6%
Denmark 50% 19% 24% 7%
Netherlands 36% 27% 29% 8%
Belgium 28% 28% 35% 9%
France 26% 29% 38% 7%
Sweden 24% 30% 33% 14%
Greece 23% 28% 40% 9%
Switzerland 19% 24% 43% 14%
Austria 11% 27% 51% 10%
Italy 10% 21% 68% 1%
Plastic Surgeon Measuring System[edit]
Bra-wearers who have difficulty calculating a correct cup size may be able to find a correct fit using a method adopted by plastic surgeons. Using a flexible tape measure, position the tape at the outside of the chest, under the arm, where the breast tissue begins.[67] Measure across the fullest part of the breast, usually across the nipple, to where the breast tissue stops at the breast bone.[68]
Conversion of the measurement to cup size is as follows:[68]
Measuring cup size
Measurement
Cup size
inch
cm
7.0 17.8 A
7.5 19.1 A
8.0 20.3 B
8.5 21.6 B
9.0 22.9 C
9.5 24.1 C
10.0 25.4 D
10.5 26.7 D
11.0 27.9 DD
These cup measurements are only correct for converting cup sizes for a 34" band to cm using this particular method. Please note that in general countries that employ metric cup sizing have their own system of 2 cm increments that result in cup sizes that differ from those using inches, as 1" does not equal 2cm. They are only accurate for a 34-inch band because cup size is relative to band size. This principle means that bras of differing band size can have the same volume. For example, the cup volume is the same for 30D, 32C, 34B, and 36A. These related bra sizes of the same cup volume are called sister sizes.
Consumer fit research[edit]
A 2012 study by White and Scurr University of Portsmouth compared method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method used in many United Kingdom lingerie shops with and compared that to measurements obtained using a professional method.[citation needed] The study relied on the professional bra-fitting method described by McGhee and Steele (2010).[69]
The study [70] utilized a five-step approach to obtain the best fitting bra size for an individual. The study measured 45 women using the traditional selection method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method. Women tried bras on until they obtained the best fit based on professional bra fitting criteria. The researchers found that 76% of women overestimated their band and 84% underestimated their cup size. When women wear bras with too big a band, breast support is reduced. Too small a cup size may cause skin irritation. They noted that "ill-fitting bras and insufficient breast support can lead to the development of musculoskeletal pain and inhibit women participating in physical activity."[71]. The study recommended that women should be educated about the criteria for finding a well-fitting bra.[70] They recommended that women measure under their bust to determine their band size rather than the traditional over the bust measurement method.[70]
Manufacturer design standards[edit]
Bra-labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world.[72] In countries that have adopted the European EN 13402 dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Bra-fitting experts in the United Kingdom state that many women who buy off the rack without professional assistance wear up to two sizes too small.[50]
Manufacturer Fruit of the Loom attempted to solve the problem of finding a well-fitting bra for asymmetrical breasts by introducing Pick Your Perfect Bra, which allow women to choose a bra with two different cup sizes, although it is only available in A through D cup sizes.[73]
Approximate (band) size equivalents between various systems
Under bust (cm)
58–62
63–67
68–72
73–77
78–82
83–87
88–92
93–97
98–102
103–107
108–112
113–117
118–122
123–127
128–132
133–142
143+
EU
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140
FR, BE, ES
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
IT
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
US, UK (in)
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
AU, NZ
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
UK dress
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
There are several sizing systems in different countries. Most use the chest circumferences measurement system and lettered cup sizes, but there are some significant differences. Many bras available come in only 36 sizes.[30]
UK[edit]
These are equivalent UK cup volumes
The UK uses the inch-system, this means that the difference in chest circumference between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.
Leading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.[74]
However, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup.[citation needed] Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their George clothing range) whose sizing runs A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-H. Their H-Cup is roughly equal to a British standard G-cup.[citation needed]
Some retailers reserve AA for young teens, and use AAA[75][76][77] for women.
Australia/New Zealand[edit]
Australia and New Zealand cup and band sizes are in metric increases of 2 cm per cup similar to many European brands. Cup labelling methods and sizing schemes are inconsistent and there is great variability between brands. In general, cup sizes AA-DD follow UK labels but thereafter split off from this system and employ European labels (no double letters with cups progressing from F-G-H etc. for very 2 cm increase).[78] However, a great many local manufacturers employ unique labelling systems [79] Australia and New Zealand bra band sizes are labelled in dress size, although they are obtained by under bust measurement whilst dress sizes utilise bust-waist-hip.[80] In practice very few of the leading Australian manufacturers produce sizes F+ and many disseminate sizing misinformation.[81][82] The Australian demand for DD+ is largely met by various UK, US and European major brands. This has introduced further sizing scheme confusion that is poorly understood even by specialist retailers.[1]
United States[edit]
Bra-sizing in the United States is very similar to the United Kingdom. Band sizes use the same designation in inches and the cups also increase by 1-inch-steps. However, some manufacturers use conflicting sizing methods. Some label bras beyond a C cup as D-DD-DDD-DDDD-E-EE-EEE-EEEE-F…, some use the variation: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5..... but many use the following system: A, B, C, D, DD, DDD, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O. and others label them like the British system D-DD-E-F-FF… Comparing the larger cup sizes between different manufacturers can be difficult.[citation needed]
In 2013, underwear maker Jockey International offered a new way to measure bra and cup size. It introduced a system with ten cup sizes per band size that are numbered and not lettered, designated as 1-36, 2-36 etc. The company developed the system over eight years, during which they scanned and measured the breasts and torsos of 800 women. Researchers also tracked the women's use of their bras at home.[83] To implement the system, women must purchase a set of plastic cups from the company to find their Jockey cup size. Some analysts were critical of the requirement to buy the measurement kit, since women must pay about USD$20 to adopt Jockey's proprietary system, in addition to the cost of the bras themselves.[83]
Continental Europe[edit]
Band size
Underbust circumference
Bust size
Underbust size
cm
FR/BE/ES
EU
IT
58–62 75 60 0
63–67 80 65 1 I
68–72 85 70 2 II
73–77 90 75 3 III
78–82 95 80 4 IV, IIII
83–87 100 85 5 V
88–92 105 90 6 VI
93–97 110 95 7 VII
98–102 115 100 8 VIII
103–107 120 105 9 IX, VIIII
108–112 125 110 10 X
Cup size
Difference [cm]
Cup
10–12 AA
12–14 A
14–16 B
16–18 C
18–20 D
20–22 E
22–24 F
24–26 G
26–28 H
In Continental Europe the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.
The cup labels begin with "AA" for an 11±1 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. not between bust circumference and band size as in the English systems[further explanation needed]. They increase in steps of 2 cm, instead of 2.5 cm or 1-inch, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped. In very large cup sizes this causes smaller cups than their English counterparts.
This system has been standardized in the European dress size standard EN 13402 introduced in 2006, but was in use in many European countries before that date.
South Korea/Japan[edit]
In South Korea and Japan the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.
The cup labels begin with "AAA" for a 5±1.25 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. similar bust circumference and band size as in the English systems. They increase in steps of 2.5 cm, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped.
Japanese sizes are the same as Korean ones, but the cup labels begin with "AA" for a 7.5±1.25 cm difference and usually precedes the bust designation, i.e. "B75" instead of "75B".
This system has been standardized in the Korea dress size standard KS K9404 introduced in 1999 and in Japan dress size standard JIS L4006 introduced in 1998.
France/Belgium/Spain[edit]
The French and Spanish system is a permutation of the Continental European sizing system. While cup sizes are the same, band sizes are exactly 15 cm larger than the European band size.
Italy[edit]
The Italian band size uses small consecutive integers instead of the underbust circumference rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Since it starts with size 0 for European size 60, the conversion consists of a division by 5 and then a subtraction of 12. The size designations are often given in Roman numerals.
Cup sizes have traditionally used a step size of 2.5 cm, which is close to the English inch of 2.54 cm, and featured some double letters for large cups, but in recent years some Italian manufacturers have switched over to the European 2-cm system.
Here is a conversion table for bra sizes in Italy with respect other countries:
Italy
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Europe
65 cm 70 cm 75 cm 80 cm 85 cm 90 cm 95 cm 100 cm
UK & USA
30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
France & Spain
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Advertising and retail influence[edit]
Manufacturers' marketing and advertising often appeals to fashion and image over fit, comfort, and function.[28][84] Since about 1994, manufacturers have re-focused their advertising, moving from advertising functional brassieres that emphasize support and foundation, to selling lingerie that emphasize fashion while sacrificing basic fit and function, like linings under scratchy lace.[85]
Engineered Alternative to traditional bras[edit]
English mechanical engineer and professor John Tyrer from Loughborough Universityhas devised a solution to problematic bra fit by re-engineering bra design Loughborough University. He started investigating the problem of bra design while on assignment from the British government after his wife returned disheartened from an unsuccessful shopping trip .[86] ,[87] His initial research into the extent of fitting problems soon revealed that 80% of women wear the wrong size of bra.[citation needed]. He theorised that this widespread practice of purchasing the wrong size was due to the measurement system recommended by bra manufacturers. This sizing system employs a combination of maximum chest diameter (under bust) and maximum bust diameter (bust) rather than the actual breast volume which is to be accommodated by the bra. According to Tyrer, "to get the most supportive and fitted bra it's infinitely better if you know the volume of the breast and the size of the back.".[86] He says the A, B, C, D cup measurement system is flawed. "It's like measuring a motor car by the diameter of the gas cap." "The whole design is fundamentally flawed. It's an instrument of torture."[87] Tyrer has developed a bra design with crossed straps in the back.[citation needed] These use the weight of one breast to lift the other using counterbalance.[citation needed] Standard designs constrict chest movement during breathing.[citation needed] One of the tools used in the development of Tyrer's design has been a projective differential shape body analyzer for 40,000 GBP.[citation needed]
Contrary to popular belief *is there such a belief?*, breasts weigh up to ~1 kg and not ~0.2 .. 0.3 kg.[86][88][89][90] Tyrer said, "By measuring the diameter of the chest and breasts current measurements are supposed to tell you something about the size and volume of each breast, but in fact it doesn't".[86] Bra companies remain reluctant to manufacture Tyrer's prototype,[87] which is a front closing bra with more vertical orientation and adjustable cups.[87]
Calculating cup volume and breast weight[edit]
The average breast weighs about 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[91] Each breast contributes to about 4–5% of the body fat.[citation needed] The density of fatty tissue is more or less equal to 0.9 kg/l for all women.[citation needed]
If a cup is a hemisphere, its volume V is given by the following formula:[92]
V = 2 π r 3 3 {\displaystyle V={2\pi r^{3} \over 3}} V = π D 3 12 {\displaystyle V={\pi D^{3} \over 12}}
where r is the radius of the cup, and D is its diameter.
If the cup is an hemi-ellipsoid, its volume is given by the formula :[citation needed]
V = 2 π a b c 3 {\displaystyle V={2\pi abc \over 3}} V ≈ π × c w × c d × w l 12 {\displaystyle V\approx {\pi \times cw\times cd\times wl \over 12}}
where a, b and c are the three semi-axes of the hemi-ellipsoid, and cw cd and wl are respectively the cup width, the cup depth and the length of the wire.
Cups give a hemi-spherical shape to breasts and underwires give shape to cups.[citation needed] So the curvature radius of the underwire is the key parameter to determine volume and weight of the breast.[citation needed] The same underwires are used for the cups of sizes 36A, 34B, 32C, 30D etc. ... so those cups have the same volume.[citation needed] The reference numbers of underwire sizes are based on a B cup bra,[93] for example underwire size 32 is for 32B cup (and 34A, 30C...). An underwire size 30 width has a curvature diameter of 3-inch 5/6 ≈ 9.7 cm and this diameter increases by ⅓ inch ≈ 0.847 cm by size.[93] The table below shows volume calculations for some cups that can be found in a ready-to-wear large size shop.[94]
Underwire size
Bra size (US system)
Bra size (UK system)
Cup diameter[93]
Volume of one cup
Weight of both breasts
30 32A 30B 28C 32A 30B 28C 9.7 cm (3 in 5/6) 240 cm3 (0.51 US pt) 0.43 kg (0.95 lb)
32 34A 32B 30C 28D 34A 32B 30C 28D 10.6 cm (4 in 1/6) 310 cm3 (0.66 US pt) 0.56 kg (1.2 lb)
34 36A 34B 32C 30D 28E 36A 34B 32C 30D 28DD 11.4 cm (4 in 1/2) 390 cm3 (0.82 US pt) 0.70 kg (1.5 lb)
36 38A 36B 34C 32D 30E 28F 38A 36B 34C 32D 30DD 28E 12.3 cm (4 in 5/6) 480 cm3 (1.0 US pt) 0.86 kg (1.9 lb)
38 40A 38B 36C 34D 32E 30F 28G 40A 38B 36C 34D 32DD 30E 28F 13.1 cm (5 in 1/6) 590 cm3 (1.2 US pt) 1.1 kg (2.4 lb)
40 42A 40B 38C 36D 34E 32F 30G 28H 42A 40B 38C 36D 34DD 32E 30F 28FF 14.0 cm (5 in 1/2) 710 cm3 (1.5 US pt) 1.3 kg (2.9 lb)
42 44A 42B 40C 38D 36E 34F 32G 30H 28I 44A 42B 40C 38D 36DD 34E 32F 30FF 28G 14.8 cm (5 in 5/6) 850 cm3 (1.8 US pt) 1.5 kg (3.3 lb)
44 44B 42C 40D 38E 36F 34G 32H 30I 28J 44B 42C 40D 38DD 36E 34F 32FF 30G 28GG 15.7 cm (6 in 1/6) 1,000 cm3 (2.1 US pt) 1.8 kg (4.0 lb)
46 44C 42D 40E 38F 36G 34H 32I 30J 28K 44C 42D 40DD 38E 36F 34FF 32G 30GG 28H 16.5 cm (6 in 1/2) 1,180 cm3 (2.5 US pt) 2.1 kg (4.6 lb)
48 44D 42E 40F 38G 36H 34I 32J 30K 28L 44D 42DD 40E 38F 36FF 34G 32GG 30H 28HH 17.4 cm (6 in 5/6) 1,370 cm3 (2.9 US pt) 2.5 kg (5.5 lb)
50 44E 42F 40G 38H 36I 34J 32K 30L 28M 44DD 42E 40F 38FF 36G 34GG 32H 30HH 28J 18.2 cm (7 in 1/6) 1,580 cm3 (3.3 US pt) 2.8 kg (6.2 lb)
52 44F 42G 40H 38I 36J 34K 32L 30M 28N 44E 42F 40FF 38G 36GG 34H 32HH 30J 28JJ 19.0 cm (7 in 1/2) 1,810 cm3 (3.8 US pt) 3.3 kg (7.3 lb)
54 44G 42H 40I 38J 36K 34L 32M 30N 28O 44F 42FF 40G 38GG 36H 34HH 32J 30JJ 28K 19.9 cm (7 in 5/6) 2,060 cm3 (4.4 US pt) 3.7 kg (8.2 lb)
56 44H 42I 40J 38K 36L 34M 32N 30O 28P 44FF 42G 40GG 38H 36HH 34J 32JJ 30K 28KK 20.7 cm (8 in 1/6) 2,340 cm3 (4.9 US pt) 4.2 kg (9.3 lb)
58 44I 42J 40K 38L 36M 34N 32O 30P 44G 42GG 40H 38HH 36J 34JJ 32K 30KK 21.6 cm (8 in 1/2) 2,640 cm3 (5.6 US pt) 4.8 kg (11 lb)
60 44J 42K 40L 38M 36N 34O 32P 44GG 42H 40HH 38J 36JJ 34K 32KK 22.4 cm (8 in 5/6) 3,000 cm3 (6.3 US pt) 5.3 kg (12 lb)
See also[edit]
Fashion portal
Brassiere designs
History of brassieres
Wonderbra
Underwire bra
Cupless bra
Nursing bra
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Find Your Bra Size". BareWeb Inc. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Pechter 1998.
Jump up ^ "Why most women wear wrong bra size". Cupmysize.com. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
Jump up ^ US patent 1009297, Madeleine Gabeau, "Breast Supporters", issued 1909-November-21
Jump up ^ Farrell-Beck & Gau 2002.
Jump up ^ US patent 1115674, Mary Phelps Jacob, "Brassière", issued 1914-November-14
Jump up ^ Apsan 2006, p. 186.
Jump up ^ Eisenberg & Eisenberg 2012.
Jump up ^ Apsan 2006, p. 186; Farrell-Beck & Gau 2002; Steele 2010, p. 101.
Jump up ^ Fields 2007, p. 102.
Jump up ^ "Spirella, Health and the Older Woman".
Jump up ^ "History of Fashion in America Timeline of Important Dates". Retrieved 22 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Edmark, Tomima. "Bra Styles: Expert Bra Fitting Advice". HerRoom.com.
Jump up ^ "Brassiere". Clothing and Fashion Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Wood, Cameron & Fitzgerald 2008.
Jump up ^ "Oprah Winfrey: Oprah's Bra and Swimsuit Intervention". 20 May 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b Lantin, Barbara (14 April 2003). "A Weight off my shoulders". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bravissimo sizes up staff – Royal Free Hampstead".
^ Jump up to: a b Greenbaum et al. 2003.
Jump up ^ "Top Five Bra-Sizing Myths". Knickers: The lingerie blog. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Everything You Need to Know About Bra Fitting". HerRoom.com. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
Jump up ^ "Cup Size Chart". The Wizard of Bras. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Proper Measuring Techniques for Plus-Size Women". HerRoom.com. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
Jump up ^ Zhenga, Yu & Fan 2007.
Jump up ^ Diana, Mario. "A bra that's a little off can cause big problems". Retrieved 19 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Alles über verschiedene Größensysteme".
Jump up ^ Greenbaum et al. 2003; Pechter 1998.
^ Jump up to: a b c McGhee & Steele 2006.
Jump up ^ Pechter 1998; Ringberg et al. 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d King, Stephanie (2 June 2005). "A Short History of Lingerie: Doreen the Bra That Conquered the World". London: The Independent.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Lingerie Bra Fitting Video". Fantasie. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Schurman, Aysha. "Signs of the Wrong Bra Size". Life123. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bra Fitting Guide". Belladonna Eyes. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bra fitting tips from the German bra fitting forum www.busenfreundinnen.net". www.busenfreundinnen.net. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra fitting Services".
Jump up ^ "BBC Radio 4 Woman's Hour – Bras".
Jump up ^ "Which? Report – Bra fitting services". 1 September 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b ""What's My Size?" Status Report on U.S. Clothing Size Standards and a Glimpse of the International Scene". New York. July 24, 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b Bailly, Jenny. "The 4 Biggest Bra Shopping Mistakes". Retrieved 14 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "10 Bra Mistakes You're Probably Making (And How To Fix Them)". August 5, 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Swoop and Scoop". Freya. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra Size Guide". Lacy Hint. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Watson, Noshua. "MAS Holdings: Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility in the Apparel Industry" (PDF). INSEAD. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Moberg, Matthew; Siskin, Jonathan; Stern, Barry; Wu, Ru (1999). "Sara Lee: Wonderbra". University of Michigan Business School. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Breast Development". Massachusetts Hospital for Children. Archived from the original on 7 August 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Araco et al. 2006; Wieslander 1999.
Jump up ^ Ghost, Sarah (14 November 2007). "Support Act" (Real Audio Media). BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Are you wearing the right bra size?". Archived from the original on 17 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Holson, Laura M. (8 April 2009). "Your Bra Size: The Truth May (Pleasantly) Surprise You". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Rae, Charles (2 October 2008). "British Boobs up for the Cup". London: The Sun. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bra Fitting Guide". Clovia.com. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Find Your Bra Size". Bare Necessities. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "How to Measure Bra Size". Women's Health Magazine (online). Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra Fitting: Free Professional Bra Fitting In Your Area".
^ Jump up to: a b "Calculate Your Bra Size". MBSC. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "How to Measure Your Bra Size at Victoria's Secret".
Jump up ^ "Find Your Bra Size". BareNecessities.com. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Tomima Edmark. How to Measure for Bra. HerRoom.com. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Measuring Breasts For Proper Bra Siz". femaleontop.com. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
Jump up ^ "Bra Size Chart". DimensionsGuide.com. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Breast Size Chart". DimensionsGuide.com. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "Frederick's of Hollywood – Bra Size Conversion Chart". Frederick's of Hollywood. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "HerRoom sizing chart". HerRoom.com. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bra fitting - how to find your right bra size?". 007b.com. Retrieved 30 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Chen, LaBat & Bye 2010.
Jump up ^ "Brit girls' boobs are the biggest". London: The Sun. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bra sizing and fitting procedure". Lauren Silva.
^ Jump up to: a b Frederick R. Jelovsek. "Breast Asymmetry – When Does It Need Treatment?". Retrieved 2 June 2010.
Jump up ^ McGhee & Steele 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c White & Scurr 2012.
Jump up ^ White, J.; Scurr, J. (2012)
Jump up ^ "Figleaves.com fitting room".
Jump up ^ "Pick Your Perfect Pair Bras: Learn About Pick Your Perfect Pair Bras". Retrieved 30 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "How To Properly Measure Your Bra Size". Retrieved May 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "32 34 36 38 40 AAA Bras and Small Lingerie at Little Women". Retrieved 2 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Exclusive collection of small bras - A Cup Bras, AA Cup Bras, AAA Cup Bras and also AAAA Cup Bras". daintylady.co.uk. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Petite Lingerie and Small Bra Sizes AAA, AA and A Cup Bras". lulalu.com. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Australian Bra Sizes | Size Charts and Bra Fitting - BERLEI". Berlei Australia. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
Jump up ^ "How to Measure Maternity Bra Size - Fitting Guide & Calculator". Cake Maternity AU. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Alles über verschiedene Größensysteme". Busenfreundinnen.
Jump up ^ "Bra size converter – Australian bras size conversion chart - Brava Lingerie". Brava Lingerie. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Bra Size Chart | International Size Conversion - Bras N Things Australia". www.brasnthings.com. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Clifford, Stephanie (May 31, 2013). "A New Step in Wrestling With the Bra". The New York Times. Retrieved May 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bras and Pants". Mintel International Group Ltd. 2005.
Jump up ^ Seigel, Jessica (13 February 2004). "The Cups Runneth Over". New York: New York Times. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Support Act". Leicester—Features. BBC. 14 November 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jessica Seigel. Bent out of shape: Why is it so hard to find the perfect bra?". Lifetime Magazine. May–June 2003.
Jump up ^ "I didn't know that", episode 24. National Geographic TV.
Jump up ^ "I Didn't Know That, episode 24". Archived from the original on 14 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Festival Programme, Bras to Bridges or Why Bras Don't Work". Loughborough University – Faculty of Science.
Jump up ^ Katch et al. 1980.
Jump up ^ Nanas, Edward (February 1964). "Brassieres: An Engineering Miracle". Science and Mechanics. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c McCunn, Don. "Underwire Charts" (PDF). Design Enterprises of San Francisco.
Jump up ^ "Plussize "Trusiz" Chart". Retrieved 2012-07-20.
References[edit]
Apsan, Rebecca (2006). The Lingerie Handbook. New York: Workman Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7611-4323-9.
Araco, A.; Gravante, G.; Araco, F.; Gentile, P.; Castrì, F.; Delogu, D.; Filingeri, V.; Cervelli, V. (2006). "Breast Asymmetries: A Brief Review and Our Experience". Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 30 (3): 309–319. doi:10.1007/s00266-005-0178-x.
Chen, Chin-Man; LaBat, Karen; Bye, Elizabeth (2010). "Physical Characteristics Related to Bra Fit". Ergonomics. 53 (4): 514–24. doi:10.1080/00140130903490684. PMID 20309747.
Eisenberg, Ted; Eisenberg, Joyne K. (2012). The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Incompra Press. ISBN 978-0-9857249-0-0.
Farrell-Beck, Jane; Gau, Colleen (2002). Uplift: The Bra in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1835-0.
Fields, Jill (2007). An Intimate Affair: Women, Lingerie, and Sexuality. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22369-1.
Greenbaum, A. R.; Heslop, T.; Morris, J.; Dunn, K. W. (2003). "An Investigation of the Suitability of Bra Fit in Women Referred for Reduction Mammaplasty". British Journal of Plastic Surgery. 56 (3): 230–236. doi:10.1016/S0007-1226(03)00122-X. PMID 12859918.
Katch, Victor L.; Campaigne, Barbara; Freedson, Patty; Sady, Stanley; Katch, Frank I.; Behnke, Albert R. (1980). "Contribution of Breast Volume and Weight to Body Fat Distribution in Females". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 53 (1): 93–100. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330530113. PMID 7416252.
McGhee, Deirdre E.; Steele, Julie R. (2006). "How do Respiratory State and Measurement Method affect Bra Size Calculations?". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 40 (12): 970–974. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2005.025171. PMC 2577461  . PMID 17021004.
———; ——— (2010). "Optimising Breast Support in Female Patients through Correct Bra Fit: A Cross-sectional Study". Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 13 (6): 568–572. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2010.03.003. PMID 20451452.
Pechter, Edward A. (1998). "A New Method for Determining Bra Size and Predicting Postaugmentation Breast Size". Plastic Reconstruction Surgery. 102 (4): 1259–1265. doi:10.1097/00006534-199809040-00056. PMID 9734454.
Ringberg, Anita; Bågeman, Erika; Rose, Carsten; Ingvar, Christian; Jernström, Helena (2006). "Of Cup and Bra Size: Reply to Prospective Study of Breast Size and Premenopausal Breast Cancer Incidence". International Journal of Cancer. 119 (9): 2242–2243. doi:10.1002/ijc.22104. PMID 16841335.
Steele, Valerie (2010). The Berg Companion to Fashion. Oxford, England: Berg Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84788-592-0.
White, J.; Scurr, J. (2012). "Evaluation of Professional Bra Fitting Criteria for Bra Selection and Fitting in the UK". Ergonomics. 55 (6): 704–711. doi:10.1080/00140139.2011.647096.
Wieslander, J. B. (1999). "Medfödd bröstdeformitet allvarligt handikapp: Viktig indikation för bröstrekonstruktion med silikonimplantat" [Congenital Breast Deformity is a Serious Handicap: An Important Indication for Breast Reconstruction with Silicone Implants] (PDF). Lakartidningen (in Swedish). 96 (14): 1703–1705, 1708–1710. ISSN 1652-7518. PMID 10222685. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
Wood, Katherine; Cameron, Melainie; Fitzgerald, Kylie (2008). "Breast Size, Bra Fit and Thoracic Pain in Young Women: A Correlational Study". Chiropractic & Osteopathy. 16: 1. doi:10.1186/1746-1340-16-1. PMC 2275741  . PMID 18339205.
Zhenga, Rong; Yu, Winnie; Fan, Jintu (2007). "Development of a New Chinese Bra Sizing System Based on Breast Anthropometric Measurements". International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 37 (8): 697–705. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2007.05.008.
Further reading[edit]
Jahme, Carole (14 May 2010). "Breast size: a human anomaly". Ask Carole (column). The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bra_size&oldid=835663332"
Categories:
Brassieres
Sizes in clothing
Hidden categories:
Use dmy dates from February 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016
All articles lacking reliable references
Articles lacking reliable references from June 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2016
CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
中文
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 April 2018, at 01:16.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

value: b

attrs: href title

values: /wiki/Breasts mw-redirect Breasts

value: p

values: Edit section: Measurement method origins

values: Information not found in patent. (April 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)

values: The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (June 2016)

values: Edit section: Larger breasts and bra fit

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)

values:
/wiki/Balconette_brassiere
mw-redirect
Balconette brassiere

values: Edit section: Consumer measurement difficulties

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16327452

values:
/wiki/Human_weight
mw-redirect
Human weight

values: Edit section: Increases in average bra size

values: Edit section: Consumer measurement methods

values: Edit section: Underarm/ upper bust method

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: Edit section: Plastic Surgeon Measuring System

values: Edit section: Manufacturer design standards

values:
/wiki/Dress_sizes
mw-redirect
Dress sizes

values:
/wiki/Marks_and_Spencers
mw-redirect
Marks and Spencers

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)

values: Underbust circumference (page does not exist)

values: Bust circumference (page does not exist)

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Conversion of Continental European and British cup sizes

values:
/wiki/Roman_numeral
mw-redirect
Roman numeral

values: Edit section: Advertising and retail influence

values: Edit section: Engineered Alternative to traditional bras

values: Edit section: Calculating cup volume and breast weight

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.319ex; height:5.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.032ex; height:5.676ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:11.45ex; height:5.343ex;

values: vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:22.826ex; height:5.343ex;

values: V\approx {\pi \times cw\times cd\times wl \over 12}

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/List_of_brassiere_designs
mw-redirect
List of brassiere designs

values:
/wiki/History_of_brassieres
mw-redirect
History of brassieres

values:
/wiki/Cupless_bra
mw-redirect
Cupless bra

values:
nofollow
external text
http://angelasancartier.net/brassiere

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.busenfreundinnen.net

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.kohls.com/feature/brafit.jsp

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.mybrasizecalculator.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.007b.com/bra-fitting.php

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.wdxcyber.com/nbreast3.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.littlewomen.com/aaa-bras

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.daintylady.co.uk

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.lulalu.com

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.berlei.com.au/size-charts

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.plussizebras.info/size.html

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00266-005-0178-x

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20309747

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12859918

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330530113

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7416252

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjsm.2005.025171

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17021004

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jsams.2010.03.003

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20451452

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9734454

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fijc.22104

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16841335

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1652-7518

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10222685

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1186%2F1746-1340-16-1

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18339205

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ergon.2007.05.008

values: refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents columns references-column-width

values: -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em;

values: Category:Use dmy dates from February 2013

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016

values: Category:All articles lacking reliable references

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from June 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2016

values: Category:CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Bra_size
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Bra_size&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: اندازه سینه‌بند – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behamaat
Behamaat – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Размер груди – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Bra_size rootpage-Bra_size skin-vector action-view


text:
Viking raid warfare and tactics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Vikings were members of tribes, originally from Scandinavia, of Norse ancestry, who gained a reputation for their raids and piracy in many parts of Europe, especially England, Ireland, and Frankish territories.[1] The term "Viking Age" refers to the period roughly from 793 AD to the late 11th century in Europe. In this era Viking activity started with raids on Christian lands in England and eventually expanded to mainland Europe, including parts of present-day Russia.[2] While maritime battles were rare, Viking bands proved very successful in raiding coastal towns and monasteries due to their efficient warships, and intimidating war tactics, skilful hand-to-hand combat, and fearlessness.[3][need quotation to verify] What started as Viking raids on small towns transformed into the establishment of important agricultural spaces and commercial trading-hubs across Europe through rudimentary colonization.[4] Vikings' tactics in warfare gave them an enormous advantage in successfully raiding (and later colonizing), despite their small population in comparison to that of their enemies.
Contents
[hide]
1 Culture of war
2 Raids
3 Warships
3.1 Drakkar
3.2 Knörr
4 Seafaring military strategies
5 Battle tactics on land
6 Common weapons
6.1 Battle axe
6.2 Sword
6.3 Spear
6.4 Defensive equipment
7 See also
8 References
9 Sources
Culture of war[edit]
Vikings, according to Clare Downham in Viking Kings of Britain in Ireland, are "people of Scandinavian culture who were active outside Scandinavia... Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, Hiberno-Scandinavians, Anglo-Scandinavians, or the inhabitants of any Scandinavian colony who affiliated themselves more strongly with the culture of the coloniser than with that of the indigenous population."[5]
Parts of the tactics and warfare of the Vikings were driven by their cultural belief, themselves rooted in Norse culture and religion, and vividly recalled in the later Icelandic sagas. In the early Viking Age, during the late 8th century and most of the 9th, Vikings consisted of smaller tribal bands with a lack of any clear central authority, governance being rooted in tribal assemblies. Rooted in honour – a vital concept in Nordic pagan tradition – violence was used as a measure to moderate disputes with other tribal groups. This emphasis on violence as a decisive tool regarding disputes was not limited to a man, but extended to his kin.[6] Violence was seen as a measure to defend honor. Honor was extremely important to Norsemen, and the sense of shaming one's honor extended beyond physical and material injuries. Honor could be shamed from mere insults, where Norsemen were expected to react with violence often resulting in death. With this prevalence of violence came the expectation of fearlessness.[7]
Norsemen believed that the time of death for any individual is predetermined, but that nothing else in life is. Considering this, Norsemen believed there to be two possibilities in life: "success with its attendant fame; or death."[8] The necessity of defending honor with violence, the belief that time of death was preordained, adventure and fearlessness were core values to the Viking Age.[9] These principal values and convictions were displayed in the tactics of Viking raids and warfare.
Raids[edit]
The Vikings preferred to attack coastal regions because these regions were impossible to block off from the enemies' standpoint.[10]
The Vikings from Scandinavia were born into a seafaring culture. With the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Baltic and North Sea bordering the southern borders of Scandinavia, seafaring proved to be the means of communication for Scandinavians.[11]
In Northern Europe at the start of the 8th century, Vikings began raiding coasts of the British Isles across the sea from Scandinavia, particularly monasteries, which carried a great deal of valuable treasures. The first known raid was on the Holy Island of Lindisfarne off the English coast in 793. These raids continued for the entirety of the Viking Age. These initial raids had a religious implication to them. Vikings would target monasteries along the coast, raid the towns for their booty, and destroy what was left. This caused mass fear amongst such monks, as they felt that it was punishment from God.[12]
Viking raids from the late 8th to the early 10th century consisted of "hit-and-run" style raids that would bring riches back to their respective lands. However, due to the technical success of their shipbuilding, they were able to transform such raids into settlements.[clarification needed] Viking ships made it to possible traverse rivers such as the Thames in England, the Volga in Russian territory, and the Loire in Frankish territory. In the years 814-820, Danish Vikings repeatedly sacked the regions of Northwestern France via the Seine River, and also repeatedly sacked monasteries in the Bay of Biscay via the Loire River. Eventually, the Vikings settled into these areas and lived off agrarian production. This was mainly due to Rollo, a Viking leader who seized what is now Normandy in 879, and formally in 911 when Charles the Simple of West Francia granted him the Lower Seine.[13] This became a precursor to the Viking expansion that established important trade posts and agrarian settlements deep into Frankish territory, English territory, and much of what is now European Russian territory.[14] The Vikings were also able to establish an extended period of economic and political rule of much of Ireland, England, and Scotland during the Norse Ivarr Dynasty that started in the late 9th century and lasted until 1094.[15] In Ireland, coastal fortifications known as longphorts were established in many places after initial raidings, and they developed into trading posts and settlements over time. Quite a few modern towns in Ireland were founded in this way, including Dublin.
Warships[edit]
Expansion of Viking settlements in the 9th and 10th centuries was due to exploration of rivers. The ships used by these Norsemen were essential to this exploration and allowed expansion and colonization. The traditional Viking ship is believed to be a Gokstad ship. It was close to 28 meters long and five meters wide. These long narrow ships could accommodate 50–60 seamen who powered the ship by rowing. The ships were built from strong oak, and split with axes so the grain in between the ship's planks meshed together. There was a relatively short mast that was used for gathering speed rather than steering, which was instead accomplished with a single rudder in the stern. These boats are known to draft close to a meter of water.[16] Adaptations of these long ships were built with a deeper hull for transporting goods, but what they added in hull depth and durability they sacrificed in speed and mobility.
Drakkar[edit]
Their battleship was called the Drakkar.[10] It was supposed to be sturdy and easy to maneuver, and had to be able to handle the open ocean and smaller rivers the Vikings traveled.[10] The Drakkar could either be sailed or rowed and had the capacity to hold up to 50–60 men inside of it.[10] Some of the ships had the capacity to hold an extra set of rowers, which meant that the Vikings did not need to rest at night and could continue sailing or rowing with the extra set of hands.[10]
Knörr[edit]
The Knörr, on the other hand, was not as big, but had a lot of room on board to store items to trade with. Unlike the Drakkar, the trading ship was only to be sailed.[10] Both boats had the potential to sail very fast, up to 12–14 knots (about 16–17 mph).[10] Vikings were able to create such incredible ships because of their access to excellent resources.[10] They traded with many places around the British Isles and surrounding territories.
These ships proved to be extremely fast. Their build was not designed for battle at sea, as they would be no match for slower, but more powerful English vessels. Due to the low-lying hull, Viking ships could land directly on sandy beaches rather than docking in well-fortified harbors.[17] The low mast, built for speed when the winds were favorable, could often easily pass under bridges erected in rivers.[18] These masts were designed to maneuver under the fortified bridges that Charles the Bald of West Francia created from 848 to 877.[19]
Seafaring military strategies[edit]
The fast design of Viking ships was essential to their hit-and-run raids. For instance, in the sacking of Frisia in the early 9th century, Charlemagne mobilized his troops as soon as he heard of the raid, but completely missed the Vikings when he arrived.[20] The Vikings' ships gave them an element of surprise. Often traveling in small packs, or bands, they could easily go undetected, swiftly enter a village or monastery, pillage and collect booty, and leave before reinforcements arrived.[21] Vikings understood the advantages of the long ships' mobility, and used them to a great extent. Viking fleets would often sail past the horizon of a bay they planned to raid as they traveled up a coast from one town to the next. This allowed them to stay out of sight in their small bands. They often lowered the mast on these occasions to avoid detection.[22]
Viking fleets of over a hundred ships did occur, but often these fleets had little to no cohesion, being composed of smaller fleets led by numerous chieftains or different Norse bands. This was most often seen in the Francia raids between 841 and 892. They can be attributed to the fact that it was during this time that the Frankish aristocracy began paying off Vikings and buying mercenaries in return for protection from Viking raids. Thus, there appeared rudimentary structures of Viking armies.[19]
Viking raids often lacked formation. They have been described as "bees swarming."[citation needed] However, what they lacked in formation they made up with communication. This naturalistic sense of unconventional warfare is rooted in their lack of organized leadership. These small fleets communicated effectively and made it difficult for English and Frankish territories to counter these foreign tactics. Sprague compares these tactics to those of contemporary western Special Forces soldiers, who "attack in small units with specific objectives."[23]
While naval Viking battles were not as common as battles on land, they did occur. Viking ships would often try to ram ships in the open sea. They propelled the boats by rowing fast directly at defending ships that were vulnerable and isolated from their fleet. To combat this, defending fleets would raft up with the bows of their boats facing the attacking Vikings. Depending on the size of the defending fleet, the Viking ships allowed them to maneuver their boats by rowing around such ships to flank them. When they got close enough, Vikings would throw spears and use their longbows. Archers would be positioned in the back of the ships protected by a shield wall formation constructed in the front of the ship.[24] If the Vikings were attacked while in the water they would wait until they were in fighting distance, then group together to create one long line of boats, which made it easier to move between boats and made their formation more compact.[10]
Vikings attacked ships, not with the intent to destroy them, but rather to board them and take control. This is because Vikings originally based their battles around economic gains rather than political or territorial gains.[19] Most of these battles took place with other Viking fleets, as they had little to fear from European countries invading the inhospitable regions of Scandinavia. Rather, many naval battles were fought amongst Vikings, "Dane against Norwegian, Swede against Norwegian, Swede against Dane."[25]
If during a seafaring battle a Viking happened to get thrown overboard they were told to put their shield over their head to protect themselves from arrows or other shrapnel that could kill them.[10]
Battle tactics on land[edit]
Sagas of the Viking Age often mention berserkers. These fabled Viking warriors are said to have spiritual magical powers from the god of war Odin[26] that allowed them to become impervious to injuries on the battlefield.[27] While these stories are exaggerated, the term berserks is rooted in truths about Viking warriors who were able to enter an intense, trance-like state whereupon they would "engage in reckless fighting."[4] These warriors were greatly feared by Christians in Frankish and English regions who viewed such men as satanic. The reason for these raids is unknown, but some have suggested that the increase in trade created a growth in piracy.[26]
Vikings would beach their ships on land, where their battle tactics contained elements of surprise. "Vikings were notorious for laying ambushes and using woods to lay in await for armies approaching along established roads."[19] If confronted by legitimate forces in raids, Vikings would create a wedge formation, with their best men, or berserkers, at the front of this wedge. They would throw spears, and rush this wedge through enemy lines where they could engage in hand-to-hand combat, which was their forte.[19] Some survivors of sea battles were pressed into guarding the ships during land skirmishes.[10]
Viking military tactics succeeded mainly because they disregarded the conventional battlefield tactics, methods, and customs of the time. They ignored the unspoken rules of leaving holy sites untouched, and they never arranged battle times. Deceit, stealth, and ruthlessness were not seen as cowardly.[28] During raids the Vikings targeted religious sites because of their vulnerability,[29] often butchering the clergy at these sites in honor of a Pagan god.[29]
Warriors could be as young as 12 years old.[10] Various basic physical tests were required to join the Viking forces, but these tests were considered easy to pass.[10]
Common weapons[edit]
Main article: Viking Age arms and armour
Battle axe[edit]
The battle axe was popular amongst Norsemen in the Viking Age, but its popularity is often misunderstood in modern culture. The battle axe was not seen as a superior weapon to the spear, and historical evidence shows that its use was rather limited. It was commonly used for agricultural purposes, as well as shipbuilding, and eventually adapted for use in Viking raids.[4] Axes varied in size from small handheld broadaxes that could be used both for raids and in farming, to Danish axes that were well over a meter in length.[30] These axes had a wooden shaft, with a large, curved iron blade. They required less swinging power than expected, as the large bladed heads allowed gravity and momentum to do most of the work.[31] The axe had points on each tip of the blade where the curve tapered off. This allowed it to be used to hook an opponent, while also doubling as a thrusting weapon.[32]
The axe was psychologically intimidating to the people of Christian territories the Vikings sacked. King Magnus of Norway inherited his axe from his patron saint father, Olav Haraldsson. He named this axe Hel, the name of the Norse goddess of death. Christians associated this name with the word Hell. The axe of Magnus is still portrayed in the Norwegian coat of arms.[31]
Sword[edit]
Swords had to be simple yet functional, and there was little to no design on them; however, once one was given a sword, a strong bond[further explanation needed] was formed between the weapon and its owner.[10] It is believed that the sword was about 90 cm long and had a blade of 80 cm and a handle of 10 cm.[33] Almost every sword was double edged, which allowed the Vikings to switch hands during battle,[dubious – discuss] and also meant that they could slash in different directions without having to worry about which side was the sharp side.[33]
Viking Age swords were common in battles and raids. They were used as a secondary weapon when fighting had fallen out of formation or their primary weapon was damaged. While there were many variations of swords, the Vikings used double-edged swords, often with blades 90 centimeters long and 15 centimeters wide.[4] These swords were designed for slashing and cutting, rather than thrusting, so the blade was carefully sharpened while the tip was often left relatively dull.[34]
A sword was considered a personal object amongst Vikings. Warriors named their swords, as they felt such objects guarding their lives deserved identities.[35] A sword, depending on the make, was often associated with prestige and value due to the importance of honor in the Viking Age. No real method has been discovered as to how the Vikings made their weapons, but it is believed that individual pieces were welded together.[10]
Weapons often served more than one purpose. If two people were in disagreement, one would often challenge his offender to a duel of honor that were supposed to resolve the issue.[10] This challenge would take place either on a small island or marked off area.[10] A square with sides between 9–12 ft would be marked off with an animal hide placed inside the square.[10] Each man was allowed three shields and a shield bearer who carried the shield during battle. The helper could replace or carry shields for the combatant.[10] The person who had been challenged was entitled to the first blow at the shields.[10] The opponent could parry the blow and counter with his own strike; only one strike at a time was allowed.[10] Once all of someone's shields had been destroyed he could continue to defend himself as best he could with a sword.[10] This would continue until someone was injured; if blood fell on the animal hide then that person was required to pay three marks of silver to be set free and have his honor restored.[10]
Spear[edit]
The most common weapon in the Viking arsenal was the spear. They were inexpensive and effective. The wooden spear handle was between two and three meters long. There were two types of spears; one was made for throwing while the other was generally used for thrusting. The handles of these were the same, but the tips of throwing spears were roughly thirty centimeters while the thrusting spears were close to sixty.[4] Spears were sometimes used as projectile weapons in the occasional naval fight, as well as during raids on shore and in battle. This was in part due to the Norsemen's natural height and build, being much taller and bigger than Frankish and English men at the time. The popularity of the spear came from its inexpensiveness and advantage over the sword due to its reach, making it the most common battlefield weapon all over the world, despite popular belief.[10]
Defensive equipment[edit]
Only the wealthiest Vikings could afford helmets, as they were expensive.[26] The one piece of defensive equipment that every warrior had was a shield.[10] The shield itself was round and not oval shaped which made it easier to carry and move with;[10] however, it left the legs and some of the lower body exposed. Shields were made out of soft wood, unlike any other shields in existence at the time. This was done in order to allow the shield to bend and give a small amount to prevent them from breaking as often. In addition to this, the weapons of their enemies sometimes became stuck in the shield, allowing the Viking an opportunity to kill them. [10] Shields had handholds on the inside and were about 1 m in diameter (about 3 ft).[26]
See also[edit]
Ushkuiniks – Novgorod's privateers who inherited Vikings' warfare
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Abels, Richard. "Alfred the Great and Æthelred II 'the Unready": The Viking Wars in England, C. 850–1016." Vikings Revised (2009): n. pag. United States Naval Academy. United States Naval Academy Press, 20 July 2009. Web. 16 Nov. 2014.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Martina. Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings. New York: Hippocrene, 2007. Print, p. 10.
Jump up ^ Fissulo, David F. Medieval Scandinavia: Overview of Viking Warfare. Great Neck: Great Neck, n.d. Ebsco Host. Great Neck Publishing, 2011. Web. 16 Nov. 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Fissulo, Medieval Scandinavia: Overview of Viking Warfare, 16 Nov. 2014.
Jump up ^ Downham, Clare. Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland the Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic, 2008. Print, p. xv.
Jump up ^ Short, William Rhuel. Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010. Print, pp. 41–42.
Jump up ^ Short, Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas, pp. 40–44.
Jump up ^ Short, Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas, p. 42.
Jump up ^ Short, Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Sprague, Martina. Norse Warfare.
Jump up ^ Fasulo, David F. Medieval Scandinavia: Overview of Viking Shipbuilding. Great Neck: Great Neck, n.d. Ebsco Host. Great Neck Publishing, 2011. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, pp. 10–11.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, pp. 13–15.
Jump up ^ Abels, Richard. "Alfred the Great and Æthelred II 'the Unready": The Viking Wars in England, C. 850–1016." Vikings Revised
Jump up ^ Taylor, Simon, Garreth Williams, B.E Crawford, and Beverly Ballin Smith. West Over Sea: Studies in Scandinavian Sea-borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300: A Festschrift in Honour of Dr Barbara Crawford. Leiden: In the Northern World, 2007, p. 39.
Jump up ^ DeVries, Kelly Robert, and Robert Douglas Smith. Medieval Military Technology, Second Edition. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2012. Google Books. 1 May 2012. Web. 17 Nov. 2014, pp. 291–92.
Jump up ^ Fasulo, David F. Medieval Scandinavia: Overview of Viking Shipbuilding. 15 Nov. 2014.
Jump up ^ Bruun, Per (1997). "The Viking Ship". Journal of Coastal Research. 13.4: 1282–89. doi:10.2307/4298737 (inactive 2017-10-01). JSTOR 10.2307/4298737. p. 1286
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Abels, Richard. "Alfred the Great and Æthelred II 'the Unready": The Viking Wars in England, C. 850–1016." Vikings Revised.
Jump up ^ Winroth, Anders. The Age of the Vikings. 1 Sept. 2014. Web. 17 Nov. 2014, p. 71.
Jump up ^ Winroth, Anders. The Age of the Vikings. 17 Nov. 2014, pp. 72–73.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 27.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 144.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 174.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wolf, Kirsten. The Daily Life of the Vikings.
Jump up ^ Short, Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas, 55.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 374.
^ Jump up to: a b Winroth, Anders. The Age of the Vikings.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 148.
^ Jump up to: a b Winroth, Anders. The Age of the Vikings. 17 Nov. 2014, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Short, Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas, 50.
^ Jump up to: a b Martens, Irmelin. Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 145.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings, 139–140.
Sources[edit]
Abels, Richard. "Alfred the Great and Æthelred II 'the Unready": The Viking Wars in England, C. 850–1016." Vikings Revised (2009): n.p. United States Naval Academy. United States Naval Academy Press, 20 July 2009. Web. 16 Nov. 2014.
Bruun, Per. "The Viking Ship." Journal of Coastal Research 13.4 (1997): 1282–89. JSTOR. Web. 18 Nov. 2014.
DeVries, Kelly Robert, and Robert Douglas Smith. Medieval Military Technology, Second Edition. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2012. Google Books. 1 May 2012. Web. 17 Nov. 2014.
Fasulo, David F. Medieval Scandinavia: Overview of Viking Shipbuilding. Great Neck: Great Neck, n.d. Ebsco Host. Great Neck Publishing, 2011. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.
Fasulo, David F. Medieval Scandinavia: Overview of Viking Warfare. Great Neck: Great Neck, n.d. Ebsco Host. Great Neck Publishing, 2011. Web. 16 Nov. 2014.
Short, William Rhuel. Icelanders in the Viking Age: The People of the Sagas. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010. Print.
Sprague, Martina. Norse Warfare: The Unconventional Battle Strategies of the Ancient Vikings. New York: Hippocrene, 2007. Print.
Taylor, Simon, Garreth Williams, B.E Crawford, and Beverly Ballin Smith. West Over Sea : Studies in Scandinavian Sea-borne Expansion and Settlement Before 1300: A Festschrift in Honour of Dr Barbara Crawford. Leiden: In the Northern World, 2007. Print.
Winroth, Anders. The Age of the Vikings. (eBook and hardcover). Princeton University Press, 1 Sept. 2014. Web. 17 Nov. 2014.
[hide]
v
t
e
Vikings
Viking Age
Culture
Old Norse language
Norse pantheon
Norse mythology
Norse religion
Norsemen
Danegeld
Berserker
Homelands and colonies
Sweden
Norway
Denmark
Iceland
Greenland
Vinland
Faroe Islands
Orkney Islands
Shetland Islands
Finland
Danelaw
Normandy
North Sea Empire
History
Viking expansion
British Isles
Scotland
Battles
Tactics and warfare
Raid on Seville
Sack of Paris
Siege of Paris
Brunanburh
Cnut the Great's Invasion of England
Stamford Bridge
Arms and armour
and fortifications
Halberd
Atgeir
Skeggöx
Dane axe
Sword
Ulfberht
Ingelrii
Ring fortress
Historical figures
Erik the Red
Leif Erikson
Snorri Sturluson
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics&oldid=811131663"
Categories:
Viking warfare
Hidden categories:
Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017
Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2016
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2016
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017
Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2017
All accuracy disputes
Articles with disputed statements from August 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 19 November 2017, at 18:46.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Frankish_empire
mw-redirect
Frankish empire

value: sup

values:
/wiki/Varangian_Rus
mw-redirect
Varangian Rus

values: Quotation needed from source to verify. (January 2016)

values:
/wiki/Norse_religion
mw-redirect
Norse religion

values:
/wiki/Icelandic_sagas
mw-redirect
Icelandic sagas

values: The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Seafaring military strategies

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Special_Forces
mw-redirect
Special Forces

values:
/wiki/Icelandic_Sagas
mw-redirect
Icelandic Sagas

values:
/wiki/Magnus_of_Norway_And_Denmark
mw-redirect
Magnus of Norway And Denmark

values: The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (August 2017)

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F4298737

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4298737

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Norse_pantheon
mw-redirect
Norse pantheon

values:
/wiki/Orkney_Islands
mw-redirect
Orkney Islands

values:
/wiki/Shetland_Islands
mw-redirect
Shetland Islands

values:
/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(885%E2%80%9386)
mw-redirect
Siege of Paris (885–86)

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible auto navbox-inner

values: Category:Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2016

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2017

values: Category:Articles with disputed statements from August 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics rootpage-Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics skin-vector action-view