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Spinal cord
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Spinal cord
The spinal cord (in yellow) connects the brain to nerves throughout the body.
Details
Part of
Central nervous system
Identifiers
Latin
medulla spinalis
MeSH
D013116
NeuroNames
22
TA
A14.1.02.001
FMA
7647
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, the spinal cord begins at the occipital bone where it passes through the foramen magnum, and meets and enters the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae. The spinal cord extends down to between the first and second lumbar vertebrae where it ends. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. It is around 45 cm (18 in) in men and around 43 cm (17 in) long in women. Also, the spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from 13 mm (1⁄2 in) thick in the cervical and lumbar regions to 6.4 mm (1⁄4 in) thick in the thoracic area.
The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of nerve signals from the motor cortex to the body, and from the afferent fibers of the sensory neurons to the sensory cortex. It is also a center for coordinating many reflexes and contains reflex arcs that can independently control reflexes and central pattern generators.[1]
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Spinal cord segments
1.2 Development
1.3 Blood supply
2 Function
2.1 Somatosensory organization
2.2 Motor organization
2.3 Spinocerebellar tracts
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Injury
3.2 Treatment
3.3 Lumbar puncture
3.4 Tumours
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
Diagram of the spinal cord showing segments
The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system.[2][3] Much shorter than its protecting spinal column, the human spinal cord originates in the brainstem, passes through the foramen magnum, and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra before terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale.
It is about 45 cm (18 in) long in men and around 43 cm (17 in) in women, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions. The cervical enlargement, stretching from the C5 to T1 vertebrae, is where sensory input comes from and motor output goes to the arms and trunk. The lumbar enlargement, located between L1 and S3, handles sensory input and motor output coming from and going to the legs.
The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults. It is made of 31 segments from which branch one pair of sensory nerve roots and one pair of motor nerve roots. The nerve roots then merge into bilaterally symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots, nerves, and ganglia.
The dorsal roots are afferent fascicles, receiving sensory information from the skin, muscles, and visceral organs to be relayed to the brain. The roots terminate in dorsal root ganglia, which are composed of the cell bodies of the corresponding neurons. Ventral roots consist of efferent fibers that arise from motor neurons whose cell bodies are found in the ventral (or anterior) gray horns of the spinal cord.
The spinal cord (and brain) are protected by three layers of tissue or membranes called meninges, that surround the canal . The dura mater is the outermost layer, and it forms a tough protective coating. Between the dura mater and the surrounding bone of the vertebrae is a space called the epidural space. The epidural space is filled with adipose tissue, and it contains a network of blood vessels. The arachnoid mater, the middle protective layer, is named for its open, spiderweb-like appearance. The space between the arachnoid and the underlying pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which can be sampled with a lumbar puncture, or "spinal tap" procedure. The delicate pia mater, the innermost protective layer, is tightly associated with the surface of the spinal cord. The cord is stabilized within the dura mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments, which extend from the enveloping pia mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The dural sac ends at the vertebral level of the second sacral vertebra.
In cross-section, the peripheral region of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor axons. Internal to this peripheral region is the grey matter, which contains the nerve cell bodies arranged in the three grey columns that give the region its butterfly-shape. This central region surrounds the central canal, which is an extension of the fourth ventricle and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
The spinal cord is elliptical in cross section, being compressed dorsolaterally. Two prominent grooves, or sulci, run along its length. The posterior median sulcus is the groove in the dorsal side, and the anterior median fissure is the groove in the ventral side.
Spinal cord segments[edit]
The human spinal cord is divided into segments where pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. Six to eight motor nerve rootlets branch out of right and left ventro lateral sulci in a very orderly manner. Nerve rootlets combine to form nerve roots. Likewise, sensory nerve rootlets form off right and left dorsal lateral sulci and form sensory nerve roots. The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots combine to form spinal nerves (mixed; motor and sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves, with the exception of C1 and C2, form inside the intervertebral foramen (IVF). These rootlets form the demarcation between the central and peripheral nervous systems.
A model of segments of the human spine and spinal cord, nerve roots can be seen extending laterally from the (not visible) spinal cord.
The grey column, (as three regions of grey columns) in the center of the cord, is shaped like a butterfly and consists of cell bodies of interneurons, motor neurons, neuroglia cells and unmyelinated axons. The anterior and posterior grey column present as projections of the grey matter and are also known as the horns of the spinal cord. Together, the grey columns and the gray commissure form the "grey H."
The white matter is located outside of the grey matter and consists almost totally of myelinated motor and sensory axons. "Columns" of white matter carry information either up or down the spinal cord.
The spinal cord proper terminates in a region called the conus medullaris, while the pia mater continues as an extension called the filum terminale, which anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx. The cauda equina ("horse's tail") is a collection of nerves inferior to the conus medullaris that continue to travel through the vertebral column to the coccyx. The cauda equina forms because the spinal cord stops growing in length at about age four, even though the vertebral column continues to lengthen until adulthood. This results in sacral spinal nerves originating in the upper lumbar region.
Within the CNS, nerve cell bodies are generally organized into functional clusters, called nuclei. Axons within the CNS are grouped into tracts.
There are 31 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:
8 cervical segments forming 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 spinal nerves exit the spinal column between the foramen magnum and the C1 vertebra; C2 nerves exit between the posterior arch of the C1 vertebra and the lamina of C2; C3–C8 spinal nerves pass through the IVF above their corresponding cervical vertebrae, with the exception of the C8 pair which exit between the C7 and T1 vertebrae)
12 thoracic segments forming 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
5 lumbar segments forming 5 pairs of lumbar nerves
5 sacral segments forming 5 pairs of sacral nerves
1 coccygeal segment
Spinal cord segments in some common species [4]
Species
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Caudal/Coccygeal
Total
Dog 8 13 7 3 5 36
Cat 8 13 7 3 5 36
Cow 8 13 6 5 5 37
Horse 8 18 6 5 5 42
Pig 8 15/14 6/7 4 5 38
Human 8 12 5 5 1 31
In the fetus, vertebral segments correspond with spinal cord segments. However, because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments do not correspond to vertebral segments in the adult, particularly in the lower spinal cord. For example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between vertebral levels T9 and L2, and the spinal cord ends around the L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris.
Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level, the spinal nerves for each segment exit at the level of the corresponding vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal cord, this means that they exit the vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots. As these nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the vertebral column, the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle called the cauda equina.
There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:
Cervical enlargement – corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).
Lumbar enlargement – corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3 and is found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.
Development[edit]
Spinal cord seen in a midsection of a five-week-old embryo
Spinal cord seen in a midsection of a 3 month old fetus
The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. There are four stages of the spinal cord that arises from the neural tube: The neural plate, neural fold, neural tube, and the spinal cord. Neural differentiation occurs within the spinal cord portion of the tube.[5] As the neural tube begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor known as Sonic hedgehog or SHH. As a result, the floor plate then also begins to secrete SHH, and this will induce the basal plate to develop motor neurons. During the maturation of the neural tube, its lateral walls thicken and form a longtitudinal groove called the sulcus limitans. This extends the length of the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral portions as well.[6] Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). This induces the roof plate to begin to secrete BMP, which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons. Opposing gradients of such morphogens as BMP and SHH form different domains of dividing cells along the dorsal ventral axis.[7] Dorsal root ganglion neurons differentiate from neural crest progenitors. As the dorsal and ventral column cells proliferate, the lumen of the neural tube narrows to form the small central canal of the spinal cord.[8] The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus limitans. Additionally, the floor plate also secretes netrins. The netrins act as chemoattractants to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white commissure, where they then ascend towards the thalamus. Following the closure of the caudal neuropore and formation of the brain's ventricles that contain the choroid plexus tissue, the central canal of the caudal spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Earlier findings by Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini in the chick embryo have been confirmed by more recent studies which have demonstrated that the elimination of neuronal cells by programmed cell death (PCD) is necessary for the correct assembly of the nervous system.[9]
Overall, spontaneous embryonic activity has been shown to play a role in neuron and muscle development but is probably not involved in the initial formation of connections between spinal neurons.
Blood supply[edit]
The spinal cord is supplied with blood by three arteries that run along its length starting in the brain, and many arteries that approach it through the sides of the spinal column. The three longitudinal arteries are the anterior spinal artery, and the right and left posterior spinal arteries.[10] These travel in the subarachnoid space and send branches into the spinal cord. They form anastamoses (connections) via the anterior and posterior segmental medullary arteries, which enter the spinal cord at various points along its length.[10] The actual blood flow caudally through these arteries, derived from the posterior cerebral circulation, is inadequate to maintain the spinal cord beyond the cervical segments.
The major contribution to the arterial blood supply of the spinal cord below the cervical region comes from the radially arranged posterior and anterior radicular arteries, which run into the spinal cord alongside the dorsal and ventral nerve roots, but with one exception do not connect directly with any of the three longitudinal arteries.[10] These intercostal and lumbar radicular arteries arise from the aorta, provide major anastomoses and supplement the blood flow to the spinal cord. In humans the largest of the anterior radicular arteries is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz, or anterior radicularis magna (ARM) artery, which usually arises between L1 and L2, but can arise anywhere from T9 to L5.[11] Impaired blood flow through these critical radicular arteries, especially during surgical procedures that involve abrupt disruption of blood flow through the aorta for example during aortic aneursym repair, can result in spinal cord infarction and paraplegia.
Function[edit]
Somatosensory organization[edit]
Spinal cord tracts.
Somatosensory organization is divided into the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract (the touch/proprioception/vibration sensory pathway) and the anterolateral system, or ALS (the pain/temperature sensory pathway). Both sensory pathways use three different neurons to get information from sensory receptors at the periphery to the cerebral cortex. These neurons are designated primary, secondary and tertiary sensory neurons. In both pathways, primary sensory neuron cell bodies are found in the dorsal root ganglia, and their central axons project into the spinal cord.
In the dorsal column-medial leminiscus tract, a primary neuron's axon enters the spinal cord and then enters the dorsal column. If the primary axon enters below spinal level T6, the axon travels in the fasciculus gracilis, the medial part of the column. If the axon enters above level T6, then it travels in the fasciculus cuneatus, which is lateral to the fasciculus gracilis. Either way, the primary axon ascends to the lower medulla, where it leaves its fasciculus and synapses with a secondary neuron in one of the dorsal column nuclei: either the nucleus gracilis or the nucleus cuneatus, depending on the pathway it took. At this point, the secondary axon leaves its nucleus and passes anteriorly and medially. The collection of secondary axons that do this are known as internal arcuate fibers. The internal arcuate fibers decussate and continue ascending as the contralateral medial lemniscus. Secondary axons from the medial lemniscus finally terminate in the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPLN) of the thalamus, where they synapse with tertiary neurons. From there, tertiary neurons ascend via the posterior limb of the internal capsule and end in the primary sensory cortex.
The proprioception of the lower limbs differs from the upper limbs and upper trunk. There is a four-neuron pathway for lower limb proprioception. This pathway initially follows the dorsal spino-cerebellar pathway. It is arranged as follows: proprioceptive receptors of lower limb → peripheral process → dorsal root ganglion → central process → Clarke's column → 2nd order neuron → medulla oblogata (Caudate nucleus) → 3rd order neuron → VPLN of thalamus → 4th order neuron → posterior limb of internal capsule → corona radiata → sensory area of cerebrum.
The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons axons enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa. The tract that ascends before synapsing is known as Lissauer's tract. After synapsing, secondary axons decussate and ascend in the anterior lateral portion of the spinal cord as the spinothalamic tract. This tract ascends all the way to the VPLN, where it synapses on tertiary neurons. Tertiary neuronal axons then travel to the primary sensory cortex via the posterior limb of the internal capsule.
Some of the "pain fibers" in the ALS deviate from their pathway towards the VPLN. In one such deviation, axons travel towards the reticular formation in the midbrain. The reticular formation then projects to a number of places including the hippocampus (to create memories about the pain), the centromedian nucleus (to cause diffuse, non-specific pain) and various parts of the cortex. Additionally, some ALS axons project to the periaqueductal gray in the pons, and the axons forming the periaqueductal gray then project to the nucleus raphes magnus, which projects back down to where the pain signal is coming from and inhibits it. This helps control the sensation of pain to some degree.
Motor organization[edit]
Actions of the spinal nerves edit
Level
Motor function
C1–C6
Neck flexors
C1–T1
Neck extensors
C3, C4, C5
Supply diaphragm (mostly C4)
C5, C6
Move shoulder, raise arm (deltoid); flex elbow (biceps)
C6
externally rotate (supinate) the arm
C6, C7
Extend elbow and wrist (triceps and wrist extensors); pronate wrist
C7, C8
Flex wrist; supply small muscles of the hand
T1–T6
Intercostals and trunk above the waist
T7–L1
Abdominal muscles
L1–L4
Flex hip joint
L2, L3, L4
Adduct thigh; Extend leg at the knee (quadriceps femoris)
L4, L5, S1
abduct thigh; Flex leg at the knee (hamstrings); Dorsiflex foot (tibialis anterior); Extend toes
L5, S1, S2
Extend leg at the hip (gluteus maximus); flex foot and flex toes
The corticospinal tract serves as the motor pathway for upper motor neuronal signals coming from the cerebral cortex and from primitive brainstem motor nuclei.
Cortical upper motor neurons originate from Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 and then descend in the posterior limb of the internal capsule, through the crus cerebri, down through the pons, and to the medullary pyramids, where about 90% of the axons cross to the contralateral side at the decussation of the pyramids. They then descend as the lateral corticospinal tract. These axons synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns of all levels of the spinal cord. The remaining 10% of axons descend on the ipsilateral side as the ventral corticospinal tract. These axons also synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns. Most of them will cross to the contralateral side of the cord (via the anterior white commissure) right before synapsing.
The midbrain nuclei include four motor tracts that send upper motor neuronal axons down the spinal cord to lower motor neurons. These are the rubrospinal tract, the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract and the reticulospinal tract. The rubrospinal tract descends with the lateral corticospinal tract, and the remaining three descend with the anterior corticospinal tract.
The function of lower motor neurons can be divided into two different groups: the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior cortical spinal tract. The lateral tract contains upper motor neuronal axons which synapse on dorsal lateral (DL) lower motor neurons. The DL neurons are involved in distal limb control. Therefore, these DL neurons are found specifically only in the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements within the spinal cord. There is no decussation in the lateral corticospinal tract after the decussation at the medullary pyramids.
The anterior corticospinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior column, where the axons emerge and either synapse on lower ventromedial (VM) motor neurons in the ventral horn ipsilaterally or descussate at the anterior white commissure where they synapse on VM lower motor neurons contralaterally . The tectospinal, vestibulospinal and reticulospinal descend ipsilaterally in the anterior column but do not synapse across the anterior white commissure. Rather, they only synapse on VM lower motor neurons ipsilaterally. The VM lower motor neurons control the large, postural muscles of the axial skeleton. These lower motor neurons, unlike those of the DL, are located in the ventral horn all the way throughout the spinal cord.
Spinocerebellar tracts[edit]
Proprioceptive information in the body travels up the spinal cord via three tracks. Below L2, the proprioceptive information travels up the spinal cord in the ventral spinocerebellar tract. Also known as the anterior spinocerebellar tract, sensory receptors take in the information and travel into the spinal cord. The cell bodies of these primary neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia. In the spinal cord, the axons synapse and the secondary neuronal axons decussates and then travel up to the superior cerebellar peduncle where they decussate again. From here, the information is brought to deep nuclei of the cerebellum including the fastigial and interposed nuclei.
From the levels of L2 to T1, proprioceptive information enters the spinal cord and ascends ipsilaterally, where it synapses in Clarke's nucleus. The secondary neuronal axons continue to ascend ipsilaterally and then pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle. This tract is known as the dorsal spinocerebellar tract.
From above T1, proprioceptive primary axons enter the spinal cord and ascend ipsilaterally until reaching the accessory cuneate nucleus, where they synapse. The secondary axons pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle where again, these axons synapse on cerebellar deep nuclei. This tract is known as the cuneocerebellar tract.
Motor information travels from the brain down the spinal cord via descending spinal cord tracts. Descending tracts involve two neurons: the upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN).[12] A nerve signal travels down the upper motor neuron until it synapses with the lower motor neuron in the spinal cord. Then, the lower motor neuron conducts the nerve signal to the spinal root where efferent nerve fibers carry the motor signal toward the target muscle. The descending tracts are composed of white matter. There are several descending tracts serving different functions. The corticospinal tracts (lateral and anterior) are responsible for coordinated limb movements.[12]
Clinical significance[edit]
A congenital disorder is diastematomyelia in which part of the spinal cord is split usually at the level of the upper lumbar vertebrae. Sometimes the split can be along the length of the spinal cord.
Injury[edit]
Main article: Spinal cord injuries
Spinal cord injuries can be caused by trauma to the spinal column (stretching, bruising, applying pressure, severing, laceration, etc.). The vertebral bones or intervertebral disks can shatter, causing the spinal cord to be punctured by a sharp fragment of bone. Usually, victims of spinal cord injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder cases, a victim might only suffer loss of hand or foot function. More severe injuries may result in paraplegia, tetraplegia (also known as quadriplegia), or full body paralysis below the site of injury to the spinal cord.
Damage to upper motor neuron axons in the spinal cord results in a characteristic pattern of ipsilateral deficits. These include hyperreflexia, hypertonia and muscle weakness. Lower motor neuronal damage results in its own characteristic pattern of deficits. Rather than an entire side of deficits, there is a pattern relating to the myotome affected by the damage. Additionally, lower motor neurons are characterized by muscle weakness, hypotonia, hyporeflexia and muscle atrophy.
Spinal shock and neurogenic shock can occur from a spinal injury. Spinal shock is usually temporary, lasting only for 24–48 hours, and is a temporary absence of sensory and motor functions. Neurogenic shock lasts for weeks and can lead to a loss of muscle tone due to disuse of the muscles below the injured site.
The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the cervical spine (C1–C7) and the lumbar spine (L1–L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5 refer to the location of a specific vertebra in either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar region of the spine.) Spinal cord injury can also be non-traumatic and caused by disease (transverse myelitis, polio, spina bifida, Friedreich's ataxia, spinal cord tumor, spinal stenosis etc.)[13]
In the U.S., 10,000–12,000 people become paralyzed annually as a result of various injuries to the spinal cord.[citation needed]
Treatment[edit]
Real or suspected spinal cord injuries need immediate immobilisation including that of the head. Scans will be needed to assess the injury. A steroid, methylprednisolone, can be of help as can physical therapy and possibly antioxidants.[citation needed] Treatments need to focus on limiting post-injury cell death, promoting cell regeneration, and replacing lost cells. Regeneration is facilitated by maintaining electric transmission in neural elements.
Lumbar puncture[edit]
The spinal cord ends at the level of vertebrae L1–L2, while the subarachnoid space —the compartment that contains cerebrospinal fluid— extends down to the lower border of S2.[13] Lumbar punctures in adults are usually performed between L3–L5 (cauda equina level) in order to avoid damage to the spinal cord.[13] In the fetus, the spinal cord extends the full length of the spine and regresses as the body grows.
Tumours[edit]
Spinal tumours can occur in the spinal cord and these can be either inside (intradural) or outside (extradural) the dura mater.
Additional images[edit]
Spinal Cord Sectional Anatomy. Animation in the reference.
Diagrams of the spinal cord.
Cross-section through the spinal cord at the mid-thoracic level.
Cross-sections of the spinal cord at varying levels.
Cervical vertebra
A portion of the spinal cord, showing its right lateral surface. The dura is opened and arranged to show the nerve roots.
The spinal cord with dura cut open, showing the exits of the spinal nerves.
The spinal cord showing how the anterior and posterior roots join in the spinal nerves.
The spinal cord showing how the anterior and posterior roots join in the spinal nerves.
A longer view of the spinal cord.
Projections of the spinal cord into the nerves (red motor, blue sensory).
Projections of the spinal cord into the nerves (red motor, blue sensory).
Cross-section of rabbit spinal cord.
Cross-section of adult mouse spinal cord: astrocytes (red) and neurons (green)
Cross section of adult rat spinal cord stained using Cajal method.
showDissection images
An overview of the spinal cord.
Sagittal section of pig vertebrae showing a section of the spinal cord.
The base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection
Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection
Spinal cord. Brachial plexus. Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection.
Spinal cord. Brachial plexus. Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection.
Spinal cord
Medulla spinalis of 8-week-old human embryo
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spinal cord.
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Neutral spine
Brown–Séquard syndrome
Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP, or familial spastic paraplegia – FSP, Strümpell–Lorrain syndrome)
Poliomyelitis, Post-polio syndrome
Upper-limb surgery in tetraplegia
Redlich–Obersteiner's zone
Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord
Tethered spinal cord syndrome
Myelomere
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Maton, Anthea; et al. (1993). Human biology and health (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. pp. 132–144. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Myers, Gary. Exploring Psychology. Worth Publishers. p. 41. ISBN 978-1429216357.
Jump up ^ Squire, Larry Squire; et al. (2013). Fundamental neuroscience (4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 628. ISBN 978-0-12-385-870-2. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ "Spinal Cord Gross Anatomy". Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Bard. "Spinal Cord – Development and Stem Cells". Life Map Discovery Compendium. Retrieved 12 Dec 2015.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Bard. "Spinal Cord-Development and Stem Cells". Stem Cell Development Compendium. Retrieved 2 Dec 2015.
Jump up ^ Than-Trong, Emmanuel; Bally-Cuif, Laure (2015-08-01). "Radial glia and neural progenitors in the adult zebrafish central nervous system". Glia. 63 (8): 1406–1428. doi:10.1002/glia.22856. ISSN 1098-1136. PMID 25976648.
Jump up ^ Saladin. Anatomy & Physiology The Unity of Form and Function. Mc Graw Hill.
Jump up ^ Cowan, WM (2001). "Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini: the path to the discovery of nerve growth factor". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 24: 551–600. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.551. PMID 11283321.
^ Jump up to: a b c Moore, Keith; Anne Agur (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy, Third Edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 298. ISBN 0-7817-6274-X.
Jump up ^ Biglioli, Paolo; et alia (April 2004). "Upper and lower spinal cord blood supply: the continuity of the anterior spinal artery and the relevance of the lumbar arteries". Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 127 (4): 1188–1192. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2003.11.038. PMID 15052221.
^ Jump up to: a b Saladin. Anatomy and Physiology, 5th Ed.
^ Jump up to: a b c Le, Tao (10 January 2014). First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2014 / Edition 24. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing. ISBN 9780071831420.
External links[edit]
Spinal Cord Histology – A multitude of great images from the University of Cincinnati
Spinal Cord Medical Notes – Online medical notes on the spinal cord
"The Nervous System: Sensory and Motor Tracts of the Spinal Cord" (PDF). Napa Valley College / Southeast Community College Lincoln, Nebraska. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
eMedicine: Spinal Cord, Topographical and Functional Anatomy
WebMD. May 17, 2005. Spina Bifida – Topic Overview Information about spina bifida in fetuses and throughout adulthood. WebMD children's health. Retrieved March 19, 2007.
Potential for spinal injury repair Retrieved February 6, 2008.
4000 sets of digital images, showing spatial expression patterns for various genes in adult and juvenile mouse spinal cords from the Allen Institute for Brain Science
Spinal cord photomicrographs
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GND: 4050831-6
NDL: 00570617
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text:
Bledisloe Cup
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Bledisloe Cup
Bledisloe Cup on display in Sydney 2014.
Sport
Rugby union
Instituted
1931
Number of teams
2
Country
Australia
New Zealand
Holders
New Zealand
Most titles
New Zealand (46 titles)
The Bledisloe Cup is a rugby union competition between the national teams of Australia and New Zealand that has been competed for since the 1930s. The frequency at which the competition has been held and the number of matches played has varied, but as of 2016[update], it consists of an annual three-match series, with two of the matches also counting towards The Rugby Championship. New Zealand have had the most success, winning the trophy for the 46th time in 2017, while Australia have won 12 times.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Results
3 By Year
4 Media coverage
5 See also
6 Notes
History[edit]
Bledisloe Cup Festival Day 2014 in Sydney
There is some dispute as to when the first Bledisloe Cup match was played. The Australian Rugby Union (ARU) contend that the one-off 1931 match played at Eden Park was first. However, no firm evidence has been produced to support this claim, and minutes from a New Zealand union management meeting several days later record Lord Bledisloe wishing to present a cup for the All Blacks and Wallabies to play for. The New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) believe that the first match was when New Zealand toured Australia in 1932.
Between 1931 and 1981 it was contested irregularly in the course of rugby tours between the two countries. New Zealand won it 19 times and Australia four times in this period including in 1949 when Australia won it for the first time on New Zealand soil. The trophy itself was apparently 'lost' during this period and reportedly rediscovered in a Melbourne store room. In the years 1982 to 1995 it was contested annually, sometimes as a series of three matches (two in 1995) and other times in a single match. During these years New Zealand won it 11 times and Australia three times.
Since 1996 the cup has been contested as part of the annual Tri Nations tournament. Until 1998 the cup was contested in a three match series: the two Tri Nations matches between these sides and a third match. New Zealand won these series in 1996 and 1997, and Australia won it in 1998.
In 1996 and from 1999 through 2005, the third match was not played; during those years, Australia and New Zealand played each other twice as part of the Tri Nations for the cup. If both teams won one of these games, or if both games were drawn, the cup was retained by its current holder. The non-holder had to win the two games 2–0 or 1–0 (with a draw) to regain the Cup. A criticism of this system was that with the closeness in the level of ability between the two sides, years where each team won one game each were very common (1999, 2000, 2002, 2004) and in these years, many rugby fans felt dissatisfied with one team keeping the cup in a series tied at 1–1.
2006 saw the return of the 3-game contest for the Bledisloe Cup as the Tri Nations series was extended so that each team played each other 3 times. The 2007 Cup, however, reverted to the two-game contest because the Tri Nations was abbreviated that year to minimise interference with the teams' preparations for the World Cup.
In 2008 it was announced that the Bledisloe Cup would be contested over an unprecedented four matches, with three games played in Australia and New Zealand and a fourth and potentially deciding game in Hong Kong in an effort to promote the game in Asia (the first time Australia and New Zealand played in a third country outside the World Cup).[1] The Hong Kong match, which drew a crowd of 39,000 to see the All Blacks (which had already clinched the Bledisloe Cup) defeat the Wallabies 19–14,[2] proved to be a financial success for the two unions, generating a reported £5.5 million.[3] Even before the match, the two countries' rugby federations were considering taking Cup matches to the United States and Japan in 2009 and 2010. Japan hosted a fourth Bledisloe Test match on 31 October 2009. Each team is expected to clear at least A$3.8 million/NZ$5 million from the Tokyo match.[4] However a 2010 fourth match was set in Hong Kong and has struggled to attract crowds.[5]
The three-match format for the Bledisloe Cup continued in 2012, with the first two matches taking place as part of the 2012 Rugby Championship.
Results[edit]
Year
Date
Venue
Home
Score
Away
Trophy
Winner
2017 21 October Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 23–18 New Zealand
26 August Forsyth Barr Stadium, Dunedin New Zealand 35–29 Australia
19 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 34–54 New Zealand
2016 22 October Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 37–10 Australia
27 August Westpac Stadium, Wellington New Zealand 29–9 Australia
20 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 8–42 New Zealand
2015 15 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 41–13 Australia
8 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 27–19 New Zealand
2014 18 October Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 28–29 New Zealand
23 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 51–20 Australia
16 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 12–12 New Zealand
2013 19 October Forsyth Barr Stadium, Dunedin New Zealand 41–33 Australia
24 August Westpac Stadium, Wellington New Zealand 27–16 Australia
17 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 29–47 New Zealand
2012 20 October Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 18–18 New Zealand
25 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 22–0 Australia
18 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 19–27 New Zealand
2011 27 August Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 25–20 New Zealand
6 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 30–14 Australia
2010 30 October Hong Kong Stadium, Hong Kong Australia 26–24 New Zealand
11 September Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 22–23 New Zealand
7 August Lancaster Park, Christchurch New Zealand 20–10 Australia
31 July Docklands Stadium, Melbourne Australia 28–49 New Zealand
2009 31 October National Stadium, Tokyo New Zealand 32–19 Australia
19 September Westpac Stadium, Wellington New Zealand 33–6 Australia
22 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 18–19 New Zealand
18 July Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 22–16 Australia
2008 1 November Hong Kong Stadium, Hong Kong New Zealand 19–14 Australia
13 September Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 24–28 New Zealand
2 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 39–10 Australia
26 July Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 34–19 New Zealand
2007 21 July Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 26–12 Australia
30 June MCG, Melbourne Australia 20–15 New Zealand
2006 19 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 34–27 Australia
29 July Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 9–13 New Zealand
8 July Lancaster Park, Christchurch New Zealand 32–12 Australia
2005 3 September Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 34–24 Australia
13 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 13–30 New Zealand
2004 7 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 23–18 New Zealand
17 July Westpac Stadium, Wellington New Zealand 16–7 Australia
2003 16 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 21–17 Australia
26 July Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 21–50 New Zealand
2002 3 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 16–14 New Zealand
13 July Lancaster Park, Christchurch New Zealand 12–6 Australia
2001 1 September Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 29–26 New Zealand
11 August Carisbrook, Dunedin New Zealand 15–23 Australia
2000 5 August Westpac Stadium, Wellington New Zealand 23–24 Australia
15 July Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 35–39 New Zealand
1999 28 August Stadium Australia, Sydney Australia 28–7 New Zealand
24 July Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 34–15 Australia
1998 29 August Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney Australia 19–14 New Zealand
1 August Lancaster Park, Christchurch New Zealand 23–27 Australia
11 July MCG, Melbourne Australia 24–16 New Zealand
1997 16 August Carisbrook, Dunedin New Zealand 36–24 Australia
26 July MCG, Melbourne Australia 18–33 New Zealand
5 July Lancaster Park, Christchurch New Zealand 30–13 Australia
1996 27 July Lang Park, Brisbane Australia 25–32 New Zealand
6 July Athletic Park, Wellington New Zealand 43–6 Australia
1995 29 July Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney Australia 23–34 New Zealand
22 July Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 28–16 Australia
1994 17 August Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney Australia 20–16 New Zealand
1993 17 July Carisbrook, Dunedin New Zealand 25–10 Australia
1992 25 July Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney Australia 23–26 New Zealand
19 July Ballymore Stadium, Brisbane 19–17
4 July Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney 16–15
1991 24 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 6–3 Australia
10 August Sydney Football Stadium, Sydney 21–12
1990 18 August Athletic Park, Wellington New Zealand 9–21 Australia
4 August Eden Park, Auckland 27–17
21 July Lancaster Park, Christchurch 21–6
1989 5 August Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 24–12 Australia
1988 30 July Concord Oval, Sydney Australia 9–30 New Zealand
16 July Ballymore Stadium, Brisbane 19–19
3 July Concord Oval, Sydney 7–32
1987 25 July Concord Oval, Sydney Australia 16–30 New Zealand
1986 6 September Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 9–22 Australia
23 August Carisbrook, Dunedin 13–12
9 August Athletic Park, Wellington 12–13
1985 29 June Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 10–9 Australia
1984 18 August SCG, Sydney Australia 24–25 New Zealand
4 August Ballymore Stadium, Brisbane 15–19
21 July SCG, Sydney 16–9
1983 20 August SCG, Sydney Australia 8–18 New Zealand
1982 11 September Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 33–18 Australia
28 August Athletic Park, Wellington 16–19
14 August Lancaster Park, Christchurch 23–16
1980 12 July SCG, Sydney Australia 26–10 New Zealand
28 June Ballymore Stadium, Brisbane 9–12
21 June SCG, Sydney 13–9
1979 28 July SCG, Sydney Australia 12–6 New Zealand
1978 9 September Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 16–30 Australia
26 August Lancaster Park, Christchurch 22–6
19 August Athletic Park, Wellington 13–12
1974 8 June 1974 SCG, Sydney Australia 6–16 New Zealand
1 June 1974 Ballymore Stadium, Brisbane 16–16
25 May 1974 SCG, Sydney 6–11
1972 16 September 1972 Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 38–3 Australia
2 September 1972 Lancaster Park, Christchurch 30–17
19 August 1972 Athletic Park, Wellington 29–6
1968 22 June 1968 Ballymore Stadium, Brisbane Australia 18–19 New Zealand
15 June 1968 SCG, Sydney 11–27
1967 19 August 1967 Athletic Park, Wellington New Zealand 29–9 Australia
1964 29 August 1964 Athletic Park, Wellington New Zealand 5–20 Australia
22 August 1964 Lancaster Park, Christchurch 18–3
15 August 1964 Carisbrook, Dunedin 14–9
1962 22 September 1962 Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 16–8 Australia
8 September 1962 Carisbrook, Dunedin 3–0
25 August 1962 Athletic Park, Wellington 9–9
4 June 1962 SCG, Sydney Australia 5–14 New Zealand
26 May 1962 Exhibition Ground, Brisbane 6–20
1958 20 September 1958 Epsom Showgrounds, Auckland New Zealand 17–8 Australia
6 September 1958 Lancaster Park, Christchurch 3–6
23 August 1958 Athletic Park, Wellington 25–3
1957 1 June 1957 Exhibition Ground, Brisbane Australia 9–22 New Zealand
25 May 1957 SCG, Sydney 11–25
1955 17 September 1955 Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 3–8 Australia
3 September 1955 Carisbrook, Dunedin 8–0
20 August 1955 Athletic Park, Wellington 16–8
1952 13 September 1952 Athletic Park, Wellington New Zealand 15–8 Australia
6 September 1952 Lancaster Park, Christchurch 9–14
1951 21 July 1951 The Gabba, Brisbane Australia 6–16 New Zealand
7 July 1951 SCG, Sydney 11–17
23 June 1951 SCG, Sydney 0–8
1949 24 September 1949 Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 9–16 Australia
3 September 1949 Athletic Park, Wellington 6–11
1947 28 June 1947 SCG, Sydney Australia 14–27 New Zealand
14 June 1947 Exhibition Ground, Brisbane 5–13
1946 28 September 1946 Eden Park, Auckland New Zealand 14–10 Australia
14 September 1946 Carisbrook, Dunedin 31–8
1938 13 August SCG, Sydney Australia 6–14 New Zealand
6 August Exhibition Ground, Brisbane 14–20
23 July SCG, Sydney 9–24
1936 12 September Carisbrook, Dunedin New Zealand 38–13 Australia
5 September Athletic Park, Wellington 11–6
1934 25 August SCG, Sydney Australia 3–3 New Zealand
11 August SCG, Sydney 25–11
1932 23 July 1932 SCG, Sydney Australia 13–21 New Zealand
16 July Exhibition Ground, Brisbane 3–21
2 July SCG, Sydney 22–17
By Year[edit]
Further information: History of rugby union matches between Australia and New Zealand
Media coverage[edit]
In Australia, the Bledisloe Cup was televised between 1992 to 1995 by Network Ten. Since 1996, Fox Sports has televised it. They jointly televised it with Seven Network between 1996 to 2010, Nine Network in 2011 and 2012 and Network Ten since 2013.
See also[edit]
Rugby union portal
Australia portal
New Zealand portal
History of rugby union matches between Australia and New Zealand
Laurie O'Reilly Cup
Rugby union trophies and awards
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hong Kong to host NZ v Australia". BBC Sport. 3 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Australia 14–19 New Zealand". BBC Sport. 1 November 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
Jump up ^ "US & Japan may host Bledisloe Cup". BBC Sport. 31 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
Jump up ^ AAP (1 July 2009). "Wallabies to take on All Blacks in Tokyo". The Roar. Retrieved 2016-07-18.
Jump up ^ "Rugby: Bledisloe test locked in for Hong Kong". Otago Daily Times. 13 September 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2011.

[show]
v
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e
Rugby union national trophies and awards
[show]
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[show]
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[show]
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1972
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1909
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1948
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[show]
v
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Related teams
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U21s
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Matches
World Cup finals
1987
1995
2011
2015
By opponent
Argentina
Australia
Barbarians
British and Irish Lions
England
France
Ireland
Italy
Munster
Scotland
South Africa
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See also
1888–89 matches
Barbarians (1973)
NZRFU Centenary Matches
South Africa (1992)
Tours
Australia
1884
1893
1897
1903
1905
1907
1910
1914
1920
1922
1924
1925
1926
1929
1932
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1938
1947
1951
1957
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1984
1988
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1992
South Africa
1928
1949
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1970
1976
1992
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Europe
1905-06
1924–25
1935–36
1953–54
1963–64
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1979
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2005
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Asia and Oceania
1968
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1984
1987
North and South America
1906
1913
1925
1936
1953–54
1964
1967
1972
1976
1980
1985
1989
1991
2001
2006
Māori All Blacks tours
1888–89
1926–27
1949
1982
2012
2013
2014
See also
"All Blacks" term
Alone it Stands
Invictus
Old Scores
Sonny Wool
[show]
v
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e
Head-to-head records of Tier 1 rugby union national teams
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bledisloe_Cup&oldid=831392961"
Categories:
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1998 Australia rugby union tour

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2001 Australia rugby union tour

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2004 Australia rugby union tour

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2005 Australia rugby union tour

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2006 Australia rugby union tour

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values: History of rugby union matches between England and France

values: History of rugby union matches between England and Ireland

values: History of rugby union matches between England and Italy

values: History of rugby union matches between England and Scotland

values: History of rugby union matches between England and South Africa

values: History of rugby union matches between England and Wales

values: History of rugby union matches between France and Ireland

values: History of rugby union matches between France and Italy

values: History of rugby union matches between France and Scotland

values: History of rugby union matches between France and South Africa

values: History of rugby union matches between France and Wales

values: History of rugby union matches between Ireland and Italy

values: History of rugby union matches between Ireland and Scotland

values: History of rugby union matches between Ireland and South Africa

values: History of rugby union matches between Ireland and Wales

values: History of rugby union matches between Italy and Scotland

values: History of rugby union matches between Italy and South Africa

values: History of rugby union matches between Italy and Wales

values: History of rugby union matches between Scotland and South Africa

values: History of rugby union matches between Scotland and Wales

values: History of rugby union matches between South Africa and Wales

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values: Category:History of rugby union matches between Australia and New Zealand

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values: Category:The Rugby Championship trophies

values: Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1931

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