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George Washington Bridge
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For other Washington Bridges, see Washington Bridge (disambiguation). For the American politician, see George Washington Bridges. For the Marvel comics character, see G. W. Bridge. For the bus station, see George Washington Bridge Bus Station.
George Washington Bridge
The bridge, looking east from Fort Lee toward Upper Manhattan.
Coordinates
40°51′06″N 73°57′09″W / 40.851589°N 73.952483°W / 40.851589; -73.952483 (George Washington Bridge)
Carries
14 lanes (8 upper deck, 6 lower deck) of I‑95 (entire span) / US 1-9 (entire span) / US 46 (NJ side)
Upper deck sidewalk (south side): pedestrians and bicycles
Crosses
Hudson River
Locale
Connecting Fort Lee, New Jersey and Washington Heights, Manhattan in New York City, United States
Other name(s)
The GWB, The GW, The GW Bridge, & The George
Maintained by
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
Characteristics
Design
Double-decked suspension bridge
Material
Steel
Total length
4,760 ft (1,450 m)[1]
Width
119 ft (36 m)[1]
Height
604 ft (184 m)[1]
Longest span
3,500 ft (1,067 m)[2]
Clearance above
14 ft (4.3 m) (upper level), 13.5 ft (4.1 m) (lower level)
Clearance below
212 ft (65 m) at mid-span[1]
History
Designer
Othmar Ammann, Cass Gilbert
Construction start
October 1927
Opened
October 24, 1931; 86 years ago (1931-10-24) (upper level)
August 29, 1962; 55 years ago (1962-08-29) (lower level)
Statistics
Daily traffic
289,827 (2016)[3]
Toll
eastbound only: cars ($15.00 for cash, $12.50 peak with E-ZPass, $10.50 off-peak with E-ZPass;
$6.50 when carpooling with 3 people or more with NY and NJ E-ZPass only)
Show map of New York City Show map of New York Show map of the US Show all
The George Washington Bridge – known informally as the GW Bridge,[4] the GWB,[5] the GW,[6] or the George[7] – is a double-decked suspension bridge spanning the Hudson River between the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City and Fort Lee, New Jersey. As of 2016[update], the George Washington Bridge carried over 103 million vehicles per year,[8] making it the world's busiest motor vehicle bridge.[9][10] It is owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bi-state government agency that operates several bridges, tunnels and airports, as well as marine seaports, and the PATH rapid transit system.
The bridge, an integral conduit within the New York metropolitan area, has an upper level that carries four lanes in each direction and a lower level with three lanes in each direction, for a total of 14 lanes of travel. The speed limit on the bridge is 45 mph (72 km/h), though congestion frequently slows traffic on both weekdays and weekends. The bridge's upper level also carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic. Interstate 95 (I-95) and U.S. Route 1/9 (US 1/9) cross the river via the bridge. US 46, which lies entirely within New Jersey, terminates halfway across the bridge at the state border with New York. At its eastern terminus in New York City, the bridge connects with the Trans-Manhattan Expressway (part of I-95, connecting to the Cross Bronx Expressway).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Road connections
2.1 Alternate routes
3 Tolls
4 Non-motorized access
5 Suicides
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
The bridge, looking south from the New York side of the Hudson River.
USS Nautilus passes under the bridge in 1956, when the bridge had only a single deck.
The bridge sits near the sites of Fort Washington (in New York) and Fort Lee (in New Jersey), which were fortified positions used by General George Washington and his American forces as they attempted to deter the occupation of New York City in 1776 during the American Revolutionary War. Unsuccessful, Washington evacuated Manhattan by crossing between the two forts.[note 1]
Construction on the bridge began in October 1927 as a project of the Port of New York Authority.[11] The bridge's chief engineer was Othmar Ammann, with Cass Gilbert as architect.[12] Geologists made 300-foot (91 m) test bores on the New Jersey side to determine if the geological strata would support the bridge.[13] When construction started, the estimated cost of the bridge was $75,000,000.[14] It was expected to carry 8 million vehicles and 1.5 million pedestrians in its first year of operation.[13]
Prior to and while under construction, the bridge was unofficially known as the "Hudson River Bridge". That name was the popular choice, chosen over a host of other proposed names as well as the Port Authority's preference for the name "George Washington Bridge", based on 1931 ballot voting submitted to the Port Authority by New York and New Jersey residents. However, the Port Authority named the bridge after George Washington that year.[15]
The bridge was dedicated on October 24, 1931, and opened to traffic the following day.[16][17] The George Washington Bridge, with a span of 4,760 feet (1,450 m) in total[1] – including a main span of 3,500 feet (1,100 m) – was the longest main bridge span in the world at the time, at nearly double the 1,850 feet (560 m) of the previous record holder, the Ambassador Bridge in Detroit. It held this title until the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge in 1937.[2]
In 1946, two more lanes were created on the current upper level, widening it from the original six lanes.[11] A second, lower deck, which had been anticipated in Ammann's original plans, was approved by Lt. Col. Joseph R. McCammon, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and opened to the public on August 29, 1962.[18] The lower level, nicknamed "Martha" after George's wife Martha Washington,[19][20] increased the capacity of the bridge by 75 percent, and simultaneously made the George Washington Bridge the world's only 14-lane suspension bridge.[21][22]
The original design for the towers of the bridge called for them to be encased in concrete and granite. However, because of cost considerations during the Great Depression and favorable aesthetic critiques of the bare steel towers, this was never done.[12] The exposed steel towers, with their distinctive criss-crossed bracing, have become one of the bridge's most identifiable characteristics.[2]
The George Washington Bridge was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers on October 24, 1981, the 50th anniversary of the bridge's dedication ceremony.[2]
Starting on July 4, 2000, and for subsequent special occasions, each tower is illuminated by 380 light fixtures that highlight the exposed steel structure.[23] On each tower there are a mix of 150 and 1000 watt metal halide lamp fixtures.[24] The architectural lighting design was completed by Domingo Gonzalez Associates.[25]
As the enclosed lower level is more vulnerable to hazardous material (HAZMAT) incidents than the upper level, most HAZMATs have long been prohibited there.[26] Following the September 11 attacks, the Port Authority also prohibited people from taking photographs on the premises of the bridge out of fear that terrorist groups might study photographs to plot an attack on the bridge, but the photography ban has since been lifted.[citation needed]
Since 2006, the bridge has flown the world's largest free-flying American flag, measuring at 90 feet (27 m) long, 60 feet (18 m) wide, and 450 pounds (200 kg). It is hoisted on special occasions when weather allows,[27][28] and appears on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, Presidents Day, Memorial Day, Flag Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, and Veterans Day, as well as on dates honoring those lost in the September 11 attacks. On events where the flag is flown, the tower lights are lit from dusk until 11:59 p.m.[1]
In December 2011, the Port Authority announced plans to repair the bridge. For the first time, the vertical suspender cables would be replaced, at an expected cost of more than $1 billion paid for by toll revenue.[29] On August 5, 2013, repair crews began an $82-million effort to fix cracks in upper-deck structural steel caused by traffic, particularly heavy trucks. The plan called for replacing 632 road deck panels, which would add at least 20 years of service life to the roadway. The work proceeded at night, and was slated to be complete by year's end. But delays prevented completion and ultimately the work was halted for the winter.[30] It was restarted on June 16, 2014, and was expected to last another 12 weeks.[31]
From September 9 to 13, 2013, dedicated toll lanes for one of the local Fort Lee entrances to the bridge's upper level were reduced from three to one, the two given to highway traffic, without notification to local government officials and emergency responders on orders from aides and appointees of New Jersey Governor Chris Christie causing a political controversy called "Bridgegate".[32] The local toll lane reductions caused massive traffic congestion, with major delays for school transportation and police and emergency service responses within Fort Lee. The repercussions and controversy surrounding these actions have been investigated by the Port Authority, federal prosecutors, and a New Jersey legislature committee.
Road connections[edit]
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Under the New York side's pillar
The George Washington Bridge carries I-95 and US 1/9 between New Jersey and New York. Coming from New Jersey, US 46 terminates at the state border in the middle of the bridge. Further west, I-80, US 9W, New Jersey Route 4, and the New Jersey Turnpike also feed into the bridge via either I-95, U.S. 1/9, or U.S. 46 but end before reaching it. The Palisades Interstate Parkway connects directly to the bridge's upper level, though not to the lower level (plans to give direct access to the lower level from the parkway have been postponed). The marginal roads and local streets above the highways are known as GWB Plaza.
On the New York side, the 12-lane Trans-Manhattan Expressway heads east across the narrow neck of upper Manhattan, from the bridge to the Harlem River, providing access from both decks to 178th Street, the Henry Hudson Parkway and Riverside Drive on the West Side of Manhattan, and to Amsterdam Avenue and the Harlem River Drive on the East Side. The Expressway connects directly with the Alexander Hamilton Bridge, which spans the Harlem River as part of the Cross-Bronx Expressway (I-95), providing access to the Major Deegan Expressway (I-87). Heading towards New Jersey, local access to the bridge is available from 179th Street. There are also ramps connecting the bridge to the George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal,[33] a commuter bus terminal with direct access to the New York City Subway at the 175th Street (A train) station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line.
Emergency services are provided by the Port Authority's Tunnel & Bridge Agents, who are stationed at the bridge 24/7 and maintain various apparatus such as fire trucks, rescue trucks, and wreckers specially designed for the GW Bridge for serious incidents, such as fires, vehicle extrications, Haz-Mat incidents, overturned vehicles, and many other emergencies. Emergency Medical Services are also provided by the Agents.
Alternate routes[edit]
Aerial view of the bridge from Manhattan
The George Washington Bridge is notorious for traffic jams during rush hour and holiday weeks, as are the highways connected to it, including the Trans-Manhattan Expressway that turns into the Cross Bronx Expressway to the east, the Harlem River Drive that turns into the FDR Drive, the Henry Hudson Parkway that turns into West Side Highway to the south, and the Major Deegan Expressway (I-87) in the Bronx at the other side of the Harlem River at its interchange with I-95. The western approaches in New Jersey are also slow, specifically I-95, US 1-9, and 46 (merged before the bridge), Route 4, and the Palisades Parkway.
Within New York City, the Lincoln Tunnel (NJ 495) and Holland Tunnel (Interstate 78/NJ 139) also enter Manhattan, albeit further south. The Verrazano Bridge (I-278), which connects Staten Island with Brooklyn and also handles traffic from New Jersey, is an alternate route even further south. Within the New York metropolitan area, the New Tappan Zee Bridge (Interstates 87/287 and New York State Thruway) is an alternate route further north that avoids the city proper.
For traffic from further away, such as traffic between New England (and points north/east) and Pennsylvania (and points south/west), Interstate 84, which crosses the Hudson on the Newburgh–Beacon Bridge, is often used as an alternative rather than either the GWB or the Tappan Zee Bridge, as it avoids the inner New York metropolitan area and is a less congested route.
Tolls[edit]
The underside of the lower deck of the bridge, looking west from Manhattan
Eastbound vehicles must pay a toll to cross the bridge; as with all Hudson River crossings along the North River, westbound vehicles cross for free.[34] As of December 6, 2015, the cash tolls going from New Jersey to New York are $15 for both cars and motorcycles. E-ZPass users are charged $10.50 for cars and $9.50 for motorcycles during off-peak hours, and $12.50 for cars and $11.50 for motorcycles during peak hours. Trucks are charged cash tolls of $20.00 per axle, with discounted peak, off-peak, and overnight E-ZPass tolls. A discounted carpool toll ($6.50) is available at all times for cars with three or more passengers using NY or NJ E-ZPass, who proceed through a staffed toll lane (provided they have registered with the free "Carpool Plan"). There is an off-peak toll of $7.00 for qualified low-emission passenger vehicles, which have received a Green E-ZPass based on registering for the Port Authority Green Pass Discount Plan.[35]
Tolls are collected at a tollbooth on the New Jersey side. Originally, tolls were collected in both directions. In August 1970, the toll was abolished for westbound drivers, and at the same time, eastbound drivers saw their tolls doubled. The tolls of eleven other New York–New Jersey and Hudson River crossings along a 130-mile (210 km) stretch, from the Outerbridge Crossing in the south to the Rip Van Winkle Bridge in the north, were also changed to eastbound-only at that time.[36] Tolls for the bridge cost $.50 one way in 1931, but have been raised over the years to the current $15 cash toll for passenger vehicles, which was enacted on December 6, 2015.[37] In 2006, bridge tolls totaled about $1 million per day; at the time, tolls for cars were $6 cash, $5 E-ZPass peak hours, and $4 E-ZPass off-peak hours.[38]
The upper-level toll plaza with heavy traffic congestion
The bridge has 29 toll lanes: 12 in the main upper-level toll plaza, 10 in the lower-level toll plaza, and seven in the Palisades Interstate Parkway toll plaza leading to the upper level. The toll plazas on the lower level and Palisades Parkway are not staffed during the overnight hours and accept only E-ZPass transactions during this period.[1][39] Pedestrians and cyclists cross for free on the sidewalk. Though there are sidewalks on each side of the bridge, cyclists and pedestrians can use only the south side. The bridge has views of the Hudson River, the Manhattan skyline, and the New Jersey Palisades. Pedestrians had to pay tolls of 10 cents shortly after the bridge opened, but non-motorized traffic is no longer tolled.[21]
In January 2007, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey announced a two-year, $3.2-million deal with GEICO, the auto insurance giant, that would have posted a large billboard atop the toll plaza that said "GEICO Drive Safely," along with GEICO signs on the tollbooths and approach roads.[40] A week later, however, the Port Authority canceled the contract after critics said the signs would mar the landmarked bridge, that the Port Authority had failed to negotiate a good price for the deal, and that the signs might violate Fort Lee's regulations.[41]
Non-motorized access[edit]
Southern sidewalk
The George Washington Bridge is popular among sightseers and commuters traveling by foot, bicycle, or roller skates. The southern sidewalk (accessible by a long, steep ramp on the Manhattan side of the bridge) is shared by cyclists and pedestrians, with a level surface from end to end. The entrance in Manhattan is at 178th Street, just west of Cabrini Boulevard which also has access to the Hudson River Greenway north of the bridge. The sidewalk is accessible on the New Jersey side from Hudson Terrace, where a gate open in daytime and evening allows pedestrians and bikes to pass. Also on Hudson Terrace, less than one hundred yards north of the bike/ped entrance, walkers will find the start of the Long Path hiking trail, which leads after a short walk to some extensive views of the bridge and continues north toward Albany. The George Washington Bridge carries New York State Bicycle Route 9, a bike route that runs from New York City north to Rouses Point.[42]
The Port Authority closed the northern sidewalk at all times in 2008.[43] Though it offers direct access into Palisades Interstate Park, the northern sidewalk requires stairway climbs and descents on both sides, which was inaccessible for people with physical disabilities and posed a risk in poor weather conditions.[44]
Transportation Alternatives, a New York City advocacy group, has proposed an enhanced River Road connector in Fort Lee, which would create safer pedestrian and bicycle access to the George Washington Bridge on the New Jersey side of the bridge.[45]
Suicides[edit]
The George Washington Bridge is among the most frequently chosen sites in the New York metropolitan area for committing suicide.[46]
In 1994, a caller into The Howard Stern Show was on the bridge threatening to commit suicide, but Howard Stern managed to talk him out of it.[47] The 2010 suicide of Tyler Clementi, who had jumped from the bridge, drew national attention to cyberbullying and the struggles facing LGBT youth.[48]
In 2012, a record 18 people threw themselves off the bridge to their deaths, with 43 suicide attempts overall.[49] In 2014 and 2015, there were also 18 deaths reported. In 2014, there were 74 people were stopped by the Port Authority police, while the next year, another 86 people were stopped by the Port Authority police. In 2016, there were 12 reported deaths, a decrease from previous years, while 70 people were stopped by the Port Authority police.[50]
In popular culture[edit]
The landmark bridge is seen in a number of movies set in New York, commonly in establishing shots. The bridge is featured, along with the nearby Little Red Lighthouse, in Hildegarde Swift's 1942 children's book The Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Gray Bridge. The bridge is also featured in Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather, Woody Allen's Broadway Danny Rose, Mike Newell's Donnie Brasco, and Abraham Polonsky's Force of Evil. On Sesame Street, Ernie often sang the words "George Washington Bridge" to the tune of Sobre las Olas ("The Loveliest Night of the Year"). There is also a work for concert band called George Washington Bridge (1950) by William Schuman. Note that work has nothing to do with Sesame Street's Ernie's song or Sobre las Olas.
In the 1976 film Network, the character Max Schumacher (William Holden) tells a funny story to his friend Howard Beale (Peter Finch), in which the young Schumacher, who overslept for a news shoot about the new lower deck at the bridge, gets into a cab wearing a raincoat over his pajamas and tells the cabbie to: "Take me to the middle of the George Washington Bridge." The cabbie, concerned that Schumacher intended to jump from the bridge, turns around and begs him: "Don't do it buddy! You're a young man! You got your whole life ahead of you!"[51]
In 24: Legacy, a terrorist detonated a truck bomb on the upper level.
From Riverside Drive, at night
See also[edit]
Bridges portal
New Jersey portal
New York portal
New York City portal
List of fixed crossings of the Hudson River
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New York
References[edit]
Explanatory notes
Jump up ^ In 1910, the Washington Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution erected a stone monument to the Battle of Fort Washington. The monument is about 100 yards (91 m) northeast of the Little Red Lighthouse, up the hill towards the eastern bridge anchorage. Renner, James (January 1998). "DAR Monument". Washington Heights & Inwood Online. Archived from the original on September 25, 2010. Retrieved March 13, 2010.
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Facts & Info - George Washington Bridge". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "George Washington Bridge". ASCE Metropolitan Section. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "New York City Bridge Traffic Volumes" (PDF). New York City Department of Transportation. 2016. p. 11. Retrieved March 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Rose, Lacey (March 2, 2006). "Inside the Booth". Forbes. Retrieved January 15, 2008. Like the PATH trains, which also connect New York to New Jersey, the G.W. Bridge is run by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a public agency that employees 7,000 workers and has annual revenues of $2.9 billion.
Jump up ^ Toolen, Tom (September 27, 1995). "Bridges Keep Photographer in Suspense". The Record. Retrieved January 15, 2008. Frieder calls the GWB 'the most beautiful suspension bridge in the world...'
Jump up ^ Jones, Charisse (October 20, 2006). "Upkeep Costs Rise as USA's Bridges Age". USA Today. Retrieved January 15, 2008. The George Washington Bridge — locals call it 'the GW' — is one of a collection of dazzling spans that link New York's five boroughs or the city and New Jersey.
Jump up ^ Rockland, Michael Aaron (2008). The George Washington Bridge: Poetry in Steel. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 51, 56, 59. ISBN 978-0-8135-4375-8. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ [1] Note these are vehicles paying toll in one direction, so the traveled number is twice this figure. Accessed April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Port Authority Bridges and Tunnels". The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The World's Busiest: The George Washington Bridge". American Infrastructure. April 14, 2017. Retrieved April 15, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "History - George Washington Bridge". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Richman, Steven M. The Bridges of New Jersey: Portraits of Garden State Crossings, p. 118. Rutgers University Press, 2005. ISBN 9780813535104. "The engineer, Othmar Ammann, and his architect, Cass Gilbert, had originally designed statuesque anchors, which were abandoned for cost reasons."
^ Jump up to: a b Staff (January 1930) "Giant of World's Bridges Rising in New York", Popular Mechanics p.464
Jump up ^ "Speeding the Hudson Bridge". Popular Science. November 1929. p. 49. Retrieved October 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ Maeder, Jay (February 17, 2011). "Name That Bridge, 1931 Edition". The New York Times. Retrieved March 18, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Two Governors Open Great Hudson Bridge As Throngs Look On". The New York Times. October 25, 1931. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ "56,312 Cars Cross Bridge on First Day". The New York Times. October 26, 1931. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ingraham, Joseph C. (August 30, 1962). "Lower Deck of George Washington Bridge Is Opened". The New York Times. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ Rockland, Michael Aaron (2008). The George Washington Bridge: Poetry in Steel. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 81–82. ISBN 978-0-8135-4375-8. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Cameron, Jim (January 24, 2014) "A history of the George Washington Bridge" Greenwich Post. Accessed June 18, 2016. "The original designers had planned for the future, and in 1961 the lower level, six-lane 'Martha Washington' bridge opened to traffic, increasing total capacity by 75%."
^ Jump up to: a b "George Washington Bridge 80th Anniversary". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved October 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ Scott, Marvin. "Happy birthday George Washington Bridge! See rare 1981 interview with the man who crossed it ON HORSE on the first day", WPIX, October 25, 2013. Accessed June 18, 2016. "And with a total of 14 lanes, it’s the only one of its kind."
Jump up ^ "George Washington Bridge Interesting Facts" (PDF). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Daniel (September 24, 2000). "F.Y.I." The New York Times. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Yee, Roger (2007). Lighting Spaces. Visual Profile. p. 64. ISBN 9781584711162.
Jump up ^ "Transportation Regulations at Tunnel and Bridge Facilities" (PDF). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ "George Washington Bridge Interesting Facts" (PDF). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 14, 2006. Retrieved May 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ "World's Largest Free-Flying American Flag to Fly at George Washington Bridge in Honor of 9/11 Victims" (Press release). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. September 8, 2006. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ Haughney, Christine (December 8, 2011). "Now 80, George Washington Bridge Will Undergo Repairs". The New York Times. Retrieved December 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ The Associated Press (August 2, 2013). "New York City's George Washington Bridge to undergo major construction project starting Monday". syracuse.com. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Overnight repair work on GWB begins; 3 upper-level lanes close down". 7online.com. June 16, 2014. Retrieved July 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Baxter, Christopher. "UPDATED: Timeline of Port Authority's George Washington Bridge controversy". The Star-Ledger. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ Google (July 30, 2013). "GW Bridge ramps to GW Bridge Bus Terminal" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Port Authority of NY & NJ - 2012 to 2015 Toll Rate Table (for Bridges & Tunnels)" (PDF). Port Authority of New York & New Jersey. Retrieved November 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Toll Fare Rates for the Bridges & Tunnels Effective December 6, 2015 at 3:00 AM". Port Authority of New York & New Jersey. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Moran, Nancy (August 13, 1970). "One‐Way Tolls Confusing Some Drivers". The New York Times. Retrieved April 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ Strunsky, Steve. "How the George Washington Bridge toll has risen through the years", NJ Advance Media for NJ.com, December 5, 2014. Accessed June 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "George Washington". New York Architecture. Retrieved October 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Tolls - Bridges & Tunnels". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ Belson, Ken (January 4, 2007). "With Ad Deal, Insurer Wades Into Bridge Traffic". The New York Times. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ Belson, Ken (January 9, 2007). "Agency Cancels Insurer's Ads for George Washington Bridge". The New York Times. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ "State Bicycle Route 9 Maps - Southern Section". New York State Department of Transportation. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Pedestrian & Bicycle Information - George Washington Bridge". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ Yellin, Deena. "A controversial planned GWB pedestrian lane attracts critics", The Record (Bergen County), October 12, 2014. Accessed June 19, 2016. " It includes replacing stairways on the bridge's north side with access ramps and removing a tight hairpin turn on the south side walkway to make it safer and accessible to wheelchairs."
Jump up ^ "Support Grows in NJ for GW Bridge to "River Road" Connector Path". Transportation Alternatives Magazine. Transportation Alternatives: 15. Summer 2003. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ Zabriskie, Phil. "The Mysteries of the Suicide Tourist". New York Magazine. New York Media LLC. Retrieved April 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Shock Jock Howard Stern Stops Caller's Suicide Leap : Media: Man phoned in threat from edge of bridge. Radio personality says he decided to 'keep this man laughing' until authorities could arrive. Los Angeles Times (December 8, 1994). Retrieved on July 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Parker, Ian (February 6, 2012). "The Story of a Suicide". The New Yorker. Retrieved February 5, 2012.
Jump up ^ Messing, Philip (January 14, 2013). "Sad GWB suicide record". New York Post. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "12 people jumped to deaths from George Washington Bridge in 2016".
Jump up ^ "Network (1976) Quotes". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
External links[edit]
Route map: Google
KML file (edit • help)
Display on Google Maps
Template:Attached KML/George Washington Bridge
KML is from Wikidata
Wikimedia Commons has media related to George Washington Bridge.
George Washington Bridge Official Site Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
NJ DOT map showing jurisdictions of highways leading to the bridge
George Washington Bridge - Historic Overview NYCRoads.com
George Washington Bridge Trivia
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. NY-129, "George Washington Bridge"
George Washington Bridge at Structurae
The George Washington Bridge in Heavy Smog, View Toward the New Jersey Side of the Hudson River from World Digital Library
"George Washington Bridge: Spanning history" from BergenCounty.com
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Stockholm syndrome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Stockholm syndrome (disambiguation).
The location where the 1973 Norrmalmstorg robbery took place in Stockholm, Sweden (2005).
Stockholm syndrome is a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity.[1] These feelings, resulting from a bond formed between captor and captives during intimate time spent together, are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. Generally speaking, Stockholm syndrome consists of "strong emotional ties that develop between two persons where one person intermittently harasses, beats, threatens, abuses, or intimidates the other."[2] The FBI's Hostage Barricade Database System shows that roughly eight percent of victims show evidence of Stockholm syndrome.[3]
It was formally named in 1973 when four hostages were taken during a bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden. The hostages defended their captors after being released and would not agree to testify in court against them.[4] Stockholm syndrome is ostensibly paradoxical because the sympathetic sentiments captives feel towards their captors are the opposite of the fear and disdain an onlooker may feel towards the captors.
There are four key components that generally lead to the development of Stockholm syndrome:
A hostage's development of positive feelings towards their captor
No previous hostage-captor relationship
A refusal by hostages to co-operate with police forces and other government authorities
A hostage's belief in the humanity of their captor, for the reason that when a victim holds the same values as the aggressor, they cease to be perceived as a threat.[2][3]
Stockholm syndrome is considered a "contested illness", due to many law enforcement officers' doubt about the legitimacy of the condition.[4]
Stockholm syndrome has also come to describe the reactions of some abuse victims beyond the context of kidnappings or hostage-taking. Actions and attitudes similar to those suffering from Stockholm Syndrome have also been found in victims of sexual abuse, human trafficking, discrimination, terror, and political oppression.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Stockholm bank robbery
1.2 Other Famous Examples
1.2.1 Mary McElroy
1.2.2 Natascha Kampusch
1.2.3 Patty Hearst
1.2.4 Colleen Stan
1.3 Sexual abuse victims
1.3.1 Elisabeth Fritzl
1.4 Lima syndrome
2 Symptoms and behaviours
2.1 Physical and psychological effects
2.2 Coping mechanism
2.2.1 Possible evolutionary explanations
2.2.2 Loving to survive
2.3 Recovery
3 Criticism
3.1 Professional
3.1.1 FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin
3.1.2 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM5)
3.1.3 Robbins and Anthony (1982)
3.1.4 Victims
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
Stockholm bank robbery[edit]
Main article: Norrmalmstorg robbery
In 1973, Jan-Erik Olsson, a convict on parole, took four employees of the bank (three women and one man) hostage during a failed bank robbery in Kreditbanken, one of the largest banks in Stockholm, Sweden. He negotiated the release from prison of his friend Clark Olofsson to assist him. They held the hostages captive for six days (23–28 August) in one of the bank’s vaults while torturing them with nooses and dynamite. When they were released, none of them would testify against either captor in court; instead they began raising money for their defense.[4]
Nils Bejerot, a Swedish criminologist and psychiatrist coined the term after Stockholm police asked him for assistance with analyzing the victims' reactions to the 1973 bank robbery and their status as hostages. As the idea of brainwashing was not a new concept, Bejerot, speaking on "a news cast after the captives' release" instinctively reduced the hostages' reactions to a result of being brainwashed by their captors.[4] He called it Norrmalmstorgssyndromet, meaning "The Norrmalmstorg Syndrome"; it later became known outside of Sweden as the Stockholm syndrome.[5] It was originally defined by psychiatrist Frank Ochberg to aid the management of hostage situations.[6]
Other Famous Examples[edit]
Mary McElroy[edit]
Mary McElroy was abducted from her home at age 25 by four men who held a gun to her, demanded her compliance, took her to an abandoned farmhouse, and chained her to a wall. She defended her kidnappers when she was released, explaining that they were only businessmen. She then continued to visit her captors while they were in jail. She eventually committed suicide and left the following note: “My four kidnappers are probably the only people on Earth who don't consider me an utter fool. You have your death penalty now - so, please, give them a chance."[7]
Natascha Kampusch[edit]
Natascha Kampusch was kidnapped at age ten and kept in an insulated, dark room under the garage of Wolfgang Priklopil. She would receive a variation of kind, physically and sexually abusive, controlling, and permissive treatment from her captor. Eight years after her kidnapping, Natascha left and Priklopil committed suicide. After her kidnapper's death, Natascha lamented and kept a picture of him in her wallet.[8]
Patty Hearst[edit]
Patty Hearst, the granddaughter of publisher William Randolph Hearst, was taken and held hostage by the Symbionese Liberation Army, "an urban guerilla group", in 1974. She was recorded denouncing her family as well as the police under her new name, "Tania", and was later seen working with the SLA to rob banks in San Francisco. She publicly asserted her sympathetic feelings towards the SLA and their pursuits as well. After her 1975 arrest, pleading Stockholm syndrome did not work as a proper defense in court, much to the chagrin of her defense lawyer, F. Lee Bailey. Her seven-year prison sentence was later commuted, and she was eventually presidentially pardoned by Bill Clinton, who was informed that she was not acting under her own free will.[4]
Colleen Stan[edit]
In 1977, Colleen Stan was hitchhiking to visit a friend in southern California when she was kidnapped by Cameron Hooker and his wife Janice and forced to live in a wooden restraining box underneath their bed. For seven years she was repeatedly raped and tortured by Cameron and forced to live life as a sort of domestic/sex slave. Even though she was allowed to socialize with Janice and even visit her mother, she still continued to live in the box and did not attempt to escape. She was eventually freed by Janice, who asked Stan to not disclose her abuse as Janice was attempting to reform Cameron. Stan remained silent until Janice finally decided to turn Cameron over to the police.[9]
Sexual abuse victims[edit]
There is evidence that some victims of childhood sexual abuse come to feel a connection with their abuser. They often feel flattered by the adult attention or are afraid that disclosure will create family disruption. In adulthood, they resist disclosure for emotional and personal reasons.[10]
Elisabeth Fritzl[edit]
One instance of this was in the Elisabeth Fritzl case. Upon reaching the age of 18, Fritzl’s father locked her in the cellar of her home where she remained captive and victim to her father’s repetitive molestations for 24 years. During her confinement, she birthed seven of her father’s children, four who were kept secret and three whom her father and mother cared for openly. Due to her father also being the father of her children, Elisabeth grew attached to him.[11]
Lima syndrome[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)
A similar form of Stockholm syndrome called Lima syndrome has been proposed, in which abductors develop sympathy for their hostages. An abductor may also have second thoughts or experience empathy towards their victims.
Lima syndrome was named after an abduction at the Japanese embassy in Lima, Peru, in 1996, when members of a militant movement took hostage hundreds of people attending a party at the official residence of Japan's ambassador. Within a few hours, the abductors had set free most of the hostages, including the most valuable ones, because of sympathy towards them.[12][13]
Jan-Erik Olsson, the perpetrator of the original bank robbery in Stockholm, said in an interview:
"It was the hostages' fault. They did everything I told them to. If they hadn't, I might not be here now. Why didn't any of them attack me? They made it hard to kill. They made us go on living together day after day, like goats, in that filth. There was nothing to do but get to know each other."[14]
Symptoms and behaviours[edit]
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Victims of the formal definition of Stockholm syndrome develop "positive feelings toward their captors and sympathy for their causes and goals, and negative feelings toward the police or authorities".[4] These symptoms often follow escaped victims back into their previously ordinary lives.[15]
Physical and psychological effects[edit]
Cognitive: confusion; blurred memory; refusal to accept the reality of events; recurring flashbacks.
Emotional: lack of feeling; fear; helplessness; hopelessness; aggression; depression; guilt; dependence on captor; development of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Social: anxious; irritable; cautious; estrangement
Physical: increase in effects of pre-existing conditions; development of health conditions due to possible restriction from food, sleep, or exposure to outdoors[16]
Coping mechanism[edit]
From a psychoanalytic lens, it can be argued that Stockholm syndrome arises strictly as a result of survival instincts. Strentz states, "the victim’s need to survive is stronger than his impulse to hate the person who has created the dilemma." A positive emotional bond between captor and captive is a "defense mechanism of the ego under stress".[4] These sentimental feelings are not strictly for show, however. Since captives often fear that their affection will be perceived as fake, they eventually begin to believe that their positive sentiments are genuine. The conception of Stockholm syndrome has grown to include victims of kidnappings or hostage instances, domestic or child abuse, human trafficking, incest, prisoners of war, political terrorism, cult members, concentration camp prisoners, slaves, and prostitutes.[4] It is believed that women are especially subject to develop the condition.[17]
Typically, Stockholm syndrome develops in captives when they engage in "face-to-face contact" with their captors, and when captors make captives doubt the likelihood of their survival by terrorizing them into "helpless, powerless, and submissive" states. This enables captors to appear merciful when they perform acts of kindness or fail to "beat, abuse, or rape" the victims.[4] Ideas like "dominance hierarchies and submission strategies" assist in devising explanations for the illogical reasoning behind the symptoms of those suffering from Stockholm syndrome as a result of any oppressive relationship.[17] Partial activation of the capture-bonding psychological trait may lie behind battered woman syndrome,[18] military basic training, fraternity hazing, and sex practices such as sadism/masochism or bondage/discipline.[19]
Possible evolutionary explanations[edit]
Evolutionarily speaking, research evidence exists to support the genuine scientific nature of Stockholm syndrome. Responses similar to those in human captives have been detected in some reptiles and mammals, primates in particular. Abuse and subsequent submission and appeasement by the victim have been observed among chimpanzees, leading to the theory that the Stockholm Syndrome may have its roots in evolutionary needs.[20]
Life in the "environment of evolutionary adaptiveness" (EEA) is thought by researchers such as Israeli military historian Azar Gat to be similar to that of the few remaining hunter-gatherer societies, who asserts that war and abductions were typical of human pre-history.[10 Being captured by neighbouring tribes was a relatively common event for women. In some of those tribes (Yanomamo, for instance), practically everyone in the tribe is descended from a captive within the last three generations. As high as one in ten of females were abducted and incorporated into the tribe that captured them.[15]Being captured[11] and having their children killed may have been common;[12] women who resisted capture risked being killed.[13] When selection is intense and persistent, adaptive traits (such as capture-bonding) become universal to the population or species.
One of the "adaptive problems faced by our hunter-gatherer ancestors", particularly females, was being abducted by another band. Life in the "human environment of evolutionary adaptiveness" (EEA) is thought by researchers such as Israeli military historian Azar Gat to be similar to that of the few remaining hunter-gatherer societies.[21] Azar Gat asserts that war and abductions (capture) were typical of human pre-history.[22] When selection is intense and persistent, adaptive traits (such as capture-bonding) become universal to the population or species.
Being captured by neighboring tribes was a relatively common event for women in human history, if anything like the recent history of the few remaining tribes. In some of those tribes (Yanomamo, for instance), practically everyone in the tribe is descended from a captive within the last three generations. Perhaps as high as one in ten of females were abducted and incorporated into the tribe that captured them.[19]
Loving to survive[edit]
First published in 1994, author Dee Graham uses the Stockholm syndrome label to describe group or collective responses to trauma, rather than individual reactions. Graham focuses specifically on the impact of Stockholm syndrome on battered and abused women as a community.[23][4]She claimed that in both the psychological and societal senses, these women are defined by their sense of fear surrounding the threat of male violence. This constant fear is what drives these women to perform actions that they know will be pleasing to men in order to avoid emotional, physical, or sexual assault as a result of male anger. Graham draws parallels between women and kidnapping victims in the sense that these women bond to men to survive, as captives bond to their captors to survive.[4]
Recovery[edit]
Recovering from Stockholm syndrome ordinarily involves "psychiatric or psychological counseling," where the patient is helped to realize that his or her actions and feelings stemmed from inherent human survival techniques. The process of recovery includes reinstating normalcy into the lives of victims, including helping the victim learn how to decrease his or her survival-driven behaviors.[9][17]
Criticism[edit]
Professional[edit]
FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin[edit]
A report by the FBI found that only 8% of kidnapping victims showed signs of Stockholm syndrome. The sensational nature of dramatic cases causes that the public perceives this phenomenon as the rule rather than the exception. For Stockholm Syndrome to happen, FBI researchers have identified three key factors: the passage of time, continual contact, and small acts of kindness without direct and persistent abuse.[24]
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM5)[edit]
This book is widely used as the "classification system for psychological disorders" by the American Psychiatric Association.[4] Stockholm syndrome has not historically appeared in the manual, as many believe it falls under Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Before the fifth edition (DSM5) was released, Stockholm syndrome was under consideration to be included under 'Disorders of Extreme Stress, Not Otherwise Specified'.[4] The work was updated in 2013, but Stockholm syndrome was not present.[25]
Robbins and Anthony (1982)[edit]
Robbins and Anthony, who had historically studied a condition similar to Stockholm syndrome, known as destructive cult disorder, observed in their 1982 study that the 1970s were rich with apprehension surrounding the potential risks of brainwashing. They assert that brainwashing’s media attention during this time resulted in the fluid reception of Stockholm syndrome as a psychological condition.[26]
Other researchers have found that although there is a lot of media coverage of Stockholm Syndrome, there has not been a lot of professional research into the phenomena. What little research has been done is often contradictory and does not always agree on what Stockholm Syndrome is. The term has grown beyond kidnappings to all kinds of abuse. Also, there is no clear definition of symptoms to ‘diagnose’ the ‘syndrome.[27]
Victims[edit]
It is possible that the label Stockholm Syndrome is used too freely in cases in which it may not apply. Elizabeth Smart has been held as a classic example of Stockholm syndrome; however, she denies that she ever had any emotional attachment to her abusers. Although she chose not to run away when she had the chance, she emphasized that the threats from her captors to her and her family, and the direct presence of her captors influenced her decision to stay. Once freed from her captors, she gladly reunited with her family and felt no empathy for her abusers.[28]
See also[edit]
Atlas personality
Attachment theory
Codependency
Cognitive dissonance
Colonial mentality
Complex post-traumatic stress disorder
Enmeshment
Patty Hearst
Symptoms of victimization
Traumatic bonding
Uncle Tom syndrome
Psychology portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jameson C (2010). "The Short Step From Love to Hypnosis: A Reconsideration of the Stockholm Syndrome". Journal for Cultural Research. Elsevior. 14.4: 337–355.
^ Jump up to: a b McKenzie IK (23 February 2004). "The Stockholm Syndrome Revisited". Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 4 (1): 5–21. doi:10.1300/J173v04n01_02.
^ Jump up to: a b Sundaram CS (2013). "Stockholm Syndrome". Salem Press Encyclopedia – via Research Starters.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Adorjan M, Christensen T, Kelly B, Pawluch D (2012). "Stockholm Syndrome As Vernacular Resource". The Sociological Quarterly. 53 (3): 454–74.
Jump up ^ Bejerot N (1974). "The six day war in Stockholm". New Scientist. 61 (886): 486–487.
Jump up ^ Ochberg F (8 April 2005). "The Ties That Bind Captive to Captor". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Bovsun M (11 July 2009). "Justice Story: The lady and her kidnappers". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
Jump up ^ Rhiannon D (7 March 2017). "15 Twisted Cases Of Stockholm Syndrome". TheRichest. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
Jump up ^ Bovsun M (9 March 2014). "Hitchhiker kept as sex slave for seven years as 'Girl in the Box'". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
Jump up ^ Jülich S (2005). "Stockholm Syndrome and Child Sexual Abuse". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 14 (3): 107–129.
Jump up ^ Serena K (9 February 2018). "This Man Held His Daughter Captive In A Room For 24 Years And Had 7 Kids With Her". All That's Interesting. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
Jump up ^ Kato N, Kawata M, Pitman RK (2006). PTSD. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-4-431-29566-2.
Jump up ^ Musa T (10 July 1996). "Africa Politics". International Press Service. Retrieved 8 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Westcott K (22 August 2013). "What is Stockholm syndrome?". BBC News. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
Jump up ^ Giambrone A. "Coping After Captivity". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
Jump up ^ Alexander DA, Klein S (January 2009). "Kidnapping and hostage-taking: a review of effects, coping and resilience". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 102 (1): 16–21. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2008.080347. PMC 2627800  . PMID 19147852.
^ Jump up to: a b c Åse C (22 May 2015). "Crisis Narratives and Masculinist Protection". International Feminist Journal of Politics. 17 (4): 595–610. doi:10.1080/14616742.2015.1042296.
Jump up ^ [self-published source] Thims L (2007). Human Chemistry (Volume Two). Lulu.com. pp. 604–605. ISBN 978-1-4303-2840-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Henson K (Summer 2006). "Evolutionary Psychology, Memes and the Origin of War". Mankind Quarterly. The Council for Social and Economic Studies. 46 (4). Archived from the original on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Cantor C, Price J (May 2007). "Traumatic entrapment, appeasement and complex post-traumatic stress disorder: evolutionary perspectives of hostage reactions, domestic abuse and the Stockholm syndrome". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 41 (5): 377–84. doi:10.1080/00048670701261178. PMID 17464728.
Jump up ^ Fielder C, King C (2004). "Sexual Polarization in Warrior Cultures". Sexual Paradox: Complementarity, Reproductive Conflict and Human Emergence. Lulu Enterprises Inc. pp. 148–172. ISBN 978-1-4116-5532-4.
Jump up ^ Gat A (2000). "The Human Motivational Complex: Evolutionary Theory and the Causes of Hunter-Gatherer Fighting, Azar Gat Part II: Proximate, Subordinate, and Derivative Causes". Anthropological Quarterly. 73 (2): 74–88.
Jump up ^ Graham, Dee L. R. (1994). Loving to Survive (PDF). New York and London: New York University Press.
Jump up ^ Fuselier GD (July 1999). "Placing the Stockholm Syndrome in Perspective" (PDF). FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. 68: 22.
Jump up ^ American Psychiatry Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington: American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
Jump up ^ Young EA (31 December 2012). "The use of the »Brainwashing« Theory by the Anti-cult Movement in the United States of America, pre-1996". Zeitschrift für junge Religionswissenschaft (7). doi:10.4000/zjr.387.
Jump up ^ Namnyak M, Tufton N, Szekely R, Toal M, Worboys S, Sampson EL (January 2008). "'Stockholm syndrome': psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 117 (1): 4–11. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01112.x. PMID 18028254.
Jump up ^ McLaughlin CM (2015). Fear or Love: Examining Stockholm Syndrome in the Elizabeth Smart Kidnapping case (Bachelor of Science thesis). Salem State University.
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values: سندرم استکهلم – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fy
display: none;

values: 스톡홀름 증후군 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Ստոկհոլմի համախտանիշ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: स्टॉकहोम सिंड्रोम – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: תסמונת סטוקהולם – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: სტოკჰოლმის სინდრომი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Стокгольм синдромы – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: സ്റ്റോക്ക്‌ഹോം സിൻഡ്രോം – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: ストックホルム症候群 – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Стокгольмский синдром – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: کۆنیشانی ستۆکھۆڵم – Central Kurdish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Стокхолмски синдром – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: இசுட்டாக்குஃகோம் நோய்க்கூட்டறிகுறி – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Стокгольмський синдром – Ukrainian

values: سٹاکہوم سنڈروم – Urdu

values: 斯德哥爾摩症候群 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Stockholm_syndrome rootpage-Stockholm_syndrome skin-vector action-view