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Open cluster
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"Galactic cluster" redirects here. It is not to be confused with galaxy cluster.
Star cluster NGC 3572 and its surroundings.[1]
An open cluster is a group of up to a few thousand stars that were formed from the same giant molecular cloud and have roughly the same age. More than 1,100 open clusters have been discovered within the Milky Way Galaxy, and many more are thought to exist.[2] They are loosely bound by mutual gravitational attraction and become disrupted by close encounters with other clusters and clouds of gas as they orbit the galactic center. This can result in a migration to the main body of the galaxy and a loss of cluster members through internal close encounters.[3] Open clusters generally survive for a few hundred million years, with the most massive ones surviving for a few billion years. In contrast, the more massive globular clusters of stars exert a stronger gravitational attraction on their members, and can survive for longer. Open clusters have been found only in spiral and irregular galaxies, in which active star formation is occurring.[4]
Young open clusters may be contained within the molecular cloud from which they formed, illuminating it to create an H II region.[5] Over time, radiation pressure from the cluster will disperse the molecular cloud. Typically, about 10% of the mass of a gas cloud will coalesce into stars before radiation pressure drives the rest of the gas away.
Open clusters are key objects in the study of stellar evolution. Because the cluster members are of similar age and chemical composition, their properties (such as distance, age, metallicity and extinction) are more easily determined than they are for isolated stars.[2] A number of open clusters, such as the Pleiades, Hyades or the Alpha Persei Cluster are visible with the naked eye. Some others, such as the Double Cluster, are barely perceptible without instruments, while many more can be seen using binoculars or telescopes. The Wild Duck Cluster, M11, is an example.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical observations
2 Formation
3 Morphology and classification
4 Numbers and distribution
5 Stellar composition
6 Eventual fate
7 Studying stellar evolution
8 Astronomical distance scale
9 Planets
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Historical observations[edit]
Mosaic of 30 open clusters discovered from VISTA's data. The open clusters were hidden by the dust in the Milky Way.[7] Credit ESO.
The prominent open cluster the Pleiades has been recognized as a group of stars since antiquity, while the Hyades forms part of Taurus, one of the oldest constellations. Other open clusters were noted by early astronomers as unresolved fuzzy patches of light. The Roman astronomer Ptolemy mentions the Praesepe, the Double Cluster in Perseus, and the Ptolemy Cluster, while the Persian astronomer Al-Sufi wrote of the Omicron Velorum cluster.[8] However, it would require the invention of the telescope to resolve these nebulae into their constituent stars.[9] Indeed, in 1603 Johann Bayer gave three of these clusters designations as if they were single stars.[10]
The colorful star cluster NGC 3590.[11]
The first person to use a telescope to observe the night sky and record his observations was the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1609. When he turned the telescope toward some of the nebulous patches recorded by Ptolemy, he found they were not a single star, but groupings of many stars. For Praesepe, he found more than 40 stars. Where previously observers had noted only 6-7 stars in the Pleiades, he found almost 50.[12] In his 1610 treatise Sidereus Nuncius, Galileo Galilei wrote, "the galaxy is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in clusters."[13] Influenced by Galileo's work, the Sicilian astronomer Giovanni Hodierna became possibly the first astronomer to use a telescope to find previously undiscovered open clusters.[14] In 1654, he identified the objects now designated Messier 41, Messier 47, NGC 2362 and NGC 2451.[15]
It was realised as early as 1767 that the stars in a cluster were physically related,[16] when the English naturalist Reverend John Michell calculated that the probability of even just one group of stars like the Pleiades being the result of a chance alignment as seen from Earth was just 1 in 496,000.[17] Between 1774–1781, French astronomer Charles Messier published a catalogue of celestial objects that had a nebulous appearance similar to comets. This catalogue included 26 open clusters.[10] In the 1790s, English astronomer William Herschel began an extensive study of nebulous celestial objects. He discovered that many of these features could be resolved into groupings of individual stars. Herschel conceived the idea that stars were initially scattered across space, but later became clustered together as star systems because of gravitational attraction.[18] He divided the nebulae into eight classes, with classes VI through VIII being used to classify clusters of stars.[19]
NGC 265, an open star cluster in the Small Magellanic Cloud
The number of clusters known continued to increase under the efforts of astronomers. Hundreds of open clusters were listed in the New General Catalogue, first published in 1888 by the Danish-Irish astronomer J. L. E. Dreyer, and the two supplemental Index Catalogues, published in 1896 and 1905.[10] Telescopic observations revealed two distinct types of clusters, one of which contained thousands of stars in a regular spherical distribution and was found all across the sky but preferentially towards the centre of the Milky Way.[20] The other type consisted of a generally sparser population of stars in a more irregular shape. These were generally found in or near the galactic plane of the Milky Way.[21][22] Astronomers dubbed the former globular clusters, and the latter open clusters. Because of their location, open clusters are occasionally referred to as galactic clusters, a term that was introduced in 1925 by the Swiss-American astronomer Robert Julius Trumpler.[23]
Micrometer measurements of the positions of stars in clusters were made as early as 1877 by the German astronomer E. Schönfeld and further pursued by the American astronomer E. E. Barnard prior to his death in 1923. No indication of stellar motion was detected by these efforts.[24] However, in 1918 the Dutch-American astronomer Adriaan van Maanen was able to measure the proper motion of stars in part of the Pleiades cluster by comparing photographic plates taken at different times.[25] As astrometry became more accurate, cluster stars were found to share a common proper motion through space. By comparing the photographic plates of the Pleiades cluster taken in 1918 with images taken in 1943, van Maanen was able to identify those stars that had a proper motion similar to the mean motion of the cluster, and were therefore more likely to be members.[26] Spectroscopic measurements revealed common radial velocities, thus showing that the clusters consist of stars bound together as a group.[2]
The first color-magnitude diagrams of open clusters were published by Ejnar Hertzsprung in 1911, giving the plot for the Pleiades and Hyades star clusters. He continued this work on open clusters for the next twenty years. From spectroscopic data, he was able to determine the upper limit of internal motions for open clusters, and could estimate that the total mass of these objects did not exceed several hundred times the mass of the Sun. He demonstrated a relationship between the star colors and their magnitudes, and in 1929 noticed that the Hyades and Praesepe clusters had different stellar populations than the Pleiades. This would subsequently be interpreted as a difference in ages of the three clusters.[27]
Formation[edit]
Infrared light reveals the dense open cluster forming at the heart of the Orion nebula.
The formation of an open cluster begins with the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud, a cold dense cloud of gas and dust containing up to many thousands of times the mass of the Sun. These clouds have densities that vary from 102 to 106 molecules of neutral hydrogen per cm3, with star formation occurring in regions with densities above 104 molecules per cm3. Typically, only 1–10% of the cloud by volume is above the latter density.[28] Prior to collapse, these clouds maintain their mechanical equilibrium through magnetic fields, turbulence, and rotation.[29]
Many factors may disrupt the equilibrium of a giant molecular cloud, triggering a collapse and initiating the burst of star formation that can result in an open cluster. These include shock waves from a nearby supernova, collisions with other clouds, or gravitational interactions. Even without external triggers, regions of the cloud can reach conditions where they become unstable against collapse.[29] The collapsing cloud region will undergo hierarchical fragmentation into ever smaller clumps, including a particularly dense form known as infrared dark clouds, eventually leading to the formation of up to several thousand stars. This star formation begins enshrouded in the collapsing cloud, blocking the protostars from sight but allowing infrared observation.[28] In the Milky Way galaxy, the formation rate of open clusters is estimated to be one every few thousand years.[30]
The so-called "Pillars of Creation", a region of the Eagle Nebula where the molecular cloud is being evaporated by young, massive stars
The hottest and most massive of the newly formed stars (known as OB stars) will emit intense ultraviolet radiation, which steadily ionizes the surrounding gas of the giant molecular cloud, forming an H II region. Stellar winds and radiation pressure from the massive stars begins to drive away the hot ionized gas at a velocity matching the speed of sound in the gas. After a few million years the cluster will experience its first core-collapse supernovae, which will also expel gas from the vicinity. In most cases these processes will strip the cluster of gas within ten million years and no further star formation will take place. Still, about half of the resulting protostellar objects will be left surrounded by circumstellar disks, many of which form accretion disks.[28]
As only 30 to 40 per cent of the gas in the cloud core forms stars, the process of residual gas expulsion is highly damaging to the star formation process. All clusters thus suffer significant infant weight loss, while a large fraction undergo infant mortality. At this point, the formation of an open cluster will depend on whether the newly formed stars are gravitationally bound to each other; otherwise an unbound stellar association will result. Even when a cluster such as the Pleiades does form, it may only hold on to a third of the original stars, with the remainder becoming unbound once the gas is expelled.[31] The young stars so released from their natal cluster become part of the Galactic field population.
Because most if not all stars form clustered, star clusters are to be viewed the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. The violent gas-expulsion events that shape and destroy many star clusters at birth leave their imprint in the morphological and kinematical structures of galaxies.[32] Most open clusters form with at least 100 stars and a mass of 50 or more solar masses. The largest clusters can have 104 solar masses, with the massive cluster Westerlund 1 being estimated at 5 × 104 solar masses; close to that of a globular cluster.[28] While open clusters and globular clusters form two fairly distinct groups, there may not be a great deal of difference in appearance between a very sparse globular cluster and a very rich open cluster. Some astronomers believe the two types of star clusters form via the same basic mechanism, with the difference being that the conditions that allowed the formation of the very rich globular clusters containing hundreds of thousands of stars no longer prevail in the Milky Way.[33]
It is common for two or more separate open clusters to form out of the same molecular cloud. In the Large Magellanic Cloud, both Hodge 301 and R136 are forming from the gases of the Tarantula Nebula, while in our own galaxy, tracing back the motion through space of the Hyades and Praesepe, two prominent nearby open clusters, suggests that they formed in the same cloud about 600 million years ago.[34] Sometimes, two clusters born at the same time will form a binary cluster. The best known example in the Milky Way is the Double Cluster of NGC 869 and NGC 884 (sometimes mistakenly called h and χ Persei; h refers to a neighboring star and χ to both clusters), but at least 10 more double clusters are known to exist.[35] Many more are known in the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds—they are easier to detect in external systems than in our own galaxy because projection effects can cause unrelated clusters within the Milky Way to appear close to each other.
Morphology and classification[edit]
NGC 2367 is an infant stellar grouping that lies at the center of an immense and ancient structure on the margins of the Milky Way.[36]
Open clusters range from very sparse clusters with only a few members to large agglomerations containing thousands of stars. They usually consist of quite a distinct dense core, surrounded by a more diffuse 'corona' of cluster members. The core is typically about 3–4 light years across, with the corona extending to about 20 light years from the cluster centre. Typical star densities in the centre of a cluster are about 1.5 stars per cubic light year; the stellar density near the Sun is about 0.003 stars per cubic light year.[37]
Open clusters are often classified according to a scheme developed by Robert Trumpler in 1930. The Trumpler scheme gives a cluster a three part designation, with a Roman numeral from I-IV indicating its concentration and detachment from the surrounding star field (from strongly to weakly concentrated), an Arabic numeral from 1 to 3 indicating the range in brightness of members (from small to large range), and p, m or r to indication whether the cluster is poor, medium or rich in stars. An 'n' is appended if the cluster lies within nebulosity.[38]
Under the Trumpler scheme, the Pleiades are classified as I3rn (strongly concentrated and richly populated with nebulosity present), while the nearby Hyades are classified as II3m (more dispersed, and with fewer members).[citation needed]
Numbers and distribution[edit]
NGC 346, an open cluster in the Small Magellanic Cloud
There are over 1,000 known open clusters in our galaxy, but the true total may be up to ten times higher than that.[39] In spiral galaxies, open clusters are largely found in the spiral arms where gas densities are highest and so most star formation occurs, and clusters usually disperse before they have had time to travel beyond their spiral arm. Open clusters are strongly concentrated close to the galactic plane, with a scale height in our galaxy of about 180 light years, compared to a galactic radius of approximately 50,000 light years.[40]
In irregular galaxies, open clusters may be found throughout the galaxy, although their concentration is highest where the gas density is highest.[41] Open clusters are not seen in elliptical galaxies: star formation ceased many millions of years ago in ellipticals, and so the open clusters which were originally present have long since dispersed.[42]
In our galaxy, the distribution of clusters depends on age, with older clusters being preferentially found at greater distances from the galactic centre, generally at substantial distances above or below the galactic plane.[43] Tidal forces are stronger nearer the centre of the galaxy, increasing the rate of disruption of clusters, and also the giant molecular clouds which cause the disruption of clusters are concentrated towards the inner regions of the galaxy, so clusters in the inner regions of the galaxy tend to get dispersed at a younger age than their counterparts in the outer regions.[44]
Stellar composition[edit]
A cluster of stars a few million years old at the lower right illuminates the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
Because open clusters tend to be dispersed before most of their stars reach the end of their lives, the light from them tends to be dominated by the young, hot blue stars. These stars are the most massive, and have the shortest lives of a few tens of millions of years. The older open clusters tend to contain more yellow stars.[citation needed]
Some open clusters contain hot blue stars which seem to be much younger than the rest of the cluster. These blue stragglers are also observed in globular clusters, and in the very dense cores of globulars they are believed to arise when stars collide, forming a much hotter, more massive star. However, the stellar density in open clusters is much lower than that in globular clusters, and stellar collisions cannot explain the numbers of blue stragglers observed. Instead, it is thought that most of them probably originate when dynamical interactions with other stars cause a binary system to coalesce into one star.[45]
Once they have exhausted their supply of hydrogen through nuclear fusion, medium- to low-mass stars shed their outer layers to form a planetary nebula and evolve into white dwarfs. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a red giant expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few kilometres per second, enough to eject it from the cluster.[46]
Because of their high density, close encounters between stars in an open cluster are common.[citation needed] For a typical cluster with 1,000 stars with a 0.5 parsec half-mass radius, on average a star will have an encounter with another member every 10 million years. The rate is even higher in denser clusters. These encounters can have a significant impact on the extended circumstellar disks of material that surround many young stars. Tidal perturbations of large disks may result in the formation of massive planets and brown dwarfs, producing companions at distances of 100 AU or more from the host star.[47]
Eventual fate[edit]
NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy is a very massive open cluster surrounded by an H II region.
Many open clusters are inherently unstable, with a small enough mass that the escape velocity of the system is lower than the average velocity of the constituent stars. These clusters will rapidly disperse within a few million years. In many cases, the stripping away of the gas from which the cluster formed by the radiation pressure of the hot young stars reduces the cluster mass enough to allow rapid dispersal.[48]
Clusters that have enough mass to be gravitationally bound once the surrounding nebula has evaporated can remain distinct for many tens of millions of years, but over time internal and external processes tend also to disperse them. Internally, close encounters between stars can increase the velocity of a member beyond the escape velocity of the cluster. This results in the gradual 'evaporation' of cluster members.[49]
Externally, about every half-billion years or so an open cluster tends to be disturbed by external factors such as passing close to or through a molecular cloud. The gravitational tidal forces generated by such an encounter tend to disrupt the cluster. Eventually, the cluster becomes a stream of stars, not close enough to be a cluster but all related and moving in similar directions at similar speeds. The timescale over which a cluster disrupts depends on its initial stellar density, with more tightly packed clusters persisting for longer. Estimated cluster half lives, after which half the original cluster members will have been lost, range from 150–800 million years, depending on the original density.[49]
After a cluster has become gravitationally unbound, many of its constituent stars will still be moving through space on similar trajectories, in what is known as a stellar association, moving cluster, or moving group. Several of the brightest stars in the 'Plough' of Ursa Major are former members of an open cluster which now form such an association, in this case, the Ursa Major Moving Group.[50] Eventually their slightly different relative velocities will see them scattered throughout the galaxy. A larger cluster is then known as a stream, if we discover the similar velocities and ages of otherwise unrelated stars.[51][52]
Studying stellar evolution[edit]
Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams for two open clusters. NGC 188 is older, and shows a lower turn off from the main sequence than that seen in M67.
When a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is plotted for an open cluster, most stars lie on the main sequence.[53] The most massive stars have begun to evolve away from the main sequence and are becoming red giants; the position of the turn-off from the main sequence can be used to estimate the age of the cluster.[citation needed]
Because the stars in an open cluster are all at roughly the same distance from Earth, and were born at roughly the same time from the same raw material, the differences in apparent brightness among cluster members is due only to their mass.[53] This makes open clusters very useful in the study of stellar evolution, because when comparing one star to another, many of the variable parameters are fixed.[citation needed]
The study of the abundances of lithium and beryllium in open cluster stars can give important clues about the evolution of stars and their interior structures. While hydrogen nuclei cannot fuse to form helium until the temperature reaches about 10 million K, lithium and beryllium are destroyed at temperatures of 2.5 million K and 3.5 million K respectively. This means that their abundances depend strongly on how much mixing occurs in stellar interiors. By studying their abundances in open cluster stars, variables such as age and chemical composition are fixed.[54]
Studies have shown that the abundances of these light elements are much lower than models of stellar evolution predict. While the reason for this underabundance is not yet fully understood, one possibility is that convection in stellar interiors can 'overshoot' into regions where radiation is normally the dominant mode of energy transport.[54]
Astronomical distance scale[edit]
M11, the Wild Duck Cluster is a very rich cluster located towards the center of the Milky Way.
Determining the distances to astronomical objects is crucial to understanding them, but the vast majority of objects are too far away for their distances to be directly determined. Calibration of the astronomical distance scale relies on a sequence of indirect and sometimes uncertain measurements relating the closest objects, for which distances can be directly measured, to increasingly distant objects.[55] Open clusters are a crucial step in this sequence.
The closest open clusters can have their distance measured directly by one of two methods. First, the parallax (the small change in apparent position over the course of a year caused by the Earth moving from one side of its orbit around the Sun to the other) of stars in close open clusters can be measured, like other individual stars. Clusters such as the Pleiades, Hyades and a few others within about 500 light years are close enough for this method to be viable, and results from the Hipparcos position-measuring satellite yielded accurate distances for several clusters.[56][57]
The other direct method is the so-called moving cluster method. This relies on the fact that the stars of a cluster share a common motion through space. Measuring the proper motions of cluster members and plotting their apparent motions across the sky will reveal that they converge on a vanishing point. The radial velocity of cluster members can be determined from Doppler shift measurements of their spectra, and once the radial velocity, proper motion and angular distance from the cluster to its vanishing point are known, simple trigonometry will reveal the distance to the cluster. The Hyades are the best known application of this method, which reveals their distance to be 46.3 parsecs.[58]
Once the distances to nearby clusters have been established, further techniques can extend the distance scale to more distant clusters. By matching the main sequence on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for a cluster at a known distance with that of a more distant cluster, the distance to the more distant cluster can be estimated. The nearest open cluster is the Hyades: the stellar association consisting of most of the Plough stars is at about half the distance of the Hyades, but is a stellar association rather than an open cluster as the stars are not gravitationally bound to each other. The most distant known open cluster in our galaxy is Berkeley 29, at a distance of about 15,000 parsecs.[59] Open clusters are also easily detected in many of the galaxies of the Local Group.[citation needed]
Accurate knowledge of open cluster distances is vital for calibrating the period-luminosity relationship shown by variable stars such as cepheid stars, which allows them to be used as standard candles. These luminous stars can be detected at great distances, and are then used to extend the distance scale to nearby galaxies in the Local Group.[60] Indeed, the open cluster designated NGC 7790 hosts three classical Cepheids.[61][62] RR Lyrae variables are too old to be associated with open clusters, and are instead found in globular clusters.
Planets[edit]
The open cluster NGC 6811 contains two known planetary systems Kepler 66 and Kepler 67.
See also[edit]
List of open clusters
Moving groups
Open cluster family
Open cluster remnant
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Binney, J.; Merrifield, M. (1998). Galactic Astronomy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02565-0. OCLC 39108765.
Jump up ^ Friel, Eileen D. (1995). "The Old Open Clusters Of The Milky Way". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 33: 381–414. Bibcode:1995ARA&A..33..381F. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.33.090195.002121.
Jump up ^ van den Bergh, S.; McClure, R.D. (1980). "Galactic distribution of the oldest open clusters". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 88: 360. Bibcode:1980A&A....88..360V.
Jump up ^ Andronov, N.; Pinsonneault, M.; Terndrup, D. (2003). "Formation of Blue Stragglers in Open Clusters". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 35: 1343. Bibcode:2003AAS...203.8504A.
Jump up ^ Fellhauer, M.; Lin, D.N.C.; Bolte, M.; Aarseth, S.J.; Williams K.A. (2003). "The White Dwarf Deficit in Open Clusters: Dynamical Processes". The Astrophysical Journal. 595 (1): L53–L56. arXiv:astro-ph/0308261  . Bibcode:2003ApJ...595L..53F. doi:10.1086/379005.
Jump up ^ Thies, Ingo; Kroupa, Pavel; Goodwin, Simon P.; Stamatellos, Dimitrios; Whitworth, Anthony P. (July 2010), "Tidally Induced Brown Dwarf and Planet Formation in Circumstellar Disks", The Astrophysical Journal, 717 (1): 577–585, arXiv:1005.3017  , Bibcode:2010ApJ...717..577T, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/717/1/577
Jump up ^ Hills, J. G. (February 1, 1980). "The effect of mass loss on the dynamical evolution of a stellar system - Analytic approximations". Astrophysical Journal. 235 (1): 986–991. Bibcode:1980ApJ...235..986H. doi:10.1086/157703.
^ Jump up to: a b de La Fuente, M.R. (1998). "Dynamical Evolution of Open Star Clusters". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 110 (751): 1117–1117. Bibcode:1998PASP..110.1117D. doi:10.1086/316220.
Jump up ^ Soderblom, David R.; Mayor, Michel (1993). "Stellar kinematic groups. I - The Ursa Major group". Astronomical Journal. 105 (1): 226–249. Bibcode:1993AJ....105..226S. doi:10.1086/116422. ISSN 0004-6256.
Jump up ^ Majewski, S. R.; Hawley, S. L.; Munn, J. A. (1996). "Moving Groups, Stellar Streams and Phase Space Substructure in the Galactic Halo". ASP Conference Series. 92: 119. Bibcode:1996ASPC...92..119M.
Jump up ^ Sick, Jonathan; de Jong, R. S. (2006). "A New Method for Detecting Stellar Streams in the Halos of Galaxies". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 38: 1191. Bibcode:2006AAS...20921105S.
^ Jump up to: a b "Diagrammi degli ammassi ed evoluzione stellare" (in Italian). O.R.S.A. - Organizzazione Ricerche e Studi di Astronomia. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b VandenBerg, D.A.; Stetson, P.B. (2004). "On the Old Open Clusters M67 and NGC 188: Convective Core Overshooting, Color-Temperature Relations, Distances, and Ages". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 116 (825): 997–1011. Bibcode:2004PASP..116..997V. doi:10.1086/426340.
Jump up ^ Keel, Bill. "The Extragalactic Distance Scale". Department of Physics and Astronomy - University of Alabama. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
Jump up ^ Brown, A.G.A. (2001). "Open clusters and OB associations: a review". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. 11: 89–96. Bibcode:2001RMxAC..11...89B.
Jump up ^ Percival, S. M.; Salaris, M.; Kilkenny, D. (2003). "The open cluster distance scale - A new empirical approach". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 400 (2): 541–552. arXiv:astro-ph/0301219  . Bibcode:2003A&A...400..541P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030092.
Jump up ^ Hanson, R.B. (1975). "A study of the motion, membership, and distance of the Hyades cluster". Astronomical Journal. 80: 379–401. Bibcode:1975AJ.....80..379H. doi:10.1086/111753.
Jump up ^ Bragaglia, A.; Held, E.V.; Tosi M. (2005). "Radial velocities and membership of stars in the old, distant open cluster Berkeley 29". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 429 (3): 881–886. arXiv:astro-ph/0409046  . Bibcode:2005A&A...429..881B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041049.
Jump up ^ Rowan-Robinson, Michael (March 1988). "The extragalactic distance scale". Space Science Reviews. 48 (1–2): 1–71. Bibcode:1988SSRv...48....1R. doi:10.1007/BF00183129. ISSN 0038-6308.
Jump up ^ Sandage, Allan (1958). Cepheids in Galactic Clusters. I. CF Cass in NGC 7790., AJ, 128
Jump up ^ Majaess, D.; Carraro, G.; Moni Bidin, C.; Bonatto, C.; Berdnikov, L.; Balam, D.; Moyano, M.; Gallo, L.; Turner, D.; Lane, D.; Gieren, W.; Borissova, J.; Kovtyukh, V.; Beletsky, Y. (2013). Anchors for the cosmic distance scale: the Cepheids U Sagittarii, CF Cassiopeiae, and CEab Cassiopeiae, A&A, 260
Further reading[edit]
Kaufmann, W. J. (1994). Universe. W H Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-2379-4.
Smith, E.V.P.; Jacobs, K.C.; Zeilik, M.; Gregory, S.A. (1997). Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics. Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-03-006228-4.
External links[edit]
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The Jewel Box (also known as NGC 4755 or Kappa Crucis Cluster) - open cluster in the Crux constellation @ SKY-MAP.ORG
Open Star Clusters @ SEDS Messier pages
A general overview of open clusters
Open and globular clusters overview
The moving cluster method
Open Clusters - Information and amateur observations
Clickable table of Messier objects including open clusters
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Bring It On (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Bring It On
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Peyton Reed
Produced by
Marc Abraham
Thomas Bliss
Written by
Jessica Bendinger
Starring
Kirsten Dunst
Eliza Dushku
Jesse Bradford
Gabrielle Union
Music by
Christophe Beck
Cinematography
Shawn Maurer
Edited by
Larry Bock
Production
company
Beacon Pictures
Distributed by
Universal Pictures
Release date
August 25, 2000 (2000-08-25)
Running time
99 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$11 million
Box office
$90.4 million[1]
Bring It On is a 2000 American teen comedy film directed by Peyton Reed and written by Jessica Bendinger. The film stars Kirsten Dunst, Eliza Dushku, Jesse Bradford, and Gabrielle Union. It was the first of the Bring It On film series and was followed by five direct-to-video sequels, none of which contain any of the original cast members: Bring It On Again (2004), which shared producers with the original, Bring It On: All or Nothing (2006), Bring It On: In It to Win It (2007), Bring It On: Fight to the Finish (2009) and Bring It On: Worldwide #Cheersmack (2017). The plot of the film centers around a team's preparation for and participation in cheerleading competitions.
Bring It On was released in theaters in the North America on August 25, 2000. The film received mostly positive reviews, with some critics praising its light nature and humorous take on its subject, and others criticizing its conventional and formulaic plot. Bring It On earned a worldwide gross of approximately $90 million, and was considered a financial success. Since its release, the film has become a cult classic.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
4.3 Accolades
5 Cultural impact
5.1 Sequels
5.2 Stage musical
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Torrance Shipman (Kirsten Dunst), a student at Rancho Carne High School in San Diego, anxiously dreams about her first day of senior year. Her boyfriend, Aaron (Richard Hillman) has gone to college, and her cheerleading squad, the Toros, is aiming for a sixth consecutive national title. Torrance is elected to replace the team captain, "Big Red" (Lindsay Sloane) who is graduating. Soon, however, teammate Carver (Bianca Kajlich) is injured and can no longer compete with her broken leg. Torrance holds an audition for Carver's replacement and gains Missy Pantone (Eliza Dushku), a gymnast who recently transferred to the school for senior year with her twin brother Cliff (Jesse Bradford), with whom Torrance develops a flirtatious friendship. While watching the Toros practice, Missy recognizes their routines from a rival squad that her previous high school used to compete against. After accusing Torrance of being a liar and stealing the routine, she learns from Torrance's offended and passionately defensive reaction that she was completely unaware. So Missy drives Torrance to Los Angeles, where they watch the East Compton Clovers perform routines that are virtually identical to their own team's. Isis (Gabrielle Union), the Clovers' team captain, angrily confronts the two. Torrance learns that "Big Red" regularly attended the Clovers' practices to videotape and steal their routines. In the meantime, Missy is seen as a threat by the other female members of the squad (because of her outstanding gymnastic abilities), but she ends up becoming Torrance's best friend and de facto co-captain.
Isis informs Torrance of her plans to defeat the Toros at the regional and national championships, which the team has never attended due to their economic hardship. When Torrance tells the Toros about the routines, the team still votes in favor of using the current routine to win; Torrance reluctantly agrees. At the Toros' next home game, Isis and her teammates show up and perform the Toros' routine in front of the whole school, humiliating them. The Toros realize that they have no choice but to learn a different routine. In desperation, they employ a professional choreographer named Sparky Polastri (Ian Roberts) to provide one, as suggested by Aaron. But at the Regionals, the team scheduled immediately ahead of the Toros performs the exact routine they had been practicing. The Toros have no choice but to perform the very same routine. After the debacle that ensues, Torrance speaks to a competition official and is told Polastri provided the routine to several other teams in California. As the defending champions, the Toros are nevertheless granted their place in Nationals, but Torrance is warned that a new routine will be expected. Torrance, crushed by her failure to lead the team successfully, considers quitting.
Cliff encourages and supports her, intensifying their growing attraction. Aaron, however, suggests that she is not leadership material and recommends that she step down from her position, selling her out in the process to Courtney (Clare Kramer) and Whitney (Nicole Bilderback) who have set themselves up as Torrance's rivals. When Cliff sees Torrance and Aaron together, he angrily severs his friendship with Torrance, to her distress. But her confidence is renewed by Cliff's encouragement and she convinces her unhappy team to create an innovative, new routine instead. She breaks up with Aaron, realizing his infidelity and his inability to be supportive, but Cliff still refuses to forgive her. Meanwhile, the Clovers are initially unable to compete at Nationals due to financial problems. This prompts Torrance to get her dad's company to sponsor the Clovers, but Isis rejects the money and gets her team to Nationals by appealing to a talk show host who grew up in their area. In the finals, the Toros place second, while the Clovers win. However, at the end of the movie, Torrance and Isis find respect in each other. Cliff and Torrance share a romantic kiss.
Bloopers run alongside the end credits, as the characters dance and lip-sync to B*Witched's version of "Mickey".
Cast[edit]
Kirsten Dunst as Torrance Shipman
Eliza Dushku as Missy Pantone
Jesse Bradford as Cliff Pantone
Gabrielle Union as Isis
Clare Kramer as Courtney
Nicole Bilderback as Whitney
Tsianina Joelson as Darcy
Rini Bell as Kasey
Nathan West as Jan
Huntley Ritter as Les
Shamari Fears as Lava
Natina Reed as Jenelope
Brandi Williams as LaFred
Richard Hillman as Aaron
Lindsay Sloane as "Big Red"
Bianca Kajlich as Carver
Paige Inman as Jessica
Holmes Osborne as Bruce Shipman
Sherry Hursey as Christine Shipman
Cody McMains as Justin Shipman
Ian Roberts as Sparky Polastri
Ryan Drummond as Theatre Boy
Peyton Reed cameos as a mime.
Production[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2009)
Bring It On was produced by Marc Abraham and Thomas Bliss. It was the debut film of director Peyton Reed. His major concern with the film was pushing the sexual aspects of cheerleading without losing a PG-13 rating.[2] Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun-Times argued that this agenda followed a trend of films at the time that watered down material in order to avoid an R rating and increase box office gross.[3]
Prior to auditioning for the film, actors were expected to have a cheer prepared.[4] In order to avoid the use of stunt doubles, Reed required all the actors to undergo a four-week cheerleading camp.[4] Reed and Gabrielle Union met numerous times to discuss the best way to approach her character.[4] "I think she was able to find what was cool about that character that in a way I doubt other actresses could have," Reed explained in an interview, "Whenever she's on the screen she has this charisma."[4] When editing the film, Reed and editor Larry Bock watched cheerleading exploitation films from the 1970s.[2]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
Bring It On was released in North America on August 25, 2000. The film grossed $17,362,105 in 2,380 theaters during its opening weekend, ranking first at the North American box office.[5] Although it experienced an 18% decline in gross earnings, the film held the top position for a second consecutive week, and later on a third.[5] The film went on to gross $68,379,000 in North America and an additional $22,070,929 overseas for a total gross of $90,449,929.[1]
Critical response[edit]
Many critics felt the film displays Dunst's range as an actor.
The film received a 63% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on a total of 117 compiled reviews; the site's consensus reads: "Despite the formulaic, fluffy storyline, this movie is surprisingly fun to watch, mostly due to its high energy and how it humorously spoofs cheerleading instead of taking itself too seriously."[6] In comparison, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gave the film an average score of 52 based on 31 reviews, indicating "Mixed or average reviews".[7]
A. O. Scott from The New York Times commended the film for being able to "gesture toward serious matters of race and economic inequality", as well as for its "occasional snarl of genuine satire".[8] Kevin Thomas of The Los Angeles Times also favored the film, calling it a "Smart and sassy high school movie that's fun for all ages."[7] Steven Rae from The Philadelphia Inquirer found it to be a "likable, low-budget high school comedy".[7] Meanwhile, Kim Morgan of The Oregonian dubbed it the "newest, and probably first, true cheerleading movie."[7]
However, some reviewers criticized the plot of the film. Although David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor gave praise for the writing, he likened the storyline's simplicity to that of "the average football cheer".[7] Kim Edwards from the Chicago Tribune, in a negative review, found the film "Absurdly unrealistic at times."[7] The Seattle Post-Intelligencer's Paula Nechak concluded that the film was "predictable and surprisingly confusing in its ultimate message. "[7]
Many critics reserved praise for Kirsten Dunst's performance. In his review, A. O. Scott called her "a terrific comic actress, largely because of her great expressive range, and the nimbleness with which she can shift from anxiety to aggression to genuine hurt."[8] Charles Taylor of Salon noted that "among contemporary teenage actresses, Dunst has become the sunniest imaginable parodist."[9] Jessica Winter from The Village Voice shared this sentiment, commenting that "[Dunst] provides the only major element of Bring It On that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick, strident, body-slam churlishness."[10] Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle, despite giving the film an unfavorable review, commended Dunst for her willingness "to be as silly and cloyingly agreeable as it takes to get through a slapdash film."[11]
Cultural historian Maud Lavin says that despite Bring It On's predictable plot, its depiction of aggressive and competitive women, the differences shown between class and race, and the playful way it deals with homophobia gives it deeper cultural clout and meaning. In particular, Lavin says that the film suggests race relations could be "smoothed and transcended through level-playing-field sports competitiveness."[12]
Accolades[edit]
The film ranked #30 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 50 Best High School Movies.[13] Initially unimpressed with the film, Roger Ebert later referred to it as the "Citizen Kane of cheerleader movies."[14]
Cultural impact[edit]
Several of cast members from the Bring It On film franchise have gone on to greater fame or notoriety. Kirsten Dunst, Eliza Dushku, Gabrielle Union, Jesse Bradford, Clare Kramer, Lindsay Sloane, and several others from the original film were already notable entertainers and television actors or have grown into such roles since their participation in the original film. Ryan Drummond voiced Sonic the Hedgehog from 1999 through 2004. Felicia Day, who appeared in Bring It On Again, became a highly respected actress in Joss Whedon's projects such as Dollhouse and Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, as well as a screenwriter (The Guild), entrepreneur and web content creator. Bree Turner, who starred in Bring It On Again, would go on to star in NBC's Grimm. Joshua Gomez, also from Bring It On Again, was going to be well known as Chuck regular Morgan Grimes. Bethany Joy Lenz and Hayden Panettiere, who appeared in Bring It On Again and Bring It On: All or Nothing, went on to find sizable television audiences due to their roles on the television programs One Tree Hill and Heroes/Nashville, respectively. Lenz also appeared with Michael Copon (who co-starred in Bring It On: In It to Win It) during One Tree Hill's second season. Copon also starred in Power Rangers Time Force, Ashley Benson from In It to Win It, became known as Hanna Marin in the ABC Family (now Freeform) television series Pretty Little Liars and Cassie Scerbo from In It to Win It, who later known as Nova Clarke in Syfy's Sharknado film series. The R&B/Pop trio Blaque have a recurring role in Bring It On. Noteworthy R&B singer and film actress Christina Milian, also appears as the main character in Bring It On: Fight to the Finish. Brittany Anne Pirtle from Fight to the Finish, went on to star as the Yellow Power Ranger in Nickelodeon's Power Rangers Samurai and Holland Roden from Fight to the Finish, became known as Lydia Martin in the MTV supernatural-drama Teen Wolf.
Sequels[edit]
Bring It On has so far spawned a total of five direct-to-video sequels:
Bring It On Again (2004)
Bring It On: All or Nothing (2006)
Bring It On: In It to Win It (2007)
Bring It On: Fight to the Finish (2009)
Bring It On: Worldwide #Cheersmack (2017)
The only sequel to feature any of the original crew from Bring It On was 2004's Bring It On Again, which shared the film's same producers. These producers did not return for the subsequent sequels, and none of the films share recurring cast members. Original star Eliza Dushku has even been quoted in interviews as never even having been invited to participate in the sequels. Steve Rash directed two of the sequels and Alyson Fouse has written four. Otherwise, none of the films in the Bring It On franchise share any personnel whatsoever.
The five films that follow Bring It On share only tenuous links with one another. The plot of each film typically follows that of the one originally laid out in the first film - a competitive cheerleading team who has to change routines or other elements they have grown accustomed to in order to win.
Stage musical[edit]
Main article: Bring It On the Musical
A stage version of the film premiered at the Alliance Theatre, Atlanta, Georgia on January 16, 2011. The musical has music by Lin-Manuel Miranda and Tom Kitt, lyrics by Amanda Green, and a book by Jeff Whitty.[15][16][17] The director and choreographer is Andy Blankenbuehler, with a cast that includes Amanda LaVergne as Campbell, Adrienne Warren as Danielle, and Nick Blaemire as Randall and "award-winning competitive cheerleaders from across the country".[15]
The Alliance Theatre production was nominated for eight Suzi Bass Awards, winning awards for Choreography (Andy Blankenbuehler), Sound Design (Brian Ronan) and World Premiere Play or Musical.[18] Additionally, the production was nominated for ten Atlanta Theater Fan Awards from www.AtlantaTheaterFans.com, more than any other production in 2011.[19] The production won for Best Musical and Best Choreography (Andy Blankenbuehler).[20]
A national tour of the musical started at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, in November 2011 through December 10, 2011 and then travels to San Francisco, Denver, Houston, and Toronto. The national tour stars Taylor Louderman as Campbell and Jason Gotay as Randall.[21][22] The cast took part in a special celebration kicking off the national tour of the musical on October 22, 2011, which featured performances from the show.[23]
The New York Times reviewer wrote of the Ahmanson Theatre production: "After an opening number that truly dazzles as it reveals the cast’s impressive gymnastic prowess, the score hits its stride only when Campbell transfers to Jackson High. Driven by surging R&B grooves and churning lyrics that suggest the fingerprints of Mr. Miranda ... the dance numbers for the Jackson crowd kick the musical into high gear for most of the first act.... Like most entertainments about the trials and triumphs of the teenage years, 'Bring It On' has as much sap as it does pep in its DNA. It’s distinguished primarily by the electrifying dance routines and the elaborate cheer-squad performances."[21]
The musical opened on Broadway at the St. James Theatre, in a limited run, starting on July 12, 2012, in previews, officially on August 1 through December 30, 2012.[24][25][26]
See also[edit]
Film in the United States portal
Sports portal
2000s portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Bring It On (2000) - Box Office Mojo". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2010-06-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Rizov, Vadim (July 15, 2010). "The unexpected cult status of Peyton Reed’s "Bring It On."". IFC. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (August 25, 2000). "Bring It On". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kleinman, Geoffrey. "Peyton Reed - Director of Bring it On". DVD Talk. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bring It On: 2000". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bring It On at Rotten Tomatoes
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Bring It On". Metacritic. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Scott, A. O. (August 25, 2000). "Bring It On (2000) Film Review; Strong, Modest and Sincere Behind All the Giddy Cheer". The New York Times. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Charles (August 25, 2000). ""Bring It On": Two, four, six, eight, who do we appreciate? Spunky cheerleaders rip up the color line.". Salon. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Winter, Jessica (August 29, 2000). "Cheer and Loathing". The Village Voice. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Stack, Peter (August 25, 2000). "Navel Maneuvers / Cheerleader comedy `Bring It On' shows its stomachs, not its brains". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Lavin, Maud (2010). "Push Comes to Shove: New Images of Aggressive Women", p. 58. The MIT Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-262-12309-9.
Jump up ^ "50 Best High School Movies". Entertainment Weekly. July 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (February 18, 2009). "Fired Up". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Kenneth and Hetrick, Adam. Something to Cheer About: Bring It On: The Musical Begins Atlanta Run Jan. 16 After Ice Delay" playbill.com, January 16, 2011
Jump up ^ Rohter, Larry (October 27, 2010). "Lin-Manuel Miranda to Close Out Broadway Run of ‘In the Heights’- ArtsBeat Blog - NYTimes.com". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-11-10.
Jump up ^ Listing Archived December 4, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. alliancetheatre.org, accessed November 10, 2010
Jump up ^ "Suzi Bass Awards" suziawards.org
Jump up ^ "Atlanta Theater Fan Award Nominations" atlantatheaterfans.com
Jump up ^ "Atlanta Theater Fan Award Winners Announced" atlantatheaterfans.com
^ Jump up to: a b Isherwood, Charles. "Theater Review:'Bring It On'. Power Struggles Over Pep and High School Popularity", The New York Times, November 22, 2011
Jump up ^ "'Bring It On: The Musical' to Launch National Tour at L.A.'s Ahmanson Theatre" Broadway.com, February 17, 2011
Jump up ^ "Stage Tube Highlights". BroadWayWorld.com, October 28, 2011
Jump up ^ Staff. "Three Cheers! Bring It On: The Musical Confirmed to Play Broadway This Summer" broadway.com, May 15, 2012
Jump up ^ Bring It On - The Musical- at Playbill Vault playbillvault.com
Jump up ^ Broadway's Bring It On Sets New December 2012 Closing Date, Theatermania.com, October 16, 2012
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Bring It On (film)
Bring It On on IMDb
Bring It On at AllMovie
Bring It On at Box Office Mojo
Bring It On at Rotten Tomatoes
Bring It On at Metacritic
"Interview with Peyton Reed about the film". Archived from the original on 2008-02-10. Retrieved 2006-07-27.
Bring It On filming locations
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Bring It On
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