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Amygdala
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For other uses, see Amygdala (disambiguation).
Amygdala
Location of the amygdalae in the human brain
Subdivision of the amygdala
Details
Identifiers
Latin
corpus amygdaloideum
MeSH
Amygdala
NeuroNames
hier-219
NeuroLex ID
Amygdala
Dorlands
/Elsevier
c_56/12260351
TA
A14.1.09.402
FMA
61841
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
Human brain in the coronal orientation. Amygdalae are shown in dark red.
The amygdala (plural: amygdalae; /əˈmɪɡdələ/; also corpus amygdaloideum; Latin from Greek, ἀμυγδαλή, amygdalē, 'almond', 'tonsil'[1]) is one of two almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans.[2] Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions, the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Hemispheric specializations
2 Development
2.1 Sex distinction
3 Function
3.1 Connections
3.2 Emotional learning
3.3 Memory modulation
4 Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity
4.1 Sexual orientation
4.2 Social interaction
4.3 Aggression
4.4 Fear
4.5 Alcoholism and binge drinking
4.6 Anxiety
4.7 Posttraumatic stress disorder
4.8 Bipolar disorder
4.9 Political orientation
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Subdivisions of the mouse amygdala
The regions described as amygdala nuclei encompass several structures with distinct connectional and functional characteristics in humans and other animals.[4] Among these nuclei are the basolateral complex, the cortical nucleus, the medial nucleus, the central nucleus, and the intercalated cell clusters (ITCs). The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral, the basal, and the accessory basal nuclei.[3][5][6]
MRI coronal view of the right amygdala
Anatomically, the amygdala[7] and more particularly, its central and medial nuclei,[8] have sometimes been classified as a part of the basal ganglia.
Hemispheric specializations[edit]
There are functional differences between the right and left amygdala. In one study, electrical stimulations of the right amygdala induced negative emotions, especially fear and sadness. In contrast, stimulation of the left amygdala was able to induce either pleasant (happiness) or unpleasant (fear, anxiety, sadness) emotions.[9] Other evidence suggests that the left amygdala plays a role in the brain's reward system.[10]
Each side holds a specific function in how we perceive and process emotion. The right and left portions of the amygdala have independent memory systems, but work together to store, encode, and interpret emotion.
The right hemisphere is associated with negative emotion. It plays a role in the expression of fear and in the processing of fear-inducing stimuli. Fear conditioning, which is when a neutral stimulus acquires aversive properties, occurs within the right hemisphere. When an individual is presented with a conditioned, aversive stimulus, it is processed within the right amygdala, producing an unpleasant or fearful response. This emotional response conditions the individual to avoid fear-inducing stimuli.
The right hemisphere is also linked to declarative memory, which consists of facts and information from previously experienced events and must be consciously recalled. It also plays a significant role in the retention of episodic memory. Episodic memory consists of the autobiographical aspects of memory, permitting you to recall your personal emotional and sensory experience of an event. This type of memory does not require conscious recall. The right amygdala plays a role in the association of time and places with emotional properties.[11]
Development[edit]
There is considerable growth within the first few years of structural development in both male and female amygdalae.[12] Within this early period, female limbic structures grow at a more rapid pace than the male ones. Amongst female subjects, the amygdala reaches its full growth potential approximately 1.5 years before the peak of male development. The structural development of the male amygdala occurs over a longer period than in women. Despite the early development of female amygdalae, they reach their growth potential sooner than males, whose amygdalae continue to develop. The larger relative size of the male amygdala may be attributed to this extended developmental period.
In addition to longer periods of development, other neurological and hormonal factors may contribute to sex-specific developmental differences. The amygdala is rich in androgen receptors – nuclear receptors that bind to testosterone. Androgen receptors play a role in the DNA binding that regulates gene expression. Though testosterone is present within the female hormonal systems, women have lower levels of testosterone than men. The abundance of testosterone in the male hormonal system may contribute to development. In addition, the grey matter volume on the amygdala is predicted by testosterone levels, which may also contribute to the increased mass of the male amygdala.
In addition to sex differences, there are observable developmental differences between the right and left amygdala in both males and females. The left amygdala reaches its developmental peak approximately 1.5–2 years prior to the right amygdala. Despite the early growth of the left amygdala, the right increases in volume for a longer period of time. The right amygdala is associated with response to fearful stimuli as well as face recognition. It is inferred that the early development of the left amygdala functions to provide infants the ability to detect danger.[12] In childhood, the amygdala is found to react differently to same-sex versus opposite-sex individuals. This reactivity decreases until a person enters adolescence, where it increases dramatically at puberty.[13]
Sex distinction[edit]
See also: Neuroscience of sex differences
The amygdala is one of the best-understood brain regions with regard to differences between the sexes. The amygdala is larger in males than females in children ages 7–11,[14] in adult humans,[15] and in adult rats.[16]
In addition to size, other functional and structural differences between male and female amygdalae have been observed. Subjects' amygdala activation was observed when watching a horror film and subliminal stimuli. The results of the study showed a different lateralization of the amygdala in men and women. Enhanced memory for the film was related to enhanced activity of the left, but not the right, amygdala in women, whereas it was related to enhanced activity of the right, but not the left, amygdala in men.[17] One study found evidence that on average, women tend to retain stronger memories for emotional events than men.[18]
The right amygdala is also linked with taking action as well as being linked to negative emotions,[19] which may help explain why males tend to respond to emotionally stressful stimuli physically. The left amygdala allows for the recall of details, but it also results in more thought rather than action in response to emotionally stressful stimuli, which may explain the absence of physical response in women.
Function[edit]
Connections[edit]
The amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the facial nerve, the ventral tegmental area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.[5]
Coronal section of brain through intermediate mass of third ventricle. Amygdala is shown in purple.
The medial nucleus is involved in the sense of smell and pheromone-processing. It receives input from the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex.[20] The lateral amygdalae, which send impulses to the rest of the basolateral complexes and to the centromedial nuclei, receive input from the sensory systems. The centromedial nuclei are the main outputs for the basolateral complexes, and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats.[5][6][21]
Emotional learning[edit]
In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research indicates that, during fear conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation,[22][23] a sustained enhancement of signaling between affected neurons.[24] There have been studies that show that damage to the amygdala can interfere with memory that is strengthened by emotion. One study examined a patient with bilateral degeneration of the amygdala. He was told a violent story accompanied by matching pictures and was observed based on how much he could recall from the story. The patient had less recollection of the story than patients with functional amygdala, showing that the amygdala has a strong connection with emotional learning.[25]
Emotional memories are thought to be stored in synapses throughout the brain. Fear memories, for example, are considered to be stored in the neuronal connections from the lateral nuclei to the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (part of the extended amygdala). Of course, these connections are not the sole site of fear memories given that the nuclei of the amygdala receive and send information to other brain regions that are important for memory such as the hippocampus. Some sensory neurons project their axon terminals to the central nucleus.[26] The central nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear responses such as defensive behavior (freezing or escape responses), autonomic nervous system responses (changes in blood pressure and heart rate/tachycardia), neuroendocrine responses (stress-hormone release), etc. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of classical conditioning of emotional responses.[24]
The amygdalae are also involved in appetitive (positive) conditioning. It seems that distinct neurons respond to positive and negative stimuli, but there is no clustering of these distinct neurons into clear anatomical nuclei.[27][28] However, lesions of the central nucleus in the amygdala have been shown to reduce appetitive learning in rats. Lesions of the basolateral regions do not exhibit the same effect.[29] Research like this indicates that different nuclei within the amygdala have different functions in appetitive conditioning.[30][31] Nevertheless, researchers found an example of appetitive emotional learning showing an important role for the basolateral amygdala: The naïve female mice are innately attracted to non-volatile pheromones contained in male-soiled bedding, but not by the male-derived volatiles, become attractive if associated with non-volatile attractive pheromones, which act as unconditioned stimulus in a case of Pavlovian associative learning.[32] In the vomeronasal, olfactory and emotional systems, Fos protein show that non-volatile pheromones stimulate the vomeronasal system, whereas air-borne volatiles activate only the olfactory system. Thus, the acquired preference for male-derived volatiles reveals an olfactory-vomeronasal associative learning. Moreover, the reward system is differentially activated by the primary pheromones and secondarily attractive odorants. Exploring the primary attractive pheromone activates the basolateral amygdala and the shell of nucleus accumbens but neither the ventral tegmental area nor the orbitofrontal cortex. In contrast, exploring the secondarily attractive male-derived odorants involves activation of a circuit that includes the basolateral amygdala, prefrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area. Therefore, the basolateral amygdala stands out as the key center for vomeronasal-olfactory associative learning.[33]
Memory modulation[edit]
The amygdala is also involved in the modulation of memory consolidation. Following any learning event, the long-term memory for the event is not formed instantaneously. Rather, information regarding the event is slowly assimilated into long-term (potentially lifelong) storage over time, possibly via long-term potentiation. Recent studies suggest that the amygdala regulates memory consolidation in other brain regions. Also, fear conditioning, a type of memory that is impaired following amygdala damage, is mediated in part by long-term potentiation.[22][23]
During the consolidation period, the memory can be modulated. In particular, it appears that emotional arousal following the learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory for that event. Greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person's retention of that event. Experiments have shown that administration of stress hormones to mice immediately after they learn something enhances their retention when they are tested two days later.[34]
The amygdala, especially the basolateral nuclei, are involved in mediating the effects of emotional arousal on the strength of the memory for the event, as shown by many laboratories including that of James McGaugh. These laboratories have trained animals on a variety of learning tasks and found that drugs injected into the amygdala after training affect the animals' subsequent retention of the task. These tasks include basic classical conditioning tasks such as inhibitory avoidance, where a rat learns to associate a mild footshock with a particular compartment of an apparatus, and more complex tasks such as spatial or cued water maze, where a rat learns to swim to a platform to escape the water. If a drug that activates the amygdalae is injected into the amygdalae, the animals had better memory for the training in the task.[35] If a drug that inactivates the amygdalae is injected, the animals had impaired memory for the task.
Buddhist monks who do compassion meditation have been shown to modulate their amygdala, along with their temporoparietal junction and insula, during their practice.[36] In an fMRI study, more intensive insula activity was found in expert meditators than in novices.[37] Increased activity in the amygdala following compassion-oriented meditation may contribute to social connectedness.[38]
Amygdala activity at the time of encoding information correlates with retention for that information. However, this correlation depends on the relative "emotionalness" of the information. More emotionally arousing information increases amygdalar activity, and that activity correlates with retention. Amygdala neurons show various types of oscillation during emotional arousal, such as theta activity. These synchronized neuronal events could promote synaptic plasticity (which is involved in memory retention) by increasing interactions between neocortical storage sites and temporal lobe structures involved in declarative memory.[39]
Rorschach test blot 03
Research using Rorschach test blot 03 finds that the number of unique responses to this random figure links to larger sized amygdalae. The researchers note, "Since previous reports have indicated that unique responses were observed at higher frequency in the artistic population than in the nonartistic normal population, this positive correlation suggests that amygdalar enlargement in the normal population might be related to creative mental activity."[40]
Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity[edit]
Early research on primates provided explanations as to the functions of the amygdala, as well as a basis for further research. As early as 1888, rhesus monkeys with a lesioned temporal cortex (including the amygdala) were observed to have significant social and emotional deficits.[41] Heinrich Klüver and Paul Bucy later expanded upon this same observation by showing that large lesions to the anterior temporal lobe produced noticeable changes, including overreaction to all objects, hypoemotionality, loss of fear, hypersexuality, and hyperorality, a condition in which inappropriate objects are placed in the mouth. Some monkeys also displayed an inability to recognize familiar objects and would approach animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately, exhibiting a loss of fear towards the experimenters. This behavioral disorder was later named Klüver-Bucy syndrome accordingly,[42] and later research proved it was specifically due to amygdala lesions. Monkey mothers who had amygdala damage showed a reduction in maternal behaviors towards their infants, often physically abusing or neglecting them.[43] In 1981, researchers found that selective radio frequency lesions of the whole amygdala caused Klüver-Bucy syndrome.[44]
With advances in neuroimaging technology such as MRI, neuroscientists have made significant findings concerning the amygdala in the human brain. A variety of data shows the amygdala has a substantial role in mental states, and is related to many psychological disorders. Some studies have shown children with anxiety disorders tend to have a smaller left amygdala. In the majority of the cases, there was an association between an increase in the size of the left amygdala with the use of SSRIs (antidepressant medication) or psychotherapy. The left amygdala has been linked to social anxiety, obsessive and compulsive disorders, and post traumatic stress, as well as more broadly to separation and general anxiety.[45] In a 2003 study, subjects with borderline personality disorder showed significantly greater left amygdala activity than normal control subjects. Some borderline patients even had difficulties classifying neutral faces or saw them as threatening.[46] Individuals with psychopathy show reduced autonomic responses to instructed fear cues than otherwise healthy individuals.[47] In 2006, researchers observed hyperactivity in the amygdala when patients were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with severe social phobia showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala.[48] Similarly, depressed patients showed exaggerated left amygdala activity when interpreting emotions for all faces, and especially for fearful faces. Interestingly, this hyperactivity was normalized when patients were administered antidepressant medication.[49] By contrast, the amygdala has been observed to respond differently in people with bipolar disorder. A 2003 study found that adult and adolescent bipolar patients tended to have considerably smaller amygdala volumes and somewhat smaller hippocampal volumes.[50] Many studies have focused on the connections between the amygdala and autism.[51]
Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is subliminal.[52][53] However, the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-related stimuli, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala.[54]
Recent research suggests that parasites, in particular toxoplasma, form cysts in the brain of rats, often taking up residence in the amygdala. This may provide clues as to how specific parasites may contribute to the development of disorders, including paranoia.[55]
Future studies have been proposed to address the role of the amygdala in positive emotions, and the ways in which the amygdala networks with other brain regions.[56]
Sexual orientation[edit]
Recent studies have suggested possible correlations between brain structure, including differences in hemispheric ratios and connection patterns in the amygdala, and sexual orientation. Homosexual men tend to exhibit more feminine patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual males do, just as homosexual females tend to show more masculine patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual women do. It was observed that amygdala connections were more widespread from the left amygdala in homosexual males, as is also found in heterosexual females. Amygdala connections were more widespread from the right amygdala in homosexual females, as in heterosexual males.[57][58]
Social interaction[edit]
Amygdala volume correlates positively with both the size (the number of contacts a person has) and the complexity (the number of different groups to which a person belongs) of social networks.[59][60] Individuals with larger amygdalae had larger and more complex social networks. They were also better able to make accurate social judgments about other persons' faces.[61] The amygdala's role in the analysis of social situations stems specifically from its ability to identify and process changes in facial features. It does not, however, process the direction of the gaze of the person being perceived.[62][63]
The amygdala is also thought to be a determinant of the level of a person's emotional intelligence. It is particularly hypothesized that larger amygdalae allow for greater emotional intelligence, enabling greater societal integration and cooperation with others.[64]
The amygdala processes reactions to violations concerning personal space. These reactions are absent in persons in whom the amygdala is damaged bilaterally.[65] Furthermore, the amygdala is found to be activated in fMRI when people observe that others are physically close to them, such as when a person being scanned knows that an experimenter is standing immediately next to the scanner, versus standing at a distance.[65]
Aggression[edit]
Animal studies have shown that stimulating the amygdala appears to increase both sexual and aggressive behavior. Likewise, studies using brain lesions have shown that harm to the amygdala may produce the opposite effect. Thus, it appears that this part of the brain may play a role in the display and modulation of aggression.[66]
Fear[edit]
There are cases of human patients with focal bilateral amygdala lesions, due to the rare genetic condition Urbach-Wiethe disease.[67][68] Such patients fail to exhibit fear-related behaviors, leading one, Patient S.M., to be dubbed the "woman with no fear". This finding reinforces the conclusion that the amygdala "plays a pivotal role in triggering a state of fear".[69]
Alcoholism and binge drinking[edit]
The amygdala appears to play a role in binge drinking, being damaged by repeated episodes of intoxication and withdrawal.[70] Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing[clarification needed], including the amygdala.[71] Protein kinase C-epsilon in the amygdala is important for regulating behavioral responses to morphine, ethanol, and controlling anxiety-like behavior. The protein is involved in controlling the function of other proteins and plays a role in development of the ability to consume a large amount of ethanol.[72][73]
Anxiety[edit]
There may also be a link between the amygdala and anxiety.[74] In particular, there is a higher prevalence of females that are affected by anxiety disorders. In an experiment, degu pups were removed from their mother but allowed to hear her call. In response, the males produced increased serotonin receptors in the amygdala but females lost them. This led to the males being less affected by the stressful situation.
The clusters of the amygdala are activated when an individual expresses feelings of fear or aggression. This occurs because the amygdala is the primary structure of the brain responsible for fight or flight response. Anxiety and panic attacks can occur when the amygdala senses environmental stressors that stimulate fight or flight response.
The amygdala is directly associated with conditioned fear. Conditioned fear is the framework used to explain the behavior produced when an originally neutral stimulus is consistently paired with a stimulus that evokes fear. The amygdala represents a core fear system in the human body, which is involved in the expression of conditioned fear. Fear is measured by changes in autonomic activity including increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, as well as in simple reflexes such as flinching or blinking.
The central nucleus of the amygdala has direct correlations to the hypothalamus and brainstem – areas directly related to fear and anxiety. This connection is evident from studies of animals that have undergone amygdalae removal. Such studies suggest that animals lacking an amygdala have less fear expression and indulge in non-species-like behavior. Many projection areas of the amygdala are critically involved in specific signs that are used to measure fear and anxiety.
Mammals have very similar ways of processing and responding to danger. Scientists have observed similar areas in the brain – specifically in the amygdala – lighting up or becoming more active when a mammal is threatened or beginning to experience anxiety. Similar parts of the brain are activated when rodents and when humans observe a dangerous situation, the amygdala playing a crucial role in this assessment. By observing the amygdala’s functions, people can determine why one rodent may be much more anxious than another. There is a direct relationship between the activation of the amygdala and the level of anxiety the subject feels.
Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This can include various smells, sights, and internal feelings that result in anxiety. The amygdala reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises, becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. A better understanding of the amygdala and its various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety.[75]
Posttraumatic stress disorder[edit]
There seems to be a connection with the amygdalae and how the brain processes posttraumatic stress disorder. Multiple studies have found that the amygdalae may be responsible for the emotional reactions of PTSD patients. One study in particular found that when PTSD patients are shown pictures of faces with fearful expressions, their amygdalae tended to have a higher activation than someone without PTSD.[76]
Bipolar disorder[edit]
Amygdala dysfunction during face emotion processing is well-documented in bipolar disorder. Individuals with bipolar disorder showed greater amygdala activity (especially the amygdala/medial-prefrontal-cortex circuit).[77] [78]
Political orientation[edit]
Amygdala size has been correlated with cognitive styles with regard to political thinking. A study found that "greater liberalism was associated with increased gray matter volume in the anterior cingulate cortex, whereas greater conservatism was associated with increased volume of the right amygdala."[79]
See also[edit]
Amygdala hijack
BELBIC
List of regions in the human brain
Triune brain
Intercalated cells of the amygdala
Further reading[edit]
Amygdala Joseph E. LeDoux, Scholarpedia, 3(4):2698. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.2698
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Jump up ^ Mormann, F.; Niediek, J.; Tudusciuc, O.; Quesada, C. M.; Coenen, V. A.; Elger, C. E.; Adolphs, R. (2015). "Neurons in the human amygdala encode face identity, but not gaze direction". Nature Neuroscience. 18 (11): 1568–1570. PMC 4624486  . PMID 26479589. doi:10.1038/nn.4139.
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^ Jump up to: a b Kennedy DP, Gläscher J, Tyszka JM, Adolphs R (2009). "Personal space regulation by the human amygdala". Nature Neuroscience. 12 (10): 1226–1227. PMC 2753689  . PMID 19718035. doi:10.1038/nn.2381.
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Jump up ^ Marinkovic, Ksenija; Oscar-Berman, Marlene; Urban, Trinity; o’Reilly, Cara E.; Howard, Julie A.; Sawyer, Kayle; Harris, Gordon J. (2009). "Alcoholism and Dampened Temporal Limbic Activation to Emotional Faces". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 33 (11): 1880–92. PMC 3543694  . PMID 19673745. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01026.x.
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Jump up ^ M. T. Keener; et al. (2012). "Dissociable patterns of medial prefrontal and amygdala activity to face identity versus emotion in bipolar disorder.". Psychological Medicine. 42 (9): 1913–1924. PMC 3685204  . PMID 22273442. doi:10.1017/S0033291711002935.
Jump up ^ http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822%2811%2900289-2
External links[edit]
Look up amygdala in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Media related to amygdala at Wikimedia Commons
Stained brain slice images which include the "amygdala " at the BrainMaps project
international committee for amygdala and health studies
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Rostral basal ganglia of the human brain and associated structures
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Baking
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Bedouin Arabs making and baking bread
Anders Zorn - Bread baking (1889)
Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many other types of foods are baked.[1] Heat is gradually transferred "from the surface of cakes, cookies, and breads to their centre. As heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre".[2] Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by using both methods simultaneously, or one after the other. Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit.
Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally been performed at home by women for domestic consumption and by men in bakeries and restaurants for local consumption. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories. The art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common and important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker.
Contents
[hide]
1 Foods and techniques
2 Baking in ancient times
3 Commercial baking
4 Equipment
5 Process
6 Cultural and religious significance
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links
Foods and techniques[edit]
A Palestinian woman baking markook bread on tava or Saj oven in Artas, Bethlehem
All types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have been developed to provide this protection.
In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. These popular items are known collectively as "baked goods," and are often sold at a bakery, which is a store that carries only baked goods, or at markets, grocery stores, farmers markets or through other venues.
Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can also be baked, but baking is usually reserved for meatloaf, smaller cuts of whole meats, or whole meats that contain stuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilk batter. Some foods are surrounded with moisture during baking by placing a small amount of liquid (such as water or broth) in the bottom of a closed pan, and letting it steam up around the food, a method commonly known as braising or slow baking. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are more often roasted, which is a similar process, using higher temperatures and shorter cooking times. Roasting, however, is only suitable for finer cuts of meat, so other methods have been developed to make tougher meat cuts palatable after baking. One of these is the method known as en croûte (French for "in a crust"), which protects the food from direct heat and seals the natural juices inside. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte. Well-known examples include Beef Wellington, where the beef is encased in pastry before baking; pâté en croûte, where the terrine is encased in pastry before baking; and the Vietnamese variant, a meat-filled pastry called pâté chaud. The en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, the protective casing (or crust) is made from a paste of flour and water and is discarded before eating. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten. Another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking, is to cook it en papillote (French for "in parchment"). In this method, the food is covered by baking paper (or aluminium foil) to protect it while it is being baked. The cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise.
A terracotta baking mould for pastry or bread, representing goats and a lion attacking a cow. Early 2nd millennium BC, Royal palace at Mari, Syria
Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes. In combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch (in the form of flour, cornflour, arrowroot, or potato flour), the flavour of the dish is much more delicate if eggs are used as the thickening agent. Baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an oven's direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose. The cooking container is half submerged in water in another, larger one, so that the heat in the oven is more gently applied during the baking process. Baking a successful soufflé requires that the baking process be carefully controlled. The oven temperature must be absolutely even and the oven space not shared with another dish. These factors, along with the theatrical effect of an air-filled dessert, have given this baked food a reputation for being a culinary achievement. Similarly, a good baking technique (and a good oven) are also needed to create a baked Alaska because of the difficulty of baking hot meringue and cold ice cream at the same time.
Baking can also be used to prepare various other foods such as pizzas, baked potatoes, baked apples, baked beans, some casseroles and pasta dishes such as lasagne.
Baking in ancient times[edit]
An Egyptian funerary Model of a bakery and brewery (11th dynasty, circa 2009–1998 B.C.)
The first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains, soaked them in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-like paste.[3] The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock, resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, when humans mastered fire, the paste was roasted on hot embers, which made bread-making easier, as it could now be made any time fire was created. The world's oldest oven was discovered in Croatia in 2014 dating back 6500 years ago. The Ancient Egyptians baked bread using yeast, which they had previously been using to brew beer.[4] Bread baking began in Ancient Greece around 600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens.[4] "Ovens and worktables have been discovered in archaeological digs from Turkey (Hacilar) to Palestine (Jericho) and date back to 5600 BC."[5]
Baking flourished during the Roman Empire. Beginning around 300 BC, the pastry cook became an occupation for Romans (known as the pastillarium) and became a respected profession because pastries were considered decadent, and Romans loved festivity and celebration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially for large banquets, and any pastry cook who could invent new types of tasty treats was highly prized. Around 1 AD, there were more than three hundred pastry chefs in Rome, and Cato wrote about how they created all sorts of diverse foods and flourished professionally and socially because of their creations. Cato speaks of an enormous number of breads including; libum (sacrificial cakes made with flour), placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern day flour pretzels), scibilata (tortes), savaillum (sweet cake), and globus apherica (fritters). A great selection of these, with many different variations, different ingredients, and varied patterns, were often found at banquets and dining halls. The Romans baked bread in an oven with its own chimney, and had mills to grind grain into flour. A bakers' guild was established in 168 BC in Rome.[4]
Commercial baking[edit]
Vincent van Gogh – The Bakery in Noordstraat (1882)
Eventually, the Roman art of baking became known throughout Europe and eventually spread to eastern parts of Asia. By the 13th century in London, commercial trading, including baking, had many regulations attached. In the case of food, they were designed to create a system "so there was little possibility of false measures, adulterated food or shoddy manufactures." There were by that time twenty regulations applying to bakers alone, including that every baker had to have "the impression of his seal" upon each loaf of bread.[6]
Beginning in the 19th century, alternative leavening agents became more common, such as baking soda.[4] Bakers often baked goods at home and then sold them in the streets. This scene was so common that Rembrandt, among others, painted a pastry chef selling pancakes in the streets of Germany, with children clamoring for a sample. In London, pastry chefs sold their goods from handcarts. This developed into a delivery system of baked goods to households and greatly increased demand as a result. In Paris, the first open-air café of baked goods was developed, and baking became an established art throughout the entire world.
Schulze Baking Company Factory (1914–15)
Every family used to prepare the bread for its own consumption, the trade of baking, not having yet taken shape.
Mrs Beeton (1861)[7]
Baking eventually developed into a commercial industry using automated machinery which enabled more goods to be produced for widespread distribution. In the United States, the baking industry "was built on marketing methods used during feudal times and production techniques developed by the Romans."[8] Some makers of snacks such as potato chips or crisps have produced baked versions of their snack products as an alternative to the usual cooking method of deep-frying in an attempt to reduce their calorie or fat content. Baking has opened up doors to businesses such as cake shops and factories where the baking process is done with larger amounts in large, open furnaces.
The aroma and texture of baked goods as they come out of the oven are strongly appealing but is a quality that is quickly lost. Since the flavour and appeal largely depend on freshness, commercial producers have to compensate by using food additives as well as imaginative labeling. As more and more baked goods are purchased from commercial suppliers, producers try to capture that original appeal by adding the label "home-baked." Such attempts seek to make an emotional link to the remembered freshness of baked goods as well as to attach positive associations the purchaser has with the idea of "home" to the bought product. Freshness is such an important quality that restaurants, although they are commercial (and not domestic) preparers of food, bake their own products. For example, scones at The Ritz London Hotel "are not baked until early afternoon on the day they are to be served, to make sure they are as fresh as possible."[9]
Equipment[edit]
Baking needs an enclosed space for heating – typically in an oven. The fuel can be supplied by wood, coal, gas, or electricity. Adding and removing items from an oven may be done by hand with an oven mitt or by a peel, a long handled tool specifically used for that purpose.
Many commercial ovens are equipped with two heating elements: one for baking, using convection and thermal conduction to heat the food, and one for broiling or grilling, heating mainly by radiation. Another piece of equipment still used for baking is the Dutch oven. "Also called a bake kettle, bastable, bread oven, fire pan, bake oven kail pot, tin kitchen, roasting kitchen, doufeu (French: "gentle fire") or feu de compagne (French: "country oven") [it] originally replaced the cooking jack as the latest fireside cooking technology," combining "the convenience of pot-oven and hangover oven."[10]
Asian cultures have adopted steam baskets to produce the effect of baking while reducing the amount of fat needed.[11]
Process[edit]
Play media
Baking bread at the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum
Baked goods
Eleven events occur concurrently during baking, some of which (such as starch gelatinization) would not occur at room temperature.[12]
Fats melt;
Gases form and expand
Microorganisms die
Sugar dissolves
Egg, milk, and gluten proteins coagulate
Starches gelatinize or solidify
Liquids evaporate
Caramelization and Maillard browning occur on crust
Enzymes are inactivated
Changes occur to nutrients
Pectin breaks down.[13]
The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Maillard reaction. Maillard browning occurs when "sugars break down in the presence of proteins". Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browning contributes to the flavour of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread."[14] The moisture is never entirely "sealed in"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.
The baking process does not require any fat to be used to cook in an oven. When baking, consideration must be given to the amount of fat that is contained in the food item. Higher levels of fat such as margarine, butter, lard, or vegetable shortening will cause an item to spread out during the baking process.
With the passage of time, breads harden and become stale. This is not primarily due to moisture being lost from the baked products, but more a reorganization of the way in which the water and starch are associated over time. This process is similar to recrystallization and is promoted by storage at cool temperatures, such as in a domestic refrigerator or freezer.
Cultural and religious significance[edit]
Further information: Bread § Cultural significance
Bird baked from bread on the March equinox to celebrate spring and the forty martyrs
Baking matzot at Kfar Chabad
Benedictine Sisters of Caltanissetta producing the crocetta of Caltanissetta
Baking, especially of bread, holds special significance for many cultures. It is such a fundamental part of everyday food consumption that the children's nursery rhyme Pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, baker's man takes baking as its subject. Baked goods are normally served at all kinds of party and special attention is given to their quality at formal events. They are also one of the main components of a tea party, including at nursery teas and high teas, a tradition which started in Victorian Britain, reportedly when Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford "grew tired of the sinking feeling which afflicted her every afternoon round 4 o'clock ... In 1840, she plucked up courage and asked for a tray of tea, bread and butter, and cake to be brought to her room. Once she had formed the habit she found she could not break it, so spread it among her friends instead. As the century progressed, afternoon tea became increasingly elaborate."[15]
Benedictine Sisters of the Benedectine Monastery of Caltanissetta producing the crocette, they used to be prepared for the Holy Crucifix festivity. This was situated next to the Church of the Holy Cross, from which the sweets take the name.
For Jews, Matzo is a baked product of considerable religious and ritual significance. Baked matzah bread can be ground up and used in other dishes, such as Gefilte fish, and baked again. For Christians, bread has to be baked to be used as an essential component of the sacrament of the Eucharist. In the Eastern Christian tradition, baked bread in the form of birds is given to children to carry to the fields in a spring ceremony that celebrates the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste.
See also[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
A Book of Nursery Rhymes/Part I
Baking pan
Baking chocolate
Baking mix
List of baked goods
List of bakers
List of ovens
Sheet pan
Food portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Baked sausages Retrieved November 02, 2015.
Jump up ^ Figoni, Paula I. (2011). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39813-5. p.38
Jump up ^ Pfister, Fred. "Pfister Consulting: History of Baking – How Did It All Start? Yes people". Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Morgan, James (2012). Culinary Creation. Routledge. pp. 297–298. ISBN 978-1-136-41270-7.
Jump up ^ Rochelle, Jay Cooper (2001). Bread for the Wilderness: Baking As Spiritual Craft. Fairfax, VA: Xulon Press. p. 32. ISBN 1-931232-52-0.
Jump up ^ Peter Ackroyd (2003). London: the biography (1st Anchor Books ed.). New York: Anchor books. p. 59. ISBN 0385497717.
Jump up ^ Beeton, Mrs (1861). Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (Facsimile edition, 1968 ed.). London: S.O. Beeton, 18 Bouverie St. E.C. p. 831. ISBN 0-224-61473-8.
Jump up ^ Bessie Emrick Whitten (1990). David O. Whitten, ed. Handbook of American Business History: Manufacturing. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-25198-3. p.53
Jump up ^ Simpson, Helen (1986). The London Ritz Book of Afternoon Tea - The Art & Pleasures of Taking Tea. London, UK: Angus & Robertson, Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 0-207-15415-5.
Jump up ^ Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2004). Encyclopedia of Kitchen History,. Taylor & Francis Books. p. 330. ISBN 0-203-31917-6.
Jump up ^ "Chinese steamed sponge cake (ji dan gao)". Chinese Grandma. 8 February 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Figoni 2011, p. 38.
Jump up ^ Figoni 2011, ch.3 pp.38 ff.
Jump up ^ Figoni 2011, p. 42.
Jump up ^ Simpson, Helen (1986). The London Ritz Book of Afternoon Tea: The Art & Pleasures of Making Tea. London: Angus & Robertson Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 0-207-15415-5.
Bibliography[edit]
Figoni, Paula (2010). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science (3 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0470392676. —a textbook on baking and setting up a bakery
Further reading[edit]
Pyler, E.J.; Gorton, L.A. (2008). Baking Science & Technology (PDF). Sosland Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-9820239-0-7.
External links[edit]
Media related to Baking at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of baking at Wiktionary
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vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Baking&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebak
Gebak – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfornat
Enfornat – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobi
Pobi – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagning
Bagning – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backen
Backen – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horneado
Horneado – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakado
Bakado – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: تنوری کردن – Persian

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuineadh
Fuineadh – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values: सेंकना – Hindi

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakstur
Bakstur – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values: אפייה – Hebrew

values: ဖုတ်ခြင်း – Burmese

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakken
Bakken – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baking
Baking – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieczenie
Pieczenie – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%27antay
T'antay – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Выпекание – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakkin
Bakkin – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leivonta
Leivonta – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakning
Bakning – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: வெதுப்புதல் – Tamil

values: การอบ – Thai

values: Випікання – Ukrainian

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suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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