text:
Type A and Type B personality theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Cluster A personality disorder or Cluster B personality disorder.
Type A and Type B personality theory describes two contrasting personality types. In this theory, personalities that are more competitive, highly organized, ambitious, impatient, highly aware of time management and/or aggressive are labeled Type A, while more relaxed personalities are labeled Type B.
The two cardiologists who developed this theory came to believe that Type A personalities had a greater chance of developing coronary heart disease. Following the results of further studies and considerable controversy about the role of the tobacco industry funding of early research in this area, some reject, either partially or completely, the link between Type A personality and coronary disease. Nevertheless, this research had a significant effect on the development of the health psychology field, in which psychologists look at how an individual's mental state affects physical health.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 The types
2.1 Type A
2.2 Type B
3 Criticism
3.1 Funding by tobacco companies
3.2 Other issues
4 Other studies
4.1 Role of magnesium in cardiovascular health
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
Type A personality behavior was first described as a potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. After an eight-and-a-half-year-long study of healthy men between the ages of 35 and 59, Friedman and Rosenman estimated that Type A behavior doubles the risk of coronary heart disease in otherwise healthy individuals.[2] The individuals enrolled in this study were followed well beyond the original time frame of the study. Subsequent analysis indicated that although Type A personality is associated with the incidence of coronary heart disease, it does not seem to be a risk factor for mortality.[3]
The types[edit]
Type A[edit]
The theory describes Type A individuals as outgoing, ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status-conscious, sensitive, impatient, anxious, proactive, and concerned with time management. People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving "workaholics". They push themselves with deadlines, and hate both delays and ambivalence.[4] People with Type A personalities experience more job-related stress and less job satisfaction. [5]
In his 1996 book dealing with extreme Type A behavior, Type A Behavior: Its Diagnosis and Treatment, Friedman suggests that dangerous Type A behavior is expressed through three major symptoms: (1) free-floating hostility, which can be triggered by even minor incidents; (2) time urgency and impatience, which causes irritation and exasperation usually described as being "short-fused"; and (3) a competitive drive, which causes stress and an achievement-driven mentality. The first of these symptoms is believed to be covert and therefore less observable, while the other two are more overt.[6]
Type A people were said to be hasty, impatient, impulsive, hyperalert, potentially hostile, and angry.[7]
Type B[edit]
The theory describes Type B individuals as a contrast to those of Type A. Type B personality, by definition, are noted to live at lower stress levels. They typically work steadily, and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve. When faced with competition, they may focus less on winning or losing than their Type A counterparts, and more on enjoying the game regardless of winning or losing. Unlike the Type A personality's rhythm of multi-tasked careers, Type B individuals are sometimes attracted to careers of creativity: writer, counselor, therapist, actor or actress. However, network and computer systems managers, professors, and judges are more likely to be Type B individuals as well. Their personal character may enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often reflective, and think of the "outer and inner world".[citation needed]
Criticism[edit]
Limitations of the original study comprise the inclusion of only middle-aged men and the lack of information regarding the diets of those subjects. While the latter could serve as a confounding variable, the former calls into question whether the findings can be generalized to the remaining male population or to the female population as a whole.
Friedman et al. (1986)[8] conducted a randomized controlled trial on 862 male and female post myocardial infarction patients, ruling out (by probabilistic equivalence) diet and other confounds. Subjects in the control group received group cardiac counseling, and subjects in the treatment group received cardiac counseling plus Type A counseling. The recurrence rate was 28% in the control group and 13% in the treatment group, a strong and statistically significant finding.
Funding by tobacco companies[edit]
Further discrediting the so-called Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP), a study from 2012 – based on searching the Legacy Tobacco Documents Library – suggests the phenomenon of initially promising results followed by negative findings to be partly explained by the tobacco industry's involvement in TABP research to undermine the scientific evidence on smoking and health. The industry's interest in TABP lasted at least four decades until the late 1990s, involving substantial funding to key researchers encouraged to prove smoking to simply correlate with a personality type prone to coronary heart disease (CHD) and cancer.[9] Hence, until the early 1980s, the industry's strategy consisted of suggesting the risks of smoking to be caused by psychological characteristics of individual smokers rather than tobacco products by deeming the causes of cancer to be multifactorial with stress as a key contributing factor.[10][11][12] Philip Morris (today Altria) and RJ Reynolds helped generate substantial evidence to support these claims by funding workshops and research aiming to educate about and alter TABP to reduce risks of CHD and cancer. Moreover, Philip Morris primarily funded the Meyer Friedman Institute, e.g. conducting the "crown-jewel" trial on the effectiveness of reducing TABP whose expected findings could discredit studies associating smoking with CHD and cancer but failing to control for Type A behaviour.[9]
In 1994, Friedman wrote to the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration criticising restrictions on indoor smoking to reduce CHD, claiming the evidence remained unreliable since it did not account for the significant confounder of Type A behaviour, notwithstanding the fact that by then, TABP had proven to be significant in only three of twelve studies. Though apparently unpaid for, this letter was approved by and blind-copied to Philip Morris, and Friedman (falsely) claimed to receive funding largely from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.[13] When TABP finally became untenable, Philip Morris supported research on its hostility component,[14] allowing Vice President Jetson Lincoln to explain passive smoking lethality by the stress exerted on a non-smoking spouse through media claiming the smoking spouse to be slowly killing themselves.[15] When examining the most recent review on TABP and CHD in this light, the close relationship to the tobacco industry becomes evident: of thirteen etiologic studies in the review, only four reported positive findings,[16] three of which had a direct or indirect link to the industry. Also on the whole most TABP studies had no relationship to the tobacco lobby but the majority of those with positive findings did.[9] Furthermore, TABP was used as a litigation defence, similar to psychosocial stress.[17] Hence, Petticrew et al. proved the tobacco industry to have substantially helped generate the scientific controversy on TABP, contributing to the (in lay circles) enduring popularity and prejudice for Type A personality even though it has been scientifically disproven.[9]
Other issues[edit]
Some scholars argue that Type A behavior is not a good predictor of coronary heart disease.[18] According to research by Redford Williams of Duke University, the hostility component of Type A personality is the only significant risk factor.[19] Thus, it is a high level of expressed anger and hostility, not the other elements of Type A behavior, that constitutes the problem.
Other studies[edit]
A study was performed that tested the effect of psychosocial variables, in particular personality and stress, as risk factors for cancer and coronary heart disease (CHD).[20] In this study, four personality types were recorded. Type 1 personality is cancer prone, Type 2 is CHD prone, Type 3 is alternating between behaviors characteristic of Types 1 and 2, and Type 4 is a healthy, autonomous type hypothesized to survive best. The data suggests that the Type 1 probands die mainly from cancer, type 2 from CHD, whereas Type 3 and especially Type 4 probands show a much lower death rate. Two additional types of personalities were measured, Type 5 and Type 6. Type 5 is a rational anti-emotional type, which shows characteristics common to Type 1 and Type 2. Type 6 personality shows psychopathic tendencies and is prone to drug addiction and AIDS.[21]
While most studies attempt to show the correlation between personality types and coronary heart disease, studies have suggested that mental attitudes constitute an important prognostic factor for cancer. As a method of treatment for cancer-prone patients, behavior therapy is used.[22] The patient is taught to express his/her emotions more freely, in a socially acceptable manner, to become autonomous and be able to stand up for his/her rights. Behavior therapy would also teach them how to cope with stress-producing situations more successfully. The effectiveness of therapy in preventing death in cancer and CHD is evident.[23] The statistical data associated with higher death rates is impressive. Other measures of therapy have been attempted, such as group therapy. The effects were not as dramatic as behavior therapy, but still showed improvement in preventing death among cancer and CHD patients.
From the study above, several conclusions have been made. A relationship between personality and cancer exists, along with a relationship between personality and coronary heart disease. Personality type acts as a risk factor for diseases and interacts synergistically with other risk factors, such as smoking and heredity. It has been statistically proven that behavior therapy can significantly reduce the likelihood of cancer or coronary heart disease mortality. On the contrary, psychoanalysis can increase the likelihood of cancer and coronary heart disease mortality drastically.[citation needed] Studies suggest that both body and mental disease arise from each other. Mental disorders arise from physical causes, and likewise, physical disorders arise from mental causes. While Type A personality did not show a strong direct relationship between its attributes and the cause of coronary heart disease, other types of personalities have shown strong influences on both cancer-prone patients and those prone to coronary heart disease.[23]
A study conducted by the International Journal of Behavioral Medicine re-examined the association between the Type A concept with cardiovascular (CVD) and non-cardiovascular (non-CVD) mortality by using a long follow-up (on average 20.6 years) of a large population-based sample of elderly males (N = 2,682), by applying multiple Type A measures at baseline, and looking separately at early and later follow-up years. The study sample were the participants of the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study, (KIHD), which includes a randomly selected representative sample of Eastern Finnish men, aged 42–60 years at baseline in the 1980s. They were followed up until the end of 2011 through linkage with the National Death Registry. Four self-administered scales, Bortner Short Rating Scale, Framingham Type A Behavior Pattern Scale, Jenkins Activity Survey, and Finnish Type A Scale, were used for Type A assessment at the start of follow-up. Type A measures were inconsistently associated with cardiovascular mortality, and most associations were non-significant. Some scales suggested slightly decreased, rather than increased, risk of CVD death during the follow-up. Associations with non-cardiovascular deaths were even weaker. The study's findings further suggest that there is no evidence to support the Type A as a risk factor for CVD and non-CVD mortality.[24]
Role of magnesium in cardiovascular health[edit]
Maintaining healthy magnesium (Mg) levels in the body plays a strong role in protecting the cardiovascular health of an individual. An analysis of the literature suggests the possible role of Mg deficiency in the susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases, observed among subjects displaying a type A behavior pattern. Experimental data that support this hypothesis are reviewed.[clarification needed] Type A subjects are more sensitive to stress and produce more catecholamines than type B subjects. This, in turn, seems to induce an intracellular Mg loss. In the long run, type A individuals would develop a state of Mg deficiency, which may promote a greater sensitivity to stress and, ultimately, lead to the development of cardiovascular problems.[25]
See also[edit]
Alpha (ethology)
Hans Eysenck § Model of personality
Humorism
Type D personality
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Eysenck H. J. (1990). "Type A Behavior and Coronary Heart Disease: The Third Stage". Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 5: 25–44.
Jump up ^ Friedman, M.; Rosenman, R. (1959). "Association of specific overt behaviour pattern with blood and cardiovascular findings". Journal of the American Medical Association. 169: 1286–1296. doi:10.1001/jama.1959.03000290012005.
Jump up ^ Ragland, D.; Brand, R. (1988). "Type A Behavior and Mortality from Coronary Heart Disease". The New England Journal of Medicine. 318: 65–69. doi:10.1056/nejm198801143180201.
Jump up ^ McLeod, Saul. "Type A Personality". Retrieved 29 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Kirkcaldy, B., Shepard, R., & Furnham, A. (2002). The influence of type A behaviour and locus of control upon job satisfaction and occupational health. Personality and Individual Differences, 33,1361-1371. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00018-1
Jump up ^ Friedman, M. (1996). Type A Behavior: Its Diagnosis and Treatment. New York, Plenum Press (Kluwer Academic Press), pp. 31 ff.
Jump up ^ Smith, T. W.; Gallo, L. C. (2001). "Personality traits as risk factors for physical illness. In A. Baum, T. Revenson, & J. Singer (Eds.)". Hand-book of health psychology: 139–172 – via Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jump up ^ Meyer Friedman; Carl E. Thoresen; James J. Gill; Diane Ulmer; Lynda H. Powell; Virginia A. Price; Byron Brown; Leonti Thompson; David D. Rabin; William S. Breall; Edward Bourg; Richard Levy; Theodore Dixon (1 October 1986). "Alteration of type A behavior and its effect on cardiac recurrences in post myocardial infarction patients: Summary results of the recurrent coronary prevention project". American Heart Journal. 112 (4): 653–665. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(86)90458-8. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Petticrew, M. P.; K. Lee; M. McKee (2012). "Type A behavior pattern and coronary heart disease: Philip Morris's "crown jewel"". American Journal of Public Health. 102 (11): 2018–2025. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300816. PMC 3477961  . PMID 22994187.
Jump up ^ Landman, A.; D. K. Cortese; S. Glantz (2008). "Tobacco industry sociological programs to influence public beliefs about smoking". Social Science & Medicine. 66 (4): 970–981. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.11.007.
Jump up ^ Petticrew, M. P.; Lee, K. (2011). "The "father of stress meets "big tobacco": Hans Selye and the tobacco industry". American Journal of Public Health. 101 (3): 411–418. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.177634. PMC 3036703  . PMID 20466961.
Jump up ^ Smith, E. A. (2007). ""It's interesting how few people die from smoking": tobacco industry efforts to minimize risk and discredit health promotion". European Journal of Public Health. 17 (2): 162–170. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckl097.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Meyer. "Letter to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration". Legacy Tobacco Documents Library. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Wall, C. R. "Philip Morris research". Legacy Tobacco Documents Library. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, J. E. "Letters to the editor RE: "Effects of passive smoking in the multiple rist factor intervention tral"". Legacy Tobacco Documents Library. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Kuper, H.; M. Marmot; H. Hemingway (2002). "Systematic review of prospective cohort studies of psychosocial factors in the etiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease". Seminars in Vascular Medicine. 2 (3): 267–314. doi:10.1055/s-2002-35401.
Jump up ^ Philip Morris Inc. "Deposition of Robert D. Verhalen, Dr P. H., September 29, 1998, Northwest Laborers-Employees Health & Security Trust Fund v. Philip Morris Inc." Legacy Tobacco Documents Library. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bates, K. L. (2006). Type A personality not linked to heart disease". Retrieved 2006-11-05.
Jump up ^ Williams, R. B. (2001). Hostility: Effects on health and the potential for successful behavioral approaches to prevention and treatment. In A. Baum, T. A. Revenson & J. E. Singer (Eds.) Handbook of Health Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jump up ^ Grossarth-Maticek, R., & Eysenck, H. J., & Vetter, H., 1988
Jump up ^ Grossarth-Maticek R.; Eysenck H. J.; Vetter H. (1988). "Personality Type, Smoking Habit and Their Interaction as Predictors of Cancer and Coronary Heart Disease". Personality and Individual Differences. 9: 479–495. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(88)90125-0.
Jump up ^ Grossarth-Maticek R.; Eysenck H. J. (1991). "Creative Novation Behaviour Therapy as a Prophylactic Treatment for Cancer and Coronary Heart Disease: I. Description of Treatment". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 29: 1–16. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(09)80002-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Eysenck, H.J. (1986). Smoking and Health. In R. Tollison (Ed.), Smoking and Health (pp. 17-88). Lexington, MA: Lexington
Jump up ^ Šmigelskas K, Žemaitienė N, Julkunen J, Kauhanen J (2015). "Type A behavior pattern is not a predictor of premature mortality". Int J Behav Med. 22: 161–9. doi:10.1007/s12529-014-9435-1. PMID 25169700.
Jump up ^ Henrotte JG (2013-03-25). "Type A behavior and magnesium metabolism". Magnesium. 5: 201–10. PMID 3523058.
Personality theories
Biospheric model of personality · Cognitive-affective personality system · Constructivism (psychological school) · Distressed personality type · Ego psychology · Hypostatic model of personality · Nature versus nurture · Personal construct theory · Personality Assessment System · Personality systematics · Personology · Phenomenal field theory · Positive Disintegration · Psychological behaviorism · Self monitoring · Situationism (psychology) · Trait theory · Two-factor models of personality
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text:
Fahrenheit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Fahrenheit (disambiguation).
Thermometer with Fahrenheit (marked on outer bezel) and Celsius (marked on inner dial) degree units. The Fahrenheit scale was the first standardized temperature scale to be widely used.
The Fahrenheit scale is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), after whom the scale is named.[1] It uses the degree Fahrenheit (symbol: F°) as the unit. Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist. The lower defining point, 0 °F, was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt. Further limits were established as the melting point of ice (32 F°) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature (96 F°, about 2.6 F° less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale).[2] The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points: the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 F°, and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 F°, a 180 F° separation, as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure.
By the end of the 20th century, Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States (including its unincorporated territories), its freely associated states in the Western Pacific (Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands), the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands[3]. All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale, defined since 1954 by absolute zero being −273.15 C° and the triple point of water being at 0.01 C°.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition and conversion
2 History
3 Usage
4 Unicode representation of symbol
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 External links
Definition and conversion[edit]
Fahrenheit temperature conversion formulae
from Fahrenheit
to Fahrenheit
Celsius
[°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9 [°F] = [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32
Kelvin
[K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5⁄9 [°F] = [K] × 9⁄5 − 459.67
Rankine
[°R] = [°F] + 459.67 [°F] = [°R] − 459.67
For temperature intervals rather than specific temperatures,
1 °F = 1 °R = 5⁄9 °C = 5⁄9 K
Comparisons among various temperature scales
On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (F°) and the boiling point is 212 F° (at standard atmospheric pressure). This puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart.[5] Therefore, a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 1⁄180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart. A temperature interval of 1 F° is equal to an interval of 5⁄9 degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at −40° (i.e., −40 F° = −40 °C).
Absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. The Rankine temperature scale uses degree intervals of the same size as those of the Fahrenheit scale, except that absolute zero is 0 °R — the same way that the Kelvin temperature scale matches the Celsius scale, except that absolute zero is 0 K.[5]
The Fahrenheit scale uses the symbol ° to denote a point on the temperature scale (as does Celsius) and the letter F to indicate the use of the Fahrenheit scale (e.g. "Gallium melts at 85.5763 F°"),[6] as well as to denote a difference between temperatures or an uncertainty in temperature (e.g. "The output of the heat exchanger experiences an increase of 72 F°" and "Our standard uncertainty is ±5 F°").
For an exact conversion, the following formulas can be applied. Here, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius:
f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius : (f − 32) °F × 5°C/9°F = (f − 32)/1.8 °C = c °C
c °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit : (c °C × 9°F/5°C) + 32 °F = (c × 1.8) °F + 32 °F = f °F
This is also an exact conversion making use of the identity -40 °F = -40 °C. Again, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius:
f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius : ((f + 40) ÷ 1.8) − 40 = c.
c °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit : ((c + 40) * 1.8) − 40 = f.
History[edit]
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, a pioneer of exact thermometry (temperature measurement). He invented the mercury thermometer (first practical, accurate thermometer) and Fahrenheit scale (first widely used, standardized temperature scale).
Fahrenheit proposed his temperature scale in 1724, basing it on two reference points of temperature. In his initial scale (which is not the final Fahrenheit scale), the zero point was determined by placing the thermometer in a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride (salis Armoniaci).[7] This is a frigorific mixture which stabilizes its temperature automatically: that stable temperature was defined as 0 °F (−17.78 °C). The second point, 96 degrees, was approximately the human body's temperature (sanguine hominis sani, the blood of a healthy man).[8]
According to a story in Germany, Fahrenheit actually chose the lowest air temperature measured in his hometown Danzig in winter 1708/09 as 0 °F, and only later had the need to be able to make this value reproducible using brine.[9] This is one explanation given why 0 °F is −17.78 °C, but the ammonium chloride cooling temperature actually is −3 °C, whereas that of NaCl is −21.1 °C; the other explanation is that he did not have a good enough brine solution to obtain the eutectic equilibrium exactly (i.e. he might have had a mixture of salts, or it had not fully dissolved). In any case, the definition of the Fahrenheit scale has changed since.
According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave,[10] his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømer's scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, and water boils at 60 degrees. Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale. He then re-calibrated his scale using the melting point of ice and normal human body temperature (which were at 30 and 90 degrees); he adjusted the scale so that the melting point of ice would be 32 degrees and body temperature 96 degrees, so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power).[11][12]
Fahrenheit observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale. The use of the freezing and boiling points of water as thermometer fixed reference points became popular following the work of Anders Celsius and these fixed points were adopted by a committee of the Royal Society led by Henry Cavendish in 1776.[13] Under this system, the Fahrenheit scale is redefined slightly so that the freezing point of water is exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point is exactly 212 °F or 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that normal human body temperature is approximately 98° (oral temperature) on the revised scale (whereas it was 90° on Fahrenheit's multiplication of Rømer, and 96° on his original scale).[14]
The Rankine temperature scale was based upon the Fahrenheit temperature scale, with its zero representing absolute zero instead.
Usage[edit]
Countries that use Fahrenheit.
Countries that use Celsius.
The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1960s. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the Celsius scale replaced Fahrenheit in almost all of those countries—with the notable exception of the United States—typically during their metrication process.
Fahrenheit is used in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service), as well as the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands for everyday applications. For example, U.S. weather forecasts, food cooking, and freezing temperatures are typically given in degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists, such as meteorologists, use Celsius or Kelvin in all countries.[15]
Early in the twentieth century, Halsey and Dale suggested that the resistance to the use of centigrade (now Celsius) system in the U.S. included the larger size of each degree Celsius and the lower zero point in the Fahrenheit system.[16]
Canada has passed legislation favoring the International System of Units, while also maintaining legal definitions for traditional Canadian imperial units.[17] Canadian weather reports are conveyed using degrees Celsius with occasional reference to Fahrenheit especially for cross-border broadcasts. Virtually all Canadian ovens make legal use of the Fahrenheit scale.[18] Thermometers, both digital and analog, sold in Canada usually employ both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.[19][20][21] Also, in some instances (swimming pool temperature or cooking temperatures for example), temperatures are still expressed in Fahrenheit.
European laundry symbol for "Wash at 40 °C"
Within the European Union, it is mandatory to use kelvins or degrees Celsius when quoting temperature for "economic, public health, public safety and administrative" purposes, though degrees Fahrenheit may be used alongside degrees Celsius as a supplementary unit.[22] For example, the laundry symbols used in the United Kingdom follow the recommendations of ISO 3758:2005 showing the temperature of the washing machine water in degrees Celsius only.[23] The equivalent label in North America uses one to six dots to denote temperature with an optional temperature in degrees Celsius.[24][25]
Within the unregulated sector, such as journalism, the use of Fahrenheit in the United Kingdom follows no fixed pattern with degrees Fahrenheit often appearing alongside degrees Celsius. The Daily Mail, on its daily weather page, quotes Celsius first, followed by Fahrenheit in brackets,[26] The Daily Telegraph does not mention Fahrenheit on its daily weather page[27] while The Times also has an all-metric daily weather page but has a Celsius-to-Fahrenheit conversion table.[28] When publishing news stories, much of the UK press adopted a convention of using degrees Celsius in headlines relating to low temperatures and Fahrenheit for high temperatures. In February 2006, the writer of an article in The Times suggested that the rationale was one of emphasis: "−6 °C" sounds colder than "21 °F" and "94 °F" sounds more impressive than "34 °C".[29]
Unicode representation of symbol[edit]
Unicode provides the Fahrenheit symbol at codepoint U+2109 ℉ degree fahrenheit. However, this is a compatibility character encoded for roundtrip compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard explicitly discourages the use of this character: "The sequence U+00B0 ° degree sign +U+0046 F latin capital letter f is preferred over U+2109 ℉ degree fahrenheit, and those two sequences should be treated as identical for searching."[30]
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Comparison of temperature scales
Degree of frost
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert T. Balmer (2010). Modern Engineering Thermodynamics. Academic Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-12-374996-3. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Fahrenheit temperature scale, Encyclopædia Britannica Onlinbe. 25 September 2015
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Celsius vs. Fahrenheit
^ Jump up to: a b Walt Boyes (2009). Instrumentation Reference Book. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-7506-8308-1. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Preston–Thomas, H. (1990). "The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)" (PDF). Metrologia. 27: 6. Bibcode:1990Metro..27....3P. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/27/1/002. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Sal Armoniac" was an impure form of ammonium chloride. The French chemist Nicolas Lémery (1645 – 1715) discussed it in his book Cours de Chymie (A Course of Chemistry, 1675), describing where it occurs naturally and how it can be prepared artificially. It occurs naturally in the deserts of northern Africa, where it forms from puddles of animal urine. It can be prepared artificially by boiling 5 parts of urine, 1 part of sea salt, and ½ part of chimney soot until the mixture has dried. The mixture is then heated in a sublimation pot until it sublimates ; the sublimated crystals are sal Armoniac. See:
Nicolas Lémery, Cours de chymie … , 7th ed. (Paris, France: Estienne Michallet, 1688), Chapitre XVII: du Sel Armoniac, pp. 338-339.
English translation: Nicolas Lémery with James Keill, trans., A Course of Chymistry … , 3rd ed. (London, England: Walter Kettilby, 1698), Chap. XVII: of Sal Armoniack, p. 383. Available on-line at: Heinrich Heine University (Düsseldorf, Germany)
Jump up ^ Fahrenheit, Daniele Gabr. (1724) "Experimenta circa gradum caloris liquorum nonnullorum ebullientium instituta" (Experiments performed concerning the degree of heat of some boiling liquids), Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 33 : 1-3. For an English translation, see: Le Moyne College (Syracuse, New York)
Jump up ^ "Wetterlexikon - Lufttemperatur" (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Ernst Cohen and W.A.T. Cohen-De Meester. Chemisch Weekblad, volume 33 (1936), pages 374–393, cited and translated in http://www.sizes.com:80/units/temperature_Fahrenheit.htm
Jump up ^ Frautschi, Steven C.; Richard P. Olenick; Tom M. Apostol; David L. Goodstein (14 January 2008). The mechanical universe: mechanics and heat. Cambridge University Press. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-521-71590-4.
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams. "On the Fahrenheit scale, do 0 and 100 have any special significance?". The Straight Dope.
Jump up ^ Hasok Chang, Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Scientific Progress, pp. 8-11, Oxford University Press, 2004 ISBN 0198038240.
Jump up ^ Elert, Glenn; Forsberg, C; Wahren, LK (2002). "Temperature of a Healthy Human (Body Temperature)". Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences. 16 (2): 122–8. doi:10.1046/j.1471-6712.2002.00069.x. PMID 12000664. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "782 - Aerodrome reports and forecasts: A user's handbook to the codes". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Halsey, Frederick A., Dale, Samuel S. (1919). The metric fallacy (2 ed.). The American Institute of Weights and Measures. pp. 165–166, 176–177. Retrieved 19 May 2009. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Canadian Units of Measurement; Department of Justice, Weights and Measures Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. W-6)". 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Pearlstein, Steven (4 June 2000). "Did Canada go metric? Yes - and no". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Example of analog thermometer frequently used in Canada". Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Example of digital thermometer frequently used in Canada". Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Department of Justice (26 February 2009). "Canadian Weights and Measures Act". Federal Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Statutory Instrument 2009/3046 - Weights and Measures - The Units of Measurement Regulations 2009 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-01, "The Secretary of State, being a Minister designated(a) for the purposes of section 2(2) of the European Communities Act 1972(b) in relation to units of measurement to be used for economic, health, safety, or administrative purposes, in exercise of the powers conferred by that subsection, makes the following Regulations:
Jump up ^ "Home Laundering Consultative Council - What Symbols Mean". Home Laundering Consultative Council. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Common Home Laundering & Drycleaning Symbols". Textile Industry Affairs. 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Guide to Apparel and Textile Care Symbols". Office of Consumer Affairs, Government of Canada. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Daily Mail. 3 July 2013. p. 3.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Daily Telegraph. 3 July 2013. p. 31.
Jump up ^ "Weather". The Times. 3 July 2013. p. 55.
Jump up ^ "Measure for measure". The Times. Times Newspapers. 23 February 2006.
Jump up ^ "22.2". The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0 (PDF). Mountain View, CA, USA: The Unicode Consortium. August 2015. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
External links[edit]
Look up fahrenheit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (Polish-born Dutch physicist) -- Encyclopædia Britannica
"At Auction | One of Only Three Original Fahrenheit Thermometers" Enfilade page for 2012 Christie's sale of a Fahrenheit mercury thermometer with some nice pictures
Christie's press release
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