text:
Olive oil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Olive Oyl.
Olive oil
Extra virgin olive oil presented with green and black preserved table olives
Fat composition
Saturated fats
Total saturated
Palmitic acid: 13.0%
Stearic acid: 1.5%
Unsaturated fats
Total unsaturated
> 85%
Monounsaturated
Oleic acid: 70.0%
Palmitoleic acid: 0.3–3.5%
Polyunsaturated
Linoleic acid: 15.0%
α-Linolenic acid: 0.5%
Properties
Food energy per 100 g (3.5 oz)
3,700 kJ (880 kcal)
Melting point
−6.0 °C (21.2 °F)
Boiling point
700 °C (1,292 °F)
Smoke point
190 °C (374 °F) (virgin)
210 °C (410 °F) (refined)
Solidity at 20 °C (68 °F)
Liquid
Specific gravity at 20 °C (68 °F)
0.911[1]
Viscosity at 20 °C (68 °F)
84 cP
Refractive index
1.4677–1.4705 (virgin and refined)
1.4680–1.4707 (pomace)
Iodine value
75–94 (virgin and refined)
75–92 (pomace)
Acid value
maximum: 6.6 (refined and pomace)
0.8 (Extra virgin)
Saponification value
184–196 (virgin and refined)
182–193 (pomace)
Peroxide value
20 (virgin)
10 (refined and pomace)
This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.
Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives (the fruit of Olea europaea; family Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives. It is commonly used in cooking, whether for frying or as a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps, and has additional uses in some religions. There is limited evidence of its possible health benefits. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine; the other two are wheat and grapes.
Olive trees have been grown around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the largest producer of olive oil, followed by Italy and Greece. However, per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Spain, Italy, and Morocco. Consumption in North America and northern Europe is far less, but rising steadily.
The composition of olive oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest and extraction process. It consists mainly of oleic acid (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid (up to 21%) and palmitic acid (up to 20%). Extra virgin olive oil is required to have no more than 0.8% free acidity and is considered to have favorable flavor characteristics.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early cultivation
1.2 History and trade
2 Varieties
3 Production
4 Uses
4.1 Culinary use
4.2 Religious use
4.2.1 Christianity
4.2.2 Judaism
4.3 Skin care
4.4 Other
5 Regulation
5.1 Commercial grades
5.1.1 International Olive Council
5.1.2 United States
5.2 Label wording
5.3 Adulteration
6 Global consumption
6.1 Global market
7 Extraction
8 Constituents
8.1 Phenolic composition
9 Nutrition
9.1 Potential health effects
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
History[edit]
Early cultivation[edit]
Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in Klazomenai, Ionia (modern Turkey)
The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC.[2] The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor[3] or in ancient Greece.[n 1] It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated: in Asia Minor, in the Levant,[2] or somewhere in the Mesopotamian part of the Fertile Crescent.
Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC[6] and 4500 BC in Israel.[7] Until 1500 BC, eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC. The earliest surviving olive oil amphorae date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the production of olive oil is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.[8] The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy, as it did across the Mediterranean.
Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, but a detailed history of domestication is not yet forthcoming.[9]
History and trade[edit]
Ancient oil press (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey)
Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh.[10] Dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea. Sinuhe, the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan about 1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive trees.[11]
Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious rituals, medicines, as a fuel in oil lamps, soap-making, and skin care application. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the Minoan civilization, where it is thought to have represented wealth. Olive oil, a multi-purpose product of Mycenaean Greece (c. 1600–1100 BC) at that time, was a chief export.[12] Olive tree growing reached Iberia and Etruscan cities well before the 8th century BC through trade with the Phoenicians and Carthage, then was spread into Southern Gaul by the Celtic tribes during the 7th century BC.
The first recorded oil extraction is known from the Hebrew Bible and took place during the Exodus from Egypt, allegedly during the 13th century BC.[13] During this time, the oil was derived through hand-squeezing the berries and stored in special containers under guard of the priests. A commercial mill for non-sacramental use of oil was in use in the tribal confederation and later in 1000 BC, in the Levant, an area consisting of present-day Lebanon, Israel and Palestine. Over 100 olive presses have been found in Tel Miqne (Ekron), one of the five main cities of the Biblical Philistines. These presses are estimated to have had output of between 1,000 and 3,000 tons of olive oil per season.[citation needed]
Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still in use today.[14]
Olive crusher (trapetum) in Pompeii (79 AD)
Olive oil was common in ancient Greek and Roman cuisine. According to Herodotus, Apollodorus, Plutarch, Pausanias, Ovid and other sources, the city of Athens obtained its name because Athenians considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess Athena (an olive tree) over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt water gushing out of a cliff). The Spartans and other Greeks used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the gymnasia. From its beginnings early in the 7th century BC, the cosmetic use of olive oil quickly spread to all of the Hellenic city states, together with athletes training in the nude, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense.[15][16] Olive oil was also popular as a form of birth control; Aristotle in his History of Animals recommends applying a mixture of olive oil combined with either oil of cedar, ointment of lead, or ointment of frankincense to the cervix to prevent pregnancy.[17] Olive trees were planted throughout the entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the Roman Republic and Empire. According to the historian Pliny the Elder, Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD—"the best in the Mediterranean", he maintained.
The Manufacture of Oil, 16th century engraving by Jost Amman
The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that the English word oil derives from c. 1175, olive oil, from Anglo-Fr. and O.N.Fr. olie, from O.Fr. oile (12c., Mod.Fr. huile), from L. oleum "oil, olive oil" (cf. It. olio), from Gk. elaion "olive tree",[18][19] which may have been borrowed through trade networks from the Semitic Phoenician use of el'yon meaning "superior", probably in recognized comparison to other vegetable or animal fats available at the time. Robin Lane Fox suggests[20] that the Latin borrowing of Greek elaion for oil (Latin oleum) is itself a marker for improved Greek varieties of oil-producing olive, already present in Italy as Latin was forming, brought by Euboean traders, whose presence in Latium is signaled by remains of their characteristic pottery, from the mid-8th century.
Varieties[edit]
Main article: List of olive cultivars
There are many olive cultivars, each with a particular flavor, texture, and shelf life that make them more or less suitable for different applications, such as direct human consumption on bread or in salads, indirect consumption in domestic cooking or catering, or industrial uses such as animal feed or engineering applications.[21] During the stages of maturity, olive fruit changes color from green to violet, and then black. Olive oil taste characteristics depend on which stage of ripeness olive fruits are collected.[21]
Production[edit]
Virgin olive oil production – 2014
Country
Production (tonnes)
Spain 1,738,600
Italy 294,914
Greece 208,900
Tunisia 179,700
Morocco 137,400
World 3,050,390
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[22]
Potential natural distribution of the olive across the Mediterranean Basin[23]
In 2014, world production of virgin olive oil was 3.05 million tonnes (table), a 9% increase over 2013 global production.[22] Spain produced 1.7 million tonnes or 56% of world production. The next four largest producers – Italy, Greece, Tunisia, and Morocco – collectively produced less than half of Spain's annual total (table).
Some 75% of Spain's production derives from the region of Andalucía, particularly within Jaén province which produces 70% of olive oil in Spain.[24] The world’s largest olive oil mill (almazara, in Spanish), capable of processing 2,500 tonnes of olives per day, is in the town of Villacarrillo, Jaén.[24]
Italy produced 294,914 tonnes in 2014 or 10% of the world's production (table).[22] Major Italian producers are known as "Città dell'Olio" ("oil cities"), including Lucca, Florence and Siena. Italy imports about 65% of Spanish olive oil exports.[25] Some Italian companies are known to mix the imported olive oil with alternate oils (such as soy) and falsely market the blend as authentic olive oil "Made in Italy",[26][27][28] creating a fraud that the European Commission has attempted to overcome by offering a 5 million Euro reward to stimulate better methods of authentication.[29][30]
Tunisia is the largest producer outside the EU (table), with 242,000 tons produced in 2014 to 2015, among which 73% was exported to Europe.[31] Because of the arid climate, pesticides and herbicides are largely unnecessary in Tunisia.[32]
While the majority (between 60-70%) of olive oil consumed in Australia is imported from Europe, a smaller domestic industry does exist. Many Australian producers only make premium small-batch oils, while a number of corporate growers operate groves of a million trees or more and produce oils for the general market. 11% of Australian production is exported, mostly to Asia.[33][34]
In North America, Italian and Spanish olive oils are the best-known, and top-quality extra virgin olive oil from Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece are sold at high prices, often in prestige packaging. A large part of U.S. olive oil imports come from Italy, Spain, and Turkey.
The United States produces olive oil in California, Hawaii, Texas, Georgia, and Oregon.[35]
Uses[edit]
Vinegar and olive oil
Olives in olive oil
Culinary use[edit]
Olive oil is an important cooking oil in countries surrounding the Mediterranean, and it forms one of the three staple food plants of Mediterranean cuisine, the other two being wheat (as in pasta, bread, and couscous) and the grape, used as a dessert fruit and for wine.[36]
Extra virgin olive oil is mostly used as a salad dressing and as an ingredient in salad dressings. It is also used with foods to be eaten cold. If uncompromised by heat, the flavor is stronger. It also can be used for sautéing.
When extra virgin olive oil is heated above 210–216 °C (410–421 °F), depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to deteriorated taste. Also, most consumers do not like the pronounced taste of extra virgin olive oil for deep fried foods. Refined olive oils are suited for deep frying.[citation needed]
Choosing a cold-pressed olive oil can be similar to selecting a wine. The flavor of these oils varies considerably and a particular oil may be more suited for a particular dish.
Fresh oil, as available in an oil producing region, tastes noticeably different from the older oils available elsewhere. In time, oils deteriorate and become stale. One-year-old oil may be still pleasant to the taste, but it is less fragrant than fresh oil. After the first year, olive oil is more suitable cooking than serving raw.
The taste of the olive oil is influenced by the varietals used to produce the oil and by the moment when the olives are harvested and ground (less ripe olives give more bitter and spicy flavors – riper olives give a sweeter sensation in the oil).
Religious use[edit]
Olive tree in Portugal
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Christianity[edit]
The Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches use olive oil for the Oil of Catechumens (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for Baptism) and Oil of the Sick (used to confer the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick or Unction). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent such as balsam is consecrated by bishops as Sacred Chrism, which is used to confer the sacrament of Confirmation (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of Baptism and the ordination of priests and bishops, in the consecration of altars and churches, and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their coronation.
Eastern Orthodox Christians still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners and in the cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass containing a half-inch of water and filled the rest with olive oil. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by soaking a ball of cotton in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns until all the oil is consumed, whereupon the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a usual offering to churches and cemeteries.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints uses virgin olive oil that has been blessed by the priesthood. This consecrated oil is used for anointing the sick.[37]
Judaism[edit]
In Jewish observance, olive oil was the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched menorah in the Mishkan service during the Exodus of the tribes of Israel from Egypt, and later in the permanent Temple in Jerusalem. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and was consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests and stored in special containers. Although candles can be used to light the hanukkiah, oil containers are preferred, to imitate the original menorah. Another use of oil in Jewish religion was for anointing the kings of the Kingdom of Israel, originating from King David. Tzidkiyahu was the last anointed King of Israel.
Skin care[edit]
Olive oil has a long history of being used as a home skincare remedy. Egyptians used it alongside beeswax as a cleanser, moisturizer, and antibacterial agent since pharaonic times.[38] In ancient Greece, olive oil was used during massage, to prevent sports injuries and relieve muscle fatigue.[39] In 2000, Japan was the top importer of olive oil in Asia (13,000 tons annually) because consumers there believe both the ingestion and topical application of olive oil to be good for skin and health.[40]
Olive oil is popular for use in massaging infants and toddlers, but scientific evidence of its efficacy is mixed. One analysis of olive oil versus mineral oil found that, when used for infant massage, olive oil can be considered a safe alternative to sunflower, grapeseed and fractionated coconut oils. This stands true particularly when it is mixed with a lighter oil like sunflower, which "would have the further effect of reducing the already low levels of free fatty acids present in olive oil".[41] Another trial stated that olive oil lowered the risk of dermatitis for infants in all gestational stages when compared with emollient cream.[42] However, yet another study on adults found that topical treatment with olive oil "significantly damages the skin barrier" when compared to sunflower oil, and that it may make existing atopic dermatitis worse. The researchers concluded that due to the negative outcome in adults, they do not recommend the use of olive oil for the treatment of dry skin and infant massage.[43]
Applying olive oil to the skin does not help prevent or reduce stretch marks.[44]
Other[edit]
Olive oil is also a natural and safe lubricant, and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.). It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents.[45] Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base.[46] Olive oil may be used in soap making, as lamp oil, a lubricant, or as a substitute for machine oil.[47][48][49] Olive oil has also been used as both solvent and ligand in the synthesis of cadmium selenide quantum dots.[50]
Regulation[edit]
Main article: Olive oil regulation and adulteration
International Olive Council building
The International Olive Council (IOC) is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce olives or products derived from olives, such as olive oil. The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils.[51]
The United States is not a member of the IOC and is not subject to its authority, but on October 25, 2010, the U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted new voluntary olive oil grading standards that closely parallel those of the IOC, with some adjustments for the characteristics of olives grown in the U.S.[52] Additionally, U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable size letters so as not to mislead the consumer.[53][54] Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print.[55] "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece."[56] This makes it unclear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin.
Commercial grades[edit]
A bottle of Italian olive oil.
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste by crushing or pressing. This paste is then malaxed (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to agglomerate. The oil is then separated from the watery matter and fruit pulp with the use of a press (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a small quantity of oil.
To classify its organoleptic qualities, olive oil is judged by a panel of trained tasters in a blind taste test.
One parameter used to characterise an oil is its acidity.[57] In this context, "acidity" is not chemical acidity in the sense of pH, but the percent (measured by weight) of free oleic acid. Measured by quantitative analysis, acidity is a measure of the hydrolysis of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing hydrolytic rancidity.[citation needed] Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the peroxide value,[58] which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized by free radicals, leading to oxidative rancidity. Phenolic acids present in olive oil also add acidic sensory properties to aroma and flavor.[59]
The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of mechanical means only, with no chemical treatment. The term virgin oil with reference to production method includes all grades of virgin olive oil, including Extra virgin, Virgin, Ordinary virgin and Lampante virgin olive oil products, depending on quality (see below).
Lampante virgin oil is olive oil extracted by virgin (mechanical) methods but not suitable for human consumption without further refining; lampante is Italian for "glaring", referring to the earlier use of such oil for burning in lamps. Lampante virgin oil can be used for industrial purposes, or refined (see below) to make it edible.[60]
Refined Olive Oil is the olive oil obtained from any grade of virgin olive oil by refining methods which do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure. The refining process removes colour, odour and flavour from the olive oil, and leaves behind a very pure form of olive oil that is tasteless, colourless and odourless and extremely low in free fatty acids. Olive oils sold as the grades extra virgin olive oil and virgin olive oil therefore cannot contain any refined oil.[60]
Crude Olive Pomace Oil is the oil obtained by treating olive pomace (the leftover paste after the pressing of olives for virgin olive oils) with solvents or other physical treatments, to the exclusion of oils obtained by re-esterification processes and of any mixture with oils of other kinds. It is then further refined into Refined Olive Pomace Oil and once re-blended with virgin olive oils for taste, is then known as Olive Pomace Oil.[60]
Italian label for "extra vergine" oil
International Olive Council[edit]
In countries that adhere to the standards of the International Olive Council,[61] as well as in Australia, and under the voluntary United States Department of Agriculture labeling standards in the United States:
Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade of virgin oil derived by cold mechanical extraction without use of solvents or refining methods.[60][62] It contains no more than 0.8% free acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste, having some fruitiness and no defined sensory defects.[63] Extra virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries; the percentage is far higher in the Mediterranean countries (Greece: 80%, Italy: 65%, Spain 50%).[63]
Virgin olive oil is a lesser grade of virgin oil, with free acidity of up to 1.5%, and is judged to have a good taste, but may include some sensory defects.
Refined olive oil is virgin oil that has been refined using charcoal and other chemical and physical filters, methods which do not alter the glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. It is obtained by refining virgin oils to eliminate high acidity or organoleptic defects. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are primarily refined olive oil, with a small addition of virgin for taste.
Olive pomace oil is refined pomace olive oil, often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as olive oil. It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it unfashionable among connoisseurs; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has a high smoke point, and thus is widely used in restaurants as well as home cooking in some countries.
United States[edit]
As the United States is not a member, the IOC retail grades have no legal meaning there, but on October 25, 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil, which closely parallel the IOC standards:[64][65]
U.S. Extra Virgin Olive Oil for oil with excellent flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 0.8 g per 100 g (0.8%);
U.S. Virgin Olive Oil for oil with reasonably good flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 2 g per 100 g (2%);
U.S. Virgin Olive Oil Not Fit For Human Consumption Without Further Processing is a virgin (mechanically-extracted) olive oil of poor flavor and odor, equivalent to the IOC's lampante oil;
U.S. Olive Oil is a mixture of virgin and refined oils;
U.S. Refined Olive Oil is an oil made from refined oils with some restrictions on the processing.
These grades are voluntary. Certification is available, for a fee, from the USDA.[65]
Label wording[edit]
Different names for olive oil indicate the degree of processing the oil has undergone as well as the quality of the oil. Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade available, followed by virgin olive oil. The word "virgin" indicates that the olives have been pressed to extract the oil; no heat or chemicals have been used during the extraction process, and the oil is pure and unrefined. Virgin olive oils contain the highest levels of polyphenols, antioxidants that have been linked with better health.[66]
Olive Oil, which is sometimes denoted as being "Made from refined and virgin olive oils" is a blend of refined olive oil with a virgin grade of olive oil.[60] Pure, Classic, Light and Extra-Light are terms introduced by manufacturers in countries that are non-traditional consumers of olive oil for these products to indicate both their composition of being only 100% olive oil, and also the varying strength of taste to consumers. Contrary to a common consumer belief, they do not have fewer calories than extra virgin oil as implied by the names.[67]
Cold pressed or Cold extraction means "that the oil was not heated over a certain temperature (usually 27 °C (80 °F)) during processing, thus retaining more nutrients and undergoing less degradation".[68] The difference between Cold Extraction and Cold Pressed is regulated in Europe, where the use of a centrifuge, the modern method of extraction for large quantities, must be labelled as Cold Extracted, while only a physically pressed olive oil may be labelled as Cold Pressed. In many parts of the world, such as Australia, producers using centrifugal extraction still label their products as Cold Pressed.
First cold pressed means "that the fruit of the olive was crushed exactly one time-i.e., the first press. The cold refers to the temperature range of the fruit at the time it is crushed".[69] In Calabria (Italy) the olives are collected in October. In regions like Tuscany or Liguria, the olives collected in November and ground, often at night, are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10–15 °C, to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 25 °C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold pressed".
Furthermore, there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" means only that the oil was produced in a press vs. other possible methods.
Protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected designation of origin (PGI) refer to olive oils with "exceptional properties and quality derived from their place of origin as well as from the way of their production".[70]
The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from more than one country.[55]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration permitted a claim on olive oil labels stating: "Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two tablespoons (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease."[71]
Adulteration[edit]
There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt.[72] Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification.[73] In some cases, colza oil (extracted from rapeseed) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.[74] This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.[75] In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.[74] Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.[75]
Extra virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary) and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are:
Raw material (olives) infected or battered
Inadequate harvest, with contact between the olives and soil[76]
In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil", arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.[77] In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil, and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.[78]
On March 15, 2011, the prosecutor's office in Florence, Italy, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents."[79]
In February 2012, an international olive oil scam was alleged by Spanish police to have taken place, in which palm, avocado, sunflower and other cheaper oils were passed off as Italian olive oil. Police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic and posed no health risk, according to a statement by the Guardia Civil. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax authorities, part of what they call Operation Lucerna.[80]
Using tiny print to state the origin of blended oil is used as a legal loophole by manufacturers of adulterated and mixed olive oil.[81]
Journalist Tom Mueller has investigated crime and adulteration in the olive oil business, publishing the article "Slippery Business" in New Yorker magazine,[82] followed by the 2011 book Extra Virginity. On 3 January 2016 Bill Whitaker presented a program on CBS News including interviews with Mueller and with Italian authorities.[83][84] It was reported that in the previous month 5,000 tons of adulterated olive oil had been sold in Italy, and that organised crime was heavily involved—the term "Agrimafia" was used. The point was made by Mueller that the profit margin on adulterated olive oil was three times that on the illegal narcotic drug cocaine. He said that over 50% of olive oil sold in Italy was adulterated, as was 75-80% of that sold in the US. Whitaker reported that 3 samples of "extra virgin olive oil" had been bought in a US supermarket and tested; two of the three samples did not meet the required standard, and one of them—with a top-selling US brand—was exceptionally poor.
Global consumption[edit]
Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, over 24 liters (5.3 imp gal; 6.3 U.S. gal) per person per year;[85] Spain and Italy, around 14 l; Tunisia, Portugal, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon, around 8 l. Northern Europe and North America consume far less, around 0.7 l, but the consumption of olive oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily.
Global market[edit]
The main producing and consuming countries are:
Country
Production in tons (2010)[86]
Production % (2010)
Consumption (2012)[87]
Annual per capita consumption (kg)[88]
World 3,269,248 100% 100% 0.43
Spain 1,487,000 45.5% 17% 13.62
Italy 548,500 16.8% 19% 12.35
Greece 352,800 10.8% 7% 23.7
Syria 177,400 5.4% 4% 7
Morocco 169,900 5.2% 4% 11.1
Turkey 161,600 4.9% 5% 1.2
Tunisia 160,100 4.9% 1% 5
Portugal 66,600 2.0% 2% 7.1
Algeria 33,600 1.0% 2% 1.8
Others 111,749 3.5% 39% 1.18
Extraction[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A cold press olive oil machine in Israel.
Olive oil mill
Main article: Olive oil extraction
Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil that is rancid, so for good extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. The process is generally as follows:
The olives are ground into paste using large millstones (traditional method) or steel drums (modern method).
If ground with mill stones, the olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30 to 40 minutes. A shorter grinding process may result in a more raw paste that produces less oil and has a less ripe taste, a longer process may increase oxidation of the paste and reduce the flavor. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fiber disks, which are stacked on top of each other in a column, then placed into the press. Pressure is then applied onto the column to separate the vegetal liquid from the paste. This liquid still contains a significant amount of water. Traditionally the oil was shed from the water by gravity (oil is less dense than water). This very slow separation process has been replaced by centrifugation, which is much faster and more thorough. The centrifuges have one exit for the (heavier) watery part and one for the oil. Olive oil should not contain significant traces of vegetal water as this accelerates the process of organic degeneration by microorganisms. The separation in smaller oil mills is not always perfect, thus sometimes a small watery deposit containing organic particles can be found at the bottom of oil bottles.
In modern steel drum mills the grinding process takes about 20 minutes. After grinding, the paste is stirred slowly for another 20 to 30 minutes in a particular container (malaxation), where the microscopic oil drops unite into bigger drops, which facilitates the mechanical extraction. The paste is then pressed by centrifugation/ the water is thereafter separated from the oil in a second centrifugation as described before.
The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described above is called virgin oil. Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical and organoleptic criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects). A higher grade extra virgin olive oil is mostly dependent on favourable weather conditions; a drought during the flowering phase, for example, can result in a lower quality (virgin) oil. It is worth noting that olive trees produce well every couple of years so; greater harvests occur in alternate years (the year in-between is when the tree yields less). However the quality is still dependent on the weather.
Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil has not been filtered, suggesting a different taste. Fresh unfiltered olive oil usually has a slightly cloudy appearance, and is therefore sometimes called cloudy olive oil. This form of olive oil used to be popular only among olive oil small scale producers but is now becoming "trendy", in line with consumer's demand for products that are perceived to be less processed.
The remaining paste (pomace) still contains a small quantity (about 5–10%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialised chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is not "virgin" but "pomace oil".[89] Handling of olive waste is an environmental challenge because the wastewater, which amounts to more than 30 million cubic meters annually in the Mediterranean region, is not biodegradable and cannot be processed through conventional water treatment systems.[90]
The label term "cold-extraction" on extra virgin olive oils indicates that the olive grinding and stirring was done at a temperature of maximum 25 °C (77 °F), as treatment in higher temperatures risks decreasing the olive oils' quality (texture, taste and aroma).[89]
Constituents[edit]
General chemical structure of olive oil (triglyceride). R1, R2 and R3 are alkyl groups (approx. 20%) or alkenyl groups (approx. 80%).
Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed triglyceride esters of oleic acid and palmitic acid and of other fatty acids, along with traces of squalene (up to 0.7%) and sterols (about 0.2% phytosterol and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process.
Fatty acid
Percentage
ref.
Oleic acid 55 to 83% [91][92]
Linoleic acid 3.5 to 21% [91][92]
Palmitic acid 7.5 to 20% [91]
Stearic acid 0.5 to 5% [91]
α-Linolenic acid 0 to 1.5% [91]
Phenolic composition[edit]
Olive oil contains phenolics, such as esters of tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, oleocanthal and oleuropein,[59][93] give extra virgin olive oil its bitter, pungent taste, and are also implicated in its aroma.[94] Olive oil is a source of at least 30 phenolic compounds, among which is elenolic acid, a marker for maturation of olives.[59][95] Oleuropein, together with other closely related compounds such as 10-hydroxyoleuropein, ligstroside and 10-hydroxyligstroside, are tyrosol esters of elenolic acid.
Other phenolic constituents include flavonoids, lignans and pinoresinol.[96][97]
Nutrition[edit]
Olive oil
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
3,699 kJ (884 kcal)
Carbohydrates
0 g
Fat
100 g
Saturated
14 g
Monounsaturated
73 g
Polyunsaturated
omega‑3
omega‑6
11 g
0.8 g
9.8 g
Protein
0 g
Vitamins
Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin E
93%
14 mg
Vitamin K
57%
60 μg
Minerals
Quantity
%DV†
Iron
4%
0.56 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
One tablespoon of olive oil (13.5 g) contains the following nutritional information according to the USDA:[98]
Calories: 119
Fat: 13.50 g (21% of the Daily Value, DV)
Saturated fat: 2 g (9% of DV)
Carbohydrates: 0
Fibers: 0
Protein: 0
Vitamin E: 1.9 mg (10% of DV)
Vitamin K: 8.1 µg (10% of DV)
Potential health effects[edit]
Olive oil consumption is thought to affect cardiovascular health.[99] Epidemiological studies indicate that a higher proportion of monounsaturated fats in the diet may be linked with a reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease.[100] There is preliminary evidence that regular consumption of olive oil may lower risk of all-cause mortality and several chronic diseases.[99][101]
In a comprehensive scientific review by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2011, health claims on olive oil were approved for protection by its polyphenols against oxidation of blood lipids,[102] and for the contribution to the maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol levels by replacing saturated fats in the diet with oleic acid[103] (Commission Regulation (EU) 432/2012 of 16 May 2012).[104] A cause-and-effect relationship has not been adequately established for consumption of olive oil and maintaining normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides, normal blood HDL-cholesterol concentrations, and normal blood glucose concentrations.[105]
A 2011 meta-analysis concluded that olive oil consumption may play a protective role against the development of any type of cancer, but could not clarify whether the beneficial effect is due to olive oil monounsaturated fatty acid content or its polyphenol components.[106]
A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that an elevated consumption of olive oil is associated with reduced risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events and stroke, while monounsaturated fatty acids of mixed animal and plant origin showed no significant effects.[107]
In the United States, producers of olive oil may place the following restricted health claim on product labels:
Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 2 tbsp. (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day.[108]
This decision was announced November 1, 2004 after application to the FDA by producers.[109]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Amurca
List of ancient dishes and foods
List of cuisines
List of dips
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Greek word for olive oil or for oil in general, ἔλαιον (elaion),[4] is first attested in the Mycenaean Greek forms 𐀁𐀨𐀺, e-ra-wo and 𐀁𐁉𐀺, e-rai-wo, written in the Linear B syllabic script.[5] In Linear B there was also 𐂕, an ideogram standing for olive oil or oil in general.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "United States Department of Agriculture: "Grading Manual for Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil"". Retrieved June 25, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Davidson, s.v. Olives
Jump up ^ "International Olive Council". Retrieved October 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ ἔλαιον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
Jump up ^ "The Linear B word e-ra-wo". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages. "e-ra3-wo". Raymoure, K.A. "e-ra-wo". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean.
Jump up ^ Ruth Schuster (17 December 2014). "8,000-year old olive oil found in Galilee, earliest known in world". Haaretz. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Ehud Galili et al., "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel", Journal of Archaeological Science 24:1141–1150 (1997); Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho, but cites no source.
Jump up ^ F. R. Riley, "Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil", Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21:1:63–75 (2002)
Jump up ^ Guillaume Besnarda, André Bervillé, "Multiple origins for Mediterranean olive (Olea europaea L. ssp. europaea) based upon mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms", Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences—Series III—Sciences de la Vie 323:2:173–181 (February 2000); Catherine Breton, Michel Tersac and André Bervillé, "Genetic diversity and gene flow between the wild olive (oleaster, Olea europaea L.) and the olive: several Plio-Pleistocene refuge zones in the Mediterranean basin suggested by simple sequence repeats analysis", Journal of Biogeography 33:11:1916 (November 2006)
Jump up ^ Nathaniel R. Brown (June 11, 2011). "By the Rivers of Babylon: The Near Eastern Background and Influence on the Power Structures Ancient Israel and Judah" (PDF). history.ucsc.edu. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Gardiner, Alan H. (1916). Notes on the Story of Sinuhe. Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion.
Jump up ^ Castleden, Rodney (2005). The Mycenaeans. London and New York: Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 0-415-36336-5. Huge quantities of olive oil were produced and it must have been a major source of wealth. The simple fact that southern Greece is far more suitable climatically for olive production may explain why the Mycenaean civilization made far greater advances in the south than in the north. The oil had a variety of uses, in cooking, as a dressing, as soap, as lamp oil, and as a base for manufacturing unguents.
Jump up ^ Andrew C. Skinner (2000). "Autumn, Olives, and the Atonement". rsc.byu.edu. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ J.M. Blásquez (1992). "The Latest Work on the Export of Baetican Olive Oil to Rome and the Army" (PDF). ceipac.ub.edu. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Thomas F. Scanlon, "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in sixth-century BC Greece", in Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West, ed. B. C. Verstraete and V. Provençal, Harrington Park Press, 2005
Jump up ^ Nigel M. Kennell, "Most Necessary for the Bodies of Men: Olive Oil and its By-products in the Later Greek Gymnasium" in Mark Joyal (ed.), In Altum: Seventy-Five Years of Classical Studies in Newfoundland, 2001; popis pp. 119–33
Jump up ^ Himes, Norman E. (1963). The Medical History of Contraception. Gamut Press. p. 86-7.
Jump up ^ "Olive – Define Olive at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
Jump up ^ "Oil – Define Oil at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
Jump up ^ Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:127.
^ Jump up to: a b Nicole Sturzenberger (2007). "Olive Processing Waste Management: Summary" (PDF). oliveoil.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Olive oil virgin, crops processed, production data for 2014". Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division. 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Oteros J, et al. (2014). "Better prediction of Mediterranean olive production using pollen-based models". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 34 (3): 685–694. doi:10.1007/s13593-013-0198-x.
^ Jump up to: a b Lucy Vivante (2011). "Gruppo Pieralisi Powers World's Largest Olive Oil Mill in Jaén". Olive Oil Times. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "La marca Italia se queda con el aceite español. Noticias de Economía". El Confidencial (in Spanish). Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ elEconomista.es. "Italia 'destapa' un fraude del aceite de oliva español vendido como italiano - elEconomista.es". Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ "La estafa del aceite de oliva virgen italiano - Cocinillas". Cocinillas (in Spanish). 2014-01-31. Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ Blechman, Nicholas (2014). "Extra virgin Suicide". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ Commission, European. "Authentication of olive oil". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ "EU Offers €5m to Fight Olive Oil Fraud". Olive Oil Times. 2014-01-20. Retrieved 2017-10-19.
Jump up ^ Putinja, Isobel (10 July 2015). "Tunisian Olive Oil Exports Reach Record High". Olive Oil Times. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Tunisia Seeks Renewal Through the Olive Tree". Olive Oil Times. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Sarah Schwager (August 31, 2010). "Australia Charts Five-Year Course for Olive Oil Industry". Olive Oil Times.
Jump up ^ Margaret Chidgey (18 December 2017). "IOC flags big increase in consumption of Australian olive oil". The Olive Review. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Ramin, F. Martin (October 18, 2013). "The Best Olive Oils Made in the U.S." Wall Street Journal. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Essid, Mohamed Yassine (2012). Chapter 2. History of Mediterranean Food. MediTerra: The Mediterranean Diet for Sustainable Regional Development. Presses de Sciences Po. pp. 51–69. ISBN 9782724612486.
Jump up ^ Oaks, Dallin H. "Healing the Sick - Dallin H. Oaks". www.lds.org.
Jump up ^ Grossman, A. J. (September 27, 2007). "Behind a Mysterious Balm, a Self-Made Pharaoh". The New York Times. Retrieved April 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Nomikos NN, Nomikos GN, Kores DS (2010). "The use of deep friction massage with olive oil as a means of prevention and treatment of sports injuries in ancient times". Arch Med Sci. 6 (5): 642–5. doi:10.5114/aoms.2010.17074. PMC 3298328  . PMID 22419918.
Jump up ^ Shoji, K. (February 26, 2013). "The Japanese woman's perpetual quest for perfect skin". The New York Times. Retrieved April 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Carpenter, P.; Richards, K. (2011). "Olive versus mineral oil". Community practitioner : the journal of the Community Practitioners' & Health Visitors' Association. 84 (2): 40–42. PMID 21388045.
Jump up ^ Kiechl-Kohlendorfer, U.; Berger, C.; Inzinger, R. (2008). "The Effect of Daily Treatment with an Olive Oil/Lanolin Emollient on Skin Integrity in Preterm Infants: A Randomized Controlled Trial". Pediatric Dermatology. 25 (2): 174–178. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2008.00627.x. PMID 18429773.
Jump up ^ Danby, S. G.; Alenezi, T.; Sultan, A.; Lavender, T.; Chittock, J.; Brown, K.; Cork, M. J. (2013). "Effect of Olive and Sunflower Seed Oil on the Adult Skin Barrier: Implications for Neonatal Skin Care". Pediatric Dermatology. 30 (1): 42–50. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2012.01865.x. PMID 22995032.
Jump up ^ Moore J, Kelsberg G, Safranek S (December 2012). "Clinical Inquiry: Do any topical agents help prevent or reduce stretch marks?". J Fam Pract. 61 (12): 757–8. PMID 23313995.
Jump up ^ "Soap Making from Scratch Workshop". Retrieved November 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The olive essence". Retrieved November 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Castile Olive Oil Soap, Spain, 2000 BCE". smith.edu. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Synthesis of Soap from Olive Oil" (PDF). webpages.uidaho.edu. 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "California olive oil is worth the splurge". ucanr.edu (Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources). Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Sameer Sapra; Andrey L. Rogach; Jochen Feldmann (2006). "Phosphine-free synthesis of monodisperse CdSe nanocrystals in olive oil". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 16 (33): 3391–3395. doi:10.1039/B607022A.
Jump up ^ "Olive Oil Times". Olive Oil Times. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "New U.S. Olive Oil Standards in Effect Today". Olive Oil Times. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ Durant, John (September 5, 2000). "U.S. Customs Department, Director Commercial Rulings Division – Country of origin marking of imported olive oil; 19 CFR 134.46; "imported by" language".
Jump up ^ "Reference to HQ 560944 ruling of the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) on April 27, 1999 blending of Spanish olive oil with Italian olive oil in Italy does not result in a substantial transformation of the Spanish product". United States International Trade Commission Rulings. February 28, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b McGee, Dennis. "Deceptive Olive Oil Labels on Major Brands (includes photos)". Retrieved November 9, 2008.
Jump up ^ Raymond Francis (1998). "The Olive Oil Scandal" (PDF). beyondhealth.com.
Jump up ^ Grossi, Marco; Lecce, Giuseppe Di; Toschi, Tullia Gallina; Ricco, Bruno (September 2014). "Fast and Accurate Determination of Olive Oil Acidity by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy". IEEE Sensors Journal. 14 (9): 2947–2954. doi:10.1109/JSEN.2014.2321323.
Jump up ^ Grossi, Marco; Di Lecce, Giuseppe; Arru, Marco; Gallina Toschi, Tullia; Riccò, Bruno (February 2015). "An opto-electronic system for in-situ determination of peroxide value and total phenol content in olive oil". Journal of Food Engineering. 146: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.08.015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bendini A, Cerretani L, Carrasco-Pancorbo A, Gómez-Caravaca AM, Segura-Carretero A, Fernández-Gutiérrez A, Lercker G (2007). "Phenolic molecules in virgin olive oils: a survey of their sensory properties, health effects, antioxidant activity and analytical methods. An overview of the last decade". Molecules. 12 (8): 1679–719. doi:10.3390/12081679. PMID 17960082. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The 101 of olive oil designations and definitions". Australian Olive Association. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Designations and definitions of olive oils". International Olive Council. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ "What is extra virgin olive oil?". Olive Oil Times. 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Olive Oil Production". Prosodol. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "United States Standard for Grades of Olive Oil". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved January 20, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "United States Standard for Grades of Olive Oil" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved January 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Bone density scan ... Olive oil ... Bursitis". Women's Health Advisor. 14 (7): 8. 2010.
Jump up ^ Deborah Bogle/Tom Mueller "Losing our Virginity" The Advertiser May 12, 2012 p. 11–14
Jump up ^ "Health Diaries". Retrieved September 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "California Olive Ranch". Retrieved September 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Προϊόντα Προστατευόμενης Ονομασίας Προέλευσης και Προστατευόμενης Γεωγραφικής Ένδειξης" [Protected Designation of Origin and Protected Geographical Indication] (in Greek).
Jump up ^ Drummond, Linda, Sunday Telegraph (Australia), October 17, 2010 Sunday, Features; p. 10.
Jump up ^ "Report SCUSI, LEI E' VERGINE?". rai.it.
Jump up ^ Tom Mueller (August 13, 2007). "Slippery Business". The New Yorker.
^ Jump up to: a b "EUbusiness.com". Archived from the original on March 9, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, Malcolm (May 7, 2007). "Murky Italian olive oil to be pored over". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ "草刈りは定期的に". Novaoliva.com. February 21, 2013. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Moore, Malcolm (March 5, 2008). "Italian police crack down on olive oil fraud". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ Pisa, Nick (April 22, 2008). "Forty arrested in new 'fake' olive oil scam". The Scotsman. Edinburgh.
Jump up ^ "Investigations Into Deodorized Olive Oils". Olive Oil Times. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Spanish Police Say Palm, Avocado, Sunflower Was Passed Off as Olive Oil". Olive Oil Times.
Jump up ^ Nadeau, Barbie Latza (2015-11-14). "Has the Italian Mafia Sold You Fake Extra Virgin Olive Oil?". The Daily Beast.
Jump up ^ Mueller, Tom (August 13, 2007). "Slippery Business". The New Yorker. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Whitaker, Bill. (3 January 2016). "Agromafia". 60 Minutes. Retrieved 3 January 2016. 10-minute video
Jump up ^ "Mafia Control of Olive Oil the Topic of '60 Minutes' Report". Olive Oil Times. 3 January 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2016. . Summary of CBS video
Jump up ^ "Olive Oil Consumption". About Olive Oil. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "FAOSTAT". faostat.fao.org.
Jump up ^ Ammar Assabah. "Olive Oil Market Trends" (PDF). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
Jump up ^ "California and World Olive Oil Statistics" (PDF). UC Davis. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 27, 2009. (Current link, Archive link to old address)
^ Jump up to: a b Williamson, Daniel (September 9, 2010). "Olive Pomace Oil: Not What You Might Think". Olive Oil Times.
Jump up ^ Hansen, Catherine (13 August 2014). "Environmental Impact of Olive Oil Processing Wastes". EcoMENA. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Olive Oil : Chemical Characteristics".
^ Jump up to: a b Beltran; et al. (2004). "Influence of Harvest Date and Crop Yield on the Fatty Acid Composition of Virgin Olive Oils from Cv. Picual" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "The phenolic compounds of olive oil: structure, biological activity and beneficial effects on human health". Retrieved September 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ Genovese A, Caporaso N, Villani V, Paduano A, Sacchi R (2015). "Olive oil phenolic compounds affect the release of aroma compounds". Food Chem. 181: 284–94. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.097. PMID 25794752. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Lozano-Sánchez J, Castro-Puyana M, Mendiola JA, Segura-Carretero A, Cifuentes A, Ibáñez E (2014). "Recovering bioactive compounds from olive oil filter cake by advanced extraction techniques". Int J Mol Sci. 15 (9): 16270–83. doi:10.3390/ijms150916270. PMC 4200768  . PMID 25226536. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ RW Owen, A Giacosa, WE Hull, R Haubner, B Spiegelhalder, H Bartsch (2000). "The antioxidant/anticancer potential of phenolic compounds isolated from olive oil". European Journal of Cancer. 36 (10): 1235–1247. doi:10.1016/S0959-8049(00)00103-9. PMID 10882862. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ RW Owen, W Mier, A Giacosa, WE Hull, B Spiegelhalder, H Bartsch (2000). "Identification of lignans as major components in the phenolic fraction of olive oil". Clinical Chemistry. 46 (7): 976–988. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "NDL/FNIC Food Composition Database Home Page". Nal.usda.gov. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Schwingshackl, L; Hoffmann, G (2014). "Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and health status: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies". Lipids in Health and Disease. 13: 154. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-13-154. PMC 4198773  . PMID 25274026.
Jump up ^ Keys A, Menotti A, Karvonen MJ, et al. (December 1986). "The diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 124 (6): 903–15. PMID 3776973.
Jump up ^ Buckland G, González CA (Apr 2015). "The role of olive oil in disease prevention: a focus on the recent epidemiological evidence from cohort studies and dietary intervention trials". Br J Nutr (Review). 113 Suppl 2: S94–101. doi:10.1017/S0007114514003936.
Jump up ^ European Food Safety Authority (2011). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to polyphenols in olive". EFSA Journal. 9 (4): 2033. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2033.
Jump up ^ European Food Safety Authority (2011). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to oleic acid intended to replace saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in foods or diets". EFSA Journal. 9 (4): 2043. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2043.
Jump up ^ "Commission Regulation (EU) No 432/2012 of 16 May 2012 establishing a list of permitted health claims made on foods, other than those referring to the reduction of disease risk and to children's development and health. Text with EEA relevance". Official Journal of the European Union. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Scientific Committee/Scientific Panel of the European Food Safety Authority (2011). "Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to olive oil and maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 1316, 1332), maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides (ID 1316, 1332), maintenance of normal blood HDL cholesterol concentrations (ID 1316, 1332) and maintenance of normal blood glucose concentrations (ID 4244) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006". EFSA Journal. European Commission. 9 (4): 2044 [19 pp]. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2044. Retrieved April 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Psaltopoulou T, Kosti RI, Haidopoulos D, Dimopoulos M, Panagiotakos DB (2011). "Olive oil intake is inversely related to cancer prevalence: a systematic review and a meta-analysis of 13,800 patients and 23,340 controls in 19 observational studies". Lipids Health Dis. 10: 127. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-10-127. PMC 3199852  . PMID 21801436.
Jump up ^ Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G (Oct 1, 2014). "Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and health status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies". Lipids Health Dis (Review). 13: 154. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-13-154. PMC 4198773  . PMID 25274026.
Jump up ^ "FDA Allows Qualified Health Claim to Decrease Risk of Coronary Heart Disease". US Food and Drug Administration. November 2004. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Brackett, RE (November 2004). "Letter Responding to Health Claim Petition dated August 28, 2003: Monounsaturated Fatty Acids from Olive Oil and Coronary Heart Disease (Docket No 2003Q-0559)". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved April 5, 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Olive oil
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Olive oil.
Caruso, Tiziano / Magnano di San Lio, Eugenio (eds.). La Sicilia dell'olio, Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania, 2008, ISBN 978-88-7751-281-9
Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford, 1999. ISBN 0-19-211579-0.
Mueller, Tom. Extra Virginity – The Sublime and Scandalous World of Olive Oil, Atlantic Books, London, 2012. ISBN 978-1-84887-004-8.
Pagnol, Jean. L'Olivier, Aubanel, 1975. ISBN 2-7006-0064-9.
Palumbo, Mary; Linda J. Harris (December 2011) "Microbiological Food Safety of Olive Oil: A Review of the Literature" (PDF), University of California, Davis
Preedy, V.R. / Watson, R.R. (eds.). Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-12-374420-3.
Rosenblum, Mort. Olives: The Life and Lore of a Noble Fruit, North Point Press, 1996. ISBN 0-86547-503-2.
CODEX STAN 33-1981 Standard for Olive Oils and Olive Pomace Oils
[show]
v
t
e
Edible fats and oils
Fats
Pork fats
Bacon fat
Fatback
Lardo
Salo
Salt pork
Szalonna
Lard
Lardon
Pork belly
Pancetta
Tocino
Speck
Beef/mutton fats
Dripping
Suet
Tallow
Tail fat
Dairy fats
Butter
Clarified butter
Ghee
Niter kibbeh
Smen
Poultry fats
Chicken fat
Duck fat
Schmaltz
Other animal fats
Blubber
Muktuk
Vegetable fats
Cocoa butter
Margarine
Shea butter
Vegetable shortening
Oils
Fish oils
Cod liver oil
Shark liver oil
Vegetable oils
Major oils
Coconut oil
Corn oil
Cottonseed oil
Olive oil
Palm oil
palm kernel oil
Peanut oil
Rapeseed oil
Canola oil and Colza oil (toxic oil syndrome)
Safflower oil
Soybean oil
Sunflower oil
Nut oils
Almond oil
Argan oil
Cashew oil
Hazelnut oil
Macadamia oil
Marula oil
Mongongo nut oil
Pecan oil
Pine nut oil
Pistachio oil
Walnut oil
Fruit and
seed oils
Ambadi seed oil
Avocado oil
Castor oil
Grape seed oil
Hemp oil
Linseed oil (flaxseed oil)
Mustard oil
Olive oil
Perilla oil
Poppyseed oil
Pumpkin seed oil
Rice bran oil
Sesame oil
Tea seed oil
Watermelon seed oil
See also
List of vegetable oils
Cooking oil
Essential oil
[show]
v
t
e
Olives
Cultivars
Aglandau
Arbequina
Arbosana
Bidni
Bosana
Bouteillan
Cailletier
Cayon
Cerignola
Empeltre
Gemlik-Tirilye
Germaine
Grossane
Hojiblanca
Kalamata
Koroneiki
Leccino
Lucques
Meslalla
Mission
Nocellara del Belice
Oliana
Olivière
Patrinia
Picholine
Picual
Sabine
Salonenque
Sikitita
Tanche
Topics
Amurca
Castile soap
International Olive Council
Olive color
Olive leaf
Olive oil
extraction
regulation and adulteration
Olive pomace oil
Orujo
Category
Commons
[show]
v
t
e
Salad dressings
Condiments
Balsamic vinegar
Honey mustard
Extra virgin olive oil
Lemon juice
Lime juice
Pumpkin seed oil
Vinaigrette
Types
Blue cheese
French
Ginger
Green goddess
Italian
Louis
Mayfair
Mayonnaise
Peanut
Ranch
Russian
Salad cream
Thousand Island
Wafu
Brand names
Hellmann's and Best Foods
Ken's Foods
Marie's
Miracle Whip
Naturally Fresh
Newman's Own
Seven Seas
Wish-Bone
[show]
v
t
e
Condiments
List of condiments
List of common dips
Condiments
Ajika
Ajvar
Amba
Anchovy paste
Balsamic vinegar
Balsamic Vinegar of Modena
Barbecue sauce
Biber salçası
Black vinegar
Blue cheese dressing
Brown sauce
Beurre Maître d'Hôtel
Buffalo sauce
Chili peppers
Cheese
Cheong
Jocheong
Maesil-cheong
Mogwa-cheong
Yuja-cheong
Chipotle
Chili oil
Chimichurri
Chrain
Chutney
Green mango chutney
Cocktail sauce
Colo-colo
Crema
Crushed red pepper
Dabu-dabu
Dip
Duck sauce
Duqqa
Fish paste
Fish sauce
Fritessaus
Fruit preserves
Fry sauce
Gochujang
Gomashio
Gravy
Guacamole
Hogao
Honey dill
Honey mustard
Horseradish
Hot sauce
Kachumbari
Kachumber
Kaymak
Khrenovina
Kyopolou
Lethocerus indicus
Ljutenica
Maafe
Mayonnaise
Mignonette sauce
Milkette
Monkey gland sauce
Muhammara
Mumbo sauce
Murri
Nam chim
Nam phrik
Nước chấm
Nutritional yeast
Olive oil
Oyster sauce
Pearà
Pepper jelly
Perilla oil
Pesto
Piccalilli
Pico de gallo
Pickle
Pickled fruit
Pindjur
Pistou
Ponzu
Popcorn seasoning
Ranch dressing
Relish
Remoulade
Marie Rose sauce
Salad cream
Salad dressing
Salad dressing spread
Salmoriglio
Salsa
Salsa golf
Salt and pepper
Satsivi
Sauerkraut
Sesame oil
Skyronnes
Soy sauce
Soup soy sauce
Sweet soy sauce
Steak sauce
Sumbala
Sweet chili sauce
Syrup
Tartar sauce
Tekka
Teriyaki sauce
Tiparos
Tkemali
Tomato jam
Toum
Vinegar
Vincotto
Wasabi
Watermelon rind preserves
Worcestershire sauce
Tonkatsu
XO sauce
Za'atar
Zacuscă
Zhug
Zingara sauce
Ketchups
Banana ketchup
Curry ketchup
Fruit ketchup
Mushroom ketchup
Mustards
Amora
Colman's
Dijon mustard
Düsseldorfer Löwensenf
French's
Grey Poupon
Gulden's
Keen's
Maille
Mostarda
National Mustard Museum
Plochman's
Stadium Mustard
Tewkesbury mustard
Thomy
Turun sinappi
Zatarain's
List articles
Accompaniments to french fries
Brand name condiments
Chutneys
Fish pastes
Fish sauces
Indian condiments
Japanese condiments
Mustard brands
Hot sauces
Pakistani condiments
Philippine condiments
Pickled foods
Misc.
Carolina style
Condiment
Cruet-stand
Mustard oil
Sachet
Salt and pepper shakers
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Mediterranean cuisine
Regions
Southern
Maghreb
Regional
Couscous
Algeria
Chakhchoukha
Libya
Bazin
Morocco
Méchoui
Tagine
Tunisia
Shakshouka
Egypt
Duqqa
Ful medames
Kushari
Mulukhiyah
Levant
Regional
Baba ghanoush
Hummus
Tabbouleh
Israel
Hamin
Lebanon
Kibbeh
Palestine
Musakhan
Syria
Apricot paste
Northern
Ottoman
Regional
Coffee
Pita
Shish kebab
Yogurt
Balkan
Jota
Cyprus
Halloumi
Greece
Kleftiko
Moussaka
Turkey
Börek
Italian
Regional
Pasta
Pizza
Liguria
Ciuppin
Focaccia
Pesto
Ravioli
Abruzzo
Gnocchi
Naples
Neapolitan ragù
Pasta e fagioli
Rome
Carbonara
Tuscany
Ribollita
Sicily
Caponata
Marsala
Pasta alla Norma
Scaccia
Veneto
Polenta
Risotto
French
Corsica
Capicollu
Occitan
Cassoulet
Provence
Bouillabaisse
Ratatouille
Salade niçoise
Spanish
Andalusia
Gazpacho
Sherry
Balearics
Caldereta
Tombet
Catalonia
Escalivada
Escudella
Ollada
Valencia
Paella
Other
Malta
Gibraltar
Staples
Wheat
Bread
Couscous
Pasta
Pizza
Semolina
Olive
Olive oil
Grape
Wine
Shared
Bottarga
Lamb
Anise spirits
Exemplars
Elizabeth David
A Book of Mediterranean Food
Authority control
GND: 4202972-7
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olive_oil&oldid=842582417"
Categories:
Olive oil
Cooking oils
Mediterranean cuisine
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text
Articles containing Mycenaean Greek-language text
CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter
CS1 Greek-language sources (el)
Use mdy dates from February 2015
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2009
Articles needing additional references from June 2017
All articles needing additional references
Articles needing additional references from January 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016
Articles needing additional references from June 2016
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Armãneashti
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Cebuano
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Estremeñu
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
ქართული
Қазақша
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Livvinkarjala
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
日本語
Napulitano
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Sardu
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
ייִדיש
粵語
中文
68 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 23 May 2018, at 11:07.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: caption

values:
mbox-text plainlist
vertical-align:middle; font-size:95%;

values: background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000;width: 22em;

values:
/wiki/Salad_dressing
mw-redirect
Salad dressing

values:
/wiki/Archaeological_evidence
mw-redirect
Archaeological evidence

values:
/wiki/Late_Minoan
mw-redirect
Late Minoan

values:
/wiki/Early_Minoan
mw-redirect
Early Minoan

values:
/wiki/Genetic_studies
mw-redirect
Genetic studies

values:
/wiki/Naxos_Island
mw-redirect
Naxos Island

values:
/wiki/Making_soap
mw-redirect
Making soap

values:
/wiki/Iberian_peninsula
mw-redirect
Iberian peninsula

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Cuisine_of_ancient_Rome
mw-redirect
Cuisine of ancient Rome

values:
wikitable
float:right; clear:left; width:15em;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/Oil_of_Catechumens
mw-redirect
Oil of Catechumens

values:
/wiki/Balsam_of_Mecca
mw-redirect
Balsam of Mecca

values:
/wiki/Confirmation_(sacrament)
mw-redirect
Confirmation (sacrament)

values:
/wiki/Holy_Orders
mw-redirect
Holy Orders

values: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

values:
/wiki/Protected_designation_of_origin
mw-redirect
Protected designation of origin

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values:
/wiki/Free_fatty_acids
mw-redirect
Free fatty acids

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)

values:
/wiki/Free_radicals
mw-redirect
Free radicals

values:
/wiki/Sensory_perception
mw-redirect
Sensory perception

values: Edit section: International Olive Council

values:
/wiki/Olive_Pomace_Oil
mw-redirect
Olive Pomace Oil

values:
/wiki/Organised_crime
mw-redirect
Organised crime

values:
/wiki/Alkyl_group
mw-redirect
Alkyl group

values:
/wiki/%CE%91-Linolenic_acid
mw-redirect
Α-Linolenic acid

values:
/wiki/Bitter_(taste)
mw-redirect
Bitter (taste)

values:
/wiki/Daily_Value
mw-redirect
Daily Value

values:
/wiki/Cardiovascular_health
mw-redirect
Cardiovascular health

values:
/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease
mw-redirect
Coronary heart disease

values:
/wiki/Blood_glucose
mw-redirect
Blood glucose

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Dip_(food)#List_of_common_dips
mw-redirect
Dip (food)

values:
/wiki/Syllabic_script
mw-redirect
Syllabic script

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QD

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13593-013-0198-x

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.5114%2Faoms.2010.17074

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22419918

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21388045

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18429773

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22995032

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23313995

values:
nofollow
external text
http://ucanr.edu/?story=79

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039%2FB607022A

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1109%2FJSEN.2014.2321323

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/12/8/1679

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3390%2F12081679

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17960082

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.prosodol.gr/?q=node/203

values:
nofollow
external text
http://hera.ugr.es/doi/15058025.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25794752

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3390%2Fijms150916270

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25226536

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10882862

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-511X-13-154

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25274026

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3776973

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2011.2033

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2011.2043

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2011.2044

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-511X-10-127

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21801436

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Duck_(food)
mw-redirect
Duck (food)

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
navbox-image
2
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Lemon_juice
mw-redirect
Lemon juice

values:
navbox-image
3
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Kraft_foods
mw-redirect
Kraft foods

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Balsamic_Vinegar_of_Modena
mw-redirect
Balsamic Vinegar of Modena

values:
/wiki/Buffalo_sauce
mw-redirect
Buffalo sauce

values:
/wiki/Honey_mustard
mw-redirect
Honey mustard

values:
/wiki/Salad_dressing_spread
mw-redirect
Salad dressing spread

values:
navbox-image
5
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Sachet_(scented_bag)
mw-redirect
Sachet (scented bag)

values: navigation navbox Condiments padding:3px

values: Template talk:Cuisine of the Mediterranean

values:
/wiki/Algerian_cuisine
mw-redirect
Algerian cuisine

values:
/wiki/Jota_(food)
mw-redirect
Jota (food)

values:
/wiki/Ligurian_cuisine
mw-redirect
Ligurian cuisine

values:
/wiki/Tuscan_cuisine
mw-redirect
Tuscan cuisine

values:
/wiki/Provencal_cuisine
mw-redirect
Provencal cuisine

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4202972-7

values: Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek-language text

values: Category:Articles containing Mycenaean Greek-language text

values: Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)

values: Category:CS1 Greek-language sources (el)

values: Category:Use mdy dates from February 2015

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2009

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from June 2017

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from June 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Olive_oil
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: زيت زيتون – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: Зәйтүн майы – Bashkir

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ba
display: none;

values: Аліўкавы алей – Belarusian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Ελαιόλαδο – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliv-oleo
Oliv-oleo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ext
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: روغن زیتون – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hak
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: जैतून का तेल – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: שמן זית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: ಆಲಿವ್ ಎಣ್ಣೆ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: ზეითუნის ზეთი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Зәйтүн майы – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleum
Oleum – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-olo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Маслиново масло – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: ഒലിവെണ്ണ – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: ऑलिव्ह तेल – Marathi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-arz
display: none;

values: သံလွင်ဆီ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olijfolie
Olijfolie – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: オリーブ・オイル – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nap
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeite
Azeite – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Оливковое масло – Russian

values: जिततैलम् – Sanskrit

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Маслиново уље – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivolja
Olivolja – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: ஆலிவ் எண்ணெய் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: Зәйтүн мае – Tatar

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

values: ఆలివ్ నూనె – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: น้ำมันมะกอก – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Оливкова олія – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: שמן־זית – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Olive_oil rootpage-Olive_oil skin-vector action-view


text:
Crown-rump length
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
An ultrasound showing a fetus measured to have a crown-rump length of 1.67 cm, and estimated to have a gestational age of 9 weeks and 2 days
Crown-rump length (CRL) is the measurement of the length of human embryos and fetuses from the top of the head (crown) to the bottom of the buttocks (rump). It is typically determined from ultrasound imagery and can be used to estimate gestational age.
Contents
1 Measuring
1.1 Typical measurements
2 See also
3 References
Measuring[edit]
Diagram showing crown-rump length by gestational age. The blue line is the mean and the green area delimits the 3rd versus the 97th percentile.[1]
The embryo and fetus float in the amniotic fluid inside the uterus of the mother usually in a curved posture resembling the letter C. The measurement can actually vary slightly if the fetus is temporarily stretching (straightening) its body. The measurement needs to be in the natural state with an unstretched body which is actually C shaped. The measurement of CRL is useful in determining the gestational age (menstrual age starting from the first day of the last menstrual period) and thus the expected date of delivery (EDD). Different babies do grow at different rates and thus the gestational age is an approximation. Recent evidence has indicated that CRL growth (and thus the approximation of gestational age) may be influenced by maternal factors such as age, smoking, and folic acid intake. Early in pregnancy it is accurate within +/- 4 days but later in pregnancy due to different growth rates, the accuracy is less. In that situation, other parameters can be used in addition to CRL. The length of the umbilical cord is approximately equal to the CRL throughout pregnancy.
Gestational age is not the same as fertilization age. It takes about 14 days from the first day of the last menstrual period for conception to take place and thus for the conceptus to form. The age from this point in time (conception) is called the fertilization age and is thus 2 weeks shorter than the gestational age. Thus a 6-week gestational age would be a 4-week fertilization age. Some authorities however casually interchange these terms[citation needed] and the reader is advised to be cautious. An average gestational period (duration of pregnancy from the first day of the last menstrual period up to delivery) is 280 days. On average, this is 9 months and 6 days.
Typical measurements[edit]
Gestational Age for CRL
Age
CRL
6.1 Weeks: 0.45 cm
7.1 Weeks: 1.0 cm
8.0 Weeks: 1.9 cm
9.2 Weeks: 2.15 cm
9.6 Weeks: 2.9 cm
10.5 Weeks: 4.0 cm
12.2 Weeks: 5.5 cm
13.2 Weeks: 6.90 cm
14.0 Weeks: 8.0 cm
The following formula is an approximation that can be used up to 14 weeks of gestational age, with CRL in mm and gestational age in days:[2]
Gestational age = (CRL x 1.037)0.5 x 8.052 + 23.73
See also[edit]
Obstetric ultrasonography
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ohuma EO, Papageorghiou AT, Villar J, Altman DG (2013). "Estimation of gestational age in early pregnancy from crown-rump length when gestational age range is truncated: the case study of the INTERGROWTH-21st Project". BMC Med Res Methodol. 13: 151. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-13-151. PMC 4029763. PMID 24314232.
Crown rump length before a gestational age of 9 weeks is extrapolated by assuming a crown rump length of 0 at a gestational age of 2 weeks, corresponding to an embryonic age of 0 weeks. This extrapolated part is blurred because of uncertain values.
Jump up ^ Loughna, Pam; Chitty, Lyn; Evans, Tony; Chudleigh, Trish (2009). "Fetal Size and Dating: Charts Recommended for Clinical Obstetric Practice". Ultrasound. 17 (3): 160–166. doi:10.1179/174313409X448543. ISSN 1742-271X.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crown-rump_length&oldid=865255842"
Categories:
Obstetrics
Embryology
Midwifery
Hidden categories:
Articles lacking in-text citations from June 2011
All articles lacking in-text citations
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2007
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Deutsch
Español
Polski
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 22 October 2018, at 19:15 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

value: td

attrs: href title

value: b

values: Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check

value: span

value: i

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-No_footnotes

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Conception_(biology)
mw-redirect
Conception (biology)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2007)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24314232

values:
/wiki/Embryonic_age
mw-redirect
Embryonic age

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1179%2F174313409X448543

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1742-271X

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Articles lacking in-text citations from June 2011

values: Category:All articles lacking in-text citations

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2007

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Crown-rump_length
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: طول تاجي مقعدي – Arabic

values: Odległość ciemieniowo-siedzeniowa – Polish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Crown-rump_length rootpage-Crown-rump_length skin-vector action-view