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2018 FIFA World Cup disciplinary record
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See also: 2018 FIFA World Cup statistics
In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, which took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018, the main disciplinary actions taken against players came in the form of red and yellow cards.
A player sanctioned with a red card was sent off from the pitch and could not be replaced. Furthermore, the player was automatically banned from his team's next match. After a straight red card, FIFA conducted a hearing and considered extending this ban beyond one match. If the ban extended beyond the end of the World Cup finals (for example, a player was sent off in his team's last match), it had to be served in the team's next competitive international match(es).
A player also received a one match ban if he picked up a single yellow card in two different games from the beginning of the group stage until the end of the quarter-finals, where single yellow cards were negated.[1] However, such a ban did not carry over beyond the World Cup finals if the second yellow card was collected in his team's last match.[2]
Contents
1 Disciplinary statistics
2 Sanctions
2.1 By match
2.2 By referee
2.3 By team
2.4 By player
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Disciplinary statistics[edit]
Total number of yellow cards: 219
Average yellow cards per match: 3.42
Total number of red cards: 4
Average red cards per match: 0.06
First yellow card of the tournament:
Aleksandr Golovin for Russia against Saudi Arabia
First red card of the tournament:
Carlos Sánchez Moreno for Colombia against Japan
Fastest yellow card from kick off: 1st minute
Fastest yellow card after coming on as a substitute: 1st minute
Latest yellow card in a match without extra time: 90+8th minute
Aleksandar Prijović for Serbia against Costa Rica, Cédric Soares for Portugal against Iran
Latest yellow card in a match with extra time: 118th minute
Fastest dismissal from kick off: 3rd minute
Latest dismissal in a match without extra time: 90+4th minute
Shortest time difference between two yellow cards given to the same player: 9 minutes
Igor Smolnikov for Russia against Uruguay (booked in the 27th minute and again in the 36th minute)
Most yellow cards (team): 15
Croatia
Most red cards (team): 1
Colombia, Germany, Russia, Switzerland
Fewest yellow cards (team): 1
Saudi Arabia
Most yellow cards (player): 3
Sebastian Larsson
Most red cards (player): 1
Jérôme Boateng, Michael Lang, Carlos Sánchez Moreno, Igor Smolnikov
Most yellow cards (match): 8
Belgium vs Panama, France vs Argentina, Colombia vs England
Most red cards (match): 1
Colombia vs Japan, Germany vs Sweden, Uruguay vs Russia, Sweden vs Switzerland
Fewest yellow cards (match): 0
Argentina vs Iceland, Uruguay vs Saudi Arabia
Most cards in one match: 8 yellow cards
Belgium vs Panama, France vs Argentina, Colombia vs England
Sanctions[edit]
By match[edit]
Day
Home
Score
Away
Round
Referee
Total cards
Group stage
Day 01 Russia 5–0 Saudi Arabia Group A Néstor Pitana 2 2 0 0
Day 02 Egypt 0–1 Uruguay Group A Björn Kuipers 2 2 0 0
Day 02 Morocco 0–1 Iran Group B Cüneyt Çakır 4 4 0 0
Day 02 Portugal 3–3 Spain Group B Gianluca Rocchi 2 2 0 0
Day 03 France 2–1 Australia Group C Andrés Cunha 4 4 0 0
Day 03 Argentina 1–1 Iceland Group D Szymon Marciniak 0 0 0 0
Day 03 Peru 0–1 Denmark Group C Bakary Gassama 3 3 0 0
Day 03 Croatia 2–0 Nigeria Group D Sandro Ricci 3 3 0 0
Day 04 Costa Rica 0–1 Serbia Group E Malang Diedhiou 4 4 0 0
Day 04 Germany 0–1 Mexico Group F Alireza Faghani 4 4 0 0
Day 04 Brazil 1–1 Switzerland Group E César Arturo Ramos 4 4 0 0
Day 05 Sweden 1–0 South Korea Group F Joel Aguilar 3 3 0 0
Day 05 Belgium 3–0 Panama Group G Janny Sikazwe 8 8 0 0
Day 05 Tunisia 1–2 England Group G Wilmar Roldán 1 1 0 0
Day 06 Colombia 1–2 Japan Group H Damir Skomina 4 3 0 1
Day 06 Poland 1–2 Senegal Group H Nawaf Shukralla 3 3 0 0
Day 06 Russia 3–1 Egypt Group A Enrique Cáceres 2 2 0 0
Day 07 Portugal 1–0 Morocco Group B Mark Geiger 2 2 0 0
Day 07 Uruguay 1–0 Saudi Arabia Group A Clément Turpin 0 0 0 0
Day 07 Iran 0–1 Spain Group B Andrés Cunha 2 2 0 0
Day 08 Denmark 1–1 Australia Group C Antonio Mateu Lahoz 2 2 0 0
Day 08 France 1–0 Peru Group C Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed 4 4 0 0
Day 08 Argentina 0–3 Croatia Group D Ravshan Irmatov 7 7 0 0
Day 09 Brazil 2–0 Costa Rica Group E Björn Kuipers 3 3 0 0
Day 09 Nigeria 2–0 Iceland Group D Matthew Conger 1 1 0 0
Day 09 Serbia 1–2 Switzerland Group E Felix Brych 5 5 0 0
Day 10 Belgium 5–2 Tunisia Group G Jair Marrufo 1 1 0 0
Day 10 South Korea 1–2 Mexico Group F Milorad Mažić 4 4 0 0
Day 10 Germany 2–1 Sweden Group F Szymon Marciniak 3 2 1 0
Day 11 England 6–1 Panama Group G Gehad Grisha 4 4 0 0
Day 11 Japan 2–2 Senegal Group H Gianluca Rocchi 5 5 0 0
Day 11 Poland 0–3 Colombia Group H César Arturo Ramos 2 2 0 0
Day 12 Uruguay 3–0 Russia Group A Malang Diedhiou 3 2 1 0
Day 12 Saudi Arabia 2–1 Egypt Group A Wilmar Roldán 2 2 0 0
Day 12 Iran 1–1 Portugal Group B Enrique Cáceres 6 6 0 0
Day 12 Spain 2–2 Morocco Group B Ravshan Irmatov 6 6 0 0
Day 13 Denmark 0–0 France Group C Sandro Ricci 1 1 0 0
Day 13 Australia 0–2 Peru Group C Sergei Karasev 6 6 0 0
Day 13 Nigeria 1–2 Argentina Group D Cüneyt Çakır 5 5 0 0
Day 13 Iceland 1–2 Croatia Group D Antonio Mateu Lahoz 5 5 0 0
Day 14 South Korea 2–0 Germany Group F Mark Geiger 4 4 0 0
Day 14 Mexico 0–3 Sweden Group F Néstor Pitana 5 5 0 0
Day 14 Serbia 0–2 Brazil Group E Alireza Faghani 3 3 0 0
Day 14 Switzerland 2–2 Costa Rica Group E Clément Turpin 6 6 0 0
Day 15 Japan 0–1 Poland Group H Janny Sikazwe 1 1 0 0
Day 15 Senegal 0–1 Colombia Group H Milorad Mažić 2 2 0 0
Day 15 England 0–1 Belgium Group G Damir Skomina 2 2 0 0
Day 15 Panama 1–2 Tunisia Group G Nawaf Shukralla 6 6 0 0
Knockout stage
Day 16 France 4–3 Argentina Round of 16 Alireza Faghani 8 8 0 0
Day 16 Uruguay 2–1 Portugal Round of 16 César Arturo Ramos 1 1 0 0
Day 17 Spain 1–1 aet
(3–4 p) Russia Round of 16 Björn Kuipers 3 3 0 0
Day 17 Croatia 1–1 aet
(3–2 p) Denmark Round of 16 Néstor Pitana 1 1 0 0
Day 18 Brazil 2–0 Mexico Round of 16 Gianluca Rocchi 6 6 0 0
Day 18 Belgium 3–2 Japan Round of 16 Malang Diedhiou 1 1 0 0
Day 19 Sweden 1–0 Switzerland Round of 16 Damir Skomina 4 3 0 1
Day 19 Colombia 1–1 aet
(3–4 p) England Round of 16 Mark Geiger 8 8 0 0
Day 20 Uruguay 0–2 France Quarter-finals Néstor Pitana 4 4 0 0
Day 20 Brazil 1–2 Belgium Quarter-finals Milorad Mažić 4 4 0 0
Day 21 Sweden 0–2 England Quarter-finals Björn Kuipers 3 3 0 0
Day 21 Russia 2–2 aet
(3–4 p) Croatia Quarter-finals Sandro Ricci 5 5 0 0
Day 22 France 1–0 Belgium Semi-finals Andrés Cunha 5 5 0 0
Day 23 Croatia 2–1 aet England Semi-finals Cüneyt Çakır 3 3 0 0
Day 24 Belgium 2–0 England Third place play-off Alireza Faghani 3 3 0 0
Day 25 France 4–2 Croatia Final Néstor Pitana 3 3 0 0
Source: [3]
By referee[edit]
Referee
Country
Matches
PKs awarded
Damir Skomina Slovenia 3 2 0 8 1
Malang Diedhiou Senegal 3 0 1 7 0
Szymon Marciniak Poland 2 0 1 2 1
Alireza Faghani Iran 4 0 0 18 1
Néstor Pitana Argentina 5 0 0 15 3
Mark Geiger United States 3 0 0 14 1
Ravshan Irmatov Uzbekistan 2 0 0 13 0
Gianluca Rocchi Italy 3 0 0 13 1
Cüneyt Çakır Turkey 3 0 0 12 1
Andrés Cunha Uruguay 3 0 0 11 2
Björn Kuipers Netherlands 4 0 0 11 1
Milorad Mažić Serbia 3 0 0 10 1
Sandro Ricci Brazil 3 0 0 9 1
Nawaf Shukralla Bahrain 2 0 0 9 0
Janny Sikazwe Zambia 2 0 0 9 0
Enrique Cáceres Paraguay 2 0 0 8 3
Antonio Mateu Lahoz Spain 2 0 0 7 2
César Arturo Ramos Mexico 3 0 0 7 0
Sergei Karasev Russia 1 0 0 6 0
Clément Turpin France 2 0 0 6 1
Felix Brych Germany 1 0 0 5 0
Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed United Arab Emirates 1 0 0 4 0
Gehad Grisha Egypt 1 0 0 4 2
Joel Aguilar El Salvador 1 0 0 3 1
Bakary Gassama Gambia 1 0 0 3 1
Wilmar Roldán Colombia 2 0 0 3 3
Matthew Conger New Zealand 1 0 0 1 1
Jair Marrufo United States 1 0 0 1 1
By team[edit]
Team
Red cards
Players suspended for World Cup matches
Colombia 1 0 9 Carlos Sánchez Moreno vs Japan (GS) (denying a goal by handling) Carlos Sánchez Moreno vs Poland (GS)
Switzerland 1 0 9 Michael Lang vs Sweden (R16) (denying a goalscoring chance) Stephan Lichtsteiner and Fabian Schär vs Sweden (R16)[note 1]
Russia 0 1 6 Igor Smolnikov vs Uruguay (GS) Igor Smolnikov vs Spain (R16)
Germany 0 1 2 Jérôme Boateng vs Sweden (GS) Jérôme Boateng vs South Korea (GS)
Croatia 0 0 15
France 0 0 12 Blaise Matuidi vs Uruguay (QF)
Argentina 0 0 11
Belgium 0 0 11 Thomas Meunier vs France (SF)
Panama 0 0 11 Armando Cooper and Michael Amir Murillo vs Tunisia (GS)
South Korea 0 0 10
Mexico 0 0 9 Héctor Moreno vs Brazil (R16)
Serbia 0 0 9
England 0 0 8
Morocco 0 0 8
Sweden 0 0 8 Sebastian Larsson vs Switzerland (R16)
Mikael Lustig vs England (QF)
Australia 0 0 7
Brazil 0 0 7 Casemiro vs Belgium (QF)
Iran 0 0 7
Portugal 0 0 7
Costa Rica 0 0 6
Denmark 0 0 6 Yussuf Poulsen vs France (GS)
Senegal 0 0 6
Egypt 0 0 5
Japan 0 0 5
Peru 0 0 5
Nigeria 0 0 4
Tunisia 0 0 4
Iceland 0 0 3
Poland 0 0 3
Uruguay 0 0 3
Spain 0 0 2
Saudi Arabia 0 0 1
By player[edit]
Name
Team
Suspended for match(es):
Carlos Sánchez Moreno Colombia 1 0 1 vs Poland (GS)
Michael Lang Switzerland 1 0 0 [note 1]
Jérôme Boateng Germany 0 1 0 vs South Korea (GS)
Igor Smolnikov Russia 0 1 0 vs Spain (R16)
Sebastian Larsson Sweden 0 0 3 vs Switzerland (R16)
Toby Alderweireld Belgium 0 0 2
Éver Banega Argentina 0 0 2
Wílmar Barrios Colombia 0 0 2
Valon Behrami Switzerland 0 0 2
Rodrigo Bentancur Uruguay 0 0 2
Casemiro Brazil 0 0 2 vs Belgium (QF)
Armando Cooper Panama 0 0 2 vs Tunisia (GS)
Karim El Ahmadi Morocco 0 0 2
Yury Gazinsky Russia 0 0 2
Lucas Hernández France 0 0 2
Héctor Herrera Mexico 0 0 2
Mathias Jørgensen Denmark 0 0 2
Jung Woo-young South Korea 0 0 2
N'Golo Kanté France 0 0 2
Stephan Lichtsteiner Switzerland 0 0 2 vs Sweden (R16)
Mikael Lustig Sweden 0 0 2 vs England (QF)
Harry Maguire England 0 0 2
Mario Mandžukić Croatia 0 0 2
Javier Mascherano Argentina 0 0 2
Nemanja Matić Serbia 0 0 2
Blaise Matuidi France 0 0 2 vs Uruguay (QF)
Kylian Mbappé France 0 0 2
Thomas Meunier Belgium 0 0 2 vs France (SF)
Aleksandar Mitrović Serbia 0 0 2
Héctor Moreno Mexico 0 0 2 vs Brazil (R16)
Michael Amir Murillo Panama 0 0 2 vs Tunisia (GS)
M'Baye Niang Senegal 0 0 2
Nicolás Otamendi Argentina 0 0 2
Yussuf Poulsen Denmark 0 0 2 vs France (GS)
Ante Rebić Croatia 0 0 2
Cristiano Ronaldo Portugal 0 0 2
Ferjani Sassi Tunisia 0 0 2
Fabian Schär Switzerland 0 0 2 vs Sweden (R16)
Jan Vertonghen Belgium 0 0 2
Šime Vrsaljko Croatia 0 0 2
Kyle Walker England 0 0 2
Johnny Acosta Costa Rica 0 0 1
Marcos Acuña Argentina 0 0 1
Taisir Al-Jassim Saudi Arabia 0 0 1
Edson Álvarez Mexico 0 0 1
Vahid Amiri Iran 0 0 1
Nordin Amrabat Morocco 0 0 1
Karim Ansarifard Iran 0 0 1
Pedro Aquino Peru 0 0 1
Santiago Arias Colombia 0 0 1
Daniel Arzani Australia 0 0 1
Ricardo Ávila Panama 0 0 1
Sardar Azmoun Iran 0 0 1
Carlos Bacca Colombia 0 0 1
Anice Badri Tunisia 0 0 1
Leon Balogun Nigeria 0 0 1
Édgar Yoel Bárcenas Panama 0 0 1
Jan Bednarek Poland 0 0 1
Aziz Behich Australia 0 0 1
Medhi Benatia Morocco 0 0 1
Mbark Boussoufa Morocco 0 0 1
Marcelo Brozović Croatia 0 0 1
Sergio Busquets Spain 0 0 1
Francisco Calvo Costa Rica 0 0 1
Joel Campbell Costa Rica 0 0 1
Cédric Soares Portugal 0 0 1
Ghailene Chaalali Tunisia 0 0 1
Viktor Claesson Sweden 0 0 1
Vedran Ćorluka Croatia 0 0 1
Philippe Coutinho Brazil 0 0 1
Juan Cuadrado Colombia 0 0 1
Manuel da Costa Morocco 0 0 1
Erick Davis Panama 0 0 1
Kevin De Bruyne Belgium 0 0 1
Thomas Delaney Denmark 0 0 1
Leander Dendoncker Belgium 0 0 1
Omid Ebrahimi Iran 0 0 1
Albin Ekdal Sweden 0 0 1
Fidel Escobar Panama 0 0 1
Fagner Conserva Lemos Brazil 0 0 1
Radamel Falcao Colombia 0 0 1
Ahmed Fathy Egypt 0 0 1
Bruno Fernandes Portugal 0 0 1
Fernandinho Brazil 0 0 1
Filipe Luís Brazil 0 0 1
Alfreð Finnbogason Iceland 0 0 1
Ali Gabr Egypt 0 0 1
Jesús Gallardo Mexico 0 0 1
Cristian Gamboa Costa Rica 0 0 1
Olivier Giroud France 0 0 1
Aníbal Godoy Panama 0 0 1
Aleksandr Golovin Russia 0 0 1
Gabriel Gómez Panama 0 0 1
Jacek Góralski Poland 0 0 1
Andrés Guardado Mexico 0 0 1
Raphaël Guerreiro Portugal 0 0 1
Paolo Guerrero Peru 0 0 1
Idrissa Gueye Senegal 0 0 1
John Guidetti Sweden 0 0 1
David Guzmán Costa Rica 0 0 1
Ehsan Hajsafi Iran 0 0 1
Achraf Hakimi Morocco 0 0 1
Emil Hallfreðsson Iceland 0 0 1
Eden Hazard Belgium 0 0 1
Makoto Hasebe Japan 0 0 1
Ahmed Hegazi Egypt 0 0 1
Jordan Henderson England 0 0 1
Mats Hummels Germany 0 0 1
Paolo Hurtado Peru 0 0 1
Hwang Hee-chan South Korea 0 0 1
Brian Idowu Nigeria 0 0 1
Takashi Inui Japan 0 0 1
Branislav Ivanović Serbia 0 0 1
Alireza Jahanbakhsh Iran 0 0 1
Mile Jedinak Australia 0 0 1
Tin Jedvaj Croatia 0 0 1
Eiji Kawashima Japan 0 0 1
Kim Shin-wook South Korea 0 0 1
Kim Young-gwon South Korea 0 0 1
Grzegorz Krychowiak Poland 0 0 1
Ilya Kutepov Russia 0 0 1
Miguel Layún Mexico 0 0 1
Mathew Leckie Australia 0 0 1
Lee Jae-sung South Korea 0 0 1
Lee Seung-woo South Korea 0 0 1
Lee Yong South Korea 0 0 1
Jesse Lingard England 0 0 1
Adem Ljajić Serbia 0 0 1
Ruben Loftus-Cheek England 0 0 1
Dejan Lovren Croatia 0 0 1
Tomoaki Makino Japan 0 0 1
Gabriel Mercado Argentina 0 0 1
Lionel Messi Argentina 0 0 1
John Obi Mikel Nigeria 0 0 1
Mark Milligan Australia 0 0 1
Sergej Milinković-Savić Serbia 0 0 1
Luka Milivojević Serbia 0 0 1
Johan Mojica Colombia 0 0 1
Moon Seon-min South Korea 0 0 1
Sam Morsy Egypt 0 0 1
Thomas Müller Germany 0 0 1
Munir Mohand Mohamedi Morocco 0 0 1
Cheikh N'Doye Senegal 0 0 1
Neymar Brazil 0 0 1
Benjamin Pavard France 0 0 1
Gerard Piqué Spain 0 0 1
Josip Pivarić Croatia 0 0 1
Marko Pjaca Croatia 0 0 1
Paul Pogba France 0 0 1
Aleksandar Prijović Serbia 0 0 1
Ricardo Quaresma Portugal 0 0 1
Ivan Rakitić Croatia 0 0 1
Josh Risdon Australia 0 0 1
Cristian Rodríguez Uruguay 0 0 1
James Rodríguez Colombia 0 0 1
Tom Rogic Australia 0 0 1
Marcos Rojo Argentina 0 0 1
Youssouf Sabaly Senegal 0 0 1
Birkir Már Sævarsson Iceland 0 0 1
Carlos Salcedo Mexico 0 0 1
Salif Sané Senegal 0 0 1
Xherdan Shaqiri Switzerland 0 0 1
Masoud Shojaei Iran 0 0 1
Gaku Shibasaki Japan 0 0 1
Adrien Silva Portugal 0 0 1
Pione Sisto Denmark 0 0 1
Fyodor Smolov Russia 0 0 1
Son Heung-min South Korea 0 0 1
John Stones England 0 0 1
Ivan Strinić Croatia 0 0 1
Nicolás Tagliafico Argentina 0 0 1
Renato Tapia Peru 0 0 1
Youri Tielemans Belgium 0 0 1
Luis Tejada Panama 0 0 1
Corentin Tolisso France 0 0 1
Trézéguet Egypt 0 0 1
William Troost-Ekong Nigeria 0 0 1
Domagoj Vida Croatia 0 0 1
Kendall Waston Costa Rica 0 0 1
Axel Witsel Belgium 0 0 1
Granit Xhaka Switzerland 0 0 1
Yoshimar Yotún Peru 0 0 1
Denis Zakaria Switzerland 0 0 1
Roman Zobnin Russia 0 0 1
Source: [3]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b As Lang was sent off in Switzerland's last match of the tournament, he will serve a suspension during the next competitive game of Switzerland (vs Iceland in 2018–19 UEFA Nations League).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "What if...?". FIFA. 20 June 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "FIFA Disciplinary Code 2017 edition, art. 38" (PDF). FIFA. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "FIFA World Cup Statistics". ESPN. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to FIFA World Cup 2018.
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Sensory nervous system
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Sensory nervous system
Typical sensory system: the visual system, illustrated by the classic Gray's FIG. 722– This scheme shows the flow of information from the eyes to the central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts, to the visual cortex. Area V1 is the region of the brain which is engaged in vision.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
organa sensuum
MeSH
D012679
TA
A15.0.00.000
FMA
75259
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The visual system and the somatosensory system are active even during resting state fMRI
Activation and response in the sensory nervous system
The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory neurons (including the sensory receptor cells), neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, and balance. In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind where we interpret the information, creating our perception of the world around us.[1]
Organisms need information to solve at least three kinds of problems: (a) to maintain an appropriate environment, i.e., homeostasis; (b) to time activities (e.g., seasonal changes in behavior) or synchronize activities with those of conspecifics; and (c) to locate and respond to resources or threats (e.g., by moving towards resources or evading or attacking threats). Organisms also need to transmit information in order to influence another's behavior: to identify themselves, warn conspecifics of danger, coordinate activities, or deceive.[2]
The receptive field is the area of the body or environment to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field.[3] Receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system.
Contents
[hide]
1 Stimulus
2 Senses and receptors
2.1 Receptors
2.2 Chemoreceptors
2.3 Photoreceptors
2.4 Mechanoreceptors
2.5 Thermoreceptors
2.6 Nociceptors
3 Sensory cortex
3.1 Somatosensory cortex
3.2 Visual cortex
3.3 Auditory cortex
3.4 Primary olfactory cortex
3.5 Gustatory cortex
4 Human sensory system
5 Diseases
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Stimulus[edit]
Sensory systems code for four aspects of a stimulus; type (modality), intensity, location, and duration. Arrival time of a sound pulse and phase differences of continuous sound are used for sound localization. Certain receptors are sensitive to certain types of stimuli (for example, different mechanoreceptors respond best to different kinds of touch stimuli, like sharp or blunt objects). Receptors send impulses in certain patterns to send information about the intensity of a stimulus (for example, how loud a sound is). The location of the receptor that is stimulated gives the brain information about the location of the stimulus (for example, stimulating a mechanoreceptor in a finger will send information to the brain about that finger). The duration of the stimulus (how long it lasts) is conveyed by firing patterns of receptors. These impulses are transmitted to the brain through afferent neurons.
Senses and receptors[edit]
While debate exists among neurologists as to the specific number of senses due to differing definitions of what constitutes a sense, Gautama Buddha and Aristotle classified five ‘traditional’ human senses which have become universally accepted: touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing. Other senses that have been well-accepted in most mammals, including humans, include nociception, equilibrioception, kinaesthesia, and thermoception. Furthermore, some nonhuman animals have been shown to possess alternate senses, including magnetoception and electroreception.[4]
Receptors[edit]
Main article: sensory receptor
The initialization of sensation stems from the response of a specific receptor to a physical stimulus. The receptors which react to the stimulus and initiate the process of sensation are commonly characterized in four distinct categories: chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. All receptors receive distinct physical stimuli and transduce the signal into an electrical action potential. This action potential then travels along afferent neurons to specific brain regions where it is processed and interpreted.[5]
Chemoreceptors[edit]
Main article: Chemoreceptor
Chemoreceptors, or chemosensors, detect certain chemical stimuli and transduce that signal into an electrical action potential. The two primary types of chemoreceptors are:
Distance chemoreceptors are integral to receiving stimuli in the olfactory system through both olfactory receptor neurons and neurons in the vomeronasal organ.
Direct chemoreceptors include the taste buds in the gustatory system as well as receptors in the aortic bodies which detect changes in oxygen concentration.[6]
Photoreceptors[edit]
Main article: Photoreceptor cell
Photoreceptors are capable of phototransduction, a process which converts light (electromagnetic radiation) into, among other types of energy, a membrane potential. The three primary types of photoreceptors are: Cones are photoreceptors which respond significantly to color. In humans the three different types of cones correspond with a primary response to short wavelength (blue), medium wavelength (green), and long wavelength (yellow/red).[7] Rods are photoreceptors which are very sensitive to the intensity of light, allowing for vision in dim lighting. The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans rods outnumber cones by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000:1.[7] Ganglion Cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved in the sympathetic response. Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1-2% are believed to be photosensitive ganglia.[8] These photosensitive ganglia play a role in conscious vision for some animals,[9] and are believed to do the same in humans.[10]
Mechanoreceptors[edit]
Main article: Mechanoreceptor
Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or distortion.[11] While mechanoreceptors are present in hair cells and play an integral role in the vestibular and auditory systems, the majority of mechanoreceptors are cutaneous and are grouped into four categories:
Slowly adapting type 1 receptors have small receptive fields and respond to static stimulation. These receptors are primarily used in the sensations of form and roughness.
Slowly adapting type 2 receptors have large receptive fields and respond to stretch. Similarly to type 1, they produce sustained responses to a continued stimuli.
Rapidly adapting receptors have small receptive fields and underlie the perception of slip.
Pacinian receptors have large receptive fields and are the predominant receptors for high-frequency vibration.
Thermoreceptors[edit]
Main article: Thermoreceptor
Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to varying temperatures. While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors:[12]
The end-bulb of Krause, or bulboid corpuscle, detects temperatures above body temperature.
Ruffini’s end organ detects temperatures below body temperature.
Nociceptors[edit]
Main article: Nociceptor
Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain. This process, called nociception, usually causes the perception of pain.[13] They are found in internal organs, as well as on the surface of the body. Nociceptors detect different kinds of damaging stimuli or actual damage. Those that only respond when tissues are damaged are known as "sleeping" or "silent" nociceptors.
Thermal nociceptors are activated by noxious heat or cold at various temperatures.
Mechanical nociceptors respond to excess pressure or mechanical deformation.
Chemical nociceptors respond to a wide variety of chemicals, some of which are signs of tissue damage. They are involved in the detection of some spices in food.
Sensory cortex[edit]
All stimuli received by the receptors listed above are transduced to an action potential, which is carried along one or more afferent neurons towards a specific area of the brain. While the term sensory cortex is often used informally to refer to the somatosensory cortex, the term more accurately refers to the multiple areas of the brain at which senses are received to be processed. For the five traditional senses in humans, this includes the primary and secondary cortexes of the different senses: the somatosensory cortex, the visual cortex, the auditory cortex, the primary olfactory cortex, and the gustatory cortex.[14] Other modalities have corresponding sensory cortex areas as well, including the vestibular cortex for the sense of balance.[15]
Skin
Somatosensory cortex[edit]
Located in the parietal lobe, the primary somatosensory cortex is the primary receptive area for the sense of touch and proprioception in the somatosensory system. This cortex is further divided into Brodmann areas 1, 2, and 3. Brodmann area 3 is considered the primary processing center of the somatosensory cortex as it receives significantly more input from the thalamus, has neurons highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli, and can evoke somatic sensations through electrical stimulation. Areas 1 and 2 receive most of their input from area 3. There are also pathways for proprioception (via the cerebellum), and motor control (via Brodmann area 4). See also: S2 Secondary somatosensory cortex.
The human eye is the first element of a sensory system: in this case, vision, for the visual system.
Visual cortex[edit]
The visual cortex refers to the primary visual cortex, labeled V1 or Brodmann area 17, as well as the extrastriate visual cortical areas V2-V5.[16] Located in the occipital lobe, V1 acts as the primary relay station for visual input, transmitting information to two primary pathways labeled the dorsal and ventral streams. The dorsal stream includes areas V2 and V5, and is used in interpreting visual ‘where’ and ‘how.’ The ventral stream includes areas V2 and V4, and is used in interpreting ‘what.’[17] Increases in Task-negative activity are observed in the ventral attention network, after abrupt changes in sensory stimuli,[18] at the onset and offset of task blocks,[19] and at the end of a completed trial.[20]
Ear
Auditory cortex[edit]
Located in the temporal lobe, the auditory cortex is the primary receptive area for sound information. The auditory cortex is composed of Brodmann areas 41 and 42, also known as the anterior transverse temporal area 41 and the posterior transverse temporal area 42, respectively. Both areas act similarly and are integral in receiving and processing the signals transmitted from auditory receptors.
Nose
Primary olfactory cortex[edit]
Located in the temporal lobe, the primary olfactory cortex is the primary receptive area for olfaction, or smell. Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems, at least in mammals, is the implementation of both peripheral and central mechanisms of action. The peripheral mechanisms involve olfactory receptor neurons which transduce a chemical signal along the olfactory nerve, which terminates in the olfactory bulb. The chemo-receptors involved in olfactory nervous cascade involve using G-protein receptors to send their chemical signals down said cascade. The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve axons into glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is then transmitted to the anterior olfactory nucleus, the piriform cortex, the medial amygdala, and the entorhinal cortex, all of which make up the primary olfactory cortex.
In contrast to vision and hearing, the olfactory bulbs are not cross-hemispheric; the right bulb connects to the right hemisphere and the left bulb connects to the left hemisphere.
Tongue
Gustatory cortex[edit]
The gustatory cortex is the primary receptive area for taste. The word taste is used in a technical sense to refer specifically to sensations coming from taste buds on the tongue. The five qualities of taste detected by the tongue include sourness, bitterness, sweetness, saltiness, and the protein taste quality, called umami. In contrast, the term flavor refers to the experience generated through integration of taste with smell and tactile information. The gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures: the anterior insula, located on the insular lobe, and the frontal operculum, located on the frontal lobe. Similarly to the olfactory cortex, the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms. Peripheral taste receptors, located on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus, transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla, or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. The signal is then transmitted to the thalamus, which in turn projects the signal to several regions of the neocortex, including the gustatory cortex.[21]
The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent somatosensory information from the tongue, that is, mouthfeel. Scent, in contrast, is not combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions, such as the insula and orbitofrontal cortex.[22]
Human sensory system[edit]
The human sensory system consists of the following subsystems:
Visual system consists of the photoreceptor cells, optic nerve, and V1
Auditory system
Somatosensory system consists of the receptors, transmitters (pathways) leading to S1, and S1 that experiences the sensations labelled as touch or pressure, temperature (warm or cold), pain (including itch and tickle), and the sensations of muscle movement and joint position including posture, movement, and facial expression (collectively also called proprioception)
Gustatory system
Olfactory system
Vestibular system
Diseases[edit]
Disability-adjusted life year for sense organ diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.[23]
no data
less than 200
200-400
400-600
600-800
800-1000
1000-1200
1200-1400
1400-1600
1600-1800
1800-2000
2000-2300
more than 2300
Amblyopia
Anacusis
Color blindness
Deafness
See also[edit]
Multisensory integration
Neural adaptation
Neural coding
Sensor
Sensory augmentation
Sensory neuroscience
Sensory systems in fish
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Krantz, John. "Experiencing Sensation and Perception - Chapter 1: What is Sensation and Perception?" (Pdf). p. 1.6. Retrieved May 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bowdan, E. and G.A. Wyse 1996. "Sensory Ecology: Introduction", The Biological Bulletin, Vol.191, No.1, pp.122–3, p.122.
Jump up ^ Kolb & Whishaw: Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2003)
Jump up ^ Hofle, M., Hauck, M., Engel, A. K., & Senkowski, D. (2010). Pain processing in multisensory environments. [Article]. Neuroforum, 16(2), 172.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived January 12, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Satir, P. & Christensen, S.T. (2008) Structure and function of mammalian cilia. in Histochemistry and Cell Biology, Vol 129:6
^ Jump up to: a b "eye, human." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
Jump up ^ Foster, R. G.; Provencio, I.; Hudson, D.; Fiske, S.; Grip, W.; Menaker, M. (1991). "Circadian photoreception in the retinally degenerate mouse (rd/rd)". Journal of Comparative Physiology A 169. doi:10.1007/BF00198171
Jump up ^ Jennifer L. Ecker, Olivia N. Dumitrescu, Kwoon Y. Wong, Nazia M. Alam, Shih-Kuo Chen, Tara LeGates, Jordan M. Renna, Glen T. Prusky, David M. Berson, Samer Hattar (2010). "Melanopsin-Expressing Retinal Ganglion-Cell Photoreceptors: Cellular Diversity and Role in Pattern Vision". Neuron. 67 (1): 49–60. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.05.023. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Horiguchi, H.; Winawer, J.; Dougherty, R. F.; Wandell, B. A. (2012). "Human trichromacy revisited". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (3): E260–E269. doi:10.1073/pnas.1214240110. ISSN 0027-8424.
Jump up ^ Winter, R.; Harrar, V.; Gozdzik, M.; Harris, L. R. (2008). "The relative timing of active and passive touch. [Proceedings Paper]". Brain Research. 1242: 54–58. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.090.
Jump up ^ Krantz, John. Experiencing Sensation and Perception. Pearson Education, Limited, 2009. p. 12.3
Jump up ^ Sherrington C. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1906.
Jump up ^ Brynie, F.H. (2009). Brain Sense: The Science of the Senses and How We Process the World Around Us. American Management Association.
Jump up ^ Thomas Brandt. "Vestibular cortex: its locations, functions, and disorders.". Vertigo. Springer. pp. 219–231.
Jump up ^ McKeeff, T. J.; Tong, F. (2007). "The timing of perceptual decisions for ambiguous face stimuli in the human ventral visual cortex. [Article]". Cerebral Cortex. 17 (3): 669–678. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhk015.
Jump up ^ Hickey, C.; Chelazzi, L.; Theeuwes, J. (2010). "Reward Changes Salience in Human Vision via the Anterior Cingulate. [Article]". Journal of Neuroscience. 30 (33): 11096–11103. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1026-10.2010.
Jump up ^ Downar, J.; Crawley, A. P.; Mikulis, D. J.; Dav (2000). "multimodal cortical network for the detection of changes in the sensory environment". Nature Neuroscience. 3: 277–283. doi:10.1038/72991.
Jump up ^ Fox, M. D.; Snyder, A. Z.; Barch, D. M.; Gusnard, D. A.; Raichle, M. E. (2005). "Transient BOLD responses at block transitions". NeuroImage. 28: 956–966. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.025.
Jump up ^ Shulman, G. I.; Tansy, A. P.; Kincade, M.; Petersen, S. E.; McAvoy, M. P.; Corbetta, M. (2002). "Reactivation of Networks Involved in Preparatory States". Cerebral Cortex. 12: 590–600. doi:10.1093/cercor/12.6.590.
Jump up ^ Purves, Dale et al. 2008. Neuroscience. Second Edition. Sinauer Associates Inc. Sunderland, MA.
Jump up ^ Dana M. Small and Barry G. Green. "A Proposed Model of a Flavor Modality". In Murray MM, Wallace MT. The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002" (xls). World Health Organization. 2002.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Sensory Systems
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sensory system.
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Vision (sense)

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Hearing (sense)

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Filiform papilla

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Medial parabrachial nucleus

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