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Canada–United States border
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"International Boundary" redirects here. For other boundaries between nations, see border.
Canada–United States border
The Peace Arch at the border between Surrey, British Columbia, and Blaine, Washington State
Characteristics
Entities
Canada United States
Length
8,891 km (5,525 mi)
History
Established
September 3, 1783

Signing of the Treaty of Paris at the end of the American War of Independence
Current shape
April 11, 1908

Treaty of 1908
Treaties
Treaty of Paris, Jay Treaty, Treaty of 1818, Webster–Ashburton Treaty, Oregon Treaty
Notes
See list of current disputes
A Royal Canadian Mounted Police constable and a Vermont State Police trooper before the official ceremony commemorating the joining of the Portland–Montreal Pipe Line August 1, 1941
The Canada–United States border (French: Frontière entre le Canada et les États-Unis), officially known as the International Boundary (French: Frontière internationale), is the longest international border in the world between two countries. It is shared between Canada and the United States, the second- and fourth-largest countries by area, respectively. The terrestrial boundary (including portions of maritime boundaries in the Great Lakes, and on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic coasts) is 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi) long, of which 2,475 kilometres (1,538 mi) is Canada's border with Alaska. Eight Canadian provinces and territories (Yukon, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick), and thirteen U.S. states (Alaska, Washington, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine) are located along the border.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 The Treaty of Paris (1783)
1.2 The Jay Treaty (1794)
1.3 Rush–Bagot Treaty (1817)
1.4 The London Convention (1818)
1.5 Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)
1.6 The Oregon Treaty (1846)
1.7 The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–61)
1.8 The International Boundary Survey (1872–76)
1.9 The Alaska boundary dispute (1903)
1.10 The Treaty of 1908
2 International Boundary Commission (1925)
3 Security
3.1 Law enforcement approach
3.2 Security measures
3.3 2017 Border Crossing Crisis
4 Smuggling
5 Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI)
6 Border lengths
7 Crossings and border straddling
7.1 Notable bridge/tunnel crossings
7.2 Other border crossings (airports, seaports, rail stations)
7.2.1 Cross-border airports
7.2.2 Cross-border buildings
8 Boundary divisions
8.1 Practical exclaves
8.1.1 Practical exclaves of Canada
8.1.2 Practical exclaves of the United States
8.2 Remaining boundary disputes
9 See also
10 Footnotes
11 References
11.1 Citations
11.2 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
For more details, see Aroostook War, Oregon boundary dispute, and Alaska boundary dispute.
U.S. counties sharing a land or water border with Canada
Land border
Water border
Sign welcoming drivers into the United States at the Peace Arch between Blaine, Washington and Surrey, British Columbia
The 45th parallel forms an approximate border between the Canadian province of Quebec (to the north), and the U.S. states of New York and Vermont (to the south).
The Treaty of Paris (1783)[edit]
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States. In the second article of the Treaty the parties agreed on all of the boundaries of the United States, including but not limited to the boundary with British North America to the north. The agreed boundary included the line from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of Connecticut River, and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude.
That parallel had been established in the 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York (including what later became the state of Vermont). It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine in 1771–3.[1]
The St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west (between what is now Ontario and the United States).
Northwest of Lake Superior, the boundary followed rivers to the Lake of the Woods. From the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River. In fact that line never meets the river since the river's source is further south.
The Jay Treaty (1794)[edit]
The Jay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary. It also provided for removal of British military and administration from Detroit and other frontier outposts on the U.S. side. It was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent (effective 1815) concluding the War of 1812, which included pre-war boundaries.
Rush–Bagot Treaty (1817)[edit]
The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America (later Canada) and the United States.
The London Convention (1818)[edit]
The 49th parallel north forms a border between the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba (to the north), and the US states of Washington, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, and Minnesota (to the south).
Westward expansion of both British North America and the United States saw the boundary extended west along the 49th parallel from the Northwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains under the Treaty of 1818. That treaty extinguished British claims south of that latitude to the Red River Valley, which was part of Rupert's Land. The treaty also extinguished U.S. claims to land north of that line in the watershed of the Missouri River, which was part of the Louisiana Purchase; this amounted to three small areas, consisting of the northern part of the drainages of the Milk River (today in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan), the Poplar River (Saskatchewan), and Big Muddy Creek (Saskatchewan).[citation needed]
Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight but in practice follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots.[2]
Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)[edit]
Disputes over the interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations resulting in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The treaty resolved the dispute known as the Aroostook War over the boundary between Maine on the one hand, and New Brunswick and the Province of Canada on the other. The treaty redefined the border between New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on the other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to Lake Champlain.
The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U.S. states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed in 1771–3 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec, and it was surveyed again after the War of 1812. The US Government began to construct fortifications just south of the border at Rouses Point on Lake Champlain. After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) south of the surveyed line; the fort, which became known as "Fort Blunder", was in Canada. This created a dilemma for the United States that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed. The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined.[3][4]
The Oregon Treaty (1846)[edit]
Main article: Oregon Treaty
An 1844 boundary dispute during U.S. President James K. Polk's administration led to a call for the northern boundary of the U.S. west of the Rockies to be latitude 54° 40' north (related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory), but the United Kingdom wanted a border that followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. The dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies.
The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–61)[edit]
Boundary Marker No.1 on the 49th parallel north on the western shore of Point Roberts, Washington, erected in 1861
The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–61) laid out the land boundary, but the water boundary was not settled for some time. After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between the Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands.
The International Boundary Survey (1872–76)[edit]
The International Boundary Survey, called the Northern Boundary Survey in the United States, began in 1872.[5] Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818. Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States. Donald Cameron headed the British team. This survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains.[6]
The Alaska boundary dispute (1903)[edit]
In 1903 a joint United Kingdom – Canada – U.S. tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska.[7]
The Treaty of 1908[edit]
On April 11, 1908, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed, under Article IV of the Treaty of 1908, to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the United States through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes, in accordance with modern surveying techniques, and thus accomplished several changes to the border.[8][9]
International Boundary Commission (1925)[edit]
For the bilateral commission concerning boundary waters use, see International Joint Commission.
The Oregon Country / Columbia District
Modern International Boundary Commission boundary marker at Point Roberts, Washington. The reverse side has the same wording in French.
Main article: International Boundary Commission
In 1925, the International Boundary Commission (French: Commission de la frontière international) was made a permanent organization responsible for surveying and mapping the boundary, maintaining boundary monuments (and buoys where applicable), and keeping the boundary clear of brush and vegetation for 6 metres (20 ft). This "border vista" extends for 3 metres (9.8 ft) on each side of the line.
The Commission is headed by two commissioners, one of whom is Canadian, the other American.[10]
Security[edit]
Law enforcement approach[edit]
A sign at the International Boundary in Point Roberts, Washington, warning against illegal crossing of the border
Rail crossing at Peace Arch Park, connecting British Columbia and Washington
Border Patrol vehicle in Montana
The International Boundary is commonly referred to as the world's longest undefended border, but this is true only in the military sense, as civilian law enforcement is present. It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls. Everyone crossing the border must be checked. The relatively low level of security measures stands in contrast to that of the United States – Mexico border (one-third as long as the Canada–U.S. border), which is actively patrolled by U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent illegal migration and drug trafficking.
Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to the maritime components of the boundary at the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans. The border also runs through the middle of the Akwesasne Nation and even divides some buildings found in communities in Vermont and Quebec.[ Some recent editing activity in this paragraph is disputed. – discuss ] Such buildlings are sometimes called line houses. The Maine–New Brunswick border divides the Aroostook Valley Country Club.[11]
The actual number of U.S. and Canadian border security personnel is classified; there are in excess of 17,000 United States Border Patrol personnel on the Mexico–U.S. border alone.[12]
Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by both nations in both populated and rural areas. Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing.
As of December 2010[update], Canada and the United States are negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U.S. more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with the U.S.[13]
Security measures[edit]
The border crossing where British Columbia Highway 37A ends at Hyder, Alaska, is unmanned by United States Customs, though Canadian Customs does maintain a presence in the area
Border crossing between Yukon and Alaska
Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the six-meter-wide (almost 20 feet) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission. They are required to report such construction to their respective governments.
Where required, fences or vehicle blockades are used. All persons crossing the border are required to report to the respective customs and immigration agencies in each country. In remote areas where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads and also scattered in wooded areas near crossing points and on many trails and railways, but there are not enough border personnel on either side to verify and stop coordinated incursions.[citation needed] There is no border zone;[14] the U.S. Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U.S. territory.[15][16]
2017 Border Crossing Crisis[edit]
In August of 2017, Customs and Immigration Union President Jean-Pierre Fortin said that up to 500 people each day are crossing into Quebec illegally, totaling more than 10,000 on the year.[17] Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau faced backlash over his #WelcometoCanada tweet alongside his sentiment of welcoming refugees fleeing terror, persecution, and violence into the country.[18][19] Trudeau later clarified that his tweet was in response to President of the United States Donald Trump's proposed travel ban on people from mostly Muslim countries. The Prime Minister then went on to say “You will not be at an advantage if you choose to enter Canada irregularly. You must follow the rules and there are many."[20] By the end of August, Trudeau stated that through additional staffing resources and expedited processes at the border, the Canadian government had taken control of the large increase in migrants coming across the border illegally.[21]
Smuggling[edit]
A U.S.B.P. agent armed with an M14 rifle tracking someone in harsh winter conditions on the northern border.
Smuggling of alcoholic beverages ("rum running") was widespread during the 1920s, when Prohibition was in effect nationally in the United States and parts of Canada.
In more recent years, Canadian officials have complained of drug, cigarette, and firearms smuggling from the United States, while U.S. officials have complained of drug smuggling from Canada.
US and Canadian agents operate separately and together along the border. From 2007 to 2010 147 people were arrested on the property of one Blaine, Washington bed and breakfast, but agents estimate that they only catch about 5% of smugglers.[22] In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built a 360-foot (110 m) tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington that they intended to use for smuggling marijuana, the first such tunnel known on this border.[23]
Cornwall, Ontario, experiences ongoing smuggling – mostly of tobacco and firearms from the United States – due to its location. The neighbouring Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, and its First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard, United States Border Patrol, United States Coast Guard, and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within the territory.[24][25]
Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI)[edit]
Main article: Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative
In late 2006, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced a rule regarding new identification requirements for U.S. citizens and international travelers entering the U.S. Implemented on January 23, 2007, this final rule and first phase of the WHTI specifies six forms of identification—one of which is required in order to enter the U.S. by air: a valid passport, a passport card, a state enhanced driver's license (available in Michigan, New York, Vermont, Washington, British Columbia, Manitoba, Minnesota, Ontario, and Quebec[26]) per the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative, or trusted traveler program card (NEXUS, FAST, or SENTRI); a valid Merchant Mariner Credential when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; or a valid U.S. military identification card when traveling on official orders.[27][28][29]
Since June 2009, every traveller arriving via a land or sea port-of-entry (including ferries) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification to cross the border.
Border lengths[edit]
Rank
State
Length of border with Canada
Rank
Province/Territory
Length of border with the U.S.
1 Alaska 2,475 km (1,538 mi) 1 Ontario 2,760 km (1,715 mi)
2 Michigan 1,160 km (721 mi) 2 British Columbia 2,168 km (1,347 mi)
3 Maine 983 km (611 mi) 3 Yukon 1,210 km (752 mi)
4 Minnesota 880 km (547 mi) 4 Quebec 813 km (505 mi)
5 Montana 877 km (545 mi) 5 Saskatchewan 632 km (393 mi)
6 New York 716 km (445 mi) 6 New Brunswick 513 km (318 mi)
7 Washington 687 km (427 mi) 7 Manitoba 497 km (309 mi)
8 North Dakota 499 km (310 mi) 8 Alberta 298 km (185 mi)
9 Ohio 235 km (146 mi)
10 Vermont 145 km (90 mi)
11 New Hampshire 93 km (58 mi)
12 Idaho 72 km (45 mi)
13 Pennsylvania 68 km (42 mi)
Crossings and border straddling[edit]
Notable bridge/tunnel crossings[edit]
Main article: List of Canada–United States border crossings
The Ambassador Bridge between Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, is the busiest commercial crossing between the two countries.
Two portions of Niagara Falls. The American Falls is on the left in New York; the Horseshoe Falls on the right separates New York from Ontario.
From west to east:
Baudette – Rainy River International Bridge – Baudette, Minnesota, and Rainy River, Ontario
Fort Frances–International Falls International Bridge – Fort Frances, Ontario, and International Falls, Minnesota
Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge – Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Blue Water Bridge – Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, Ontario
St. Clair Tunnel
Detroit–Windsor Tunnel – Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan
Michigan Central Railway Tunnel – Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan
Ambassador Bridge – Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan
Peace Bridge – Fort Erie, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York
Rainbow Bridge – Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York
Whirlpool Rapids Bridge – Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York
Lewiston–Queenston Bridge – Queenston, Ontario, and Lewiston, New York
Thousand Islands Bridge – Wellesley Island, New York, and Hill Island, Ontario
Ogdensburg–Prescott International Bridge – Ogdensburg, New York, and Johnstown, Ontario
Three Nations Crossing – Cornwall, Ontario, and Massena, New York
Other border crossings (airports, seaports, rail stations)[edit]
Border sign at the Rainbow Bridge, Niagara Falls
The U.S. maintains immigration offices, called pre-clearance facilities, in eight Canadian airports with international air service to the United States (Calgary, Edmonton, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver, and Winnipeg). This expedites travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U.S. airport without being processed as an international arrival. Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U.S. airports due to the sheer number of U.S. departure locations with Canadian-bound flights and the limited number of flights compared to the number of U.S.-bound flights that depart major Canadian airports.
Similar arrangements exist at major Canadian seaports that handle sealed direct import shipments into the U.S.
Additionally, at Vancouver's Pacific Central Station, passengers are required to pass through U.S. pre-clearance facilities and pass their baggage through an X-ray before being allowed to board the Seattle-bound Amtrak Cascades train, which makes no further stops before crossing the border. Pre-clearance facilities are not available for the popular New York City to Montreal (Adirondack) or Toronto (Maple Leaf) lines, as these lines have stops between Montreal or Toronto and the border. Instead, passengers must clear customs at a stop located at the actual border.
Ferry services operate between the province of New Brunswick and the state of Maine, as well as between the province of British Columbia and the states of Washington and Alaska. There are also several ferry services in the Great Lakes operating between the province of Ontario and the states of Michigan, New York, and Ohio. The ferry between Maine and Nova Scotia ended its route in 2009, but resumed operations in 2014.
Boldt Castle on Heart Island in the St. Lawrence River has a border control point on the island, but no specific location on the Canadian side.[citation needed] Canadians must present identification to land on the island.
Cross-border airports[edit]
The international boundary is marked as a black line on the floor of the reading room of the Haskell Library. In this picture, Canada is on the right side of the line and the United States is on the left.
One curiosity on the Canada–U.S. border is the presence of six airports that straddle the borderline. The airports were built prior to the U.S. entry into World War II as a way to legally transfer U.S.-built aircraft such as the Lockheed Hudson to Canada under the provisions of the Lend-Lease Act. In the interest of maintaining neutrality, U.S. military pilots were forbidden to deliver combat aircraft to Canada. The aircraft were flown to the border, landed, and then at night towed on their wheels over the border by tractors or horses. The next day the planes were crewed by RCAF pilots and flown to other locations, typically airbases in Eastern Canada, from where they were often flown to the United Kingdom and deployed in the Battle of the Atlantic.[30]
Piney Pinecreek Border Airport is located in Manitoba and Minnesota. The northwest/southeast-oriented runway straddles the border, and there are two ramps; one in the U.S. and one in Canada. The airport is jointly owned by the Minnesota Department of Transportation and the local government of Piney, Manitoba. It is assigned U.S. identifier 48Y and Canadian identifier JX2.
International Peace Garden Airport is located in Manitoba and North Dakota adjacent to the International Peace Garden. The runway is entirely within North Dakota, but a ramp extends across the border to allow aircraft to access Canadian customs. While not jointly owned, it is operated as an international facility for customs clearance as part of the International Peace Garden.
Coronach/Scobey Border Station Airport is located in Saskatchewan and Montana. The east–west runway is sited exactly on the border. The airport is jointly owned by the Canadian and U.S. governments and is assigned U.S. identifier 8U3 and Canadian identifier CKK3.
Coutts/Ross International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana. Like Coronach/Scobey, the east–west runway is sited exactly on the border. It is owned entirely by the Montana Aeronautics Division. It is assigned U.S. identifier 7S8 and Canadian identifier CEP4.
Whetstone International Airport or Del Bonita/Whetstone International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana, and similarly has an east–west runway sited exactly on the border. It is assigned U.S. identifier H28 and Canadian identifier CEQ4.
Avey Field State Airport is located in Washington and British Columbia. The privately owned airfield is mostly in the U.S., but several hundred feet of the north–south runway extend into Canada, and both Canadian and U.S. customs are available. It is assigned U.S. identifier 69S but does not have a Canadian identifier.
Cross-border buildings[edit]
Half of this bench is in the United States and the other half is in Canada.
Main article: Line house
The Haskell Free Library and Opera House straddles the border in Derby Line, Vermont, and Stanstead, Quebec. Private homes are divided by the International Boundary line between Estcourt Station, Maine, and Pohénégamook, Quebec. Private homes between Beebe Plain, Quebec and Beebe Plain, Vermont; a seasonal home between Alburgh, Vermont, and Noyan, Quebec, at the intersection of Matthias Lane in Alburgh and Chemin au Bord du L'eau in Noyan; and one house between Richford, Vermont, and Abercorn, Quebec,[31] are also divided by the border.[32]
The Halfway House, a tavern also known as Taillon's International Hotel, straddles the border between Dundee, Quebec, and Fort Covington, New York.[33] It was built in 1820, before the border was surveyed.[34]
Boundary divisions[edit]
Practical exclaves[edit]
To be a true international exclave, all potential paths of travel from the exclave to the home country must cross over only the territory of a different country or countries. Like exclaves, practical exclaves are not contiguous with the land of the home country and have land access only through another country or countries. Unlike exclaves, they are not entirely surrounded by foreign territory. Hence, they are exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition.
The term pene-exclave was defined in Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country."[35]:283 Pene-exclaves are also called functional exclaves or practical exclaves.[36]:31 Thus, a practical exclave has land borders with other territory but is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters.[37]:60 Catudal (1974)[38]:113 and Vinokurov (2007)[36]:31–33 further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts. "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada."[38] Practical exclaves can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts.[36]:47
Practical exclaves of Canada[edit]
Akwesasne: Because of the St. Lawrence River to the north, the Rivière-aux-Saumons to the east, and New York State, U.S., to the south, the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave of Canada. To travel by land to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State.
Campobello Island, located at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, adjacent to the entrance to Cobscook Bay, and within the Bay of Fundy. The island is part of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, but is actually physically connected by the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge with Lubec, Maine – the easternmost tip of the continental United States.
Practical exclaves of the United States[edit]
The State of Alaska is bounded by British Columbia and Yukon, the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. (Additionally, because of the terrain, several municipalities in the Alaska panhandle are inaccessible by road except via Canada.)
Specifically, the town of Hyder, Alaska is accessible only through Stewart, British Columbia, or by floatplane.
Point Roberts, Washington is bounded by British Columbia, the Strait of Georgia, and Boundary Bay.
A slice of land on the edge of Lake Metigoshe lies in North Dakota's Roland Township bordering Winchester, Canada.[39]
A peninsula juts into North Dakota within the Osthus lake in Hutchinson Township, North Dakota, 500 meters south of Gunnville Lake and 700 meters east of Wakopa Creek, in the Wakopa Wildlife Management Area,[40][41] at 48°59′54″N 99°52′44″W / 48.99833°N 99.87889°W / 48.99833; -99.87889.
Elm Point, Minnesota and two small pieces of land (Buffalo Bay Point) just to its west are bounded by Manitoba and Lake of the Woods.
The Northwest Angle in Minnesota is bounded by Manitoba and Lake of the Woods.
The Alburgh Tongue in Vermont is bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain.[a]
Province Point, the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, Vermont, is bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain.
Remaining boundary disputes[edit]
Main article: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
Machias Seal Island and North Rock (Maine / New Brunswick)
Dixon Entrance (Alaska / British Columbia)
Beaufort Sea (Alaska / Yukon)
Strait of Juan de Fuca (Washington / British Columbia)
See also[edit]
American entry into Canada by land
Borders of Canada
Canada Border Services Agency
Canada–United States relations
Frozen River, a 2008 feature film about smuggling across the border
Joseph Smith Harris' account of the Northwest Boundary Survey
Indian barrier state, British plans to set up a new country in the Old Northwest
List of Canada–United States border crossings
Mexico–United States border
United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints
John Lewis Tiarks, a British surveyor of the border
Northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods
Red River Colony
Province Island
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ However, this peninsula and the island to its south are connected by road bridges directly to the United States mainland (as well as by a freight [and former passenger] rail line), such that it is possible to make a through journey in and out of the Alburgh Tongue without entering Canada. This is not true of the other practical exclaves listed here.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian–American Boundary, 1783–1842. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 85.
Jump up ^ "Canada & The United States (Bizarre Borders Part 2)". Retrieved June 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "British-American Diplomacy The Webster-Ashburton Treaty". Yale Law School. 1842. Retrieved March 1, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lass, William E. (1980). Minnesota's Boundary with Canada. St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society. p. 2. ISBN 0-87351-153-0.
Jump up ^ McManus, Sheila (2005). The Line Which Separates: Race, Gender, and the Making of the Alberta-Montana Borderlands. Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-88864-434-5.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Archibald; Twining, W. J. (1878). "Reports upon the survey of the boundary between the territory of the United States and the possessions of Great Britain from the Lake of the woods to the summit of the Rocky mountains". Authorised by an act of Congress approved March 19, 1872. Government Printing Office. Retrieved September 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Keenlyside, Hugh LL.; Brown, Gerald S. (1952). Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations. Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 178–189.
Jump up ^ International Boundary Commission (1937). "Treaty of 1908 (included in Joint report upon the survey and demarcation of the boundary between the United States and Canada from the gulf of Georgia to the northwesternmost point of Lake of the woods. In accordance with the provisions of Articles VI and VII of the treaty signed at Washington April 11, 1908, and articles I, II, and IV of the treaty signed at Washington, February 24, 1925)". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 6. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ International Waterways Commission (1915). "Report of the International Waterways Commission upon the International Boundary between the Dominion of Canada and the United States through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes as Ascertained and Re-established pursuant to Article IV of the Treaty between Great Britain and the United States signed 11th April 1908".
Jump up ^ Organization Chart, International Boundary Commission, accessed July 27, 2007 Archived July 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Aroostook Valley Country Club, Club History
Jump up ^ Jeffrey, Terence P. (September 24, 2009). "Administration Will Cut Border Patrol Deployed on U.S-Mexico Border". Cybercast News Service. Archived from the original on September 28, 2009. Retrieved September 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ Mark Kennedy, PostMedia News Political Time Bombs Litter Harper's Path, December 13, 2010
Jump up ^ "Common border zone proposed". Canadian Society of Customs Brokers. June 17, 2004. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Singel, Ryan (October 22, 2008). "ACLU Assails 100-Mile Border Zone as 'Constitution-Free' – Update". Wired.com. Retrieved July 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ Woodard, Colin (January 9, 2011). "Far From Canada, Aggressive U.S. Border Patrols Snag Foreign Students". Chronicle.com. Retrieved July 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Trudeau's lost all control of our border crisis". Toronto Sun. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Until Trudeau acts on border crisis, Canada is basically one giant sanctuary city". Toronto Sun. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Trudeau Stands By #WelcomeToCanada Tweet, But Touts 'Rule Of Law'". HuffPost Canada. 2017-09-08. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ Woods, Allan (2017-08-23). "Canada is not a safe haven for asylum seekers, Trudeau warns". The Toronto Star. ISSN 0319-0781. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Trudeau says steps to tackle spike in asylum-seekers yielding 'positive results'". CBC News. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ MacDonald, Jake (July–August 2010). "The Canada-U.S. Border". Canadian Geographic. Archived from the original on 2010-07-10. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Jump up ^ Frieden, Terry (July 22, 2006). "Drug tunnel found under Canada border: Five arrests made after agents monitored construction". CNN.com. CNN.
Jump up ^ Royal Canadian Mounted Police, "Fifteen People Arrested for Possession of Contraband Tobacco during High Intensity Enforcement Project", press release, February 25, 2009 Archived June 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, Neco (November 21, 2008). "Smuggling's price". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on February 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ "WHTI: Enhanced Drivers License". Getyouhome.gov. June 1, 2009. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "DHS Announces Final Western Hemisphere Air Travel". Association of Cotpotrate Travel Executives. December 5, 2006. Archived from the original on December 16, 2007. Retrieved December 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative: The Basics". U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on December 26, 2007. Retrieved December 2, 2007
Jump up ^ "Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative". U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs. January 13, 2008. Retrieved January 12, 2007
Jump up ^ Places to Fly – Dunseith / International Peace Garden. Archive.copanational.org (June 8, 2007). Retrieved on July 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ Google (April 30, 2014). "1000 Drew Rd – Richford Vermont" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Farfan, Matthew (2009). The Vermont-Quebec Border: Life on the Line. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0738565148
Jump up ^ "Wikimapia". Wikimapia. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Taillon's International Hotel, Taillon's International Hotel – straddling the US–Canada border! Archived January 17, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Robinson, G. W. S. (September 1959). "Exclaves". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 49 (3, [Part 1]): 283–295. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1959.tb01614.x. JSTOR 2561461.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vinokurov, Evgeny (2007). The Theory of Enclaves. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD.
Jump up ^ Melamid, Alexander (1968). Sills, David, ed. "Enclaves and Exclaves". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 5. The Macmillan Company & Free Press. Contiguous territories of states which for all regular commercial and administrative purposes can be reached only through the territory of other states are called pene-enclaves (pene-exclaves). These have virtually the same characteristics as complete enclaves (exclaves).
^ Jump up to: a b Catudal, Honoré M. (1974). "Exclaves". Cahiers de géographie du Québec. 18 (43): 107–136. doi:10.7202/021178ar.
Jump up ^ Laychuk, Riley (13 July 2016). "Manitoba boaters stunned by new cross-border rule". CBC News. Retrieved 2017-06-03. In fact, some of the boat docks for Canadian cabins sit on the U.S. side of the border.
Jump up ^ "Exclave of the United States in North Dakota – Wikimapia". wikimapia.org. Retrieved 2015-08-28.
Jump up ^ Hutchinson Township. Rolette County Atlas. North Dakota: Geo. A. Ogle & Co. 1910. p. 69. Retrieved 2017-06-19.
Further reading[edit]
Anderson, Christopher G. Canadian Liberalism and the Politics of Border Control, 1867–1967 (University of British Columbia Press; 2012) 280 pages; studies pivotal episodes in Canadian immigration policy that shed light on more restrictive approaches today.
Paulus, Jeremy and Asgary, Ali. (2010) Enhancing Border Security: Local Values and Preferences at the Blue Water Bridge (Point Edward, Canada) Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management: Vol. 7 : Iss. 1, Article 77.
Culture and the Canada–US Border, an international research network dedicated to studying cultural representation, production and exchange on and around the Canada–US border.[1]
External links[edit]
Media related to Canada–United States border at Wikimedia Commons
International Boundary Commission
1994 trip from Lake of the Woods to the Continental Divide
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London Company
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Virginia Company of London
Former type
Public
Industry
Company colonies
Fate
Dissolved
Predecessor
None
Successor
The Somers Isles Company (in Bermuda)
Founded
December 1606; 411 years ago (1606-12)
Defunct
1624 (1624)
Headquarters
London, Kingdom of England
Number of locations
Jamestown, Virginia, St. George's, Bermuda, Bermuda Hundred, Virginia, Henricus, Virginia, Charles City Point, Virginia
Area served
Virginia, Bermuda, New England
Products
Cash crops, Tobacco, Timber
The London Company (also called the Virginia Company of London) was an English joint-stock company established in 1606 by royal charter by King James I with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America.[1]
The territory granted to the London Company included the eastern coast of America from the 34th parallel (Cape Fear) north to the 41st parallel (in Long Island Sound). As part of the Virginia Company and Colony, the London Company owned a large portion of Atlantic and Inland Canada. The company was permitted by its charter to establish a 100-square-mile (260 km2) settlement within this area. The portion of the company's territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company, with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles (161 km) of each other.
The London Company made landfall on 26 April 1607, at the southern edge of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, which they named Cape Henry, near present-day Virginia Beach. Deciding to move the encampment, on 4 May 1607, they established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River about 40 miles (64 km) upstream from its mouth at the Chesapeake Bay. Later in 1607, the Plymouth Company established its Popham Colony in present-day Maine, but it was abandoned after about a year. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had dissolved. As a result, the charter for the London Company was adjusted with a new grant that extended from "sea to sea" of the previously-shared area between the 38th and 40th parallel. It was amended in 1612 to include the new territory of the Somers Isles (or Bermuda).
The London Company struggled financially, especially with labour shortages in its Virginia colony. Its profits improved after sweeter strains of tobacco than the native variety were cultivated and successfully exported from Virginia as a cash crop beginning in 1612. By 1619 a system of indentured service was fully developed in the colony;[2] the same year the home government passed a law that prohibited the commercial growing of tobacco in England.[3] In 1624, the company lost its charter, and Virginia became a royal colony. (Its spin-off, The London Company of The Somers Isles, operated until 1684).
Contents
1 History
1.1 Founding
1.2 First expedition
1.3 Charter of 1609
1.4 Collapse and dissolution
2 Native American relationships
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The 1606 grants by James I to the London and Plymouth companies. The overlapping area (yellow) was granted to both companies on the condition that neither found a settlement within 100 miles (160 km) of the other. Jamestown is noted by "J." The Spanish settlement of Saint Augustine, the French settlements of Québec and Port-Royal, and Popham are also shown
In Renaissance England, wealthy merchants were eager to find investment opportunities, so they established a number of companies to trade in various parts of the world. Each company was made up of individuals who purchased shares of company stock. The Crown granted a charter to each company with a monopoly to explore, settle, or trade with a particular region of the world. Profits were shared among the investors according to the amount of stock that each owned. More than 6,300 Englishmen invested in joint stock companies between 1585 and 1630, trading in Russia, Turkey, Africa, the East Indies, the Mediterranean, and North America.
Founding[edit]
Investors in the Virginia Company hoped to profit from the natural resources of the New World. In 1606 Captain Bartholomew Gosnold obtained of King James I a charter for two companies. The first, for the South-Virginia or London Company, covered what are now Maryland, Virginia and Carolina, between Latitude 34° and Latitude 41° North. Gosnold's principal backers were Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Edward Wingfield and Richard Hakluyt. The second Company, the Plymouth Adventurers, were empowered to settle as far as 45° North, encompassing what are present day Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England.[4] The Company paid all the costs of establishing each colony, and in return controlled all land and resources there, requiring all settlers to work for the Company.
The first leader of the Virginia Company in England was its treasurer, Sir Thomas Smythe, who arranged the 1609 charter. He had been governor of the East India Company since 1603 and continued with one break until 1620.
In an extensive publicity campaign, Wingfield, Gosnold and a few others, circulated pamphlets, plays, sermons and broadsides throughout England to raise interest in New World investments. Shareholders could buy stock individually or in groups. Almost 1,700 people purchased shares, including men of different occupations and classes, wealthy women, and representatives of institutions such as trade guilds, towns and cities. Investors, called "adventurers", purchased shares of stock to help finance the costs of establishing overseas settlements. Money from the sale of stock was used to pay for ships and supplies and to recruit and outfit laborers. A single share of stock in the Virginia Company cost 12 pounds 10 shillings, the equivalent of more than six months' wages for an ordinary working man.
The largest single investor was Thomas West, Lord de la Warre, who served as the first governor of Virginia between 1610 and 1618. (The English colonists named the Delaware River and Native American Lenape tribe for him.)
The business of the company was the settlement of the Virginia colony, supported by a labour force of voluntary transportees under the customary indenture system. In exchange for 7 years of labor for the company, the company provided passage, food, protection, and land ownership (if the worker survived).
First expedition[edit]
See also: Jamestown, Virginia and History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–99)
In December 1606, the Virginia Company's three ships, containing 144 men and boys (with only one man who died during the voyage),[citation needed] set sail from Blackwall, London. After an unusually long voyage of 144 days, they made landfall on 26 April 1607 at the southern edge of the mouth of what they named the James River on the Chesapeake Bay. They named this shore as Cape Henry. They were attacked by Native Americans, and the settlers moved north. On 14 May 1607, these first settlers selected the site of Jamestown Island, further upriver and on the northern shore, as the place to build their fort.
In addition to survival, the early colonists were expected to make a profit for the owners of the Virginia Company. Although the settlers were disappointed that gold did not wash up on the beach and gems did not grow in the trees, they realised there was great potential for wealth of other kinds in their new home. Early industries, such as glass manufacture, pitch and tar production for naval stores, and beer and wine making took advantage of natural resources and the land's fertility. From the outset settlers thought that the abundance of timber would be the primary leg of the economy, as Britain's forests had long been felled. The seemingly inexhaustible supply of cheap American timber was to be the primary enabler of England's (and then Britain's) rise to maritime (merchant and naval) supremacy. However, the settlers could not devote as much time as the Virginia Company would have liked to developing commodity products for export. They were too busy trying to survive.
Within the three-sided fort erected on the banks of the James, the settlers quickly discovered that they were, first and foremost, employees of the Virginia Company of London, following instructions of the men appointed by the Company to rule them. In exchange, the laborers were armed, and received clothes and food from the common store. After seven years, they were to receive land of their own. The gentlemen, who provided their own armor and weapons, were to be paid in land, dividends or additional shares of stock.
Initially, the colonists were governed by a president and seven-member council selected by the King. Leadership problems quickly erupted. Jamestown's first two leaders coped with varying degrees of success with sickness, assaults by Native Americans, poor food and water supplies, and class strife. Many colonists were ill-prepared to carve out a new settlement on a frontier. When Captain John Smith became Virginia's third president, he proved the strong leader that the colony needed. Industry flourished and relations with Chief Powhatan's people improved.
Charter of 1609[edit]
Main article: Second Virginia Charter
The 1608 grant to the Virginia Company of London "from sea to sea" is shown demarcated in red. The later grant to the Plymouth Council of New England is shown in green.
In 1609, the Virginia Company received its Second Charter, which allowed the Company to choose its new governor from amongst its shareholders. Investment boomed as the Company launched an intensive recruitment campaign. Over 600 colonists set sail for Virginia between March 1608 and March 1609.
Sir Thomas Gates, Virginia's deputy governor, bound for the colony in the Third Supply aboard the Sea Venture, was shipwrecked in Bermuda, along with the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, Captain Newport, and 147 other settlers and seamen. When Gates finally arrived to take up his new post in 1610, with most of the survivors of the Sea Venture (on two new ships built in Bermuda, the Deliverance and the Patience), he found that only 60 of the original 214 colonists had survived the infamous "Starving Time" of 1609–1610.[5] Most of these were dying or ill. Despite the abundance of food which Gates' expedition brought from Bermuda (which had necessitated the building of two ships), it was clear the colony was not yet self-sufficient and could not survive.
The survivors of Jamestown were taken aboard the Deliverance and the Patience, and the colony was abandoned. Gates intended to transport all the settlers back to England, but the fortuitous arrival of another relief fleet, bearing Governor Lord De la Warre, granted Jamestown a reprieve. All the settlers were put ashore again, and Sir George Somers returned to Bermuda aboard the Patience to obtain more food. (Somers died there, and his nephew, Matthew Somers, the captain of the Patience, sailed the vessel to Lyme Regis in England, instead, to claim his inheritance).
Collapse and dissolution[edit]
After 1620, with growing demand for tobacco on the continent, the Company arranged to sell Virginia tobacco in the Netherlands, but the next year and despite company pleas to maintain the privilege of freedom of trade, the Privy Council forbade the export of any product of Virginia to a foreign country until the commodities had been landed in England, and English duties had been paid.[3] By 1621, the Company was in trouble; unpaid dividends and increased use of lotteries had made future investors wary. The Company debt was now over £9,000. Worried Virginians were hardly reassured by the advice of pragmatic Treasurer Sandys, who warned that the Company "cannot wish you to rely on anything but yourselves." In March 1622, the Company's and the colony's situation went from dire to disastrous when, during the Indian massacre of 1622, the Powhatan confederacy killed one-quarter of the European population of the Virginia colony.
When the Crown and company officials proposed a fourth charter, severely reducing the Company's ability to make decisions in the governing of Virginia, subscribers rejected it. King James I forthwith changed the status of Virginia in 1624, taking control of it as a royal colony to be administered by a governor appointed by the King. The government's colonial policy of export restrictions however, did not change. The Crown approved the election of a Virginia Assembly in 1627. This form of government, with governor and assembly, would oversee the colony of Virginia until 1776, excepting only the years of the English Commonwealth.
Bermuda had been separated from the Virginia Company in 1614, when the Crown briefly took over its administration. In 1615, the shareholders of the Virginia Company created a new company, the Somers Isles Company, which continued to operate Bermuda. It was subsequently, also known officially as The Somers Isles (for the Admiral of the Virginia Company, Sir George Somers) until being dissolved in 1684 and made a royal colony. Meetings were held at town hall to discuss the distribution of the tobacco.
Native American relationships[edit]
The instructions issued to Sir Thomas Gates, on 20 November 1608, called for a forcible conversion of Native Americans to Anglicanism and their subordination to the colonial administration. The records of the company record a discussion during one of its first meetings about publishing a justification of their business enterprise methods to "give adventurers, a clearness and satisfaction, a public debate where Catholics and neutrals might attack them. Whereas Catholic arguments would be in support of Spanish legal claims to the New World under the Treaty of Tordesillas, it was feared that the neutral "pen-adversaries" might "cast scruples into our conscience" by criticising the lawfulness of the plantation." It was decided to forego such a publication of a justification.
In 1608, Sir Edward Coke, in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice, offered a ruling in Calvin's Case that went beyond the issue at hand: whether a Scotsman could seek justice at an English Court. Coke distinguished between aliens from nations at war with England and friendly aliens, those from nations in league with England. Friendly aliens could have recourse to English courts. But he also ruled that with "all infidels" (i.e. those from non-Christian nations), there could be no peace, and a state of perpetual hostility would exist between them and Christians.[6]
In 1609, the company issued instructions to settlers to kidnap Native American children so as to educate them with English values and religion. These instructions also sanctioned attacking the Iniocasoockes, the cultural leaders of the local Powhatans. Only after Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr arrived in 1610, was the Company able to commence a war against the Powhatan with the First Anglo-Powhatan War. De La Warr was replaced by Sir Thomas Dale, who continued the war. It was during this period that Pocahontas married John Rolfe.
The military offensive was accompanied by a propaganda war: Alderman Robert Johnson published Nova Britannia, in 1609, which compared Native Americans to wild animals--"heardes of deere in a forest". While it did portray the Powhatan as peace-loving, it threatened to deal with any who resisted conversion to Anglicanism as enemies of their country. (Johnson was the son-in-law of Sir Thomas Smythe, treasurer of the Company in London and leader of its "court" faction.)
The Company began to turn a profit after 1612, when planting a couple of new varieties of tobacco yielded a product that appealed more to English tastes than the native tobacco. Tobacco became the commodity crop of the colony, and settlers were urged to cultivate more. The colony struggled with labor shortages as mortality was high.
In 1622, the Second Anglo-Powhatan War erupted. Its origins are disputed. English apologists for the company say that Opchanacanough initiated the war. Robert Williams, a 21st-century Native American Law Professor, argues that Opchanacanough had secured concessions from Governor Yeardley which the company would not accept.[citation needed] Thus, Opchanacanough's attack, on 18 April 1622, may have been a pre-emptive attempt to defeat the colony before reinforcements arrived.[citation needed]
In about a day, the Powhatan killed 350 of 1,240 colonists, destroying some outlying settlements. The Virginia Company quickly published an account of this attack. It was steeped in Calvinist theology of the time: the massacre was the work of Providence in that it was justification for the destruction of the Powhatan, and building English settlements over their former towns. New orders from the London Company directed a "perpetual war without peace or truce" "to root out from being any longer a people, so cursed a nation, ungrateful to all benefitte, and incapable of all goodnesses."[citation needed] Within two years, the Crown took over the territory in 1624 as a royal colony.
See also[edit]
Companies portal
Richard Hakluyt, a director of the company
Jamestown, Virginia
List of trading companies
Somers Isles Company
Sir Edwin Sandys
Thomas Graves
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Charles Wankel (16 June 2009). Encyclopedia of business in today's world. SAGE Publications. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-4129-6427-2. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Karl Frederick Geiser, Redemptioners and indentured servants in the colony and commonwealth of Pennsylvania, p.5. Supplement to the Yale Review, Vol. X, No. 2, August, 1901.
^ Jump up to: a b Chapter III - The Commercial Policy of England Toward the American Colonies: the Acts of Trade, p.37 in Emory R. Johnson, T. W. Van Metre, G. G. Huebner, D. S. Hanchett, History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States - Vol. 1, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915. Retrieved 2016-01-15 – via Questia (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Anderson, Adam (1764). An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce. 1. p. 471.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2013-10-26. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities: Jamestown History
Jump up ^ Williams, Robert A. (1990). The American Indian in Western Legal Thought. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195050223. OCLC 18948630. 0195050223{{inconsistent citations}}
Further reading[edit]
The Three Charters of the Virginia Company of London edited and introduction by Samuel M. Bemiss, published by Virginia's 350th Anniversary Celebration Corp, 1957, Williamsburg, Virginia. ISBN 0-8063-5088-1
Dissolution of the Virginia Company: The Failure of a Colonial Experiment by Wesley Frank Craven, published by Oxford University Press, 1932, New York
The Virginia Company of London, 1606-1624, by Wesley Frank Craven, published by University Press of Virginia, 1957, Charlottesville, Virginia. ISBN 0-8063-4555-1
The First Seventeen Years: Virginia, 1607-1624, by Charles E. Hatch, Jr. ISBN 0-8063-4739-2
History of the Virginia Company of London with Letters to and from the First Colony Never Before Printed, by Edward D. Neill, originally published by Joel Munsell, 1869, Albany, New York, reprinted by Brookhaven Press ISBN 1-58103-401-6
Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Heart of A New Nation, by David A. Price, published by Alfred A. Knopf, 2003, New York
External links[edit]
London Company nowadays (founded in 1994, not related in any way other than the name)
List of original settlers Jamestown Rediscovery
1606 Charter of the Virginia Company of London
National Park Service brief
Daily Republican: The Virginia Company
Library of Congress images of manuscript and printed editions of the Records of the Virginia Company of London
The Anglo-Powhatan Wars
Richmond Times Dispatch: Virginia's roots reach to Bermuda
The Virginia Company of London, 1606-1624 - Free ebook from manybooks.net
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=London_Company&oldid=865109706"
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