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Oncogene
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For the journal, see Oncogene (journal).
Illustration of how a normal cell is converted to a cancer cell, when an oncogene becomes activated
An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer.[1] In tumor cells, they are often mutated and/or expressed at high levels.[2]
Most normal cells will undergo a programmed form of rapid cell death (apoptosis) when critical functions are altered and malfunctioning. Activated oncogenes can cause those cells designated for apoptosis to survive and proliferate instead.[3] Most oncogenes began as proto-oncogenes, normal genes involved in cell growth and proliferation or inhibition of apoptosis. If normal genes promoting cellular growth, through mutation, are up-regulated, (gain of function mutation) they will predispose the cell to cancer and are thus termed oncogenes. Usually multiple oncogenes, along with mutated apoptotic and/or tumor suppressor genes will all act in concert to cause cancer. Since the 1970s, dozens of oncogenes have been identified in human cancer. Many cancer drugs target the proteins encoded by oncogenes.[2][4][5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Proto-oncogene
2.1 Activation
3 Classification
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The theory of oncogenes was foreshadowed by the German biologist Theodor Boveri in his 1914 book Zur Frage der Entstehung Maligner Tumoren ('The Origin of Malignant Tumours'), Gustav Fisher, Jena, 1914. Oncogenes (Teilungsfoerdernde Chromosomen) that become amplified (im permanenten Übergewicht) during tumour development.
Later on the term "oncogene" was rediscovered in 1969 by National Cancer Institute scientists George Todaro and Robert Heubner.[7]
The first confirmed oncogene was discovered in 1970 and was termed src (pronounced sarc as in sarcoma). Src was in fact first discovered as an oncogene in a chicken retrovirus. Experiments performed by Dr. G. Steve Martin of the University of California, Berkeley demonstrated that the Src was indeed the oncogene of the virus.[8] The first nucleotide sequence of v-src was sequenced in 1980 by A.P. Czernilofsky et al.[9]
In 1976 Drs. Dominique Stehelin, J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus of the University of California, San Francisco demonstrated that oncogenes were activated proto-oncogenes, found in many organisms including humans. For this discovery, proving Todaro and Heubner's "oncogene theory", Bishop and Varmus were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1989.[10]
The resultant protein encoded by an oncogene is termed oncoprotein.[11] Oncogenes play an important role in the regulation or synthesis of proteins linked to tumorigenic cell growth. Some oncoproteins are accepted and used as tumor markers.
Proto-oncogene[edit]
A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that could become an oncogene due to mutations or increased expression. Proto-oncogenes code for proteins that help to regulate cell growth and differentiation. Proto-oncogenes are often involved in signal transduction and execution of mitogenic signals, usually through their protein products. Upon acquiring an activating mutation, a proto-oncogene becomes a tumor-inducing agent, an oncogene.[12] Examples of proto-oncogenes include RAS, WNT, MYC, ERK, and TRK. The MYC gene is implicated in Burkitt's lymphoma, which starts when a chromosomal translocation moves an enhancer sequence within the vicinity of the MYC gene. The MYC gene codes for widely used transcription factors. When the enhancer sequence is wrongly placed, these transcription factors are produced at much higher rates. Another example of an oncogene is the Bcr-Abl gene found on the Philadelphia chromosome, a piece of genetic material seen in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia caused by the translocation of pieces from chromosomes 9 and 22. Bcr-Abl codes for a tyrosine kinase, which is constitutively active, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation. (More information about the Philadelphia Chromosome below)
Activation[edit]
From proto-oncogene to oncogene
The proto-oncogene can become an oncogene by a relatively small modification of its original function. There are three basic methods of activation:
A mutation within a proto-oncogene, or within a regulatory region (for example the promoter region), can cause a change in the protein structure, causing
an increase in protein (enzyme) activity
a loss of regulation
An increase in the amount of a certain protein (protein concentration), caused by
an increase of protein expression (through misregulation)
an increase of protein (mRNA) stability, prolonging its existence and thus its activity in the cell
gene duplication (one type of chromosome abnormality), resulting in an increased amount of protein in the cell
A chromosomal translocation (another type of chromosome abnormality)
There are 2 different types of chromosomal translocations that can occur:
translocation events which relocate a proto-oncogene to a new chromosomal site that leads to higher expression
translocation events that lead to a fusion between a proto-oncogene and a 2nd gene (this creates a fusion protein with increased cancerous/oncogenic activity)
the expression of a constitutively active hybrid protein. This type of mutation in a dividing stem cell in the bone marrow leads to adult leukemia
Philadelphia Chromosome is an example of this type of translocation event. This chromosome was discovered in 1960 by Peter Nowell and David Hungerford, and it is a fusion of parts of DNA from chromosome 22 and chromosome 9. The broken end of chromosome 22 contains the "BCR" gene, which fuses with a fragment of chromosome 9 that contains the "ABL1" gene. When these two chromosome fragments fuse the genes also fuse creating a new gene: "BCR-ABL". This fused gene encodes for a protein that displays high protein tyrosine kinase activity (this activity is due to the "ABL1" half of the protein). The unregulated expression of this protein activates other proteins that are involved in cell cycle and cell division which can cause a cell to grow and divide uncontrollably (the cell becomes cancerous). As a result, the Philadelphia Chromosome is associated with Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (as mentioned before) as well as other forms of Leukemia.[13]
The expression of oncogenes can be regulated by microRNAs (miRNAs), small RNAs 21-25 nucleotides in length that control gene expression by downregulating them.[14] Mutations in such microRNAs (known as oncomirs) can lead to activation of oncogenes.[15] Antisense messenger RNAs could theoretically be used to block the effects of oncogenes.
Classification[edit]
There are several systems for classifying oncogenes,[16][17] but there is not yet a widely accepted standard. They are sometimes grouped both spatially (moving from outside the cell inwards) and chronologically (parallelling the "normal" process of signal transduction). There are several categories that are commonly used:
Category Examples Cancers Gene functions
Growth factors, or mitogens c-Sis glioblastomas, fibrosarcomas, osteosarcomas, breast carcinomas, and melanomas[18] induces cell proliferation.
Receptor tyrosine kinases epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), HER2/neu Breast cancer, gastrointestinal stromal tumours, non-small-cell lung cancer and pancreatic cancer[19] transduce signals for cell growth and differentiation.
Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases Src-family, Syk-ZAP-70 family, and BTK family of tyrosine kinases, the Abl gene in CML - Philadelphia chromosome colorectal and breast cancers, melanomas, ovarian cancers, gastric cancers, head and neck cancers, pancreatic cancer, lung cancer, brain cancers, and blood cancers[20] mediate the responses to, and the activation receptors of cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and survival[21]
Cytoplasmic Serine/threonine kinases and their regulatory subunits Raf kinase, and cyclin-dependent kinases (through overexpression). malignant melanoma, papillary thyroid cancer, colorectal cancer, and ovarian cancer[22] Involved in organism development, cell cycle regulation, cell proliferation, differentiation, cells survival, and apoptosis[23]
Regulatory GTPases Ras protein adenocarcinomas of the pancreas and colon, thyroid tumors, and myeloid leukemia[24] involved in signalling a major pathway leading to cell proliferation.[25]
Transcription factors myc gene malignant T-cell lymphomas and acute myleoid leukemias, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, retinoblastoma, and small cell lung cancer[26] -They regulate transcription of genes that induce cell proliferation.
More detailed information for the above Table:
Growth factors are usually secreted by either specialized or not specialized cells to induce cell proliferation in themselves, nearby cells, or distant cells. An oncogene may cause a cell to secrete growth factors even though it does not normally do so. It will thereby induce its own uncontrolled proliferation (autocrine loop), and proliferation of neighboring cells. It may also cause production of growth hormones in other parts of the body.
Receptor tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to other proteins to turn them on or off. Receptor kinases add phosphate groups to receptor proteins at the surface of the cell (which receive protein signals from outside the cell and transmit them to the inside of the cell). Tyrosine kinases add phosphate groups to the amino acid tyrosine in the target protein. They can cause cancer by turning the receptor permanently on (constitutively), even without signals from outside the cell.
Ras is a small GTPase that hydrolyses GTP into GDP and phosphate. Ras is activated by growth factor signaling (i.e., EGF, TGFbeta) and acting like a binary switch (on/off) in growth signaling pathways. Downstream effectors of Ras include three mitogen-activated protein kinases Raf a MAP Kinase Kinase Kinase (MAPKKK), MEK a MAP Kinase Kinase (MAPKK), and ERK a MAP Kinase(MAPK), which in turn regulate genes that mediate cell proliferation.
See also[edit]
Anticancer gene
Oncogenomics
Tumor suppressor gene
Oncovirus
Genetic predisposition
Quantitative trait locus
Genetic susceptibility
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wilbur, Beth, editor. The World of the Cell, Becker, W.M., et al., 7th ed. San Francisco, CA; 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Kimball's Biology Pages. "Oncogenes" Free full text
Jump up ^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002. Illustrated presentation.
Jump up ^ Croce CM (Jan 2008). "Oncogenes and cancer". N Engl J Med. 358 (5): 502–11. PMID 18234754. doi:10.1056/NEJMra072367.
Jump up ^ Yokota J (Mar 2000). "Tumor progression and metastasis". Carcinogenesis. 21 (3): 497–503. PMID 10688870. doi:10.1093/carcin/21.3.497.
Jump up ^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1989 to J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus for their discovery of "the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes".
Jump up ^ The Emperor of All Maladies, Siddhartha Mukherjee, 2011, p. 363
Jump up ^ The Hunting of the Src, G. Steven Martin, Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 2: 467 (2001)
Jump up ^ (A.P. Czernilofsky et al., 1980, Nature Vol 287, pp 198-203).
Jump up ^ Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1989 jointly to J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus for their discovery of "the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes". Press Release.
Jump up ^ Chapter 20 - NEOPLASMS OF THE THYROID - in: Mitchell, Richard Sheppard; Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson. Robbins Basic Pathology. Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2973-7. 8th edition.
Jump up ^ Todd R, Wong DT (1999). "Oncogenes". Anticancer Res. 19 (6A): 4729–46. PMID 10697588.
Jump up ^ Chial, H (2008). "Proto-oncogenes to Oncogenes to Cancer". Nature Education. 1 (1).
Jump up ^ Negrini M, Ferracin M, Sabbioni S, Croce CM (Jun 2007). "MicroRNAs in human cancer: from research to therapy". J Cell Sci. 120 (Pt 11): 1833–40. PMID 17515481. doi:10.1242/jcs.03450.
Jump up ^ Esquela-Kerscher A, Slack FJ (Apr 2006). "Oncomirs - microRNAs with a role in cancer". Nat Rev Cancer. 6 (4): 259–69. PMID 16557279. doi:10.1038/nrc1840.
Jump up ^ THE Medical Biochemistry Page
Jump up ^ Classification of Oncogene Function
Jump up ^ Press, Richard; Anita Misra; Glenda Gillaspy; David Samols; David A. Goldthwait (June 1, 1989). "Control of the Expression of c-sis mRNA in Human Glioblastoma Cells by Phorbol Ester and Transforming Growth Factor ß1". Cancer Research (49): 2914–2920.
Jump up ^ Gschwind, Andreas; Fischer, Oliver M.; Ullrich, Axel (May 2004). "Timeline: The discovery of receptor tyrosine kinases: targets for cancer therapy". Nature Reviews Cancer. 4 (5): 361–370. PMID 15122207. doi:10.1038/nrc1360.
Jump up ^ Summy, Justin M.; Gallick, GE (1 January 2003). "Src family kinases in tumor progression and metastasis". Cancer and Metastasis Reviews. 22 (4): 337–358. PMID 12884910. doi:10.1023/A:1023772912750.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Sheila M.; Brugge, Joan S. (1 November 1997). "CELLULAR FUNCTIONS REGULATED BY SRC FAMILY KINASES". Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 13 (1): 513–609. PMID 9442882. doi:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.13.1.513.
Jump up ^ Garnett, Mathew J.; Marais, Richard (1 October 2004). "Guilty as charged: B-RAF is a human oncogene". Cancer Cell. 6 (4): 313–319. PMID 15488754. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2004.09.022.
Jump up ^ Leicht, D; Vitaly Balan; Alexander Kaplun; Vinita Singh-Gupta; Ludmila Kaplun; Melissa Dobson; Guri Tzivion (August 2007). "Rafkinases: Function, regulation and role in human cancer". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research. 1773 (8): 1196–1212. PMC 1986673  . doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2007.05.001.
Jump up ^ Bos, JL (Sep 1, 1989). "ras oncogenes in human cancer: a review". Cancer Research. 49 (17): 4682–9. PMID 2547513.
Jump up ^ Hilgenfeld, Rolf (1 December 1995). "Regulatory GTPases". Current Opinion in Structural Biology. 5 (6): 810–817. PMID 8749370. doi:10.1016/0959-440X(95)80015-8.
Jump up ^ Felsher, Dean W.; Bishop, J.Michael (August 1999). "Reversible Tumorigenesis by MYC in Hematopoietic Lineages". Molecular Cell. 4 (2): 199–207. PMID 10488335. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80367-6.
External links[edit]
Drosophila Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressors - The Interactive Fly
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The Cabinet of the United Kingdom is the collective decision-making body of Her Majesty's Government of the United Kingdom, composed of the Prime Minister and 21 cabinet ministers, the most senior of the government ministers.
Ministers of the Crown, and especially Cabinet ministers, are selected primarily from the elected members of House of Commons, and from the House of Lords, by the Prime Minister. Cabinet ministers are heads of government departments, mostly with the office of "Secretary of State for [function; e.g., Defence]". The collective co-ordinating function of the Cabinet is reinforced by the statutory position that all the Secretaries of State jointly hold the same office, and can exercise the same powers.[1]
The Cabinet is the ultimate decision-making body of the executive within the Westminster system of government in traditional constitutional theory. This interpretation was originally put across in the work of nineteenth century constitutionalists such as Walter Bagehot, who described the Cabinet as the "efficient secret" of the British political system in his book The English Constitution. The political and decision-making authority of the cabinet has been gradually reduced over the last several decades, with some claiming its role has been usurped by a "prime ministerial" government.
The Cabinet is the executive committee of Her Majesty's Privy Council,[2] a body which has legislative, judicial and executive functions, and whose large membership includes members of the Opposition. Its decisions are generally implemented either under the existing powers of individual government departments, or by Orders in Council.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Composition
3 Meetings of the cabinet
4 Location of Cabinet meetings
5 Parliamentary accountability
6 Current cabinet
7 Shadow Cabinet
8 See also
8.1 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Until at least the 16th century, individual Officers of State had separate property, powers and responsibilities granted with their separate offices by Royal Command, and the Crown and the Privy Council constituted the only co-ordinating authorities. In England, phrases such as "cabinet counsel", meaning advice given in private, in a cabinet in the sense of a small room, to the monarch, occur from the late 16th century, and, given the non-standardised spelling of the day, it is often hard to distinguish whether "council" or "counsel" is meant.[3] The OED credits Francis Bacon in his Essays (1605) with the first use of "Cabinet council", where it is described as a foreign habit, of which he disapproves: "For which inconveniences, the doctrine of Italy, and practice of France, in some kings’ times, hath introduced cabinet counsels; a remedy worse than the disease".[4] Charles I began a formal "Cabinet Council" from his accession in 1625, as his Privy Council, or "private council", and the first recorded use of "cabinet" by itself for such a body comes from 1644, and is again hostile and associates the term with dubious foreign practices.[3]
Since the reign of King George I the Cabinet has been the principal executive group of British government. Both he and George II made use of the system, as both were not native English speakers, unfamiliar with British politics, and thus relied heavily on selected groups of advisers. The term "minister" came into being since the royal officers "ministered" to the sovereign. The name and institution have been adopted by most English-speaking countries, and the Council of Ministers or similar bodies of other countries are often informally referred to as cabinets.
The modern Cabinet system was set up by Prime Minister David Lloyd George during his premiership, 1916–1922, with a Cabinet Office and Secretariat, committee structures, unpublished minutes, and a clearer relationship with departmental Cabinet ministers. (The formal procedures, practice and proceedings of the Cabinet remain largely unpublished, if not secret.)
This development grew out of the exigencies of the First World War, where faster and better co-ordinated decisions across Government were seen as a crucial part of the war effort. Decisions on mass conscription, co-ordination worldwide with other governments across international theatres, and armament production tied into a general war strategy that could be developed and overseen from an inner "War Cabinet". The country went through successive crises after the war: the 1926 United Kingdom general strike; the Great Depression of 1929–32; the rise of Bolshevism after 1917 and Fascism after 1922; the Spanish Civil War 1936 onwards; the invasion of Abyssinia 1936; the League of Nations Crisis which followed; and the re-armament and resurgence of Germany from 1933, leading into another World War. All these demanded a highly organised and centralised Government centred on the Cabinet.
This centralisation enhanced the power of the Prime Minister, who moved from being the primus inter pares of the Asquith Cabinets of 1906 onwards, to the dominating figures of David Lloyd George, Stanley Baldwin and Winston Churchill.
Composition[edit]
Cabinet ministers, like all ministers, are appointed and may be dismissed by the monarch at pleasure (that is, they may be dismissed without notice or reason given, although normally they are given a courteous option to resign) on the advice of the Prime Minister. The allocation and transfer of responsibilities between ministers and departments is also generally at the Prime Minister's discretion. The Cabinet has always been led by the Prime Minister, whose unpaid office as such was traditionally described as merely primus inter pares (first among equals), but today the Prime Minister is clearly the preeminent head of government, with the effective power to appoint and dismiss Cabinet ministers and to control the Cabinet's agenda. The extent to which the Government is collegial varies with political conditions and individual personalities.
Any change to the composition of the Cabinet involving more than one appointment is customarily referred to as a reshuffle; a routine reshuffle normally occurs every summer. The total number of ministers allowed to be paid as "Cabinet ministers" is limited by the Ministerial and Other Salaries Act 1975, and this has caused successive Prime Ministers problems, and accounts for some of the unusual regular attendees at Cabinet, who are not paid as Cabinet ministers. The number in addition to the Prime Minister is currently 21;[5] total cabinet composition fluctuating between 21 and 23.
The Cabinet Secretary does not have a political appointment such as Secretary of State and is not a member of the Cabinet, but is the professional Head of Her Majesty's Civil Service. (The Cabinet Secretaries of the devolved Scottish Government are Scottish Ministers, unrelated to the U.K. Cabinet).
In formal constitutional terms, the Cabinet is a committee of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council. All Cabinet members are made Privy Counsellors shortly after appointment if not already Privy Counsellors, but only selected Privy Counsellors are appointed to the Cabinet or invited to attend. MPs and peers in the Cabinet use the style "the Right Honourable" (abbr. the Rt Hon.)[6]
The Cabinet has come to be made up almost entirely of members of the House of Commons. The Leader of the House of Lords is a member of the House of Lords. Otherwise it is rare for a peer to sit in the Cabinet. The Lord Chancellor was formerly the presiding officer of the House of Lords, but since 2007 need not be a member of the Lords, and members of the House of Commons have been appointed. Until the re-appointment to the cabinet of Lord Mandelson on 3 October 2008, the old Leader of the Lords, Lady Amos, was the last peer to sit in any other Cabinet post, as Secretary of State for International Development from May to October 2003. Before then, the last Secretary of State for a major department drawn from the Lords was Lord Young of Graffham, serving between 1985 and 1989 as Secretary of State for Employment until 1987 and Secretary of State for Trade and Industry until 1989. The number of junior ministers who are peers has increased since 1997.
Occasionally cabinet members are selected from outside the Houses of Parliament and if necessary granted a peerage. Harold Wilson appointed Frank Cousins and Patrick Gordon Walker to the 1964 cabinet despite their not being MPs at the time. On 3 October 2008 Peter Mandelson, at the time of appointment not a member of either House, became Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform and was immediately made a life peer. During the First World War, the South African politician Jan Smuts served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet without ever becoming a member of either house of the British parliament.
There are some 100 junior members of the Government who are not members of the Cabinet, including Ministers of State and Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State; and unpaid Parliamentary Private Secretaries are in practice apprentice ministers on the payroll vote. Some of them may be Privy Counsellors, or may be appointed to the Privy Council as a mark of distinction, without becoming Cabinet ministers. Equally, some junior ministers below Cabinet level may be invited to all Cabinet meetings as a matter of course. The Attorney General for England and Wales together with the chair of the governing political party, are customarily included, and other members of the Government can be invited at the Prime Minister's discretion, either regularly or ad hoc.
Since the end of the twentieth century more non-members of Her Majesty's Government were permitted by the Prime Minister to attend Cabinet meetings on a regular basis, notably Alastair Campbell in his capacity as Director of Communications and Strategy between 1997 and 2003, and Jonathan Powell, the Chief of Staff to the Prime Minister, under Tony Blair, with a distinctly separate role from the Cabinet Secretary/Head of the Civil Service.
A photograph is taken of each new Cabinet in the garden or drawing room at 10 Downing Street.[7]
Meetings of the cabinet[edit]
The Cabinet table
The Cabinet meets on a regular basis, usually weekly on a Thursday morning notionally to discuss the most important issues of government policy, and to make decisions. Despite the custom of meeting on a Thursday, after the appointment of Gordon Brown as Prime Minister the meeting day was switched to Tuesday.[8] However, when David Cameron became prime minister, he held his cabinet meetings on Thursdays again.[9] The length of meetings varies according to the style of the Prime Minister and political conditions, but today meetings can be as short as 30 minutes, which suggests announcement or ratification of decisions taken in committee, by informal groups, or in bi-lateral discussions between the Prime Minister and individual colleagues, with discussion in Cabinet itself very limited. The Prime Minister normally has a weekly audience with the Queen thereafter.
The Cabinet has numerous sub-committees which focus on particular policy areas, particularly ones which cut across several ministerial responsibilities, and therefore need coordination. These may be permanent committees or set up for a short duration to look at particular issues ("ad hoc committees"). Junior ministers are also often members of these committees, in addition to Secretaries of State. The transaction of government business through meetings of the Cabinet and its many committees is administered by a small secretariat within the Cabinet Office. Consequent Orders in Council are normally made by the Queen-in-Council with a quorum of the Privy Council, which meets monthly or ad hoc.
The Institute for Government claims that the reduced number of full Cabinet meetings signify "that the role of Cabinet as a formal decision-making body has been in decline since the war."[citation needed]. This view has been contradicted by Vernon Bogdanor, a British constitutional expert, who claims that "the Cabinet has, in fact, been strengthened by the decline in full meetings, as it allows more matters to be transferred to cabinet committees. Thus, business is done more efficiently."[10]
Most Prime Ministers have had a so-called "kitchen cabinet" consisting of their own trusted advisers who may be Cabinet members but are often non-cabinet trusted personal advisers on their own staff. In recent governments, generally from Margaret Thatcher, and especially in that of Tony Blair, it has been reported that many or even all major decisions have been made before cabinet meetings. This suggestion has been made by former ministers including Clare Short and Chris Smith, in the media, and was made clear in the Butler Review, where Blair's style of "sofa government" was censured.
Location of Cabinet meetings[edit]
Cabinet meetings are usually held in the Cabinet Room of 10 Downing Street, the Prime Minister's official residence.
Cabinet meetings have also been held at Chequers, and in one case at the Grand Hotel, Brighton.[11] In September 1921, under David Lloyd George, a Cabinet meeting was held at Inverness Town House in the Scottish Highlands to discuss the Irish Problem, the only meeting outside England.
Parliamentary accountability[edit]
There are two key constitutional conventions regarding the accountability of cabinet ministers to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, cabinet collective responsibility, and individual ministerial responsibility.
These are derived from the fact the members of the cabinet are Members of Parliament, and therefore accountable to the House of which they are a member. The Queen will only appoint a Prime Minister whose Government can command the support of the House of Commons, which alone can grant supply to a Government by authorising taxes; and the House of Commons expects all ministers to be personally accountable to Parliament. In practice, Cabinet ministers will usually have a junior minister to represent their department in the House of Lords.
Cabinet collective responsibility means that members of the cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions. Therefore, no minister may speak against government decisions, and if a vote of no confidence is passed in Parliament, every minister and government official drawn from Parliament is expected to resign from the executive. Cabinet ministers who disagree with major decisions are expected to resign, Robin Cook being a recent example over the decision to go to war with Iraq in 2003. The principle of collective responsibility is not impaired by the fact that decisions may be made in a cabinet committee rather than by the full cabinet.
Individual ministerial responsibility is the convention that in their capacity as head of department, a minister is personally responsible for the actions and failings of their department. Under circumstances of gross failure in their department, a minister is expected to resign (and may be forced to do so by the Prime Minister), while their civil servants remain permanent and anonymous. This is relatively rare in practice, perhaps because administrative failure is of less interest to the media than personal scandal, and less susceptible to unequivocal proof. The closest example in recent years is perhaps Estelle Morris, who resigned as Secretary of State for Education and Skills in 2002 following severe problems and inaccuracies in the marking of A-level exams. The circumstances under which this convention is followed are not possible to define strictly, and depend on many other factors. If a minister's reputation is seen to be tarnished by a personal scandal (for example when it was luridly revealed that David Mellor had an extramarital affair) they very often resign. This often follows a short period of intense media and opposition pressure for them to do so. In general, despite numerous scandals, in Britain known cases of serious corruption (e.g. acceptance of bribes) are relatively rare in comparison with many other democracies. One reason is the strength of the whip system, political parties and the civil service, in comparison to individual politicians. This means MPs and ministers have little capacity to be influenced by improper pressure.[citation needed]
Parliamentary Questions can be tabled for ministers in either house of Parliament for either written or oral reply. These may be "planted" questions for the advantage of the Government, or antagonistic questions from the Opposition, or may genuinely seek information. Cabinet ministers must respond, either themselves or through a deputy, although the answers do not always fully answer the question. Written answers, which are usually more specific and detailed than oral questions are usually written by a civil servant. Answers to written and oral questions are published in Hansard.
Parliament cannot dismiss individual ministers (though members or a House may call for their resignation, or formally resolve to reduce their salary by a nominal amount), but the House of Commons is able to determine the fate of the entire Government. If a vote of no confidence in the Government passes, then the Queen will seek to restore confidence either by a dissolution of Parliament and the election of a new one, or by the acceptance of the resignation of her entire government.
In the United Kingdom's parliamentary system, the executive is not separate from the legislature, since Cabinet members are drawn from Parliament. Moreover, the executive tends to dominate the legislature for several reasons:
the first-past-the-post voting system (which tends to give a large majority to the governing party)
the power of the Government Whips (whose role is to ensure party members vote in accordance with the party line)
the "payroll vote" (a term which refers to the fact that members of parliament of the majority party will wish to be promoted to an executive position, and then be on the government's payroll).
collective ministerial responsibility requires members of the government to vote with the government on whipped votes, or else resign their position.
The combined effect of the Prime Minister's ability to control Cabinet by circumventing effective discussion in Cabinet and the executive's ability to dominate parliamentary proceedings places the British Prime Minister in a position of great power, that has been likened to an elective dictatorship (a phrase coined by Lord Hailsham in 1976). The relative inability of Parliament to hold the Government of the day to account is often cited by the UK media as a justification for the vigour with which they question and challenge the Government. This is often controversial as some people believe that Individual Media Corporations have had key influence upon certain components of British elections.[12]
The classic view of Cabinet Government was laid out by Walter Bagehot in The English Constitution (1867) in which he described the prime minister as the primus‐inter‐pares ("first among equals").[13] The view was questioned by Richard Crossman in The Myths of Cabinet Government (1972) and by Tony Benn. They were both members of the Labour governments of the 1960s and thought that the position of the Prime Minister had acquired more power so that Prime Ministerial Government was a more apt description.[13] Crossman stated that the increase the power of the prime minister resulted from power of centralised political parties, the development of a unified civil service, and the grown of the Prime Minister's private office and Cabinet secretariat.[14] Graham Allen (a Government Whip during Tony Blair's first government) makes the case in The Last Prime Minister: Being Honest About the UK Presidency (2003) that in fact the office of prime minister has presidential powers,[15] as did Michael Foley in The British Presidency (2000).[16] However the power that a prime minister has over his or her cabinet colleagues is directly proportional to the amount of support that they have with their political parties and this is often related to whether the party considers them to be an electoral asset or liability. Also when a party is divided into factions a Prime Minister may be forced to include other powerful party members in the Cabinet for party political cohesion. The Prime Minister's personal power is also curtailed if their party is in a power-sharing arrangement, or a formal coalition with another party (as happened in the coalition government of 2010 to 2015).[14][13][17]
Current cabinet[edit]
As of July 2017[update]:
Main article: Second May ministry
Cabinet of the United Kingdom (the executive committee of Her Majesty's Privy Council)[18][19] [edit]
Portfolio
Minister
Term
Cabinet ministers
Prime Minister
First Lord of the Treasury
Minister for the Civil Service Theresa May MP 2016 – present
First Secretary of State
Minister for the Cabinet Office Damian Green MP 2017 – present
Chancellor of the Exchequer
Second Lord of the Treasury Philip Hammond MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for the Home Department Amber Rudd MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Boris Johnson MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union David Davis MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Defence Sir Michael Fallon KCB MP 2014 – present
Secretary of State for Health Jeremy Hunt MP 2012 – present
Lord Chancellor
Secretary of State for Justice Dr David Lidington CBE MP 2017 – present
Secretary of State for Education
Minister for Women and Equalities Justine Greening MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for International Trade
President of the Board of Trade Dr Liam Fox MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Dr Greg Clark MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Michael Gove MP 2017 – present
Secretary of State for Transport Chris Grayling MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Sajid Javid MP 2016 – present
Leader of the House of Lords
Lord Privy Seal Natalie Evans, Baroness Evans of Bowes Park PC 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Scotland David Mundell MP 2015 – present
Secretary of State for Wales Alun Cairns MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Northern Ireland James Brokenshire MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for International Development Priti Patel MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Karen Bradley MP 2016 – present
Secretary of State for Work and Pensions David Gauke MP 2017 – present
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
Chairman of the Conservative Party Sir Patrick McLoughlin MP 2016 – present
Also attending cabinet meetings
Leader of the House of Commons
Lord President of the Council Andrea Leadsom MP 2017 – present
Chief Secretary to the Treasury Elizabeth Truss MP 2017 – present
Chief Whip in the House of Commons
Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury Gavin Williamson CBE MP 2016 – present
Attorney General Jeremy Wright QC MP 2014 – present
Minister of State for Immigration Brandon Lewis MP 2017 – present
Shadow Cabinet[edit]
Main article: Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (United Kingdom)
The Official Opposition (the non-government party with the largest number of elected Members of Parliament—in practice either the Labour or the Conservative Party) is led by the Shadow Cabinet, supported by numerous junior Opposition frontbenchers.
The Scottish National Party, as of 2016[update] the third-largest party, has a set of spokesmen in the House of Commons, known by their leader's name as the Frontbench Team of Ian Blackford.
See also[edit]
British Government frontbench
List of British ministries
Category:Members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom cabinet committee
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ministers of the Crown Act 1975 s 3
Jump up ^ Cabinet Manual, 1.14
^ Jump up to: a b OED Cabinet
Jump up ^ Bacon, Essay "On Counsel" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Cabinet". Number10.gov.uk. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "How do you address a Lord?". www.parliament.uk. UK Parliament. Retrieved 15 May 2015. Rt Hon. should be used when a Lord is a member of the Privy Council.
Jump up ^ Cabinet Office Precedent Book Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine., 1992, page 79.
Jump up ^ Jones, George (2 July 2007). "Cabinet moves to Tuesdays". The Daily Telegraph.
Jump up ^ "David Cameron coalition team in first cabinet meeting". news.bbc.co.uk. BBC News. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
Jump up ^ "PRIME MINISTER. Cabinet meeting held at Grand Hotel, Brighton, 4 October 1966: request...". discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk. The National Archives.
Jump up ^ "Newspaper support in general elections". The Guardian.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fairclough, Paul (2002). "6.1 The Primemister". Advanced Government and Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-913434-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, Andy (1998). "Prime ministerial government". UK Government & Politics. Heinemann. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-0-435-33158-0.
Jump up ^ Allen, Graham (14 February 2017). The Last Prime Minister: Being Honest About the UK Presidency. Andrews UK Limited. ISBN 978-1-84540-609-7.
Jump up ^ Foley, Michael (2000). "Chapter 1: The Blair revolution and presidential standard". The British Presidency. Manchester University Press. pp. 1-26. ISBN 978-0-7190-5016-9.
Jump up ^ Palekar, S.A. (2008). "Position of the Prime Minister". Comparative Politics and Government. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 37. ISBN 978-81-203-3335-2.
Jump up ^ "Election 2017: Prime Minister and ministerial appointments". gov.uk (Press release). British Government. 11 June 2017. Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Her Majesty's Government". parliament.uk. Parliament of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom.
Cabinet Office - Main Site
Cabinet Office - UK Executive
Cabinet Office - List of Cabinet Ministers
Cabinet Papers, 1915-1981 (National Archives)
BBC news website - The Cabinet
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values: Kabinett des Vereinigten Königreichs – German

values: کابینه بریتانیا – Persian

values: संयुक्त राजशाही की कैबिनेट – Hindi

values: קבינט ממשלת בריטניה – Hebrew

values: Ұлыбритания министрлер кабинеті – Kazakh

values: Кабинет министров Великобритании – Russian

values: Cabinet of the United Kingdom – Simple English

values: Кабинет Уједињеног Краљевства – Serbian

values: Birleşik Krallık Bakanlar Kurulu – Turkish

values: Кабінет міністрів Великої Британії – Ukrainian

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