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List of territorial entities where German is an official language
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Legal statuses of German in Europe:
"German Sprachraum": German is (co-)official language and first language of the majority of the population
German is a co-official language, but not the first language of the majority of the population
German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognized minority language (Squares: Geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale)
German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizable minority, but has no legal recognition
Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide.
Germany (78.3%)
Austria (8.4%)
Switzerland (5.6%)
Italy (0.4%)
Other (7.3%)
The following is a list of the territorial entities where German is an official language. It includes countries, which have German as (one of) their nationwide official language(s), as well as dependent territories with German as a co-official language.
Contents
[hide]
1 German as an official language
1.1 Dependent entities
2 Other legal statuses
3 International institutions
4 Notes
5 References
German as an official language[edit]
German is the official language of six countries, all of which lie in central Europe. These countries (with the addition of South Tyrol) also form the Council for German Orthography and are referred to as the German Sprachraum (German language area).
Country
Population
2014/2015[1]
Speakers
Notes
(native)[2][3][4]
(second)[2][4]
Germany 81,083,600 74,430,000 (91.8%) 5,600,000 (6.9%) Sole nationwide official language[a]
Belgium 11,245,629 73,000 (0.6%) 2,472,746 (22%) De jure nationwide co-official language (majority language only in German speaking community)
Austria 8,602,112 7,999,964 (93%) 516,000 (6%) De jure sole nationwide official language
Switzerland 8,256,000 5,329,393 (64.6%) 395,000 (5%) Co-official language at federal level; de jure sole official language in 17, co-official in 4 cantons (out of 26)
Luxembourg 562,958 11,000 (2%) 380,000 (67.5%) De jure nationwide co-official language
Liechtenstein 37,370 32,075 (85.8%) 5,200 (13.9%) De jure sole nationwide official language
Total
109,787,669
87,875,432
9,368,946
Total speakers: 97,244,378
Dependent entities[edit]
German, or one of its dialects, is a co-official language in several dependent entities. In each of these regions, German, along with the official language of the host nation, is an official language on the administrative level.
Region
Country
Population
2006/2011
Native
speakers
Notes
Autonomous Province of South Tyrol Italy 511,750 354,643 (69.3%)[5] Co-official language on province level; equal to Italian
Opole Voivodeship (28 communes)
Silesian Voivodeship (3 communes) Poland 250,000 ~50,000 (~20%)[6] Auxiliary language in 31 communes;[7]
also national minority language[8]
Espírito Santo (5 municipalities)
Santa Catarina (2 municipalities)
Rio Grande do Sul (2 municipalities) Brazil 205,000 N/A Co-official language in 9 municipalities[9] (as "German", "Pomeranian", and "Hunsrückisch");
also statewide cultural language in Espírito Santo[10]
In the two Slovak villages of Krahule/Blaufuss and Kunešov/Kuneschhau (total population 530) the percentage of ethnic Germans exceeds 20%,[11] therefore making German a co-official language according to Slovak law.[12][13][14] However, due to the size of the villages and the approximate number of native German speakers (~100), the administrative impact is negligible.
Other legal statuses[edit]
Legal statuses of German in the world (see preceding image for color descriptions)
See also: Geographical distribution of German speakers
There are other political entities (countries as well as dependent entities) which acknowledge other legal statuses for the German language or one of its dialects. While these may cover minority rights, support of certain language facilities (schools, media, etc.), and the promotion of cultural protection/heritage, they do not encompass the establishment of German as an "official" language, i.e., being required in public offices or administrative texts.
Brazil (cultural language in Espírito Santo; also co-official in 9 municipalities in southern Brazil)[10]
Bosnia and Herzegovina (national minority language)[8]
Czech Republic (national minority language)[4][8][15]
Denmark (minority language in Syddanmark)[8][16][17]
Hungary (national minority language)[8][18][19]
Italy (outside South Tyrol) (minority language in Trentino[20][21] (as "Cimbrian" & "Mòcheno/Fersentalerisch"); Piedmont[22]/Valle d'Aosta[23] (as Walser German); Friuli-Venezia Giulia[24] (various dialects))
Kazakhstan (national minority language)[25]
Namibia (national language; co-official language 1984–90)[4][26]
Poland (national minority language; also auxiliary language in 31 communes)[8]
Romania (national minority language)[4][8][27]
Russia (minority language in the Azov German National District)[28]
Slovakia (national minority language; also co-official in 2 villages)[8]
Ukraine (national minority language)[8]
Although in France, the High German varieties Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as "regional languages" according to the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages of 1998, the French government has not yet ratified the treaty, and those varieties have no official legal status.[29]
The constitution of South Africa identifies German as a "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to "promote and ensure respect" for it.[30]
Due to the German diaspora, other countries with sizable populations of (mostly bilingual) German L1 speakers include Argentina, Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, Paraguay, as well as the United States.[31] However, in none of these countries does German or a German variety have any legal status.
In the Netherlands, the Limburgish, Frisian, and Low German languages are protected regional languages according to the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages,[8] however they are widely considered separate languages and neither German nor Dutch dialects.
International institutions[edit]
German is an official language of the following international institutions:
European Patent Organisation – EPO
European Space Agency – ESA
European Union - EU
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe - OSCE
Reporters Without Borders – RWB
World Association of Newspapers – WAN
Numerous international sports associations:
European Handball Federation – EHF
Fédération Internationale de Basketball – FIBA
Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing – FIBT
Fédération Internationale de Football Association – FIFA
Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique – FIG
Fédération Internationale de Luge de Course – FIL
Fédération Internationale de Ski – FIS
International Biathlon Union – IBU
Union of European Football Associations – UEFA
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ While several specific laws, e.g., §23 VwVfG or $184 GVG, specify German as the administrative language in Germany, the Grundgesetz does not specifically mention it as federal official language.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See: List of countries and dependencies by population
^ Jump up to: a b Eurobarometer 2012 - Annex
Jump up ^ "German, Standard". Ethnologue.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ammon, Ulrich (November 2014). "Die Stellung der deutschen Sprache in der Welt" (in German) (1st ed.). Berlin, Germany: de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019298-8. Retrieved 2015-07-24.
Jump up ^ Census of South Tyrol 2011
Jump up ^ Polish census 2011 (note that ethnic associations allow only for a very rough estimate of first language distribution)
Jump up ^ "Map on page of Polish Commission on Standardization of Geographical Names" (PDF). Retrieved 20 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Council of Europe - List of ratifications of the Charter for regional/minority languages
Jump up ^ "IPOL realizará formação de recenseadores para o censo linguístico do município de Antônio Carlos-SC". e-ipol.org.
^ Jump up to: a b Legislative Assembly of the state of Espírito Santo (Commissioner for Culture and Social Communication - Addition to the constitutional amendment number 11/2009 establishing the Pomeranian dialect as well as German as cultural heritage of the state (February 2011)
Jump up ^ Úrad splnomocnenca vlády SR pre národnostné menšiny (The Government Council of the Slovak Republic for National Minorities and Ethnic Groups) - List of Slovakian municipalities with >20% minority population (2011)
Jump up ^ National Geographic Collegiate Atlas of the World. Willard, Ohio: R.R. Donnelley & Sons Company. April 2006. pp. 257–299. ISBN 978-0-7922-3662-7.
Jump up ^ Annual of Language & Politics and Politics of Identity - Language Policy of Slovak Republic (Zdeněk Škrobák)
Jump up ^ "National Council of the Slovak Republic - 184 Act (dated 10 July 1999) on the use of languages of national minorities". kbdesign.sk.
Jump up ^ Carolin Zwilling (European Academy Bolzano-Bozen, 2004) - Minority Protection and Language Policy in the Czech Republic
Jump up ^ "European Centre for Minority Issues - Bonn-Copenhagen Declarations". ecmi.de.
Jump up ^ Die deutsche Minderheit in Dänemark - Sprache – Identität und Schlüssel (German). Letzter Zugriff am 3. Mai 2015
Jump up ^ "Deutsche Botschaft Budapest - Die deutsche Minderheit in Ungarn". Retrieved 3 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Budapest - The national and ethnic minorities in Hungary
Jump up ^ "Tutela delle comunità linguistiche storiche – Provincia Autonoma di Trento – Minoranze Linguistiche". provincia.tn.it.
Jump up ^ Sprachminderheiten in Italien - Autonome Region Trentino-Südtirol
Jump up ^ L.R. n. 26 del 10 aprile 1990 - Tutela, valorizzazione e promozione della conoscenza dell'originale patrimonio linguistico del Piemonte - B.U. n. 16 del 18 aprile 1990
Jump up ^ Loi constitutionnelle n° 4 du 26 février 1948 STATUT SPECIAL POUR LA VALLEE D'AOSTE
Jump up ^ Sprachminderheiten in Italien - Friuli Venezia Giulia
Jump up ^ "German as recognized language in Kazakhstan according to Language Law, No. 151-1, 11 July, Articles 4,6,7 (1997)". Ethnologue.
Jump up ^ "Deutsch in Namibia" (PDF) (in German). Supplement of the Allgemeine Zeitung. 18 August 2007. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz". google.de.
Jump up ^ "УСТАВ АЗОВСКОГО РАЙОННОГО СОВЕТА ОТ 21.05.2002 N 5-09 УСТАВ МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ "АЗОВСКИЙ НЕМЕЦКИЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ РАЙОН ОМСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ (ПРИНЯТ РЕШЕНИЕМ АЗОВСКОГО РАЙОННОГО СОВЕТА ОТ 21.05.2002 N 5-09, ЗАРЕГИСТРИРОВАН ПОСТАНОВЛЕНИЕМ ЗС ОТ 25.06.2002 N 106)". bestpravo.com.
Jump up ^ "Charte européenne des langues régionales : Hollande nourrit la guerre contre le français". Le Figaro.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions". www.gov.za.
Jump up ^ German L1 speakers outside Europe
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National Korean American Service & Education Consortium
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The National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC, and 미주한인봉사교육단체협의회 or 미교협 in Korean) is a national service, advocacy and education organization for two non-profit multi-issue grassroots local community centers: the Korean American Resource & Cultural Center in Chicago and the Korean Resource Center in Los Angeles. NAKASEC is based in Los Angeles and a D.C. office opened in late 2008.
NAKASEC was founded in 1994 by local community centers to project a national progressive voice and promote the full participation of Korean Americans as a part of a greater goal of building a national movement for social change. NAKASEC was one of the major players in the Korean American community during the restoration movement after the welfare reform of 1996 through the "Fix '96 Campaign" and continues to be active in the immigration reform debate.
Contents
1 History
2 Korean American Resource & Cultural Center
3 Korean Resource Center
3.1 Community Groups
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
KRC along with other centers in Seattle, Washington, DC, Houston and other cities, were established in the early 1980s by political activists who escaped South Korea after Chun Doo-hwan's military leadership crushed the Gwangju People's Uprising in May 1980. From the onset, the center set as its goals the delivery of social services, community education, rights advocacy, and preservation and enrichment of traditional cultures and work on identity. During the 1980s, it focused its advocacy in solidarity work with the democratization movement of South Korea, exposing grave human rights violations committed by the Chun regime.[1] Because of its open challenge to the then dictatorial state of South Korea, KRC was a target of covert repression and kidnap attempts by the KCIA and the Korean Consulate.
With the Los Angeles Civil Unrest of 1992 and the anti-immigrant wave that swept across California with Proposition 187 in 1994, KRC steered its direction to issues of the Korean American community in Los Angeles, particularly around political education, civil rights and the defense of immigrant rights. In 1994, KRC and other sister centers across the United States, including YKASEC in New York City and KRCC in Chicago, founded the National Korean American Service and Education Consortium (NAKASEC, 미주한인봉사교육단체협의회), a national civil rights organization with a progressive Korean American agenda.
Under the leadership of NAKASEC, centers fought against Proposition 187, held community education on issues of race, and formed a broad coalition in the Korean American community against the Welfare Reform of 1996. Through a community fundraiser involving thousands of individuals, a full-page ad was posted in the Washington Post in 1997 demanding the president to end the attack on immigrants, and a campaign to restore welfare benefits for immigrants was launched in the late 90's, winning back various benefits for lawful permanent residents and other immigrants. Many Korean American seniors became politicized during this struggle for benefits.[2]
NAKASEC coordinated a national two-week fast for the passage of the DREAM Act in 2004 with the participation of 700 individuals, and held a summer community fundraising campaign, gaining the monetary contribution of 14,000 individuals, to post a full-page ad in the New York Times and Washington Post urging the American public to support comprehensive immigration reform based on the principles of legalization of undocumented immigrants, an end to measures that prevented many families to be together, and the defense of workers' rights and civil rights & liberties.
Korean American Resource & Cultural Center[edit]
The Korean American Resource & Cultural Center (KRCC for short, and 한인교육문화 마당집 or 마당집 in Korean) was founded in March 1995. KRCC has a strong youth program and leadership has worked broadly in a multi-racial and multi-ethnic environment. KRCC is member of a number of local coalitions, including the Coalition of Asian, African, Arab, European and Latino Immigrants of Illinois and the Illinois Coalition of Immigrant and Refugee Rights.
Korean Resource Center[edit]
The Korean Resource Center (KRC for short, and 민족학교 in Korean) is a non-profit multi-issue, multi-mode grassroots organization based in Koreatown, Los Angeles that works with the Korean American, immigrant and low-income people of color communities of Los Angeles. It was one of the major players in the Korean American community during the restoration movement after the welfare reform of 1996 through the "Fix '96 Campaign" and more recently in issues of access to health services and immigration reform.
During the late 90's and early 2000s KRC diversified its rights advocacy component into specialized programs that addressed health, immigrant rights and voting rights. KRC was part of the March 25th Marches with a million protestors in downtown Los Angeles as well as other protests. NAKASEC joined other labor, faith, and rights organizations in Southern California to form the We Are America Coalition, which mobilized hundreds of thousands of immigrants and allies in the May Day March.
KRC has traditionally been supported by the Korean American community in its entirety and relied on small size individual donations, sales of used cans and garage sales to sustain its programs. A recent trend has been to rely more on foundation grants, but its tradition of community support is alive in its campaign fundraisers as well as its continuance of can and garage sales.
Community Groups[edit]
KRC has a very strong and large senior age base because of its work with welfare rights and social services. KRC's anniversary booklet claims that KRC served over 5,000 Korean Americans free of charge during 2006, mostly through education and enrollment of Medicare Part D as well as Medi-Cal, low-income legal and tax services, naturalization, etc. Many seniors are active in all of KRC's components.
KRC runs its own poongmul troupe, called HanNuRi (traditional Korean peasant percussion music), and educates the community through its poongmul classes. KRC's poongmul troupe has become renowned in the activist community through its performance in rallies and cultural events.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lee, Eun Sook. 2005 The Political Awakening of Korean Americans In Koreans in the Windy City: 100 Years of Korean Americans in the Chicago Area. Pp. 337-350. Hyock Chun, Kwang Chung Kim and Shin Kim, eds. New Haven, CT: East Rock Institute for the Centennial Publication Committee of Chicago.
Jump up ^ Lee, Eun Sook. 2005 The Political Awakening of Korean Americans In Koreans in the Windy City: 100 Years of Korean Americans in the Chicago Area. Pp. 337-350. Hyock Chun, Kwang Chung Kim and Shin Kim, eds. New Haven, CT: East Rock Institute for the Centennial Publication Committee of Chicago.
External links[edit]
NAKASEC Website
Korean American Resource & Cultural Center (Chicago) Website
Korean Resource Center (Los Angeles) Website
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text:
75th meridian east
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75°
75th meridian east
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The meridian 75° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.
The 75th meridian east forms a great circle with the 105th meridian west.
From Pole to Pole[edit]
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 75th meridian east passes through:
Co-ordinates
Country, territory or sea
Notes
90°0′N 75°0′E / 90.000°N 75.000°E / 90.000; 75.000 (Arctic Ocean)
Arctic Ocean
81°6′N 75°0′E / 81.100°N 75.000°E / 81.100; 75.000 (Kara Sea)
Kara Sea
Passing just east of Shokalsky Island, Russia
72°52′N 75°0′E / 72.867°N 75.000°E / 72.867; 75.000 (Russia)
Russia
Gydan Peninsula
72°33′N 75°0′E / 72.550°N 75.000°E / 72.550; 75.000 (Gulf of Ob)
Gulf of Ob
72°10′N 75°0′E / 72.167°N 75.000°E / 72.167; 75.000 (Russia)
Russia
Gydan Peninsula
69°7′N 75°0′E / 69.117°N 75.000°E / 69.117; 75.000 (Taz Estuary)
Taz Estuary
68°50′N 75°0′E / 68.833°N 75.000°E / 68.833; 75.000 (Russia)
Russia
53°48′N 75°0′E / 53.800°N 75.000°E / 53.800; 75.000 (Kazakhstan)
Kazakhstan
Passing through Lake Balkhash
42°56′N 75°0′E / 42.933°N 75.000°E / 42.933; 75.000 (Kyrgyzstan)
Kyrgyzstan
40°27′N 75°0′E / 40.450°N 75.000°E / 40.450; 75.000 (China)
People's Republic of China
Xinjiang
37°31′N 75°0′E / 37.517°N 75.000°E / 37.517; 75.000 (Tajikistan)
Tajikistan
37°17′N 75°0′E / 37.283°N 75.000°E / 37.283; 75.000 (China)
People's Republic of China
Xinjiang
37°0′N 75°0′E / 37.000°N 75.000°E / 37.000; 75.000 (Pakistan)
Pakistan
Gilgit-Baltistan - claimed by India
Azad Kashmir - claimed by India
34°39′N 75°0′E / 34.650°N 75.000°E / 34.650; 75.000 (India)
India
Jammu and Kashmir - claimed by Pakistan
32°28′N 75°0′E / 32.467°N 75.000°E / 32.467; 75.000 (Pakistan)
Pakistan
Punjab
32°2′N 75°0′E / 32.033°N 75.000°E / 32.033; 75.000 (India)
India
Punjab
Haryana
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Karnataka
Kerala
12°27′N 75°0′E / 12.450°N 75.000°E / 12.450; 75.000 (Indian Ocean)
Indian Ocean
60°0′S 75°0′E / 60.000°S 75.000°E / -60.000; 75.000 (Southern Ocean)
Southern Ocean
69°3′S 75°0′E / 69.050°S 75.000°E / -69.050; 75.000 (Antarctica)
Antarctica
Australian Antarctic Territory, claimed by Australia
See also[edit]
74th meridian east
76th meridian east
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Equator
Tropic of Cancer
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Arctic Circle
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Equator
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Standardization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments[1] Standardization can help to maximize compatibility, interoperability, safety, repeatability, or quality. It can also facilitate commoditization of formerly custom processes. In social sciences, including economics,[2] the idea of standardization is close to the solution for a coordination problem, a situation in which all parties can realize mutual gains, but only by making mutually consistent decisions. This view includes the case of "spontaneous standardization processes", to produce de facto standards.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early examples
1.2 18th century attempts
1.3 National standard
1.4 National standards body
1.5 International standards
2 Usage
2.1 Social science
2.2 Information exchange
2.3 Customer service
2.4 Supply and materials management
2.5 Defense
3 Process
4 Effects
4.1 Effect on firms
4.2 Effect on consumers
4.3 Effect on technology
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Early examples[edit]
Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley Civilisation.[3] The centralised weight and measure system served the commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.[4] Weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories.[4] Technical standardisation enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.[5] Uniform units of length were used in the planning of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro.[3] The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[6] Shigeo Iwata describes the excavated weights unearthed from the Indus civilisation:
A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Chanhu-daro, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each measuring about 1.5 m in depth. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the binary and decimal systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of chert.[3]
Hindu units of time—largely of mythological and ritual importance—displayed on a logarithmic scale.
18th century attempts[edit]
Henry Maudslay's famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800.
The implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts.
Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800. This allowed for the standardisation of screw thread sizes for the first time and paved the way for the practical application of interchangeability (an idea that was already taking hold) to nuts and bolts.[7]
Before this, screw threads were usually made by chipping and filing (that is, with skilled freehand use of chisels and files). Nuts were rare; metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the other side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways (such as clinching or upsetting against a washer). Maudslay standardized the screw threads used in his workshop and produced sets of taps and dies that would make nuts and bolts consistently to those standards, so that any bolt of the appropriate size would fit any nut of the same size. This was a major advance in workshop technology.[8]
National standard[edit]
Maudslay's work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization; some companies' in-house standards spread a bit within their industries.
Graphic representation of formulae for the pitches of threads of screw bolts
Joseph Whitworth's screw thread measurements were adopted as the first (unofficial) national standard by companies around the country in 1841. It came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries.[9][10]
This new standard specified a 55° thread angle and a thread depth of 0.640327p and a radius of 0.137329p, where p is the pitch. The thread pitch increased with diameter in steps specified on a chart. An example of the use of the Whitworth thread is the Royal Navy's Crimean War gunboats. These were the first instance of "mass-production" techniques being applied to marine engineering.[7]
With the adoption of BSW by British railway lines, many of which had previously used their own standard both for threads and for bolt head and nut profiles, and improving manufacturing techniques, it came to dominate British manufacturing.
American Unified Coarse was originally based on almost the same imperial fractions. The Unified thread angle is 60° and has flattened crests (Whitworth crests are rounded). Thread pitch is the same in both systems except that the thread pitch for the 1⁄2 in bolt is 12 threads per inch (tpi) in BSW versus 13 tpi in the UNC.
National standards body[edit]
By the end of the 19th century, differences in standards between companies, was making trade increasingly difficult and strained. For instance, an iron and steel dealer recorded his displeasure in The Times: "Architects and engineers generally specify such unnecessarily diverse types of sectional material or given work that anything like economical and continuous manufacture becomes impossible. In this country no two professional men are agreed upon the size and weight of a girder to employ for given work."
The Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the world's first national standards body.[11][12] It subsequently extended its standardization work and became the British Engineering Standards Association in 1918, adopting the name British Standards Institution in 1931 after receiving its Royal Charter in 1929. The national standards were adopted universally throughout the country, and enabled the markets to act more rationally and efficiently, with an increased level of cooperation.
After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries. The Deutsches Institut für Normung was set up in Germany in 1917, followed by its counterparts, the American National Standard Institute and the French Commission Permanente de Standardisation, both in 1918.[7]
International standards[edit]
By the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. Lord Kelvin was an important figure in this process, introducing accurate methods and apparatus for measuring electricity. In 1857, he introduced a series of effective instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the entire field of electrostatic measurement. He invented the current balance, also known as the Kelvin balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise specification of the ampere, the standard unit of electric current.[13]
R. E. B. Crompton drew up the first international standards body, the International Electrotechnical Commission, in 1906.
Another important figure was R. E. B. Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current and even the symbols used on circuit diagrams. Adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for an international standard for electric engineering.[14]
In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process.[15] By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the International Electrotechnical Commission.[16] The body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the body's first President.[17]
Memorial plaque of founding ISA in Prague.
The International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations (ISA) was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II.
After the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal to form a new global standards body. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in London and agreed to join forces to create the new International Organization for Standardization (ISO); the new organization officially began operations in February 1947.[18]
In general, each country or economy has a single recognized National Standards Body (NSB). Examples include ABNT, AENOR, AFNOR, ANSI, BSI, DGN, DIN, IRAM, JISC, KATS, SABS, SAC, SCC, SIS. An NSB is likely the sole member from that economy in ISO.
NSBs may be either public or private sector organizations, or combinations of the two. For example, the three NSBs of Canada, Mexico and the United States are respectively the Standards Council of Canada (SCC), the General Bureau of Standards (Dirección General de Normas, DGN), and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). SCC is a Canadian Crown Corporation, DGN is a governmental agency within the Mexican Ministry of Economy, and ANSI and AENOR are a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization with members from both the private and public sectors. The determinants of whether an NSB for a particular economy is a public or private sector body may include the historical and traditional roles that the private sector fills in public affairs in that economy or the development stage of that economy.
Usage[edit]
Standards can be:
de facto standards which means they are followed by informal convention or dominant usage.
de jure standards which are part of legally binding contracts, laws or regulations.
Voluntary standards which are published and available for people to consider for use.
The existence of a published standard does not necessarily imply that it is useful or correct. Just because an item is stamped with a standard number does not, by itself, indicate that the item is fit for any particular use. The people who use the item or service (engineers, trade unions, etc.) or specify it (building codes, government, industry, etc.) have the responsibility to consider the available standards, specify the correct one, enforce compliance, and use the item correctly: validation and verification.
Standardization is implemented greatly when companies release new products to market. Compatibility is important for products to be successful; this allows consumers to use their new items along with what they already own.
Social science[edit]
In the context of social criticism and social science, standardization often means the process of establishing standards of various kinds and improving efficiency to handle people, their interactions, cases, and so forth. Examples include formalization of judicial procedure in court, and establishing uniform criteria for diagnosing mental disease. Standardization in this sense is often discussed along with (or synonymously to) such large-scale social changes as modernization, bureaucratization, homogenization, and centralization of society.
Information exchange[edit]
In the context of information exchange, standardization refers to the process of developing standards for specific business processes using specific formal languages. These standards are usually developed in voluntary consensus standards bodies such as the United Nations Center for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT), the World Wide Web Consortium W3C, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), and the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS).
There are many specifications that govern the operation and interaction of devices and software on the Internet, but they are rarely referred to as standards, so as to preserve that word as the domain of relatively disinterested bodies such as ISO. The W3C, for example, publishes "Recommendations", and the IETF publishes "Requests for Comments" (RFCs). However, these publications are sometimes referred to as standards.
Customer service[edit]
In the context of customer service, standardization refers to the process of developing an international standard that enables organizations to focus on customer service, while at the same time providing recognition of success[clarification needed] through a third party organization, such as the British Standards Institution. An international standard has been developed by The International Customer Service Institute.
Supply and materials management[edit]
In the context of supply chain management and materials management, standardization covers the process of specification and use of any item the company must buy in or make, allowable substitutions, and build or buy decisions.
Defense[edit]
In the context of defense, standardization has been defined by NATO as The development and implementation of concepts, doctrines, procedures and designs to achieve and maintain the required levels of compatibility, interchangeability or commonality in the operational, procedural, material, technical and administrative fields to attain interoperability.[19]
Process[edit]
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The process of standardization can itself be standardized. There are at least four levels of standardization: compatibility, interchangeability, commonality and reference. These standardization processes create compatibility, similarity, measurement and symbol standards.
There are typically four different techniques for standardization
Simplification or variety control
Codification
Value engineering
Statistical process control.
Types of standardization process:
Emergence as de facto standard: tradition, market domination, etc.
Written by a Standards organization:
in a closed consensus process: Restricted membership and often having formal procedures for due-process among voting members
in a full consensus process: usually open to all interested and qualified parties and with formal procedures for due-process considerations[20]
Written by a government or regulatory body
Written by a corporation, union, trade association, etc.
Effects[edit]
Standardization/ Standardisation has a variety of benefits and drawbacks for firms and consumers participating in the market, and on technology and innovation.
Effect on firms[edit]
The primary effect of standardization on firms is that the basis of competition is shifted from integrated systems to individual components within the system. Prior to standardization a company's product must span the entire system because individual components from different competitors are incompatible, but after standardization each company can focus on providing an individual component of the system.[21] When the shift toward competition based on individual components takes place, firms selling tightly integrated systems must quickly shift to a modular approach, supplying other companies with subsystems or components.[22]
Effect on consumers[edit]
Standardization has a variety of benefits for consumers, but one of the greatest benefits is enhanced network effects. Standards increase compatibility and interoperability between products, allowing information to be shared within a larger network and attracting more consumers to use the new technology, further enhancing network effects.[23] Other benefits of standardization to consumers are reduced uncertainty, because consumers can be more certain that they are not choosing the wrong product, and reduced lock-in, because the standard makes it more likely that there will be competing products in the space.[24] Consumers may also get the benefit of being able to mix and match components of a system to align with their specific preferences.[25] Once these initial benefits of standardization are realized, further benefits that accrue to consumers as a result of using the standard are driven mostly by the quality of the technologies underlying that standard.[26]
Probably the greatest downside of standardization for consumers is lack of variety. There is no guarantee that the chosen standard will meet all consumers' needs or even that the standard is the best available option.[25] Another downside is that if a standard is agreed upon before products are available in the market, then consumers are deprived of the penetration pricing that often results when rivals are competing to rapidly increase market share in an attempt to increase the likelihood that their product will become the standard.[25] It is also possible that a consumer will choose a product based upon a standard that fails to become dominant.[27] In this case, the consumer will have spent resources on a product that is ultimately less useful to him or her as the result of the standardization process.
Effect on technology[edit]
Much like the effect on consumers, the effect of standardization on technology and innovation is mixed.[28] Meanwhile, the various links between research and standardization have been identified,[29] also as a platform of knowledge transfer[30] and translated into policy measures (e.g. WIPANO).
Increased adoption of a new technology as a result of standardization is important because rival and incompatible approaches competing in the marketplace can slow or even kill the growth of the technology (a state known as market fragmentation).[31] The shift to a modularized architecture as a result of standardization brings increased flexibility, rapid introduction of new products, and the ability to more closely meet individual customer's needs.[32]
The negative effects of standardization on technology have to do with its tendency to restrict new technology and innovation. Standards shift competition from features to price because the features are defined by the standard. The degree to which this is true depends on the specificity of the standard.[33] Standardization in an area also rules out alternative technologies as options while encouraging others.[34]
See also[edit]
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ASTM
Commodity
Conformity assessment
Embrace, extend and extinguish
Environmental standard
International Classification for Standards (ICS)
International standard
Interoperability
Network effect
Open format
Open standard
Open system
OpenDocument
Quality infrastructure
Standard gauge
Standards organizations
Transport standards organizations
United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names
Vendor lock-in
World Standards Day
Java Community Process - The Java Community Process(SM) Program
International Organisation for Standardisation
ISO 14000 standards - a family of environmental management standards
ISO 22000 - a food safety standard
Further reading[edit]
Dickson, E. W.; Singh, S.; Cheung, D. S.; Wyatt, C. C.; Nugent, A. S. (2008). "Application of Lean Manufacturing Techniques in the Emergency Department". Journal of Emergency Medicine. 37 (2): 177–182. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2007.11.108.
Langenberg, T. (2005). Standardization and Expectations. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-28112-6.
Murphy, C. N.; Yates, J. (2008). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) : Global Governance Through Voluntary Consensus. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77429-1.
Russell, Andrew L. (9 August 2013). "Standardization in History: A Review Essay With an Eye to the Future" (PDF). Retrieved 23 January 2014. [unreliable source?]
Wenzlhuemer, Roland (2010). "The History of Standardisation in Europe". European History Online.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Xie, Zongjie; Hall, Jeremy; McCarthy, Ian P.; Skitmore, Martin; Shen, Liyin (2016-02-01). "Standardization efforts: The relationship between knowledge dimensions, search processes and innovation outcomes". Technovation. Innovation and Standardization. 48–49: 69–78. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2015.12.002.
Jump up ^ Blind, K. (2004). The economics of standards. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ISBN 978 1 84376 793 0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Iwata, Shigeo (2008), "Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 2254–2255, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2006), "Indus Valley Civilization", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 258–266, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31351-0
Jump up ^ Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
Jump up ^ In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and Afghanistan -- Iwata, 2254.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wang Ping (April 2011), A Brief History of Standards and Standardization Organizations: A Chinese Perspective (PDF), EAST-WEST CENTER WORKING PAPERS
Jump up ^ Rolt, L. T. C. (1962). Great Engineers. Bell and Sons.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, K. R.; Galloway, D. F. (1978). "Machine Tools". In Singer, C.; et al. A history of technology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Jump up ^ Lee, S., ed. (1900). Dictionary of National Biography. LXI. London: Smith Elder.
Jump up ^ "BSI Group Annual Report and Financial Statements 2010" (PDF). p. 2. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
Jump up ^ McWilliam., Robert C. (2001). BSI: The first hundred years. London: Thanet. ISBN 978-0727730206.
Jump up ^ Lindley, David (2005). Degrees Kelvin: A Tale of Genius, Invention, and Tragedy. National Academic Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0309096188.
Jump up ^ "Colonel Crompton". www.iec.ch. International Electrotechnical Commission. Archived from the original on September 3, 2010.
Jump up ^ Johnson, J.; Randell, W. (1948). Colonel Crompton and the Evolution of the Electrical Industry. Longman Green.
Jump up ^ Dyer, Chris K.; Moseley, Patrick T.; Ogumi, Zempachi; Rand, David A. J.; Scrosati, Bruno (2010). Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources. Newnes. p. 540. ISBN 9780444527455.
Jump up ^ "Report of Preliminary Meeting" (PDF). The minutes from our first meeting. London: International Electrotechnical Commission. 1906. pp. 46–47 (25–26 in PDF). Retrieved 23 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Friendship among equals - Recollections from ISO's first fifty years (PDF). International Organization for Standardization. 1997. pp. 15–18. ISBN 92-67-10260-5. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Moreno, Juan A. (8 April 2009). "Interoperabilty and Standardization within NATO" (PDF). NATO Standards Agency. thebolingroup.com. p. 11. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
Jump up ^ ISO (2016). How does ISO develop standards? Retrieved June 22, 2016 from http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards_development.htm
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. pp. 232–233.
Jump up ^ Christensen, Clayton M.; Michael E. Raynor (2003). The Innovator's Solution: Creating and Sustaining Successful Growth. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p. 140.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p. 229.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p. 230.
^ Jump up to: a b c Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p. 233.
Jump up ^ J. Gregory Sidak, The Value of a Standard Versus the Value of Standardization, 68 BAYLOR L. REV. at 3 (Forthcoming 2016), https://www.criterioneconomics.com/the-value-of-a-standard-versus-the-value-of-standardization.html.
Jump up ^ Cowan, Robin. "High Technology and the Economics of Standardization." Paper presented at the International Conference on Social and Institutional Factors Shaping Technological Development: Technology at the Outset, Berlin, Germany, May 27–28, 1991. p. 20.
Jump up ^ Blind, K. (2013). The impact of standardisation and standards on innovation (NESTA Working Paper 13/15). Retrieved from NESTA website: https://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/the_impact_of_standardization_and_standards_on_innovation.pdf
Jump up ^ Blind, K.; Gauch, S. (2009). "Research and standardisation in nanotechnology: evidence from Germany". The Journal of Technology Transfer. 34 (3): 320–342. doi:10.1007/s10961-008-9089-8.
Jump up ^ Blind, K.; Mangelsdorf, A. (2016). "Motives to standardize: Empirical evidence from Germany". Technovation. 48–49: 13–24. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2016.01.001.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p. 264.
Jump up ^ Christensen, Clayton M.; Michael E. Raynor (2003). The Innovator's Solution: Creating and Sustaining Successful Growth. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. pp. 131–132.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Carl; Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press. p. 231.
Jump up ^ Cowan, Robin. "High Technology and the Economics of Standardization." Paper presented at the International Conference on Social and Institutional Factors Shaping Technological Development: Technology at the Outset, Berlin, Germany, May 27–28, 1991. p. 12
External links[edit]
Look up standardization or standardisation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"Benefits of standards and standardization". COoperation Platform for Research And Standards (COPRAS project).
"Which type of standards should my project pursue". COoperation Platform for Research And Standards (COPRAS project).
"Why standards matter". ISO.
"What standards do". ISO.
"Who standards benefit". ISO.
"Standards Myths". European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Retrieved 8 July 2009.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standardization&oldid=830124327"
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