text:
Point-to-point (telecommunications)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2006) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications connection between two Communication endpoints or nodes. An example is a telephone call, in which one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be heard by the other. This is contrasted with a point-to-multipoint or broadcast connection, in which many nodes can receive information transmitted by one node. Other examples of point-to-point communications links are leased lines, microwave radio relay and two-way radio.
The term is also used in computer networking and computer architecture to refer to a wire or other connection that links only two computers or circuits, as opposed to other network topologies such as buses or crossbar switches which can connect many communications devices.
Point-to-point is sometimes abbreviated as P2P. This usage of P2P is distinct from P2P referring to peer-to-peer for file sharing networks.
Contents
[hide]
1 Basic data link
2 Modern links
3 Networking
4 Notes
5 References
Basic data link[edit]
A traditional point-to-point data link is a communications medium with exactly two endpoints and no data or packet formatting. The host computers at either end take full responsibility for formatting the data transmitted between them. The connection between the computer and the communications medium was generally implemented through an RS-232 or similar interface. Computers in close proximity may be connected by wires directly between their interface cards.
When connected at a distance, each endpoint would be fitted with a modem to convert analog telecommunications signals into a digital data stream. When the connection uses a telecommunications provider, the connection is called a dedicated, leased, or private line. The ARPANET used leased lines to provide point-to-point data links between its packet-switching nodes, which were called Interface Message Processors.
Modern links[edit]
A point-to-point wireless unit with built-in antenna at Huntington Beach, California.
In modern computer networking, the term point-to-point telecommunications means a wireless data link between two fixed points. The telecommunications signal is typically bi-directional and either time division multiple access (TDMA) or channelized. This can be a microwave relay link consisting of a transmitter which transmits a narrow beam of microwaves with a parabolic dish antenna to a second parabolic dish at the receiver. It also includes technologies such as lasers which transmit data modulated on a light beam. These technologies require an unobstructed line of sight between the two points and thus are limited by the visual horizon to distances of about 40 miles.[a]
Networking[edit]
In a local network, repeater hubs or switches provide basic connectivity. A hub provides a point-to-multipoint (or simply multipoint) circuit in which all connected client nodes share the network bandwidth. A switch on the other hand provides a series of point-to-point circuits, via microsegmentation, which allows each client node to have a dedicated circuit and the added advantage of having full-duplex connections.
From the OSI model's layer perspective, both switches and repeater hubs provide point-to-point connections on the physical layer. However, on the data link layer, a repeater hub provides point-to-multipoint connectivity – each frame is forwarded to all nodes – while a switch provides virtual point-to-point connections – each unicast frame is only forwarded to the destination node.
Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Telecommunications Industry Association's engineering committees develop U.S. standards for point-to-point communications and related cellular tower structures.[1] Online tools help users find if they have such line of sight.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "TR-14 | Structural Standards for Communication and Small Wind Turbine Support Structures". Telecommunications Industry Association.
Jump up ^ "PtP Estimator Overview". AlphiMAX. Retrieved August 29, 2011.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Point-to-point_(telecommunications)&oldid=840704374"
Categories:
Network topology
Telecommunication services
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from December 2006
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Català
Čeština
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
עברית
日本語
Русский
Svenska
3 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 11 May 2018, at 16:19.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

attrs: href class

value: td

value: b

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

value: span

value: i

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values:
/wiki/Microwave_radio_relay
mw-redirect
Microwave radio relay

values:
/wiki/Computer_networking
mw-redirect
Computer networking

values:
/wiki/Network_topologies
mw-redirect
Network topologies

values:
/wiki/Computer_bus
mw-redirect
Computer bus

values:
/wiki/Packet_(information_technology)
mw-redirect
Packet (information technology)

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Huntington_Beach
mw-redirect
Huntington Beach

values:
/wiki/Wireless_networking
mw-redirect
Wireless networking

values:
/wiki/Time_division_multiple_access
mw-redirect
Time division multiple access

values:
/wiki/Microwave_relay
mw-redirect
Microwave relay

values:
/wiki/Local_network
mw-redirect
Local network

values:
/wiki/Repeater_hub
mw-redirect
Repeater hub

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.alphimax.com/ptp

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2006

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values: نقطه‌به‌نقطه (ارتباطات از راه دور) – Persian

values: קו תקשורת – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: ポイント・ツー・ポイント – Japanese

values: Сеть точка-точка – Russian

values: Punkt-till-punkt (telekommunikation) – Swedish

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Point-to-point_telecommunications rootpage-Point-to-point_telecommunications skin-vector action-view


text:
It (miniseries)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 2017 film adaptation of the same novel, see It (2017 film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
IT
Promotional artwork
Genre
Horror
drama
Based on
It
by Stephen King
Written by
Lawrence D. Cohen
Tommy Lee Wallace
Directed by
Tommy Lee Wallace
Starring
Harry Anderson
Dennis Christopher
Richard Masur
Annette O'Toole
Tim Reid
John Ritter
Richard Thomas
Tim Curry
Narrated by
Tim Reid
Theme music composer
Richard Bellis
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of episodes
2
Production
Producer(s)
Mark Basino
Allen S. Epstein
Jim Green
Cinematography
Richard Leiterman
Editor(s)
David Blangsted
Robert F. Shugrue
Running time
192 minutes (original version)[1]
187 minutes (DVD version)
Production company(s)
Lorimar Productions
DawnField Entertainment
The Konigsberg & Sanitsky Company
Greeb & Epstein Productions
Distributor
Warner Bros. Television
Release
Original network
ABC
Original release
November 18 – November 20, 1990
It is a 1990 American supernatural horror drama 2 part Television Movie directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and adapted by Lawrence D. Cohen from the Stephen King novel of the same name.
The story revolves around a predatory shapeshifter which has the ability to transform itself into its prey's worst fears, allowing it to exploit the phobias of its victims. It mostly takes the form of a sadistic, wisecracking clown called Pennywise played by Tim Curry. The protagonists are The Lucky Seven, or The Losers Club, a group of outcast kids who discover Pennywise and vow to destroy him by any means necessary. The series takes place over two different time periods, the first when the Losers first confront Pennywise as children in 1960, and the second when they return as adults in 1990 to defeat him a second time after he resurfaces.
It features an ensemble cast, starring Richard Thomas, John Ritter, Annette O'Toole, Harry Anderson, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid, and Richard Masur as the seven members of the Losers Club, and Tim Curry as Pennywise. The child counterparts of the Losers that appear in part one are played by Jonathan Brandis, Seth Green, Emily Perkins, Brandon Crane, Adam Faraizl, Marlon Taylor, and Ben Heller. Michael Cole, Jarred Blancard, Gabe Khouth, Chris Eastman, Olivia Hussey, Frank C. Turner, Tony Dakota, Ryan Michael, Tom Heaton, and Chelan Simmons also play supporting roles.
Originally conceived as a four-part eight-hour series, ABC enlisted writer Lawrence D. Cohen to adapt the 1,138-page King novel. Cohen's script condensed the source work into a two-part, three-hour mini-series that retained the core elements of the novel, but Cohen was forced to abandon numerous subplots by virtue of the novel's length and the network's time-slot restrictions. Production on It began in early 1990, and the series was filmed over a period of three months in New Westminster, British Columbia in mid-1990.
It aired on ABC over two nights on November 18 and 20, 1990, attracting 30 million viewers in its premiere. Critics praised Tim Curry's performance as Pennywise. For his work on the mini-series, Richard Bellis received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore).
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 The Losers Club
2.2 Forms of It
2.3 The Bowers Gang
2.4 The Losers Club relatives
2.5 Derry townspeople
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Casting
3.3 Filming
3.4 Special effects
4 Broadcast history
5 Reception
6 Home media
7 Musical score
7.1 Track listing
8 References
9 Works cited
10 External links
Plot[edit]
In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Bill Denbrough gives his younger brother Georgie a paper sailboat to take out onto the street to sail in the gutter. But Georgie is unable to stop it from sailing down the storm drain, peering in to see a strange clown who introduces himself as Pennywise. Pennywise then entices Georgie to reach into the drain to retrieve his boat, killing the boy while ripping his arm off. Months later, during the spring semester at their school, Bill befriends the overweight and nerdy new kid Ben Hanscom, asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak who lives with his overbearing mother, Beverly Marsh who lives with her abusive father, comical Richie Tozier, and Jewish Boy Scout, Stanley Uris. Besides being tormented by a gang of local bullies led by Henry Bowers, the group each had disturbing encounters with Pennywise. During one afternoon when he was going to practice his band instrument for the town parade, Bill and his friends encounter African-American Mike Hanlon being pursued by Henry's gang. They chase the bullies off with rocks and befriend Mike, with Henry vowing to kill them all. The group, calling themselves "The Losers Club", come to realize that they are each being terrorized by the same entity. Noticing that "It" assumes the appearance of what they fear, they deduce Pennywise is a monster that surfaces every 30 years in Derry to feed on the town's children before returning to hibernation again.
The Losers are chased into the sewers under Derry to kill It, followed by Henry and his friends, Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, intent on killing them. But It kills Victor, who had separated to set an ambush on the Losers, and Belch, who helps Henry separate Stan from the others, sparing a horrified Henry while chasing Stan as he regroups with the Losers. But Pennywise grabs Stan, only for the Losers to use It's ability to access their imaginations against him when Eddie uses his aspirator to melt the clown's face while Beverly smashes a hole in the clown's head using one of the two silver projectiles. Pennywise evades the second and escapes down a drain, seemingly dying as the Losers assumed. But Bill makes the others promise to return and kill It should the creature resurface 30 years later. Henry, his hair whitened while having lost his mind from seeing It's Deadlights, later emerged from the sewers and is institutionalized when he takes credit for murdering It's victims.
In 1990, now the town librarian, Mike is investigating the string of missing children and killings as he arrived to the crime scene of a murdered girl named Laurie Anne Winterbarger. Finding Georgie's picture convinces Mike that It is back as he proceeds to contact the others to fulfill their vow. Bill became a horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her husband Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night TV comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his mother, and Stan is a real estate broker. Prior to Mike's phone calls, the other Losers had completely forgotten each other along with their childhood traumas and memories of It. While the other five reluctantly agree to come, a fear-stricken Stan slits his wrists in his bathtub and writes "IT" on the wall in his own blood.
The remaining six find themselves harassed by Pennywise once reaching Derry as they eventually meet at dinner, learning of Stan's suicide shortly after while Mike reminds them of what It is. Two other people also converging on the town: an older Henry who Pennywise freed to kill the Losers, and a worried Audra who ends up being abducted by It while exposed to the creature's Deadlights. Mike is hospitalized by Henry before he is killed by his own knife during a scuffle with the other Losers. After Mike gives Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers, the five remaining Losers decide to destroy It for good. They descend into the sewers once again, Bill learning Audra is being held while overcoming It's attempt to induce further guilt. The Losers eventually reach It's inner sanctum, finding both a catatonic Audra and It's true form as a giant spider. Bill, Ben, and Richie nearly get lost in It’s Deadlights when Eddie is killed attempting to save his friends, as Beverly mortally wounds It with her slingshot. It limps away, but the surviving Losers pursue and knock the creature down and rip its heart out. They remove the comatose Audra and Eddie's body from the sewers, burying him in Derry's cemetery.
With It finally dead, the Losers go their separate ways and move on with their lives as their memories of It fade away. A recovered Mike also has his memories begin to fade as he considers starting a new life elsewhere. Richie is cast in a film with an actor resembling Eddie, while Beverly and Ben are finally married and expecting their first child. Bill is the last to leave Derry, using his last hour in town to coax Audra out of her catatonia by giving her a ride on his childhood bicycle Silver, causing her to recover.
Cast[edit]
The principal cast of It: From top left to top right, Tim Curry, Richard Thomas, Harry Anderson, and Dennis Christopher. From bottom left to bottom right, Tim Reid, John Ritter, Richard Masur, and Jonathan Brandis.
The Losers Club[edit]
Richard Thomas as Bill Denbrough
Jonathan Brandis as Young Bill Denbrough
John Ritter as Ben Hanscom
Brandon Crane as Young Ben Hanscom
Annette O'Toole as Beverly Marsh
Emily Perkins as Young Beverly Marsh
Harry Anderson as Richie Tozier
Seth Green as Young Richie Tozier
Dennis Christopher as Eddie Kaspbrak
Adam Faraizl as Young Eddie Kaspbrak
Tim Reid as Mike Hanlon
Marlon Taylor as Young Mike Hanlon
Richard Masur as Stanley Uris
Ben Heller as Young Stanley Uris
Forms of It[edit]
Tim Curry as Pennywise the Dancing Clown
Steve Makaj as Captain Hanscom
Florence Paterson as Mrs. Kersh
The Bowers Gang[edit]
Michael Cole as Henry Bowers
Jarred Blancard as Young Henry Bowers
Gabe Khouth as Victor Criss
Chris Eastman as Belch Huggins
The Losers Club relatives[edit]
Olivia Hussey as Audra Phillips/Denbrough
Frank C. Turner as Alvin "Al" Marsh
Tony Dakota as George "Georgie" Denbrough
Steven Hilton as Zack Denbrough
Sheelah Megill as Sharon Denbrough
Ryan Michael as Tom Rogan
Caitlin Hicks as Patti Uris
Susan Astley as Aunt Jean
Claire Vardiel as Arlene Hanscom
Sheila Moore as Ms. Sonya Kaspbrak
Derry townspeople[edit]
Terence Kelly as Officer Nell
Jay Brazeau as Derry Cab Driver
Donna Peerless as Miss Douglas
Merrilyn Gann as Mrs. Winterbarger
Chelan Simmons as Laurie Anne Winterbarger
William B. Davis as Mr. Gedreau
Laura Harris as Loni
Garry Chalk as Coach
Kim Kondrashoff as Joey
Helena Yea as Rose
Venus Terzo as Cyndi
Charles Siegel as Nat
Noel Geer as Bradley
Amos Hertzman as "Chubby Kid"
Megan Leitch as Library aide
Boyd Norman as Gas station attendant
Suzie Payne as Female cabbie
Scott Swanson as Rademacher
Nicola Cavendish as Desk clerk
Tom Heaton as Mr. Keene
Paul Batten as Pharmacist
Russell Roberts as Greco
Bill Croft as Koontz
Deva Neil DePodesta as Bum
Katherine Banwell as Television announcer
Douglas Newell as Doctor
Gary Hetherington as Police deputy
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
George A. Romero initially planned to direct It, but left due to scheduling problems.
ABC had acquired the rights to a television mini-series of It, for what would be the first made-for-television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper.[2] Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It.[2] According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the mini-series.[2] George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight-to-ten-hour series that would run over four two-hour blocks.[2] Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three-part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the series to two parts.[2]
According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight-to-ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they agreed to a two-night, four-hour commitment."[2] Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages,[3] a great deal of material was left out of Cohen's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly.[2][4] "I can’t even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them," Cohen reflected. "I look at it as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve [King] on the page, and I’m delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war."[2]
Wallace and Cohen, however, retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood's Stephen King, the mini-series retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It [which] is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster."[5]
Casting[edit]
Malcolm McDowell (left) and Roddy McDowall (right) were initial choices for the role of Pennywise before Tim Curry was cast.
The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid, and Harry Anderson, were hand-chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles.[2] Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think [John] may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer [to play Beverly]," O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I don’t think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next thing I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time."[2]
Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.[2]
According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise.[2] According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the part; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).[2]
Filming[edit]
It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million.[6] Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days, even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together."[2] Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver.[7] Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part." Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old-time Catskills comic". "I just let it happen," Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children."[8]
Special effects[edit]
The appearance of Pennywise was based on Lon Chaney in Phantom of the Opera (1925).[2]
Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim [Curry] objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I’m sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department."[2]
Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown."[2] Three different versions of the clown's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner," and the final one seen in the series.[2] To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make-up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon."[2]
The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.[2]
The spider figure in the conclusion of the series was hand-constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:
We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full-size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full-size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean."[2]
Broadcast history[edit]
It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18[9] and November 20.[10] Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5/29 rating/share, and being watched in 17.5 million households.[9] Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6/33 rating/share, and watched in 19.2 million households.[10] According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two-night premiere.[2]
Reception[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2017)
As of September 2017[update], the film has a 57% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews.[11]
Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime-time live, It is the mini-series equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn-munching terms, and keep the lights on high."[12] Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown—unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry's cackle is chilling, and King's usual buried theme—about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?)—is always worth pondering."[12] The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence."[8]
Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot gave the film a positive review, noting: "There’s some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I’d say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control."[13] Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the mini-series' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry's performance as Pennywise.[14] Bloody Disgusting's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories."[15] In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the mini-series "legendary" and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the mini-series "largely bungles Pennywise's powers", Curry's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle-schoolers – and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer."[16] Dan Stephens from the UK website Top 10 Films awarded the film four out of five stars. In his review Stephens praised the film's story, character development, and suspense during the first half. But criticized the second half as disappointing and criticizing the lack of "friendship and togetherness" of the main characters that was present during the first half, and clichéd ending.[17]
Stephen King commented on the mini-series in a 2015 interview, and was appreciative of it: "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It’s a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book."[2]
Home media[edit]
It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991.[18] The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu-ray on October 4, 2016.[14] Both the DVD and the Blu-ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie". The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on-screen credits that originally appeared.[citation needed]
Musical score[edit]
A 2-CD release of the mini-series' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011.[19] The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet-heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film's scarier moments.[19] Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.[20]
Track listing[edit]
[show]Disc 1
No.
Title
Length
1. "Main Title" 1:52
2. "Enter the Clown" 3:04
3. "Georgie Dies" 4:17
4. "Ben Gets the News" 0:51
5. "Punks" 2:18
6. "I Hate It Here" 1:53
7. "Bedroom Jazz Source" 2:24
8. "The Slap" 1:45
9. "Die if You Try" 4:02
10. "Richie's Talk Show Play-Off" 0:34
11. "The Beast – First Encounter" 2:05
12. "Mike Remembers" 0:58
13. "Mike Joins the Group" 5:07
14. "Pennywise" 0:39
15. "Circus Source" 1:10
16. "Target Practice" 2:51
17. "The Sewer Hole" 3:13
18. "Stan Gets Nabbed" 4:27
19. "The Fog" 3:25
20. "The Pact" 1:43
21. "Stan's Suicide" 0:50
22. "End Credits I" 1:00
Total length: 50:28
[show]Disc 2
No.
Title
Length
1. "Main Title Part II" 1:51
2. "The Graves" 1:48
3. "Library Balloons" 2:53
4. "Ben's Flashback" 0:35
5. "Skeleton on the Pond" 0:40
6. "Guillory's Muzak" 1:27
7. "Hydrox" 2:49
8. "Audra" 1:45
9. "Fortune Cookie" 1:54
10. "Silver Flyer" 2:22
11. "Leftover Stan" 1:52
12. "Henry and Belch" 2:20
13. "Every Thirty Years" 1:56
14. "Audra Arrives" 2:02
15. "This Time It's for Real" 4:26
16. "The Smell of Death" 1:59
17. "Something's Coming" 4:00
18. "The Spider's Web" 5:11
19. "Hi Ho Silver" 4:33
20. "End Credits Part II" 1:00
Total length: 47:23
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Goble 1999, p. 260.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Alter, Ethan (November 17, 2015). "Back to Derry: An Oral History of 'Stephen King's It'". Yahoo!. Archived from the original on March 30, 2017. Retrieved December 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Graham-Dixon, Charles (October 6, 2015). "Why Stephen King's IT scares off film-makers". The Guardian. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ O'Connell, Sarah (August 17, 2016). "I'm Every Nightmare You've Ever Had: 9 Insane Facts You Never Knew About 'IT'!". Movie Pilot. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
Jump up ^ Magistrale 2003, p. 185.
Jump up ^ Broeske, Pat H. (April 5, 1990). "Producers scare up 5 more King films". Los Angeles Times. p. D6. Retrieved December 28, 2016 – via The Statesman.
Jump up ^ Newton, Steve (January 31, 2014). "Horror in Vancouver: Stephen King's evil clown stalks Stanley Park in 1990". The Georgia Straight. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Higgins, Bill (September 7, 2017). "Hollywood Flashback: Tim Curry Played 'It's' Scary Clown in 1990". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Hastings, Deborah (November 21, 1990). "TV movies score big in Nielsen ratings". The Times-News. p. 12. Retrieved July 3, 2010 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b Hastings, Deborah (November 23, 1990). "ABC posts first ratings win of the season". The Times-News. p. 10. Retrieved July 3, 2010 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ "It". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved September 12, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Quoted in Beam 1998, p. 108
Jump up ^ Harris, Sandra (March 30, 2015). "Stephen King's 'It.' 1990.". Movie Pilot. Retrieved December 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Jane, Ian (October 4, 2016). "Stephen King's It (Blu-ray)". DVD Talk. Retrieved December 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Campopiano, John (September 7, 2017). "Why We Should Enjoy ‘IT’ 2017 Without Comparing to ‘IT’ 1990". Bloody Disgusting. Retrieved September 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Collins, Sean T. (September 20, 2017). "'It': Everything You Need to Know About Stephen King's Killer Clown Story". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Review: Stephen King's It - Top 10 Films". Top10Films.co.uk. Dan Stephens. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Stephen King's It [VHS]. Amazon. ASIN 0790736039. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
^ Jump up to: a b "Stephen King's It Soundtrack". Soundtrack.net. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "43rd Emmy Awards Nominees and Winners". Emmys.com. Emmys. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
Works cited[edit]
Beahm, George (September 1, 1998). Stephen King from A to Z: An Encyclopedia of His Life and Work. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-836-26914-7.
Goble, Alan (ed.) (January 1, 1999). The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film. Bowker-Saur. ISBN 978-3-598-11492-2. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Magistrale, Tony (November 22, 2003). Hollywood's Stephen King. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29321-5.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: It (miniseries)
It (1990) on IMDb
It (1990) at AllMovie
It (1990) at Rotten Tomatoes
"Back to Derry": An Oral History of 'Stephen King's It' at Yahoo!
[show]
v
t
e
Stephen King
Bibliography
Short fiction
Unpublished and uncollected
Awards and nominations
Novels
Carrie (1974)
'Salem's Lot (1975)
The Shining (1977)
The Stand (1978)
The Dead Zone (1979)
Firestarter (1980)
Cujo (1981)
Christine (1983)
Pet Sematary (1983)
Cycle of the Werewolf (1983)
The Talisman (1984)
It (1986)
The Eyes of the Dragon (1987)
Misery (1987)
The Tommyknockers (1987)
The Dark Half (1989)
Needful Things (1991)
Gerald's Game (1992)
Dolores Claiborne (1992)
Insomnia (1994)
Rose Madder (1995)
The Green Mile (1996)
Desperation (1996)
Bag of Bones (1998)
The Girl Who Loved Tom Gordon (1999)
The Plant (2000; unfinished)
Dreamcatcher (2001)
Black House (2001)
From a Buick 8 (2002)
The Colorado Kid (2005)
Cell (2006)
Lisey's Story (2006)
Duma Key (2008)
Under the Dome (2009)
11/22/63 (2011)
Joyland (2013)
Doctor Sleep (2013)
Mr. Mercedes (2014)
Revival (2014)
Finders Keepers (2015)
End of Watch (2016)
Gwendy's Button Box (2017)
Sleeping Beauties (2017)
The Outsider (2018)
The Dark Tower series
The Gunslinger (1982)
The Drawing of the Three (1987)
The Waste Lands (1991)
Wizard and Glass (1997)
Wolves of the Calla (2003)
Song of Susannah (2004)
The Dark Tower (2004)
The Wind Through the Keyhole (2012)
Richard Bachman novels
Rage (1977)
The Long Walk (1979)
Roadwork (1981)
The Running Man (1982)
Thinner (1984)
The Bachman Books (1985)
The Regulators (1996)
Blaze (2007)
Short fiction collections
Night Shift (1978)
Different Seasons (1982)
Skeleton Crew (1985)
Four past Midnight (1990)
Nightmares & Dreamscapes (1993)
Hearts in Atlantis (1999)
Everything's Eventual (2002)
Just After Sunset (2008)
Full Dark, No Stars (2010)
The Bazaar of Bad Dreams (2015)
Non-fiction
Danse Macabre (1981)
Nightmares in the Sky (1988)
On Writing (2000)
Secret Windows (2000)
Faithful (2004)
"Guns" (2013)
Screenplays
Creepshow (1982)
Cat's Eye (1985)
Silver Bullet (1985)
Maximum Overdrive (1986; also director)
Pet Sematary (1989)
Sleepwalkers (1992)
A Good Marriage (2014)
Cell (2016)
Teleplays
"Sorry, Right Number" (1987)
Golden Years (1991)
The Stand (1994)
The Shining (1997)
"Chinga" (1998)
Storm of the Century (1999)
Rose Red (2002)
Kingdom Hospital (2004)
Desperation (2006)
"Heads Will Roll" (2014)
Comics
Creepshow (1982)
Heroes for Hope (1985)
The Secretary of Dreams (2006)
The Dark Tower (2007–)
The Stand (2008–12)
The Talisman (2009–10)
American Vampire (2010)
N. (2010)
Road Rage (2012)
The Dark Man (2013)
Musical collaborations
Michael Jackson's Ghosts (1997)
Black Ribbons (2010)
Ghost Brothers of Darkland County (2012)
Anthologies edited
The Best American Short Stories 2007 (2007)
Six Scary Stories (2016)
Worlds and concepts
Fictional locations of Maine
Jerusalem's Lot
Castle Rock
Derry
Fictional books
Multiverse
All-World
Dollar Baby
Related articles
List of adaptations
Books about Stephen King
Rock Bottom Remainders
Philtrum Press
Six Stories
Stephen King Goes to the Movies
Charlie the Choo-Choo
Hearts in Suspension
Tabitha King
Joe Hill
Owen King
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Adaptations of works by Stephen King
Films
The Shining (1980)
Cujo (1983)
The Dead Zone (1983)
Christine (1983)
Cat's Eye (1985)
Silver Bullet (1985)
The Running Man (1987)
Tales from the Darkside: The Movie (1990)
Graveyard Shift (1990)
Misery (1990)
Sleepwalkers (1992)
Needful Things (1993)
The Dark Half (1993)
Dolores Claiborne (1995)
Thinner (1996)
The Night Flier (1997)
The Green Mile (1999)
Hearts in Atlantis (2001)
Dreamcatcher (2003)
Secret Window (2004)
Riding the Bullet (2004)
1408 (2007)
The Mist (2007)
Dolan's Cadillac (2009)
A Good Marriage (2014)
Mercy (2014)
Cell (2016)
The Dark Tower (2017)
It (2017)
Gerald's Game (2017)
1922 (2017)
Carrie
Carrie (1976)
The Rage: Carrie 2 (1999)
Carrie (2002)
Carrie (2013)
Creepshow
Creepshow (1982)
Creepshow 2 (1987)
Creepshow 3 (2007)
Children of the Corn
Disciples of the Crow (1983)
Children of the Corn (1984)
The Final Sacrifice (1992)
Urban Harvest (1995)
The Gathering (1996)
Fields of Terror (1998)
Isaac's Return (1999)
Revelation (2001)
Children of the Corn (2009)
Genesis (2011)
Different Seasons
Stand by Me (1986)
The Shawshank Redemption (1994)
Apt Pupil (1998)
Firestarter
Firestarter (1984)
Rekindled (2002)
Trucks
Maximum Overdrive (1986)
Trucks (1997)
Pet Sematary
Pet Sematary (1989)
Pet Sematary Two (1992)
The Mangler
The Mangler (1995)
The Mangler 2 (2002)
The Mangler Reborn (2005)
The Lawnmower Man
The Lawnmower Man (1992)
Beyond Cyberspace (1996)
TV films, episodes, and miniseries
"Gramma" (1986)
"Sorry, Right Number" (1987)
It (1990)
The Tommyknockers (1993)
The Stand (1994)
The Langoliers (1995)
The Shining (1997)
Quicksilver Highway (1997)
"The Revelations of Becka Paulson" (1997)
Storm of the Century (1999)
Stephen King's Desperation (2006)
Nightmares & Dreamscapes: From the Stories of Stephen King (2006)
Bag of Bones (2011)
Big Driver (2014)
Salem's Lot
Salem's Lot (1979)
A Return to Salem's Lot (1987)
Salem's Lot (2004)
Sometimes They Come Back
Sometimes They Come Back (1991)
Sometimes They Come Back... Again (1996)
Sometimes They Come Back... for More (1998)
Rose Red
Rose Red (2002)
The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer (2003)
TV series
Golden Years (1991)
The Dead Zone (2002–2007)
Kingdom Hospital (2004)
Haven (2010–2015)
Under the Dome (2013–2015)
11.22.63 (2016)
The Mist (2017)
Mr. Mercedes (2017–present)
Castle Rock (TBA)
Book
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Tommy Lee Wallace
Halloween III: Season of the Witch (1982)
Aloha Summer (1988)
Fright Night II (1988)
It (1990)
The Comrades of Summer (1992)
Danger Island (1992)
Witness to the Execution (1994)
Once You Meet a Stranger (1996)
Steel Chariots (1997)
The Spree (1998)
Vampires: Los Muertos (2002)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=It_(miniseries)&oldid=804797839"
Categories:
1990s American television miniseries
1990 American television series debuts
American horror fiction television series
American supernatural horror films
Domestic violence in television
Films about shapeshifting
Films set in 1960
Films set in 1990
Films set in Maine
Films shot in Vancouver
Horror films about clowns
Horror adventure films
Horror television films
Monster movies
Suicide in fiction
Television programs based on works by Stephen King
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN
Use mdy dates from August 2016
Articles needing additional references from September 2017
All articles needing additional references
Pages using infobox television with editor parameter
Articles to be expanded from September 2017
All articles to be expanded
Articles using small message boxes
Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2017
All articles containing potentially dated statements
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017
Track listings with deprecated parameters
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikiquote
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Čeština
Deutsch
Español
Euskara
Français
Galego
한국어
Italiano
Magyar
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Simple English
Suomi
Svenska
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 11 October 2017, at 06:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: class href

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-style: italic; background: #CCCCFF; padding: 0.25em 1em; line-height: 1.5em;

values: A clown, Pennywise (played by Tim Curry), rips through a white wall, using his two three-fingered claws, with an evil expression on his face. Behind him is an entrance to a sewer.

values: text-align:center;background: #CCCCFF; padding: 0.25em 1em; line-height: 1.5em;

values:
/wiki/Lorimar_Productions
mw-redirect
Lorimar Productions

values:
/wiki/New_Westminster,_British_Columbia
mw-redirect
New Westminster, British Columbia

values: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries, Movie, or a Special

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story

values:
/wiki/Vancouver,_British_Columbia
mw-redirect
Vancouver, British Columbia

values:
/wiki/Phantom_of_the_Opera_(1925_movie)
mw-redirect
Phantom of the Opera (1925 movie)

values: plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content

values:
plainlinks noprint asof-tag update
display:none;

values:
/wiki/Freddy_Kreuger
mw-redirect
Freddy Kreuger

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Electronic_instrument
mw-redirect
Electronic instrument

values: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Limited Series, Movie, or Special

values:
tlheader mbox-text
3
text-align:left;background-color:#fff

values: display: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

values: display: none; background-color: rgb(247, 247, 247);

values: padding:0 10px 0 0;text-align:right;background-color:#eee

values:
nofollow
external text
https://moviepilot.com/posts/3653581

values: Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)

values:
nofollow
external text
https://moviepilot.com/posts/2823334

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.amazon.com/dp/0790736039

values: -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0099864/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.allmovie.com/movie/v46835

values: Unpublished and uncollected works by Stephen King

values: List of awards and nominations received by Stephen King

values: The Outsider (King novel) (page does not exist)

values: The Dark Tower II: The Drawing of the Three

values: The Dark Tower: The Wind Through the Keyhole

values:
/wiki/On_Writing_(Stephen_King)
mw-redirect
On Writing (Stephen King)

values: List of fictional books in the works of Stephen King

values: List of adaptations of works by Stephen King

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Template:Media based on Stephen King works

values: Template talk:Media based on Stephen King works

values: Children of the Corn II: The Final Sacrifice

values: Children of the Corn V: Fields of Terror

values: Children of the Corn 666: Isaac's Return

values: The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer (miniseries)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Fright_Night_II
mw-redirect
Fright Night II

values: Category:1990s American television miniseries

values: Category:1990 American television series debuts

values: Category:American horror fiction television series

values: Category:American supernatural horror films

values: Category:Domestic violence in television

values: Category:Television programs based on works by Stephen King

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from September 2017

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Pages using infobox television with editor parameter

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from September 2017

values: Category:Articles using small message boxes

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2017

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017

values: Category:Track listings with deprecated parameters

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/It_(miniseries)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_(1990)
It (1990) – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Оно (мини-сериал) – Russian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-It_miniseries rootpage-It_miniseries vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Federation of Australia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For Australia's federal system of government, see Federalism in Australia.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Sydney Town Hall illuminated in celebratory lights and fireworks marking the Inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1901. The sign reads One people, one destiny.
Part of a series on the
History of Australia
Chronological
Prehistory
European exploration (sea)
European exploration (land)
1788–1850
1851–1900

1901–1945
1945–present
Timeline
By topic
Constitution
Diplomacy

Economy

Federation
Immigration

Indigenous people
Military

Monarchy
Rail transport
By region
State/Territory Capital
ACT Canberra
New South Wales Sydney
Northern Territory Darwin
Queensland Brisbane
South Australia Adelaide
Tasmania Hobart
Victoria Melbourne
Western Australia Perth
Australia portal
v
t
e
The Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self-governing colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia agreed to unite and form the Commonwealth of Australia, establishing a system of federalism in Australia. Fiji and New Zealand were originally part of this process, but they decided not to join the federation.[1] Following federation, the six colonies that united to form the Commonwealth of Australia as states kept the systems of government (and the bicameral legislatures) that they had developed as separate colonies, but they also agreed to have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, on 1 January 1901, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia.
The efforts to bring about federation in the mid-19th century were dogged by the lack of popular support for the movement. A number of conventions were held during the 1890s to develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. Sir Henry Parkes, Premier of New South Wales, was instrumental in this process. Sir Edmund Barton, second only to Parkes in the length of his commitment to the federation cause, was the caretaker Prime Minister of Australia at the inaugural national election in 1901 in March 1901. The election returned Barton as prime minister, though without a majority.
This period has lent its name to an architectural style prevalent in Australia at that time, known as Federation architecture, or Federation style.
Contents
1 Federal idea
1.1 Federal Council
1.2 Early opposition
2 Early constitutional conventions
2.1 Conference of 1890
2.2 Clark's draft constitution
2.3 Convention of 1891
2.4 Griffith or Clark?
3 Later constitutional conventions
4 Federal Constitution
5 Landmarks named after Federation
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Federal idea[edit]
Governor of Queensland Lord Lamington reading the Queen's proclamation on Federation in Brisbane
Federal Council[edit]
A serious movement for Federation of the colonies arose in the late 1880s, a time when there was increasing nationalism amongst Australians, the great majority of whom were native-born. The idea of being "Australian" began to be celebrated in songs and poems. This was fostered by improvements in transport and communications, such as the establishment of a telegraph system between the colonies in 1872. The Australian colonies were also influenced by other federations which had emerged around the world, such as the United States and Canada.
Sir Henry Parkes, then Colonial Secretary of New South Wales, first proposed a Federal Council body in 1867. After it was rejected by the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, the Duke of Buckingham, Parkes brought up the issue again in 1880, this time as the Premier of New South Wales. At the conference, representatives from Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia considered a number of issues including federation, communication, Chinese immigration, vine diseases and uniform tariff rates. The Federation had the potential to ensure that throughout the continent, trade, and interstate commerce would be unaffected by protectionism and measurement and transport would be standardised.
The final (and successful) push for a Federal Council came at an Intercolonial Convention in Sydney in November and December 1883. The trigger was the British rejection of Queensland's unilateral annexation of New Guinea and the British Government wish to see a federalised Australasia. The convention was called to debate the strategies needed to counter the activities of the German and French in New Guinea and in New Hebrides. Sir Samuel Griffith, the Premier of Queensland, drafted a bill to constitute the Federal Council. The conference successfully petitioned the Imperial Parliament to enact the bill as the Federal Council of Australasia Act 1885.[2]
As a result, a Federal Council of Australasia was formed, to represent the affairs of the colonies in their relations with the South Pacific islands. New South Wales and New Zealand did not join. The self-governing colonies of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria, as well as the Crown Colonies of Western Australia and Fiji, became involved. South Australia was briefly a member between 1888 and 1890. The Federal Council had powers to legislate directly upon certain matters, such as in relation to extradition, regulation of fisheries, and so on, but it did not have a permanent secretariat, executive powers, or any revenue of its own. Furthermore, the absence of the powerful colony of New South Wales weakened its representative value.
Published in 1888 this cartoon depicts the anti-Chinese sentiment that was one of the driving forces behind the push for federation.
Nevertheless, it was the first major form of inter-colonial co-operation. It provided an opportunity for Federalists from around the country to meet and exchange ideas. The means by which the Council was established endorsed the continuing role that the Imperial Parliament would have in the development of Australia's constitutional structure. In terms of the Federal Council of Australia Act, the Australian drafters established a number of powers dealing with their "common interest" which would later be replicated in the Australian Constitution, especially section 51.
Early opposition[edit]
The individual colonies, Victoria excepted, were somewhat wary of Federation. Politicians from the smaller colonies, in particular, disliked the very idea of delegating power to a national government; they feared that any such government would inevitably be dominated by the more populous New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, for its part, worried that the advent of race-based national legislation would restrict the importing of kanaka labourers, thereby jeopardising its sugar cane industry.
These were not the only concerns of those resistant to federation. Smaller colonies also worried about the abolition of tariffs, which would deprive them of a large proportion of their revenue, and leave their commerce at the mercy of the larger states. New South Wales, traditionally free-trade in its outlook, wanted to be satisfied that the federation's tariff policy would not be protectionist. Victorian Premier James Service described fiscal union as "the lion in the way" of federation.
A further fundamental issue was how to distribute the excess customs duties from the central government to the states. For the larger colonies there was the possibility (which never became an actuality) that they could be required to subsidise the struggling economies of Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia.
Even without the concerns, there was debate about the form of government that a federation would take. Experience of other federations was less than inspiring. In particular, the United States had experienced the traumatic Civil War.
The nascent Australian labour movement was less than wholly committed in its support for federation. On the one hand, nationalist sentiment was strong within the labour movement and there was much support for the idea of White Australia. On the other hand, labour representatives feared that federation would distract attention from the need for social and industrial reform, and further entrench the power of the conservative forces. The federal conventions included no representatives of organised labour. In fact, the proposed federal constitution was criticised by labour representatives as being too conservative. These representative wanted to see a federal government with more power to legislate on issues such as wages and prices. They also regarded the proposed senate as much too powerful, with the capacity to block attempts at social and political reform, much as the colonial upper houses were quite openly doing at that time.
Religious factors played a small but not trivial part in disputes over whether federation was desirable or even possible. As a general rule, pro-federation leaders were Protestants, while Catholics' enthusiasm for federation was much weaker, not least because Parkes had been militantly anti-Catholic for decades (and because the labour movement was disproportionately Catholic in its membership).
Early constitutional conventions[edit]
In the early 1890s two meetings established the need for federation and set the framework for this to occur. An informal meeting attended by official representatives from the Australasian colonies was held in 1890. This led to the first National Australasian Convention, meeting in Sydney in 1891. New Zealand was represented at both the conference and the Convention, although its delegates indicated that it would be unlikely to join the Federation at its foundation, but it would probably be interested in doing so at a later date.
Conference of 1890[edit]
The Conference of 1890 was organised at the instigation of Parkes. The account of the calling of the 1890 conference usually begins with Lord Carrington, the Governor of New South Wales, goading the ageing Parkes at a luncheon on 15 June 1889. Parkes reportedly boasted that he "could confederate these colonies in twelve months". Carrington retorted, "Then why don't you do it? It would be a glorious finish to your life."[3] Parkes the next day wrote to the Premier of Victoria, Duncan Gillies, offering to advance the cause of Federation. Gillies's response was predictably cool, given the reluctance of Parkes to bring New South Wales into the Federal Council. In October Parkes travelled north to Brisbane and met with Griffith and Sir Thomas McIlwraith. On the return journey, he stopped just south of the colonial border, and delivered the historic Tenterfield Oration on 24 October 1889, stating that the time had come for the colonies to consider Australian federation.
Through the latter part of 1889 the premiers and governors corresponded and agreed for an informal meeting to be called. The membership was: New South Wales, Parkes (Premier) and William McMillan (Colonial Treasurer); Victoria, Duncan Gillies (Premier) and Alfred Deakin (Chief Secretary); Queensland, Sir Samuel Griffith (Leader of the Opposition) and John Murtagh Macrossan (Colonial Secretary); South Australia, Dr. John Cockburn (Premier) and Thomas Playford (Leader of the Opposition); Tasmania, Andrew Inglis Clark (Attorney-General) and Stafford Bird (Treasurer); Western Australia, Sir James George Lee Steere (Speaker); New Zealand, Captain William Russell (Colonial Secretary) and Sir John Hall.
The Federal Oak in the gardens of the Victorian Parliament House in Melbourne. The tree was planted in 1890 by Sir Henry Parkes to commemorate the meeting of the Australian Federal Conference.
When the conference met at the Victorian Parliament in Melbourne on 6 February, the delegates were confronted with a scorching summer maximum temperature of 39.7 °C (103.5 °F) in the shade. The Conference debated whether or not the time was ripe to proceed with federation.
While some of the delegates agreed it was, the smaller states were not as enthusiastic. Thomas Playford from South Australia indicated the tariff question and lack of popular support as hurdles. Similarly, Sir James Lee Steere from Western Australia and the New Zealand delegates suggested there was little support for federation in their respective colonies.
A basic question at this early assembly was how to structure the federation within the Westminster tradition of government. The British North America Act (1867), which had confederated the Canadian provinces, provided a model with respect to the relations between the federation and the Crown. There was less enthusiasm, however, for the centralism of the Canadian Constitution, especially from the smaller states. Following the conference of 1890, the Canadian federal model was no longer considered appropriate for the Australian situation.[4]
Although the Swiss Federal Constitution provided another example, it was inevitable that the delegates should look to the Constitution of the United States as the other major model of a federation within the English-speaking world. It gave just a few powers to the federal government and left the majority of matters within the legislative competence of the states. It also provided that the Senate should consist of an equal number of members from each State while the Lower House should reflect the national distribution of population. Andrew Inglis Clark, a long-time admirer of American federal institutions, introduced the US Constitution as an example of the protection of States' rights. He presented it as an alternative to the Canadian model, arguing that Canada was "an instance of amalgamation rather than Federation."[5] The introduction by Deakin of James Bryce's The American Commonwealth also had far-reaching influence.[6]
The conference in Melbourne ended with an agreement by the delegates that the time for federation had arrived.
Clark's draft constitution[edit]
Andrew Clark, circa 1907
A. I. Clark had given considerable thought towards a suitable constitution for Australia.[7] In May 1890, he travelled to London to conduct an appeal on behalf of the Government of Tasmania before the Privy Council. During this trip, he began writing a draft constitution, taking the main provisions of the British North America Act and its supplements up through 1890, the US Constitution, the Federal Council of Australasia Act, and various Australian colonial constitutions. Clark returned from London by way of Boston, Massachusetts, where he held discussions about his draft with Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Moncure Conway among others.[8]
Clark's draft introduced the nomenclature and form which was subsequently adopted:
The Australian Federation is described as the Commonwealth of Australia
There are three separate and equal branches – the Parliament, the Executive, and the Judicature.
The Legislature consists of a House of Representatives and a Senate
It specified the separation of powers and the division of powers between the Federal and State governments.
Upon his return to Hobart in early November 1890, with the technical aid of W. O. Wise, the Tasmanian Parliamentary Draftsman, Clark completed the final form of the Draft Constitution and had a number of copies printed.[9] In February 1891, Inglis Clark circulated copies of his draft to Parkes, Barton and probably Playford as well.[10] This draft was always intended to be a private working document, and was never published.[11]
Convention of 1891[edit]
The Parliament proposed at the Convention of 1891 was to adopt the nomenclature of the United States Congress. This proposal provided the broad outline of a Federal government. Its lower house was to be elected by districts drawn up on the basis of their population, while in the Senate there was to be equal representation for each "province". This American model was mixed with the Westminster system by which the Prime Minister and other ministers would be appointed by the representative of the British Crown from among the members of the political party holding a majority in the lower House.
Griffith identified with great clarity at the Sydney Convention perhaps the greatest problem of all: how to structure the relationship between the lower and upper houses within the Federal Parliament. The main division of opinion centred on the contention of Alfred Deakin, that the lower house must be supreme, as opposed to the views of Barton, John Cockburn and others, that a strong Senate with co-ordinate powers was essential. Griffith himself recommended that the doctrine of responsible government should be left open, or substantially modified to accord with the Federal structure.
Over the Easter weekend in 1891, Griffith edited Clark's draft aboard the Queensland Government's steam yacht Lucinda. (Clark was not present, as he was ill with influenza in Sydney). Griffith's draft Constitution was submitted to colonial parliaments but it lapsed in New South Wales, after which the other colonies were unwilling to proceed.
Griffith or Clark?[edit]
The importance of the draft Constitution of 1891 was recognised by John La Nauze when he flatly declared that "The draft of 1891 is the Constitution of 1900, not its father or grandfather."[12] In the Twenty-First Century, however, a lively debate has sprung up as to whether the principal credit for this draft belongs to Queensland's Sir Samuel Griffith or Tasmania's Andrew Inglis Clark. The debate began with the publication of Peter Botsman's The Great Constitutional Swindle: A Citizen's Guide to the Australian Constitution[13] in 2000, and a biography of Andrew Inglis Clark by F.M. Neasey and L.J. Neasey published by the University of Tasmania Law Press in 2001.[14]
The traditional view attached almost sole responsibility for the 1891 draft to Griffith. Quick and Garran, for instance, state curtly that Griffith "had the chief hand in the actual drafting of the Bill."[15] Given that the authors of this highly respected work were themselves active members of the federal movement, it may be presumed that this view represents - if not the complete truth - then, at least, the consensus opinion amongst Australia's "founding fathers".
In his 1969 entry on "Clark, Andrew Inglis (1848–1907)" for the Australian Dictionary of Biography,[16] Henry Reynolds offers a more nuanced view:
Before the National Australasian Convention in Sydney in 1891 he [Clark] circulated his own draft constitution bill. This was practically a transcript of relevant provisions from the British North American Act, the United States Constitution and the Federal Council Act, arranged systematically, but it was to be of great use to the drafting committee at the convention. Parkes received it with reservations, suggesting that 'the structure should be evolved bit by bit'. George Higinbotham admitted the 'acknowledged defects & disadvantages' of responsible government, but criticized Clark's plan to separate the executive and the legislature. Clark's draft also differed from the adopted constitution in his proposal for 'a separate federal judiciary', with the new Supreme Court replacing the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal on all questions of law, which would be 'a wholesome innovation upon the American system'. He became a member of the Constitutional Committee and chairman of the Judiciary Committee. Although he took little part in the debates he assisted (Sir) Samuel Griffith, (Sir) Edmund Barton and Charles Cameron Kingston in revising Griffith's original draft of the adopted constitution on the Queensland government's steam yacht, Lucinda; though he was too ill to be present when the main work was done, his own draft had been the basis for most of Griffith's text.
Clark's supporters are quick to point out that 86 Sections (out of a total of 128) of the final Australian Constitution are recognisable in Clark's draft,[13] and that "only eight of Inglis Clark’s ninety-six clauses failed to find their way into the final Australian Constitution";[17] but these are potentially misleading statistics. As Professor John Williams has pointed out:[18]
It is easy to point to the document and dismiss it as a mere ‘cut and paste’ from known provisions. While there is some validity in such observations it does tend to overlook the fact that there are very few variations to be added once the basic structure is agreed. So for instance, there was always going to be parts dealing with the executive, the parliament and the judiciary in any Australian constitution. The fact that Inglis Clark modelled his on the American Constitution is no surprise once that basic decision was made. Issues of the respective legislative powers, the role of the states, the power of amendment and financial questions were the detail of the debate that the framers were about to address in 1891.
As to who was responsible for the actual detailed drafting, as distinct from the broad structure and framework of the 1891 draft, Professor Williams (for one) is in no doubt:[18]
In terms of style there can be little argument that Inglis Clark’s Constitution is not as crisp or clean as Kingston’s 1891 draft Constitution. This is not so much a reflection on Inglis Clark, but an acknowledgement of the talents of Charles Kingston and Sir Samuel Griffith as drafters. They were direct and economical with words. The same cannot always be said of Inglis Clark.
Later constitutional conventions[edit]
The revival of the federal movement stemmed from the growth of federal leagues and nationalist organisations that were committed to federation, such as the Australian Natives' Association. There were two so-called People's Conventions held in Corowa and Bathurst.
A ribbon produced in Sydney
In 1893 John Quick, who had attended the Corowa convention, drew up a bill which became the basis of discussion at the Adelaide Convention (see below) and is considered to have contributed largely to the eventual constitution. Quick with Robert Garran went on to publish The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth in 1901, which is widely regarded as one of the most authoritative works on the Australian Constitution.[19]
In 1895 a proposal was accepted by the premiers of the Australian colonies to establish a new Convention by popular vote, with the resulting draft of the constitution being submitted to the electors of each colony in a referendum. The Convention held meetings over the course of a year, beginning first in Adelaide in 1897, later meeting in Sydney, and culminating in Melbourne in March 1898. After the Adelaide meeting, the colonial Parliaments took the opportunity to debate the emerging Bill and to suggest changes. The basic principles discussed in 1891 were adopted, with the addition of the principle of responsible government. There was also a consensus for more democracy in the constitutional structure. It was agreed that the Senate should be chosen by popular vote with the voters in each State acting as one electorate.
A draft bill was drawn up in 1898, and then sent to each colony to be ratified by the electorate. Referendums were held in four of the colonies in June 1898. There were majority votes in all four of them, however, the enabling legislation in New South Wales required the support of at least 80,000 voters for passage, and this number was not reached.[20] A meeting of the colonial premiers in early 1899 agreed to a number of amendments to make the constitution more acceptable to New South Wales. Known as the "Braddon Clause", the amendments provided for the return of customs revenue to the states for ten years. It was also agreed that the new federal capital was to be built in New South Wales provided it was at least a hundred miles (160 km) from Sydney.[20] In June 1899, the referendum was held again in all the colonies except for Western Australia, where the vote was not held until the following year. The majority vote was "yes" in all the colonies.
referendum
NSW
Qld
SA
Tas
Vic
WA
total
1898 yes 71,595 35,800 11,797 100,520 219,712
no 66,228 17,320 2,716 22,099 108,363
1899 yes 107,420 38,488 65,900 13,437 152,653 377,898
no 82,741 30,996 17,953 791 9,805 142,286
1900 yes 44,800 44,800
no 19,691 19,691
The Bill as accepted by the colonies went to Britain for ratification by the British Parliament.
Federal Constitution[edit]
The letters patent issued by Queen Victoria creating the office of Governor-General, issued in 1900 as a part of the process of implementing the new federal constitution.
The Constitution of Australia
One of the many arches made to celebrate Federation, the Citizens Arch – National Museum, Canberra
The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne is the site of the first sitting of Federal parliament.
Main article: Constitution of Australia
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (UK) was passed on 5 July 1900 and given Royal Assent by Queen Victoria on 9 July 1900. It was proclaimed on 1 January 1901 in Centennial Park, Sydney. Sir Edmund Barton was sworn in as the interim Prime Minister, leading an interim Federal ministry of nine members.
The new constitution established a bicameral Parliament, containing a Senate and a House of Representatives. The office of Governor-General was established as the Queen's representative; initially, this person was considered a representative of the British government. The Constitution also established a High Court, and divided the powers of government between the states and the new Commonwealth government.
The site of a federal capital was disputed heavily between the two arch-rivals Sydney and Melbourne; the compromise was that a separate territory (the Australian Capital Territory) would be established within New South Wales to hold a new capital, while Parliament would sit in Melbourne until the new city was constructed. The site eventually chosen for the city became Canberra.
Landmarks named after Federation[edit]
See also: Federation architecture
The significance of Federation for Australia is such that a number of landmarks, natural and man-made, have been named after it. These include:
Federal Highway, between Goulburn, New South Wales and Canberra
Federation Creek, near Croydon, Queensland
Federation Peak, Tasmania
Federation Range, on the Royston River, about 90 kilometres (56 mi) east-northeast of Melbourne, Victoria
Federation Square, Melbourne, Victoria[21]
Federation Trail, Melbourne, Victoria
Federation University, Ballarat, Victoria
See also[edit]
Government of Australia
Federalism in Australia
Australian Capital Territory
Secessionism in Western Australia
History of monarchy in Australia
Australian nationality law
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Fiji and Australian Federation. – (From the Herald's own Correspondent.) Melbourne, Monday". The Maitland Mercury and Hunter River General Advertiser. 25 October 1883. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
Jump up ^ note 2, at 18–21.
Jump up ^ Martin, Henry Parkes, at 383.
Jump up ^ Williams J, "'With Eyes Open': Andrew Inglis Clark and our Republican Tradition" (1995) 23(2) Federal Law Review 149 at 165.
Jump up ^ Debates of the Australian Federation Conference, at 25.
Jump up ^ La Nauze, J. A. The Making of the Australian Constitution. p. 273. ISBN 0-522-84016-7.
Jump up ^ As early as 1874, he published a comparative study of the American, Canadian and Swiss constitutions.
Jump up ^ Clark, Conway and Holmes were all Unitarians. Clark had met Conway when he travelled to Hobart, Tasmania, as part of his speaking tour in 1883. Conway later introduced Clark to Holmes.
Jump up ^ Letter from W. O. Wise to A. P. Canaway dated 29 June 1921. Cover page to First draft of Australian Constitution. Mitchell Library MS, Q342.901
Jump up ^ Neasey, F. M.; Neasey, L. J. (2001). Andrew Inglis Clark. University of Tasmania Law Press. ISBN 0-85901-964-0.
Jump up ^ La Nauze, page 24
Jump up ^ La Nauze, note 11 at 78.
^ Jump up to: a b Botsman, Peter (2000). The Great Constitutional Swindle. Pluto Press Australia. p. 19. ISBN 1-86403-062-3.
Jump up ^ Neasey, F.M.; Neasey, L.J. (2001). Andrew Inglis Clark. Hobart: University of Tasmania Law Press.
Jump up ^ Quick, John; Garran, Robert Randolph (1901). The annotated constitution of the Australian Commonwealth. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. p. 130.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, Henry (1969). "Clark, Andrew Inglis (1848 -1907)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Neasey, Frank (1991). "Andrew Inglis Clark and Australian Federation". Papers on Parliament. 13.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, John (Professor) (2014). "Andrew Inglis Clark: Our Constitution and His Influence". Papers on Parliament. 61.
Jump up ^ "Closer Look: The Australian Constitution". Parliamentary Education Office. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Celebrating Federation" (PDF). Constitutional Centre of Western Australia. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Explore the Fascinating History of Federation Square". Fed Square Pty Ltd. 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
References[edit]
La Nauze, J, The Making of the Australian Constitution (Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 1972).
McGrath, F, The Framers of the Australian Constitution (Brighton-le-Sands: Frank McGrath, 2003).
Neasey, F. M.; Neasey, L. J. Andrew Inglis Clark. (University of Tasmania Law Press, 2001)
Further reading[edit]
Hunt, Lyall (editor) (2000)Towards Federation: Why Western Australia joined the Australian Federation in 1901 Nedlands, W.A. Royal Western Australian Historical Society ISBN 0-909845-03-4
La Nauze, John Andrew (1972) The Making of the Australian Constitution (Melbourne: Melbourne University)
McQueen, Humphrey, (1970/2004), A New Britannia, University of Queensland Press, Brisbane.
Quick, John, Historical Introduction to The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth (Sydney: University of Sydney Library, 2000)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Federation of Australia.
Federation and the Constitution – resource of the National Archives of Australia
Records of the Australasian Federal Conventions of the 1890s
Federation Fast Facts
Australian Federation Full Text Database – primary source material
hide
v
t
e
Australia articles
History
Timeline
Bibliography
Prehistory
Archaeology
European Exploration
Territorial evolution
1788–1850
1851–1900
1901–1945
Since 1945
By topic
Constitutional
Diplomatic
Economic
Federation
Immigration
Indigenous
Military
Monarchy
Railway
Geography
Climate
Continent
Deserts
Environment
issues
Earthquakes
Flora
Fauna
Forests
Geology
Islands
Mountains
Regions
Protected areas
Rivers
Subdivisions
States and territories
Capitals
Cities
Politics
Constitution
Courts
Elections
Donations
Electoral system
Parties
Federal budget
Foreign relations
Government
Governor-General
Human rights
Intersex
LGBT
Transgender
Intelligence and security
Law
Constitution
Judiciary
Enforcement
Military
Monarchy
National debt
Parliament
Public Service
Women
Government leaders
Government ministers
Economy
Agriculture
Dollar (currency)
Energy
Gross state product
Home ownership
Public housing
Household income
Manufacturing
Media
Mining
Poverty
Reserve Bank
Stock Exchange
Superannuation
Taxation
Telecommunications
Tourism
Transportation
Welfare system
Society
Crime
Demographics
Education
Ethnic groups
Health care
Homelessness
Immigration
Languages
Religion
Women
Culture
Architecture
Art
Arts
Australian English
Cinema
Cuisine
Dance
Literature
Music
Public holidays
Radio
Sport
Symbols
Television
Theatre
Outline
Index
Book
Category
Portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federation_of_Australia&oldid=854729594"
Categories:
1901 in Australia
Federalism in Australia
History of Australia (1851–1900)
National unifications
January 1901 events
1901 in politics
Hidden categories:
CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty
EngvarB from July 2016
Articles needing additional references from December 2014
All articles needing additional references
Use dmy dates from July 2016
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Bân-lâm-gú
Español
فارسی
Français
Italiano
עברית
Latviešu
Bahasa Melayu
Português
Simple English
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Tiếng Việt
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 13 August 2018, at 11:29 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: p

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:65%; font-weight:normal;

values: background: none; font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;

values: padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 0px solid #ccc;

values: European maritime exploration of Australia

values: History of the Australian Capital Territory

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:17.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Charles Cochrane-Baillie, 2nd Baron Lamington

values: Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos

values:
/wiki/Interstate_commerce
mw-redirect
Interstate commerce

values: Section 51 of the Australian Constitution

values:
/wiki/White_Australia_Policy
mw-redirect
White Australia Policy

values:
/wiki/White_Australia
mw-redirect
White Australia

values: Edit section: Early constitutional conventions

values: Charles Wynn-Carington, 1st Marquess of Lincolnshire

values: William McMillan (Australian politician)

values:
/wiki/John_Murtagh_Macrossan
mw-redirect
John Murtagh Macrossan

values: William Russell (New Zealand politician)

values:
/wiki/John_Hall_(New_Zealand)
mw-redirect
John Hall (New Zealand)

values:
/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Constitution of the United States

values:
/wiki/US_Constitution
mw-redirect
US Constitution

values: Edit section: Clark's draft constitution

values:
/wiki/Privy_Council
mw-redirect
Privy Council

values:
/wiki/British_North_America_Act
mw-redirect
British North America Act

values:
/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes,_Jr.
mw-redirect
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.

values:
/wiki/Moncure_Conway
mw-redirect
Moncure Conway

values:
/wiki/British_Crown
mw-redirect
British Crown

values: Edit section: Later constitutional conventions

values:
/wiki/Royal_Assent
mw-redirect
Royal Assent

values: Edit section: Landmarks named after Federation

values:
/wiki/Federation_University
mw-redirect
Federation University

values:
/wiki/Hobart,_Tasmania
mw-redirect
Hobart, Tasmania

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Australian_court_hierarchy
mw-redirect
Australian court hierarchy

values: List of female heads of government in Australia

values: List of female cabinet ministers of Australia

values: List of Australian states and territories by gross state product

values: Median household income in Australia and New Zealand

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:History of Australia (1851–1900)

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2014

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Federation_of_Australia
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: Australia ê Liân-pang-hòa – Chinese (Min Nan)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: فدراسیون استرالیا – Persian

values: איחוד אוסטרליה – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values: Federation of Australia – Simple English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: ஆஸ்திரேலியக் கூட்டமைப்பு – Tamil

values: Avustralya'nın federasyonlaşması – Turkish

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Federation_of_Australia rootpage-Federation_of_Australia skin-vector action-view