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Chlamydia infection
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"Chlamydia" redirects here. For other uses, see Chlamydia (disambiguation).
Chlamydia infection
Synonyms
Chlamydia
Pap smear showing C. trachomatis (H&E stain)
Specialty
Infectious disease, gynecology, urology
Symptoms
None, vaginal discharge, discharge from the penis, burning with urination[1]
Complications
Pain in the testicles, pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, ectopic pregnancy[2][1]
Usual onset
Few weeks following exposure[1]
Causes
Chlamydia trachomatis spread by sex or childbirth[3]
Diagnostic method
Urine or swab of the cervix, vagina, or urethra[2]
Prevention
Not having sex, condoms, sex with only one non–infected person[1]
Treatment
Antibiotics (azithromycin or doxycycline)[2]
Frequency
4.2% (women), 2.7% (men)[4][5]
Deaths
~200 (2015)[6]
[edit on Wikidata]
Chlamydia infection, often simply known as chlamydia, is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.[3] Most people who are infected have no symptoms.[1] When symptoms do develop this can take a few weeks following infection to occur.[1] Symptoms in women may include vaginal discharge or burning with urination.[1] Symptoms in men may include discharge from the penis, burning with urination, or pain and swelling of one or both testicles.[1] The infection can spread to the upper genital tract in women causing pelvic inflammatory disease which may result in future infertility or ectopic pregnancy.[2] Repeated infections of the eyes that go without treatment can result in trachoma, a common cause of blindness in the developing world.[7]
Chlamydia can be spread during vaginal, anal, or oral sex, and can be passed from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth.[1] The eye infections may also be spread by personal contact, flies, and contaminated towels in areas with poor sanitation.[7] Chlamydia trachomatis only occurs in humans.[8] Diagnosis is often by screening which is recommended yearly in sexually active women under the age of twenty five, others at higher risk, and at the first prenatal visit.[1][2] Testing can be done on the urine or a swab of the cervix, vagina, or urethra.[2] Rectal or mouth swabs are required to diagnose infections in those areas.[2]
Prevention is by not having sex, the use of condoms, or having sex with only one other person, who is not infected.[1] Chlamydia can be cured by antibiotics with typically either azithromycin or doxycycline being used.[2] Erythromycin or azithromycin is recommended in babies and during pregnancy.[2] Sexual partners should also be treated and the infected people advised not to have sex for seven days and until symptom free.[2] Gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV should be tested for in those who have been infected.[2] Following treatment people should be tested again after three months.[2]
Chlamydia is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide affecting about 4.2% of women and 2.7% of men.[5][4] In 2015 about 61 million new cases occurred globally.[9] In the United States about 1.4 million cases were reported in 2014.[3] Infections are most common among those between the ages of 15 and 25 and are more common in women than men.[3][2] In 2015 infections resulted in about 200 deaths.[6] The word "chlamydia" is from the Greek, χλαμύδα meaning "cloak".[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Signs and symptoms
1.1 Genital disease
1.1.1 Women
1.1.2 Men
1.2 Eye disease
1.3 Joints
1.4 Infants
1.5 Other conditions
2 Transmission
3 Pathophysiology
4 Diagnosis
5 Screening
6 Treatment
7 Epidemiology
8 References
9 External links
Signs and symptoms
Genital disease
Inflammation of the cervix in a female from chlamydia infection characterized by mucopurulent cervical discharge, redness, and inflammation.
Males may develop a white, cloudy or watery discharge (shown) from the tip of the penis.
Women
Chlamydial infection of the cervix (neck of the womb) is a sexually transmitted infection which has no symptoms for 50–70% of women infected. The infection can be passed through vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Of those who have an asymptomatic infection that is not detected by their doctor, approximately half will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), a generic term for infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries. PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive organs, which can later cause serious complications, including chronic pelvic pain, difficulty becoming pregnant, ectopic (tubal) pregnancy, and other dangerous complications of pregnancy.
Chlamydia is known as the "silent epidemic" as in women, it may not cause any symptoms in 70–80% of cases,[11] and can linger for months or years before being discovered. Signs and symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge, abdominal pain, painful sexual intercourse, fever, painful urination or the urge to urinate more often than usual (urinary urgency).
For sexually active women who are not pregnant, screening is recommended in those under 25 and others at risk of infection.[12] Risk factors include a history of chlamydial or other sexually transmitted infection, new or multiple sexual partners, and inconsistent condom use.[13] Guidelines recommend all women attending for emergency contraceptive are offered Chlamydia testing, with studies showing up to 9% of women aged <25 years had Chlamydia.[14]
Men
In men, those with a chlamydial infection show symptoms of infectious inflammation of the urethra in about 50% of cases.[11] Symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the penis, testicular pain or swelling, or fever. If left untreated, chlamydia in men can spread to the testicles causing epididymitis, which in rare cases can lead to sterility if not treated.[11] Chlamydia is also a potential cause of prostatic inflammation in men, although the exact relevance in prostatitis is difficult to ascertain due to possible contamination from urethritis.[15]
Eye disease
Main article: Trachoma
Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia.
Chlamydia conjunctivitis or trachoma was once the most important cause of blindness worldwide, but its role diminished from 15% of blindness cases by trachoma in 1995 to 3.6% in 2002.[16][17] The infection can be spread from eye to eye by fingers, shared towels or cloths, coughing and sneezing and eye-seeking flies.[18] Newborns can also develop chlamydia eye infection through childbirth (see below). Using the SAFE strategy (acronym for surgery for in-growing or in-turned lashes, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and environmental improvements), the World Health Organization aims for the global elimination of trachoma by 2020 (GET 2020 initiative).[19][20]
Joints
Chlamydia may also cause reactive arthritis—the triad of arthritis, conjunctivitis and urethral inflammation—especially in young men. About 15,000 men develop reactive arthritis due to chlamydia infection each year in the U.S., and about 5,000 are permanently affected by it. It can occur in both sexes, though is more common in men.
Infants
As many as half of all infants born to mothers with chlamydia will be born with the disease. Chlamydia can affect infants by causing spontaneous abortion; premature birth; conjunctivitis, which may lead to blindness; and pneumonia.[21] Conjunctivitis due to chlamydia typically occurs one week after birth (compared with chemical causes (within hours) or gonorrhea (2–5 days)).
Other conditions
A different serovar of Chlamydia trachomatis is also the cause of lymphogranuloma venereum, an infection of the lymph nodes and lymphatics. It usually presents with genital ulceration and swollen lymph nodes in the groin, but it may also manifest as rectal inflammation, fever or swollen lymph nodes in other regions of the body.[22]
Transmission
Chlamydia can be transmitted during vaginal, anal, or oral sex or direct contact with infected tissue such as conjunctiva. Chlamydia can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby during vaginal childbirth.[21]
Pathophysiology
Chlamydiae have the ability to establish long-term associations with host cells. When an infected host cell is starved for various nutrients such as amino acids (for example, tryptophan),[23] iron, or vitamins, this has a negative consequence for Chlamydiae since the organism is dependent on the host cell for these nutrients. Long-term cohort studies indicate that approximately 50% of those infected clear within a year, 80% within two years, and 90% within three years.[24]
The starved chlamydiae enter a persistent growth state wherein they stop cell division and become morphologically aberrant by increasing in size.[25] Persistent organisms remain viable as they are capable of returning to a normal growth state once conditions in the host cell improve.
There is much debate as to whether persistence has in vivo relevance. Many believe that persistent chlamydiae are the cause of chronic chlamydial diseases. Some antibiotics such as β-lactams can also induce a persistent-like growth state, which can contribute to the chronicity of chlamydial diseases.[citation needed]
Diagnosis
Chlamydia trachomatis inclusion bodies (brown) in a McCoy cell culture.
The diagnosis of genital chlamydial infections evolved rapidly from the 1990s through 2006. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT), such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), transcription mediated amplification (TMA), and the DNA strand displacement amplification (SDA) now are the mainstays. NAAT for chlamydia may be performed on swab specimens sampled from the cervix (women) or urethra (men), on self-collected vaginal swabs, or on voided urine.[26] NAAT has been estimated to have a sensitivity of approximately 90% and a specificity of approximately 99%, regardless of sampling from a cervical swab or by urine specimen.[27] In women seeking an STI clinic and a urine test is negative, a subsequent cervical swab has been estimated to be positive in approximately 2% of the time.[27]
At present, the NAATs have regulatory approval only for testing urogenital specimens, although rapidly evolving research indicates that they may give reliable results on rectal specimens.
Because of improved test accuracy, ease of specimen management, convenience in specimen management, and ease of screening sexually active men and women, the NAATs have largely replaced culture, the historic gold standard for chlamydia diagnosis, and the non-amplified probe tests. The latter test is relatively insensitive, successfully detecting only 60–80% of infections in asymptomatic women, and often giving falsely positive results. Culture remains useful in selected circumstances and is currently the only assay approved for testing non-genital specimens. Other method also exist including: ligase chain reaction (LCR), direct fluorescent antibody resting, enzyme immunoassay, and cell culture.[28]
Screening
For sexually active women who are not pregnant, screening is recommended in those under 25 and others at risk of infection.[12] Risk factors include a history of chlamydial or other sexually transmitted infection, new or multiple sexual partners, and inconsistent condom use.[13] For pregnant women, guidelines vary: screening women with age or other risk factors is recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) (which recommends screening women under 25) and the American Academy of Family Physicians (which recommends screening women aged 25 or younger). The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends screening all at risk, while the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend universal screening of pregnant women.[12] The USPSTF acknowledges that in some communities there may be other risk factors for infection, such as ethnicity.[12] Evidence-based recommendations for screening initiation, intervals and termination are currently not possible.[12] For men, the USPSTF concludes evidence is currently insufficient to determine if regular screening of men for chlamydia is beneficial.[13] They recommend regular screening of men who are at increased risk for HIV or syphilis infection.[13]
In the United Kingdom the National Health Service (NHS) aims to:
Prevent and control chlamydia infection through early detection and treatment of asymptomatic infection;
Reduce onward transmission to sexual partners;
Prevent the consequences of untreated infection;
Test at least 25 percent of the sexually active under 25 population annually.[29]
Retest after treatment.[30]
Treatment
C. trachomatis infection can be effectively cured with antibiotics. Guidelines recommend azithromycin, doxycycline, erythromycin, levofloxacin or ofloxacin.[31] Agents recommended during pregnancy include erythromycin or amoxicillin.[2][32]
An option for treating sexual partners of those with chlamydia or gonorrhea include patient-delivered partner therapy (PDT or PDPT), which is the practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner.[33]
Following treatment people should be tested again after three months to check for reinfection.[2]
Epidemiology
Disability-adjusted life year (DALY) for chlamydia per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[34]
no data
≤10
10–20
20–30
30–40
40–50
50–60
60–70
70–80
80–90
90–100
100–110
more than 110
Globally, as of 2015, sexually transmitted chlamydia affects approximately 61 million people.[9] It is more common in women (3.8%) than men (2.5%).[35] In 2015 it resulted in about 200 deaths.[6]
In the United States about 1.4 million cases were reported in 2014.[3] The CDC estimates that if one includes unreported cases there are about 2.8 million each year.[36] It affects around 2% of young people.[37] Chlamydial infection is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the UK.[38]
Chlamydia causes more than 250,000 cases of epididymitis in the U.S. each year. Chlamydia causes 250,000 to 500,000 cases of PID every year in the United States. Women infected with chlamydia are up to five times more likely to become infected with HIV, if exposed.[21]
References
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k "Chlamydia - CDC Fact Sheet". CDC. May 19, 2016. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "2015 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines". CDC. June 4, 2015. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "2014 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Surveillance Chlamydia". November 17, 2015. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Newman, Lori; Rowley, Jane; Vander Hoorn, Stephen; Wijesooriya, Nalinka Saman; Unemo, Magnus; Low, Nicola; Stevens, Gretchen; Gottlieb, Sami; Kiarie, James; Temmerman, Marleen; Meng, Zhefeng (8 December 2015). "Global Estimates of the Prevalence and Incidence of Four Curable Sexually Transmitted Infections in 2012 Based on Systematic Review and Global Reporting". PLOS ONE. 10 (12): e0143304. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143304. PMC 4672879  . PMID 26646541.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) Fact sheet N°110". who.int. December 2015. Archived from the original on 25 November 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). "Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1459–1544. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1. PMC 5388903  . PMID 27733281.
^ Jump up to: a b "CDC - Trachoma, Hygiene-related Diseases, Healthy Water". Center For Disease Control. December 28, 2009. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-24.
Jump up ^ Graeter, Linda (2014). Elsevier's Medical Laboratory Science Examination Review. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 30. ISBN 9780323292412. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10.
^ Jump up to: a b GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. (8 October 2016). "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015". Lancet. 388 (10053): 1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. PMC 5055577  . PMID 27733282.
Jump up ^ Stevenson, Angus (2010). Oxford dictionary of English (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 306. ISBN 9780199571123. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c NHS Chlamydia page Archived 2013-01-16 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Meyers D, Wolff T, Gregory K, et al. (2008). "USPSTF Recommendations for STI Screening". Am Fam Physician. 77 (6): 819–824.
^ Jump up to: a b c d U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2007). "Screening for chlamydial infection: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement". Ann Intern Med. 147 (2): 128–34. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-147-2-200707170-00172. PMID 17576996. Archived from the original on 2008-03-03.
Jump up ^ Yeung E, Comben E, McGarry C, Warrington R (2015). "STI testing in emergency contraceptive consultations". British Journal of General Practice. 65 (631): 63–64. doi:10.3399/bjgp15X683449. PMC 4325454  . PMID 25624285. Archived from the original on 2017-09-10.
Jump up ^ Wagenlehner FM, Naber KG, Weidner W (2006). "Chlamydial infections and prostatitis in men". BJU Int. 97 (4): 687–90. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06007.x. PMID 16536754.
Jump up ^ Thylefors B, Négrel AD, Pararajasegaram R, Dadzie KY (1995). "Global data on blindness" (PDF). Bull World Health Organ. 73 (1): 115–21. PMC 2486591  . PMID 7704921. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-06-25.
Jump up ^ Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etya'ale D, Kocur I, Pararajasegaram R, Pokharel GP, Mariotti SP (2004). "Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002" (PDF). Bull World Health Organ. 82 (11): 844–851. doi:10.1590/S0042-96862004001100009. PMC 2623053  . PMID 15640920. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-06-25.
Jump up ^ Mabey DC, Solomon AW, Foster A (2003). "Trachoma". Lancet. 362 (9379): 223–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13914-1. PMID 12885486.
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Jump up ^ Ngondi J, Onsarigo A, Matthews F, Reacher M, Brayne C, Baba S, Solomon AW, Zingeser J, Emerson PM (2006). "Effect of 3 years of SAFE (surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and environmental change) strategy for trachoma control in southern Sudan: a cross-sectional study". Lancet. 368 (9535): 589–95. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69202-7. PMID 16905023.
^ Jump up to: a b c "STD Facts - Chlamydia". Center For Disease Control. December 16, 2014. Archived from the original on July 14, 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-24.
Jump up ^ Williams D, Churchill D (2006). "Ulcerative proctitis in men who have sex with men: an emerging outbreak". BMJ. 332 (7533): 99–100. doi:10.1136/bmj.332.7533.99. PMC 1326936  . PMID 16410585.
Jump up ^ Leonhardt RM, Lee SJ, Kavathas PB, Cresswell P (2007). "Severe Tryptophan Starvation Blocks Onset of Conventional Persistence and Reduces Reactivation of Chlamydia trachomatis". Infect. Immun. 75 (11): 5105–17. doi:10.1128/IAI.00668-07. PMC 2168275  . PMID 17724071.
Jump up ^ Fairley CK, Gurrin L, Walker J, Hocking JS (2007). ""Doctor, How Long Has My Chlamydia Been There?" Answer:"... Years"". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 34 (9): 727–8. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31812dfb6e. PMID 17717486.
Jump up ^ Mpiga P, Ravaoarinoro M (2006). "Chlamydia trachomatis persistence: an update". Microbiol. Res. 161 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1016/j.micres.2005.04.004. PMID 16338585.
Jump up ^ Gaydos CA; et al. (2004). "Comparison of three nucleic acid amplification tests for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in urine specimens". J Clin Microbio. 42 (7): 3041–3045. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.7.3041-3045.2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Haugland S, Thune T, Fosse B, Wentzel-Larsen T, Hjelmevoll SO, Myrmel H (2010). "Comparing urine samples and cervical swabs for Chlamydia testing in a female population by means of Strand Displacement Assay (SDA)". BMC Women's Health. 10 (1): 9. doi:10.1186/1472-6874-10-9. PMC 2861009  . PMID 20338058.
Jump up ^ "Recommendations for the Laboratory-Based Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae — 2014". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-06-27. Retrieved 2016-06-12.
Jump up ^ "National Chlamydia Screening Programme Data tables". www.chlamydiascreening.nhs.uk. Archived from the original on 2009-05-04. Retrieved 2009-08-28.
Jump up ^ Desai, Monica; Woodhall, Sarah C; Nardone, Anthony; Burns, Fiona; Mercey, Danielle; Gilson, Richard (2015). "Active recall to increase HIV and STI testing: a systematic review". Sexually Transmitted Infections: sextrans–2014–051930. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2014-051930. ISSN 1368-4973Strategies for improved follow up care include the use of text messages and emails from those who provided treatment.
Jump up ^ Eliopoulos GM, Gilbert DN, Moellering RC (eds.). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2011. Sperryville, VA: Antimicrobial Therapy, Inc. p. 20. ISBN 1-930808-65-8.
Jump up ^ "Diagnosis and Treatment of Chlamydia trachomatis Infection - April 15, 2006 - American Family Physician". Archived from the original on November 27, 2011. Retrieved 2010-10-30.
Jump up ^ Expedited Partner Therapy in the Management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (2 February 2006) Archived 29 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention
Jump up ^ "WHO Disease and injury country estimates". World Health Organization. 2004. Archived from the original on 2009-11-11. Retrieved Nov 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, Abdalla S, et al. (Dec 15, 2012). "Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". Lancet. 380 (9859): 2163–96. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. PMID 23245607.
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Jump up ^ Torrone, E; Papp, J; Weinstock, H (Sep 26, 2014). "Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Infection Among Persons Aged 14-39 Years - United States, 2007-2012". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 63 (38): 834–838. PMID 25254560.
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External links
Classification
V · T · D
ICD-10: A55-A56.8, A70-A74.9
ICD-9-CM: 099.41, 483.1
MeSH: D002690
DiseasesDB: 2384
External resources
eMedicine: med/340

Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the Medical Wikipedia app.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chlamydia.
Chlamydia infection at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Chlamydia Fact Sheet from the CDC
Links to chlamydia pictures at University of Iowa
[hide]
v
t
e
Sexually transmitted infection (STI) (primarily A50–A64, 090–099)
Bacterial
Chancroid (Haemophilus ducreyi)
Chlamydia/Lymphogranuloma venereum (Chlamydia trachomatis)
Donovanosis or Granuloma Inguinale (Klebsiella granulomatis)
Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)
Mycoplasma hominis infection (Mycoplasma hominis)
Syphilis (Treponema pallidum)
Ureaplasma infection (Ureaplasma urealyticum)
Protozoal
Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas vaginalis)
Parasitic
Crab louse/crabs
Scabies
Viral
AIDS (HIV-1/HIV-2)
Cervical cancer, vulvar cancer & Genital warts (condyloma), Penile cancer, Anal cancer (Human papillomavirus (HPV))
Hepatitis B (Hepatitis B virus)
Herpes simplex (HSV1/HSV2)
Molluscum contagiosum (MCV)
General
inflammation
female
Cervicitis
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
male
Epididymitis
Prostatitis
either
Proctitis
Urethritis/Non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU)
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Shakespeare in Love (soundtrack)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Shakespeare in Love
Soundtrack album by Stephen Warbeck
Released
1998
Genre
Soundtrack
Label
Sony Classical
Stephen Warbeck chronology
Electric Frank
(1998)Electric Frank1998 Shakespeare in Love
(1998) Toy Boys
(1999)Toy Boys1999
Shakespeare in Love is the original soundtrack album, on the Sony Classical label, of the 1998 Academy Award-winning and Golden Globe-winning film Shakespeare in Love, starring Joseph Fiennes, Gwyneth Paltrow (who won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role as "Viola De Lesseps" in this film), Geoffrey Rush, Tom Wilkinson, Imelda Staunton, Ben Affleck and Judi Dench (who won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as "Queen Elizabeth I" in this film). The original score and songs were composed by Stephen Warbeck.
The album won the Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music (lost to the score of Elizabeth) and a Grammy Award: Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media (lost to the score of A Bug's Life).
Track listing[edit]
1. The Beginning of the Partnership 2:00
2. Viola's Audition 3:21
3. A Plague of Both Your Houses 1:40
4. The De Lesseps' Dance 2:59
5. A Daughter's Duty :47
6. In Viola's Room 2:54
7. A New World 1:39
8. Love & the Rehearsal 4:19
9. The Arrival of Wessex 1:17
10. Greenwich :52
11. The Brawl 3:13
12. News of Marlowe's Death 2:52
13. Love & the End of the Tragedy 2:11
14. The Missing Scene 1:42
15. The Fight 2:20
16. The Play & the Marriage 2:09
17. Wessex Loses a Bride 1:51
18. The Prologue 1:30
19. The Play (Part 1) 2:25
20. The Play (Part 2) 3:56
21. Curtain Call 2:31
22. Farewell 1:30
23. The End 5:06
Total Time: 55:04
Awards
Preceded by
The Full Monty Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score
1998 Succeeded by
Best Original Score:
Le violon rouge
(The Red Violin)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakespeare_in_Love_(soundtrack)&oldid=789737473"
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text:
Dave Martinez
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For the Venezuelan baseball pitcher, see David Martínez (baseball).
Dave Martinez
Washington Nationals – No. 4
Outfielder / Manager
Born: (1964-09-26) September 26, 1964 (age 53)
Brooklyn, New York
Batted: Left Threw: Left
MLB debut
June 15, 1986, for the Chicago Cubs
Last MLB appearance
October 7, 2001, for the Atlanta Braves
MLB statistics
Batting average
.276
Home runs
91
Runs batted in
580
Managerial record
52-53
Winning %
.495
Teams
As player
Chicago Cubs (1986–1988)
Montreal Expos (1988–1991)
Cincinnati Reds (1992)
San Francisco Giants (1993–1994)
Chicago White Sox (1995–1997)
Tampa Bay Devil Rays (1998–2000)
Chicago Cubs (2000)
Texas Rangers (2000)
Toronto Blue Jays (2000)
Atlanta Braves (2001)
As manager
Washington Nationals (2018–present)
As coach
Tampa Bay Rays (2008–2014)
Chicago Cubs (2015–2017)
Career highlights and awards
World Series champion (2016)
David Martinez (born September 26, 1964) is an American professional baseball coach and former outfielder who is currently the manager for the Washington Nationals of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously served as the bench coach for the Tampa Bay Rays and Chicago Cubs. He played in MLB for the Cubs, Montreal Expos, Cincinnati Reds, San Francisco Giants, Chicago White Sox, Devil Rays, Texas Rangers, Toronto Blue Jays, and Atlanta Braves from 1986 to 2001. Martinez had a .276 career batting average, 1,599 hits, 91 home runs, 795 runs scored, and 580 runs batted in.
Martinez became the bench coach for the Rays in 2008. Since then he has been considered a candidate for several managerial positions in MLB. When Rays' manager Joe Maddon became manager of the Cubs after the 2014 season, Martinez joined the Cubs as their bench coach. The Washington Nationals hired him to a three-year contract after the 2017 season.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Professional career
3 Coaching career
3.1 Coaching
3.2 Washington Nationals manager
3.3 Managerial record
4 Personal life
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Martinez was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Puerto Rican parents.[1] He lived at East 93rd Street and Lexington Avenue in Manhattan. He then lived in Brentwood, NY and played little league for BYA (Brentwood Youth Activities). At age 13, his family moved to Orlando, Florida, on the recommendation of an uncle.[1][2]
Martinez attended Lake Howell High School in Winter Park, Florida. He played on the school's baseball team, which won the Five Star Conference championship in 1981.[2] He then enrolled at Valencia Community College, where he played college baseball.[3]
Professional career[edit]
The Chicago Cubs selected Martinez in the January phase of the 1983 Major League Baseball draft.[4][5] After he signed, he played for the Geneva Cubs of the Class A-Short Season New York–Penn League[6] and the Quad Cities Cubs of the Class A Midwest League.[7] He began the 1984 season with Quad Cities,[8] and in 1985, he received a promotion to the Winston-Salem Spirits of the Class A-Advanced Carolina League.[9] Martinez led the Carolina League with a .342 batting average; the second-place finishers, Keith Miller and John Wilson, batted .302.[10] Martinez began the 1986 season with the Iowa Cubs of the Class AAA American Association.[11]
The Cubs promoted Martinez to the major leagues for the first time on June 15, 1986,[12] and he served as an injury replacement for Bob Dernier.[13] He had a .119 batting average (8-for-67) before he was optioned back to the minor leagues in August.[14] Martinez made the Cubs major league roster in 1987,[15] splitting time in center field with Dernier.[16] He batted .292 in 142 games.[17] Martinez struggled in the 1988 season, batting .230 in mid-June.[18] On July 14, 1988, Martinez was traded to the Montreal Expos in exchange for Mitch Webster.[19][20] He finished 1988 with a .255 batting average and 23 stolen bases.[21]
Martinez was pegged as a platoon player in Montreal, as he batted against right-handed pitchers and sat against left-handed pitchers. The Expos also had outfielders Otis Nixon, Marquis Grissom and Larry Walker on their roster.[2] He played 126 games in 1989, hitting .274.[21] In 1990, Martinez lost the competition for the center field job to Grissom. However, Grissom was injured,[22] and Martinez platooned with Nixon in center field. Martinez batted .279 with 11 home runs in 118 games in 1990.[23] He batted .295 in 1991.[24] After the 1991 season, the Expos traded Martinez with Willie Greene and Scott Ruskin to the Cincinnati Reds for Bill Risley and John Wetteland. He was sought out as a replacement for Eric Davis for the Reds.[24] He competed with Reggie Sanders for the starting job during spring training.[25][26]
Martinez played for Cincinnati in 1992, but as Sanders established himself as the Reds' starting center fielder, Martinez declared for free agency after the season. He signed with the San Francisco Giants on a two-year contract for the 1993 and 1994 seasons. He suffered a torn hamstring in 1993[27] and was limited to 91 games. He hit .241, his lowest average in several seasons.[21] The Giants waived Martinez in October 1994 after he was held to a .247 average, four home runs and 27 runs batted in (RBIs).[28]
Martinez signed a one-year, $500,000 contract with the Chicago White Sox for the 1995 season. He received limited playing time under manager Gene Lamont. When Lamont was replaced by Terry Bevington, Martinez saw an increase in playing time.[29] He signed a two-year $1.425 million contract for the 1996 and 1997 seasons.[30] He spent the 1996 season as a backup behind Darren Lewis, Tony Phillips, and Danny Tartabull, along with fellow backup Lyle Mouton.[31]
In 1997, Martinez batted, .286 and set career highs with 12 home runs and 55 RBIs. He then signed a two-year contract with the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays worth $3.5 million with an option for a third season at $1.75 million.[32][33][34] In addition his desire to play in Florida, he was enticed by the Rays' additions of Fred McGriff, Wilson Álvarez, and Roberto Hernández.[2] In 1998, he recorded the first hit in Tampa history.[5] His contract option for the 2000 season vested when he recorded his 500th at bat of the 1999 season.[35]
After batting .260 in his first 29 games of the 2000 season, the Devil Rays, who needed to improve their pitching staff, traded Martinez to the Cubs for Mark Guthrie and cash.[36] On June 9, 2000, the Cubs traded Martinez to the Texas Rangers in a three team trade that sent Chuck Smith from the Florida Marlins to the Rangers and Brant Brown from the Marlins to the Cubs.[37] On August 4, 2000, the Rangers traded Martinez to the Toronto Blue Jays for a player to be named later.[38][39] The Blue Jays sent Peter Munro to the Rangers to complete the trade.[40] By playing for four MLB teams in one season, Martinez tied the record. Since 1901, the previous players to play for four MLB teams in a season were Frank Huelsman (1904), Willis Hudlin (1940), Paul Lehner (1951), Wes Covington (1961), Mike Kilkenny (1972), and Dave Kingman (1977). Dan Miceli (2003) and José Bautista (2004) later achieved the feat.[41] With Toronto, he filled in for the injured Raúl Mondesí as the Blue Jays contended for the American League wild card.[42] Between the four teams, he had a .274 batting average, five home runs, and 47 runs batted in (RBIs) in 132 games.[43]
Martinez signed with the Atlanta Braves on a two-year contract covering the 2001 and 2002 seasons, valued at approximately $3 million.[44] He batted .328 in the first half of the 2001 season, but only .233 in the second half. Late in the year, he was diagnosed with chronic tendinitis in the patella. He appeared in the MLB postseason for the only time in his career, as he played in the 2001 National League Division Series, as the Braves defeated the Houston Astros, and the 2001 National League Championship Series, where the Braves lost to the Arizona Diamondbacks. Martinez returned to the Braves in 2002, but missed the entire season after he injured his right knee during spring training.[45] He announced his retirement. In 1,919 games played, Martinez had a .276 career batting average, 1,599 hits, 91 home runs, 795 runs scored, and 580 RBIs.[46]
Coaching career[edit]
Coaching[edit]
Martinez worked for the Tampa Bay Rays as a spring training instructor in 2006 and 2007.[4][47][48] On October 11, 2007, he was hired by the Tampa Bay Rays to be their bench coach. As the Rays' bench coach, Martinez was in charge of defensive positioning, and worked with the Rays' players on bunting and baserunning.[5]
Martinez interviewed for managerial positions with Toronto in the 2010 offseason[49] and the Cleveland Indians.[5] During the 2011 offseason, Martinez interviewed for White Sox' managerial position.[50][51] The White Sox hired Robin Ventura. After the 2012 season, Martinez was considered for the Astros' managerial position, which went to Bo Porter.[52] During the 2013 offseason, Martinez interviewed for Cubs' managerial position,[53] which went to Rick Renteria, and the Washington Nationals' managerial position,[54] which went to Matt Williams.
Rays' manager Joe Maddon opted out of his contract with Tampa Bay after the 2014 season. The Rays sought feedback from their players on who should manage the team. Evan Longoria, Alex Cobb, and Ben Zobrist endorsed Martinez.[55] Martinez interviewed for the position, but was not among the Rays' three finalists.[56] Martinez announced his intention to leave the Rays.[57] On December 4, he was hired to serve as the bench coach for the Cubs under Maddon.[58] In 2016, Martinez was part of the Cubs' coaching staff that led the team to winning the 2016 World Series, breaking a 108-year long drought.[59]
Washington Nationals manager[edit]
The Washington Nationals elected not to extend manager Dusty Baker's contract after a second consecutive season in which the Nationals reached the National League Division Series and lost in five games (in 2016 to the Los Angeles Dodgers; in 2017 to Martinez's Cubs).[60] Martinez was one of just a handful of candidates mentioned for the open managerial job. On October 30, 2017, the Nationals announced they had come to terms with Martinez on a three-year managing contract starting with the 2018 season, with a club option for the 2021 season.[61]
Martinez earned his first win as a major league manager in his first career game managed, as the Nationals shut out the Cincinnati Reds 2–0 on March 30, 2018, to begin the season.[62] Throughout his first season, Martinez has made major lineup moves. These include placing Bryce Harper in the leadoff spot for the first time in over four years on May 1, 2018[63], and allowing ace Max Scherzer to throw 121 pitches on May 19, 2018[64].
Managerial record[edit]
As of games played on August 10, 2018.
Team
From
To
Regular season record
Post–season record
G
W
L
Win %
G
W
L
Win %
Washington Nationals 2018 115 59 56 .513 0 0 0 –
Ref.:[65]
Personal life[edit]
Martinez resides in Safety Harbor, Florida, a suburb of Tampa,[2] with his wife, Lisa, and their four children: Josh, Jagger, Dalton, and Angelica.[38][66] Lisa is originally from Chicago; they met while Martinez was in his first stint with the Cubs.[67] Jagger attended the University of Tampa, where he played for the school's soccer team.[46]
See also[edit]
Biography portal
Baseball portal
Florida portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Cunningham, Dave (May 3, 1998). "Language barrier trips up Martinez". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Cunningham, Dave (April 26, 1998). "Diamond Dave's hidden luster". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Buchalter, Bill (August 3, 1997). "Many pro careers launched from junior-college stints The White Sox's Dave Martinez and other pro athletes gained experience at junior colleges". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Maffezzoli, Dennis (March 3, 2006). "Martinez provides link with past while helping future". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Sarasota, Florida. p. 1C. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sonnone, Brendan (August 20, 2013). "From Lake Howell to Rays, Dave Martinez aspires to manage in majors: Tampa Bay Rays bench coach Dave Martinez has already interviewed for three manager openings". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1983 Geneva Cubs". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1983 Quad Cities Cubs". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1984 Quad Cities Cubs". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1985 Winston-Salem Spirits". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1985 Carolina League Batting Leaders". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved April 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1986 Iowa Cubs". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Fred (June 15, 1986). "Cubs drop Keough, Francona". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sunday Notebook". Chicago Tribune. June 30, 1986. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Fred (August 4, 1986). "Martinez 'happy' to be optioned back To Iowa". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lincicome, Bernie (April 10, 1987). "Let`s be positive: Cubs not all bad". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Fred (April 4, 1987). "Cubs trade Eckersley to Oakland". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "1987 Chicago Cubs Batting, Pitching, & Fielding Statistics". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Solomon, Alan (June 12, 1988). "The eyes have it: Martinez in a funk". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ofman, George. "Can Dave Martinez manage the Cubs — That's All She Wrote". Chicago Now. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Solomon, Alan (July 15, 1988). "Cubs' Martinez dealt to Expos for Webster". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dave Martinez Statistics and History. Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved April 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Giuliotti, Ed (March 6, 1991). "For Expos, Marquis` value seems lower in '91". Sun-Sentinel. Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Patton, Robes (March 18, 1991). "Expo plan: Everyone is prepared". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Schmuck, Peter. "Giants trade Mitchell to Mariners for pitching". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rape complaint creates Mets turmoil National League notes". The Baltimore Sun. March 15, 1992. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Edes, Gordon (March 22, 1992). "Reds` Reggie Vision: Sanders Starts In Center". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jauss, Bill (September 11, 1997). "Not many off-days in Martinez's off-season". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Edes, Gordon (October 16, 1994). "Phillie fans could be in for one wild surprise". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Sullivan, Paul (August 28, 1995). "Martinez hopes against a trade". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Phil (September 5, 1997). "Versatile Martinez hopes to stay here". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Edes, Gordon (February 4, 1996). "Daulton's new job comes with a catch". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Phil. "Martinez exits for Tampa: Loss leaves scarcity of left-hand hitters". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Chris (December 5, 1997). "Sox' Martinez signs with Devil Rays". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. pp. 1C, 7C. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Didtler, Mark (December 5, 1997). "Devil Rays sign Lake Howell grad". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc. "Sports: Martinez: 500 at-bats adds year to contract". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rays trade for pitching help". Gainesville Sun. May 13, 2000. p. 4C. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ O'Brien, David (June 10, 2000). "Trades net pitcher, utility player". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Crasnick, Jerry (September 17, 2000). "Trades keep Martinez family on the move". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. p. 12C. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Sports: Ex-Ray Martinez on move again". St. Petersburg Times. August 5, 2000. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Munro signs with Rangers". Gadsden Times. January 3, 2001. p. B3. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Playing for Four Teams in One Year » Baseball-Reference Blog » Blog Archive". Baseball-Reference.com. January 22, 2008. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Crasnick, Jerry (September 14, 2000). "Sports — The well-traveled Dave Martinez". Seattle Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mormile, Anthony (December 10, 2000). "Braves agree to terms with OF Dave Martinez on two-year deal". ESPN.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "A-Rod narrows field to four: Baseball notebook". The Spokesman-Review. Associated Press. December 11, 2000. p. C6. Retrieved April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Dave Martinez to miss entire season". Sun Journal. Lewiston, Maine. Associated Press. February 21, 2002. p. C6. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "More about Tampa Bay Rays coach Dave Martinez". Orlando Sentinel. August 20, 2013. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc (April 20, 2007). "Martinez wouldn't mind sticking around as coach". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc (October 9, 2007). "Rays: Ex-Ray Martinez may join staff". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Jays won't hire Martinez, Canadian Thomson". Sportsnet.ca. October 19, 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc. "Bench coach Dave Martinez a possible loss for Tampa Bay Rays manager Joe Maddon's staff". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stone: Alomar the favorite to succeed Guillen". Chicago Tribune. September 27, 2011. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Berry, Adam (September 3, 2014). "Martinez interested in Astros' managerial job". MLB.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rays coach Dave Martinez to interview for Cubs manager". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ladson, Bill (November 8, 2013). "Nats considered Martinez a top candidate for job". MLB.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc (November 8, 2014). "Longoria, Zobrist endorse Dave Martinez as manager". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rays bench coach Dave Martinez not among three finalists for manager job". Bay News 9. Bright House Sports Network. November 21, 2014. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc (November 25, 2014). "Passed over in manager race, Dave Martinez will leave Rays". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Heyman, Jon (December 4, 2014). "Dave Martinez being hired to join Joe Maddon as Cubs bench coach". CBSSports.com. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bastian, Jordan; Muskat, Carrie. "Chicago Cubs win 2016 World Series". MLB. Retrieved November 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ Wagner, James (October 20, 2017). "Dusty Baker Is Out as Nationals Manager After Two Seasons". The New York Times. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Clark, Dave (October 30, 2017). "Dave Martinez named Washington Nationals' new manager". Cincinnati.com. Retrieved October 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Janes, Chelsea (March 30, 2018). "Max Scherzer picks up where he left off as Nationals shut out Reds in opener". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ Castillo, Jorge (2018-05-01). "Why is Bryce Harper leading off Tuesday? Dave Martinez says, 'Why not?'". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Sean Doolittle blows first save of season, Nationals drop 5-4 decision to Dodgers..." Federal Baseball. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference managerial record was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Topkin, Marc (November 4, 2014). "Dave Martinez a natural fit to replace Maddon as Rays manager". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Greenstein, Teddy (May 16, 2000). "Martinez feels he's coming home". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
External links[edit]
Career statistics and player information from MLB, or ESPN, or Baseball-Reference, or Fangraphs, or The Baseball Cube, or Baseball-Reference (Minors)
hideSporting positions
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Mealybugs
Mealybugs on a flower stem, Yogyakarta
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Superfamily: Coccoidea
Family: Pseudococcidae
Heymons, 1915 [1]
Genera
See text [2]
Mealybugs are insects in the family Pseudococcidae, unarmored scale insects found in moist, warm climates. They are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants, house plants and subtropical trees and also act as a vector for several plant diseases.
Contents
[hide]
1 Distribution
2 Description
3 Control
4 Genera
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Distribution[edit]
Mealybugs occur in all parts of the world. Most occur naturally only in warmer parts, and get introduced into greenhouses and other buildings in cooler countries. It is unlikely that any live in the Arctic or Antarctic, except perhaps in buildings.
Description[edit]
Male individual of the hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus
Formica fusca ants tending a herd of mealybugs
A ladybird preying on mealybugs
Mealybugs on hibiscus plant
Mealybugs are sexually dimorphic: females appear as nymphs, exhibiting reduced morphology, and lack wings, although unlike many female scale insects, they often retain legs and can move. Males are smaller, gnat-like and have wings. Since mealybugs (as well as all other Hemiptera) are hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis in the true sense of the word. However, male mealybugs do exhibit a radical change during their life cycle, changing from wingless, ovoid nymphs to wasp-like flying adults.
Mealybug females feed on plant sap, normally in roots or other crevices, and in a few cases the bottoms of stored fruit. They attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery wax layer (hence the name mealybug) used for protection while they suck the plant juices. In Asia, mango mealybug is considered a major menace for the mango crop. The males on the other hand are short-lived as they do not feed at all as adults and only live to fertilize the females. Male citrus mealy bugs fly to the females and resemble fluffy gnats.
Some species of mealybug lay their eggs in the same waxy layer used for protection in quantities of 50–100; other species are born directly from the female.
The most serious pests are mealybugs that feed on citrus; other species damage sugarcane, grapes, pineapple (Jahn et al. 2003), coffee trees, cassava, ferns, cacti, gardenias, papaya, mulberry, sunflower and orchids. Mealybugs only tend to be serious pests in the presence of ants because the ants protect them from predators and parasites.[3] Mealybugs also infest some species of carnivorous plant such as Sarracenia (pitcher plants); in such cases it is difficult to eradicate them without repeated applications of insecticide such as diazinon. Small infestations may not inflict significant damage. In larger amounts though, they can induce leaf drop.
Fossil specimens of Acropyga genus ants have been recovered from the Burdigalian stage Dominican amber deposits and several individuals are preserved carrying the extinct mealybug genus Electromyrmococcus.[4] These fossils represent the oldest recorded record of the symbiosis between mealybugs and Acropyga species ants.[4]
Control[edit]
If the infested plant can tolerate the cold, place the plant on a windowsill during cold weather. This will attract the mealybugs to the leaf furthest from the window, where they can be wiped off with a cloth.
Ladybird larvae and adults feed on mealybugs, and can be used to control an infestation.
Mealybugs can be controlled using the fungus Lecanicillium lecanii.
Insecticidal soap is effective against mealybugs. It is commercially available and can be purchased online or at a supermarket.
An aqueous solution containing 50% v/v isopropyl alcohol and 1% w/v sodium dodecyl sulfate (found in most household detergents) is effective against mealybugs. Isopropyl alcohol dissolves the outer waxy covering, while the sodium dodecyl sulfate attacks the mealybugs themselves.
Diatomaceous earth can be applied around the stem of the plant. Diatomaceous earth contains small silica particles that are trapped within the joints of ants. They cause irritation and eventual death. Diatomaceous earth is especially useful for an infestation that has developed a symbiotic relationship with local ants. [clarification needed]
Diazinon can be used, but often requires multiple applications.
Genera[edit]
Acaciacoccus
Acinicoccus
Acrochordonus
Adelosoma
Agastococcus
Albertinia
Allomyrmococcus
Allotrionymus
Amonostherium
Anaparaputo
Anisococcus
Annulococcus
Anthelococcus
Antonina
Antoninella
Antoninoides
Apodastococcus
Artemicoccus
Asaphococcus
Asphodelococcus
Asteliacoccus
Atriplicicoccus
Atrococcus
Australicoccus
Australiputo
Balanococcus
Bessenayla
Bimillenia
Birendracoccus
Boninococcus
Boreococcus
Bouhelia
Brasiliputo
Brevennia
Brevicoccus
Callitricoccus
Calyptococcus
Cannococcus
Capitisetella
Cataenococcus
Chaetococcus
Chaetotrionymus
Chileputo
Chlorococcus
Chnaurococcus
Chorizococcus
Chryseococcus
Cintococcus
Circaputo
Cirnecoccus
Clavicoccus
Coccidohystrix
Coccura
Coleococcus
Colombiacoccus
Conicosoma
Conulicoccus
Coorongia
Cormiococcus
Criniticoccus
Crisicoccus
Crocydococcus
Cryptoripersia
Cucullococcus
Cyperia
Cypericoccus
Cyphonococcus
Dawa
Delococcus
Delottococcus
Densispina
Discococcus
Distichlicoccus
Diversicrus
Drymococcus
Dysmicoccus
Eastia
Ehrhornia
Electromyrmococcus
Epicoccus
Erimococcus
Eriocorys
Erioides
Erium
Eucalyptococcus
Eumirococcus
Eumyrmococcus
Eupeliococcus
Euripersia
Eurycoccus
Exilipedronia
Farinococcus
Ferrisia
Ferrisicoccus
Fijicoccus
Fonscolombia
Formicococcus
Gallulacoccus
Geococcus
Glycycnyza
Gomezmenoricoccus
Gouxia
Greenoripersia
Grewiacoccus
Hadrococcus
Heliococcus
Heterococcopsis
Heterococcus
Heteroheliococcus
Hippeococcus
Hopefoldia
Humococcus
Hypogeococcus
Iberococcus
Idiococcus
Indococcus
Inopicoccus
Ityococcus
Kenmorea
Kermicus
Kiritshenkella
Lachnodiella
Lachnodiopsis
Lacombia
Laingiococcus
Laminicoccus
Lankacoccus
Lantanacoccus
Lenania
Leptococcus
Leptorhizoecus
Liucoccus
Lomatococcus
Londiania
Longicoccus
Maconellicoccus
Macrocepicoccus
Maculicoccus
Madacanthococcus
Madagasia
Madangiacoccus
Madeurycoccus
Malaicoccus
Malekoccus
Mammicoccus
Marendellea
Mascarenococcus
Maskellococcus
Mauricoccus
Melanococcus
Metadenopsis
Metadenopus
Miconicoccus
Mirococcopsis
Mirococcus
Miscanthicoccus
Misericoccus
Mizococcus
Mollicoccus
Mombasinia
Moystonia
Mutabilicoccus
Nairobia
Natalensia
Neochavesia
Neoclavicoccus
Neoripersia
Neosimmondsia
Neotrionymus
Nesococcus
Nesopedronia
Nesticoccus
Nipaecoccus
Novonilacoccus
Octococcus
Odacoccus
Ohiacoccus
Oracella
Orococcus
Orstomicoccus
Oxyacanthus
Palaucoccus
Palmicultor
Paludicoccus
Pandanicola
Papuacoccus
Paracoccus
Paradiscococcus
Paradoxococcus
Paraferrisia
Paramococcus
Paramonostherium
Paramyrmococcus
Parapaludicoccus
Parapedronia
Paraputo
Pararhodania
Paratrionymus
Parkermicus
Paulianodes
Pedrococcus
Pedronia
Peliococcopsis
Peliococcus
Pellizzaricoccus
Penthococcus
Peridiococcus
Phenacoccus
Phyllococcus
Pilococcus
Planococcoides
Planococcus
Pleistocerarius
Plotococcus
Poecilococcus
Polystomophora
Porisaccus
Porococcus
Prorhizoecus
Prorsococcus
Pseudantonina
Pseudococcus
Pseudorhizoecus
Pseudorhodania
Pseudoripersia
Pseudotrionymus
Puto
Pygmaeococcus
Quadrigallicoccus
Rastrococcus
Renicaula
Rhizoecus
Rhodania
Ripersia
Ritsemia
Rosebankia
Saccharicoccus
Sarococcus
Scaptococcus
Seabrina
Serrolecanium
Seyneria
Spartinacoccus
Sphaerococcus
Spilococcus
Spinococcus
Stachycoccus
Stemmatomerinx
Stipacoccus
Strandanna
Stricklandina
Strombococcus
Synacanthococcus
Syrmococcus
Tangicoccus
Tasmanicoccus
Telocorys
Tibetococcus
Tomentocera
Trabutina
Tridiscus
Trimerococcus
Trionymus
Trochiscococcus
Turbinococcus
Tylococcus
Tympanococcus
Ventrispina
Villosicoccus
Volvicoccus
Vryburgia
Xenococcus
Yudnapinna
See also[edit]
Maconellicoccus hirsutus – pink hibiscus mealybug, grape mealybug
Paracoccus marginatus – papaya mealybug
Phyllococcus oahuensis
Planococcus citri – citrus mealybug
Pseudococcus viburni – obscure mealybug
Mango mealybug
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Pseudococcidae Heymons, 1915". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Life
Jump up ^ Noe, Ronald (November 21, 2012). "Fire Ants Protect Mealybugs against Their Natural Enemies by Utilizing the Leaf Shelters Constructed by the Leaf Roller Sylepta derogata". US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. PMC 3503828  . Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, M.S.; et al. (2001). "Acropyga and Azteca Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with Scale Insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea): 20 Million Years of Intimate Symbiosis". American Museum Novitates. 3335: 1–18. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2001)335<0001:AAAAHF>2.0.CO;2.
Further reading[edit]
Jahn, G. C. and J.W. Beardsley 1994. Big-headed ants, Pheidole megacephala: Interference with the biological control of gray pineapple mealybugs. In D.F. Williams [ed.] "Exotic Ants: Biology, Impact and Control of Introduced Species." Westview Press, Oxford, 199–205.
Jahn, G. C. and J.W. Beardsley 1998. Presence / absence sampling of mealybugs, ants, and major predators in pineapple. J. Plant Protection in the Tropics 11(1):73–79.
Jahn, Gary C., J. W. Beardsley and H. González-Hernández 2003. A review of the association of ants with mealybug wilt disease of pineapple. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 36:9–28.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pseudococcidae.
Wikispecies has information related to: Pseudococcidae
NCIPM (National Centre for Integrated Pest Management) – Cotton Mealybugs
BBC gardening advice, mealybugs
CISR – Vine Mealybug Center for Invasive Species Research summary on Vine Mealybug
On the University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures website:
Hypogeococcus pungens, no common name
Nipaecoccus nipae, coconut mealybug
[show]
v
t
e
Extant Hemiptera families
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota
Infraclass: Neoptera
Superorder: Paraneoptera
[show]
Suborder Auchenorrhyncha
Cicadomorpha
Cercopoidea
(froghoppers)
Aphrophoridae
Cercopidae
Clastopteridae
Epipygidae
Machaerotidae
Cicadoidea
(cicadas)
Cicadidae
Tettigarctidae (hairy cicadas)
Membracoidea
Aetalionidae
Cicadellidae (leafhoppers)
Melizoderidae
Membracidae (typical treehoppers, thorn bugs)
Myerslopiidae
Fulgoromorpha
(planthoppers)
Fulgoroidea
Acanaloniidae
Achilidae
Achilixiidae
Cixiidae
Delphacidae
Derbidae
Dictyopharidae
Eurybrachidae
Flatidae
Fulgoridae (lanternflies)
Gengidae
Hypochthonellidae
Issidae
Kinnaridae
Lophopidae
Meenoplidae
Nogodinidae
Ricaniidae
Tettigometridae
Tropiduchidae
[hide]
Suborder Sternorrhyncha
Aleyrodoidea
Aleyrodidae (whiteflies)
Aphidoidea
(aphids)
Aphididae
Coccoidea
(scale insects)
Aclerdidae
Asterolecaniidae (pit scales)
Beesoniidae (beesoniids)
Carayonemidae (carayonemids)
Cerococcidae (ornate pit scales)
Coccidae (soft scales)
Conchaspididae
Dactylopiidae (cochineals)
Diaspididae (armored scales)
Eriococcidae (felt scales)
Halimococcidae (pupillarial palm scales)
Kermesidae
Kerriidae (lac scales)
Lecanodiaspididae (false pit scales)
Margarodidae (cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, ground pearls)
Micrococcidae (Mediterranean scales)
Monophlebidae (giant scales)
Ortheziidae (ensign scales)
Phenacoleachiidae (phenacoleachiids)
Phoenicococcidae (palm scales)
Pseudococcidae (mealybugs)
Putoidae (giant mealybugs)
Stictococcidae (stictococcids)
Phylloxeroidea
Adelgidae (woolly conifer aphids)
Phylloxeridae (phylloxerans)
Psylloidea
Aphalaridae
Calophyidae
Carsidaridae
Homotomidae
Phacopteronidae
Psyllidae (jumping plant lice)
Triozidae
[show]
Suborder Heteroptera (with Coleorrhyncha)
Dipsocoromorpha
Ceratocombidae
Dipsocoridae
Hypsipterygidae
Schizopteridae
Stemmocryptidae
Enicocephalomorpha
Enicocephaloidea
Aenictopecheidae
Enicocephalidae (unique-headed bugs, gnat bugs)
Gerromorpha
(semiaquatic bugs)
Gerroidea
Gerridae (water striders)
Hermatobatidae
Veliidae (riffle bugs)
Hebroidea
Hebridae (velvet water bugs)
Hydrometroidea
Hydrometridae (marsh treaders or water measurers)
Macroveliidae
Paraphrynoveliidae
Mesovelioidea
(water treaders)
Madeoveliidae
Mesoveliidae
Leptopodomorpha
Saldidae (shore bugs)
Leptopodidae (spiny shore bugs)
Omaniidae
Aepophilidae
Nepomorpha
(true water bugs)
Corixoidea
Corixidae (water boatmen)
Nepoidea
Belostomatidae (giant water bugs)
Nepidae (water scorpions, needle bugs)
Ochteroidea
Gelastocoridae (toad bugs)
Ochteridae (velvety shore bugs)
Aphelocheiroidea
Aphelocheiridae
Potamocoridae
Naucoroidea
Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)
Notonectoidea
Notonectidae (backswimmers)
Pleoidea
Helotrephidae
Pleidae (pygmy backswimmers)
Peloridiomorpha
(Coleorrhyncha)
Peloridiidae
Cimicomorpha
Cimicoidea
Anthocoridae (minute pirate bugs or flower bugs)
Cimicidae (bed bugs, bat bugs)
Curaliidae (Curalium cronini)
Joppeicidae
Lasiochilidae
Lyctocoridae
Medocostidae
Microphysidae
Miridae (plant bugs, leaf bugs, grass bugs)
Nabidae (damsel bugs)
Pachynomidae
Plokiophilidae
Polyctenidae (old world bat bugs)
Reduviidae (assassin bugs, wheel bugs, thread-legged bugs)
Thaumastocoridae (royal palm bugs)
Tingidae (lace bugs)
Velocipedidae
Pentatomomorpha
Aradoidea
Aradidae (flat bugs)
Termitaphididae (termite bugs)
Pentatomoidea
(shield bugs)
Urostylididae
Acanthosomatidae (shield bugs)
Tessaratomidae (giant shield bugs and relatives)
Dinidoridae
Cydnidae (burrowing bugs)
Thaumastellidae
Parastrachiidae
Corimelaenidae (includes ebony bugs)
Lestoniidae
Phloeidae
Scutelleridae (jewel bugs or metallic shield bugs)
Plataspidae
Pentatomidae (stink bugs)
Canopidae
Megarididae
Coreoidea
Alydidae (broad-headed bugs)
Coreidae (squash bugs, leaf-footed bugs)
Hyocephalidae
Rhopalidae (scentless plant bugs)
Stenocephalidae
Lygaeoidea
Artheneidae
Berytidae (stilt bugs)
Blissidae
Colobathristidae
Cryptorhamphidae
Cymidae
Geocoridae
Henicocoridae
Heterogastridae
Idiostolidae
Lygaeidae (milkweed bugs, true seed bugs)
Malcidae
Ninidae
Oxycarenidae
Pachygronthidae
Rhyparochromidae (atypical seed bugs)
Piesmatidae (ash-grey leaf bugs)
Pyrrhocoroidea
Pyrrhocoridae (red bugs, cotton stainers)
Largidae (bordered plant bugs)
Note: Coleorrhyncha are a different clade from Heteroptera. Heteroptera with Coleorrhyncha were referred to as Prosorrhyncha.
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