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Tanks in World War I
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A British Mark V (Male) tank
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A British Mark V* tank— carries an unditching beam on the roof that could be attached to the tracks and used to free itself from muddy trenches and shell craters
1916 : a British tank destroyed by the Germans in the Western Front during WWI
The development of tanks in World War I was a response to the stalemate that had developed on the Western Front. Although vehicles that incorporated the basic principles of the tank (armour, firepower, and all-terrain mobility) had been projected in the decade or so before the War, it was the alarmingly heavy casualties of the start of its trench warfare that stimulated development.[1][2] Research took place in both Great Britain and France, with Germany only belatedly following the Allies' lead.
In Great Britain, an initial vehicle, nicknamed Little Willie, was constructed at William Foster & Co., during August and September 1915.[3] The prototype of a new design that became the Mark I tank was demonstrated to the British Army on 2 February 1916. Although initially termed "Landships" by the Landships Committee, production vehicles were named "tanks", to preserve secrecy. The term was chosen when it became known that the factory workers at William Foster referred to the first prototype as "the tank" because of its resemblance to a steel water tank.
The French fielded their first tanks in April 1917 and ultimately produced far more tanks than all other combatants combined.
The Germans, on the other hand, began development only in response to the appearance of Allied tanks on the battlefield. Whilst the Allies manufactured several thousand tanks during the War, Germany deployed only 20 of her own.[4]
The first tanks were mechanically unreliable. There were problems that caused considerable attrition rates during combat deployment and transit. The heavily shelled terrain was impassable to conventional vehicles, and only highly mobile tanks such as the Mark and FTs performed reasonably well. The Mark I's rhomboid shape, caterpillar tracks, and 26-foot (8 m) length meant that it could negotiate obstacles, especially wide trenches, that wheeled vehicles could not. Along with the tank, the first self-propelled gun (the British Gun Carrier Mk I) and the first armoured personnel carrier (the British Mk IX) were also constructed in World War I.
Contents
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1 Conceptual roots of the tank
2 The Landships Committies
3 First Deployments
4 French developments
5 German developments
6 Battle of Cambrai
7 Whippet
8 Villers-Bretonneux: Tank against tank
9 See also
10 Notes and references
11 Further reading
12 External links
Conceptual roots of the tank[edit]
See also: History of the tank
Mark 3II; tank no. 799 captured near Arras on 11 April 1917
A German-captured British tank in 1917
1917: British tanks captured by the Germans being transported by rail
German forces using captured British Mark IVs during the Second Battle of the Marne
The conceptual roots of the tank go back to ancient times, with siege engines which were able to provide protection for troops moving up against stone walls or other fortifications. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the demonstrable power of steam, James Cowan presented a proposal for a Steam Powered Land Ram in 1855, towards the end of the Crimean War. Looking like a helmet on 'footed' Boydell wheels, early forerunners of the Pedrail wheel, it was essentially an armoured steam tractor equipped with cannon and rotating scythes sprouting from the sides. Lord Palmerston is said to have dismissed it as 'barbaric'.
Hornsby tractor
Artillery tractors (here a Holt tractor) were in use in the French Army in 1914-1915. Here, in the Vosges, spring 1915
From 1904 to 1909, David Roberts, the engineer and managing director of Hornsby & Sons of Grantham, built a series of tractors using his patented 'chain-track' which were put through their paces by the British Army, a (small) section of which wanted to evaluate artillery tractors. At one point in 1908, Major William E. Donohue of the Mechanical Transport Committee remarked to Roberts that he should design a new machine with armour, capable of carrying its own gun. But, disheartened by years of ultimately fruitless tinkering for the Army, Roberts did not take up the idea. In later years he expressed regret at not having pursued it.[5]
An engineer in the Austro-Hungarian Army, Lieutenant Gunther Burstyn, inspired by Holt tractors, designed a tracked armoured vehicle in 1911 carrying a light gun in a rotating turret; equipped also with hinged 'arms', two in front and two at the rear, carrying wheels on the ends to assist with obstacles and trenches, it was a very forward-looking design, if rather small. The Austrian government said it would be interested in evaluating it if Burstyn could secure commercial backing to produce a prototype. Lacking the requisite contacts, he let it drop. An approach to the German government was similarly fruitless.
In 1912, a South Australian, Lancelot De Mole, submitted a proposal to the British War Office for a "chain-rail vehicle which could be easily steered and carry heavy loads over rough ground and trenches". De Mole made more proposals to the War Office in 1914 and 1916, with a culminating proposal in late 1917, accompanied by a huge one-eighth scale model, yet all fell on substantially deaf ears. De Mole's proposal already had the climbing face, so typical of the later World War I British tanks, but it is unknown whether there was some connection. Inquiries to the government of Australia, after the war, yielded polite responses that Mr. De Mole's ideas had unfortunately been too advanced for the time to be properly recognised at their just value. The Commission on Awards to Inventors in 1919, which adjudicated all the competing claims to the development of the tank, recognised the brilliance of De Mole's design, even considering that it was superior to the machines actually developed, but due to its narrow remit, could only make a payment of £987 to De Mole to cover his expenses. De Mole noted in 1919 that he was urged by friends before the war to approach the Germans with his design, but declined to do so for patriotic reasons.
French armored car: the Charron-Girardot-Voigt 1902
Before World War I, motorized vehicles were still relatively uncommon, and their use on the battlefield was initially limited, especially of heavier vehicles. Armoured cars soon became more commonplace with most belligerents, especially in more open terrain. On August 23, 1914, the French Colonel Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, later a major proponent of tanks, declared: Messieurs, la victoire appartiendra dans cette guerre à celui des deux belligérants qui parviendra le premier à placer un canon de 75 sur une voiture capable de se mouvoir en tout terrain ("Gentlemen, the victory will belong, in this war, to the one of the two belligerents who will be the first to succeed in mounting a 75 mm gun on a vehicle capable of moving in all types of terrain").
Armored cars did indeed prove useful in open land such as in deserts, but were not very good at crossing obstacles (e.g. trenches, barriers) or in more challenging terrain. The other issue was that it was very hard to add much protection or armament.
The main limitation was the wheels, which gave a high ground pressure for the vehicle's weight. This could be solved by adding more wheels, but unless they also were driven, the effect was to reduce traction on the powered wheels. Driving extra wheels meant more drive train weight, in turn requiring a larger and heavier engine to maintain performance. Even worse, none of this extra weight was put into an improvement of armor or armament carried, and the vehicles were still incapable of crossing very rough terrain.
The adoption of caterpillar tracks offered a new solution to the problem. The tracks spread the weight of the vehicles over a much greater area, which was all used for traction to move the vehicle. The limitation on armor and firepower was no longer ground pressure but the power and weight of the power-plant.
Swinton (now Colonel) with Benjamin Holt in Stockton, California, relaying gratitude to the inventor for his company's contribution to the war effort
The remaining issue was how to utilise and configure a vehicle. Major Ernest Dunlop Swinton RE, was the official British war correspondent serving in France in 1914. He recounts in his book Eyewitness how the idea of using caterpillar tracks to drive an armoured fighting vehicle came to him on October 19, 1914, while he was driving through northern France. In July 1914 he had received a letter from a friend, Hugh Marriott, a mining engineer, drawing his attention to a Holt caterpillar tractor that Marriott had seen in Belgium. Marriott thought it might be useful for transport over difficult ground, and Swinton had passed the information on to the appropriate departments. Now Swinton suggested the idea of an armoured tracked vehicle to the military authorities, by sending a proposal to Lieutenant-Colonel Maurice Hankey. Hankey in turn tried to interest Lord Kitchener in the idea; when this failed he sent a memorandum in December to the Committee of Imperial Defence, of which he was himself the secretary; Winston Churchill the First Lord of the Admiralty was one of the members of the committee. Hankey proposed to build a gigantic steel roller, pushed by tracked tractors, to shield the advancing infantry. Churchill in turn wrote a note on January 5 to the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, in which he warned that the Germans might any moment introduce a comparable system. A worried Asquith now ordered Kitchener to form a committee, headed by General Scott-Moncrieff, to study the feasibility of Swinton's idea; however, after trials with a Holt 75 h.p. machine the committee concluded in February 1915 that the idea was impractical.
The Landships Committies[edit]
Winston Churchill however decided that if the Army wouldn't take up the idea, the Navy should proceed independently, even if it were to exceed the limits of his authority. He created the Landships Committee in February 1915, initially to investigate designs for a massive troop transporter. As a truer picture of front-line conditions was developed the aims of the investigation changed. A requirement was formulated for an armoured vehicle capable of 4 mph (6 km/h), climbing a 5 feet (1.5 m) high parapet, crossing an 8 feet (2.4 m) wide gap, and armed with machine guns and a light artillery piece. A similar proposal was working its way through the Army GHQ in France, and in June the Landships Committee was made a joint service venture between the War Office and the Admiralty. The Naval involvement in Armoured Fighting Vehicle (AFV) design had originally come about through the Royal Naval Air Service Armoured Car Division, the only British unit fielding AFVs in 1914; surprisingly, until the end of the war most experimentation on heavy land vehicles was conducted by Royal Naval Air Service Squadron 20.
The Russian Tsar Tank
At first, protecting heavy gun tractors with armour appeared the most promising line of development. Alternative early 'big wheel' designs on the lines of the Russian tsar tank of 1915 were soon understood to be impractical. However, adapting the existing Holt Company caterpillar designs — the only robust tracked tractors available in 1915 — into a fighting machine, as France and Germany did, was decided against. While armour and weapon systems were easy to acquire, other existing caterpillar and suspension units were too weak, existing engines were underpowered for the vehicles that the designers had in mind, and trench-crossing ability was poor because of the shortness of the wheelbase. The Killen-Strait tractor with three tracks was used for the first experiments in June but was much too small to be developed further. The large Pedrail monotrack vehicle was proposed in a number of different configurations, but non were adopted. Trials to couple two American Bullock tractors failed. There also were considerable differences of opinion between the several committee members. Col R.E.B. Crompton, a veteran military engineer and electrical pioneer, drafted numerous designs with Lucien Legros for armoured troop carrying vehicles and gun-armed vehicles, to have used either Bullock tracks or variants of the Pedrail. At the same time, Lt Robert Macfie, of the RNAS, and Albert Nesfield, an Ealing-based engineer, devised a number of armoured tracked vehicles, which incorporated an angled front 'climbing face' to the tracks. The two men fell out bitterly as their plans came to nought; Macfie in particular pursued a vendetta against the other members of the Landships Committee after the war.
Little Willie showing its rear steering wheels
To resolve the threatened dissipation of effort, it was ordered in late July that a contract was to be placed with William Foster & Co. Ltd, a company having done some prewar design work on heavy tractors and known to Churchill from an earlier experiment with a trench-crossing supply vehicle, to produce a proof-of-concept vehicle with two tracks, based on a lengthened Bullock tractor chassis. Construction work began three weeks later.
A Mark I tank, moving from left to right. The rhomboidal shape allowed it to climb parapets and cross trenches. Photo by Ernest Brooks.
Fosters of Lincoln built the 14 ton "Little Willie", which first ran on 8 September. Powered by a 105 hp (78 kW) Daimler engine, the 10-foot-high (3.0 m) armoured box was initially fitted with a low Bullock caterpillar. A rotating top turret was planned with a 40 mm gun but abandoned due to weight problems, leaving the final vehicle unarmed and little more than a test-bed for the difficult track system. Difficulties with the commercial tracks supplied led to Tritton designing a completely new track system different from, and vastly more robust than, any other system then in use. The next design by Lieutenant Walter Gordon Wilson RNAS, a pre-war motor engineer, added a larger track frame to the hull of "Little Willie". In order to achieve the demanded gap clearance a rhomboidal shape was chosen—stretching the form to improve the track footprint and climbing capacity. To keep a low centre of gravity the rotating turret design was dropped in favour of sponsons on the sides of the hull fitted with naval 6-pounder (57 mm) guns. A final specification was agreed on in late September for trials in early 1916, and the resulting 30 ton "Big Willie" (later called "Mother") together with "Little Willie" underwent trials at Hatfield Park on 29 January and 2 February. Attendees at the second trial included Lord Kitchener, Lloyd George, Reginald McKenna and other political luminaries. On 12 February an initial order for 100 "Mother" type vehicles was made, later expanded to 150.
Crews never called tanks "Willies"; at first they referred to them as "landships", and later informally "buses".[6] Although landship was a natural term coming from an Admiralty committee, it was considered too descriptive and could give away British intentions. The committee therefore looked for an appropriate code term for the vehicles. Factory workers assembling the vehicles had been told they were producing "mobile water tanks" for desert warfare in Mesopotamia. Water Container was therefore considered but rejected because the committee would inevitably be known as the WC Committee (WC meaning water closet was a common British term for a toilet). The term tank, as in water tank, was in December 1915 finally accepted as its official designation. From then on, the term "tank" was established among British and also German soldiers. While in German Tank specifically refers to the World War I type (as opposed to modern Panzer), in English, Russian and other languages the name even for contemporary armoured vehicles is still based on the word tank.
A captured British tank in German hands destroying a tree
It is sometimes mistakenly stated that, after completion, the tanks were shipped to France in large wooden crates. For secrecy and in order to not arouse any curiosity, the crates and the tanks themselves were then each labelled with a destination in Russian, "With Care to Petrograd". In fact the tanks were never shipped in crates: the inscription in Russian was applied on the hull for their transport from the factory to the first training centre at Thetford.
The first fifty had been delivered to France on 30 August. They were 'male' or 'female', depending upon whether their armament comprised two 6-pounder cannon and three Hotchkiss machine guns or four Vickers machine guns and one Hotchkiss. It had a crew of eight, four of whom were needed to handle the steering and drive gears. The tanks were capable of, at best, 6 km/h (4 mph), matching the speed of marching infantry with whom they were to be integrated to aid in the destruction of enemy machine guns. In practice, their speed on broken ground could be as little as 1 mph.
After the war the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors decided that the principal inventors of the Tank were Sir William Tritton, managing director of Fosters, and Major Walter Gordon Wilson.
First Deployments[edit]
The Schneider CA1, the first French tank
The first use of tanks on the battlefield was the use of British Mark I tanks at the Battle of Flers-Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with mixed results; many broke down, but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Of the forty-nine tanks shipped to the Somme, only thirty-two were able to begin the first attack in which they were used and only nine made it across "no man's land" to the German lines. The tanks had been rushed into combat before the design was mature enough (against Churchill's and Ernest Swinton's wishes)[7] and the number was small but their use gave important feedback on how to design newer tanks, the soundness of the concept, and their potential to affect the course of the war. On the other hand, the French Army was critical of the British employment of small numbers of tanks at this battle. They felt the British had sacrificed the secrecy of the weapon while employing it in numbers too small to be decisive. Considering that the British attack was part of an Anglo-French offensive while the Russians were also attacking at the same time, Haig felt justified in making a maximum effort, regardless of the limitations of the tank force.
The Mark Is were capable of performing on the real battlefield of World War I, one of the most difficult battlefield terrains ever. They did have reliability problems, but when they were working they could cross trenches or craters of 9 feet (2.7 m) and drive right through barbed wire. It was still common for them to get stuck, especially in larger bomb craters, but overall the rhomboid shape allowed for extreme terrain mobility.
Splatter mask used by tank crews in World War One
Tank crews who had read press reports depicting the new weapon driving through buildings and trees, and crossing wide rivers, were disappointed.[6] Most World War I tanks could travel only at about a walking pace at best. Their steel armour could stop small arms fire and fragments from high-explosive artillery shells. However they were vulnerable to a direct hit from artillery and mortar shells. The environment inside was extremely unpleasant; as ventilation was inadequate the atmosphere was heavy with poisonous carbon monoxide from the engine and firing the weapons, fuel and oil vapours from the engine and cordite fumes from the weapons. Temperatures inside could reach 50°C (122°F). Entire crews lost consciousness inside the tanks, or collapsed when again exposed to fresh air.[8] Crews learned how to create and leave behind supply dumps of fuel, motor oil, and tread grease, and converted obsolete models into supply vehicles for newer ones.[6]
To counter the danger of bullet splash or fragments knocked off the inside of the hull, the crew wore helmets with goggles and chainmail masks. Fragments were not as dangerous as fire, because of explosive fumes and the large amount of fuel aboard; smoking was prohibited inside and within 20 yards outside tanks.[6] Gas masks were also standard issue, as they were to all soldiers at this point in the war due to the use of chemical warfare. The side armour of 8 mm initially made them largely immune to small arms fire, but could be penetrated by the recently developed armour-piercing K bullets. There was also the danger of being overrun by infantry and attacked with grenades. The next generation had thicker armour, making them nearly immune to the K bullets. In response, the Germans developed a larger purpose-made anti-tank rifle, and also a Geballte Ladung ("Bunched Charge")—several regular stick grenades bundled together for a much bigger explosion.
Engine power was a primary limitation on the tanks; the roughly one hundred horsepower engines gave a power-to-weight ratio of 3.3 hp/ton (2.5 kW/ton). By the end of the 20th century, power-to-weight ratios exceeded 20 hp/ton (15 kW/ton).
Many feel that because the British Commander Field Marshal Douglas Haig was himself a horse cavalryman, his command failed to appreciate the value of tanks. In fact, horse cavalry doctrine in World War I was to "follow up a breakthrough with harassing attacks in the rear", but there were no breakthroughs on the Western Front until the tanks came along. Despite these supposed views of Haig, he made an order for 1,000 tanks shortly after the failure at the Somme and always remained firmly in favour of further production.
In 1919, Major General Sir Louis Jackson said: "The tank was a freak. The circumstances which called it into existence were exceptional and not likely to recur. If they do, they can be dealt with by other means."[9]
French developments[edit]
Renault FT tanks being operated by the US Army in France. Light tanks with a crew of only two, these were mass-produced during World War I.
France at the same time developed its own tracked AFVs, but the situation there was very different. In Britain a single committee had coordinated design, and had to overcome the initial resistance of the Army, while the major industries remained passive. Almost all production effort was thus concentrated into the Mark I and its direct successors, all very similar in shape. In France, on the other hand, there were multiple and conflicting lines of development which were badly integrated, resulting in three major and quite disparate production types. A major arms producer, Schneider, took the lead in January 1915 and tried to build a first armoured vehicle based on the Baby Holt tractor but initially the development process was slow until in July they received political, even presidential, support by combining their project with that of a mechanical wire cutter devised by engineer and politician Jean-Louis Bréton. In December 1915, the influential Colonel Estienne made the Supreme Command very enthusiastic about the idea of creating an armoured force based on these vehicles; strong Army support for tanks was a constant during the decades that followed. Already in January and February 1916 quite substantial orders were made, at that moment with a total number of 800 much larger than the British ones.
French Saint-Chamond tanks had long bodies with a lot of the vehicle projecting forward off of the short caterpillar tracks, making them more liable to get ditched in trenches.
Army enthusiasm and haste had its immediate drawbacks however. As a result of the involvement of inexperienced army officers ordered to devise a new tank based on the larger 75 hp Holt chassis in a very short period of time, the first French tanks were poorly designed with respect to the need to cross trenches and did not take the sponson-mounting route of the British tanks. The first, the Char Schneider CA equipped with a short 75 mm howitzer, had poor mobility due to a short track length combined with a hull that overhung front and rear. It was unreliable as well; a maximum of only about 130 of the 400 built were ever operational at the same time. Then industrial rivalry began to play a detrimental role: it created the heavy Char St Chamond, a parallel development not ordered by the Army but approved by government through industrial lobby, which mounted much more impressive weaponry — its 75 mm was the most powerful gun fielded by any operational tank up till 1941 — but also combined many of the Schneider CA's faults with an even larger overhanging body. Its innovative petro-electrical transmission, while allowing for easy steering, was insufficiently developed and led to a large number of breakdowns.
The Renault FT, the first "modern" tank
But industrial initiative also led to swift advances. The car industry, already used to vehicle mass production and having much more experience in vehicle layout, in 1916 designed the first practical light tanks, a class largely neglected by the British. It was Renault's excellent small tank design, the FT, incorporating a proper climbing face for the tracks, that was the first tank to incorporate a top-mounted turret with a full 360° traverse capability. In fact the FT was in many respects the first truly 'modern' tank having a layout that has been followed by almost all designs ever since: driver at the front; main armament in a fully rotating turret on top; engine at the rear. Previous models had been "box tanks", with a single crowded space combining the role of engine room, fighting compartment, ammunition stock and driver's cabin. (A very similar Peugeot prototype, with a fixed casemate mounting a short 75mm cannon, was trialled in 1918 but the idea was not pursued). The FT had the largest production run of any tank of the war, with over 3700 built, more numerous than all British tanks combined. That this would happen was at first far from certain; some in the French army lobbied for the alternative mass production of super-heavy tanks. Much design effort was put in this line of development resulting in the gigantic Char 2C, the most complex and technologically advanced tank of its day. Its very complexity ensured it being produced too late to participate in World War I and in the very small number of just ten, but it was the first tank with a three-man turret; the heaviest to enter service until late in World War II and still the largest ever operational.
French production at first lagged behind the British. After August 1916 however, British tank manufacture was temporarily halted to wait for better designs, allowing the French to overtake their allies in numbers. When the French used tanks for the first time on 16 April 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, they had four times more tanks available. But that did not last long as the offensive was a major failure; the Schneiders were badly deployed and suffered 50% losses from German long-range artillery. The Saint-Chamond tanks, first deployed on 5 May, proved to be so badly designed that they were unable to cross the first line of German trenches.
German developments[edit]
Germany concentrated more on the development of anti-tank weapons than on development of tanks themselves. They only developed one type of tank which saw combat in the war. The A7V Sturmpanzerwagen was designed in 1917 and was used in battle from March 1918. It was manned by a crew of 18, and had eight machine guns and a 57mm cannon. Only 20 A7Vs were produced during the war.
Battle of Cambrai[edit]
British-operated FT tank attached to Canadian troops
The first battle in which tanks made a great impact was the Battle of Cambrai in 1917. British Colonel J.F.C. Fuller, chief of staff of the Tank Corps, was responsible for the tanks' role in the battle. They made an unprecedented breakthrough but, as ever on the Western front, the opportunity was not exploited. Ironically, it was the soon-to-be-supplanted horse cavalry that had been assigned the task of following up the motorised tank attack.
Tanks became more effective as the lesson of the early tanks was absorbed. The British produced the Mark IV in 1917. Similar to the early Marks in appearance, its construction was considered to produce a more reliable machine, the long-barrelled naval guns were shortened (the barrels of the earlier, longer guns were prone to digging in the mud when negotiating obstacles) and armour was increased just enough to defeat the standard German armour-piercing bullet.
The continued need for four men to drive the tank was solved with the Mark V which used Wilson's epicyclic gearing in 1918. Also in 1918 the French produced the Renault FT, the result of a co-operation between Estienne and Louis Renault. As mentioned before, it had the innovative turret position, and was operated by two men. At just 8 tons it was half the weight of the Medium A Whippet but the version with the cannon had more firepower. It was conceived for mass production, and the FT became the most produced tank of World War I by a wide margin, with over 3,000 delivered to the French Army. Large numbers were used by the Americans and several were also lent to the British.
In July 1918, the French used 480 tanks (mostly FTs) at the Battle of Soissons, and there were even larger assaults planned for the next year. In Plan 1919, the Entente hoped to commit over 30,000 tanks to battle in that year.
Whippet Tank
Whippet[edit]
Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the Whippet. This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front with its relatively higher speed (around 8mph vs 3-4mph for the British heavy tanks). The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machine gun armament, meaning it was not suited to combat with armoured vehicles but instead with infantry. Postwar tank designs reflected this trend towards greater tactical mobility.[citation needed]
Villers-Bretonneux: Tank against tank[edit]
German A7V tank at Roye on March 21, 1918.
Play media
Film clip of World War I-era tanks.
Main article: Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux
The German General Staff did not have enthusiasm for the tanks, but allowed the development of anti-tank weapons. Regardless, development of a German tank was under way. The only project to be produced and fielded was the A7V, although only twenty were built. The majority of the fifty or so tanks fielded by Germany were captured British vehicles. A7Vs were captured by the Allies, but they were not used, and most ended up being scrapped.
The first tank-versus-tank battles took place 24 April 1918. It was an unexpected engagement between three German A7Vs and three British Mk. IVs at Villers-Bretonneux.
Fuller's Plan 1919, involving massive use of tanks for an offensive, was never used because the blockade of Germany and the entry of the US brought an end to the war.
See also[edit]
Tank portal
History of tanks
Comparison of World War I tanks
Tanks of the interwar period
Tanks in World War II
Comparison of early World War II tanks
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Williamson Murray, "Armored Warfare: The British, French, and German Experiences," in Murray, Williamson; Millet, Allan R, eds. (1996). Military Innovation in the Interwar Period. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-521-63760-0.
Jump up ^ Collision of empires Arnold D. Harvey p.381
Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-25109879
Jump up ^ Showalter, D.E. "More Than Nuts And Bolts: Technology And The German Army, 1870–1945." Historian 65.1 (Fall 2002): 123-143. Academic Search Premier. Web. 16 Feb. 2012.
Jump up ^ The Devil's Chariots: The Birth and Secret Battles of the First Tanks. John Glanfield (Sutton Publishing, 2001) p16
^ Jump up to: a b c d Littledale, Harold A. (December 1918). "With the Tanks — I. Anatomy and Habitat". The Atlantic. pp. 836–848.
Jump up ^ "Sensing that tanks would only be effective if they involved an element of surprise, he pressed the government not to use them in small numbers in the Battle of the Somme. As he had put it in a memorandum in 1915, 'None should be used until all can be used at once'. Despite his objections, thirty-five (sic) tanks were used in September 1916, but to very little effect. 'My poor "land battleships" have been let off prematurely and on a petty scale,' he wrote." Havardi, J. The Greatest Briton: Essays on Winston Churchill's Life and Political Philosophy. Shepheard-Walwyn, 2010. ISBN 0856832650
Jump up ^ Macpherson WG, Herringham WP, Elliot TR, Balfour A. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents: Medical Services Diseases of the War. Vol 2. London, England: His Majesty’s Stationery Office; 1923. in Weyandt, Timothy B. and Charles David Ridgely. "Carbon Monoxide." Occupational Health: The Soldier and the Industrial Base. 1993: Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Department of the Army. p. 402-403. Web. 16 Feb 2012
Jump up ^ Military Blunders, page 152
Glanfield, John (2001) Devil's Chariots: the birth and secret battles of the first tanks. Stroud: Sutton
Tucker, Spencer C. World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection. Vol. 4. R-Z. 1536. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Townsend, Reginald T. (December 1916). ""Tanks" And "The Hose Of Death"". The World's Work: A History of Our Time: 195–207. Retrieved 2009-08-04.
External links[edit]
Lancelot De Mole's tank models
[http://www.militaryfactory.com/armor/ww1-tanks.asp WW1 Tanks hi
Kennedy, Michael David: Tanks and Tank Warfare 1914-1918 Online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
[show]
v
t
e
World War I armoured fighting vehicles
List
Category
British
Little Willie
"Female" tank
"Male" tank
Mks I, II, III
Mk IV
Mk V
Mk VI
Mark VII
Mk VIII
Mk IX
Medium Mk A "Whippet"
Medium Mk B
Medium Mk C
Flying Elephant
Killen-Strait Armoured Tractor
Lancelot de Mole's proposal* (1912)
French
Schneider CA1
Saint-Chamond
Renault FT
Breton-Prétot machine
Boirault machine
Frot-Laffly landship
Souain prototype
Levavasseur* (1903)
German
A7V
K-Wagen
LK I
LK II
Oberschlesien
Armoured Cars:
Büssing A5P
Ehrhardt E-V/4
Austro-Hungarian
Günther Burstyn's Motorgeschütz* (1911)
Austro Daimler armoured car (1905)
Italian
Fiat 2000
Fiat 3000
American
M1917 light tank
Ford 3-Ton M1918
Holt Gas-Electric
Skeleton tank
Steam tank
Steam Wheel Tank
Russian
Tsar Tank
Vezdekhod
Mendeleev Tank*
Rybinsk tank*
Belgian
Minerva Armoured Car
Italics—experimental prototypes; * concept only
Tank
history
classification
WWI
Interwar
WWII
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Baji Rao I
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Shreemant Peshwa[1]
Baji Rao I
Ballal[2]
Peshwa of Maratha Empire
In office
27 April 1720 (1720-04-27) – 28 April 1740 (1740-04-28)
Monarch
Chhatrapati Shahu
Preceded by
Balaji Vishwanath
Succeeded by
Balaji Bajirao
Personal details
Born
(1700-08-18)18 August 1700
Died
28 April 1740(1740-04-28) (aged 39)
Raverkhedi
Spouse(s)
Kashibai
Mastani
Relations
Chimaji Appa (brother)
Bhiubai Joshi (sister)
Anubai Ghorpade (sister)
Children
Balaji Baji Rao
Raghunath Rao
Janardhan Rao
Shamsher Bahadur
Mother
Radhabai Barve
Father
Balaji Vishwanath
Baji Rao (18 August 1700 – 28 April 1740) was a general of the Maratha Empire in India. He served as Peshwa (Prime Minister) to the fifth Maratha Chhatrapati (Emperor) Shahu from 1720 until his death. He is also known by the name Bajirao Ballal.[3]
Baji Rao is credited with expanding the Maratha Empire in India which contributed to its reaching a zenith during his son's reign twenty years after his death. In his military career spanning 20 years, Baji Rao never lost a battle. According to the British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, Baji Rao was possibly the finest cavalry general ever produced by India.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Early Life as a Peshwa
3 Campaigns
3.1 Campaign against the Nizam
3.2 Malwa campaign
3.3 Bundelkhand campaign
3.4 Gujarat campaign
3.5 Campaign against Siddis
3.6 March to Delhi
3.7 Against the Portuguese
4 Personal life
5 Death
6 Battle tactics
7 In popular culture
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Early life[edit]
Bajirao was born into the Bhat family of Kokanastha Chitpavan Brahmin lineage.[5] His father Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa of Chhatrapati Shahu; his mother was Radhabai. Baji Rao had a younger brother Chimaji Appa and two sisters, Bihubai Joshi and Anubai Ghorpade.[6] The eldest of his sisters was married into a Deshastha family.[7] He spent his childhood in his father's newly acquired fiefdom of Saswad.
Bajirao would often accompany his father on military campaigns. He was with his father when the latter was imprisoned by Damaji Thorat before being released for a ransom.[6] When Vishwanath died in 1720, Shahu appointed the 20-year old Baji Rao as the Peshwa.[8] He is said to have preached the ideal of Hindu Pad Padshahi (Hindu Empire),[9]
Bajirao intended to plant the Maratha flag upon the walls of Delhi and other cities governed by the Mughals and their subjects. He intended to replace the Mughal Empire and create a Hindu-Pat-Padshahi.[10]
Early Life as a Peshwa[edit]
Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, it was built as the seat of the Peshwa rulers during Bajirao's reign.
The twenty year old Bajirao was appointed Peshwa in succession to his father by Chhatrapati Shahu. By the time of Baji Rao's appointment, Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah had recognized Marathas' rights over the territories possessed by Shivaji at his death. In 1719, the Mughals had also recognized the Maratha rights to collect taxes (chauth or chauthaii and sardeshmukhi) in the six provinces of Deccan. Bajirao believed that the Mughal Empire was in decline and wanted to take advantage of this situation with aggressive expansion in north India. Sensing the declining fortune of the Mughals, he is reported to have said, "Strike, strike at the roots and the biggest tree will also fall down."[11][12] However, as a new Peshwa, he faced several challenges:[6]These were
His appointment as the Peshwa at a young age had evoked jealousy from senior officials like Naro Ram Mantri, Anant Ram Sumant and Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi. This led Bajirao to promote as commanders young men like himself who were barely out of teens such as Malhar Rao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, and the Pawar brothers. Also, these men did not belong to families that held hereditary Deshmukhi rights under the Deccan Sultanates.[13]
The Mughal viceroy of Deccan Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, had practically created his own independent kingdom in the region. He challenged Shahu's right to collect taxes in Deccan [14]on the pretext that he did not know whether Shahu or his cousin Sambhaji II of Kolhapur were the rightful heir to the Maratha throne.[6]
The Marathas needed to assert their rights over the nobles of the newly gained territories in Malwa and Gujarat[6]
Several areas that were nominally part of the Maratha territory, were not actually under Peshwa's control. For example, the Siddis controlled the Janjira fort.[6]
Campaigns[edit]
Campaign against the Nizam[edit]
On January 4, 1721, Baji Rao met Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I at Chikhalthan to settle their disputes through agreement. However, Nizam refused to recognize the Maratha rights to collect taxes from the Deccan provinces.[6] Nizam was made Vizier of Mughal Empire in 1721 , but alarmed at his growing power, emperor Muhammad Shah transferred him from Deccan to Awadh in 1723. Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as the Vizier and marched towards Deccan. The emperor sent an army against him, which the Nizam defeated in the Battle of Sakhar-kheda. In response, Mughal emperor was forced to recognize him as the viceroy of Deccan. The Marathas, led by Bajirao, helped Nizam win this battle. In fact, for his bravery in the battle, Baji Rao was honored with a robe, a mansabdari of 7,000, an elephant and a jewel. After the battle, Nizam tried to appease both the Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu as well as the Mughal emperor. However, in reality, he wanted to carve out a sovereign kingdom and considered the Marathas his rivals in the Deccan.[15]
In 1725, Nizam sent an army to clear out the Maratha revenue collectors from the Carnatic region. The Marathas dispatched a force under Fateh Singh Bhosle to counter him; Baji Rao accompanied Bhosle, but did not command the army. The Marathas were forced to retreat. They launched a second campaign after the monsoon season, but once again, they were unable to prevent the Nizam from ousting the Maratha collectors.[14]
Meanwhile, in Deccan, Sambhaji II of Kolhapur State had become a rival claimant to the title of the Maratha Chhatrapati. Nizam took advantage of this dispute among the Marathas. He refused to pay the chauth or sardeshmukhi on the grounds that it was unclear who was the real Chhatrapati: Shahu or Sambhaji II (and therefore, to whom the payment needed to be made). Nizam offered to act as an arbitrator in this dispute. At the court of Shahu, Nizam's spokesman was Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi, a Deshastha Brahmin and a rival of Bajirao(who was a Chitpavan Brahmin). At the court of Sambhaji II, his supporter was Chandrasen Jadhav, who had fought Bajirao's father a decade earlier. Bajirao convinced Shahu not to accept Nizam's arbitration offer and instead launch an assault against him.[14]
On August 27, 1727, Baji Rao started a march against Nizam. He raided and plundered several of Nizam's territories, such as Jalna, Burhanpur and Khandesh. While Bajirao was away, Nizam invaded Pune, where he installed Sambhaji II as Chhatrapati. He then marched out of the city, leaving behind a contingent headed by Fazal Beg. On February 28, 1728, the armies of Bajirao and Nizam faced each other at the Battle of Palkhed. Nizam was defeated and forced to make peace. On March 6, he signed the Treaty of Mungi Shevgaon, recognizing Shahu as the Chhatrapati as well as the Maratha right to collect taxes in Deccan.[6]
Baji Rao moved his base of operations from Saswad to Pune in 1728 and in the process laid the foundation for turning what was a kasba into a large city.[16] Bajirao also started construction of Shaniwar Wada on the right bank of the Mutha River. The construction was completed in 1730, ushering in the era of Peshwa control of the city.
Malwa campaign[edit]
An equestrian statue of Peshwa Bajirao I outside the Shaniwar Wada (Shaniwar Palace) in Pune
In 1723, Baji Rao had organized an expedition to the southern parts of Malwa. The Maratha chiefs such as Ranoji Shinde, Malhar Rao Holkar, Udaji Rao Pawar, Tukoji Rao Pawar and Jivaji Rao Pawar had successfully collected chauth from several areas in Malwa.(Later, these chiefs carved out their own kingdoms of Gwalior, Indore, Dhar and Dewas States- Junior and Senior respectively). To counter the Maratha influence, Mughal emperor had appointed Girdhar Bahadur as the Governor of Malwa.[6]
After defeating Nizam, Baji Rao turned his attention towards Malwa. In October 1728, he consigned a huge army commanded by his younger brother Chimnaji Appa, and aided by the generals like Shinde, Holkar and Pawar. On 29 November 1728, Chimnaji's army defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Amjhera. Girdhar Bahadur and his commander Daya Bahadur were killed in the battle. Chimnaji also marched towards Ujjain, but had to retreat due to lack of supplies.[6] By February 1729, the Maratha forces had reached the present-day Rajasthan.[14]
Bundelkhand campaign[edit]
In Bundelkhand, Chhatrasal had rebelled against the Mughal empire and established an independent kingdom. In December 1728, a Mughal force led by Muhammad Khan Bangash defeated him and imprisoned his family. Chhatrasal had repeatedly sought Bajirao's assistance, but the latter was busy in Malwa at that time. In March 1729, Peshwa finally responded to Chhatrasal's request and marched towards Bundelkhand. Chhatrasal also escaped his captivity and joined the Maratha force. After they marched to Jaitpur, Bangash was forced to leave Bundelkhand. Chhatrasal's position as the ruler of Bundelkhand was restored. Chhatrasal assigned a large jagir to Baji Rao and also married his daughter Mastani to him. Before his death in December 1731, he ceded some of his territories to the Marathas.[6]
Gujarat campaign[edit]
After consolidating Maratha influence in central India, Peshwa Baji Rao decided to assert Maratha rights to collect taxes from the rich province of Gujarat. In 1730, he sent a Maratha force under Chimaji Appa to Gujarat. Sarbuland Khan, the Mughal Governor of the province, ceded to Marathas, the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from Gujarat. He was soon replaced by Abhay Singh, who also recognized the Maratha rights to collect taxes. However, this success irked Chhatrapati Shahu's senapati(commander-in-chief) Trimbak Rao Dabhade. His ancestors from Dabhade clan had raided Gujarat several times, asserting their rights to collect taxes from that province. Annoyed at Bajirao's control over what he considered his family's sphere of influence, he rebelled against the Peshwa.[6] Two other Maratha nobles of Gujarat — Gaekwad and Kadam Bande — also sided with Dabhade.[14]
Meanwhile, after the defeat of Girdhar Bahadur in 1728, the Mughal emperor had appointed Jai Singh II to subdue the Marathas. However, Jai Singh recommended a peaceful agreement with the Marathas. The emperor disagreed and replaced him with Muhammad Khan Bangash. Bangash formed an alliance with the Nizam, Trimbak Rao and Sambhaji II. On April 1, 1731, Baji Rao defeated the allied forces of Dabhade, Gaekwad and Kadam Bande: Trimbak Rao was killed in the Battle of Dabhoi. On April 13, Baji Rao resolved the dispute with Sambhaji II by signing the Treaty of Warna, which demarcated the territories of Chhatrapati Shahu and Sambhaji II. Subsequently, the Nizam met Baji Rao at Rohe-Rameshwar on December 27, 1732 and promised not to interfere with the Maratha expeditions.[6]
Even after subduing Trimbak Rao, Shahu and Baji Rao avoided a rivalry with the powerful Dabhade clan: Trimbak's son Yashwant Rao was made the new senapati of Shahu. Dabhade family was allowed to continue collecting chauth from Gujarat on the condition that they would deposit half the collections in the Chhatrapati Shahu's treasury.[6]
Campaign against Siddis[edit]
The Siddis of Janjira controlled a small but strategically important territory on the western coast of India. They originally held only the Janjira fort, but after Shivaji's death, they had expanded their rule to a large part of the central and northern Konkan region.[14] After the death of the Siddi chief Yakut Khan in 1733, a war of succession broke out among his sons. One of his sons, Abdul Rehman, requested Baji Rao for help. Baji Rao sent a Maratha force led by Sekhoji Angre(son of Kanhoji Angre). The Marathas regained control of several places in Konkan and besieged Janjira. However, their strength was diverted after Peshwa's rival Pant Pratinidhi occupied the Raigad Fort near Janjira in June 1733. In August, Sekhoji Angre died, further weakening the Maratha position. As a result, Baji Rao decided to sign a peace treaty with the Siddis. He allowed the Siddis to retain control of Janjira on the condition that they would accept Abdul Rehman as the ruler. The Siddis were also allowed to retain control of Anjanvel, Gowalkot and Underi. The Marathas retained the territories of Raigad, Rewas, Thal and Chaul, which they had gained during the offensive.[6]
Soon after the Peshwa marched back to Satara, the Siddis launched an offensive to regain their lost territories. In June 1734, Bajirao dispatched a force to prevent them from taking over the Raigad fort. Subsequently, on April 19, 1736, Chimnaji launched a surprise attack on a Siddi camp near Rewas, killing around 1,500 of them, including their leader Siddi Sat. On September 25, the Siddis signed a peace treaty, which confined them to Janjira, Gowalkot and Anjanvel.[6]
March to Delhi[edit]
After death of Trimbak Rao, Bangash's alliance against the Marathas had fallen apart. Consequently, Mughal emperor recalled him from Malwa, and re-appointed Jai Singh II as the governor of Malwa. However, Maratha chief Holkar defeated Jai Singh in the Battle of Mandsaur in 1733. After two more battles, Mughals decided to offer Marathas the right to collect ₹ 22 lakh as chauth from Malwa. On March 4, 1736, Baji Rao and Jai Singh came to an agreement at Kishangad. Jai Singh convinced the emperor to agree to the plan and Baji Rao was appointed as Deputy Governor of the province. Jai Singh is also believed to have secretly informed Bajirao that it was a good time to subdue the weakening Mughal emperor.[6]
On November 12, 1736, the Peshwa started a march to the Mughal capital Delhi from Pune. On hearing about the advancing Maratha army, Mughal emperor asked Saadat Ali Khan I to march from Agra and check the Maratha advance. The Maratha chiefs Malhar Rao Holkar and Pilaji Jadhav crossed Yamuna and plundered the Mughal territories in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Saadat Khan led a force of 150,000 against them, and defeated them. He then retired to Mathura, thinking that the Marathas had retreated. However, Baji Rao advanced to Delhi and encamped at Talkatora. The Mughal emperor dispatched a force led by Mir Hasan Khan Koka to check his advance. The Marathas defeated this force in the Battle of Delhi on March 28, 1737. Baji Rao then retreated from Delhi, apprehensive about the approach of a larger Mughal force from Mathura.[6]
The Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah then sought help from Nizam. Nizam set out from Deccan and met Baji Rao's returning force at Sironj. Nizam told Baji Rao that he was going to Delhi to repair his relationship with the Mughal emperor. On reaching Delhi, he was joined by other Mughal chiefs and a massive Mughal army set out against the Peshwa. Peshwa also assembled a force of 80,000 soldiers and marched towards Delhi, leaving behind a force of 10,000 under Chimnaji to guard Deccan. The two armies met mid-way at Bhopal, where the Marathas defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Bhopal on December 24, 1737. Once again, Nizam was forced to sign a peace agreement, this time at Doraha on January 7, 1738.[17] The province of Malwa was formally ceded to the Marathas and the Mughals agreed to pay ₹ 5,000,000 as indemnity. This time, Nizam took an oath on Koran to abide by the treaty.[6]
Against the Portuguese[edit]
The Portuguese had captured several territories on the west coast of India. They had violated an agreement to give the Marathas a site on Salsette Island for building a factory and had been practising religious intolerance against Hindus in their territory. In March 1737, Peshwa dispatched a Maratha force led by Chimaji against them. Marathas captured the Ghodbunder Fort and almost all of Vasai, after the Battle of Vasai. They also managed to gain control of Salsette on May 16, 1739, after a prolonged siege. However, the Marathas had to turn their attention away from the Portuguese due to Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire in the north.[6]
Personal life[edit]
Mastani - Bajirao's second wife
Main articles: Kashibai, Mastani, Shamsher Bahadur I (Krishna Rao), and Balaji Baji Rao
Bajirao's first wife was Kashibai. She was the daughter of Mahadji Krishna Joshi and Shiubai of Chas, a wealthy banker family.[18] The relationship between the couple was a happy one.[19][20] They had three sons together: Balaji Baji Rao (also called "Nanasaheb"), Raghunath Rao (also called "Ragoba") and Janardhan Rao (who died young).[21] Nanasaheb was appointed as the successor to Bajirao as Peshwa by Chhatrapati Shahu in 1740. Raghunath Rao as a military commander is credited with extending Maratha influence all the way to Punjab in 1758[22]
Though Baji Rao was essentially monogamous[19][20] by both, nature and family tradition, he took a second wife Mastani. She was the daughter of the Hindu king Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand from his Muslim concubine. The marriage was purely a political one and was accepted out of regard for the sentiments of the Bundela king.[19] In 1734, Mastani bore a son who was to be named Krishna Rao at birth. Being born of a Muslim mother, the priests refused to conduct the Hindu upanayana ceremony for him.[6]. The boy was eventually named Shamsher Bahadur and brought up as a Muslim.
After Baji Rao's and Mastani death in 1740, Kashibai took the 6 year-old Shamsher Bahadur boy under her care and raised him as one of her own.Shamsher was bestowed upon a portion of his father’s dominion of Banda and Kalpi. In 1761, he and his army contingent fought alongside the Peshwa in the Third Battle of Panipat between the Marathas and Afghans. He was wounded in that battle and died a few days later at Deeg.[23] [24][25][26]
Death[edit]
The Baji Rao I memorial at Raverkhedi
The memorial chhatri
An Information plaque below the statue in the memorial
Baji Rao died on 28 April 1740, at the age of 39 of a sudden fever, possibly heat stroke, while inspecting his jahgirs.[citation needed] At that time, he was en route Delhi with nearly 100,000 troops under his command at his camp in the Khargone district, near the city of Indore.[citation needed] He was cremated on the same day at Raverkhedi on Narmada River.
The Scindias built a chhatri as a memorial at this place.[citation needed] The memorial is enclosed by a dharmashala. The compound has two temples, dedicated to Nilkantheshwara Mahadeva(Shiva) and Rameshvara(Rama).[27]
Battle tactics[edit]
Baji Rao was renowned for rapid tactical movements in battle, using his cavalry inherited from Maratha generals including Santaji Ghorpade, Dhanaji Jadhav and Ananatrao Makaji. Field-Marshal Bernard Montgomery, in his "History of Warfare"[28] likened Bajirao's approach to that subsequently made famous by U.S. Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman during his 1864 March to the Sea: the use of rapid movements where his troops lived off the land, with minimal concern for their own supply and communication lines and employing "total warfare" on the enemy civilian population. He is often called a cavalry general. Two examples are the Battle of Palkhed in 1728 when he outmaneuvered the Mughal Governor of Deccan province and again in the battle against the Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah at Delhi during 1739. British General Montgomery called Bajirao's victory at Palkhed as a "masterpiece of strategic mobility".[29]
Baji Rao concentrated on using local terrain to cut the enemy supply-lines with the help of rapid troop movement. He followed Maratha traditional tactics of encircling the enemy quickly, appearing from the rear of enemy, attacking from the unexpected direction, distracting the enemy's attention, keeping the enemy off balance and deciding the battlefield on his own terms.[citation needed]
Expansion of Maratha territories during Baji Rao I's reign
Maratha and non-Maratha territories in India, in 1720
Maratha and non-Maratha territories in India, in 1740
In popular culture[edit]
Baji Rao I and Mastani in popular culture
1972 - Rau, the Marathi novel by Nagnath S. Inamdar featuring a fictionalized love story between Baji Rao I and Mastani.[30]
In 2015 historical drama film Bajirao Mastani directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali, he is portrayed by Ranveer Singh.[31]
In 2017, a TV series titled Peshwa Bajirao aired on Sony TV starring Rudra Soni in the role of young Bajirao.[32]
See also[edit]
Maratha Empire
Shivaji
Mughal empire
Bhonsle dynasty
Peshwe
Bhat family
Maratha emperors
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Arvind Javlekar (2005). Lokmata Ahilyabai. Ocean Books (P)Ltd. ISBN 9788188322084.
Jump up ^ James Heitzman (2008). The City in South Asia. Routledge. ISBN 9781134289639.
Jump up ^ Sandhya Gokhale (2008). The Chitpavans: social ascendancy of a creative minority in Maharashtra, 1818-1918. Shubhi. p. 82. ISBN 978-81-8290-132-2.
Jump up ^ Why Bajirao is India's greatest cavalry general
Jump up ^ Valentine, Sir Chirol (2012). Indian Unrest. tredition. p. 72. ISBN 978-3-8472-0599-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u G.S.Chhabra (2005). Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707-1803). Lotus Press. pp. 19–28. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8.
Jump up ^ The Struggle for Hindu supremacy. Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira (Bhishma). 1992. p. 194. ISBN 9788190011358.
Jump up ^ Shripad Rama Sharma (1951). The Making of Modern India: From A. D. 1526 to the Present Day. Orient Longmans. p. 239.
Jump up ^ B.N. Puri; M.N. Das (2003). A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India. Sterling. p. 212. ISBN 978-81-207-2508-9.
Jump up ^ Ashvini Agrawal (1983). Studies in Mughal History. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 23. ISBN 978-81-208-2326-6.
Jump up ^ S. N. Sen (2006). History Modern India. New Age International. p. 11. ISBN 978-81-224-1774-6.
Jump up ^ G.S.Chhabra (2005). Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707-1803). Lotus Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8.
Jump up ^ Gordon, Stewart (2008). The Marathas 1600-1818 (Digitally print. 1. pbk. version. ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ Pr. pp. 117–121. ISBN 978-0521033169.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Stewart Gordon (1993). The Marathas 1600-1818. Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–131. ISBN 978-0-521-26883-7.
Jump up ^ P. V. Kate (1987). Marathwada Under the Nizams, 1724-1948. Mittal. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-81-7099-017-8.
Jump up ^ Kosambi, Meera (1989). "Glory of Peshwa Pune". Economic and Political Weekly. 24 (5): 247.
Jump up ^ S.R. Bakshi and O.P. Ralhan (2007). Madhya Pradesh Through the Ages. Sarup & Sons. p. 384. ISBN 978-81-7625-806-7.
Jump up ^ Sandhya Gokhale (2008). The Chitpavans: social ascendancy of a creative minority in Maharashtra, 1818–1918. Sandhya Gokhale. p. 82. ISBN 9788182901322.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mehta, J. L. (2005). Advanced study in the history of modern India, 1707-1813. Slough: New Dawn Press, Inc. p. 124. ISBN 9781932705546.
^ Jump up to: a b Mishra, Garima (3 January 2016). "Tracing Kashibai: The 'first' lady from Bhansali's Bajirao Mastani". The Indian Express. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
Jump up ^ B. P. Saha (1997). Begams, concubines, and memsahibs. Vikas. p. 88.
Jump up ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1986). History of modern India, 1765-1950. New Delhi [etc.]: Wiley Eastern. p. 14. ISBN 978-0852267264. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Henry Dodwell (1958). The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans. CUP Archive. pp. 407–. GGKEY:96PECZLGTT6.
Jump up ^ Bhawan Singh Rana (1 January 2005). Rani of Jhansi. Diamond. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-81-288-0875-3.
Jump up ^ Chidambaram S. Srinivasachari (dewan bahadur) (1951). The Inwardness of British Annexations in India. University of Madras. p. 219.
Jump up ^ Rosemary Crill; Kapil Jariwala (2010). The Indian Portrat, 1560–1860. Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 162. ISBN 978-81-89995-37-9.
Jump up ^ "Brindaban dedicated to the memory of Shrimant Baji Rao Peshwa". ASI Bhopal. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
Jump up ^ A History of Warfare: Field-Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, William Morrow & Co; 1st edition (January 1983), ISBN 978-0688016456
Jump up ^ M. R. Kantak (1993). The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774-1783: A Military Study of Major Battles. Popular Prakashan. p. 12. ISBN 978-81-7154-696-1.
Jump up ^ Inamdar, N. S. (2016-10-20). Rau - The Great Love Story of Bajirao Mastani. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 9781509852277.
Jump up ^ Jha, Subhash K (19 October 2015). "Bajirao Mastani review: This gloriously epic Priyanka, Deepika and Ranveer-starrer is the best film of 2015". Firstpost. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Peshwa Bajirao Review: Anuja Sathe shines as Radhabai in the period drama", India Today, 25 January 2017
Further reading[edit]
Palsolkar, Col. R. D. Bajirao I: An Outstanding Indian Cavalry General, India: Reliance Publishers, 248pp, 1995, ISBN 81-85972-93-1.
Paul, E. Jaiwant. Baji Rao - The Warrior Peshwa, India: Roli Books Pvt Ltd, 184pp, ISBN 81-7436-129-4.
Dighe, V.G. Peshwa Bajirao I and the Maratha Expansion, 1944
N. S. Inamdar, Rau (1972), a historical novel about Baji Rao and Mastani. (in Marathi)
Godse, D. G. Mastani, Popular Prakashan, 1989 (in Marathi)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baji Rao I.
Shaniwar Wada - the Peshwa palace at Pune

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values: باجي راو الأول – Arabic

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