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K. Subrahmanyam
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Not to be confused with the Tamil film director K. Subramanyam.
Krishnaswamy Subrahmanyam
K Subrahmanyam
Born
19 January 1929
Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu
Died
2 February 2011
Residence
Delhi
Nationality
Indian
Education
Presidency College, Chennai
London School of Economics
Occupation
Strategic affairs analyst, India
Spouse(s)
Sulochana Jayasankar
Children
Vijay, Jaishankar, Sudha, Sanjay
Krishnaswamy Subrahmanyam (19 January 1929 – 2 February 2011) was a prominent international strategic affairs analyst, journalist and former Indian civil servant. Considered a proponent of Realpolitik, Subrahmanyam has long been an influential voice in Indian security affairs. He was most often referred to as the doyen of India's strategic affairs community, and more contentiously, as the premier ideological champion of India's nuclear deterrent.[1][2][3]
Subrahmanyam was a key figure in framing and influencing Indian security and nuclear policy. And in advocating Indian nuclear positions on the global stage, both as a policy wonk and as a journalist.[4] He was the second director of the New Delhi-based Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. He is also noted for having steered several Indian government committees and commissions of inquiry, including one on a war fought between India and Pakistan. Subrahmanyam was a major advocate of the 2007 Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement, adding some heft to the Manmohan Singh government's championing of the deal in the face of much opposition.[5][6]
He died at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, where he was hospitalised for lung and cardiac problems.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
2 Role in Indian nuclear and security policy
2.1 Nuclear doctrine
2.2 Kargil Review Committee and controversy
2.3 Task force on strategic developments
3 Influence on national security and defence policy
3.1 Indian Nuclear Programme
3.2 1971 Indo-Pakistani war
3.3 India-United States nuclear agreement
3.4 Criticism of government policy
3.5 Journalism
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Biography[edit]
Subrahmanyam was born on 19 January 1929 and grew up in Tiruchirapalli and Madras. Enrolling at Presidency College, he received an MSc in Chemistry from the University of Madras in 1950 and after standing first in India in the Civil Services Examination that year, was appointed to the Indian Administrative Service in 1951.[7] After service in the Tamil Nadu cadre and in the Defence Ministry, he was appointed a Rockefeller Fellow in Strategic Studies at the London School of Economics in 1966. On returning to India, he was appointed Director of the newly created Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) in New Delhi, a position he held until 1975. He then went on to a number of senior positions in the Government of Tamil Nadu and the Government of India including Chairman of India's Joint Intelligence Committee in New Delhi; Fourth Member, Board of Revenue, Government of Tamil Nadu; Home Secretary, Government of Tamil Nadu; Additional Secretary, Cabinet Secretariat, New Delhi and Union Secretary for Defence Production in the Ministry of Defence – before returning as Director of IDSA in 1980.[8][9] He returned to England as a Visiting Professor and Nehru Fellow at St John's College, Cambridge in 1987.[7] Between 1974 and 1986 Subrahmanyam also served on a number of United Nations and other multilateral study groups, on issues such as Indian Ocean affairs, disarmament and nuclear deterrence; and also at various Pugwash conferences as a senior member.[10]
Subrahmanyam is the author or co-author of fourteen books. These include The Liberation War (1972) with Mohammed Ayoob about the Bangladesh Liberation War, nuclear Myths and Realities (1980), India and the nuclear Challenge (1986), The Second Cold War (1983) and Superpower Rivalry in the Indian Ocean (1989) with Selig S Harrison.[11][12]
Subrahmanyam declined the Indian government honour of a Padma Bhushan in 1999, stating that bureaucrats and journalists should not accept government awards.[13] A festschrift in honour of Subrahmanyam, with essays by Indian and American policy experts, academics and journalists, was published in 2004 to mark his 75th birthday.[14] Always an influential Indian media figure, he was featured in India Today magazine's 'High & Mighty' listing in 2006.[15] The IDSA instituted an annual 'K Subrahmanyam Award' for contributions to Strategic Affairs in 2007.[16] Permanent Secretary to the Indian Government S Vijay Kumar, Indian diplomat S Jaishankar and noted historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam are his sons.
On 11 November 2005, speaking on the 40th anniversary of IDSA's founding, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh singled out Subrahmanyam for his achievements:
“ Subrahmanyam's incisive writings continue to stimulate and contribute to the thinking of strategic analysis and policy makers in this vital area of national concern. We look forward to many more years of active contribution from this doyen of the strategic community in India.[17][18] ”
Incidentally, Subrahmanyam was on board an Indian Airlines flight (IC 421) on 24 August 1984 when the plane was hijacked to Lahore, Pakistan and onward to Dubai where all passengers were released without incident. Interestingly, the arrested hijackers later claimed in court that it was Subrahmanyam who "planned the entire hijacking to examine nuclear installations in Pakistan."[19]
Role in Indian nuclear and security policy[edit]
Nuclear doctrine[edit]
Subrahmanyam was appointed the Convenor of India's first National Security Council Advisory Board (NSCAB), established by the Atal Bihari Vajpayee government in 1998.[20] The board drafted India's Draft nuclear doctrine, which governs all policy aspects with regard to usage and deployment of India's nuclear arsenal.[21] Its most significant aspect was the declared 'No first use' policy, and the consequent directive that India's nuclear weapons would largely be oriented around a second strike capability. Subrahmanyam had been an old proponent of India adopting a no first use posture, arguing for it right after the Shakti tests in 1998, and even earlier in 1974.[22] The nuclear doctrine was adopted by the government of India soon after.[23]
Kargil Review Committee and controversy[edit]
Subrahmanyam was appointed Chairman of the Kargil Review Committee in 1999, an inquiry commission set up by the Indian government to analyse perceived Indian intelligence failures with the Kargil War. The committee's final report (also referred to as the 'Subrahmanyam Report') led to a large-scale restructuring of Indian Intelligence.[24][25] It, however, came in for heavy criticism in the Indian media for its perceived avoidance of assigning specific responsibility for failures over detecting the Kargil intrusions.[26] The Committee was also embroiled in controversy for indicting Brigadier Surinder Singh of the Indian Army for his failure to report enemy intrusions in time, and for his subsequent conduct. Many press reports questioned or contradicted this finding and claimed that Singh had in fact issued early warnings that were ignored by senior Army commanders and, ultimately, higher government functionaries.[27][28][29]
In a departure from the norm the final report was published and made publicly available.[30] Some chapters and all annexures, however, were deemed to contain classified information by the government and not released. Subrahmanyam later wrote that the annexures contained information on the development of India's nuclear weapons programme and the roles played by Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P V Narasimha Rao and V P Singh.[31][32]
Task force on strategic developments[edit]
In November 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh appointed Subrahmanyam to head a special government task force to study 'Global Strategic Developments' over the next decade.[33] The Task Force examined various aspects of global trends in strategic affairs and submitted its report to the Prime Minister in 2006.[34][35] The report has not yet been released in the public domain and is presumed to have been categorised a classified document.
Influence on national security and defence policy[edit]
Subrahmanyam's pioneering policy work is generally accepted to have left a lasting, even if sometimes controversial, impression on Indian strategic thinking and foreign policy. Its substance is still being debated, even as it is recognised to be firmly located in the pragmatist and realpolitik traditions.[36][37] Many of his positions, particularly those he articulated on India's nuclear choices, have often led to Subrahmanyam being dubbed a policy 'hawk' and 'hardliner'.[38]
Indian Nuclear Programme[edit]
Subrahmanyam is mostly identified as the premier ideological champion of India's nuclear programme and its exercising of the nuclear weapons option—which began with India's first 'peaceful' Smiling Buddha nuclear test in 1974 and culminated with the 1998 'Shakti' series of weapons tests, both in Pokhran, Rajasthan.[39][40][41][42][43] His polemics, articulated over five decades, on India's development as a nuclear nation, with civilian and weapons capabilities, have proven both influential and contentious with supporters and detractors alike—of nuclear development and nuclear disarmament.[44] His strong views and trenchant criticism of the inherent inequalities of the global Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty regimes are widely known and referenced, as well as being heavily commented on.[45][46] He often used the term 'nuclear apartheid' to decry this situation and routinely lambasted the five established nuclear states for forcing the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on everyone else while refusing all proposals for nuclear disarmament, including one proposed by India in 1986.[47][48] He also coined the phrase 'nuclear ayatollahs' to refer to the western non-proliferation lobby that routinely chided India for pursuing a nuclear programme; and later for finalising an accord on nuclear co-operation with the US in 2007.[49][50]
The so-called 'Subrahmanyam Formula' was widely used, especially in the mid-60's and throughout the 70's, to support India's entry into the nuclear club, despite the country's non-violent Gandhian origins and foreign policy roots in Nehruvian pacifism. The formula did not see any contradiction between striving for socio-economic progress and considering large-scale military development for a developing nation like India. Indeed, strategic deterrence, in which a small but effective indigenous nuclear arsenal would play a key part, was seen as vital to balancing things out in an unequal world carved up by Cold War geopolitics.[51] This ingenious and apparently paradoxical stand has been adversely commented upon, being dubbed 'moral exceptionalism' on non-proliferation by several commentators.[52][53][54] Significantly, Subrahmanyam also argued that Pakistan too should look to develop a limited nuclear programme of its own – to establish its own deterrent against conflict. This was met with great suspicion in Pakistani circles, and seen variously as an insult or a challenge. He also concluded in the 90's that India needed only 150-odd warheads to achieve minimum deterrence.[55] And that this had been achieved by 1990, a point noted by many as a good reference to India's nuclear stockpile.[56]
In 1979, as Chairman of India's Joint Intelligence Committee, Subrahmanyam authored a Cabinet note arguing for the resumption of India's nuclear weapons programme. The programme had been shut down in 1977 by Prime Minister Morarji Desai on his assuming office, largely on account of seeking to return to India's pacifist foreign policy roots. Subrahmanyam's note was prompted by Indian Intelligence's latest estimates of progress in China and Pakistan's nuclear programmes. It was discussed and shot down in a Cabinet meeting, principally by Morarji Desai and Atal Bihari Vajpayee, then India's External Affairs Minister.[57] Ironically, Vajpayee would go on to immediately authorise the 'Shakti' series of nuclear weapons tests on becoming Prime Minister in March 1998.[58]
1971 Indo-Pakistani war[edit]
Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
Subrahmanyam's was an influential voice that argued for India's intervention in solving the serious 1971 crisis in East Pakistan. Early that year, he argued that the growing refugee influx into Eastern India and the mounting humanitarian crisis in the neighbouring country could not be effectively solved without Indian military intervention, mainly because it was precipitated by the Pakistani army's involvement.[59] And that India ignore the crisis only to its own peril. His forthright views attracted controversy – being condemned by the Pakistani government as evidence of Indian aggressiveness; attracting attention and comments in the international media, especially in The Times and Newsweek; and being sharply criticised by even Army Chief Sam Manekshaw, who apparently wanted Subrahmanyam sternly disciplined.[60]
United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger also condemned these policy positions on a short visit to India in July 1971, particularly when Subrahmanyam told Kissinger that he expected him to be more considerate on account of Kissinger's own experience with genocide, having himself escaped the Holocaust.[60] In spite of these many objections the substance of Subrahmanyam's views swiftly gained ground and led to the Indian government's examination of various military options. These culminated in India's December 1971 war with Pakistan, its victory, and the subsequent creation of Bangladesh.
Later, as head of IDSA, Subrahmanyam was instrumental in helping compile some of the first authoritative reports on the war, in association with some of its key players. He would later write that the 1971 war saw the fledgling IDSA coming into its own as a well-regarded and influential think tank. Quite a bit of his commentary on the messy Cold War politics that shadowed the entire war – which included US moral support to Pakistan, its later dispatch of the USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, and tacit Soviet support to India – along with his related prescriptions for Indian foreign policy found their way into subsequent Indian military doctrine.[61] He has since stated that the major lesson learnt from this war, on the administrative synergy required – where civilian leadership maintains close co-ordination with Intelligence and a pro-active rapport with military brass – has not been adequately enshrined as a guiding tenet of Indian security policy, which tends, in turn, to gravitate towards powerful political and bureaucratic interests.[1]
India-United States nuclear agreement[edit]
Main article: Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement
In line with his Realpolitik, Subrahmanyam—once a well-known critic of the US for its earlier Cold War-influenced foreign policy,[62][63][64][65] even being dubbed a 'leftist' and 'Soviet sympathiser' on occasion[37] —later on became a leading advocate of the Indo-US Nuclear accord on civilian nuclear co-operation signed by President George W Bush and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007.[66][67][68] He might have also played some formal role in helping the deal along, as press reports indicated.[69] He explained his changed position by stating that there was now tremendous convergence of strategic interest between the two countries, and that India should make use of a great opportunity to work with the US.[70] Many Indian and American commentators have criticised this stand, and also the accord itself.[71]
Criticism of government policy[edit]
Subrahmanyam long argued for revamping India's national security decision-making apparatus, and was also vociferous in his criticism of several governments' efforts at tinkering with the system.[72][73][74] He was particularly critical of successive Indian governments' lackadaisical approach to long-term strategic planning, and their similar attitudes to the creation of specialised positions and resources.[75][76] One noted target of such criticism was his civil service batch mate Brajesh Mishra, who served as both National Security Adviser—when that post was created—and Principal Secretary to Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee from 1998 to 2004. Subrahmanyam repeatedly called for bifurcating both key posts, in commentary sometimes so strong that it even appeared to precipitate a public spat between the two.[77][78] This bifurcation of posts was finally done by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, in consultation with Subrahmanyam, upon assuming office in 2004.[79] The establishment of a National Defence University by the government is also something he long demanded.[80] Despite several recommendations, including those from a government committee Subrahmanyam himself chaired, this is yet to be set up.[81]
Journalism[edit]
Subrahmanyam was also well known as a frequent commentator and columnist in several Indian and international newspapers.[82][83] After retiring from government service in the late 80's, he served as consulting editor and policy expert with various Indian publications. These included The Tribune, The Economic Times and The Times of India.[84] Interestingly, Subrahmanyam was on the editorial board of The Times of India when India conducted the 'Shakti' nuclear tests in 1998 and the largely centrist paper famously withheld his comments, temporarily, while it condemned the weapons tests.[85] Some of his writings in the press have been compiled and published in two volumes.
See also[edit]
International relations
Nuclear power in India
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Kumaraswamy, P R (2004). Security Beyond Survival, Essays in honour of K Subrahmanyam. SAGE. ISBN 9780761932673
Kargil Review Committee (2000). From Surprise to Reckoning: The Kargil Review Committee Report. SAGE. ISBN 9780761994664
Subrahmanyam, K (1986). "India and the Nuclear Challenge". Lancer and Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses
External links[edit]
The Legend that is K. Subrahmanyam, by BG Verghese.
Review of Engaging Security: The Legacy of K Subrahmanyam
P V Narasimha Rao and the Bomb, by K Subrahmanyam
Elimination or Irrelevance, Arms Control Today, 2008
Partnership in a Balance of Power System, by K Subrahmanyam
Recommendations of the Kargil Review Committee
Indian Nuclear Doctrine
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNF: cb12019624g (data)
ISNI: 0000 0000 8377 4909
LCCN: n50012161
SUDOC: 028340884
VIAF: 44311147
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._Subrahmanyam&oldid=841247616"
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Basal metabolic rate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at rest.[1] It is reported in energy units per unit time ranging from watt (joule/second) to ml O2/min or joule per hour per kg body mass J/(h·kg). Proper measurement requires a strict set of criteria be met. These criteria include being in a physically and psychologically undisturbed state, in a thermally neutral environment, while in the post-absorptive state (i.e., not actively digesting food).[1] In bradymetabolic animals, such as fish and reptiles, the equivalent term standard metabolic rate (SMR) is used. It follows the same criteria as BMR, but requires the documentation of the temperature at which the metabolic rate was measured. This makes BMR a variant of standard metabolic rate measurement that excludes the temperature data, a practice that has led to problems in defining "standard" rates of metabolism for many mammals.[1]
Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function.[2] Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy per unit time that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. BMR typically declines by 1–2% per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of fat-free mass,[3] although the variability between individuals is high.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Nutrition and dietary considerations
3 Physiology
3.1 BMR estimation formulas
3.2 Causes of individual differences in BMR
4 Biochemistry
4.1 Glucose
4.2 Fats
4.3 Proteins
4.4 Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise
5 Longevity
5.1 Organism longevity and basal metabolic rate
6 Medical considerations
7 Cardiovascular implications
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Description[edit]
The body's generation of heat is known as thermogenesis and it can be measured to determine the amount of energy expended. BMR generally decreases with age and with the decrease in lean body mass (as may happen with aging). Increasing muscle mass has the effect of increasing BMR. Aerobic (resistance) fitness level, a product of cardiovascular exercise, while previously thought to have effect on BMR, has been shown in the 1990s not to correlate with BMR when adjusted for fat-free body mass.[citation needed] But anaerobic exercise does increase resting energy consumption (see "aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise").[5] Illness, previously consumed food and beverages, environmental temperature, and stress levels can affect one's overall energy expenditure as well as one's BMR.
Indirect calorimetry laboratory with canopy hood (dilution technique)
BMR is measured under very restrictive circumstances when a person is awake. An accurate BMR measurement requires that the person's sympathetic nervous system not be stimulated, a condition which requires complete rest. A more common measurement, which uses less strict criteria, is resting metabolic rate (RMR).[6]
BMR may be measured by gas analysis through either direct or indirect calorimetry, though a rough estimation can be acquired through an equation using age, sex, height, and weight. Studies of energy metabolism using both methods provide convincing evidence for the validity of the respiratory quotient (R.Q.), which measures the inherent composition and utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins as they are converted to energy substrate units that can be used by the body as energy.
Nutrition and dietary considerations[edit]
Basal metabolism is usually by far the largest component of total caloric expenditure. However, the Harris–Benedict equations are only approximate and variation in BMR (reflecting varying body composition), in physical activity levels, and in energy expended in thermogenesis make it difficult to estimate the dietary consumption any particular individual needs in order to maintain body weight.
Physiology[edit]
The early work of the scientists J. Arthur Harris and Francis G. Benedict showed that approximate values for BMR could be derived using body surface area (computed from height and weight), age, and sex, along with the oxygen and carbon dioxide measures taken from calorimetry. Studies also showed that by eliminating the sex differences that occur with the accumulation of adipose tissue by expressing metabolic rate per unit of "fat-free" or lean body mass, the values between sexes for basal metabolism are essentially the same. Exercise physiology textbooks have tables to show the conversion of height and body surface area as they relate to weight and basal metabolic values.
The primary organ responsible for regulating metabolism is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located on the diencephalon and forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the cerebrum. The chief functions of the hypothalamus are:
control and integration of activities of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The ANS regulates contraction of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, along with secretions of many endocrine organs such as the thyroid gland (associated with many metabolic disorders).
Through the ANS, the hypothalamus is the main regulator of visceral activities, such as heart rate, movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract, and contraction of the urinary bladder.
production and regulation of feelings of rage and aggression
regulation of body temperature
regulation of food intake, through two centers:
The feeding center or hunger center is responsible for the sensations that cause us to seek food. When sufficient food or substrates have been received and leptin is high, then the satiety center is stimulated and sends impulses that inhibit the feeding center. When insufficient food is present in the stomach and ghrelin levels are high, receptors in the hypothalamus initiate the sense of hunger.
The thirst center operates similarly when certain cells in the hypothalamus are stimulated by the rising osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid. If thirst is satisfied, osmotic pressure decreases.
All of these functions taken together form a survival mechanism that causes us to sustain the body processes that BMR measures.
BMR estimation formulas[edit]
Several prediction equations exist. Historically, the most notable one was the Harris–Benedict equation, which was created in 1919.
In each of the formulas:
P is total heat production at complete rest,
m is mass (kg),
h is height (cm), and
a is age (years),[7]
The Original Harris-Benedict Equation:
for men, P = ( 13.7516 m 1 kg + 5.0033 h 1 cm − 6.7550 a 1 year + 66.4730 ) kcal day {\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {13.7516m}{1~{\mbox{kg}}}}+{\frac {5.0033h}{1~{\mbox{cm}}}}-{\frac {6.7550a}{1~{\mbox{year}}}}+66.4730\right){\frac {\mbox{kcal}}{\mbox{day}}}}
for women, P = ( 9.5634 m 1 kg + 1.8496 h 1 cm − 4.6756 a 1 year + 655.0955 ) kcal day {\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {9.5634m}{1~{\mbox{kg}}}}+{\frac {1.8496h}{1~{\mbox{cm}}}}-{\frac {4.6756a}{1~{\mbox{year}}}}+655.0955\right){\frac {\mbox{kcal}}{\mbox{day}}}} [7]
The difference in BMR for men and women is mainly due to differences in body weight. For example, a 55-year-old woman weighing 130 lb (59 kg) and 5 feet 6 inches (168 cm) tall would have a BMR of 1272 kcal per day.
In 1984, the original Harris-Benedict equations were revised[8] using new data. In comparisons with actual expenditure, the revised equations were found to be more accurate.[9]
The Revised Harris-Benedict Equation:
for men, P = ( 13.397 m 1 kg + 4.799 h 1 cm − 5.677 a 1 year + 88.362 ) kcal day {\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {13.397m}{1~{\mbox{kg}}}}+{\frac {4.799h}{1~{\mbox{cm}}}}-{\frac {5.677a}{1~{\mbox{year}}}}+88.362\right){\frac {\mbox{kcal}}{\mbox{day}}}}
for women, P = ( 9.247 m 1 kg + 3.098 h 1 cm − 4.330 a 1 year + 447.593 ) kcal day {\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {9.247m}{1~{\mbox{kg}}}}+{\frac {3.098h}{1~{\mbox{cm}}}}-{\frac {4.330a}{1~{\mbox{year}}}}+447.593\right){\frac {\mbox{kcal}}{\mbox{day}}}}
It was the best prediction equation until 1990, when Mifflin et al.[10] introduced the equation:
The Mifflin St Jeor Equation:
P = ( 10.0 m 1 kg + 6.25 h 1 cm − 5.0 a 1 year + s ) kcal day {\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {10.0m}{1~{\mbox{kg}}}}+{\frac {6.25h}{1~{\mbox{cm}}}}-{\frac {5.0a}{1~{\mbox{year}}}}+s\right){\frac {\mbox{kcal}}{\mbox{day}}}} , where s is +5 for males and −161 for females.
According to this formula, the woman in the example above has a BMR of 1204 kcal per day. During the last 100 years, lifestyles have changed and Frankenfield et al.[11] showed it to be about 5% more accurate.
These formulas are based on body weight, which does not take into account the difference in metabolic activity between lean body mass and body fat. Other formulas exist which take into account lean body mass, two of which are the Katch-McArdle formula, and Cunningham formula. The Katch-McArdle formula is used to predict Resting Daily Energy Expenditure (RDEE).[12] The Cunningham formula is commonly attributed as being used to predict RMR instead of BMR, however the formulas provided by Katch-McArdle and Cunningham are the same.[13]
The Katch-McArdle Formula (Resting Daily Energy Expenditure):
P = 370 + ( 21.6 ⋅ L B M ) {\displaystyle P=370+\left({21.6\cdot LBM}\right)} , where LBM is the lean body mass in kg.
According to this formula, if the woman in the example has a body fat percentage of 30%, her RDEE (the authors use the term of basal and resting metabolism interchangeably) would be 1262 kcal per day.
Causes of individual differences in BMR[edit]
The basal metabolic rate varies between individuals. One study of 150 adults representative of the population in Scotland reported basal metabolic rates from as low as 1027 kcal per day (4301 kJ/day) to as high as 2499 kcal/day (10455 kJ/day); with a mean BMR of 1500 kcal/day (6279 kJ/day). Statistically, the researchers calculated that 62.3% of this variation was explained by differences in fat free mass. Other factors explaining the variation included fat mass (6.7%), age (1.7%), and experimental error including within-subject difference (2%). The rest of the variation (26.7%) was unexplained. This remaining difference was not explained by sex nor by differing tissue size of highly energetic organs such as the brain.[14]
Differences in BMR have been observed when comparing subjects with the same lean body mass. In one study, when comparing individuals with the same lean body mass, the top 5% of BMRs are 28-32% higher than the lowest 5% BMR.[15] Additionally, this study reports a case where two individuals with the same lean body mass of 43 kg had BMRs of 1075 kcal/day (4.5 MJ/day) and 1790 kcal/day (7.5 MJ/day). This difference of 715 kcal/day (67%) is equivalent to one of the individuals completing a 10 kilometer run every day.[15] However, this study did not account for the sex, height, fasting-state, or body fat percentage of the subjects.
Biochemistry[edit]
Energy expenditure breakdown[16]
Liver 27%
Brain 19%
Skeletal Muscle 18%
Kidneys 10%
Heart 7%
Other organs 19%
Postprandial thermogenesis increases in basal metabolic rate occur at different degrees depending on consumed food composition.
About 70% of a human's total energy expenditure is due to the basal life processes taking place in the organs of the body (see table). About 20% of one's energy expenditure comes from physical activity and another 10% from thermogenesis, or digestion of food (postprandial thermogenesis).[17] All of these processes require an intake of oxygen along with coenzymes to provide energy for survival (usually from macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and expel carbon dioxide, due to processing by the Krebs cycle.
For the BMR, most of the energy is consumed in maintaining fluid levels in tissues through osmoregulation, and only about one-tenth is consumed for mechanical work, such as digestion, heartbeat, and breathing.[18]
What enables the Krebs cycle to perform metabolic changes to fats, carbohydrates, and proteins is energy, which can be defined as the ability or capacity to do work. The breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules—associated with release of energy—is catabolism. The building up process is termed anabolism. The breakdown of proteins into amino acids is an example of catabolism, while the formation of proteins from amino acids is an anabolic process.
Exergonic reactions are energy-releasing reactions and are generally catabolic. Endergonic reactions require energy and include anabolic reactions and the contraction of muscle. Metabolism is the total of all catabolic, exergonic, anabolic, endergonic reactions.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the intermediate molecule that drives the exergonic transfer of energy to switch to endergonic anabolic reactions used in muscle contraction. This is what causes muscles to work which can require a breakdown, and also to build in the rest period, which occurs during the strengthening phase associated with muscular contraction. ATP is composed of adenine, a nitrogen containing base, ribose, a five carbon sugar (collectively called adenosine), and three phosphate groups. ATP is a high energy molecule because it stores large amounts of energy in the chemical bonds of the two terminal phosphate groups. The breaking of these chemical bonds in the Krebs Cycle provides the energy needed for muscular contraction.
Glucose[edit]
Because the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in all carbohydrates is always the same as that in water—that is, 2 to 1—all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete oxidation of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed.
The overall equation for this reaction is:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
(38 ATP molecules)
Because the gas exchange in this reaction is equal, the respiratory quotient (R.Q.) for carbohydrate is unity or 1.0:
R.Q. = 6 CO2 / 6 O2 = 1.0
Fats[edit]
The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in proportion to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. When listed on nutritional information tables, fats are generally divided into six categories: total fats, saturated fatty acid, polyunsaturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acid, dietary cholesterol, and trans fatty acid. From a basal metabolic or resting metabolic perspective, more energy is needed to burn a saturated fatty acid than an unsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acid molecule is broken down and categorized based on the number of carbon atoms in its molecular structure. The chemical equation for metabolism of the twelve to sixteen carbon atoms in a saturated fatty acid molecule shows the difference between metabolism of carbohydrates and fatty acids. Palmitic acid is a commonly studied example of the saturated fatty acid molecule.
The overall equation for the substrate utilization of palmitic acid is:
C16H32O2 + 23 O2 → 16 CO2 + 16 H2O
Thus the R.Q. for palmitic acid is 0.696:
R.Q. = 16 CO2 / 23 O2 = 0.696
Proteins[edit]
Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen arranged in a variety of ways to form a large combination of amino acids. Unlike fat the body has no storage deposits of protein. All of it is contained in the body as important parts of tissues, blood hormones, and enzymes. The structural components of the body that contain these amino acids are continually undergoing a process of breakdown and replacement. The respiratory quotient for protein metabolism can be demonstrated by the chemical equation for oxidation of albumin:
C72H112N18O22S + 77 O2 → 63 CO2 + 38 H2O + SO3 + 9 CO(NH2)2
The R.Q. for albumin is 63 CO2/ 77 O2 = 0.818
The reason this is important in the process of understanding protein metabolism is that the body can blend the three macronutrients and based on the mitochondrial density, a preferred ratio can be established which determines how much fuel is utilized in which packets for work accomplished by the muscles. Protein catabolism (breakdown) has been estimated to supply 10% to 15% of the total energy requirement during a two-hour aerobic training session. This process could severely degrade the protein structures needed to maintain survival such as contractile properties of proteins in the heart, cellular mitochondria, myoglobin storage, and metabolic enzymes within muscles.
The oxidative system (aerobic) is the primary source of ATP supplied to the body at rest and during low intensity activities and uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates. Protein is not normally metabolized significantly, except during long term starvation and long bouts of exercise (greater than 90 minutes.) At rest approximately 70% of the ATP produced is derived from fats and 30% from carbohydrates. Following the onset of activity, as the intensity of the exercise increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During high intensity aerobic exercise, almost 100% of the energy is derived from carbohydrates, if an adequate supply is available.
Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise[edit]
Studies published in 1992[19] and 1997[20] indicate that the level of aerobic fitness of an individual does not have any correlation with the level of resting metabolism. Both studies find that aerobic fitness levels do not improve the predictive power of fat free mass for resting metabolic rate.
Anaerobic exercise, such as weight lifting, builds additional muscle mass. Muscle contributes to the fat-free mass of an individual and therefore effective results from anaerobic exercise will increase BMR.[21] However, the actual effect on BMR is controversial and difficult to enumerate. Various studies[22][23] suggest that the resting metabolic rate of trained muscle is around 55kJ per kilogram, per day. Even a substantial increase in muscle mass, say 5 kg, would make only a minor impact on BMR.
Longevity[edit]
See also: Heartbeat hypothesis
In 1926, Raymond Pearl proposed that longevity varies inversely with basal metabolic rate (the "rate of living hypothesis"). Support for this hypothesis comes from the fact that mammals with larger body size have longer maximum life spans (large animals do have higher total metabolic rates, but the metabolic rate at the cellular level is much lower, and the breathing rate and heartbeat are slower in larger animals) and the fact that the longevity of fruit flies varies inversely with ambient temperature.[24] Additionally, the life span of houseflies can be extended by preventing physical activity.[25] This theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy, across the animal kingdom—including humans. Calorie restriction and reduced thyroid hormone levels, both of which decrease the metabolic rate, have been associated with higher longevity in animals.[26][27][28][29]
However, the ratio of total daily energy expenditure to resting metabolic rate can vary between 1.6 and 8.0 between species of mammals. Animals also vary in the degree of coupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, the amount of saturated fat in mitochondrial membranes, the amount of DNA repair, and many other factors that affect maximum life span.[30]
Organism longevity and basal metabolic rate[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In allometric scaling, maximum potential life span (MPLS) is directly related to metabolic rate (MR), where MR is the recharge rate of a biomass made up of covalent bonds. That biomass (W) is subjected to deterioration over time from thermodynamic, entropic pressure. Metabolism is essentially understood as redox coupling, and has nothing to do with thermogenesis. Metabolic efficiency (ME) is then expressed as the efficiency of this coupling, a ratio of amperes[clarification needed] captured and used by biomass, to the amperes available for that purpose. MR is measured in watts, W is measured in grams. These factors are combined in a power law, an elaboration on Kleiber's law relating MR to W and MPLS, that appears as MR = W^ (4ME-1)/4ME.[clarification needed] When ME is 100%, MR = W^3/4; this is popularly known as quarter power scaling, a version of allometric scaling that is premised upon unrealistic estimates of biological efficiency.
The equation reveals that as ME drops below 20%, for W < one gram, MR/MPLS increases so dramatically as to endow W with virtual immortality by 16%. The smaller W is to begin with, the more dramatic is the increase in MR as ME diminishes. All of the cells of an organism fit into this range, i.e., less than one gram, and so this MR will be referred to as BMR.
But the equation reveals that as ME increases over 25%, BMR approaches zero. The equation also shows that for all W > one gram, where W is the organization of all of the BMRs of the organism's structure, but also includes the activity of the structure, as ME increases over 25%, MR/MPLS increases rather than decreases, as it does for BMR. An MR made up of an organization of BMRs will be referred to as an FMR.[clarification needed] As ME decreases below 25%, FMR diminishes rather than increases as it does for BMR.
The antagonism between FMR and BMR is what marks the process of aging of biomass W in energetic terms. The ME for the organism is the same as that for the cells, such that the success of the organism's ability to find food (and lower its ME), is key to maintaining the BMR of the cells driven, otherwise, by starvation, to approaching zero; while at the same time a lower ME diminishes the FMR/MPLS of the organism.[citation needed]
Medical considerations[edit]
A person's metabolism varies with their physical condition and activity. Weight training can have a longer impact on metabolism than aerobic training, but there are no known mathematical formulas that can exactly predict the length and duration of a raised metabolism from trophic changes with anabolic neuromuscular training.
A decrease in food intake will typically lower the metabolic rate as the body tries to conserve energy.[31] Researcher Gary Foster estimates that a very low calorie diet of fewer than 800 calories a day would reduce the metabolic rate by more than 10 percent.[32]
The metabolic rate can be affected by some drugs, such as antithyroid agents, drugs used to treat hyperthyroidism, such as propylthiouracil and methimazole, bring the metabolic rate down to normal and restore euthyroidism. Some research has focused on developing antiobesity drugs to raise the metabolic rate, such as drugs to stimulate thermogenesis in skeletal muscle.
The metabolic rate may be elevated in stress, illness, and diabetes. Menopause may also affect metabolism.
Cardiovascular implications[edit]
Heart rate is determined by the medulla oblongata and part of the pons, two organs located inferior to the hypothalamus on the brain stem. Heart rate is important for basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate because it drives the blood supply, stimulating the Krebs cycle.[citation needed] During exercise that achieves the anaerobic threshold, it is possible to deliver substrates that are desired for optimal energy utilization. The anaerobic threshold is defined as the energy utilization level of heart rate exertion that occurs without oxygen during a standardized test with a specific protocol for accuracy of measurement,[citation needed] such as the Bruce Treadmill protocol (see metabolic equivalent). With four to six weeks of targeted training the body systems can adapt to a higher perfusion of mitochondrial density for increased oxygen availability for the Krebs cycle, or tricarboxylic cycle, or the glycolitic cycle.[citation needed] This in turn leads to a lower resting heart rate, lower blood pressure, and increased resting or basal metabolic rate.[citation needed]
By measuring heart rate we can then derive estimations of what level of substrate utilization is actually causing biochemical metabolism in our bodies at rest or in activity.[citation needed] This in turn can help a person to maintain an appropriate level of consumption and utilization by studying a graphical representation of the anaerobic threshold. This can be confirmed by blood tests and gas analysis using either direct or indirect calorimetry to show the effect of substrate utilization.[citation needed] The measures of basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate are becoming essential tools for maintaining a healthy body weight.
See also[edit]
Food energy
Harris-Benedict equation
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
Kleiber's law
Metabolic age
Metabolic syndrome
Schofield equation
Thermic effect of food
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c McNab BK (1997). "On the Utility of Uniformity in the Definition of Basal Rate of Metabolism". Physiological Zoology. 70 (6): 718–720. doi:10.1086/515881.
Jump up ^ Ballesteros FJ, Martinez VJ, Luque B, Lacasa L, Valor E, Moya A (2018). "On the thermodynamic origin of metabolic scaling". Scientific Reports. 8: 1448:1–1448:10. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-19853-6.
Jump up ^ Manini TM (2010). "Energy expenditure and aging". Ageing Research Reviews. 9 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2009.08.002. PMC 2818133  . PMID 19698803.
Jump up ^ McMurray RG, Soares J, Caspersen CJ, McCurdy T (2014). "Examining variations of resting metabolic rate of adults: a public health perspective". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 46 (7): 1352–1358. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000232. PMC 4535334  . PMID 24300125.
Jump up ^ Stiegler P, Cunliffe A (2006). "The role of diet and exercise for the maintenance of fat-free mass and resting metabolic rate during weight loss" (PDF). Sports Medicine. 36 (3): 239–262. doi:10.2165/00007256-200636030-00005. PMID 16526835.
Jump up ^ "Calculating BMR and RMR: Diet and Weight Loss Tutorial". CaloriesPerHour.com. Archived from the original on 2008-01-05. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Harris J, Benedict F (1918). "A Biometric Study of Human Basal Metabolism". PNAS. 4 (12): 370–3. Bibcode:1918PNAS....4..370H. doi:10.1073/pnas.4.12.370. PMC 1091498  . PMID 16576330.
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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Further reading[edit]
Tsai, AG; Wadden, TA (2005). "Systematic review: An evaluation of major commercial weight loss programs in the United States". Annals of Internal Medicine. 142 (1): 56–66. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-142-1-200501040-00012. PMID 15630109.
Gustafson, D.; Rothenberg, E; Blennow, K; Steen, B; Skoog, I (2003). "An 18-Year Follow-up of Overweight and Risk of Alzheimer Disease". Archives of Internal Medicine. 163 (13): 1524–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.163.13.1524. PMID 12860573.
"Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: Executive summary. Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight in Adults". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 68 (4): 899–917. 1998. PMID 9771869.
Segal, Arthur C. (1987). "Linear Diet Model". College Mathematics Journal. 18 (1): 44–5. doi:10.2307/2686315. JSTOR 2686315.
Pike, Ruth L; Brown, Myrtle Laurestine (1975). Nutrition: An Integrated Approach (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. OCLC 474842663.
Sahlin, K.; Tonkonogi, M.; Soderlund, K. (1998). "Energy supply and muscle fatigue in humans". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 162 (3): 261–6. doi:10.1046/j.1365-201X.1998.0298f.x. PMID 9578371.
Saltin, Bengt; Gollnick, Philip D. (1983). "Skeletal muscle adaptability: Significance for metabolism and performance". In Peachey, Lee D; Adrian, Richard H; Geiger, Stephen R. Handbook of Physiology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 540–55. OCLC 314567389. Republished as: Saltin, Bengt; Gollnick, Philip D. (2011). "Skeletal Muscle Adaptability: Significance for Metabolism and Performance". Comprehensive Physiology. doi:10.1002/cphy.cp100119. ISBN 978-0-470-65071-4.
Thorstensson (1976). "Muscle strength, fibre types and enzyme activities in man". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum. 443: 1–45. PMID 189574.
Thorstensson, Alf; Sjödin, Bertil; Tesch, Per; Karlsson, Jan (1977). "Actomyosin ATPase, Myokinase, CPK and LDH in Human Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 99 (2): 225–9. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1977.tb10373.x. PMID 190869.
Vanhelder, W. P.; Radomski, M. W.; Goode, R. C.; Casey, K. (1985). "Hormonal and metabolic response to three types of exercise of equal duration and external work output". European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 54 (4): 337–42. doi:10.1007/BF02337175. PMID 3905393.
Wells, JG; Balke, B; Van Fossan, DD (1957). "Lactic acid accumulation during work; a suggested standardization of work classification". Journal of Applied Physiology. 10 (1): 51–5. doi:10.1152/jappl.1957.10.1.51. PMID 13405829.
McArdle, William D; Katch, Frank I; Katch, Victor L (1986). Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. OCLC 646595478.
Harris, JA; Benedict, FG (1918). "A Biometric Study of Human Basal Metabolism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 4 (12): 370–3. Bibcode:1918PNAS....4..370H. doi:10.1073/pnas.4.12.370. PMC 1091498  . PMID 16576330.
External links[edit]
Harris-Benedict study. Detailed discussion of antecedents, data, measurements, statistics (Published by The Carnegie Institution of Washington 1919)[permanent dead link]
BMR as affected by alcohol
BMR and personality
Metabolism portal
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