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Haber process
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Fritz Haber, 1918
The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is an artificial nitrogen fixation process and is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today.[1] It is named after its inventors, the German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who developed it in the first half of the 20th century. The process converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen (H2) using a metal catalyst under high temperatures and pressures:
N 2 + 3 H 2 ⟶ 2 NH 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3}}} (ΔH° = −91.8 kJ) => (ΔH° = −45.8 kJ·mol−1)
Before the development of the Haber process, ammonia had been difficult to produce on an industrial scale[2][3][4] with early methods such as the Birkeland–Eyde process and Frank–Caro process all being highly inefficient.
Although the Haber process is mainly used to produce fertilizer today, during World War I it provided Germany with a source of ammonia for the production of explosives, compensating for the Allied trade blockade on Chilean saltpeter.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Process
2.1 Sources of hydrogen
2.2 Reaction rate and equilibrium
2.3 Catalysts
3 Economic and environmental aspects
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Haber process
Throughout the 19th century the demand for nitrates and ammonia for use as fertilizers and industrial feedstocks had been steadily increasing. The main source was mining niter deposits. At the beginning of the 20th century it was being predicted that these reserves could not satisfy future demands [5] and research into new potential sources of ammonia became more important. The obvious source was atmospheric nitrogen (N2), comprising nearly 80% of the air, however N2 is exceptionally stable and will not readily react with other chemicals. Converting N2 into ammonia posed a challenge for chemists globally.
Haber, with his assistant Robert Le Rossignol, developed the high-pressure devices and catalysts needed to demonstrate the Haber process at laboratory scale.[6][7] They demonstrated their process in the summer of 1909 by producing ammonia from air, drop by drop, at the rate of about 125 ml (4 US fl oz) per hour. The process was purchased by the German chemical company BASF, which assigned Carl Bosch the task of scaling up Haber's tabletop machine to industrial-level production.[3][8] He succeeded in 1910. Haber and Bosch were later awarded Nobel prizes, in 1918 and 1931 respectively, for their work in overcoming the chemical and engineering problems of large-scale, continuous-flow, high-pressure technology.[3]
Ammonia was first manufactured using the Haber process on an industrial scale in 1913 in BASF's Oppau plant in Germany, reaching 20 tonnes per day the following year.[9] During World War I, the production of munitions required large amounts of nitrate. The Allies had access to large sodium nitrate deposits in Chile (Chile saltpetre) controlled by British companies. Germany had no such resources, so the Haber process proved essential to the German war effort.[3][10] Synthetic ammonia from the Haber process was used for the production of nitric acid, a precursor to the nitrates used in explosives.
Process[edit]
A historical (1921) high-pressure steel reactor for production of ammonia via the Haber process is displayed at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany.
scheme of ammoniac reactor
This conversion is typically conducted at 15–25 MPa (150–250 atm; 2,200–3,600 psi) and between 400–500 °C (752–932 °F), as the gases (nitrogen and hydrogen) are passed over four beds of catalyst, with cooling between each pass so as to maintain a reasonable equilibrium constant. On each pass only about 15% conversion occurs, but any unreacted gases are recycled, and eventually an overall conversion of 97% is achieved.[1]
The steam reforming, shift conversion, carbon dioxide removal, and methanation steps each operate at pressures of about 2.5–3.5 MPa (25–35 bar; 360–510 psi), and the ammonia synthesis loop operates at pressures ranging from 6–18 MPa (60–180 bar; 870–2,610 psi), depending upon which proprietary process is used.[1]
Sources of hydrogen[edit]
The major source of hydrogen is methane from natural gas. The conversion, steam reforming, is conducted with steam in a high temperature and pressure tube inside a reformer with a nickel catalyst, separating the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the natural gas.
Reaction rate and equilibrium[edit]
Nitrogen (N2) is very unreactive because the molecules are held together by strong triple bonds. The Haber process relies on catalysts that accelerate the scission of this triple bond.
Two opposing considerations are relevant to this synthesis: the position of the equilibrium and the rate of reaction. At room temperature, the equilibrium is strongly in favor of ammonia, but the reaction doesn't proceed at a detectable rate. The obvious solution is to raise the temperature, but because the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium constant (using bar or atm units) becomes 1 around 150–200 °C (302–392 °F). (See Le Châtelier's principle.)
Kp(T) for N
2 + 3 H
2 ⇌ 2 NH
3[11]
Temperature (°C)
Kp
300 4.34 × 10−3
400 1.64 × 10−4
450 4.51 × 10−5
500 1.45 × 10−5
550 5.38 × 10−6
600 2.25 × 10−6
Above this temperature, the equilibrium quickly becomes quite unfavorable at atmospheric pressure, according to the Van 't Hoff equation. Thus one might suppose that a low temperature is to be used and some other means to increase rate. However, the catalyst itself requires a temperature of at least 400 °C to be efficient.
Pressure is the obvious choice to favor the forward reaction because there are 4 moles of reactant for every 2 moles of product (see entropy), and the pressure used (15–25 MPa (150–250 bar; 2,200–3,600 psi)) alters the equilibrium concentrations to give a profitable yield.[citation needed]
Economically, pressure is an expensive commodity. Pipes, valves, and reaction vessels need to be strengthened, and there are safety considerations of working at 20 MPa. In addition, running pumps and compressors takes considerable energy. Thus the compromise used gives a single pass yield of around 15%.[citation needed]
Another way to increase the yield of the reaction would be to remove the product (i.e. ammonia gas) from the system. In practice, gaseous ammonia is not removed from the reactor itself, since the temperature is too high; it is removed from the equilibrium mixture of gases leaving the reaction vessel. The hot gases are cooled enough, whilst maintaining a high pressure, for the ammonia to condense and be removed as liquid. Unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are then returned to the reaction vessel to undergo further reaction.[citation needed]
Catalysts[edit]
The most popular catalysts are based on iron promoted with K2O, CaO, SiO2, and Al2O3. The original Haber–Bosch reaction chambers used osmium as the catalyst, but it was available in extremely small quantities. Haber noted uranium was almost as effective and easier to obtain than osmium. Under Bosch's direction in 1909, the BASF researcher Alwin Mittasch discovered a much less expensive iron-based catalyst, which is still used today. Some ammonia production utilizes ruthenium-based catalysts (the KAAP process). Ruthenium forms more active catalysts that allows milder operating pressures. Such catalysts are prepared by decomposition of triruthenium dodecacarbonyl on graphite.[1]
In industrial practice, the iron catalyst is obtained from finely ground iron powder, which is usually obtained by reduction of high purity magnetite (Fe3O4). The pulverized iron metal is burnt (oxidized) to give magnetite of a defined particle size. The magnetite particles are then partially reduced, removing some of the oxygen in the process. The resulting catalyst particles consist of a core of magnetite, encased in a shell of wüstite (FeO, ferrous oxide), which in turn is surrounded by an outer shell of iron metal. The catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, resulting in a highly porous high surface area material, which enhances its effectiveness as a catalyst. Other minor components of the catalyst include calcium and aluminium oxides, which support the iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area. These oxides of Ca, Al, K, and Si are unreactive to reduction by the hydrogen.[1]
energy diagram
The reaction mechanism, involving the heterogeneous catalyst, is believed to involve the following steps:[12]
N2 (g) → N2 (adsorbed)
N2 (adsorbed) → 2 N (adsorbed)
H2 (g) → H2 (adsorbed)
H2 (adsorbed) → 2 H (adsorbed)
N (adsorbed) + 3 H(adsorbed)→ NH3 (adsorbed)
NH3 (adsorbed) → NH3 (g)
Reaction 5 occurs in three steps, forming NH, NH2, and then NH3. Experimental evidence points to reaction 2 as being the slow, rate-determining step. This is not unexpected since the bond broken, the nitrogen triple bond, is the strongest of the bonds that must be broken.
A major contributor to the elucidation of this mechanism is Gerhard Ertl.[13]
Economic and environmental aspects[edit]
Further information: Ammonia production § Sustainable ammonia production
Industrial fertilizer plant
When it was first invented, the Haber process needed to compete against another industrial process, the Cyanamide process. However, the Cyanamide process consumed large amounts of electrical power and was more labor-intensive than the Haber process.[3]:137–143
The Haber process now produces 450 million tonnes of nitrogen fertilizer per year, mostly in the form of anhydrous ammonia, ammonium nitrate, and urea. Three to five percent of the world's natural gas production is consumed in the Haber process (around 1–2% of the world's annual energy supply).[2][14][15][16] In combination with pesticides, these fertilizers have quadrupled the productivity of agricultural land:
With average crop yields remaining at the 1900 level the crop harvest in the year 2000 would have required nearly four times more land and the cultivated area would have claimed nearly half of all ice-free continents, rather than under 15% of the total land area that is required today.[17]
Due to its dramatic impact on the human ability to grow food, the Haber process served as the "detonator of the population explosion", enabling the global population to increase from 1.6 billion in 1900 to today's 7 billion.[18] Nearly 50% of the nitrogen found in human tissues originated from the Haber-Bosch process.[19] Since nitrogen use efficiency is typically less than 50%,[20] farm runoff from heavy use of fixed industrial nitrogen disrupts biological habitats.[2][21]
See also[edit]
Ammonia
Ammonia production
Hydrogen production
Industrial gas
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Appl, Max (2005), "Ammonia", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH
^ Jump up to: a b c Smil, Vaclav (2004). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production (1st ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT. ISBN 9780262693134.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hager, Thomas (2008). The Alchemy of Air: A Jewish genius, a doomed tycoon, and the scientific discovery that fed the world but fueled the rise of Hitler (1st ed.). New York, NY: Harmony Books. ISBN 978-0-307-35178-4.
Jump up ^ Sittig, Marshall (1979). Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control, and Energy Conservation. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp. ISBN 0-8155-0734-8.
Jump up ^ James, Laylin K. (1993). Nobel Laureates in Chemistry 1901–1992 (3rd ed.). Washington,DC: American Chemical Society. p. 118. ISBN 0-8412-2690-3.
Jump up ^ Haber, Fritz (2012). Thermodynamik technischer Gasreaktionen (in German) (1st ed.). Paderborn: Salzwasser Verlag. ISBN 9783864448423.
Jump up ^ "Robert Le Rossignol, 1884–1976: Professional Chemist" (PDF), ChemUCL Newsletter, UCL Department of Chemistry: 8, 2009, archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-13
Jump up ^ Patent US 990191
Jump up ^ Philip & Phyllis Morris, "From Fertile Minds" (review) American Scientist, 2001
Jump up ^ "Nobel Award to Haber". New York Times. 3 February 1920. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene, Jr; Bursten, Bruce E (2006). "Table 15.2". Chemistry: The Central Science (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. ISBN 0-13-109686-9.
Jump up ^ Wennerström, Håkan; Lidin, Sven. "Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2007 Chemical Processes on Solid Surfaces" (PDF). NobelPrize.org. Swedish Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
Jump up ^ Bozso, F.; Ertl, G.; Grunze, M.; Weiss, M. (1977). "Interaction of nitrogen with iron surfaces: I. Fe(100) and Fe(111)". J. Catal. 49 (1): 18–41. doi:10.1016/0021-9517(77)90237-8. . Imbihl, R.; Behm, R. J.; Ertl, G.; Moritz, W. (1982). "The structure of atomic nitrogen adsorbed on Fe(100)". Surf. Sci. 123 (1): 129–140. Bibcode:1982SurSc.123..129I. doi:10.1016/0039-6028(82)90135-2. . Ertl, G.; Lee, S. B.; Weiss, M. (1982). "Kinetics of nitrogen adsorption on Fe(111)". Surf. Sci. 114 (2–3): 515–526. Bibcode:1982SurSc.114..515E. doi:10.1016/0039-6028(82)90702-6. . Ertl, G. (1983). "Primary steps in catalytic synthesis of ammonia". J. Vac. Sci. Tech. A. 1 (2): 1247–1253. doi:10.1116/1.572299.
Jump up ^ "International Energy Outlook 2007".
Jump up ^ Fertilizer statistics. "?". Archived from the original on 2008-04-24.
Jump up ^ Smith, Barry E. (September 2002). "Structure. Nitrogenase reveals its inner secrets". Science. 297 (5587): 1654–5. doi:10.1126/science.1076659. PMID 12215632.
Jump up ^ Smil, Vaclav (2011). "Nitrogen cycle and world food production" (PDF). World Agriculture. 2: 9–13.
Jump up ^ Smil, Vaclav (1999). "Detonator of the population explosion" (PDF). Nature. 400: 415. Bibcode:1999Natur.400..415S. doi:10.1038/22672.
Jump up ^ Erisman, Jan Willem; Sutton, Mark A.; Galloway, James; Klimont, Zbigniew; Winiwarter, Wilfried (2008-09-28). "How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world". Nature Geoscience. 1 (10): 636–639. doi:10.1038/ngeo325.
Jump up ^ Oenema, O.; Witzke, H.P.; Klimont, Z.; Lesschen, J.P.; Velthof, G.L. (2009). "Integrated assessment of promising measures to decrease nitrogen losses in agriculture in EU-27". Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 133: 280–288. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.04.025.
Jump up ^ Howarth, R. W. (2008). "Coastal nitrogen pollution: a review of sources and trends globally and regionally". Harmful Algae. 8: 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.015.
"The Haber Process". Chemguide.co.uk.
External links[edit]
Haber-Bosch process, most important invention of the 20th century, according to V. Smil, Nature, July 29, 1999, p 415 (by Jürgen Schmidhuber)
Britannica guide to Nobel Prizes: Fritz Haber
Nobel e-Museum - Biography of Fritz Haber
BASF - Fertilizer out of thin air
Uses and Production of Ammonia
Haber Process for Ammonia Synthesis
Review of "Between Genius and Genocide: The Tragedy of Fritz Haber, Father of Chemical Warfare" by Daniel Charles
Authority control
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Virus latency
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Influenza virus life cycle
Entry
Replication
Latency
Shedding
Virus latency (or viral latency) is the ability of a pathogenic virus to lie dormant (latent) within a cell, denoted as the lysogenic part of the viral life cycle.[1] A latent viral infection is a type of persistent viral infection which is distinguished from a chronic viral infection. Latency is the phase in certain viruses' life cycles in which, after initial infection, proliferation of virus particles ceases. However, the viral genome is not fully eradicated. The result of this is that the virus can reactivate and begin producing large amounts of viral progeny without the host being infected by new outside virus, denoted as the lytic part of the viral life cycle, and stays within the host indefinitely.[2]
Virus latency is not to be confused with clinical latency during the incubation period when a virus is not dormant.
Contents
1 Mechanisms
1.1 Episomal latency
1.2 Proviral latency
1.3 Maintaining latency
2 Ramifications
3 See also
4 References
Mechanisms[edit]
Episomal latency[edit]
Episomal latency refers to the use of genetic episomes during latency. In this type, viral genes are stabilized floating in the cytoplasm or nucleus as distinct objects, either as linear or lariat structures. Episomal latency is more vulnerable to ribozymes or host foreign gene degradation than provirus latency.
One example is herpes virus family, Herpesviridae, all of which establish latent infection. Herpes virus include chicken-pox virus and herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1, HSV-2), all of which establish episomal latency in neurons and leave linear genetic material floating in the cytoplasm.[3] The Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily is associated with episomal latency established in cells of the immune system, such as B-cells in the case of Epstein-Barr virus.[3][4] Epstein-Barr virus lytic reactivation (which can be due to chemotherapy or radiation) can result in genome instability and cancer.[5] In the case of herpes simplex (HSV), the virus has been shown to fuse with DNA in neurons, such as nerve ganglia[6] or brain cells[citation needed], and HSV reactivates upon even minor chromatin loosening with stress,[7] although the chromatin compacts (becomes latent) upon oxygen and nutrient deprivation.[8]
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) establishes latency in myeloid progenitor cells, and is reactivated by inflammation.[9] Immunosuppression and critical illness (sepsis in particular) often results in CMV reactivation.[10] CMV reactivation is commonly seen in patients with severe colitis.[11]
Advantages of episomal latency include the fact that the virus may not need to enter the nucleus, and hence may avoid nuclear domain 10 (ND10) from activating interferon via that pathway.
Disadvantages include more exposure to cellular defenses, leading to possible degradation of viral gene via cellular enzymes.[12]
Reactivation may be due to stress, UV, etc.[13]
Proviral latency[edit]
A provirus is a virus genome that is integrated into the DNA of a host cell.
Advantages include automatic host cell division results in replication of the virus's genes, and the fact that it is nearly impossible to remove an integrated provirus from an infected cell without killing the cell.[14]
A disadvantage of this method is the need to enter the nucleus (and the need for packaging proteins that will allow for that). However, viruses that integrate into the host cell's genome can stay there as long as the cell lives.
One of the best-studied viruses that does this is HIV. HIV uses reverse transcriptase to create a DNA copy of its RNA genome. HIV latency allows the virus to largely avoid the immune system. Like other viruses that go latent, it does not typically cause symptoms while latent. Unfortunately, HIV in proviral latency is nearly impossible to target with antiretroviral drugs.
Maintaining latency[edit]
Both proviral and episomal latency may require maintenance for continued infection and fidelity of viral genes. Latency is generally maintained by viral genes expressed primarily during latency. Expression of these latency-associated genes may function to keep the viral genome from being digested by cellular ribozymes or being found out by the immune system. Certain viral gene products (RNA transcripts such as non-coding RNAs and proteins) may also inhibit apoptosis or induce cell growth and division to allow more copies of the infected cell to be produced.[15]
An example of such a gene product is the latency associated transcripts (LAT) in herpes simplex virus, which interfere with apoptosis by downregulating a number of host factors, including major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and inhibiting the apoptotic pathway.[16]
A certain type of latency could be ascribed to the endogenous retroviruses. These viruses have incorporated into the human genome in the distant past, and are now passed through reproduction. Generally these types of viruses have become highly evolved, and have lost the expression of many gene products.[17] Some of the proteins expressed by these viruses have co-evolved with host cells to play important roles in normal processes.[18]
Ramifications[edit]
While viral latency exhibits no active viral shedding nor causes any pathologies or symptoms, the virus is still able to reactivate via external activators (i.e. sunlight, stress) to cause an acute infection. In the case of herpes simplex virus, which generally infects an individual for life, a serotype of the virus reactivates occasionally to cause cold sores. Although the sores are quickly resolved by the immune system, they may be a minor annoyance from time to time. In the case of varicella zoster virus, after an initial acute infection (chickenpox) the virus lies dormant until reactivated as herpes zoster.
More serious ramifications of a latent infection could be the possibility of transforming the cell, and forcing the cell into uncontrolled cell division. This is a result of the random insertion of the viral genome into the host's own gene and expression of host cellular growth factors for the benefit of the virus. In a notable event, this actually happened during gene therapy through the use of retroviral vectors at the Necker Hospital in Paris, where twenty young boys received treatment for a genetic disorder, after which five developed leukemia-like syndromes.[19]
This is also seen with infections of the human papilloma virus in which persistent infection may lead to cervical cancer as a result of cellular transformation.[20][21][22]
In the field of HIV research, proviral latency in specific long-lived cell types is the basis for the concept of one or more viral reservoirs, referring to locations (cell types or tissues) characterized by persistence of latent virus. Specifically, the presence of replication-competent HIV in resting CD4-positive T cells allows this virus to persist for years without evolving despite prolonged exposure to antiretroviral drugs.[23] This latent reservoir of HIV may explain the inability of antiretroviral treatment to cure HIV infection.[23][24][25][26]
See also[edit]
Viruses portal
Slow virus
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Villarreal, Luis P. (2005). Viruses and the Evolution of Life. Washington, ASM Press.
Jump up ^ N.J. Dimmock et al. "Introduction to Modern Virology, 6th edition." Blackwell Publishing, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Minarovits J (2006). "DNA Methylation: Development, Genetic Disease and Cancer". Current topics in microbiology and immunology. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 310: 61–80. doi:10.1007/3-540-31181-5_5. ISBN 978-3-540-31180-5. PMID 16909907.
Jump up ^ Souza TA, Stollar BD, Sullivan JL, Luzuriaga K, Thorley-Lawson DA (2007-09-01). "Influence of EBV on the peripheral blood memory B cell compartment". Journal of Immunology. 179 (5): 3153–60. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.179.5.3153. PMID 17709530.
Jump up ^ Li H, Liu S, Hu J, Luo X, Li N, M Bode A, Cao Y (2016). "Epstein-Barr virus lytic reactivation regulation and its pathogenic role in carcinogenesis". International Journal of Biological Sciences. 12 (11): 1309–1318. doi:10.7150/ijbs.16564. PMC 5118777  . PMID 27877083.
Jump up ^ Thellman NM, Triezenberg SJ (2017). "Herpes Simplex Virus Establishment, Maintenance, and Reactivation: In Vitro Modeling of Latency". Pathogens. 6 (3): E28. doi:10.3390/pathogens6030028. PMC 5617985  . PMID 28644417.
Jump up ^ http://www.healthcanal.com/brain-nerves/69487-discovery-shows-how-herpes-simplex-virus-reactivates-in-neurons-to-trigger-disease.html
Jump up ^ http://www.genengnews.com/gen-news-highlights/starve-a-cell-compact-its-dna/81251959/
Jump up ^ Dupont L, Reeves MB (2016). "Cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation: recent insights into an age old problem". REVIEWS IN MEDICAL VIROLOGY. 26 (2): 75–89. doi:10.1002/rmv.1862. PMC 5458136  . PMID 26572645.
Jump up ^ Cook CH (2007). "Cytomegalovirus reactivation in "immunocompetent" patients: a call for scientific prophylaxis". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 196 (9): 1273–1275. doi:10.1086/522433. PMID 17922387.
Jump up ^ Sager K, Alam S, Bond A, Chinnappan L, Probert CS (2015). "Review article: cytomegalovirus and inflammatory bowel disease". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 41 (8): 725–733. doi:10.1111/apt.13124. PMID 25684400.
Jump up ^ Burton EA, Fink DJ, Glorioso JC (Dec 2002). "Gene delivery using herpes simplex virus vectors". DNA Cell Biol. 21 (12): 915–36. doi:10.1089/104454902762053864.
Jump up ^ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK47421/
Jump up ^ Marcello A. "Latency: the hidden HIV-1 challenge." Retrovirology. 2006 Jan 16;3(1):7
Jump up ^ Divito S, Cherpes TL, Hendricks RL (2006). "A triple entente: virus, neurons, and CD8+ T cells maintain HSV-1 latency". Immunol. Res. 36 (1–3): 119–26. doi:10.1385/ir:36:1:119.
Jump up ^ Carpenter D, Hsiang C, Brown DJ, Jin L, Osorio N, Benmohamed L, Jones C, Wechsler SL (Dec 2007). "Stable cell lines expressing high levels of the herpes simplex virus type 1 LAT are refractory to caspase 3 activation and DNA laddering following cold shock induced apoptosis". Virology. 369 (1): 12–8. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2007.07.023. PMC 2276668  . PMID 17727910.
Jump up ^ Buzdin A (Nov 2007). "Human-specific endogenous retroviruses". ScientificWorldJournal. 7: 1848–68. doi:10.1100/tsw.2007.270.
Jump up ^ Hayashida K, Omagari K, Masuda JI, Kohno S (2007). "An integrase of endogenous retrovirus is involved in maternal mitochondrial DNA inheritance of the human mammal". Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 366: 206–211. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.127.
Jump up ^ Hacein-Bey-Abina, S; Garrigue, A; Wang, GP; Soulier, J; Lim, A; Morillon, E; Clappier, E; Caccavelli, L; Delabesse, E; Beldjord, K; Asnafi, V; MacIntyre, E; Dal Cortivo, L; Radford, I; Brousse, N; Sigaux, F; Moshous, D; Hauer, J; Borkhardt, A; Belohradsky, BH; Wintergerst, U; Velez, MC; Leiva, L; Sorensen, R; Wulffraat, N; Blanche, S; Bushman, FD; Fischer, A; Cavazzana-Calvo, M (September 2008). "Insertional oncogenesis in 4 patients after retrovirus-mediated gene therapy of SCID-X1". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 118 (9): 3132–42. doi:10.1172/JCI35700. PMC 2496963  . PMID 18688285.
Jump up ^ Wang XG, Revskaya E, Bryan RA, Strickler HD, Burk RD, Casadevall A, Dadachova E (Oct 2007). "Treating cancer as an infectious disease-viral antigens as novel targets for treatment and potential prevention of tumors of viral etiology". PLoS ONE. 2 (10): e1114. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001114. PMC 2040508  . PMID 17971877.
Jump up ^ Molho-Pessach V, Lotem M (2007). "Viral carcinogenesis in skin cancer". Curr Probl Dermatol. 35: 39–51. doi:10.1159/000106409.
Jump up ^ Carrillo-Infante C, Abbadessa G, Bagella L, Giordano A (Jun 2007). "Viral infections as a cause of cancer (review)". Int J Oncol. 30 (6): 1521–8. doi:10.3892/ijo.30.6.1521. PMID 17487374.
^ Jump up to: a b Blankson JN, Persaud D, Siliciano RF (2002). "The challenge of viral reservoirs in HIV-1 infection". Annu. Rev. Med. 53: 557–93. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.104024. PMID 11818490.
Jump up ^ Finzi D, Hermankova M, Pierson T, et al. (November 1997). "Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy". Science. 278 (5341): 1295–300. doi:10.1126/science.278.5341.1295. PMID 9360927.
Jump up ^ Persaud D, Pierson T, Ruff C, et al. (April 2000). "A stable latent reservoir for HIV-1 in resting CD4(+) T lymphocytes in infected children". J. Clin. Invest. 105 (7): 995–1003. doi:10.1172/JCI9006. PMC 377486  . PMID 10749578.
Jump up ^ Chun TW, Fauci AS (September 1999). "Latent reservoirs of HIV: obstacles to the eradication of virus". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 (20): 10958–61. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.20.10958. PMC 34225  . PMID 10500107.
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The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
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The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
Soundtrack album by various artists
Released
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)
Recorded
2017
Genre
Pop
Length
39:51
Label
Atlantic
Producer
Greg Wells
Benj Pasek
Justin Paul
Alex Lacamoire (also exec.)
Adam Gubman
Chris Leon
Ryan Lewis
Ricky Reed
Jake Sinclair
Joseph Trapanese
Kevin Weaver (exec.)
Pete Ganbarg (exec.)
Singles from The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
"This Is Me"
Released: October 26, 2017
The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the soundtrack album to the film of the same name. It was released in full on December 8, 2017 by Atlantic Records.[1] The first pre-order release was on October 26, 2017 with three promotional singles: "The Greatest Show", "This Is Me" and "Rewrite the Stars".[2]
Produced by Greg Wells, Justin Paul, Benj Pasek, the album became a global success following the release of the film, topping the charts in several countries including the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom and Japan. The album also reached number one on iTunes in over 77 countries.[3][4] In the United Kingdom, the album became only the second in 30 years to spend 11 consecutive weeks at number 1.[5]
The album's single "This Is Me" won Best Original Song – Motion Picture at the 75th Golden Globe Awards,[6] and was nominated for Best Song at the Critics' Choice Movie Awards[7] and Best Original Song at the 90th Academy Awards.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Release
1.1 Critical reception
1.2 Accolades
2 Track listing
3 Personnel
4 Charts
5 Certifications
6 References
Release[edit]
The first pre-order release was on October 26, 2017 with three promotional singles; "The Greatest Show", "This Is Me" and "Rewrite the Stars".[2] The soundtrack was released in full on December 8, 2017 by Atlantic Records.[1]
It debuted at #71 on Billboard 200, and later stayed at number one for two weeks.[9] On January 7, 2018, the soundtrack had been on the top of the Billboard 200 for two weeks, reaching #1 in its fourth week of availability. It had sold 106,000 copies.[10] In the third week it became #2. The Greatest Showman beat that week's top album in traditional album sales (70,000 vs. 65,000) and was the top-selling album of the week, but didn't top the Billboard 200 due to TEA units and SEA units.[11] By February 7, 2018, the soundtrack was a breakout hit at #1 on the UK album charts and #2 in the United States.[12] On February 8, 2018, Stereogum published an article writing that "statistically speaking, The Greatest Showman is by far the most popular album of the year so far."[13]
By February 27, it was the top album on iTunes.[9] By March 23, 2018, it had been the number one in the UK for eleven straight weeks, more than "any other album in modern chart history except Adele's 21." It had sold 465,000 copies, with around 40% of those sales on CD and vinyl.[14] By April 6 the album climbed back up the charts for its 12th non-consecutive week at number one.[15]
Critical reception[edit]
The album was selected for the 2017 Oprah's Favorite Things list.[16] By February 23, 2018, the track "This Is Me" was nominated for Best Original Song at the 2018 Academy Awards.[17] According to Sky News on March 25, 2018, "music critics have put the album's success down to the feel-good, uplifting pop tunes which are also old school at the same time."[18]
Sheila O'Malley of Roger Ebert called the 11 songs "memorable," praising the vocal performances of the leads.[19] The women's magazine Bustle gave it a positive review, particularly certain vocal performances.[20] Stereogum described the soundtrack music as eclectic in its influences, giving it a negative reception for "[serving] up earnest buoyancy in many high-fructose flavors."[13] Also noting the eclectic mix of musical genres, The Ringer writes that "the bombastic tunes mix EDM gleams with stadium-rock grunts, chest-pounding ballads with peppy empowerment anthems, a thoroughly modern and disconcertingly eager post-genre assault designed to barnstorm as many Spotify playlists as possible. It’s a gilded cheese ball, pushing exhilaration to the point of exhaustion."[21] The Guardian wrote that the album brought "a whole lot of self-empowerment, enlivened with some deracinated R&B beats, and given the necessary gravitas by some power ballads of the sort that make one imagine the singer filmed from below with a wind machine blowing in their face."[12]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref(s)
Golden Globe Awards January 7, 2018 Best Original Song – Motion Picture "This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul Won [6]
Critics' Choice Movie Awards January 11, 2018 Best Song "This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul Nominated [7]
Academy Awards March 4, 2018 Best Original Song "This Is Me" – Benj Pasek and Justin Paul Nominated [8][22]
Track listing[edit]
All tracks written by Pasek & Paul.
No.
Title
Performed by
Length
1. "The Greatest Show" Hugh Jackman, Keala Settle, Zac Efron, Zendaya 5:02
2. "A Million Dreams" Ziv Zaifman, Jackman, Michelle Williams 4:29
3. "A Million Dreams (Reprise)" Austyn Johnson, Cameron Seely, Jackman 1:00
4. "Come Alive" Jackman, Settle, Daniel Everidge, Zendaya 3:45
5. "The Other Side" Jackman & Efron 3:34
6. "Never Enough" Loren Allred 3:27
7. "This Is Me" Settle 3:54
8. "Rewrite the Stars" Efron & Zendaya 3:37
9. "Tightrope" Williams 3:54
10. "Never Enough (Reprise)" Allred 1:20
11. "From Now On" Jackman 5:49
Total length: 39:51
Personnel[edit]
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Greatest Showman.[23]
Soundtrack album producers: Greg Wells, Justin Paul, Benj Pasek
All tracks mixed by Greg Wells, except track 7 mixed by Manny Marroquin
Executive music producer: Alex Lacamoire
Music producers: Alex Lacamoire, Adam Gubman, Chris Leon, Ryan Lewis, Benj Pasek, Justin Paul, Ricky Reed, Jake Sinclair, Joseph Trapanese, Greg Wells
Production music supervisors: Benj Pasek & Justin Paul
Music coordinator: Jordan Carroll
Music production supervisor: Ethan Popp
Associate music production supervisor: Jason Michael Webb
Music supervisor: Mark White
Supervising musician and vocal contractor: Sandy Park
Supervising vocal producer: Liz Caplan
Vocal producers and coaches: Justin Paul, Carmen Key, Patrick Vaccariello
Vocal arrangements: Justin Paul
Supervising music editor: Jennifer Monnar
On set music copyist: Benjamin Lively
Soundtrack album producers for Atlantic Records: Kevin Weaver and Pete Ganbarg
A&R contribution: Brandon Davis
Marketing for Atlantic Records: David Grant
Project coordinator for Atlantic Records: Kellie Gentry
Business and legal affairs for Atlantic Records: Ben Landry
A&R administration for Atlantic Records: Aryanna Platt
Art direction for Atlantic Records: Mark Obriski
Executive in charge of music for Twentieth Century Fox: Danielle Diego
Music supervised for Twentieth Century Fox: Anton Monsted
Music production supervised for Twentieth Century Fox: Rebecca Morellato and Brianne Porcaro
Business affairs for Twentieth Century Fox: Thomas Cavanaugh and Lauren Caruso
Music clearance for Twentieth Century Fox: Ellen Ginsburg
Charts[edit]
Chart (2017–18)
Peak
position
Australian Albums (ARIA)[24]
1
Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[25]
11
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[26]
4
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[27]
43
Canadian Albums (Billboard)[28]
3
Czech Albums (ČNS IFPI)[29]
16
Danish Albums (Hitlisten)[30]
8
Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[31]
5
Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[32]
3
German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[33]
5
Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)[34]
34
Irish Albums (IRMA)[35]
1
Italian Compilation Albums (FIMI)[36]
1
Japan Hot Albums (Billboard)[37]
1
Japanese Albums (Oricon)[38]
1
Japanese International Albums (Oricon)[39]
1
New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[40]
1
Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[41]
2
Scottish Albums (OCC)[42]
1
South Korean Albums (Gaon)[43]
17
South Korean International Albums (Gaon)[44]
2
Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[45]
11
Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[46]
4
Taiwanese Albums (Five Music)[47]
1
UK Albums (OCC)[48]
1
UK Soundtrack Albums (OCC)[49]
1
US Billboard 200[50]
1
US Soundtrack Albums (Billboard)[51]
1
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Australia (ARIA)[52]
Platinum 70,000^
Canada (Music Canada)[53]
Gold 40,000^
New Zealand (RMNZ)[54]
Gold 7,500^
United Kingdom (BPI)[55]
2× Platinum 766,406[56]
United States (RIAA)[57]
Platinum 1,000,000
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "The Greatest Showman' Soundtrack Hits No. 1 On Album Chart & iTunes". Deadline.com. January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Copsey, Rob (March 23, 2018). "The Greatest Showman soundtrack equals Adele's massive UK chart record". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 23, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b France, Lisa (December 11, 2017). "Golden Globe nominations 2018: The list". CNN. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Kilday, Gregg (December 6, 2017). "Critics' Choice Awards: 'The Shape of Water' Leads With 14 Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved December 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oscars: 'Shape of Water' Leads With 13 Noms". The Hollywood Reporter. January 23, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Dana Schwartz (February 27, 2018), "The Greatest Showman has almost Titanic-length legs at the box office: Here's why", Entertainment Weekly, retrieved March 25, 2018
Jump up ^ Daniel Kreps (January 7, 2018), "On the Charts: 'Greatest Showman' Soundtrack Ascends to Number One", Rolling Stone, retrieved March 25, 2018
Jump up ^ "No. 1 album on Billboard 200 Albums Chart". Billboard. January 21, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Hann (February 7, 2018), "The Greatest Showman was derided by critics. So why has its soundtrack shot straight to No 1?", The Guardian, retrieved March 25, 2018
^ Jump up to: a b Chris DeVille (February 8, 2018), The Greatest Showman Soundtrack(?) Is 2018’s Biggest Album So Far, Stereogum, retrieved March 26, 2018
Jump up ^ Mark Savage (March 23, 2018), The Greatest Showman soundtrack equals Adele's UK chart run, BBC, retrieved March 25, 2018
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Jump up ^ "The Greatest Showman". oprah.com. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
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Jump up ^ Alix Culbertson (March 25, 2018), How Greatest Showman soundtrack equalled Adele's 21 album chart run, Sky News, retrieved March 26, 2018
Jump up ^ Sheila O'Malley (December 20, 2017), The Greatest Showman, Rogerebert.com, retrieved March 26, 2018
Jump up ^ Angelica Florio (December 18, 2017), "'The Greatest Showman' Soundtrack Is The Perfect Antidote To All That Holiday Music", Bustle, retrieved March 25, 2018
Jump up ^ Rob Harvilla (February 5, 2018), "America's New Favorite Soundtrack Is … 'The Greatest Showman'?", The Ringer, retrieved March 25, 2018
Jump up ^ "Academy Award Winners 2018: The Complete List". Variety. March 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ The Greatest Showman (Media notes). The Greatest Showman. Atlantic Records / Twentieth Century Fox. 2017.
Jump up ^ "Australiancharts.com – Soundtrack – The Greatest Showman". Hung Medien. Retrieved January 6, 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Soundtrack – The Greatest Showman" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Soundtrack Chart History (Canadian Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Czech Albums – Top 100". ČNS IFPI. Note: On the chart page, select 201801 on the field besides the word "Zobrazit", and then click over the word to retrieve the correct chart data. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Hitlisten.NU – Album Top-40 Uge 2, 2018". Hitlisten. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Soundtrack – The Greatest Showman" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
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Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Soundtrack – The Greatest Showman" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved January 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top 40 album DVD és válogatáslemez-lista – 2018. 10. hét" (in Hungarian). MAHASZ. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Irish Albums Chart: 26 January 2018". Irish Recorded Music Association. Retrieved January 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Classifica settimanale WK 1, 2018" (in Italian). FIMI. Retrieved February 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Japan Hot Albums". Billboard (in Japanese). March 5, 2018. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Oricon Top 50 Albums: 2018-03-12" (in Japanese). Oricon. Retrieved March 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Oricon Top 50 International Albums: 2018-03-05" (in Japanese). Oricon. Archived from the original on March 5, 2018. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "NZ Top 40 Albums Chart". Recorded Music NZ. February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "VG-lista – Topp 40 Album uke 4, 2018". VG-lista. Retrieved January 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ "South Korea Gaon Album Chart". On the page, select "2017.12.24~2017.12.30" to obtain the corresponding chart. Gaon Chart Retrieved February 19, 2018.
Jump up ^ "South Korea Gaon International Album Chart". On the page, select "2017.12.24~2017.12.30", then "국외", to obtain the corresponding chart. Gaon Chart Retrieved December 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Albumes – Semana 5: del 26.1.2018 al 1.2.2018" (PDF) (in Spanish). Productores de Música de España. Retrieved February 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Soundtrack – The Greatest Showman". Hung Medien. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "第10 週 統計時間：2018/3/2 - 2018/3/8" (in Chinese). Five-Music. Archived from the original on March 8, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Soundtrack Albums Chart Top 50". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (January 7, 2018). "'The Greatest Showman' Soundtrack Hits No. 1 on Billboard 200 Albums Chart". Billboard. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Soundtrack Chart History (Soundtrack Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved January 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Australian Top 50 Albums". Australian Recording Industry Association. February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Canadian album certifications – Various Artists – The Greatest Showman". Music Canada. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand album certifications – The Greatest Showman Ensemble – The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "British album certifications – Motion Picture Cast Recording – The Greatest Showman". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved April 20, 2018. Enter The Greatest Showman in the search field and then press Enter.
Jump up ^ Jones, Alan (May 25, 2018). "Charts analysis: Greatest Showman bests Bay on albums chart". Music Week. Retrieved May 29, 2018. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "American album certifications – Various Artists". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved April 7, 2018. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Album, then click SEARCH
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