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Fossil fuel power station
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The 5,400 MW Bełchatów Power Station in Poland – one of the world's largest coal-fired power stations.
A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns a fossil fuel such as coal, natural gas, or petroleum to produce electricity. Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation. In many countries, such plants provide most of the electrical energy used. Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which then operates an electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating internal combustion engine. All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas, either steam or combustion gases. Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of hot, moving water into electricity. MHD means Magnetohydrodynamics, which is the study of the magnetic properties of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas, liquid metals, salt water and electrolytes.
By-products of thermal power plant operation must be considered in their design and operation. Waste heat energy, which remains due to the finite efficiency of the Carnot, Rankine, or Diesel power cycle, is released directly to the atmosphere or river/lake water, or indirectly to the atmosphere using a cooling tower with river or lake water used as a cooling medium. The flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels is discharged to the air. This gas contains carbon dioxide and water vapor, as well as other substances such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), mercury, traces of other metals, and, for coal-fired plants, fly ash. Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed. Some coal ash can be recycled for building materials.[1]
Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas which according to a consensus opinion of scientific organisations is a contributor to global warming. The results of a recent study[2] show that the net income available to shareholders of large companies could see a significant reduction from the greenhouse gas emissions liability related to only natural disasters in the U.S. from a single coal-fired power plant. However, as of 2015, no such cases have awarded damages in the U.S. Per unit of electric energy, brown coal emits nearly two times as much CO2 as natural gas, and black coal emits somewhat less than brown. Post combustion carbon capture and storage of emissions is not currently available for all fossil fuel power stations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Justification
2 Basic concepts
2.1 Heat into mechanical energy
3 Coal
3.1 Fuel transport and delivery
3.2 Fuel processing
4 Combined heat and power
5 Gas turbine plants
5.1 Dash for gas
6 Reciprocating engines
7 Environmental impacts
7.1 Carbon dioxide
7.2 Particulate matter
7.3 Radioactive trace elements
7.4 Water and air contamination by coal ash
7.4.1 Mercury contamination
8 Greening of fossil fuel power plants
8.1 Coal Pollution Mitigation
8.2 Clean gas
9 Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants
9.1 Relative cost by generation source
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
Justification[edit]
The world's power demands are expected to rise 60% by 2030.[3] Power companies build fossil fuel power stations to provide electric power to customers. Since the cost of air pollution caused by the fossil fuel power station is paid by everybody, owners of the fossil fuel power station may profit from the endeavor at other people's expense. If that expense is included in the cost of producing electricity, however, the electricity rates to consumers would increase accordingly.
Basic concepts[edit]
In a fossil fuel power plant the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas or oil shale and oxygen of the air is converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. Each fossil fuel power plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Construction costs, as of 2004[update], run to US$1,300 per kilowatt, or $650 million for a 500 MWe unit.[citation needed] Multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more efficient use of land, natural resources and labor. Most thermal power stations in the world use fossil fuel, outnumbering nuclear, geothermal, biomass, or solar thermal plants.
Heat into mechanical energy[edit]
The second law of thermodynamics states that any closed-loop cycle can only convert a fraction of the heat produced during combustion into mechanical work. The rest of the heat, called waste heat, must be released into a cooler environment during the return portion of the cycle. The fraction of heat released into a cooler medium must be equal or larger than the ratio of absolute temperatures of the cooling system (environment) and the heat source (combustion furnace). Raising the furnace temperature improves the efficiency but complicates the design, primarily by the selection of alloys used for construction, making the furnace more expensive. The waste heat cannot be converted into mechanical energy without an even cooler cooling system. However, it may be used in cogeneration plants to heat buildings, produce hot water, or to heat materials on an industrial scale, such as in some oil refineries, plants, and chemical synthesis plants.
Typical thermal efficiency for utility-scale electrical generators is around 33% for coal and oil-fired plants, and 56 – 60% (LEV) for combined-cycle gas-fired plants. Plants designed to achieve peak efficiency while operating at capacity will be less efficient when operating off-design (i.e. temperatures too low.)[4]
Practical fossil fuels stations operating as heat engines cannot exceed the Carnot cycle limit for conversion of heat energy into useful work. Fuel cells do not have the same thermodynamic limits as they are not heat engines.
Temperature of Hot Steam. Using the reported efficiencies and the efficiency of an ideal Carnot engine one can estimate the engine temperature. This estimate is the minimum heat water/steam temperature as we neglect other losses. For example, the effective temperature of the cooling water can be significantly higher. Assume the cold temperature T c {\displaystyle T_{c}} is 10 °C, or 280 K than T h {\displaystyle T_{h}} equals:
η = 1 − T c T h {\displaystyle \eta \,=\,1-{\frac {T_{c}}{T_{h}}}}
T h = T c 1 − η {\displaystyle T_{h}\,=\,{\frac {T_{c}}{1-\eta }}}
T h = 280 1 − 0.33 {\displaystyle T_{h}\,=\,{\frac {280}{1-0.33}}}
T h = 418 K = 145 o C {\displaystyle T_{h}\,=\,418\,{K}=145^{o}{C}}
This temperature is presumably much lower than the actual steam temperature due to several losses.
Coal[edit]
Diagram of a typical steam-cycle coal power plant (proceeding from left to right)
Main article: Thermal power station
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on the planet, and widely used as the source of energy in thermal power stations. It is a relatively cheap fuel, with some of the largest deposits in regions that are stable politically, such as China, India and the United States. This contrasts with natural gas, the largest deposits of which are located in Russia, Iran, Qatar, Turkmenistan and the US. Solid coal cannot directly replace natural gas or petroleum in most applications, petroleum is mostly used for transportation and the natural gas not used for electricity generation is used for space, water and industrial heating. Coal can be converted to gas or liquid fuel, but the efficiencies and economics of such processes can make them unfeasible.[citation needed] Vehicles or heaters may require modification to use coal-derived fuels. Coal is an impure fuel and produces more greenhouse gas and pollution than an equivalent amount of petroleum or natural gas. For instance, the operation of a 1000-MWe coal-fired power plant results in a nuclear radiation dose of 490 person-rem/year, compared to 136 person-rem/year, for an equivalent nuclear power plant including uranium mining, reactor operation and waste disposal.[5]
As of 2009[update] the largest coal-fired power station is Taichung Power Plant in Taiwan. The world's most energy-efficient coal-fired power plant is the Avedøre Power Station in Denmark.[6]
Fuel transport and delivery[edit]
Coal-fired power plants provide about 32 percent of consumed electricity in the United States, As of September 2017.[7] This is the Castle Gate Plant near Helper, Utah.
Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge, collier ship or coal slurry pipeline. Some plants are even built near coal mines and coal is delivered by conveyors. A large coal train called a "unit train" may be two kilometers (over a mile) long, containing 130-140 cars with 100 short tons of coal in each one, for a total load of over 15,000 tons. A large plant under full load requires at least one coal delivery this size every day. Plants may get as many as three to five trains a day, especially in "peak season" during the hottest summer or coldest winter months (depending on local climate) when power consumption is high. A large thermal power plant such as the now decommissioned Nanticoke, Ontario stores several million metric tons of coal for winter use when the lakes are frozen.
Modern unloaders use rotary dump devices, which eliminate problems with coal freezing in bottom dump cars. The unloader includes a train positioner arm that pulls the entire train to position each car over a coal hopper. The dumper clamps an individual car against a platform that swivels the car upside down to dump the coal. Swiveling couplers enable the entire operation to occur while the cars are still coupled together. Unloading a unit train takes about three hours.
Shorter trains may use railcars with an "air-dump", which relies on air pressure from the engine plus a "hot shoe" on each car. This "hot shoe" when it comes into contact with a "hot rail" at the unloading trestle, shoots an electric charge through the air dump apparatus and causes the doors on the bottom of the car to open, dumping the coal through the opening in the trestle. Unloading one of these trains takes anywhere from an hour to an hour and a half. Older unloaders may still use manually operated bottom-dump rail cars and a "shaker" attached to dump the coal. Generating stations adjacent to a mine may receive coal by conveyor belt or massive diesel-electric-drive trucks.
A collier (cargo ship carrying coal) may hold 40,000 long tons of coal and takes several days to unload. Some colliers carry their own conveying equipment to unload their own bunkers; others depend on equipment at the plant. For transporting coal in calmer waters, such as rivers and lakes, flat-bottomed barges are often used. Barges are usually unpowered and must be moved by tugboats or towboats.
For start up or auxiliary purposes, the plant may use fuel oil as well. Fuel oil can be delivered to plants by pipeline, tanker, tank car or truck. Oil is stored in vertical cylindrical steel tanks with capacities as high as 90,000 barrels (14,000 m3)' worth. The heavier no. 5 "bunker" and no. 6 fuels are typically steam-heated before pumping in cold climates.
Fuel processing[edit]
Coal is prepared for use by crushing the rough coal to pieces less than 2 inches (5 cm) in size. The coal is then transported from the storage yard to in-plant storage silos by conveyor belts at rates up to 4,000 short tons per hour.
In plants that burn pulverized coal, silos feed coal to pulverizers (coal mills) that take the larger 2-inch (51 mm) pieces, grind them to the consistency of talcum powder, sort them, and mix them with primary combustion air which transports the coal to the boiler furnace and preheats the coal in order to drive off excess moisture content. A 500 MWe plant may have six such pulverizers, five of which can supply coal to the furnace at 250 tons per hour under full load.
In plants that do not burn pulverized coal, the larger 2-inch (51 mm) pieces may be directly fed into the silos which then feed either mechanical distributors that drop the coal on a traveling grate or the cyclone burners, a specific kind of combustor that can efficiently burn larger pieces of fuel.
Combined heat and power[edit]
Combined heat and power (CHP), also known as cogeneration, is the use of a thermal power station to provide both electric power and heat (the latter being used, for example, for district heating purposes). This technology is practiced not only for domestic heating (low temperature) but also for industrial process heat, which is often high temperature heat. Calculations show that Combined Heat and Power District Heating (CHPDH) is the cheapest method in reducing (but not eliminating) carbon emissions, if conventional fossil fuels remain to be burned.[8]
Gas turbine plants[edit]
480 megawatt GE H series power generation gas turbine
Currant Creek Power Plant near Mona, Utah is a natural gas fired electrical plant.
One type of fossil fuel power plant uses a gas turbine in conjunction with a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). It is referred to as a combined cycle power plant because it combines the Brayton cycle of the gas turbine with the Rankine cycle of the HRSG. The thermal efficiency of these plants has reached a record heat rate of 5690 Btu/(kW·h), or just under 60%, at a facility in Baglan Bay, Wales.[9]
The turbines are fueled either with natural gas, syngas or fuel oil. While more efficient and faster to construct (a 1,000 MW plant may be completed in as little as 18 months from start of construction), the economics of such plants is heavily influenced by the volatile cost of fuel, normally natural gas. The combined cycle plants are designed in a variety of configurations composed of the number of gas turbines followed by the steam turbine. For example, a 3-1 combined cycle facility has three gas turbines tied to one steam turbine. The configurations range from (1-1), (2-1), (3-1), (4-1), (5-1), to (6-1)[citation needed]
Simple-cycle or open cycle gas turbine plants, without a steam cycle, are sometimes installed as emergency or peaking capacity; their thermal efficiency is much lower. The high running cost per hour is offset by the low capital cost and the intention to run such units only a few hundred hours per year. Other gas turbine plants are installed in stages, with an open cycle gas turbine the first stage and additional turbines or conversion to a closed cycle part of future project plans.
Dash for gas[edit]
In the 1990s was the dash for gas where 30 gas-fired power stations were built in Britain due to plentiful gas supplies from North Sea oil wells. According to the 2012 forecast by the U.S. Energy Information Administration, 27 gigawatts of capacity from coal-fired generators is to be retired from 175 US coal-fired power plants before 2016.[10] Natural gas showed a corresponding jump, increasing by a third over 2011.[11] Some coal power plants such as the 1200 MW Hearn Generating Station have stopped burning coal by switching the plant to natural gas. Coal's share of electricity generation dropped to just over 36%.[11] Natural gas accounted for 81% of new power generation in the US between 2000 and 2010.[12] Coal-fired generation puts out about twice the amount of carbon dioxide - around 2,000 pounds for every megawatt hour generated - than electricity generated by burning natural gas at 1,100 pounds of greenhouse gas per megawatt hour. As the fuel mix in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Carbon dioxide measured in the first quarter of 2012 was the lowest recorded of any year since 1992.[13] The list of natural gas power stations has over 100 power stations that generate between 100 MW and 5,600 MW of electricity. Natural gas plants are increasing in popularity and in 2014 generated 22% of the worlds total electricity.[14]
Reciprocating engines[edit]
Diesel engine generator sets are often used for prime power in communities not connected to a widespread power grid. Emergency (standby) power systems may use reciprocating internal combustion engines operated by fuel oil or natural gas. Standby generators may serve as emergency power for a factory or data center, or may also be operated in parallel with the local utility system to reduce peak power demand charge from the utility. Diesel engines can produce strong torque at relatively low rotational speeds, which is generally desirable when driving an alternator, but diesel fuel in long-term storage can be subject to problems resulting from water accumulation and chemical decomposition. Rarely used generator sets may correspondingly be installed as natural gas or LPG to minimize the fuel system maintenance requirements.
Spark-ignition internal combustion engines operating on gasoline (petrol), propane, or LPG are commonly used as portable temporary power sources for construction work, emergency power, or recreational uses.
Reciprocating external combustion engines such as the Stirling engine can be run on a variety of fossil fuels, as well as renewable fuels or industrial waste heat. Installations of Stirling engines for power production are relatively uncommon.
Environmental impacts[edit]
The Mohave Power Station, a 1,580 MW coal power station near Laughlin, Nevada, out of service since 2005 due to environmental restrictions[15]
Thermal power plants are one of the main artificial sources of producing toxic gases and particulate matter. Fossil fuel power plants cause the emission of pollutants such as NOx, SOx, CO2, CO, PM, organic gases and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[16] World organizations and international agencies, like the IEA, are concerned about the environmental impact of burning fossil fuels, and coal in particular. The combustion of coal contributes the most to acid rain and air pollution, and has been connected with global warming. Due to the chemical composition of coal there are difficulties in removing impurities from the solid fuel prior to its combustion. Modern day coal power plants pollute less than older designs due to new "scrubber" technologies that filter the exhaust air in smoke stacks; however emission levels of various pollutants are still on average several times greater than natural gas power plants. In these modern designs, pollution from coal-fired power plants comes from the emission of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide into the air.
Acid rain is caused by the emission of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. These gases may be only mildly acidic themselves, yet when they react with the atmosphere, they create acidic compounds such as sulfurous acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid which fall as rain, hence the term acid rain. In Europe and the U.S.A., stricter emission laws and decline in heavy industries have reduced the environmental hazards associated with this problem, leading to lower emissions after their peak in 1960s.
Carbon dioxide and other air pollution of the 9 greatest brown coal power plants in Germany (PRTR 2010)[17]
Power plant
CO2 (Tons)
NOx/NO2 (Tons)
SOx/SO2 (Tons)
Fine Dust (Tons)
Hg (kg)
Cd (kg)
Ni (kg)
Pb (kg)
As (kg)
Cr (kg)
Niederaußem 28,100,000 17,900 6,870 386 499 <10 <50 <200 49.9 <100
Jänschwalde* 23,800,000 18,700 21,400 573 592 <10 308 <200 129 <100
Weisweiler 19,900,000 12,700 3,060 456 271 <10 103 <200 67 <100
Neurath 16,900,000 11,700 3,190 251 181 <10 <50 <200 42.2 <100
Boxberg 15,100,000 10,700 7,810 167 226 <10 152 236 <20 <100
Frimmersdorf 14,400,000 9,070 5,620 257 153 <10 <50 <200 35.7 <100
Lippendorf** 12,500,000 8,570 13,800 108 1,160 68 1,960 789 21 466
Schwarze Pumpe 11,200,000 4,610 7,060 <100 243 62.9 <50 369 35.8 224
Schkopau 5,120,000 3,320 4,770 74.6 227 129 <50 <200 <20 <100
Sum without "<" 147,020,000 97,270 73,580 2,273 3,552 260 2,523 1,394 381 690
DE All together 2010[18] 834,511,385 1,328,717 444,035 211,284 9,412 4,723 105,802 193,968 6,120 55,060
Share of all together 18% 7.3% 17% 1.1% 38% 5.5% 2.4% 0.7% 6.2% 1.3%
* with Fuel surrogate and Waste-to-energy ** with biosolids-Waste-to-energy
Carbon dioxide and other air pollution of the 14 greatest stone coal power plants in Germany PRTR 2010[17]
Power plant
CO2 (Tons)
NOx/NO2 (Tons)
SOx/SO2 (Tons)
Fine dust (Tons)
Hg (kg)
Cd (kg)
Ni (kg)
Pb (kg)
As (kg)
Cr (kg)
Scholven 9,390,000 7,090 4,330 244 135 31 86 <200 51 <100
Mannheim 6,510,000 3,550 1,490 148 146 <10 <50 <200 68 <100
Voerde 6,240,000 4,700 2,840 <100 38.3 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Staudinger* 4,480,000 2,770 665 69.9 45.6 19.1 131 <200 113 192
Heyden 3,870,000 2,920 1,380 86.7 28.4 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Heilbronn 3,240,000 2,160 1,660 <100 34 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Werne* 3,140,000 1,900 1,170 <100 11.5 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Wilhelmshaven 3,100,000 2,040 1,390 136 29.9 11.7 <50 <200 <20 <100
Bergkamen 3,020,000 2,100 2,040 <100 18.1 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Herne 2,480,000 1,790 1,340 <100 30.3 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Altbach** 2,220,000 1,350 906 <100 30 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Karlsruhe* 2,170,000 1,140 1,080 <100 19 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Veltheim** 1,740,000 1,290 400 52.6 10.1 22.4 <50 <200 156 <100
Bexbach 1,300,000 910 746 <100 <10 <10 <50 <200 <20 <100
Sum without "<" 52,900,000 35,710 21,437 737 576 84 217 - 388 192
DE All together 2010[18] 834,511,385 1,328,717 444,035 211,284 9,412 4,723 105,802 193,968 6,120 55,060
Share of all together 6.3% 2.7% 4.8% 0.3% 6.1% 1.8% 0.2% - 6.3% 0.3%
* with earth gas share, ** with oil- and earth gas share
In 2008, the European Environment Agency (EEA) documented fuel-dependent emission factors based on actual emissions from power plants in the European Union.[19]
Pollutant
Hard coal
Brown coal
Fuel oil
Other oil
Gas
CO2 (g/GJ) 94,600 101,000 77,400 74,100 56,100
SO2 (g/GJ) 765 1,361 1,350 228 0.68
NOx (g/GJ) 292 183 195 129 93.3
CO (g/GJ) 89.1 89.1 15.7 15.7 14.5
Non methane organic compounds (g/GJ) 4.92 7.78 3.70 3.24 1.58
Particulate matter (g/GJ) 1,203 3,254 16 1.91 0.1
Flue gas volume total (m3/GJ) 360 444 279 276 272
Carbon dioxide[edit]
Main article: Carbon dioxide
Taichung coal-fired power plant in Taiwan, the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter[20]
Electricity generation using carbon based fuels is responsible for a large fraction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions worldwide and for 34% of U.S. man-made carbon dioxide emissions in 2010. In the U.S. 70% of electricity is generated by combustion of fossil fuels.[21]
Of the fossil fuels, coal is much more carbon intensive than oil or natural gas, resulting in greater volumes of carbon dioxide emissions per unit of electricity generated. In 2010, coal contributed about 81% of CO2 emissions from generation and contributed about 45% of the electricity generated in the United States.[22] In 2000, the carbon intensity (CO2 emissions) of U.S. coal thermal combustion was 2249 lbs/MWh (1,029 kg/MWh)[23] while the carbon intensity of U.S. oil thermal generation was 1672 lb/MWh (758 kg/MWh or 211 kg/GJ)[24] and the carbon intensity of U.S. natural gas thermal production was 1135 lb/MWh (515 kg/MWh or 143 kg/GJ).[25]
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (see IPCC) states that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increased quantities within the atmosphere will "very likely" lead to higher average temperatures on a global scale (global warming); concerns regarding the potential for such warming to change the global climate prompted IPCC recommendations calling for large cuts to CO2 emissions worldwide.[26]
Emissions may be reduced through more efficient and higher combustion temperature and through more efficient production of electricity within the cycle. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) of emissions from coal-fired power stations is another alternative but the technology is still being developed and will increase the cost of fossil fuel-based production of electricity. CCS may not be economically viable, unless the price of emitting CO2 to the atmosphere rises.
Particulate matter[edit]
Another problem related to coal combustion is the emission of particulates that have a serious impact on public health. Power plants remove particulate from the flue gas with the use of a bag house or electrostatic precipitator. Several newer plants that burn coal use a different process, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle in which synthesis gas is made out of a reaction between coal and water. The synthesis gas is processed to remove most pollutants and then used initially to power gas turbines. Then the hot exhaust gases from the gas turbines are used to generate steam to power a steam turbine. The pollution levels of such plants are drastically lower than those of "classic" coal power plants.[27]
Particulate matter from coal-fired plants can be harmful and have negative health impacts. Studies have shown that exposure to particulate matter is related to an increase of respiratory and cardiac mortality.[28] Particulate matter can irritate small airways in the lungs, which can lead to increased problems with asthma, chronic bronchitis, airway obstruction, and gas exchange.[28]
There are different types of particulate matter, depending on the chemical composition and size. The dominant form of particulate matter from coal-fired plants is coal fly ash, but secondary sulfate and nitrate also comprise a major portion of the particulate matter from coal-fired plants.[29] Coal fly ash is what remains after the coal has been combusted, so it consists of the incombustible materials that are found in the coal.[30]
The size and chemical composition of these particles affects the impacts on human health.[28][29] Currently coarse (diameter greater than 2.5 μm) and fine (diameter between 0.1 μm and 2.5 μm) particles are regulated, but ultrafine particles (diameter less than 0.1 μm) are currently unregulated, yet they pose many dangers.[28] Unfortunately much is still unknown as to which kinds of particulate matter pose the most harm, which makes it difficult to come up with adequate legislation for regulating particulate matter.[29]
There are several methods of helping to reduce the particulate matter emissions from coal-fired plants. Roughly 80% of the ash falls into an ash hopper, but the rest of the ash then gets carried into the atmosphere to become coal-fly ash.[30] Methods of reducing these emissions of particulate matter include:
a baghouse
an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
cyclone collector
The baghouse has a fine filter that collects the ash particles, electrostatic precipitators use an electric field to trap ash particles on high-voltage plates, and cyclone collectors use centrifugal force to trap particles to the walls.[30] A recent study indicates that sulfur emissions from fossil fueled power stations in China may have caused a 10-year lull in global warming (1998-2008)[31]
Radioactive trace elements[edit]
Coal is a sedimentary rock formed primarily from accumulated plant matter, and it includes many inorganic minerals and elements which were deposited along with organic material during its formation. As the rest of the Earth's crust, coal also contains low levels of uranium, thorium, and other naturally occurring radioactive isotopes whose release into the environment leads to radioactive contamination. While these substances are present as very small trace impurities, enough coal is burned that significant amounts of these substances are released. A 1,000 MW coal-burning power plant could have an uncontrolled release of as much as 5.2 metric tons per year of uranium (containing 74 pounds (34 kg) of uranium-235) and 12.8 metric tons per year of thorium.[32] In comparison, a 1,000 MW nuclear plant will generate about 30 metric tons of high-level radioactive solid packed waste per year.[33] It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much uncontrolled radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident.[34] The collective radioactivity resulting from all coal burning worldwide between 1937 and 2040 is estimated to be 2,700,000 curies or 0.101 EBq.[32] During normal operation, the effective dose equivalent from coal plants is 100 times that from nuclear plants.[32] Normal operation however, is a deceiving baseline for comparison: just the Chernobyl nuclear disaster released, in iodine-131 alone, an estimated 1.76 EBq.[35] of radioactivity, a value one order of magnitude above this value for total emissions from all coal burned within a century, while the iodine-131, the major radioactive substance which comes out in accident situations, has a half life of just 8 days.
Water and air contamination by coal ash[edit]
A study released in August 2010 that examined state pollution data in the United States by the organizations Environmental Integrity Project, the Sierra Club and Earthjustice found that coal ash produced by coal-fired power plants dumped at sites across 21 U.S. states has contaminated ground water with toxic elements. The contaminants including the poisons arsenic and lead.[36]
Arsenic has been shown to cause skin cancer, bladder cancer and lung cancer, and lead damages the nervous system.[37] Coal ash contaminants are also linked to respiratory diseases and other health and developmental problems, and have disrupted local aquatic life.[36] Coal ash also releases a variety of toxic contaminants into nearby air, posing a health threat to those who breath in fugitive coal dust. [37]
Currently, the EPA does not regulate the disposal of coal ash; regulation is up to the states and the electric power industry has been lobbying to maintain this status quo. Most states require no monitoring of drinking water near coal ash dump sites. The study found an additional 39 contaminated U.S. sites and concluded that the problem of coal ash-caused water contamination is even more extensive in the United States than has been estimated. The study brought to 137 the number of ground water sites across the United States that are contaminated by power plant-produced coal ash.[36]
Mercury contamination[edit]
Main article: Mercury (element)
U.S. government scientists tested fish in 291 streams around the country for mercury contamination. They found mercury in every fish tested, according to the study by the U.S. Department of the Interior. They found mercury even in fish of isolated rural waterways. Twenty five percent of the fish tested had mercury levels above the safety levels determined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for people who eat the fish regularly. The largest source of mercury contamination in the United States is coal-fueled power plant emissions.[38]
Greening of fossil fuel power plants[edit]
Main articles: Coal pollution mitigation and Landfill § Reclaiming materials
Further information: Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants
Several methods exist to improve the efficiency of fossil fuel power plants. A frequently used and cost-efficient method is to convert a plant to run on a different fuel. This includes conversions of coal power plants to biomass or waste[39][40][41] and conversions of natural gas power plants to biogas. Conversions of coal powered power plants to waste-fired power plants have an extra benefit in that they can reduce landfilling. In addition, waste-fired power plants can be equipped with material recovery, which is also beneficial to the environment. In some instances, torrefaction of biomass may be needed if biomass is the material the converted fossil fuel power plant will be using.[42]
Improving energy efficiency of a coal-fired power plant also reduces emissions. For example, emissions can be reduced by upgrading existing plants or building new high-efficiency, low-emissions plants. Such plants emit almost 20% less CO2 than a subcritical unit operating at a similar load. Over the longer term, HELE plants can further facilitate emission reductions because coal-fired plants operating at the highest efficiencies are also the most appropriate option for carbon capture and storage retrofit.[43]
Regardless of the conversion, a truly low-carbon fossil fuel power plant implements carbon capture and storage, which means that the exhaust CO2 is not released into the environment and the fossil fuel power plant becomes an emissionless power plant. A 2006 example of a carbon capture and storage fossil fuel power plant is the pilot Elsam power station near Esbjerg, Denmark.[44]
Coal Pollution Mitigation[edit]
Coal Pollution Mitigation is a process whereby coal is chemically washed of minerals and impurities, sometimes gasified, burned and the resulting flue gases treated with steam, with the purpose of removing sulfur dioxide, and reburned so as to make the carbon dioxide in the flue gas economically recoverable, and storable underground (the latter of which is called "carbon capture and storage"). The coal industry uses the term "clean coal" to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use,[45] but has provided no specific quantitative limits on any emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. Whereas contaminants like sulfur or mercury can be removed from coal, carbon cannot be effectively removed while still leaving a usable fuel, and clean coal plants without carbon sequestration and storage do not significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. James Hansen in an open letter to U.S. President Barack Obama has advocated a "moratorium and phase-out of coal plants that do not capture and store CO2". In his book Storms of My Grandchildren, similarly, Hansen discusses his Declaration of Stewardship the first principle of which requires "a moratorium on coal-fired power plants that do not capture and sequester carbon dioxide".[46]
Clean gas[edit]
Gas-fired power plants can also be modified to run on hydrogen, the latter of which can be created on-site from natural gas.[47] Since 2013, the conversion process has been improved by scientists at Karlsruhe Liquid-metal Laboratory (KALLA) as they succeeded in allowing the soot to be easily removed (soot is a byproduct of the process and damaged the working parts in the past -most notably the nickel-iron-cobaltcatalyst-).[48][49] The soot (which contains the carbon) can then be stored underground and is not released into the atmosphere.
Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants[edit]
U.S. 2014 Electricity Generation By Type.[50]
Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants include nuclear power, solar power, geothermal power, wind power, tidal power, hydroelectric power (hydroelectricity), biomass power plants and other renewable energies (see non-carbon economy). Some of these are proven technologies on an industrial scale (i.e. nuclear, wind, tidal, hydroelectric and biomass fired power) others are still in prototype form.
Nuclear power, and geothermal power may be classed as heat pollutants as they add heat energy to the biosphere that would not otherwise be released.[citation needed] The net quantity of energy conversion within the biosphere due to the utilisation of wind power, solar power, tidal power, hydroelectric power (hydroelectricity) is static and is derived from the effects of sunlight and the movement of the moon and planets.
Generally, the cost of electrical energy produced by non fossil fuel burning power plants is greater than that produced by burning fossil fuels. This statement however only includes the cost to produce the electrical energy and does not take into account indirect costs associated with the many pollutants created by burning fossil fuels (e.g. increased hospital admissions due to respiratory diseases caused by fine smoke particles).
Relative cost by generation source[edit]
See also: Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
When comparing power plant costs, it is customary to start by calculating the cost of power at the generator terminals by considering several main factors. External costs such as connections costs, the effect of each plant on the distribution grid are considered separately as an additional cost to the calculated power cost at the terminals.
Initial factors considered are:
Capital costs, including waste disposal and decommissioning costs for nuclear energy.
Operating and maintenance costs.
Fuel costs for fossil fuel and biomass sources, and which may be negative for wastes.
Likely annual hours per year run or load factor, which may be as low as 30% for wind energy, or as high as 90% for nuclear energy.
Offset sales of heat, for example in combined heat and power district heating (CHP/DH).
These costs occur over the 30–50 year life of the fossil fuel power plants, using discounted cash flows. In general large fossil plants are attractive due to their low initial capital costs—typically around £750–£1000 per kilowatt electrical compared to perhaps £1500 per kilowatt for onshore wind.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Biomass
Boiler (power generation)
Coal analyzer
Coal mining
Coal power in the United States
Combined heat and power
Cooling tower system
Environmental impact of the coal industry
Flue gas stacks
Fossil fuel phase-out
Geothermal power
Global warming
Greenhouse gas
List of coal power stations
List of thermal power station failures
Mercury vapor turbine
Natural gas
Power station
Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
Renewable energy power station
Steam turbine
Thermal power station
Water-tube boiler
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Charles Camp; Department of Civil Engineering. "PCA Manual" (PDF). University of Memphis, Herff College of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
Jump up ^ N. Heidari & J. M. Pearce. A Review of Greenhouse Gas Emission Liabilities as the Value of Renewable Energy for Mitigating Lawsuits for Climate Change Related Damages. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55C (2016) pp. 899-908. DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.025 open access
Jump up ^ World Outlook 2004 (PDF), Paris: IEA, 26 October 2004, p. 31, ISBN 92-64-10817-3, archived from the original (PDF) on 22 June 2006, retrieved June 13, 2006
Jump up ^ "ELECTRIC GENERATION EFFICIENCY: Working Document of the NP C Global Oil & Gas Study" (PDF). High beam Research. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
Jump up ^ https://www.ornl.gov/sites/default/files/ORNL%20Review%20v26n3-4%201993.pdf pg28
Jump up ^ Avedøre Power Station Archived 25 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. from the web page of DONG Energy
Jump up ^ Energy Information Administration
Jump up ^ Claverton-energy.co.uk
Jump up ^ GE Power’s H Series Turbine Archived 11 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Gerhardt, Tina (1 November 2012). "Record Number of Coal Power Plants Retire". E-Magazine. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Electric Power Monthly, March 2011 (released May 2012), U.S. Energy Information Administration
Jump up ^ Most electric generating capacity additions in the last decade were natural gas-fired - Today in Energy - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
Jump up ^ Nuwer, Rachel (August 17, 2012). "A 20-Year Low in U.S. Carbon Emissions".
Jump up ^ pg24 Free publications
Jump up ^ SEC Mohave Generation Station Archived 14 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 24-07-2008
Jump up ^ Fouladi Fard, Reza.; Naddafi, K.; Yunesian, M.; Nabizadeh Nodehi, R.; et al. (2016). "The assessment of health impacts and external costs of natural gas-fired power plant of Qom" (PDF). Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 23 (20): 20922–20936. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
^ Jump up to: a b PRTR - Europäisches Emissionsregister
^ Jump up to: a b Emissionsentwicklung 1990 - 2011, klassische Luftschadstoffe, Schwermetalle Nationale Trendtabellen für die deutsche Berichterstattung atmosphärischer Emissionen seit 1990, Umweltbundesamt (Excel-Tabelle), 2013
Jump up ^ Air pollution from electricity-generating large combustion plants (PDF), Copenhagen: European Environment Agency (EEA), 2008, ISBN 978-92-9167-355-1
Jump up ^ The Phoenix Sun | Dirty numbers | The 200 Most Polluting Power Plants in the World
Jump up ^ "Sources Climate Change". US EPA. 2012. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Electricity Sector Emissions Climate Change". US EPA. 2012. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ US EPA Clean Energy—Coal
Jump up ^ US EPA Clean Energy—Oil
Jump up ^ US EPA Clean Energy—Gas
Jump up ^ Solomon, S.; et al. (2007). "Summary for policymakers" (PDF). A report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Committee on Benefits of DOE R&D on Energy Efficiency and Fossil Energy, US NRC (2001), Energy research at DOE: was it worth it? Energy efficiency and fossil energy research 1978 to 2000, National Academies Press, p. 174, ISBN 0-309-07448-7
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nel, A. (2005, May 6). Air Pollution-Related Illness: Effects of Particles. Science, 308(5723), 804-806.
^ Jump up to: a b c Grahame, T., & Schlesinger, R. (2007, April 15). Health Effects of Airborne Particulate Matter: Do We Know Enough to Consider Regulating Specific Particle Types or Sources?. Inhalation Toxicology, 19(6–7), 457–481.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schobert, H. H. (2002). Energy and Society. New York: Taylor & Francis, 241–255.
Jump up ^ Washington Post 7-5-2011 | https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/post/new-study-blames-10-year-lull-in-global-warming-on-china-coal-use-air-pollution/2011/07/05/gHQAwjV8yH_blog.html
^ Jump up to: a b c Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger? Archived 5 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine. by Alex Gabbard, ORNL Review, Summer/Fall 1993, Vol. 26, Nos. 3 and 4.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Linda. "Vitrification of Nuclear Waste". PH240 - Fall 2010: Introduction to the Physics of Energy. Stanford University. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Physics.ohio-state.edu Archived 27 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Fukushima radioactive fallout nears Chernobyl levels". Newscientist.com. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Study of Coal Ash Sites Finds Extensive Water Contamination" McClatchy; also archived at: commondreams.org
^ Jump up to: a b EarthJustice news release, 2010 Sept. 16, "New Report—Coal Ash Linked To Cancer and Other Maladies; Coal's Waste Is Poisoning Communities in 34 States" Archived 19 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Earthjustice.org and Physicians for Social Responsibility, "Coal Ash: The Toxic Threat to Our Communities and Our Environment" 2010 September 16, earthjustice.org
Jump up ^ nytimes.com "Mercury Found in Every Fish Tested, Scientists Say" New York Times, 2009 Aug. 19
Jump up ^ Coal to biomass power plant conversion
Jump up ^ Coal to biomass conversion by Georgia Power
Jump up ^ Conversion of coal to waste-fired power plant Archived 21 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Torrefaction of biomass sometimes needed when using biomass in converted FFPS
Jump up ^ Barnes, Ian (March 2015). "Upgrading the Efficiency of the World's Coal Fleet to Reduce CO2 Emissions". Cornerstone.
Jump up ^ ENS (March 15, 2006). "Europe Tests Carbon Capture at Coal-Fired Power Plant". Environment News Service. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
Jump up ^ AustralianCoal.com.au Archived 7 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.—Clean Coal Overview
Jump up ^ Hansen, James (2009). Storms of My Grandchildren. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 242. ISBN 1-4088-0745-9.
Jump up ^ Natural gas to hydrogen: Natural gas reforming
Jump up ^ The reaction that would give us clean fossil fuels forever
Jump up ^ Hydrogen from methane without CO2 emissions
Jump up ^ EIA - Electricity Data
Bibliography[edit]
Steam: Its Generation and Use (2005). 41st edition, Babcock & Wilcox Company, ISBN 0-9634570-0-4
Steam Plant Operation (2011). 9th edition, Everett B. Woodruff, Herbert B. Lammers, Thomas F. Lammers (coauthors), McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 978-0-07-166796-8
Power Generation Handbook: Fundamentals of Low-Emission, High-Efficiency Power Plant Operation (2012). 2nd edition. Philip Kiameh, McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 978-0-07-177227-3
Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering (1997). 2nd edition, Thomas C. Elliott, Kao Chen, Robert Swanekamp (coauthors), McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0-07-019435-1
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fossil fuel-fired power plants.
Conventional coal-fired power plant
"Power plant diagram". tva.gov. Tennessee Valley Authority.
Large industrial cooling towers
Statistics on existing U.S. coal-fired plants
Coal Power more deadly than Nuclear
"Must We Suffer Smoke" , May 1949, Popular Science article on early methods of scrubbing emissions from coal-fired power plants
The Future of Coal: Utilizing America’s Abundant Energy Resources: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy, Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, July 25, 2013
U.S. President Obama threatens bankruptcy to anyone building a coal-fired power plant in the U.S. 2008 interview with San Francisco Gate
Gas Power Plant News from Power Engineering Magazine
Authority control
NDL: 00565077
Energy portal
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Water security
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A 2012 map of the world showing in red the places with least water security.
Water security has been defined as "the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks".[1]
"Sustainable development will not be achieved without a water secure world. A water secure world integrates a concern for the intrinsic value of water with a concern for its use for human survival and well-being. A water secure world harnesses water's productive power and minimises its destructive force. Water security also means addressing environmental protection and the negative effects of poor management. It is also concerned with ending fragmented responsibility for water and integrating water resources management across all sectors—finance, planning, agriculture, energy, tourism, industry, education and health. A water secure world reduces poverty, advances education, and increases living standards. It is a world where there is an improved quality of life for all, especially for the most vulnerable—usually women and children—who benefit most from good water governance."[2]
The areas of the world that are most likely to have water insecurity are places with low rainfall, places with rapid population growth in a freshwater scarce area, and areas with international competition over a water source.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Fresh water
3 Threats
4 Research
5 Most affected countries
5.1 Israel
6 International competition
7 Intra-national competition
7.1 Australia
7.2 India
8 United States Domestic Policy
8.1 Water utility security
8.2 Regulation
8.3 Water utility security components
8.4 Notable water security organizations
9 Blue Peace
10 Conventional fossil or nuclear energy based desalination
11 Solar energy based desalination
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Background[edit]
Water security is achieved when there is enough water for everyone in a region and the water supply is not at risk of disappearing.[4] According to the Pacific Institute "While regional impacts will vary, global climate change will potentially alter agricultural productivity, freshwater availability and quality, access to vital minerals, coastal and island flooding, and more. Among the consequences of these impacts will be challenges to political relationships, realignment of energy markets and regional economies, and threats to security".[5]
It impacts regions, states and countries. Tensions exist between upstream and downstream users of water within individual jurisdictions.[6]
During history there has been much conflict over use of water from rivers such as the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.[7] Another highly politicized example is Israel's control of water resources in the Levant region since its creation,[8] where Israel securing its water resources was one of several drivers for the 1967 Six Day War.
Water security is sometimes sought by implementing water desalination, pipelines between sources and users, water licences with different security levels and war.
Water allocation between competing users is increasingly determined by application of market-based pricing for either water licenses or actual water.[9]
Fresh water[edit]
Water, in absolute terms, is not in short supply planet-wide. But, according to the United Nations water organization, UN-Water, the total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is only about 200,000 km3 of water – less than one percent (<1%) of all freshwater resources. Usable fresh water includes water not contaminated or degraded by water-altering chemicals, such as sewage or any other harmful chemicals from continuous previous use.[10] And, water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase in the last century. Specifically, water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 per cent in developed countries.[11] One continent, for example, Africa, has been predicted to have 75 to 250 million lacking access to fresh water.[12] By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions.[13]
Threats[edit]
The most common threat to water security is water scarcity. There can be several causes to water scarcity including low rainfall, climate change,[14] high population density, and overallocation of a water source. An example of periodic water scarcity in the United States is droughts in California. Another category of threats to water security is environmental threats.[15] These include contaminates such as biohazards (biological substances that can harm humans), climate change and natural disasters. Contaminants can enter a water source naturally through flooding. Contaminants can also be a problem if a population switches their water supply from surface water to groundwater. Natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires can damage man-made structures such as dams and fill waterways with debris. Other threats to water security include terrorism and radiation due to a nuclear accident.[16]
Research[edit]
Thailand nan river fishing
According to Nature (2010), about 80% of the world's population (5.6 billion in 2011) live in areas with threats to water security. The water security is a shared threat to human and nature and it is pandemic. Human water-management strategies can be detrimental to wildlife, such as migrating fish. Regions with intensive agriculture and dense populations, such as the US and Europe, have a high threat of water security. Water is increasingly being used as a weapon in conflict.[17] Water insecurity is always accompanied by one or more issues such as poverty, war and conflict, low women’s development and environmental degradation.[18] Researchers estimate that during 2010-2015, ca US$800 billion will be required to cover the annual global investment in water infrastructure. Good management of water resources can jointly manage biodiversity protection and human water security. Preserving flood plains rather than constructing flood-control reservoirs would provide a cost-effective way to control floods while protecting the biodiversity of wildlife that occupies such areas.[19]
Lawrence Smith, the president of the population institute, asserts that although an overwhelming majority of the planet's surface is composed of water, 97% of this water is constituted of saltwater; the fresh water used to sustain humans is only 3% of the total amount of water on Earth.[20] Therefore, Smith believes that the competition for water in an overpopulated world would pose a major threat to human stability,[20] even going so far as to postulate apocalyptic world wars being fought over the control of thinning ice sheets and nearly desiccated reservoirs.[20] Nevertheless, 2 billion people have supposedly gained access to a safe water source since 1990 who may have earlier lacked it.[21] The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970.[22] to 71 percent in 1990, 79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004, parallel with rising population. This trend is projected to continue.[21]
The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination.[23] However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.
Most affected countries[edit]
Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa
Based on the map published by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR),[24] the countries and regions suffering most water stress are North Africa, the Middle East,[25] India, Central Asia, China, Chile, Colombia, South Africa and Australia. Water scarcity is also increasing in South Asia.[26]
Israel[edit]
The Israeli Holistic Approach to Water Security draws from 70 years of experience in national security and water management. Nations such as the US, UK, Spain, and others are collaborating with Israeli experts in water security standards.[27][28]
International competition[edit]
See also: Water_conflict § Notable_conflicts
International competition over water can arise when one country starts drawing more water from a shared water source.[29] This is often the most efficient route to getting needed water, but in the long term can cause conflict if water is overdrafted.
More than 50 countries on five continents are said to be at risk of conflict over water.[30]
Turkey's Southeastern Anatolia Project (Guneydogu Anadolu Projesi, or GAP) on the Euphrates has potentially serious consequences for water supplies in Syria and Iraq.[7]
China, is constructing dams on the Mekong, leaving Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand without same amount of water as before investment. A huge project of reversing the flow of the Brahmaputra (Chinese: Tsangpo) river, which after leaving Chinese Tibet flows through India and Bangladesh. The struggle for water in some afflicted regions has led inhabitants to hiring guards in order to protect wells. Moreover, Amu Daria River, shared by Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Afghanistan, which has been nearly completely dried out, so much so that it has ceased to reach the Aral Sea/Lake, which is evaporating in an alarming pace. The fact that Turkmenistan retains much of the water before it flows into Uzbekistan.[31]
Intra-national competition[edit]
Australia[edit]
Main article: Water security in Australia
In Australia there is competition for the resources of the Darling River system between Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.
In Victoria, Australia a proposed pipeline from the Goulburn Valley to Melbourne has led to protests by farmers.[32]
In the Macquarie Marshes of NSW grazing and irrigation interests compete for water flowing to the marshes
The Snowy Mountains Scheme diverted water from the Snowy River to the Murray River and the Murrumbidgee River for the benefit of irrigators and electricity generation through hydro-electric power. During recent years government has taken action to increase environmental flows to the Snowy in spite of severe drought in the Murray Darling Basin. The Australian Government has implemented buy-backs of water allocations, or properties with water allocations, to endeavour to increase environmental flows.
India[edit]
Main articles: Water supply and sanitation in India, Pollution of the Ganges, and Energy policy of India
In India, there is competition for water resources of all inter state rivers except the main Brahmaputra river among the riparian states of India and also with neighbouring countries which are Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, etc.[33] Vast area of the Indian subcontinent is under tropical climate which is conducive for agriculture due to favourable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of evapotranspiration from the cultivated land. Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the subcontinent, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources among the states and countries in the subcontinent are to be bridged.
There is intense competition for the water available in the inter state rivers such as Kavery, Krishna, Godavari, Vamsadhara, Mandovi, Ravi-Beas-Sutlez, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, Himalayan tributaries of Ganga and west flowing coastal rivers of western ghats. All river basins face severe water shortage even for drinking needs of people, cattle and wild life during the intense summer season when the rainfall is negligible.
Water security can be achieved along with energy security as it is going to consume electricity to link the surplus water areas with the water deficit areas by lift canals, pipe lines, etc.[34] The total water resources going waste to the sea are nearly 1200 billion cubic meters after sparing moderate environmental / salt export water requirements of all rivers.[35] Interlinking rivers of the subcontinent is possible to achieve water security in the Indian subcontinent with the active cooperation of the countries in the region.
United States Domestic Policy[edit]
The United States currently does not have a cohesive domestic water security policy.[36] Water security is projected to be a problem in the future since future population growth will most likely occur in areas that are currently water stressed.[4] Ensuring that the United States remains water secure will require policies that will ensure fair distribution of existing water sources, protecting water sources from becoming depleted, maintaining good wastewater disposal, and maintaining existing water infrastructure.[37][38] Currently there are no national limits for US groundwater or surface water withdrawal. If limits are imposed, the people most impacted will be the largest water withdrawers from a water source. In 2005, 31% of US water use was for irrigation, 49% was thermoelectric power, public supply 11%, public supply, industrial was 4%, aquaculture 2%, domestic 1%, and livestock less than 1%.[39]
The lack of current national water policy is effective in regions of the United States where there is a lot of water but not effective in regions of water scarcity. In the future, a national water security policy may have to be implemented to move water from regions that are water rich to regions that are water scarce. If new policies are implemented, the major stakeholders will be individual states (both water rich and water poor states), farmers, power companies, and other industries that use a substantial amount of water (such as mining and oil and gas).[36][15]
Water utility security[edit]
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), "Improving the security of our nation's drinking water and wastewater infrastructures has become a top priority since the events of 9/11.[40] Significant actions are underway to assess and reduce vulnerabilities to potential terrorist attacks; to plan for and practice response to emergencies and incidents; and to develop new security technologies to detect and monitor contaminants and prevent security breaches."[41]
One of the most important elements of water security is early and accurate contamination detection. The EPA has issued advisory material and guidelines for contamination warning systems to be implemented in water utilities and supplies. The security challenges that utilities frequently revolve around fast detection, accuracy, and the ability to take fast action when there is a water problem. If contamination is detected early enough, it can be prevented from reaching consumers, and emergency water supplies can be put into effect.[42]
In cases where contamination might still reach consumers, fast and efficient communication systems are necessary. All these factors also point to the need for organized and practiced emergency procedures and preparedness.
Regulation[edit]
Since 2002, under the Bioterrorism Act, a water utility supplying more than 3,300 people must take at least the following measures to ensure security of the water supply:[43][44][45]
Conduct an assessment of the facility’s vulnerabilities to vandalism, insider sabotage, or terrorist attack, and submit the report to the EPA.
Show that the facility has an up-to-date emergency response plan, should an incident occur.
More recently, under the Drinking Water Security Act of 2009, the EPA is now required to establish risk-based performance standards for community water systems serving more than 3,300 people.[44]
Cincinnati Water Works, San Francisco, and New York City are among the major water utilities that have taken water security measures at their facilities, such as planning for contamination warning systems.[46]
Water utility security components[edit]
Security of a water supply involves a range of elements. Prevention and detection systems include some or all of the following: access to public health and customer complaint data, water quality monitoring equipment, sampling and analysis, cyber-security which includes situation management and IT systems hardware and software, and physical security. Crisis management and recovery, for when critical water events occur, includes flow control and security valves, rapid and effective communication systems, and emergency water supply equipment.
Specific technologies involved in water security are SCADA, GIS (geographic information system), online (real-time) water quality monitoring devices, contamination warning systems, intrusion detection systems (IDS), contamination detection devices, security valves, security cameras and fences, situation management/emergency management software, emergency supply tanks, manned (or human) security personnel, personal purification devices, and counter-terrorism intelligence.
Notable water security organizations[edit]
The Water Information Sharing and Analysis Center (WaterISAC),[47] is the US water sector's security and emergency response information source. This nonprofit service provides US, Canadian, and Australian drinking water and wastewater utilities with the information they need to heighten the protection of water collection and delivery infrastructure. WaterISAC is also a peer-to-peer, business networking platform. Eligible members of the water sector have access to a clearinghouse of government and private documents, guides, best practices, handbooks, and contaminant databases as well as shared data including analysis of successful and failed security incidents within the water sector. These include cyber incidents, physical incidents, and other security related incidents. Many but not all of these are reported to and tracked by WaterISAC. Together, these resources are can be used by utility managers to identify risks, prepare for emergencies, and secure the nation's critical water infrastructure and the environment.[48]American Water Works Association[49]
Blue Peace[edit]
US Navy Seabees tapping an artesian well in Helmand Province, Afghanistan
Blue Peace is a method which seeks to transforms trans-boundary water issues into instruments for cooperation. This unique approach to turn tensions around water into opportunities for socio-economic development was developed by Strategic Foresight Group in partnership with the Governments of Switzerland and Sweden.
"The Blue Peace is an innovative approach to engage political leaders, diplomats and populations in harnessing and managing collaborative solutions for sustainable water management."
—  Foreign Minister Didier Burkhalter of Swirtzerland, speaking at the UN General Assembly
Blue Peace is part of a larger trend of viewing water as a human right rather than a market commodity.[50] When water is viewed as a human right, it empowers people in water stressed areas to manage their water sources effectively.[51] Part of having effective management of water is ensuring that all socioeconomic groups of people in a region have adequate access to water, not just certain people.
Conventional fossil or nuclear energy based desalination[edit]
Due to record low rainfall in Summer 2005, the reservoir behind Sameura Dam runs low. The reservoir supplies water to Takamatsu, Shikoku Island, Japan.
As new technological innovations continue to reduce the capital cost of desalination, more countries are building desalination plants as a small element in addressing their water crises.[52]
Israel desalinizes water for a cost of 53 cents per cubic meter [53]
Singapore desalinizes water for 49 cents per cubic meter [54] and also treats sewage with reverse osmosis for industrial and potable use (NEWater).
China and India, the world's two most populous countries, are turning to desalination to provide a small part of their water needs [55][56]
In 2007 Pakistan announced plans to use desalination [57]
All Australian capital cities (except Darwin, Northern Territory and Hobart) are either in the process of building desalination plants, or are already using them. In late 2011, Melbourne will begin using Australia's largest desalination plant, the Wonthaggi desalination plant to raise low reservoir levels.
In 2007 Bermuda signed a contract to purchase a desalination plant [58]
The largest desalination plant in the United States is the one at Tampa Bay, Florida, which began desalinizing 25 million gallons (95000 m³) of water per day in December 2007.[59] In the United States, the cost of desalination is $3.06 for 1,000 gallons, or 81 cents per cubic meter.[60] In the United States, California, Arizona, Texas, and Florida use desalination for a very small part of their water supply.[61][62][63]
After being desalinized at Jubail, Saudi Arabia, water is pumped 200 miles (320 km) inland though a pipeline to the capital city of Riyadh.[64]
A January 17, 2008, article in the Wall Street Journal states, "World-wide, 13,080 desalination plants produce more than 12 billion gallons of water a day, according to the International Desalination Association." [65]
The world's largest desalination plant is the Jebel Ali Desalination Plant (Phase 2) in the United Arab Emirates. It is a dual-purpose facility that uses multi-stage flash distillation and is capable of producing 300 million cubic meters of water per year.[66]
A typical aircraft carrier in the U.S. military uses nuclear power to desalinize 400,000 US gallons (1,500,000 L) of water per day.[67]
While desalinizing 1,000 US gallons (3,800 L) of water can cost as much as $3, the same amount of bottled water costs $7,945.[68]
However, given the energy intensive nature of desalination, with associated economic and environmental costs, desalination is generally considered a last resort after water conservation. But this is changing as prices continue to fall.
According to MSNBC, a report by Lux Research estimated that the worldwide desalinated water supply will triple between 2008 and 2020.[69]
However, not everyone is convinced that desalination is or will be economically viable or environmentally sustainable for the foreseeable future. Debbie Cook, the former mayor of Huntington Beach, California, has been a frequent critic of desalination proposals ever since she was appointed as a member of the California Desalination Task Force. Cook claims that in addition to being energy intensive, desalination schemes are very costly—often much more costly than desalination proponents claim. In her writing on the subject, Cook points to a long list of projects that have stalled or been aborted for financial or other reasons, and suggests that water-stressed regions would do better to focus on conservation or other water supply solutions than to invest in desalination plants.[70]
Solar energy based desalination[edit]
A novel approach to desalination is the seawater greenhouse, which takes seawater and uses solar energy to desalinate it in conjunction with growing food crops in a specially adapted greenhouse.
See also[edit]
Right to water
Water scarcity
Water Security journal
International Water Association (IWA), a global network of 10,000 water professionals spanning the continuum between research and practice and covering all facets of the water cycle.[71]
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
International Water Security: Domestic Threats and Opportunities, 2008, ISBN 978-92-808-1150-6, 328 pages, Paperback by United Nations University
Jameel M. Zayed. "No Peace Without Water – The Role of Hydropolitics in the Israel-Palestine Conflict". London.
Rahaman, M. M. (Editor) Special Issue: Water Wars in 21st Century along International Rivers Basins: Speculation or Reality?, International Journal of Sustainable Society, Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 193 pages. 2012
An open source Elsevier journal titled Water Security started publication in August 2017. Water Security
External links[edit]
Water Security journal
Water Quality and Security Blog
World Water Council
Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture
Water Conflict Chronology from "The World's Water" (Island Press, Washington) Edited by Peter Gleick
Whitewater Security
Asia's Next Challenge: Securing the Region's Water Future
Water Diplomacy, Strategic Foresight Group
Article Collection: Water Security in a Changing World, International Relations and Security Network
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Water Security Department
World Environment Federation, "The Water Quality People"
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