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Ancient Greek sculpture
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Riders from the Parthenon Frieze, around 440 BC
Ancient Greek sculpture is the sculpture of ancient Greece. Modern scholarship identifies three major stages in monumental sculpture. At all periods there were great numbers of Greek terracotta figurines and small sculptures in metal and other materials.
The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour.[1] Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of that year's Olympic boxing champion. The statue, originally single but by the Hellenistic period often in groups was the dominant form, though reliefs, often so "high" that they were almost free-standing, were also important.
Contents
1 Materials
2 Painting of sculpture
3 Development of Greek sculptures
3.1 Geometric
3.2 Archaic
3.3 Classical
3.4 Hellenistic
4 Cult images
5 Drapery
5.1 Female
5.2 Male
6 Notes
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Materials[edit]
Natural marble
By the classical period, roughly the 5th and 4th centuries, monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century; many pieces of sculpture known only in marble copies made for the Roman market were originally made in bronze. Smaller works were in a great variety of materials, many of them precious, with a very large production of terracotta figurines. The territories of ancient Greece, except for Sicily and southern Italy, contained abundant supplies of fine marble, with Pentelic and Parian marble the most highly prized, along with that from modern Prilep in Macedonia, and various sources in modern Turkey. The ores for bronze were also relatively easy to obtain.[2] Marble was mostly found around the Parthenon and other major Greek buildings.
Athena in the workshop of a sculptor working on a marble horse, Attic red-figure kylix, 480 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2650)
Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable; as in most ancient cultures there were no doubt also traditions of sculpture in wood about which we know very little, other than acrolithic sculptures, usually large, with the head and exposed flesh parts in marble but the clothed parts in wood. As bronze always had a significant scrap value very few original bronzes have survived, though in recent years marine archaeology or trawling has added a few spectacular finds, such as the Artemision Bronze and Riace bronzes, which have significantly extended modern understanding. Many copies of the Roman period are marble versions of works originally in bronze. Ordinary limestone was used in the Archaic period, but thereafter, except in areas of modern Italy with no local marble, only for architectural sculpture and decoration. Plaster or stucco was sometimes used for the hair only.[3]
Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. Many statues were given jewellery, as can be seen from the holes for attaching it, and held weapons or other objects in different materials.[4]
The Victorious Youth (c. 310 BC), a remarkably weather-preserved bronze statue of a Greek athlete in Contrapposto pose
Painting of sculpture[edit]
Despite appearing white today, Greek sculptures were originally painted.[5][6][7] This color restoration shows what a statue of a Trojan archer from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina would have originally looked like.[6]
Ancient Greek sculptures were originally painted bright colors;[5][6][7] they only appear white today because the original pigments have deteriorated.[5][6] References to painted sculptures are found throughout classical literature,[5][6] including in Euripides's Helen in which the eponymous character laments, "If only I could shed my beauty and assume an uglier aspect/The way you would wipe color off a statue."[6] Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration[5] and archaeologists can reconstruct what they would have originally looked like.[5][6][7]
By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces, some of which were still visible. Despite this, influential art historians such as Johann Joachim Winckelmann so strongly opposed the idea of painted Greek sculpture that proponents of painted statues were dismissed as eccentrics, and their views were largely dismissed for more than a century.
It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high-intensity lamps, ultraviolet light, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entire Parthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted. He analyzed the pigments of the original paint to discover their composition.
Brinkmann made several painted replicas of Greek statues that went on tour around the world. Also in the collection were replicas of other works of Greek and Roman sculpture, and he demonstrated that the practice of painting sculpture was the norm rather than the exception in Greek and Roman art.[8] Museums that hosted the exhibit included the Glyptotek Museum in Munich, the Vatican Museum, and the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, et al. The collection made its American debut at Harvard University in the Fall of 2007.[9]
Brinkmann said that "no other aspect of the art of antiquity is as little understood as is the polychrome painting of temples and sculptures", and that modern sculptures, ostensibly inspired by the Greeks but left unpainted, are "something entirely new".[10]
Development of Greek sculptures[edit]
Geometric[edit]
It is commonly thought that the earliest incarnation of Greek sculpture was in the form of wooden cult statues, first described by Pausanias as xoana.[11] No such statues survive, and the descriptions of them are vague, despite the fact that they were probably objects of veneration for hundreds of years. The first piece of Greek statuary to be reassembled since is probably the Lefkandi Centaur, a terra cotta sculpture found on the island of Euboea, dated c. 920 BC. The statue was constructed in parts, before being dismembered and buried in two separate graves. The centaur has an intentional mark on its knee, which has led researchers to postulate[12] that the statue might portray Cheiron, presumably kneeling wounded from Herakles' arrow. If so, it would be the earliest known depiction of myth in the history of Greek sculpture.
The forms from the geometrical period (c. 900 to c. 700 BC) were chiefly terra cotta figurines, bronzes, and ivories. The bronzes are chiefly tripod cauldrons, and freestanding figures or groups. Such bronzes were made using the lost-wax technique probably introduced from Syria, and are almost entirely votive offerings left at the Hellenistic civilization Panhellenic sanctuaries of Olympia, Delos, and Delphi, though these were likely manufactured elsewhere, as a number of local styles may be identified by finds from Athens, Argos, and Sparta. Typical works of the era include the Karditsa warrior (Athens Br. 12831) and the many examples of the equestrian statuette (for example, NY Met. 21.88.24 online). The repertory of this bronze work is not confined to standing men and horses, however, as vase paintings of the time also depict imagery of stags, birds, beetles, hares, griffins and lions. There are no inscriptions on early-to-middle geometric sculpture, until the appearance of the Mantiklos "Apollo" (Boston 03.997) of the early 7th century BC found in Thebes. The figure is that of a standing man with a pseudo-daedalic form, underneath which lies the inscription "Μαντικλος μ' ανεθε̅κε ϝεκαβολο̅ι αργυροτοχσο̅ι τας {δ}δε-κατας· τυ δε Φοιβε διδοι χαριϝετταν αμοιϝ[αν]", written in hexameter. The Latinized script reads, "Mantiklos manetheke wekaboloi argurotoxsoi tas dekatas; tu de Foibe didoi xariwettan amoiw[an]", and is translated roughly as "Mantiklos offered me as a tithe to Apollo of the silver bow; do you, Phoibos [Apollo], give some pleasing favour in return". The inscription is a declaration of the statuette to Apollo, followed by a request for favors in return. Apart from the novelty of recording its own purpose, this sculpture adapts the formulae of oriental bronzes, as seen in the shorter more triangular face and slightly advancing left leg. This is sometimes seen as anticipating the greater expressive freedom of the 7th century BC and, as such, the Mantiklos figure is referred to in some quarters as proto-Daedalic.
Archaic[edit]
Kleobis and Biton, kouroi of the Archaic period, c. 580 BC. Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of Egypt[13] and Mesopotamia, the Greeks began again to carve in stone. Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, c. 660–580 BC, both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BC, figures such as these, both male and female, began wearing the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic.
Three types of figures prevailed—the standing nude youth (kouros, plural kouroi), the standing draped girl (kore, plural korai), and the seated woman. All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Anafi (British Museum, London), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum of Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period.
The Greeks thus decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was no distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude without any attachments such as a bow or a club, could just as easily be Apollo or Heracles as that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (plural kouroi), the standing male nude (See for example Biton and Kleobis). The kore (plural korai), or standing clothed female figure, was also common; Greek art did not present female nudity (unless the intention was pornographic) until the 4th century BC, although the development of techniques to represent drapery is obviously important.
As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal—beauty, piety, honor or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. Kouroi were all stylistically similar. Graduations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovations.
Dipylon Kouros, c. 600 BC, Athens, Kerameikos Museum.
The Moschophoros or calf-bearer, c. 570 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum.
Phrasikleia Kore, c. 550 BC, Athens, National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum.
Frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, depicting a Gigantomachy, c. 525 BC, Delphi Archaeological Museum.
Euthydikos Kore. c. 490 BC, Athens, authorized replica, original in National Archaeological Museum of Athens
An Ethiopian's head and female head, with a kalos inscription. an Attic Greek janiform red-figure aryballos, ca. 520–510 BC.
Classical[edit]
Riace bronzes, examples of proto classic bronze sculpture, Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, Reggio Calabria
Artemision Bronze, thought to be either Poseidon or Zeus, c. 460 BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Found by fishermen off the coast of Cape Artemisium in 1928. The figure is more than 2 m in height.
The Classical period saw a revolution of Greek sculpture, sometimes associated by historians with the popular culture surrounding the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the kouroi. The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture, along with a dramatic increase in the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting realistic human forms. Poses also became more naturalistic, notably during the beginning of the period. This is embodied in works such as the Kritios Boy (480 BC), sculpted with the earliest known use of contrapposto ('counterpose'), and the Charioteer of Delphi (474 BC), which demonstrates a transition to more naturalistic sculpture. From about 500 BC, Greek statues began increasingly to depict real people, as opposed to vague interpretations of myth or entirely fictional votive statues, although the style in which they were represented had not yet developed into a realistic form of portraiture. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, set up in Athens mark the overthrow of the aristocratic tyranny, and have been said to be the first public monuments to show actual individuals.
The Classical Period also saw an increase in the use of statues and sculptures as decorations of buildings. The characteristic temples of the Classical era, such as the Parthenon in Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, used relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Most of these works survive only in fragments, for example the Parthenon Marbles, roughly half of which are in the British Museum.
Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types—the mourning mother, the dutiful son—they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. This is a notable increase in the level of emotion relative to the Archaic and Geometrical eras.
Another notable change is the burgeoning of artistic credit in sculpture. The entirety of information known about sculpture in the Archaic and Geometrical periods are centered upon the works themselves, and seldom, if ever, on the sculptors. Examples include Phidias, known to have overseen the design and building of the Parthenon, and Praxiteles, whose nude female sculptures were the first to be considered artistically respectable. Praxiteles' Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was often referenced to and praised by Pliny the Elder.
Lysistratus is said to have been the first to use plaster molds taken from living people to produce lost-wax portraits, and to have also developed a technique of casting from existing statues. He came from a family of sculptors and his brother, Lysippos of Sicyon, produced fifteen hundred statues in his career.[14]
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena Parthenos (both chryselephantine and executed by Phidias or under his direction, and considered to be the greatest of the Classical Sculptures), are lost, although smaller copies (in other materials) and good descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted rivals to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed.
Kritios Boy. Marble, c. 480 BC. Acropolis Museum, Athens.
Copy of Polyclitus' Diadumenos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
So-called Venus Braschi by Praxiteles, type of the Knidian Aphrodite, Munich Glyptothek.
Family group on a grave marker from Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Athens
The Marathon Youth, 4th century BC bronze statue, possibly by Praxiteles, National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
Hermes, possibly by Lysippos, National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
Terracotta vase in the shape of Dionysus' head, ca. 410 BC; on display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus
Pottery vessel, Aphrodite inside a shell; from Attica, Classical Greece, discovered in the Phanagoria cemetery, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia), early 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg.
Hellenistic[edit]
Laocoön and His Sons (Late Hellenistic), Vatican Museum
The Hellenistic Pergamon Altar: l to r Nereus, Doris, a Giant, Oceanus
Main articles: Hellenistic art and Phidias
The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic (or Hellenic) (Hellenic is not the same era as the Hellenistic) period occurred during the 4th century BC. Greek art became increasingly diverse, influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit, by the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 to 323 BC). In the view of some art historians, this is described as a decline in quality and originality; however, individuals of the time may not have shared this outlook. Many sculptures previously considered classical masterpieces are now known to be of the Hellenistic age. The technical ability of the Hellenistic sculptors are clearly in evidence in such major works as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, and the Pergamon Altar. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities. By the 2nd century BC, the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition—and an increasing proportion of its products as well.
During this period, sculpture again experienced a shift towards increasing naturalism. Common people, women, children, animals, and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens. Realistic figures of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. At the same time, new Hellenistic cities springing up in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and (some) lowering of quality. For these reasons, quite a few more Hellenistic statues survive to the present than those of the Classical period.
Alongside the natural shift towards naturalism, there was a shift in expression of the sculptures as well. Sculptures began expressing more power and energy during this time period. An easy way to see the shift in expressions during the Hellenistic period would be to compare it to the sculptures of the Classical period. The classical period had sculptures such as the Charioteer of Delphi expressing humility. The sculptures of the Hellenistic period however saw greater expressions of power and energy as demonstrated in the Jockey of Artemision.[15]
Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the Winged Victory of Samothrace (2nd or 1st century BC), the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the Venus de Milo (mid-2nd century BC), the Dying Gaul (about 230 BC), and the monumental group Laocoön and His Sons (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted. Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), thought to have been roughly the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as any other very large works of this period that might have existed.
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th-century BC depiction of Isis. The depiction is unusually sensual for depictions of the Egyptian goddess, as well as being uncharacteristically detailed and feminine, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms around the time of Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt.
In Goa, India, were found Buddha statues in Greek styles. These are attributed to Greek converts to Buddhism, many of whom are known to have settled in Goa during Hellenistic times.[16][17]
Statue of a prince or dynast without crown, traditionally thought to be a Seleucid prince, maybe Attalus II of Pergamon. Bronze, Greek artwork of the Hellenistic era, 3rd-2nd centuries BC.
The Winged Victory of Samothrace (Hellenistic), The Louvre, Paris
Jockey of Artemision. Late Hellenistic bronze statue of a mounted jockey, National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
Sepulchral monument of a dying Adonis, polychrome terracotta, Etruscan art from Tuscana, 250-100 BC
Fragment of a marble relief depicting a Kore, 3rd century BC, from Panticapaeum, Taurica (Crimea), Bosporan Kingdom
Ancient Greek terracotta head of a young man, found in Tarent, ca. 300 BC, Antikensammlung Berlin.
Female head partially imitating a vase (lekythos), 325-300 BC.
Bronze portrait of an unknown sitter, with inlaid eyes, Hellenistic period, 1st century BC, found in Lake Palestra of the Island of Delos.
Greco-Buddhist frieze of Gandhara with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum.
Gravestone of a woman with her child slave attending to her, c. 100 BC (early period of Roman Greece)
Cult images[edit]
Reproduction of the Athena Parthenos statue at the original size in the Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee.
All ancient Greek temples and Roman temples normally contained a cult image in the cella. Access to the cella varied, but apart from the priests, at the least some of the general worshippers could access the cella some of the time, though sacrifices to the deity were normally made on altars outside in the temple precinct (tenemos in Greek). Some cult images were easy to see, and were what we would call major tourist attractions. The image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, originally less than life-size, then typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size, in marble or bronze, or in the specially prestigous form of a Chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, and Phidias's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine stutues from Delphi have been excavated. Cult images generally held or wore identifying attributes, which is one way of distinguishing them from the many other statues of deities in temples and other locations.
The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A xoanon was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity. Many of the Greek statues well-known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example the bronze Piraeus Athena (2.35 metres high, including a helmet).
In Greek and Roman mythology, a "palladium" was an image of great antiquity on which the safety of a city was said to depend, especially the wooden one that Odysseus and Diomedes stole from the citadel of Troy and which was later taken to Rome by Aeneas. (The Roman story was related in Virgil's Aeneid and other works.)
Part of a series on the
History of Greek art
Greek Bronze Age
Cycladic art
Minoan art
Mycenaean art
Ancient Greece
Archaic Greek art
Ancient Greek art
Ancient Greek architecture
Ancient Greek pottery
Ancient Greek sculpture
Hellenistic art
see also: Greco-Buddhist art
Medieval Greece
Byzantine art
Macedonian art
Post-Byzantine Greece
Cretan School
Heptanese School
Modern Greece
Modern Greek art
Modern Greek architecture
Munich School
Contemporary Greek art
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Drapery[edit]
Female[edit]
Diane of Gabies (fr) dressing with a diplax
Pallas over a peplos.
Chiton
Weavers on the Parthenon Frieze
Male[edit]
Chlamys
Parthenon Frieze
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Cook, 19
Jump up ^ Cook, 74-75
Jump up ^ Cook, 74-76
Jump up ^ Cook, 75-76
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Brinkmann, Vinzenz (2008). "The Polychromy of Ancient Greek Sculpture". In Panzanelli, Roberta; Schmidt, Eike D.; Lapatin, Kenneth. The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Research Institute. pp. 18–39. ISBN 978-0-89-236-918-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gurewitsch, Matthew (July 2008). "True Colors: Archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann insists his eye-popping reproductions of ancient Greek sculptures are right on target". Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Prisco, Jacopo (30 November 2017). "'Gods in Color' returns antiquities to their original, colorful grandeur". CNN style. CNN. Cable News Network. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Gurewitsch, Matthew (July 2008). "True Colors". Smithsonian: 66–71.
Jump up ^ October 2007, Colorizing classic statues returns them to antiquity: What was really on that Grecian Urn? Harvard University Gazette.
Jump up ^ Brinkmann, Vinzenz (2008). "The Polychromy of Ancient Greek Sculpture". In Panzanelli, Roberta; Schmidt, Eike D.; Lapatin, Kenneth. The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present. Los Angeles, California: The J. Paul Getty Museum and the Getty Research Institute. pp. 18–39. ISBN 978-0-89-236-918-8.
Jump up ^ The term xoanon and the ascriptions are both highly problematic. A.A. Donohue's Xoana and the origins of Greek sculpture, 1988, details how the term had a variety of meanings in the ancient world not necessarily to do with the cult objects
Jump up ^ [1] Archived February 27, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The debt of archaic Greek sculpture to Egyptian canons was recognized in Antiquity: see Diodorus Siculus, i.98.5-9.
Jump up ^ Gagarin, 403
Jump up ^ Stele, R. Web. 24 November 2013. <http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Sculpture/>
Jump up ^ Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1. panajim Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, 1979. 1979. pp. (see page 70).
Jump up ^ (see Pius Melkandathil,Martitime activities of Goa and the Indian ocean.)
References[edit]
Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of 1972), ISBN 0140218661
Gagarin, Michael, Elaine Fantham (contributor), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 9780195170726
Stele, R. Web. 24 November 2013. http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Sculpture/
Bibliography[edit]
Boardman, John. Greek Sculpture: The Archaic Period: A Handbook. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
--. Greek Sculpture: The Classical Period: A Handbook. London: Thames and Hudson, 1985.
--. Greek Sculpture: The Late Classical Period and Sculpture In Colonies and Overseas. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995.
Dillon, Sheila. Ancient Greek Portrait Sculpture: Contexts, Subjects, and Styles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Furtwängler, Adolf. Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture: A Series of Essays On the History of Art. London: W. Heinemann, 1895.
Jenkins, Ian. Greek Architecture and Its Sculpture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006.
Kousser, Rachel Meredith. The Afterlives of Greek Sculpture: Interaction, Transformation, and Destruction. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Marvin, Miranda. The Language of the Muses: The Dialogue Between Roman and Greek Sculpture. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2008.
Mattusch, Carol C. Classical Bronzes: The Art and Craft of Greek and Roman Statuary. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996.
Muskett, G. M. Greek Sculpture. London: Bristol Classical Press, 2012.
Neer, Richard. The Emergence of the Classical Style In Greek Sculpture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Neils, Jenifer. The Parthenon Frieze. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Palagia, Olga. Greek Sculpture: Function, Materials, and Techniques In the Archaic and Classical Periods. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Palagia, Olga, and J. J. Pollitt. Personal Styles In Greek Sculpture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Pollitt, J. J. The Ancient View of Greek Art: Criticism, History, and Terminology. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.
--. Art In the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo. The Archaic Style In Greek Sculpture. 2nd ed. Chicago: Ares, 1993.
--. Fourth-Century Styles In Greek Sculpture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997.
Smith, R. R. R. Hellenistic Royal Portraits. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.
--. Hellenistic Sculpture: A Handbook. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991.
Spivey, Nigel Jonathan. Understanding Greek Sculpture: Ancient Meanings, Modern Readings. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996.
--. Greek Sculpture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Stanwick, Paul Edmund. Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings As Egyptian Pharaohs. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
Stewart, Andrew F. Greek Sculpture: An Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.
--. Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
von Mach, Edmund. Greek Sculpture: Its Spirit and Its Principles. New York: Parkstone Press International, 2006.
--. Greek Sculpture. New York: Parkstone International, 2012.
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, and Alex Potts. History of the Art of Antiquity. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006.
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Ancient Greek sculpture
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Classic Greek Sculpture to Late Hellenistic Era, lecture by professor Kenney Mencher, Ohlone College
Sideris A., Aegean Schools of Sculpture in Antiquity, Cultural Gate of the Aegean Archipelago, Athens 2007 (a detailed per period and per island approach).
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Premier League Golden Boot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Premier League Golden Boot
Thierry Henry has won the most Golden Boot awards with four.
Awarded for
The leading goalscorer in a given Premier League season.
Sponsored by
Cadbury
Country
England
Presented by
The Football Association
First awarded
1993
Last awarded
2018
Currently held by
Mohamed Salah
The Premier League Golden Boot is an annual association football award presented to the leading goalscorer in the Premier League. For sponsorship purposes, it was called the Carling Golden Boot from 1994 to 2001, from 2001 to 2004 as the Barclaycard Golden Boot, and the Barclays Golden Boot (2005–2016). Since 2017, it is known as the Cadbury Golden Boot.[1][2] In addition to the trophy, winners of the Golden Boot are usually given £1,000 for every goal they scored throughout the season to donate to a charity of their choice,[3][4] although Robin van Persie was given £30,000 after scoring 26 goals in the 2012–13 season.[5][6]
The Premier League was founded in 1992, when the clubs of the First Division left the Football League and established a new commercially independent league that negotiated its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements.[2] The newly formed league had no sponsor for its inaugural season until Carling agreed to a four-year £12 million deal that started the following season,[7] and it was simply known as the Premier League in its first year.[2] As a result, the award was called the "Premier League Golden Boot" when Teddy Sheringham received the inaugural award in 1993.[8] Originally consisting of 22 teams, the league contracted to 20 teams after the 1994–95 season; this reduced the number of games played from 42 to 38.[2]
Thierry Henry has won the Golden Boot on four occasions, more than any other player. Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink and Dwight Yorke were the first non-English and non-European winners, respectively, when they shared the award with Michael Owen in 1999.[9] Alan Shearer is the only player other than Henry to win the award in three consecutive seasons.[10] Phillips, Henry, Cristiano Ronaldo and Luis Suárez won the European Golden Shoe in the same season as the Premier League Golden Boot,[10][11] with Henry achieving this on two occasions (2004 and 2005).[12] Shearer, Hasselbaink and Van Persie are the only players to win the Golden Boot with two clubs.[13]
Andy Cole and Shearer – with 34 goals in 1993–94 and 1994–95, respectively – scored the most goals to win the Golden Boot,[14][A] while Nicolas Anelka scored the fewest to clinch the award outright, with 19 goals in 2008–09.[8] The all-time record for lowest number of goals scored to be bestowed the award, however, is 18 goals; this was achieved during the 1997–98 and 1998–99 seasons, when the award was shared between three players both times.[16] The latter season marked the last time the Golden Boot was shared until 2010–11,[17] when Dimitar Berbatov and Carlos Tevez both scored 20 goals that season to tie for the award.[18] Harry Kane recorded the highest goals-to-games ratio to win the award, scoring 29 goals in 30 games in 2016–17 for a rate of 0.97.[19]
Contents
[hide]
1 Winners
2 Awards won by nationality
3 Awards won by club
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Winners[edit]
Teddy Sheringham won the inaugural Premier League Golden Boot in 1993.
Cristiano Ronaldo, the 2008 winner, is one of four players to win the European Golden Shoe alongside the Golden Boot.
Dwight Yorke, the 1999 co-recipient, is the first winner of the Golden Boot from outside Europe.
Key
Player (X)
Name of the player and number of times they had won the award at that point (if more than one)
Games
The number of Premier League games played by the winner that season[B]
Rate
The winner's goals-to-games ratio that season
Indicates multiple award winners in the same season
Indicates player also won the European Golden Shoe in the same season
§
Denotes the club were Premier League champions in the same season
Premier League Golden Boot winners
Season
Player
Nationality
Club
Goals
Games[C]
Rate
Ref(s)
1992–93
Sheringham, TeddyTeddy Sheringham
England Tottenham Hotspur[D] 22 41 0.54 [8]
1993–94
Cole, AndyAndy Cole
England Newcastle United 34 40 0.85 [8]
1994–95
Shearer, AlanAlan Shearer
England
Blackburn Rovers§
34 42 0.81 [8][22]
1995–96
Shearer, AlanAlan Shearer (2)
England Blackburn Rovers 31 35 0.89 [8][22]
1996–97
Shearer, AlanAlan Shearer (3)
England Newcastle United 25 31 0.81 [8][22]
1997–98
Sutton, ChrisChris Sutton
England Blackburn Rovers 18 35 0.51 [8]
1997–98
Dublin, DionDion Dublin
England Coventry City 18 36 0.50 [8][23]
1997–98
Owen, MichaelMichael Owen
England Liverpool 18 36 0.50 [8]
1998–99
Owen, MichaelMichael Owen (2)
England Liverpool 18 30 0.60 [8]
1998–99
Yorke, DwightDwight Yorke
Trinidad and Tobago
Manchester United§
18 33 0.55 [24]
1998–99
Hasselbaink, Jimmy FloydJimmy Floyd Hasselbaink
Netherlands Leeds United 18 36 0.50 [8]
1999–2000
Phillips, KevinKevin Phillips
England Sunderland 30 36 0.83 [10][25]
2000–01
Hasselbaink, Jimmy FloydJimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (2)
Netherlands Chelsea 23 35 0.66 [26]
2001–02
Henry 1 !Henry, ThierryThierry Henry
France
Arsenal§
24 33 0.73 [24]
2002–03
Nistelrooy, Ruud vanRuud van Nistelrooy
Netherlands
Manchester United§
25 34 0.74 [27]
2003–04
Henry 2 !Henry, ThierryThierry Henry (2)
France
Arsenal§
30 37 0.81 [12][24]
2004–05
Henry 3 !Henry, ThierryThierry Henry (3)
France Arsenal 25 32 0.78 [12]
2005–06
Henry 4 !Henry, ThierryThierry Henry (4)
France Arsenal 27 32 0.84 [8]
2006–07
Drogba, DidierDidier Drogba
Ivory Coast Chelsea 20 36 0.56 [28]
2007–08
Ronaldo, CristianoCristiano Ronaldo
Portugal
Manchester United§
31 34 0.91[E] [3][11]
2008–09
Anelka, NicolasNicolas Anelka
France Chelsea 19 36 0.53 [30]
2009–10
Drogba, DidierDidier Drogba (2)
Ivory Coast
Chelsea§
29 32 0.91[E] [31]
2010–11
Tevez, CarlosCarlos Tevez
Argentina Manchester City 20 31 0.65 [32]
2010–11
Berbatov, DimitarDimitar Berbatov
Bulgaria
Manchester United§
20 32 0.63 [32]
2011–12
Persie, Robin vanRobin van Persie
Netherlands Arsenal 30 38[F] 0.79 [34]
2012–13
Persie, Robin vanRobin van Persie (2)
Netherlands
Manchester United§
26 38 0.68 [5]
2013–14
Suarez, LuisLuis Suárez
Uruguay Liverpool 31 33 0.94 [35]
2014–15
Aguero, SergioSergio Agüero
Argentina Manchester City 26 33 0.79 [36]
2015–16
Kane, HarryHarry Kane
England Tottenham Hotspur 25 38 0.65 [37]
2016–17
Kane, HarryHarry Kane (2)
England Tottenham Hotspur 29 30 0.97 [38]
2017–18
Salah, MohamedMohamed Salah
Egypt Liverpool 32 36 0.89 [39]
Awards won by nationality[edit]
Country
Total
England
7001120000000000000♠12
Netherlands
7000500000000000000♠5
France
7000500000000000000♠5
Argentina
7000200000000000000♠2
Ivory Coast
7000200000000000000♠2
Trinidad and Tobago
7000100000000000000♠1
Portugal
7000100000000000000♠1
Bulgaria
7000100000000000000♠1
Uruguay
7000100000000000000♠1
Egypt
7000100000000000000♠1
Awards won by club[edit]
Alan Shearer (left) and Robin van Persie (right) won consecutive Golden Boot awards with two clubs.
Club
Total
Arsenal
7000500000000000000♠5
Manchester United
7000500000000000000♠5
Chelsea
7000400000000000000♠4
Liverpool
7000400000000000000♠4
Blackburn Rovers
7000300000000000000♠3
Tottenham Hotspur
7000300000000000000♠3
Manchester City
7000200000000000000♠2
Newcastle United
7000200000000000000♠2
Coventry City
7000100000000000000♠1
Leeds United
7000100000000000000♠1
Sunderland
7000100000000000000♠1
See also[edit]
English football portal
Association football portal
English football first tier top scorers
List of Premier League players with 100 or more goals
List of top Premier League goal scorers by season
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Cole and Shearer won the Golden Boot when the Premier League still operated a 42-game season. Mohamed Salah scored the most goals in a 38-game with 32 in 2017–18.[15]
Jump up ^ This does not necessarily match the total number of games in a season.
Jump up ^ From the 1995–96 season onwards, the Premier League was reduced from 22 teams to 20,[20] thus reducing the number of games in a league season from 42 to 38.
Jump up ^ Teddy Sheringham scored his first goal of the 1992–93 season as a Nottingham Forest player,[21] while the rest of his goals were scored for Tottenham Hotspur following his transfer in August 1992.
^ Jump up to: a b When rounding to three significant figures, Ronaldo's goal ratio in the 2007–08 season was 0.912, while Drogba's 2009–10 ratio was 0.906.[29]
Jump up ^ Arsenal's official website incorrectly lists Van Persie as having played 37 games in the 2011–12 season. He played all 38 games, as confirmed by the Premier League.[33]
References[edit]
General
"Van Persie wins Premier League Golden Boot (1992–2012 Golden Boot Award winners list)". Arsenal.com. Arsenal FC. 14 May 2012. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
"A brief history of the English top division – List of Honours (List of Premier League champions)". ESPN FC. ESPN Internet Ventures. 1 July 2012. Archived from the original on 17 January 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
Specific
Jump up ^ "Premier League Awards". Premier League. Archived from the original on 10 December 2006. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "History of the Premier League". Premier League. Archived from the original on 21 April 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ronaldo & Ferguson win top awards". BBC Sport. BBC. 14 May 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Van Nistelrooy has final say". The Daily Telegraph. 14 May 2003. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Robin van Persie retains Barclays Golden Boot Award". Premier League. 22 May 2013. Archived from the original on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Doyle, Joe (22 May 2013). "Van Persie picks up Premier League Golden Boot". Goal.com. Perform Group. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Jones, Peter (19 January 2001). "Why Carling called time on Premiership". BBC Sport. BBC. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Top Ten – Golden Boot". Sky Sports. May 2010. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Ascough, Phil, ed. (7 May 2012). Kissing the Badge: How much do you know about 20 years of the Premier League?. A & C Black. ISBN 9781408178539. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Whooley, Declan (23 December 2013). "Will Luis Suarez break the Premier League goal scoring record this season?". Irish Independent. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Pontes, Carlos (14 September 2008). "Ronaldo receives Golden Boot in his native Madeira". Reuters. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Golden Shoe fits for Thierry Henry". Arsenal.com. Arsenal FC. 31 May 2005. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Premier League 2012–13: the season in numbers". The Guardian. 20 May 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "For the record: Premier League facts and figures". premierleague.com. Premier League. 16 May 2018. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Salah breaks record as Liverpool seal top-four spot". premierleague.com. Premier League. 13 May 2018. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Dumont, Albert (24 May 2009). "Nicolas Anelka Wins Premier League Golden Boot". Goal.com. Perform Group. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Carr, Paul (23 May 2011). "Statistical breakdown of EPL season". ESPN. ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Martin, James (2 June 2011). "Dimitar Berbatov's bizarre season". ESPN. ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Tottenham striker Harry Kane wins the Premier League's Golden Boot for the second season in a row". The Independent. 21 May 2017. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Roller-coaster years". BBC Sport. BBC. 7 May 2001. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Player Profile – Teddy Sheringham". Premier League. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Van Persie follows in Shearer's footsteps". FIFA.com. FIFA. 20 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Lomas, Mark (24 May 2010). "Dublin: Rooney the cream of the crop". ESPN. ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Question Nobody asked". Irish Independent. 25 January 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Phillips nets Golden prize". BBC Sport. BBC. 29 July 2000. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Chelsea clinch Uefa Cup spot". BBC Sport. BBC. 19 May 2001. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Van Nistelrooy nets Golden Boot". BBC Sport. BBC. 11 May 2003. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Drogba collects Golden Boot award". BBC Sport. BBC. 18 May 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Prentice, David (23 December 2013). "Suarez, MacKay, Dalglish... now how about some appreciation for Rodgers?". Liverpool Echo. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Herman, Martyn (24 May 2009). "Anelka tops Premier League scoring charts". Reuters. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Terry calls for fresh investment to build on success". The Irish Times. 11 May 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2013. (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b "Berbatov, Tevez share Premier League 'golden boot' on drama-filled last day". The Sofia Echo. 23 May 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Player Profile – Robin Van Persie". Premier League. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Van Persie wins Premier League Golden Boot". Arsenal.com. Arsenal FC. 14 May 2012. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Luis Suarez & Tony Pulis win Barclays Premier League awards". BBC Sport. BBC. 13 May 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Aguero and Hart seal Golden Awards double for Man City". Premier League. 25 May 2015. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tottenham's Harry Kane clinches Premier League Golden Boot". Sky Sports. 15 May 2016. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Tottenham striker Harry Kane wins the Premier League's Golden Boot for the second season in a row". The Independent. 21 May 2017. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mohamed Salah wins Golden Boot with new PL record". The Independent. 13 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
[show]
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Premier League Golden Boot
1993: Sheringham
1994: Cole
1995: Shearer
1996: Shearer
1997: Shearer
1998: Dublin, Owen & Sutton
1999: Hasselbaink, Owen & Yorke
2000: Phillips
2001: Hasselbaink
2002: Henry
2003: Van Nistelrooy
2004: Henry
2005: Henry
2006: Henry
2007: Drogba
2008: Ronaldo
2009: Anelka
2010: Drogba
2011: Berbatov & Tevez
2012: Van Persie
2013: Van Persie
2014: Suárez
2015: Agüero
2016: Kane
2017: Kane
2018: Salah
[show]
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