text:
Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
hideThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The lead section of this article may need to be rewritten. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. Use the lead layout guide to ensure the section follows Wikipedia's norms and to be inclusive of all essential details. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
(Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A collection of lenses a DSLR owner might have. These are three Olympus zooms (40–150 mm, 11–22 mm and 14–54 mm) and a Sigma prime (30 mm), all for the Four Thirds System.
This article is about photographic lenses for single-lens reflex film cameras (SLRs) and digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs). Emphasis is on modern lenses for 35 mm film SLRs and for DSLRs with sensor sizes less than or equal to 35 mm ("full-frame").
Contents
[hide]
1 Interchangeable lenses
2 Aperture and depth of field
3 Focal length and angle of view
4 Types of lenses
4.1 Zoom lenses
4.2 Macro lenses
4.3 Special purpose lenses
5 Automatic focus
6 Image stabilization
7 Lens mounts
7.1 M42
7.2 M39
7.3 Canon EF- and EF-S-mounts
7.4 Four Thirds mount
7.5 Micro Four Thirds mount
7.6 Minolta/Konica Minolta/Sony A-mount
7.7 Nikon F-mount
7.8 Nikon 1-mount
7.9 Pentax K-mount
7.10 Sigma SA-mount
7.11 Mount compatibility across camera generations
8 See also
9 References
Interchangeable lenses[edit]
Canon EF and Nikon F lens mounts are rivalling
Canon EF
Nikon F
Most SLR and DSLR cameras provide the option of changing the lens. This enables the use of lens that are best suited for the current photographic need, and allows the attachment of specialized lenses. Film SLR cameras have existed since the late 1950s, and over the years a very large number of different lenses have been produced, both by camera manufacturers (who typically only make lenses intended for their own camera bodies) and by third-party optics companies who may make lenses for several different camera lines.
DSLRs became affordable around the mid-1990s, and have become extremely popular in recent years. Some manufacturers, for example Minolta, Canon and Nikon, chose to make their DSLRs 100% compatible with their existing SLR lenses in the beginning, allowing owners of new DSLRs to continue to use their existing lenses and get a longer lifespan from their investment. Others, for example Olympus, chose to create a completely new lens mount and series of lenses for their DSLRs. The Pentax SLR camera K-mount system is backward compatible to all previous lens generations from Pentax, including the latest digital SLRs like the K-3 and K-50. A Pentax K-mount lens from the early 70s can be used on the newest Pentax DSLR although it may not provide features that are included in newer lenses (e.g. autofocus). There are a few exceptions from the MZ and ZX series of Pentax film cameras that do not work with some of the older lenses.[1]
As implied by the above, lenses are only directly interchangeable within the "mount system" for which they are built. Mixing mounting systems requires an adapter, and most often results in compromises such as loss of functionality (e.g. lack of autofocus or automatic aperture control). Further, in some cases the adapter will require an additional optical element to correct for varied registration distances (the distance from the rear of the mount to the focal plane on the image sensor or film). Adapters may not be available to bridge every combination of lens mount and camera mount.
Aperture and depth of field[edit]
Large (1) and small (2) aperture
Main articles: Aperture, f-number, and Depth of field
The aperture of a lens is the opening that regulates the amount of light that passes through the lens. It is controlled by a diaphragm inside the lens, which is in turn controlled either manually or by the exposure circuitry in the camera body.
The relative aperture is specified as an f-number, the ratio of the lens focal length to its effective aperture diameter. A small f-number like f/2.0 indicates a large aperture (more light passes through), while a large f-number like f/22 indicates a small aperture (little light passes through). Aperture settings are usually not continuously variable; instead the diaphragm has typically 5–10 discrete settings. The normal "full-stop" f-number scale for modern lenses is as follows: 1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, but many lenses also allow setting to half-stop or third-stop increments. A "slow" lens (one that is not capable of passing a lot of light through) might have a maximum aperture from 5.6 to 11, while a "fast" lens (one that can pass more light through) might have a maximum aperture from 1 to 4. Fast lenses are by definition larger than slow lenses (for comparable focal length), and typically cost more.[2] The aperture affects not only the amount of light that passes through the lens, but also the depth of field of the resulting image: a larger aperture (a smaller f-number, e.g. f/2.0) will have a shallow depth of field, while a smaller aperture (a larger f-number, e.g. f/11) will have a greater depth of field.[3]
Focal length and angle of view[edit]
Main articles: Focal length and Angle of view
The focal length of a lens, together with the size of the image sensor in the camera (or size of the 35 mm film), determines the angle of view. A lens is considered to be a "normal lens", in terms of its angle of view on a camera, when its focal length is approximately equal to the diagonal dimension of the film format or image sensor format.[4] The resulting diagonal angle of view of about 53 degrees is often said to approximate the angle of human vision; since the angle of view of a human eye is at least 140 degrees,[5] more careful authors will qualify that, for example as "similar to the angle of crisp human vision."[6] A wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length, and includes more of the viewed scene than a normal lens; a telephoto lens has a longer focal length, and images a small portion of the scene, making it seem closer.
Lenses are not labeled or sold according to their angle of view, but rather by their focal length, usually expressed in millimeters. But this specification is insufficient to compare lenses for different cameras because field of view also depends on the sensor size. For example, a 50 mm lens mounted on a Nikon D3 (a full-frame camera) provides approximately the same field of view as a 32 mm lens mounted on a Sony α100 (an APS-C camera). Conversely, the same lens can produce different fields of view when mounted on different cameras. For example, a 35 mm lens mounted on a Canon EOS 5D (full-frame) provides a slightly wide-angle view, while the same lens mounted on a Canon EOS 400D (APS-C) provides a "normal" or slightly telephoto view.
In order to make it easier to compare lens–camera pairs, it is common to talk about their 35 mm equivalent focal length. For example, when talking about a 14 mm lens for a Four Thirds System camera, one would not only indicate that it had a focal length of 14 mm, but also that its "35 mm equivalent focal length" is 28 mm. This way of talking about lenses is not just limited to SLR and DSLR lenses; it is very common to see this focal length equivalency in the specification of the lens on a digicam.
Values in the following table are approximate, and apply to rectilinear lenses only, not to fisheye lenses.
Sensor size: 35 mm or full-frame APS-H APS-C Foveon X3[a 1] Four Thirds
Crop factor: 1.0 1.3 1.5 or 1.6 1.7 2.0
Lens view Angle of view
(deg. diagonal) Focal length (mm)
Ultra wide-angle 118 13 10 8 8 7
111 15 12 10 9 8
100 18 14 12 11 9
92 21 16 14 12 11
Typical wide-angle 84 24 18 15 14 12
75 28 22 18 16 14
Slightly wide-angle 63 35 27 23 21 18
"Normal" 59–47 40–50 30–38 25–32 23–29 20–25
Portrait lens 29 85 65 55 50 43
23 105 81 68 62 53
Telephoto 18 135 104 87 79 68
14 180 138 116 106 90
12 210 162 135 134 105
Long telephoto 8 300 231 192 176 150
6 400 308 258 235 200
5 500 385 323 294 250
4 600 462 387 353 300
3 830 638 535 488 415
Very long telephoto 2 1200 923 774 706 600
Some cameras using
this sensor size: 35 mm film
Canon EOS-1Ds
Canon EOS-1Ds II
Canon EOS-1Ds III
Canon EOS-1D X
Canon EOS-1D X Mark II
Canon EOS 5D
Canon EOS 5D Mark II – Mark IV
Canon EOS 5DS
Canon EOS 6D
Nikon D3 (X, S), D4 (S), D5
Nikon D700, D800, D600, Df, D810, D750
Sony Sony α850, Sony α900, Sony α99, Sony α7/Sony α7R
Leica M9, M9-P, M Monochrom, M-E, M Canon EOS-1D
Canon EOS-1D II N
Canon EOS-1D III
Canon EOS-1D IV
Kodak DCS 460 - 760
Leica M8 Canon EOS 7D
7D Mark II
Canon EOS D30, D60
Canon EOS 10D - 80D
Canon EOS 100D, 300D - 1300D
Nikon D1 (H,X)
Nikon D2H (Hs,X,Xs)
Nikon D40 (x) - D90
Nikon D100 - D500
Nikon D3000–D7200
Pentax *ist D-Series
Pentax K10D - K200D
Pentax K-3, K-5, K-5 II, K-7, K-30, K-50
Pentax K-m, K-r, K-x, K-500
Sony Sony α33 - Sony α700 (except α99)
Konica Minolta 5D, 7D
Sigma SD1 Sigma SD9
Sigma SD10
Sigma SD14
Sigma DP1
Sigma DP2
Canon EOS DCS 3 Leica Digilux 3
Olympus E-3
Olympus E-30
Olympus E-620
Panasonic DMC-G1
Jump up ^ The crop factor in this column refers to the original Foveon X3 sensor. Current versions of the Foveon X3 are standard APS-C size with a 1.5 crop factor.
Types of lenses[edit]
Zoom lenses[edit]
Nikkor 28–200 mm zoom lens, extended to 200 mm at left and collapsed to 28 mm focal length at right
Main article: Zoom lens
The focal length of a zoom lens is not fixed; instead it can be varied between a specified minimum and maximum value. Modern lens technology is such that the loss of image quality in zoom lenses (relative to non-zoom lenses) is minimal, and zoom lenses have become the standard lenses for SLRs and DSLRs. This is different from the late 1980s when, due to image quality concerns, most professional photographers still relied primarily on standard non-zoom lenses. However, zoom lenses still typically have a lower maximum aperture than fixed-focal ("prime") lenses for the same weight and cost, especially for shorter focal lengths.
Zoom lenses are often described by the ratio of their longest to shortest focal lengths. For example, a zoom lens with focal lengths ranging from 100 mm to 400 mm may be described as a 4:1 or "4×" zoom. Typical zoom lenses cover a 3.5× range, for example 24–90 mm (standard zoom) or 60–200 mm (telephoto zoom). "Super-zoom" lenses with a range of 10× or even 14× are becoming more common, although the image quality does typically suffer a bit compared with the more traditional zooms.
The maximum aperture for a zoom lens may be the same (constant) for all focal lengths, but it is more common that the maximum aperture is greater at the wide-angle end than at the telephoto end of the zoom range. For example, a 100 mm to 400 mm lens may have a maximum aperture of f/4.0 at the 100 mm end but will diminish to only f/5.6 at the 400 mm end of the zoom range. Zoom lenses with constant maximum apertures (such as f/2.8 for a 24–70mm lens) are usually reserved for lenses with higher build quality and are thus more expensive than those with variable maximum apertures.
Macro lenses[edit]
Main article: Macro photography
Macro lenses are designed for extreme closeup work. Such lenses are popular for nature shooting such as small flowers, as well as for many technical applications. As most of these lenses can also focus to infinity and tend to be quite sharp, many are used as general-purpose optics.
Special purpose lenses[edit]
See also: Photographic lens § Special-purpose
Special-purpose perspective control lens for architectural photographs
Most users of SLR and DSLR cameras stick to using zoom lenses, while a few of the more adventurous amateurs and many professional photographers also invest in a few prime lenses. Special purpose lenses are, as the designation implies, for special purposes, and are not so common.
There are many different kinds of special purpose lenses, the most popular being fisheye lenses, which are extreme wide-angle lenses with an angle of view of up to 180 degrees or more, with very noticeable (sometimes intended) distortion. Perspective control lenses and soft-focus lenses, were more popular with film SLRs but are less popular for DSLRs because the same or similar results can be obtained with post-processing software.
Automatic focus[edit]
Electronics of a Canon EF-S lens
Main article: Autofocus
Almost all modern lenses for SLRs and DSLRs provide automatic focus. The autofocus sensor(s) and electronics are actually in the camera body, and this circuitry provides electrical power and signals to a motor inside the lens that adjusts the focus. (Some older autofocus systems are based on a motor in the camera body and using a mechanical connection to the focus mechanism in the lens.)
There are two different kinds of in-lens electronic focus drive motors currently in use, the traditional servo motor and the more modern "ultrasonic" drive systems. These ultrasonic drives go by different names according to the manufacturer, for example USM (Canon), AF-S/Silent Wave (Nikon), Super Sonicwave Motor/SSM (Sony), Supersonic Wave Drive (Olympus), Extra Silent Motor (Panasonic/Leica), Supersonic Drive Motor (Pentax), and Hypersonic Motor/HSM (Sigma). These ultrasonic focus drives typically provide faster focusing than the non-ultrasonic drives, as well as being practically silent and using less battery power.[7]
Image stabilization[edit]
Image stabilization is a technique used to reduce image blur caused by the camera not being held steady. There are two kinds of image stabilization used in SLR and DSLR cameras and their lenses:
In-body image stabilization is implemented by moving the image sensor in an attempt to counteract the sensed motion of the camera. The advantage of this technique is that it works for all lenses mounted on the camera, at least if the camera electronics are aware of the lens' focal length. This is most commonly done automatically, but some cameras (such as all Olympus bodies with IS) allow the user to input the focal length manually for use with lenses with no electronic coupling. In-body image stabilization is used in modern Olympus, Sony, and Pentax cameras.
In-lens image stabilization, also known as optical image stabilization, is implemented in the lens itself and moves the lens elements in an attempt to counteract the sensed motion of the camera. The inherent advantage of this kind of image stabilization is that it steadies the viewfinder image, allowing for more accurate framing and autofocus. The disadvantage is that you have to pay the extra cost for every lens you buy for which you want image stabilization.[8] Panasonic, Canon, and Nikon use lens-based image stabilization. Some third-party lenses from Sigma and Tamron also have lens-based IS systems.
Modern advanced cameras use not one image stabilization, but more than one and it is called as Hybrid System Image Stabization. One for fast focusing, one for accurate good image quality and the other one for take video while walking.
The effectiveness of image stabilization systems varies somewhat from implementation to another, but there seems to be no inherent superiority to either lens-based or sensor-based systems [9] as far as the actual improvement in captured images.
Modest image stabilization systems can degrade image quality if the photographer is intentionally panning (as the system tries to negate the panning motion), or if the camera is mounted on a very sturdy tripod (the system drifts around slowly due to spurious measurements over the course of a long exposure). Some more recent IS systems can automatically detect these situations and disable the IS along the panning axis, or disable it completely if the camera is on a tripod. Sweep panoramic photography certainly use panning system. So, modern image stabilization system is not use 2 axis anymore, but up to 5 axis: horizontal axis, vertical axis and rotation of 3 axis.
Mounting a lens with optical image stabilization on a camera with in-body image stabilization does not provide improved results, since the combined effect of both systems will "overcorrect". Users of image-stabilized lenses on bodies with sensor-shift IS should determine which system offers superior performance and turn the other off. But, in-lens image stabilization usually better than in-body image stabilization, if the lens is newer than the body.
Lens mounts[edit]
Main article: Lens mount
There is almost no commonality between different camera makers regarding lens mount systems. Each manufacturer has developed their own system, and build camera bodies and lenses that only work with their own lens mount, with the Four Thirds System being a partial exception. This was different before 1970 when most of the manufacturers use either M42 or M39 lenses, most of which can still be used depending on the particular adapter you can find.
This does not necessarily mean that one is limited to only mounting, for example, Pentax lenses on a Pentax camera body. There are independent optics companies that make lenses for the various otherwise proprietary mount systems, thus providing alternative sources for lenses that are often of equal quality and/or less expensive than the camera maker's own lenses. Another possibility is the use of adaptors that allow mounting a lens for one system on a camera with a different lens mount. However, the use of an adaptor usually results in reduced functionality, typically requiring the manual setting of aperture and focus, or perhaps not being able to use any aperture other than "wide open".
M42[edit]
The M42 lens mount has been used by Leica, Nikon, Pentax, Canon, Zenit, Praktica, Fujica.
M39[edit]
Also known as LTM (Leica Thread Mount). Used by Leica and Contax and several Leica copies, like the Soviet era FEDs, and others.
Canon EF- and EF-S-mounts[edit]
The electronic contacts (gold-plated) of an EF mount lens.
Canon introduced the EF-lens mount in 1987 as part of the EOS system. It broke with the most common technique for implementing autofocus at that time by not having a mechanical connection to a motor in the camera body, having instead only electrical connections and requiring a motor to be part of each autofocus lens.
The EF-S-mount is a newer subset of the EF standard, introduced in 2003. EF-S lenses can only be used on Canon digital cameras that use the APS-C sensor, for example the 400D (EOS Digital Rebel XTi) and the 40D. EF-S lenses can be distinguished by a white dot on the mount ring, as opposed to the red dot seen on standard EF lenses. Note that while an EF-S lens cannot be mounted on a camera that uses the EF mount, EF lenses can be mounted on cameras designed for the EF-S standard: for this reason, EF-S cameras carry both a red dot and a white dot on the mount.
As noted above under focal length, Canon makes DSLRs with various sensor sizes, and all using the EF or EF-S lens mounts. This leads to the interesting phenomenon of the same EF lens providing different angles of view depending on which camera it is mounted on.
Third-party lenses compatible with Canon's EF and EF-S mounts are manufactured by Sigma, Tamron, Tokina and Zeiss. The manufacturers of these lenses have reverse engineered the electronics of the EF lens mount. The use of these lenses is not supported by Canon. However, many users find these lenses to be cheaper (with the exception of Zeiss), and sometimes superior alternatives to Canon lenses.
Four Thirds mount[edit]
The Four Thirds System was created by Olympus and Kodak in 2001, and is designed exclusively for digital cameras.[10] It is a semi-open standard that may be licensed by third parties. Currently Olympus, Leica (in cooperation with Panasonic), and Sigma are making lenses under Four Thirds System consortium licensing.
The Four Thirds System sensor size (17.3 mm x 13 mm) is the smallest currently being used in DSLR cameras. This leads to both advantages (theoretically smaller, lighter and cheaper lenses and camera bodies) and disadvantages (slightly lower image quality, especially in low-light situations).
There are currently over 35 lenses available for Four Thirds System cameras. A complete list can be found on Andrzej Wrotniak's web site.[11]
Micro Four Thirds mount[edit]
Micro Four Thirds is a variant on the standard Four Thirds system, developed by Olympus and Panasonic. While these cameras are technically not DSLRs, they are similar in operation, and use similar interchangeable lenses. The Micro Four Thirds lens mount is a slightly modified version of the standard Four Thirds mount, and a number of lenses have been built for it. Because the lack of a mirror, optical viewfinder, and a shorter flange-focal distance these lenses can be more compact than those for standard Four Thirds.
Standard Four Thirds lenses can be used on a Micro Four Thirds camera with full electronic communication using an adapter, but those that do not support contrast-detect autofocus will only autofocus slowly, if at all. Micro Four Thirds lenses can not be used on a standard Four Thirds camera.
Minolta/Konica Minolta/Sony A-mount[edit]
A Minolta Maxxum AF 50mm f/1.7 prime lens with type “A” bayonet mount with the aperture all the way closed at F22.
The same Minolta AF 50mm f/1.7 prime lens with the aperture all the way open at F1.7.
Rear view of Minolta Maxxum/Dynax lens showing the port for the external autofocus drive
The Minolta A-mount system was introduced with the Minolta Maxxum 7000 camera in 1985, along with 11 AF-mount lenses.
In North America, Minolta began using the name 'Maxxum' for the SLR autofocus cameras, lenses and flashes while in Europe they were called 'AF' (first series) and 'Dynax' (second and later generations), and in Asia the 'α' (Alpha) branding was used, though they were otherwise identical in appearance and function - all of the equipment is 100% interchangeable regardless which of the names it carries.
Most Minolta A-mount compatible lenses, whether built by Minolta or one of the aftermarket lens manufacturers, are focused externally by a shaft connecting the autofocus computer and motor inside the camera body that mechanically connects to the internal focusing gears inside of the lens body. A couple of later Minolta lenses do have a built-in ultrasonic focus motor (SSM lenses), like other SLR and DSLR systems (i.e. Canon and Nikon), where the AF computer is inside the camera body and there is a digital interface connecting body to an electric motor and the focusing gears built into the lens body.
This shaft driven autofocus design has several benefits such as allowing for smaller and lighter lenses and also keeps the cost of lenses down because there are no internal focusing motors or digital interfaces built into the lens. Keeping the autofocus motors inside the camera body and as far away from the lens glass as possible, reduces vibration, an additional benefit. This highly reliable shaft-driven autofocus system was extremely successful but is not seen in modern lenses.
Minolta (and later Konica Minolta) followed up by producing a large number of AF-mount lenses over the years up until 2004. Konica Minolta sold the rights to their Minolta AF lens mount to Sony in 2006.
Sony acquired Konica Minolta's camera technologies in 2006, and chose the "α" brand name, already in use by Minolta in Asia, for their new "Sony α" digital SLR system. The company has since abandoned traditional SLR design, and now uses the "α" brand name for its current line of SLT and ILCA cameras with fixed semi-reflective mirrors and electronic viewfinders, as well as its current line of E-mount mirrorless cameras.
The Minolta A-mount was retained from the old cameras and was originally named the "Sony α mount system".[12]
Sony has produced several new lenses for its A-mount, and the current list of Minolta and Sony A-mount lenses has over 60 entries.
Some of the newest A-mount lenses are designated "DT" for Digital Technology; these are for digital cameras with APS-C sensors, and will result in vignetting if used on a film SLR or a full frame DSLR or full frame SLT camera.
Third-party lenses for the AF lens mount are made by Zeiss, Sigma, Tamron, Tokina and Vivitar.
Further information: Minolta A-mount, Sony A-mount, and List of Sony A-mount lenses
Nikon F-mount[edit]
The Nikon F-mount was introduced by Nikon in 1959, and is thus one of the most venerable lens mounts still in existence. Another factor that makes the Nikon F-mount popular is that several other camera manufacturers, for example Fujifilm, have adopted it. F-mount photographic lenses are currently made by Nikon, Zeiss, Voigtländer, Schneider, Sigma, Tokina, Tamron, Hartblei, Kiev-Arsenal, Lensbaby, Vivitar, and others, and over 400 lenses are compatible with the system.
Most Nikon F-mount lenses cover the standard 36×24 mm area of 135 film, while "DX" designated lenses cover the 24×16 mm area of the Nikon DX format DSLR sensors, commonly referred to as APS-C format. While "DX" lenses can be physically mounted on any Nikon film or digital SLR that support the "AI" exposure indexing feature (produced from 1977), there will be some degree of vignetting when used on film cameras, depending on zoom setting. All Nikon full-frame "FX" DSLRs have a DX-compatible mode that, by default when a DX-format lens is attached, crops the captured frames to the DX format and adjusts the viewfinder to reflect the smaller capture area. This can be overridden by the user if desired.
There are basically three types of F mount Nikon lens:
MF = Manual focus lenses
AF & AF-D = Auto focus by camera body driven focus motor, the D version provides distance information
AF-I & AF-S = Auto focus by integrated/ultrasonic motor in lens; see also List of Nikon F-mount lenses with integrated autofocus motors
Industrial F-mount lenses have varying, often small, film/sensor coverage. Older F-mount lenses designed for film cameras will work on modern SLR or DSLR cameras with some limitations, typically not providing autofocus or automatic aperture setting. Entry level Nikon DSLRs such as Nikon D40, D40X, D60, D3000, D3100, D5000 and D5100 do not have an integrated focus motor, so they will not autofocus with AF & AF-D lenses. Similarly, some AF-I & AF-S lenses will not work on some older Nikon AF film SLRs.
Nikon D200 digital SLR
Nikon 1-mount[edit]
The Nikon 1-mount was announced on 21 September 2011 together with the Nikon 1 series high-speed mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras.
Pentax K-mount[edit]
Pentax K10D "Crippled" KAF2 mount
The Pentax K-mount (or just "PK mount") was created by Pentax in 1975, and has been used by all Pentax 35 mm and digital SLRs since. The mount has been developed over the years, resulting in a large number of designations such as KF mount, KA mount, KAF mount, KAF2 mount and KA2 mount, plus a couple of more recent versions that are not completely backward-compatible and are thus referred to as "crippled" versions. ("Crippled" in this context does not imply any lack of modern functionality, just a lack of compatibility with past lenses.) For more information see the Pentax K mount article or Bojidar Dimitrov's web site.[13]
A number of other manufacturers have produced K-mount lenses, and several other manufacturers (such as Konica and Ricoh) have made K-mount cameras. In 2005 Pentax and Samsung entered into a cooperation resulting in the Samsung GX line of DSLRs, based largely on Pentax technology including the Pentax K mount.
Sigma SA-mount[edit]
Sigma Corporation, better known for manufacturing lenses for other cameras, has made some film SLR and DSLR cameras themselves. These cameras use the Sigma SA-mount, for which Sigma makes a line of lenses.
The Sigma DSLR cameras that use the SA mount are the Sigma SD9, SD10, SD14, SD15 and SD1 Merrill. These cameras are noteworthy for their use of the Foveon X3 sensor, an image sensor that works on quite different principles from the sensors used in all other digital cameras.
Mount compatibility across camera generations[edit]
The Nikon F-mount lens systems and the Pentax K-mount systems are the only 35 mm SLR camera systems (apart from the Leica M-mount rangefinder system) that allow a photographer to use a mechanical SLR camera body, a fully automatic SLR camera body, and a DSLR camera body, all utilizing the same lenses. The only aspects of these manufacturers' lenses that have changed are the addition of electronic contacts, autofocus abilities and, in some cases, the elimination of the external aperture ring for electronic control (i.e., Nikon's 'G-type' auto-Nikkors, which cannot be used on a mechanical SLR camera body).
Canon, Minolta (Sony), Olympus, and other manufacturers have changed lens mounts. Much older Canon film cameras used the FD lens mount, which was discontinued in 1987 in favor of the EF lens mount. Olympus discontinued the OM lens mount for the OM series cameras in favor of the Four Thirds System lens mount. However, due to the size of the Four Thirds mount it is possible to fit legacy SLR lenses from any manufacturer using an adapter, albeit with manual aperture and focus control. Minolta (Sony after 2006) phased out its bayonet-mount MC and MD Rokkor lenses for a modified bayonet mount (supporting autofocus) in 1985. All Minolta A-mount lenses work on compatible Minolta SLR film bodies and on Sony A-mount DSLR and SLT bodies.
See also[edit]
Afocal photography
History of the single-lens reflex camera
Digital versus film photography
List of photographic equipment makers
Teleside converter
List of digital single-lens reflex cameras
List of Nikon compatible lenses with integrated autofocus-motor
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.mosphotos.com/PentaxLensCompatibility.html
Jump up ^ John Shaw, Nature Photography Field Guide, Amphoto Books, 2000.
Jump up ^ Bockaert, Vincent. "Depth of Field". DPReview.com. Amazon.com. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
Jump up ^ H. Snowden Ward (1908). The Photographic Annual Incorporating the Figures, Facts, and Formulae of Photography. London: Dawbarn and Ward Ltd.
Jump up ^ Michael Tidwell. "A Virtual Retinal Display For Augmenting Ambient Visual Environments". Retrieved 2007-10-23.
Jump up ^ Glenn M. Rand and David R. Litschel (2001). Black & White Photography. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 0-7668-1817-9.
Jump up ^ Burian, Peter (July 2007). "New Lenses For Digital And 35mm SLRs". Shutterbug.com. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
Jump up ^ Bockaert, Vincent. "Image Stabilization". DPReview.com. Amazon.com. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
Jump up ^ "SLRGear E-520 IS Test".
Jump up ^ "Kodak and Olympus join forces". DPReview.com. Amazon.com. 2001-02-13. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
Jump up ^ Wrotniak, Andrzej. "Lenses for the Olympus E-System Cameras". Wrotniak.net. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
Jump up ^ "Sony decides α as new brand for digital Single Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras" (Press release). Sony. 2006-04-20. Retrieved 2006-09-29.
Jump up ^ Dimitrov, Bojidar. "Bojidar Dimitrov's Pentax K-Mount Page". BDimitrov.de. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lenses_for_SLR_and_DSLR_cameras&oldid=838786410"
Categories:
Photographic lenses
Digital photography
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from September 2007
All articles needing additional references
Wikipedia introduction cleanup from September 2009
All pages needing cleanup
Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2009
All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify
Articles with multiple maintenance issues
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 29 April 2018, at 08:53.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: span

attrs: class role tabindex

value: b

value: small

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-lead_rewrite

values:
mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible
width:95%; margin: 0.2em 0;

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox

values:
/wiki/Four_Thirds_System
mw-redirect
Four Thirds System

values:
/wiki/Photographic_lens
mw-redirect
Photographic lens

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #cc0000; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values: -webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #00008b; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values:
/wiki/Olympus_(company)
mw-redirect
Olympus (company)

values: Edit section: Aperture and depth of field

values: Edit section: Focal length and angle of view

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B1100
mw-redirect
Sony α100

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B1850
mw-redirect
Sony α850

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B1900
mw-redirect
Sony α900

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B199
mw-redirect
Sony α99

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B17R
mw-redirect
Sony α7R

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B133
mw-redirect
Sony α33

values:
/wiki/Sony_%CE%B1700
mw-redirect
Sony α700

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Photographic_lens#Special-purpose
mw-redirect
Photographic lens

values:
/wiki/Nikkor_perspective_control_lenses
mw-redirect
Nikkor perspective control lenses

values:
/wiki/Perspective_control_lens
mw-redirect
Perspective control lens

values:
/wiki/Canon_(company)
mw-redirect
Canon (company)

values:
/wiki/Reverse_engineered
mw-redirect
Reverse engineered

values:
/wiki/Eastman_Kodak
mw-redirect
Eastman Kodak

values:
/wiki/Panasonic_Corporation
mw-redirect
Panasonic Corporation

values:
/wiki/Micro_Four_Thirds
mw-redirect
Micro Four Thirds

values: Edit section: Minolta/Konica Minolta/Sony A-mount

values:
/wiki/Minolta_A-mount
mw-redirect
Minolta A-mount

values:
/wiki/Sony_A-mount
mw-redirect
Sony A-mount

values:
/wiki/Kiev-Arsenal_(photo_camera)
mw-redirect
Kiev-Arsenal (photo camera)

values:
/wiki/Samsung_Techwin
mw-redirect
Samsung Techwin

values: Edit section: Mount compatibility across camera generations

values: History of the single-lens reflex camera

values: List of digital single-lens reflex cameras

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from September 2007

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Wikipedia introduction cleanup from September 2009

values: Category:Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2009

values: Category:All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify

values: Category:Articles with multiple maintenance issues

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Lenses_for_SLR_and_DSLR_cameras
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Lenses_for_SLR_and_DSLR_cameras rootpage-Lenses_for_SLR_and_DSLR_cameras skin-vector action-view


text:
Age requirements in gymnastics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The age requirements in gymnastics are established by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) and regulate the age attter half of the 20th century, a series of controversies arose with regard to gymnast ages, some of them leading to sanctions by FIG, and paving the way for the age requirements to be raised from 14 to 15 in 1981, and then to 16 in 1997.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of age requirements in artistic gymnastics
2 Reasons for age restrictions
3 Current regulations
3.1 Terminology
3.2 Legal exceptions
3.3 Verification procedures
3.4 Response from coaches and federations
4 Age falsification
4.1 Reasons for age falsification
4.2 Major verified cases of age falsification
4.3 2008 Beijing Olympics age controversy
5 References
History of age requirements in artistic gymnastics[edit]
See also: Gymnastics all-around champions by age
Prior to 1981, the minimum required age to compete in senior events sanctioned by the FIG (including the Olympic Games) was 14.[1] The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s; most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Hungarian gymnast Ágnes Keleti won individual gold medals at the age of 35 at the 1956 Olympics. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at the age of 21, her second at 25 and her third at 29; she became the 1958 World Champion while pregnant with her daughter.[2] Czech gymnast Věra Čáslavská, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals at the highest level of the sport, and won her final Olympic all-around title at the age of 26.[3]
In the 1970s, the average age of Olympic gymnastics competitors began to gradually decrease. While it was not unheard of for teenagers to compete in the 1960s — Ludmilla Tourischeva was sixteen at her first Olympics in 1968 — they slowly became the norm, as difficulty in gymnastics increased.
By the late 1970s, Federations occasionally requested permission to allow slightly underage athletes to compete as seniors. One such example is that of Canadian gymnast Karen Kelsall, who legally competed in the 1976 Olympics at the age of 13. At the time, gymnasts had to turn 14 by the start of the Games to be eligible. Kelsall, with her December 1962 birthday, was five months shy of the requirement but was turning 14 within the Olympic year, and was granted a special exemption by the FIG to compete.[4] Such exemptions were not automatic, however: American gymnast Tracee Talavera, who was named to the United States team for the 1979 World Championships, was deemed ineligible to compete due to her age of 12½ years.[5][6]
In response to the changing demands of the sport, at the 58th Congress of the FIG, held in July 1980 just before the Moscow Olympics, the minimum age was raised from 14 to 15. Under this rule, which went into effect in 1981, gymnasts were required to turn at least 15 years of age in the calendar year to compete in senior-level events.[1] This age requirement remained in place until 1997, when it was raised one more year, from 15 to 16.[7][8]
Reasons for age restrictions[edit]
Age restrictions were designed supposedly not so much to level the playing field in terms of skill and physical advantages, but to allegedly protect child athletes from injury. However, critics dispute the science behind the policy and argue that the answer is not to prohibit junior gymnasts from competing in senior competitions.
On the one hand, proponents such as Jeanne Dopbrak, a sports medicine physician at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, contend that "[a child athlete's] immature skeleton just isn't ready to handle the day-to-day stresses that will occur."[9] and that the stresses imposed on only partly developed muscular/skeletal system by gymnastics are almost certain to cause damage that would persist into adulthood. Proponents also point to a 16-year American study of gymnastics injuries which concluded that gymnastics is the most dangerous sport for girls, with injury rates comparable to those found in boys who play soccer, basketball and hockey.[10][11] An athlete whose bones are still growing is more likely than an adult to suffer skeletal injury, because the bones are more porous and the joints not yet fully formed.[12] Lesions, which are precursors to stress fractures, occur in 11 percent of young female gymnasts, compared to 2.3 percent of girls and women in general.[12] The International Gymnastics Federation says that intense physical activity, such as that engaged in by gymnasts training at the elite level, affects the functioning of growth hormones, possibly causing delayed bone growth and the onset of puberty – although the body is able to recover and catch up later if given rest periods.[11]
In addition, proponents contend that practicing elite sports is mentally and emotionally demanding. Young gymnasts at these levels are often pressured to perform by coaches and parents,[11][13] and ex-gymnasts have spoken out about behavioural and psychological problems common to the sport.[14]
Current regulations[edit]
Currently, per the 1997 regulation, gymnasts must be at least 16 years of age, or turning 16 within the calendar year, to compete in senior-level events. For the current Olympic cycle, in order to compete in the 2016 Olympics, a gymnast must have a birth date before January 1, 2001. There is no maximum age restriction, and some gymnasts compete well into their 20s. The oldest female gymnast currently competing in senior international events is Uzbekistan's Oksana Chusovitina,[15] (b. 1975) who will be 41 years, 1 month old at the 2016 Summer Olympics. She was 17 years, 1 month old at her first Olympics, the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Terminology[edit]
The term senior, in gymnastics, refers to any world-class gymnast who is age-eligible under F.I.G. rules. The term junior is used to describe any gymnast who competes at a world-class level, but does not meet the F.I.G.'s age minimum. Juniors are judged under the same Code of Points as the seniors, and often exhibit the same level of difficulty in their routines.
Legal exceptions[edit]
The one exception to the F.I.G.'s age restrictions until recently applied to the year before the Olympics, when gymnasts who were one year below the required age, but would be the required age in the Olympic year, were allowed to compete as seniors at the World Championships and other FIG meets. For instance, gymnasts born in 1977 were allowed to compete at senior events in 1991, when they were 14 or turning 14 within the calendar year. Within the last Olympic cycle, gymnasts born in 1992 were permitted to compete as seniors in 2007. This was permitted to allow nations to qualify to the Olympics with their best teams, and to give emerging gymnasts some experience in major competition before the Olympics. However, the FIG eliminated this exception as of the 2012 Olympic cycle.[16]
In addition, the age requirement technically only applies to meets which are sanctioned and regulated directly by the FIG: the Olympics, the World Championships and the World Cup circuit. Many other meets, such as the European Championships, have separate divisions for juniors. Additionally, some competitions, such as the Pan Am Games, the Pacific Rim Championships and the All-Africa Games, have different rules which permit seniors and juniors to compete together. There are also numerous international competitions specifically limited to junior gymnasts, such as the Japan Junior International, Moscow World Stars, the Junior Pan American Championships, and the Youth Olympic Games.
Verification procedures[edit]
According to official statements from the FIG, "the accepted proof of a gymnast’s eligibility for competition is a valid passport issued by the country of residence."[17] This verification process has been criticized by some in the gymnastics community, with the argument that countries can manufacture and submit falsified documents for underage athletes.[18][19][20] In several cases, gymnasts involved in age falsification have verified that they did in fact compete under forged passports provided to them by their federations.[21][22]
Since 2009, gymnasts competing in FIG-sanctioned events at both the senior and junior level have been required to have licenses issued by the Federation. These licenses reportedly verify the competitors' ages based on their passports. However, the licensing does not include any independent verification of submitted passport information.[23]
Response from coaches and federations[edit]
The age limit is arguably one of the most contentious rules in gymnastics, and is frequently debated by coaches, gymnasts and members of the media. While some members of the sport, such as former USA Gymnastics president Bob Colarossi, have expressed support for the age limit of 16, others, such as coach Béla Károlyi, have heavily criticized it.[24]
Supporters of the age restrictions have pointed out that it has encouraged older gymnasts to remain in the sport. The average age of an international gymnast was 18.10 years in 2005. In contrast, in 1994, before the new age requirements, it was 16.49, and in 1989, gymnasts who had reached the age of 17 were already often considered to be of retirement age.[25][26]
Opponents of the rule have countered that by barring younger gymnasts from top level meets, they are denying them valuable competitive experience.[24] They have also argued that junior gymnasts perform and are scored under the same Code of Points as the seniors, perform the same skills, and are thus not avoiding the physical impact of training and performing high-level skills. It is also argued that the current Code of Points, with its increased requirements for difficult skills, is more suited to younger and lighter athletes, and puts older athletes at greater risk of injury.[19]
Age falsification[edit]
Age falsification is the practice of advancing gymnasts' ages to make them age-eligible for senior-level competition. Reports of age falsification among top-level international gymnasts first began to surface in the 1980s, after the age limit was raised from 14 to 15. This has frequently taken the form of inconsistently reported birthdates; at other times, speculation has been raised due to the young appearance of the gymnasts.[8][19] Age falsification has been revealed and confirmed in several ways. In some cases, gymnasts themselves have come forward and publicly confirmed and verified the falsification.[27] In other cases, documents revealing inconsistencies, such as original birth certificates, have been researched and uncovered by the press.[28] Inconsistencies with reported birth dates and ages at international and national competitions have also led to the discovery of age falsification.[29]
Gymnasts who have had their ages falsified, and have spoken about their experiences, have indicated that they were not given a choice in the matter.[21] In a 2002 interview, Romanian gymnast Daniela Silivaş, whose age was advanced two years in the 1980s, noted: "One of the officials of the Federation told me 'Look at the passport, from today you're not 13 years old anymore but 15.' Nobody asked me if I agreed to this, I was just a child. They needed gold medals and everybody who was involved in gymnastics knew about these practices."[22]
While age falsification has been denied among many gymnastics officials, in recent years some have publicly admitted that the practice has occurred. In reference to the falsifications of the early 1990s and 1980s, the head of the Romanian Gymnastics Federation, Nicolae Vieru, was quoted in 2002: "Changing the ages was a worldwide practice...we copied this from others."[8] The FIG has publicly stated that they view age falsification as an unacceptable practice. However, there have only been three cases, those of Kim Gwang Suk in 1993 and Dong Fangxiao and Hong Su Jong in 2010, where the FIG has elected to take any action against a gymnastics federation for age falsification.[19][30]
Reasons for age falsification[edit]
According to many scientific and medical studies, as well as reports from ex-gymnasts, younger gymnasts may have psychological or physical advantages in elite gymnastics competition.
Psychologically, younger gymnasts may be more fearless, and have less visceral appreciation for the potential for injury. They are therefore more likely to perform more dangerous, and more highly scored, routines with confidence and steadiness.[9] “Psychologically, I think they worry less,” former Olympic medallist Nellie Kim told the New York Times.[31] Daniela Silivaş, in her interview, commented, "You should know that I competed better at the age of 13 than at 17. I felt much better, physical (sic) and mentally."[22]
Physically, younger gymnasts, particularly those who have not yet gone through puberty, tend to be lighter, smaller, more pliable and flexible, which aids them in performing more complex skills and gives them a better strength-to-weight ratio. When a gymnast hits puberty, growth spurts and weight gain may affect her centre of gravity, causing mental and physical stress as she must adjust, and in some cases relearn, her moves to compensate.[9][32] Smaller athletes have generally excelled in the more challenging acrobatic elements required by the evolving Code of Points after the 1960s.[13] In addition, older gymnasts may be more prone to certain types of injuries caused by overuse of bones and muscles; younger gymnasts are less likely to have such problems, or more likely to be able to work through pain while injured.[9][13]
Major verified cases of age falsification[edit]
Kim Gwang Suk (North Korea): Kim, the 1991 World Champion on the uneven bars, was active on the international circuit between 1987 and 1993. During this time, several observers claimed she was too young for senior competition. The North Korean Gymnastics Federation submitted inconsistent dates of birth for Kim at various competitions, claiming that she was 15 for three consecutive years. As punishment, the F.I.G. barred the North Korean women's team from the World Championships in 1993. She competed in the 1989 World Championships at the estimated age of 11 or 12.[33] However, she may have been younger than that. At the 1992 Olympics, she claimed she was 17. However, her front teeth were missing, leading Béla Károlyi to speculate that she was as young as 10 at the time.[34]
Lavinia Agache (Romania): Agache competed at the 1981 World Championships at the age of 13, under a passport which gave her year of birth as 1967. She was in fact born in 1968. The falsification was suspected as early as 1981; Agache confirmed her 1968 birthdate to International Gymnast magazine in 2000.[6][35][36]
Olga Bicherova (Soviet Union): Bicherova, the 1981 World Champion in the all-around event, was introduced at an early 1981 meet as a 12-year-old, but was claimed to have been born in 1966 at the 1981 World Championships later in the same year.[6][37][38]
Gina Gogean (Romania): Gogean competed in the 1992 Olympics with a passport with a 1977 birth year. However, in 2002 her original birth certificate was uncovered by the media, revealing she had been born in 1978.[8][39]
Alexandra Marinescu (Romania): Marinescu, a World and team Olympic medalist in the mid-1990s, had her birth year advanced from 1982 to 1981 in order to be eligible for the 1995 World Championships and 1996 Olympic Games.[8][21]
Olga Mostepanova (Soviet Union): Mostepanova, who competed at the 1983 and 1985 World Championships and was the all-around gold medalist at the 1984 Friendship Games, has been reported as having 1968 and 1969 birth dates, but has stated that she was actually born in 1970.[40][41]
Daniela Silivaş (Romania): Silivaş, a multiple World and Olympic gold medalist, competed as a junior until 1985, when her birth year was changed from 1972 to 1970. She went on to compete at the 1985 World Championships at the age of 13. Silivaş revealed the falsification to the media in 2002.[22]
Dong Fangxiao (People's Republic of China): Dong was a member of the bronze-medal winning Chinese team at the 2000 Summer Olympics. Her birthdate was listed as January 20, 1983, in the FIG database. However, it was discovered that her accreditation as a technical official at the 2008 Summer Olympics, where she worked as a vault secretary, listed her birthdate as January 23, 1986. Additionally, her blog stated she was born during the Year of the Ox, which would place her birthdate between February 1985 and February 1986. An FIG investigation determined in 2010 that Dong was 14 during the 2000 Olympics and the Chinese team should be stripped of its bronze medal. Dong's 1999 World Championships and World Cup results were vacated.[42] In April 2010, the International Olympic Committee upheld the F.I.G.'s recommendation and nullified both the Chinese team's bronze medal and Dong's individual Olympic placement.[30]
Hong Su Jong (North Korea), the 2007 World Championships silver medalist on vault, was investigated for age discrepancies in 2010. Hong competed at the 2004 Olympics with a March 9, 1985, birth date, but participated in subsequent Asian Games and World Championships meets with a 1986 year of birth. Her 2010 F.I.G. license and 2010 Worlds registration indicated that she was born in 1989. The F.I.G. responded in October 2010 by provisionally banning North Korea from competition for one month, which effectively barred them from the 2010 World Championships.[43] In November 2010, the F.I.G. extended the ban until October 5, 2012, fined the North Korean Federation $20,800, and banned Hong from competing even in national competition within North Korea.[44]
2008 Beijing Olympics age controversy[edit]
See also: Concerns and controversies over the 2008 Summer Olympics § Allegation of underage gymnasts
During the 2008 Summer Olympics the age of four Chinese gymnasts — He Kexin, Jiang Yuyuan, Deng Linlin, and Yang Yilin — was brought into question, with many foreign media outlets speculating that they were underage during the Olympics.[45] Multiple age investigations were conducted at the urging of media, as well as United States Olympic Committee executive Jim Scherr and International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge,[46][47] and the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) found that the gymnasts had met the age requirements and were eligible to compete.[48][49] The Chinese sports administration also acknowledged that mistakes in its paperwork have contributed to the misunderstanding.[50]
References[edit]
Gymnastics portal
^ Jump up to: a b "Within the International Federations" (PDF). Olympic Review (155): 520. September 1980. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2006. Retrieved 2006-04-11.
Jump up ^ "Legends: Larissa Latynina" International Gymnast, 2001
Jump up ^ "Vera Čáslavská: The heroine of Mexico". International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 3 July 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-01.
Jump up ^ Gymnastics Canada biography of Karen Kelsall Archived 2008-06-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ List of competitive results and bio at Gymn-Forum
^ Jump up to: a b c "Rift Over Underage Gymnasts" Neil Amdur, The New York Times, December 7, 1981
Jump up ^ "Female gymnasts: older—and healthier?" The Physician and Sports Medicine, Vol. 23 No. 3, March 1997
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Romanian gymnasts faked age to compete" BBC News/Europe, May 2, 2002
^ Jump up to: a b c d Stefano, Dan (2008-08-15). "China gymnast underage, AP alleges". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Archived from the original on 23 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ Park, Alice (2008-04-08). "Making Gymnastics Safer for Kids". Time. Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hutton, Lindsay. "Is Gymnastics Right for Your Child?". Family Education Network. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Klenerman, L. (1994-06-11). "ABC of Sports Medicine: Musculoskeletal Injuries in Child Athletes". BMJ. 308: 1556–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.308.6943.1556. Archived from the original on 1 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ryan, Joan (1995). Little Girls in Pretty Boxes. Garden City: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-47790-1.
Jump up ^ "Physical and Emotional Problems of Elite Female Gymnasts". The New England Journal of Medicine. 336: 140–142. 1997-01-09. doi:10.1056/nejm199701093360216. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ Turner, Amanda (June 19, 2008). "Ageless Chusovitina Turns". International Gymnast. Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
Jump up ^ "Age limits for gymnasts may be set after 2008" Xinhua News Service, December 4, 2007
Jump up ^ "Gymnast Age Limitations". NIS FIG Office. 2008-08-09. Archived from the original on 2008-08-21. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
Jump up ^ Armour, Nancy (2008-08-02). "More questions about Chinese gymnasts' ages". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 17 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Issues of Age Seem to Follow Chinese Gymnasts" Jere Longman, Juliet Macur. The New York Times, July 27, 2008
Jump up ^ Harris, Nick (2008-08-19). "Tweddle the loser as age doubts mar He's triumph". The Independent. Archived from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c The Secrets of a Gymnast. Norescu, Andrei, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Daniela Silivas discusses her age". ProSport. 2002-06-30. Retrieved 2008-07-01.
Jump up ^ Pucin, Diane (2008-08-10). "More age monitoring for women's gymnastics". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gymnasts are Old-lympians/Golden Girls going for gold in Sydney" Paula Parrish, Colorado Springs Gazette, September 14, 2000
Jump up ^ "Gymnasts too young? FIG says the rumor is false" International Sports Press Association, February 13, 2007
Jump up ^ "Gymnastic Girls, Not Women" The New York Times, August 1, 1989
Jump up ^ Daniela Silivas, Alexandra Marinescu, Yang Yun, Lavinia Agache, Olga Mostepanova
Jump up ^ Gina Gogean
Jump up ^ Kim Gwang Suk, Lavinia Agache, Olga Bicherova
^ Jump up to: a b "IOC strips 2000 Games bronze medal from China" Associated Press via USA Today April 28, 2010. Archived 2010-04-28.
Jump up ^ Longman, Jeré and Juliet Macur (2008-07-27). "Records Say Chinese Gymnasts May Be Under Age". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Row over ages of winning gymnasts". BBC/CBBC Newsround. 2008-08-22. Archived from the original on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Gold Medalist and His Team May Be Barred From Olympic Games : Last Chance for a North Korean Athlete" Christopher Clarey, International Herald Times, Friday, April 19, 1996
Jump up ^ NBC coverage of the 1992 Olympics team compulsories
Jump up ^ "Whatever happened to Lavinia Agache? Archived November 11, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Gymnastics Greats
Jump up ^ "Former Romanian Star Pities Raducan" International Gymnast, December 23, 2000
Jump up ^ "Olga Bicherova: The Youngest Champion" Vitali Melik-Karamov, Soviet Life, September 1982
Jump up ^ "Whatever happened to Olga Bicherova? Gymnastics Greats
Jump up ^ "Romanian gymnasts 'lied about age'" Associated Press, April 18, 2002
Jump up ^ List of competitive results at Gymn-Forum
Jump up ^ "Olga Mostepanova: I simply love children" Yevgeniy Aksyonov, Beth Squires (trans.); Sovetskiy Sport May 7, 1998. Archived 2009-10-24.
Jump up ^ FIG: China should be stripped of Sydney bronze Associated Press, February 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "FIG Rejects Appeal; No Worlds for North Korea " Amanda Turner, International Gymnast, October 14, 2010
Jump up ^ "North Korea banned 2 years for age falsification" Associated Press, November 5, 2010
Jump up ^ Macur, Juliet (2008-08-09). "Teeny-Tiny Matter of Age for China’s Gymnasts". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Jump up ^ Hutcheon, Stephen (2008-08-22). "IOC calls for investigation into gymnast's age". smh.com.au. Archived from the original on 22 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-22.
Jump up ^ Kent, Jo Ling (2008-08-22). "International Olympic Committee Investigates Underage Gymnasts Claims". ABC News. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Jump up ^ "Officials say Chinese Olympic gymnasts not underage". International Herald Tribune. 2008-10-02. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Jump up ^ Macur, Juliet (October 1, 2008). "Ruling Backs Chinese Gymnasts". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
Jump up ^ Macur, Juliet (2008-08-24). "China Cites Paperwork Error in Age of Gymnast". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_requirements_in_gymnastics&oldid=799229412"
Categories:
Minimum ages
Gymnastics
Sports controversies
Age and society
Age controversies
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 6 September 2017, at 12:54.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

value: p

attrs: role tabindex class

values: button 0 togglelink

value: li

values: Edit section: History of age requirements in artistic gymnastics

values: Edit section: Reasons for age restrictions

values:
/wiki/Pan-American_Games
mw-redirect
Pan-American Games

values:
/wiki/All-Africa_Games
mw-redirect
All-Africa Games

values: Edit section: Response from coaches and federations

values:
/wiki/Daniela_Siliva%C5%9F
mw-redirect
Daniela Silivaş

values:
/wiki/Kim_Gwang_Suk
mw-redirect
Kim Gwang Suk

values:
/wiki/Hong_Su_Jong
mw-redirect
Hong Su Jong

values: Edit section: Reasons for age falsification

values: Edit section: Major verified cases of age falsification

values: 1989 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships

values: 1981 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships

values: 1995 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships

values: 1985 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships

values:
/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China
mw-redirect
People's Republic of China

values: Edit section: 2008 Beijing Olympics age controversy

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.308.6943.1556

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1056%2Fnejm199701093360216

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.worldgymrank.com/IOC04.html

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values:
/wiki/International_Herald_Tribune
mw-redirect
International Herald Tribune

values: -moz-column-width: 40em; -webkit-column-width: 40em; column-width: 40em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Age_requirements_in_gymnastics
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Age_requirements_in_gymnastics rootpage-Age_requirements_in_gymnastics skin-vector action-view


text:
Tropical cyclone windspeed climatology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (June 2014)
Wind Swath of Hurricane King over Miami
Tropical cyclone windspeed climatology is the study wind distribution amongst tropical cyclones, a significant threat to land and people. Since records began in 1851, winds from hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones have been responsible for fatalities and damage in every basin. Major hurricanes (Category 3 or above) usually cause the most wind damage.[1] Hurricane Andrew for example caused $45 billion (2005 USD) in damage, most of it wind damage.[2]
Although wind damage is common to tropical cyclones near landmasses, there are a few factors that lead to high wind speeds. Warm water temperatures, which was seen during Hurricane Wilma when it winds rapidly strengthened to 185 mph (295 km/h) in a 24-hour period due to the presence of abnormally warm water temperatures. Size and speed of the storm, which results in damage along a wide area as seen in Hurricane Isabel and Great New England Hurricane of 1938.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Winds in tropical cyclones
1.1 Location of the winds
2 Classification of the winds
2.1 Beaufort wind scale
3 Fastest windspeed per basin
4 Windspeed per country
4.1 Australia
4.2 Canada
4.3 Japan
4.4 United States
4.4.1 Florida
5 References
Winds in tropical cyclones[edit]
The winds in a tropical cyclone are the result of evaporation and condensation of moisture which results in updrafts. The updrafts in turn increase the height of the storm which causes more condensation.
Location of the winds[edit]
Right front quadrant of a typical hurricane.
The strongest winds in a northern hemisphere tropical cyclone is located in the eyewall and the right front quadrant of the tropical cyclone. Severe damage is usually the result when the eyewall of a hurricane, typhoon or cyclone passes over land. The right front quadrant is also an area of a tropical cyclone were the winds are strongest. The reason that the winds are at the front right side of a storm in the northern hemisphere (and the front left hand side in the Southern Hemisphere) is because of the motion of a tropical cyclones motion contributing to its rotation. A 100 mph hurricane while stationary, might have winds of 100 mph on its right side in the northern hemisphere while the rest of the storm might have winds at 70 mph. The location of the right ( or left in the Southern Hemisphere) front quadrant also depends on the storm track. For example, in the northern hemisphere, if the storm was moving west, then the right side is to the north, if it moving north, then the strongest winds will be to the east of the center. [5]
In the southern hemisphere, the strongest winds are to the left of the eye. That is because cyclonic winds below the equator, spin clockwise.[5]
On occasion, strong winds and wind gusts can occur in the rain bands of a tropical cyclone. And inside the eye the winds are relatively calm. At higher altitudes, the winds within a tropical cyclone head away from the center, forming the outflow which produces the shape of the tropical cyclone.
Classification of the winds[edit]
Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale
TD TS C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Main article: Tropical cyclone scales
The United States uses the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, a 1–5 scale which categorize hurricanes by sustained wind speed. The hurricane scale was created in 1969 by Herbert Saffir and Bob Simpson. The National Hurricane Center classifies hurricanes category 3 or above, major hurricanes. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center also uses a scale similar to the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. However, the JTWC classified typhoons with winds of at 150 mph or higher Supertyphoons.
The Bureau of Meteorology in Australia uses a 1–5 scale called tropical cyclone severity categories. Unlike the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale, it categorizes tropical cyclones based on wind gusts.
Beaufort wind scale[edit]
Before the 1–5 scale was created in 1969 by the National Hurricane Center and later by the Bureau of Meteorology in Australia. Many tropical cyclones were simply ranked by the Beaufort Wind Scale which was created in the early 1800s by Francis Beaufort. The purpose of the scale was to standardize wind reports in ship logs. The scale was divided down into 14 forces (force 0 is calm while force 12 is hurricane).[6]
Fastest windspeed per basin[edit]
This lists the fastest wind speed of a tropical cyclone per basin since 1950 (NOTE: All wind speeds are 1-minute sustained and are in mph).
North Atlantic: 190 mph (1980)
East Pacific: 215 mph (2015)
Central Pacific: 175 mph (1994)
West Pacific: 215 mph (1961)
North Indian: 165 mph (2007)
South Indian: 165 mph (1994)
Australia: 180 mph (2006)
South Pacific: 185 mph (2002)
South Atlantic: 105 mph (2004)
Windspeed per country[edit]
Australia[edit]
In December 1998, Cyclone Thelma produced wind gusts of 108 mph (174 km/h) and sustained winds of 80 mph (139 km/h) as it made landfall in Western Australia.[7] Three months later, Cyclone Vance produced a record gust of 166 mph (267 km/h). Sustained winds of 113 mph (182 km/h) in Onslow.[8]
Cyclone John made landfall near Port Hedland, Australia as a category 4 tropical cyclone. Port Hedland experienced winds of 78 mph (124 km/h) for a period of 18 hours. At Karratha, the winds were gusting to 70 mph (113 km/h). Cape Lambert experienced sustained winds of 95 mph (150 km/h) for a five-hour period with gusts reaching 130 mph (210 km/h).[9]
In March 2000, Tropical Storm Tessi made landfall near Townsville, Queensland,Australia. A weather station recorded the towns record wind gust of 81 mph (130 km/h).[10]
Canada[edit]
A fast moving Hurricane Hazel brought sustained winds of 77 mph (124 km/h) and wind gusts up to 90 mph (150 km/h).[11] The remnants of Hurricane Audrey brought 80 mph winds across southern Canada.[12] A weather station on Nova Scotia recorded 100 mph sustained winds when Hurricane Juan made landfall in 2003.
Japan[edit]
During Typhoon Vera's impact on Japan, weather station in Iwo Jima reported winds of 89 mph (143 km/h).[13]
United States[edit]
Florida[edit]
During Hurricane Wilma's passage through Florida a weather station recorded sustained windspeeds of 77 knots, gusting to 101 kts.[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "TCFAQ D1) How are Atlantic hurricanes ranked?". Aoml.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Jump up ^ NHC Report on Andrew
Jump up ^ Hurricane Wilma Report
Jump up ^ Hurricane Isabel Report
^ Jump up to: a b "TCFAQ D6) Why are the strongest winds in a hurricane typically on the". Aoml.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Jump up ^ "TCFAQ D10) Why do hurricane force winds start at 64 knots ?". Aoml.noaa.gov. 13 August 2004. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Severe Tropical Cyclone Vance". BoM. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Jump up ^ "Western Australia Tropical Cyclone Season Summary 1999–2000". Bom.gov.au. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Jump up ^ "SIGNIFICANT WEATHER – APRIL 2000". Bom.gov.au. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Jump up ^ http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/atlantic/1954/HAZEL/track.dat
Jump up ^ [2] Archived 6 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Tropical Cyclone Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-07.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tropical_cyclone_windspeed_climatology&oldid=800609737"
Categories:
Tropical cyclone meteorology
Tropical cyclones
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Orphaned articles from June 2014
All orphaned articles
Use dmy dates from May 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 14 September 2017, at 16:15.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: href title

attrs: class href

attrs: rel class href

value: i

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Orphan

values: Edit section: Winds in tropical cyclones

values: Edit section: Classification of the winds

values: Tropical Depression: <39 mph (0–62 km/h)

attrs: align border cellspacing cellpadding style

values:
/wiki/Beaufort_Wind_Scale
mw-redirect
Beaufort Wind Scale

values: Edit section: Fastest windspeed per basin

values:
/wiki/Cyclone_Catarina
mw-redirect
Cyclone Catarina

values:
/wiki/Tropical_Cyclone_John_(1999)
mw-redirect
Tropical Cyclone John (1999)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew.html

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Orphaned articles from June 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Tropical_cyclone_windspeed_climatology rootpage-Tropical_cyclone_windspeed_climatology vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view