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S&P 500 Index
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S&P 500
S&P 500 Index from 1950 to 2016
Foundation
March 4, 1957; 60 years ago (1957-03-04)[1]
Operator
S&P Dow Jones Indices[2]
Exchanges
NYSE, NASDAQ
Constituents
505[3]
Type
Large-cap[2]
Market cap
US$21.4 trillion
(as of February 28, 2017)[4]
Weighting method
Free-float capitalization-weighted[5]
Related indices
List[show]
S&P 1500
S&P Global 1200
S&P 100
Website
us.spindices.com/indices/equity/sp-500
A linear chart of the S&P 500 using closing values from January 3, 1950 to February 19, 2016
A logarithmic chart of the S&P 500 using daily closing values from January 3, 1950 to February 19, 2016.
A daily volume chart of the S&P 500 from January 3, 1950 to February 19, 2016
Logarithmic graph of the S&P 500 index with simple trend lines
The Standard & Poor's 500, often abbreviated as the S&P 500, or just "the S&P",[6][7] is an American stock market index based on the market capitalizations of 500 large companies having common stock listed on the NYSE or NASDAQ. The S&P 500 index components and their weightings are determined by S&P Dow Jones Indices. It differs from other U.S. stock market indices, such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Nasdaq Composite index, because of its diverse constituency and weighting methodology. It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices, and many consider it one of the best representations of the U.S. stock market, and a bellwether for the U.S. economy.[8] The National Bureau of Economic Research has classified common stocks as a leading indicator of business cycles.[9]
The S&P 500 was developed and continues to be maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, a joint venture majority-owned by S&P Global. S&P Dow Jones Indices publishes many stock market indices such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average, S&P MidCap 400, the S&P SmallCap 600, and the S&P Composite 1500. It is a free-float capitalization-weighted index,[5] and has many ticker symbols, such as: ^GSPC,[10] INX,[11] and $SPX.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Price history
3 Selection criteria
4 Components
5 Versions
6 Weighting
7 Index maintenance
8 Calculation
9 Update frequency
10 Investing
11 Market statistics
11.1 Milestones
11.2 Annual returns
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The "Composite Index",[13] as the S&P 500 was first called when it introduced its first stock index in 1923, began tracking a small number of stocks. Three years later in 1926, the Composite Index expanded to 90 stocks and then in 1957 it expanded to its current 500.[13] Standard & Poor's, a company that doles out financial information and analysis, was founded in 1860 by Henry Varnum Poor. In 1941 Poor's Publishing (Henry Varnum Poor's original company) merged with Standard Statistics (founded in 1906 as the Standard Statistics Bureau) and therein assumed the name Standard and Poor's Corporation. The S&P 500 index in its present form began on March 4, 1957. Technology has allowed the index to be calculated and disseminated in real time. The S&P 500 is widely used as a measure of the general level of stock prices, as it includes both growth stocks and value stocks.
In September 1962, Ultronic Systems Corp. entered into an agreement with Standard and Poor's. Under the terms of this agreement, Ultronics computed the S&P 500 Stock Composite Index, the 425 Stock Industrial Index, the 50 Stock Utility Index, and the 25 Stock Rail Index. Throughout the market day these statistics were furnished to Standard & Poor's. In addition, Ultronics also computed and reported the 94 S&P sub-indexes.[14]
Price history[edit]
On August 12, 1982, the index closed at 102.42.
The index reached a relative intraday high—which was not exceeded for over seven years—of 1,552.87, on March 24, 2000, during the dot-com bubble. The index then declined by approximately 50%, to 768.63, on October 10, 2002, during the stock market downturn of 2002.[15] On May 30, 2007, the S&P 500 closed at 1,530.23, to set its first all-time closing high in more than seven years. Although the index achieved a new all-time intraday high on October 11, 2007, at 1,576.09, following a record close of 1,565.15 on October 9, the index finished 2007 at 1,468.36 points—just below its 1999 annual close. Less than a month later, it dropped to 1,400, and would not see similar levels again for five years.
In mid-2007, the subprime mortgage crisis spread to the wider U.S. financial sector. The resulting situation became acute in September 2008, ushering in a period of unusual market volatility, encompassing record 100-point swings in both directions and reaching the highest levels since 1929.[16] On November 20, 2008, the index closed at 752.44, its lowest since early 1997.[17] A modest recovery the following day still left the index down 45.5% for the year. This year-to-date loss was the greatest since 1931, when the broad market declined more than 50%.[18] The index closed the year at 903.25, for a loss of 38.5%.[19] The market continued to decline in early 2009, surrounding the financial crisis of 2008. The index reached a nearly 13-year low, closing at 676.53, on March 9, 2009.
On March 23, 2009, the S&P 500 marked a 20% gain when it hit 822.92.[20] The Dow Jones Industrial Average soon followed.[21] The close for 2009 was 1,115.10, making it the second-best year of the decade.[22] On April 14, 2010 the index broke 1200 closing at 1210.65, but by July 2, 2010 it had closed at 1022.58. On April 29, 2011, the index closed at 1363.61, but it had a sharp drop in August and briefly broke 1100 in October (with the VIX hitting 40). Gains continued despite significant volatility amid electoral and fiscal uncertainty, and the 2012 close of the S&P 500 following QE3 was its third-highest ever, at 1,426.22 points. Many people hated the bull market.[23] On March 28, 2013, it closed above the closing high from 2007.[24] On April 10, 2013, it also closed above the intraday high from 2007.[25]
On May 3, 2013—more than 13 years since its first close above 1,500—the S&P 500 closed above 1,600 for the first time, at 1,614.42. This would be the first of three 100-point milestones in 2013: 1,600 on May 3, 2013;[26] 1,700 on August 1, 2013;[27] and 1,800 on November 22, 2013.[28] The S&P 500 closed out 2013 at a record high, finishing the December 31, 2013, trading day at 1,848.36.[29] On May 23, 2014, the index for the first time closed above 1,900, at 1,900.53.[30] On August 26, 2014, the index closed above 2,000 for the very first time,[31] and on December 22 the S&P 500 climbed to 2078, an all-time high.[32] The index closed on December 29 at 2,090.57 with a closing of 2,058.90 at the end of 2014.[33][34] This was a gain of 85% (in price return, and 105% in total return) for the five years 2010–2014. On February 17, 2015, the index first closed above 2,100, closing at 2,100.34. On February 25, 2015 it reached 2,119.59 during mid-day, and on the following day it closed at record high of 2,115.48.[35] On May 21, 2015, the index closed at 2,130.82, its high point for the year. At the end of 2015, the index closed at 2,043.94, down 0.73% for the year. A period of over a year with no new record highs ended on July 11, 2016 (closing at 2,137.16).[36] In June 2017, the index saw the largest weekly rise since the past presidential election in November 2016.[37]
Selection criteria[edit]
The components of the S&P 500 are selected by a committee. This is similar to the Dow Jones Industrial Average, but different from others such as the Russell 1000, which are strictly rule-based. When considering the eligibility of a new addition, the committee assesses the company's merit using eight primary criteria: market capitalization, liquidity, domicile, public float, sector classification, financial viability, length of time publicly traded and stock exchange.[5]
The committee selects the companies in the S&P 500 so they are representative of the industries in the United States economy. In order to be added to the index, a company must satisfy these liquidity-based size requirements:[5]
market capitalization is greater than or equal to US$6.1 billion
annual dollar value traded to float-adjusted market capitalization is greater than 1.0
minimum monthly trading volume of 250,000 shares in each of the six months leading up to the evaluation date.
The securities must be publicly listed on either the NYSE (including NYSE Arca or NYSE MKT) or NASDAQ (NASDAQ Global Select Market, NASDAQ Select Market or the NASDAQ Capital Market). Securities that are ineligible for inclusion in the index are limited partnerships, master limited partnerships, OTC bulletin board issues, closed-end funds, ETFs, ETNs, royalty trusts, tracking stocks, preferred stock, unit trusts, equity warrants, convertible bonds, investment trusts, ADRs, ADSs and MLP IT units.[5]
The index includes non-U.S. companies, both formerly U.S.-incorporated companies that have re-incorporated outside the United States, as well as firms that have never been incorporated in the United States.
Components[edit]
Main article: List of S&P 500 companies
Versions[edit]
The "S&P 500" generally quoted is a price return index; there are also "total return" and "net total return" versions of the index. These versions differ in how dividends are accounted for. The price return version does not account for dividends; it only captures the changes in the prices of the index components. The total return version reflects the effects of dividend reinvestment. Finally, the net total return version reflects the effects of dividend reinvestment after the deduction of withholding tax.[38][39]
Weighting[edit]
The index has traditionally been capitalization-weighted; that is, movements in the prices of stocks with higher market capitalizations (the share price times the number of shares outstanding) have a greater impact on the value of the index than do companies with smaller market caps.[citation needed] That is, Standard & Poor's now calculates the market capitalization of each company relevant to the index using only the number of shares available for public trading (called the "float"). This transition was made in two steps, the first on March 18, 2005 and the second on September 16, 2005.[40]
Index maintenance[edit]
In order to keep the S&P 500 Index consistent over time, it is adjusted to capture corporate actions which affect market capitalization, such as additional share issuance, dividends and restructuring events such as mergers or spin-offs. Additionally, to remain indicative of the U.S. stock market, the constituent stocks are changed from time to time.[5] Between January 1, 2005 and January 1, 2015, 188 index components were replaced by other components.[41]
To prevent the value of the Index from changing merely as a result of corporate financial actions, all such actions affecting the market value of the Index require a divisor adjustment. Also, when a company is dropped and replaced by another with a different market capitalization, the divisor needs to be adjusted in such a way that the value of the S&P 500 Index remains constant. All divisor adjustments are made after the close of trading and after the calculation of the closing value of the S&P 500 Index. There is a large range of different corporate actions that can require the divisor to be adjusted. These are listed in the table below:[42]
Type of Action
Divisor Adjustment
Stock split (e.g., 2×1) No
Share issuance Yes
Share repurchase Yes
Special cash dividend Yes
Company change Yes
Rights offering Yes
Spinoffs Yes
Mergers Yes
Calculation[edit]
To calculate the value of the S&P 500 Index, the sum of the adjusted market capitalization of all 500 stocks is divided by a factor, usually referred to as the Divisor.[42][43] For example, if the total adjusted market cap of the 500 component stocks is US$13 trillion and the Divisor is set at 8.933 billion, then the S&P 500 Index value would be 1,455.28. Although the adjusted market capitalization of the entire index can be accessed from Standard & Poor's website,[44] the Divisor is considered to be proprietary to the firm. However, the Divisor's value is approximately 8.9 billion.[45]
The formula to calculate the S&P 500 Index value is:
Index Level = ∑ ( P i ⋅ Q i ) D i v i s o r {\displaystyle {\text{Index Level}}={\sum \left({P_{i}}\cdot {Q_{i}}\right) \over Divisor}}
where P is the price of each stock in the index and Q is the number of shares publicly available for each stock.
The divisor is adjusted in the case of stock issuance, spin-offs or similar structural changes, to ensure that such events do not in themselves alter the numerical value of the Index.[42]
Update frequency[edit]
The index value is updated every 15 seconds during trading sessions and is disseminated by Reuters America, Inc., a subsidiary of Thomson Reuters Corporation.[46]
Investing[edit]
Many index funds and exchange-traded funds attempt to replicate (before fees and expenses) the performance of the S&P 500 by holding the same stocks as the index, in the same proportions. Many other mutual funds are benchmarked to the S&P 500. Consequently, a company whose stock is added to the list of S&P 500 stocks may see its stock price rise, as index funds must purchase that company's stock in order to continue tracking the S&P 500 index. Mutual fund managers provide index funds that track the S&P 500, the first of which was The Vanguard Group's Vanguard 500 in 1976.[47]
In addition to investing in a mutual fund indexed to the S&P 500, investors may also purchase shares of an exchange-traded fund (ETF) which represents ownership in a portfolio of the equity securities that comprise the Standard & Poor's 500 Index. These exchange-traded funds track the S&P 500 index and may be used to trade the index.
Investors may also invest in all the stocks of the S&P 500 directly, which is usually called index replication.
In the derivatives market, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) offers futures contracts (ticker symbols /SP for the full-sized contract and /ES for the E-mini contract that is one-fifth the size of /SP) that track the index and trade on the exchange floor in an open outcry auction, or on CME's Globex platform, and are the exchange's most popular product. Additionally, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) offers options on the S&P 500 as well as S&P 500 ETFs, inverse ETFs and leveraged ETFs.
Market statistics[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Milestones[edit]
Main article: Closing milestones of the S&P 500 Index
On October 11, 2007, S&P index set a milestone with its all-time intraday high of 1,576.09.[48] On March 28, 2013, the S&P finally surpassed its closing high level of 1,565.15, recovering all its losses from the financial crisis.[48] On March 2, 2015, the S&P finally closed at a new all-time inflation-adjusted closing high, though it has yet to achieve a new all-time inflation-adjusted intraday high, both of which were set back in 2000.[49][50]
Annual returns[edit]
(total return) Calculation used for CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate, Annualized Return):
CAGR = ((Ending Value)/(Starting Value))∧(1/ (# of years)) – 1
The current CAGR through 2016 is calculated at 10.30%.
Year
Change in Index
Total Annual Return Including Dividends
Value of $1.00 Invested on 1970‑01‑01
5 Year Annualized Return
10 Year Annualized Return
15 Year Annualized Return
20 Year Annualized Return
25 Year Annualized Return
1970 0.10% 4.01% $1.04 - - - - -
1971 10.79% 14.31% $1.19 - - - - -
1972 15.63% 18.98% $1.41 - - - - -
1973 −17.37% −14.66% $1.21 - - - - -
1974 −29.72% −26.47% $0.89 −2.35% - - - -
1975 31.55% 37.20% $1.22 3.21% - - - -
1976 19.15% 23.84% $1.51 4.87% - - - -
1977 −11.50% −7.18% $1.40 −0.21% - - - -
1978 1.06% 6.56% $1.49 4.32% - - - -
1979 12.31% 18.44% $1.77 14.76% 5.86% - - -
1980 25.77% 32.50% $2.34 13.96% 8.45% - - -
1981 −9.73% −4.92% $2.23 8.10% 6.47% - - -
1982 14.76% 21.55% $2.71 14.09% 6.70% - - -
1983 17.27% 22.56% $3.32 17.32% 10.63% - - -
1984 1.40% 6.27% $3.52 14.81% 14.78% 8.76% - -
1985 26.33% 31.73% $4.64 14.67% 14.32% 10.49% - -
1986 14.62% 18.67% $5.51 19.87% 13.83% 10.76% - -
1987 2.03% 5.25% $5.80 16.47% 15.27% 9.86% - -
1988 12.40% 16.61% $6.76 15.31% 16.31% 12.17% - -
1989 27.25% 31.69% $8.90 20.37% 17.55% 16.61% 11.55% -
1990 −6.56% −3.10% $8.63 13.20% 13.93% 13.94% 11.16% -
1991 26.31% 30.47% $11.26 15.36% 17.59% 14.34% 11.90% -
1992 4.46% 7.62% $12.11 15.88% 16.17% 15.47% 11.34% -
1993 7.06% 10.08% $13.33 14.55% 14.93% 15.72% 12.76% -
1994 −1.54% 1.32% $13.51 8.70% 14.38% 14.52% 14.58% 10.98%
1995 34.11% 37.58% $18.59 16.59% 14.88% 14.81% 14.60% 12.22%
1996 20.26% 22.96% $22.86 15.22% 15.29% 16.80% 14.56% 12.55%
1997 31.01% 33.36% $30.48 20.27% 18.05% 17.52% 16.65% 13.07%
1998 26.67% 28.58% $39.19 24.06% 19.21% 17.90% 17.75% 14.94%
1999 19.53% 21.04% $47.44 28.56% 18.21% 18.93% 17.88% 17.25%
2000 −10.14% −9.10% $43.12 18.33% 17.46% 16.02% 15.68% 15.34%
2001 −13.04% −11.89% $37.99 10.70% 12.94% 13.74% 15.24% 13.78%
2002 −23.37% −22.10% $29.60 −0.59% 9.34% 11.48% 12.71% 12.98%
2003 26.38% 28.68% $38.09 −0.57% 11.07% 12.22% 12.98% 13.84%
2004 8.99% 10.88% $42.23 −2.30% 12.07% 10.94% 13.22% 13.54%
2005 3.00% 4.91% $44.30 0.54% 9.07% 11.52% 11.94% 12.48%
2006 13.62% 15.79% $51.30 6.19% 8.42% 10.64% 11.80% 13.37%
2007 3.53% 5.49% $54.12 12.83% 5.91% 10.49% 11.82% 12.73%
2008 −38.49% −37.00% $34.09 −2.19% −1.38% 6.46% 8.43% 9.77%
2009 23.45% 26.46% $43.11 0.42% −0.95% 8.04% 8.21% 10.54%
2010 12.78% 15.06% $49.61 2.29% 1.41% 6.76% 9.14% 9.94%
2011 -0.00% 2.11% $50.65 −0.25% 2.92% 5.45% 7.81% 9.28%
2012 13.41% 16.00% $58.76 1.66% 7.10% 4.47% 8.22% 9.71%
2013 29.60% 32.39% $77.79 17.94% 7.40% 4.68% 9.22% 10.26%
2014 11.39% 13.69% $88.44 15.45% 7.67% 4.24% 9.85% 9.62%
2015 −0.73% 1.38% $89.66 12.57% 7.30% 5.00% 8.19% 9.82%
2016 9.54% 11.96% $100.38 14.66% 6.94% 6.69% 7.68% 9.15%
High
34.11%
37.58%
$100.38
28.56%
19.21%
18.93%
17.88%
17.25%
Low
−38.49%
−37.00%
$0.89
−2.35%
−1.38%
4.24%
7.68%
9.15%
Median
11.39%
14.31%
$13.33
13.96%
11.57%
11.48%
11.86%
12.48%
Year
Change in Index
Total Annual Return Including Dividends
Value of $1.00 Invested on 1970‑01‑01
5 Year Annualized Return
10 Year Annualized Return
15 Year Annualized Return
20 Year Annualized Return
25 Year Annualized Return
See also[edit]
Conference Board Leading Economic Index
Dow Jones Industrial Average
List of S&P 500 companies
E-mini S&P
Exchange-traded fund
Fortune 500
FTSE 100
Index fund
Russell 1000 Index
S&P 100
S&P 400
S&P 500 Dividend Aristocrats
S&P 600
S&P 1500
Standard & Poor's
Wilshire 5000
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Official website
Yahoo! Finance page for ^GSPC
Reuters page for .SPX
CNN Money page for SPX
Bloomberg page for SPX:IND
Interactive Historical Chart of the S&P 500 Since 1927
Historical total market capitalization of S&P 500 index
[hide]
v
t
e
Major United States stock market indices
Dow Jones Industrial Average (30 large stocks; popular indicator)
NYSE Composite Index (all companies on the NYSE)
Nasdaq Composite Index (all companies on the NASDAQ; technology-heavy)
NASDAQ-100 Index (100 large NASDAQ non-financial stocks)
S&P 500 Index (500 large companies; general market analysis)
Russell 2000 Index (small-cap stocks)
Wilshire 5000 Index (total U.S. market)
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List of Bangladesh Test cricket centurions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A century in cricket occurs when a batsman scores 100 runs or more in an innings, 20 Bangladesh players have scored centuries in Test matches.[1]
Key[edit]
* denotes that the batsman remained not out.
200s denotes the number of times the players scored 200 or more during an innings.
300s denotes the number of times the players scored 300 or more during an innings.
HS denotes the players highest score
Maiden century and Date give the details of the player's first century.[2]
No.
Player
100s
200s
300s
HS
Maiden century
Date
1 Aminul Islam, Aminul Islam 1 0 0 145 145 vs India at Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka 000000002000-11-10-000010 November 2000
2 Mohammad Ashraful, Mohammad Ashraful 6 0 0 190 114 vs Sri Lanka at Sinhalese Sports Club, Colombo 000000002001-09-06-00006 September 2001
3 Habibul Bashar, Habibul Bashar 3 0 0 113 108 vs Zimbabwe at Chittagong Stadium 000000002001-11-15-000015 November 2001
4 Javed Omar, Javed Omar 1 0 0 119 119 vs Pakistan at Arbab Niaz Stadium, Peshawar 000000002003-08-27-000027 August 2003
5 Mohammad Rafique, Mohammad Rafique 1 0 0 111 111 vs West Indies at Beausejour Stadium, Gros Islet 000000002004-05-28-000028 May 2004
6 Khaled Mashud, Khaled Mashud 1 0 0 103* 103* vs West Indies at Beausejour Stadium, Gros Islet 000000002004-05-28-000028 May 2004
7 Nafees Iqbal, Nafees Iqbal 1 0 0 121 121 vs Zimbabwe at Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka 000000002005-01-14-000014 January 2005
8 Shahriar Nafees, Shahriar Nafees 1 0 0 138 138 vs Australia at Fatullah Osmani Stadium, Fatullah 000000002006-04-09-00009 April 2006
9 Tamim Iqbal, Tamim Iqbal 7 1 0 206 128 vs West Indies at Arnos Vale Stadium, Kingstown 000000002009-07-09-00009 July 2009
10 Mushfiqur Rahim, Mushfiqur Rahim 3 1 0 200 101 vs India at Z. Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 000000002010-01-17-000017 January 2010
11 Mahmudullah Riyad, Mahmudullah Riyad 1 0 0 115 115 vs New Zealand at Seddon Park, Hamilton 000000002010-02-15-000015 February 2010
12 Shakib Al Hasan, Shakib Al Hasan 3 1 0 217 100 vs New Zealand at Seddon Park, Hamilton 000000002010-02-15-000015 February 2010
13 Junaid Siddique, Junaid Siddique 1 0 0 106 106 vs England at Z. Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 000000002010-03-12-000012 March 2010
14 Naeem Islam, Naeem Islam 1 0 0 108 108 vs West Indies at Sher-e-Bangla National Stadium, Dhaka 000000002012-11-13-000013 November 2012
15 Abul Hasan, Abul Hasan 1 0 0 113 113 vs West Indies at Sheikh Abu Naser Stadium, Khulna 000000002012-11-21-000021 November 2012
16 Nasir Hossain, Nasir Hossain 1 0 0 100 100 vs Sri Lanka at Galle International Stadium 000000002013-03-08-00008 March 2013
17 Mominul Haque, Mominul Haque 4 0 0 181 181 vs New Zealand at Z. Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 000000002013-10-09-00009 October 2013
18 Sohag Gazi, Sohag Gazi 1 0 0 101* 101* vs New Zealand at Z. Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 000000002013-10-09-00009 October 2013
19 Shamsur Rahman, Shamsur Rahman 1 0 0 106 106 vs Sri Lanka at Z. Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 000000002014-02-04-00004 February 2014
20 Imrul Kayes, Imrul Kayes 3 0 0 150 115 vs Sri Lanka at Z. Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 000000002014-02-04-00004 February 2014
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Statistics / Statsguru / Test matches / Batting records / Bangladesh test century scorers". ESPN Cricinfo.
Jump up ^ "Statistics / Statsguru / Test matches / Batting records / Bangladesh test century innings by innings list". ESPN Cricinfo.
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text:
Foot (unit)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the unit of weight, see fotmal.
foot
Unit system
imperial/US units
Unit of
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Symbol
ft
Unit conversions
1 ft in ... ... is equal to ...
imperial/US units
1/3 yd
12 in
metric (SI) units
0.3048 m
The foot (pl. feet; abbreviation: ft; symbol: ′, the prime symbol) is a unit of length in the imperial and US customary systems of measurement. Since 1959, both units have been defined by international agreement as equivalent to 0.3048 meters exactly. In both systems, the foot comprises 12 inches and three feet compose a yard.
Historically the "foot" was a part of many local systems of units, including the Greek, Roman, Chinese, French, and English systems. It varied in length from country to country, from city to city, and sometimes from trade to trade. Its length was usually between 250 mm and 335 mm and was generally, but not always, subdivided into 12 inches or 16 digits.
The United States is the only industrialized nation that uses the international foot and the survey foot (a customary unit of length) in preference to the meter in its commercial, engineering, and standards activities.[1] The foot is legally recognized in the United Kingdom; road signs must use imperial units (however distances on road signs are always marked in miles or yards, not feet), while its usage is widespread among the British public as a measurement of height.[2][3] The foot is recognized as an alternative expression of length in Canada[4] officially defined as a unit derived from the meter[5] although both the U.K. and Canada have partially metricated their units of measurement. The measurement of altitude in international aviation is one of the few areas where the foot is used outside the English-speaking world.
The length of the international foot corresponds to a human foot with shoe size of 13 (UK), 14 (US male), 15.5 (US female) or 46 (EU sizing).
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical origin
1.1 England
2 Definition
2.1 International foot
2.2 Pre-1959
2.3 Survey foot
2.3.1 US survey foot
2.3.2 Indian survey foot
3 Historical use
3.1 Metric foot
3.1.1 France
3.1.2 Germany
3.2 Other obsolete feet
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Historical origin[edit]
See also: pous
Determination of the rod, using the length of the left foot of 16 randomly chosen people coming from church service. Woodcut published in the book Geometrei by Jakob Köbel (Frankfurt, c. 1536).
Historically the human body has been used to provide the basis for units of length.[6] The foot of a white male is typically about 15.3% of his height,[7] giving a person of 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) a foot of 245 mm (9.6in) and one of 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) a foot of 275 mm (10.8in). These figures are less than the foot used in most cities over time, suggesting that the "foot" was actually a synonym for a "shoe".[original research?]
Archeologists believe that the Egyptians, Ancient Indians and Mesopotamians preferred the cubit while the Romans and the Greeks preferred the foot. Under the Harappan linear measures, Indus cities during the Bronze Age used a foot of 13.2 inches (333.5 mm) and a cubit of 20.8 inches (528.3 mm).[8] The Egyptian equivalent of the foot—a measure of four palms or 16 digits—was known as the djeser and has been reconstructed as about 30 cm (12 in).
The Greek foot (πούς, pous) had a length of 1⁄600 of a stadion,[9] one stadion being about 181.2 m,[10] therefore a foot being at the time about 302 mm. Its exact size varied from city to city and could range as much as between 270 mm and 350 mm, but lengths used for temple construction appear to have been about 295 mm to 325 mm, the former being close to the size of the Roman foot.
The standard Roman foot (pes) was normally about 295.7 mm (97% of today's measurement), but in the provinces, the pes Drusianus (foot of Nero Claudius Drusus) was used, with a length of about 334 mm. (In reality, this foot predated Drusus.)[11]
Originally both the Greeks and the Romans subdivided the foot into 16 digits, but in later years, the Romans also subdivided the foot into 12 unciae (from which both the English words "inch" and "ounce" are derived).
After the fall of the Roman Empire, some Roman traditions were continued but others fell into disuse. In AD 790 Charlemagne attempted to reform the units of measure in his domains. His units of length were based on the toise and in particular the toise de l'Écritoire, the distance between the fingertips of the outstretched arms of a man.[12] The toise has 6 pieds (feet) each of 326.6 mm (12.86 in).
He was unsuccessful in introducing a standard unit of length throughout his realm: an analysis of the measurements of Charlieu Abbey shows that during the 9th century the Roman foot of 296.1 mm was used; when it was rebuilt in the 10th century, a foot of about 320 mm[Note 1] was used. At the same time, monastic buildings used the Carolingian foot of 340 mm.[Note 1][13]
The procedure for verification of the foot as described in the 16th century by Jacob Koebel in his book Geometrei. Von künstlichem Feldmessen und absehen is:[14]
Stand at the door of a church on a Sunday and bid 16 men to stop, tall ones and small ones, as they happen to pass out when the service is finished; then make them put their left feet one behind the other, and the length thus obtained shall be a right and lawful rood to measure and survey the land with, and the 16th part of it shall be the right and lawful foot.
England[edit]
The unofficial public imperial measurement standards erected at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich in the 19th century
See also: yard
The measures of Iron Age Britain are uncertain and proposed reconstructions such as the Megalithic Yard are controversial. Later Welsh legend credited Dyfnwal Moelmud with the establishment of their units, including a foot of 9 inches. The Belgic or North German foot of 335 mm (13.2 inches) was introduced to England either by the Belgic Celts during their invasions prior to the Romans or by the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th & 6th century.
Roman units were introduced following their invasion in AD 43. The Roman foot had been previously standardized by Agrippa at around 296 mm or 11.65 inches. Following the Roman withdrawal and Saxon invasions, the Roman foot continued to be used in the construction crafts while the Belgic foot was used for land measurement. Both the Welsh and Belgic feet seem to have been based on multiples of the barleycorn, but by as early as 950 the English kings seem to have (ineffectually) ordered measures to be based upon an iron yardstick at Winchester and then London. Henry I was said to have ordered a new standard to be based upon his own arm and, by the c. 1300 Act concerning the Composition of Yards and Perches[15] traditionally credited to Edward I or II, the statute foot was a different measure exactly 10⁄11 of the old foot. The barleycorn, inch, ell, and yard were likewise shrunk, while rods and furlongs remained the same.[16] The ambiguity over the state of the mile was resolved by the 1593 Act against Converting of Great Houses into Several Tenements and for Restraint of Inmates and Inclosures in and near about the City of London and Westminster, which codified the statute mile as comprising 5,280 feet. The differences among the various physical standard yards around the world, revealed by increasingly powerful microscopes, eventually led to the 1959 adoption of the international foot defined in terms of the meter.
Definition[edit]
International foot[edit]
The international yard and pound agreement of July 1959 defined the length of the international yard in the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations as exactly 0.9144 meters. Consequently, the international foot is defined to be equal to exactly 0.3048 meters. This was 2 ppm shorter than the previous U.S. definition and 1.7 ppm longer than the previous British definition.[17]
The international standard symbol for a foot is "ft" (see ISO 31-1, Annex A). In some cases, the foot is denoted by a prime, which is often marked by an apostrophe, and the inch by a double prime; for example, 2 feet 4 inches is sometimes denoted as 2′−4″, 2′ 4″ or 2′4″. (See 'minute' for another case where prime and double prime symbols are used to denote first and second cuts in refining measurement.)
Pre-1959[edit]
In the United States, the foot was defined as 12 inches, with the inch being defined by the Mendenhall Order of 1893 by 39.37 inches = 1 m. In Imperial units, the foot was defined as 1⁄3 yard, with the yard being realized as a physical standard (separate from the standard meter).
The yard standards of the different Commonwealth countries were periodically compared with one another.[18] The value of the United Kingdom primary standard of the yard was determined in terms of the meter by the National Physical Laboratory in 1964 as 6999914396900000000♠0.9143969 m,[19] implying a pre-1959 foot in the UK of approximately 6999304798966667000♠0.304798966667 m.
Survey foot[edit]
When the international foot was defined in 1959, a great deal of survey data was already available based on the former definitions, especially in the United States and in India. The small difference between the survey and the international foot would not be detectable on a survey of a small parcel, but becomes significant for mapping, or when the state plane coordinate system (SPCS) is used in the US, because the origin of the system may be hundreds of thousands of feet (hundreds of miles) from the point of interest. Hence the previous definitions continued to be used for surveying in the United States and India for many years, and are denoted survey feet to distinguish them from the international foot. The United Kingdom was unaffected by this problem, as the retriangulation of Great Britain (1936–62) had been done in meters.
US survey foot[edit]
The United States survey foot is defined as exactly 1200⁄3937 meters, approximately 6999304800609601000♠0.304800609601 m.[20] Out of the 50 states, 24 have legislated that surveying measures should be based on the U.S. survey foot, eight have legislated that they be made on the basis of the international foot, and 18 have not specified the conversion factor from metric units.[21]
In 1986 the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) released the North American Datum of 1983, which underlies the state plane coordinate systems and is entirely defined in meters. An NGS policy from 1991 has this to say about the units used with the new datum to define the SPCS 83:
In preparation for the adjustment of the North American Datum of 1983, 31 states enacted legislation for the State Plane Coordinate System of 1983 (SPCS 83). All states defined SPCS 83 with metric parameters. Within the legislation, the U.S. Survey Foot was specified in 11 states and the International Foot was specified in 6 states. In all other states the meter is the only referenced unit of measure in the SPCS 83 legislation. The remaining 19 states do not yet have any legislation concerning SPCS 83.[22]
Since then, 42 states have abandoned the non-metric versions of SPCS 83: seven states continue to keep location data in survey feet as well as in meters, while one state keeps data in international feet as well as in meters.[21] State legislation is also important for determining the conversion factor to be used for everyday land surveying and real estate transactions, although the difference (2 ppm) is of no practical significance given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile).
Indian survey foot[edit]
The Indian survey foot is defined as exactly 6999304799600000000♠0.3047996 m,[23] presumably derived from a measurement of the previous Indian standard of the yard. The current National Topographic Database of the Survey of India is based on the metric WGS-84 datum,[24] which is also used by the Global Positioning System.
Historical use[edit]
Page from Austrian Lehrbuch des gesammten Rechnens für die vierte Classe der Hauptschulen in den k.k. Staaten – 1848[25]
Metric foot[edit]
An ISO 2848 measure of 3 basic modules (30 cm) is called a "metric foot", but there were earlier distinct definitions of a metric foot during metrication in France and Germany.
France[edit]
In 1799 the meter became the official unit of length in France. This was not fully enforced, and in 1812 Napoleon introduced the system of mesures usuelles which restored the traditional French measurements in the retail trade, but redefined them in terms of metric units. The foot, or pied métrique, was defined as one third of a meter. This unit continued in use until 1837.[26]
Germany[edit]
In southwestern Germany in 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was founded and three different reformed feet were defined, all of which were based on the metric system:[27]
In Hesse, the Fuß (foot) was redefined as 25 cm.
In Baden, the Fuß was redefined as 30 cm.
In the Palatinate, the Fuß was redefined as being 33 1⁄3 cm (as in France).
Other obsolete feet[edit]
Prior to the introduction of the metric system, many European cities and countries used the foot, but it varied considerably in length: the voet in Ieper, Belgium, was 273.8 millimetres (10.78 in) while the piede in Venice was 347.73 millimetres (13.690 in). Lists of conversion factors between the various units of measure were given in many European reference works including:
Traité, Paris – 1769[28]
Palaiseau – Bordeaux: 1816 [29]
de Gelder, Amsterdam and The Hague – 1824[30]
Horace, Brussels – 1840[31]
Noback & Noback (2 volumes), Leipzig – 1851[32][33]
Bruhns, Leipzig – 1881[34]
Many of these standards were peculiar to a particular city, especially in Germany (which, before German Unification in 1871, consisted of many kingdoms, principalities, free cities and so on). In many cases the length of the unit was not uniquely fixed: for example, the English foot was stated as 11 pouces 2.6 lignes (French inches and lines) by Picard, 11 pouces 3.11 lignes by Maskelyne and 11 pouces 3 lignes by D'Alembert.[35]
Most of the various feet in this list ceased to be used when the countries adopted the metric system. The Netherlands and modern Belgium adopted the metric system in 1817, having used the mesures usuelles under Napoleon[36] and the newly formed German Empire adopted the metric system in 1871.[37]
The palm (typically 200 mm to 280 mm) was used in many Mediterranean cities instead of the foot. Horace Doursther, whose reference was published[clarification needed] in Belgium which had the smallest foot measurements, grouped both units together, while J.F.G. Palaiseau devoted three chapters to units of length: one for linear measures (palms and feet), one for cloth measures (ells) and one for distances traveled (miles and leagues). In the table below, arbitrary cut-off points of 270 mm and 350 mm have been chosen.
Location
Modern Country
Local name
Metric
equivalent
(mm)
Comments
Vienna Austria Wiener Fuß 316.102[34][38]
Tyrol Austria Fuß 334.12[27]
Ieper/Ypres Belgium voet 273.8[39]
Bruges/Brugge Belgium voet 274.3[39]
Brussels Belgium voet 275.75[39]
Hainaut Belgium pied 293.39[31]
Liège Belgium pied 294.70[31]
Kortrijk Belgium voet 297.6[39]
Aalst Belgium voet 277.2[39]
Mechelen Belgium voet 278.0[39]
Leuven Belgium voet 285.5[39]
Tournai Belgium pied 297.77[31]
Antwerp Belgium voet 286.8[39]
China China tradesman's foot 338.3[40]
China China mathematician's foot 333.2[40]
China China builder's foot 322.8[40]
China China surveyor's foot 319.5[40]
Moravia Czech Republic stopa 295.95[27]
Prague Czech Republic stopa 296.4[33] (1851) Bohemian foot or shoe
301.7[28] (1759) Quoted as "11 pouces 1 3⁄4 lignes"[Notes 1]
Denmark Denmark Fod 313.85[34] Until 1835, thereafter the Prussian foot
330.5[28] (1759) Quoted as "2 1⁄2 lignes larger than the pied [of Paris]"[Notes 1]
France France pied du roi 324.84[41] [Notes 2]
Angoulême France pied d'Angoulême 347.008[42]
Bordeaux (urban) France pied de ville de Bordeaux 343.606[42]
Bordeaux (rural) France pied de terre de Bordeaux 357.214[42]
Strasbourg France pied de Strasbourg 294.95[42]
Württemberg Germany Fuß 286.49[27]
Hanover Germany Fuß 292.10[27]
Augsburg Germany Römischer Fuß 296.17[32]
Nuremberg Germany Fuß 303.75[32]
Meiningen-Hildburghausen Germany Fuß 303.95[27]
Oldenburg Germany Römischer Fuß 296.41[27]
Weimar Germany Fuß 281.98[27]
Lübeck Germany Fuß 287.62[34]
Aschaffenburg Germany Fuß 287.5[31]
Darmstadt Germany Fuß 287.6[31] Until 1818, thereafter the Hessen "metric foot"
Bremen Germany Fuß 289.35[34]
Rhineland Germany Fuß 313.7[40]
Berlin Germany Fuß 309.6[40]
Hamburg Germany Fuß 286.8[40]
Bavaria Germany Fuß 291.86[27]
Aachen Germany Fuß 282.1[32]
Leipzig Germany Fuß 282.67[27]
Dresden Germany Fuß 283.11[27]
Saxony Germany Fuß 283.19[34]
Prussia Germany, Poland, Russia etc. Rheinfuß 313.85[34]
Frankfurt am Main Germany Fuß 284.61[27]
Venice & Lombardy Italy 347.73[27]
Turin Italy 323.1[40]
Rome Italy piede romano 297.896[42]
Malta Malta 283.7[40]
Utrecht Netherlands voet 272.8[40]
Amsterdam Netherlands voet 283.133[30] Divided into 11 duimen (inches)
Honsbossche en Rijpse Netherlands voet 285.0[30]
’s Hertogenbosch Netherlands voet 287.0[30]
Gelderland Netherlands voet 292.0[30]
Bloois (Zeeland) Netherlands voet 301.0[30]
Schouw Netherlands voet 311.0[30]
Rotterdam Netherlands voet 312.43[31]
Rijnland Netherlands voet 314.858[30]
Norway Norway fot 313.75[43] (1824–1835)[Notes 3] Thereafter as for Sweden
Warsaw Poland stopa 297.8[44] until 1819
288.0[31] (From 1819) Polish stopa
Lisbon Portugal Pé 330.0[32] (From 1835)[Notes 4]
Riga Latvia pēda 274.1[40]
South Africa South Africa Cape foot 314.858[45] Originally equal to the Rijnland foot; redefined as 1.033 English feet in 1859.
Burgos and Castile Spain Pie de Burgos/
Castellano 278.6[28] (1759) Quoted as "122.43 lignes"[Notes 1]
Toledo Spain Pie 279.0[28] (1759) Quoted as "10 pouces 3.7 lignes"[Notes 1]
Sweden Sweden fot 296.9[34] = 12 tum (inches). The Swedish fot was also used in Finland ("jalka").
Zürich Switzerland 300.0[40]
Galicia Ukraine, Poland stopa galicyjska 296.96[31] Part of Austria before World War I
Scotland United Kingdom fuit, fit, troigh 305.287[46] [Notes 5]
(In Belgium, the words pied (French) and voet (Dutch) would have been used interchangeably.)
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b c d The source document used pre-metric French units (pied, pouce and lignes)
Jump up ^ The original meter was computed using pre-metric French Units
Jump up ^ The Norwegian fot was defined in 1824 as the length of a (theoretical) pendulum that would have a period of 12⁄38 seconds at 45° from the equator
Jump up ^ Prior to 1835, the pé or foot was not used in Portugal – instead a palm was used. In 1835 the size of the palm was increased from 217.37 mm (according to Palaiseau) to 220 mm
Jump up ^ The Scots foot ceased to be legal after the Act of Union in 1707
See also[edit]
Anthropic units
English units
Mermin's foot
Metric foot
History of measurement
Imperial units
International System of Units
Pous
Systems of measurement
United States customary units
Units of measurement
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b The original reference was given in a round number of centimeters
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Appendix G – Weights and Measures". The World Factbook. Washington: Central Intelligence Agency. January 17, 2007. Retrieved February 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Jon (21 December 2011). "Will British people ever think in metric?". BBC.
Jump up ^ Alder, Ken (2002). The Measure of all Things—The Seven-Year-Odyssey that Transformed the World. London: Abacus.
Jump up ^ Weights and Measures Act, accessed January 2012, Act current to 2012-01-18. Basis for units of measurement 4.(1) All units of measurement used in Canada shall be determined on the basis of the International System of Units established by the General Conference of Weights and Measures. (...) Canadian units (5) The Canadian units of measurement are as set out and defined in Schedule II, and the symbols and abbreviations therefore are as added pursuant to subparagraph 6(1)(b)(ii).
Jump up ^ Weights and Measures Act
Jump up ^ Oswald Ashton Wentworth Dilke (May 22, 1987). Mathematics and measurement. University of California Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-520-06072-2. Retrieved February 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Fessler, Daniel M; Haley, Kevin J; Lal, Roshni D (January–February 2005). "Sexual dimorphism in foot length proportionate to stature" (PDF). Annals of Human Biology. 32 (1): 44–59. doi:10.1080/03014460400027581.
Jump up ^ Kenoyer JM (2010) "Measuring the Harappan world," in Morley I & Renfrew C (edd) The Archaeology of Measurement, 117; "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ History of Herodotus : a new English version, book II, 6.7
Jump up ^ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Epidauros%2C+Stadium&object=Building
Jump up ^ Oswald Ashton Wentworth Dilke (May 22, 1987). Mathematics and measurement. University of California Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-520-06072-2. Retrieved February 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Russ Rowlett. "How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement". Center for Mathematics and Science Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved February 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Sutherland, Elizabeth R (May 1957). "Feet and dates at Charlieu". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 16 (2). JSTOR 987740.
Jump up ^ Jacob Koebel (16th century). Geometrei. Von künstlichem Feldmessen und absehen (in German). Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Great Britain (1762). The statutes at large: from the Magna Charta, to the end of the eleventh Parliament of Great Britain, anno 1761 (continued to 1807). The statutes at large. 1. Printed by J. Bentham. p. 400. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ Zupko, Ronald Edward (1977). British Weights and Measures: A History from Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 6, 10, 20. ISBN 978-0-299-07340-4.
Jump up ^ "On what basis is one inch exactly equal to 25.4 mm? Has the imperial inch been adjusted to give this exact fit and if so when?". National Physical Laboratory. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ See, for example, Report on the Comparisons of the Parliamentary Copies of the Imperial Standards with the Imperial Standard Yard and the Imperial Standard Pound and with each other during the Years 1947 to 1948 (H.M.S.O., London, 1950). Report on the Comparisons of the Parliamentary Copies of the Imperial Standards with each other during the Year 1957 (H.M.S.O., London, 1958).
Jump up ^ Bigg, P. H.; Anderton, Pamela (March 1964), "The United Kingdom standards of the yard in terms of the meter", British Journal of Applied Physics, 15 (3): 291–300, Bibcode:1964BJAP...15..291B, doi:10.1088/0508-3443/15/3/308 CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ A. V. Astin & H. Arnold Karo, (1959), Refinement of values for the yard and the pound, Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards, republished on National Geodetic Survey web site and the Federal Register (Doc. 59-5442, Filed, June 30, 1959, 8:45 am)
^ Jump up to: a b National Geodetic Survey (n.d.), "What are the "official" conversions that are used by NGS to convert 1) meters to inches, and 2) meters to feet?", Frequently Asked Questions about the National Geodetic Survey, retrieved May 16, 2009
Jump up ^ National Geodetic Survey (January 1991), Policy of the National Geodetic Survey Concerning Units of Measure for the State Plane Coordinate System of 1983.
Jump up ^ Schedule to the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1976[permanent dead link].
Jump up ^ Survey of India, "National Map Policy – 2005" Archived March 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Dr. Franz Mozhnik: Lehrbuch des gesammten Rechnens für die vierte Classe der Hauptschulen in den k.k. Staaten. Im Verlage der k.k. Schulbücher Verschleiß-Administration bey St. Anna in der Johannisgasse – Wien 1848
Jump up ^ Denis Février. "Un historique du mètre" (in French). Ministère de l'Économie, des Finances et de l'Industrie. Retrieved March 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Amtliche Maßeinheiten in Europa 1842" [Official measures in Europe 1842] (in German). Retrieved September 22, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e d'Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon (1769). Traité des mesures itinéraires anciennes et modernes [Treatise of ancient and modern measures of distance] (in French). Paris: de l'Imprimerie Royale. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
Jump up ^ Palaiseau, JFG (October 1816). Métrologie universelle, ancienne et moderne: ou rapport des poids et mesures des empires, royaumes, duchés et principautés des quatre parties du monde. Bordeaux. Retrieved October 30, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Jacob de Gelder (1824). Allereerste Gronden der Cijferkunst [Introduction to Numeracy] (in Dutch). 's-Gravenhage (The Hague) and Amsterdam: de Gebroeders van Cleef. pp. 163–176. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Doursther, Horace (1840). Dictionnaire universel des poids et mesures anciens et modernes. Brussels: M. Hayez. pp. 402–418. Retrieved October 25, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Noback, Christian; Noback, Friedrich Eduard (1851). Vollständiges tasehenbuch der Münz-, Maass- und Gewichts-Verhältnisse etc. aller Länder und Handelsplätze [Comprehensive pocketbook of money, weights and measures for all counties and trading centres] (in German). I. Leipzig: F. А. Brockhaus. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Noback, Christian; Noback, Friedrich Eduard (1851). Vollständiges tasehenbuch der Münz-, Maass- und Gewichts-Verhältnisse etc. aller Länder und Handelsplätze [Comprehensive pocketbook of money, weights and measures for all counties and trading centres] (in German). II. Leipzig: F. А. Brockhaus. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Bruhns, Carl (1881). new manual of logarithms to seven places of decimals. Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz. p. 610. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ Thomas Jefferson (July 13, 1790). "Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States". United States House of Representatives. Retrieved November 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Jacob de Gelder (1824). Allereerste Gronden der Cijferkunst [Introduction to Numeracy] (in Dutch). The Hague and Amsterdam: de Gebroeders van Cleef. pp. 155–157. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ Andreas Dreizler; et al. (April 20, 2009). "Metrologie" (PDF) (in German). Technische Universität Darmstadt. Retrieved March 28, 2011. [dead link]
Jump up ^ File
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Maten en gewichten" [Weights and measures] (in Dutch). Vlaamse Vereniging voor Familiekunde (Flemish Association for Family History). 2011. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Rose, Joshua (1900). Pattern Makers Assistant (9th ed.). New York: D. van Nostrand Co. p. 264.
Jump up ^ "Les anciennes unités et leurs équivalences" [Old units and their equivalences] (in French). Le Cybergroupe Généalogique de Charente Poitevine. 2011. Retrieved February 25, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Guilhiermoz, P (1913). "De l'équivalence des anciennes mesures. A propos d'une publication récente" [Values of ancient measures quoted in recent publications]. Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes (in French). 74: 267–328. doi:10.3406/bec.1913.448498.
Jump up ^ halbo, leif (July 21, 2005). "Mål, vekt og norsk selvstendighet" [Dimensions, weight and Norwegian independence]. Aftenposten.
Jump up ^ [citation needed] – Information copied from pl:Stopa polska
Jump up ^ Tomasz Zakiewicz (April 2005). "The Cape Geodetic Standards and Their Impact on Africa" (PDF). FIG, Cairo. Retrieved January 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Scottish Weights and Measures: Distance and Area". Scottish Archive Network. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foot_(unit)&oldid=833491459"
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