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The Marriage of Figaro
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For the Beaumarchais play, see The Marriage of Figaro (play). For the opera by Marcos Portugal (1799), see Marcos Portugal.
Le nozze di Figaro
The Marriage of Figaro
Opera by W. A. Mozart
Early 19th-century engraving depicting Count Almaviva and Susanna in act 3
Librettist
Lorenzo Da Ponte
Language
Italian
Based on
Le Mariage de Figaro
by Pierre Beaumarchais
Premiere
1 May 1786 (1786-05-01)
Burgtheater, Vienna
The Marriage of Figaro (Italian: Le nozze di Figaro, pronounced [le ˈnɔttse di ˈfiːɡaro]), K. 492, is an opera buffa (comic opera) in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786. The opera's libretto is based on a stage comedy by Pierre Beaumarchais, La folle journée, ou le Mariage de Figaro ("The Mad Day, or The Marriage of Figaro"), which was first performed in 1784. It tells how the servants Figaro and Susanna succeed in getting married, foiling the efforts of their philandering employer Count Almaviva to seduce Susanna and teaching him a lesson in fidelity.
The opera is a cornerstone of the repertoire and appears consistently among the top ten in the Operabase list of most frequently performed operas.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition history
2 Performance history
2.1 Other early performances
3 Roles
4 Synopsis
4.1 Overture
4.2 Act 1
4.3 Act 2
4.4 Act 3
4.5 Act 4
5 Instrumentation
6 Frequently omitted numbers
7 Critical discussion
8 Other uses of the melodies
9 Recordings
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Composition history[edit]
Beaumarchais's earlier play The Barber of Seville had already made a successful transition to opera in a version by Paisiello. Beaumarchais's Mariage de Figaro was at first banned in Vienna; the Emperor, Joseph II, stated that "since the piece contains much that is objectionable, I therefore expect that the Censor shall either reject it altogether, or at any rate have such alterations made in it that he shall be responsible for the performance of this play and for the impression it may make", after which the Austrian Censor duly forbade performing the German version of the play.[2][3] Mozart's librettist managed to get official approval for an operatic version which eventually achieved great success.
The opera was the first of three collaborations between Mozart and Da Ponte; their later collaborations were Don Giovanni and Così fan tutte. It was Mozart who originally selected Beaumarchais's play and brought it to Da Ponte, who turned it into a libretto in six weeks, rewriting it in poetic Italian and removing all of the original's political references. In particular, Da Ponte replaced Figaro's climactic speech against inherited nobility with an equally angry aria against unfaithful wives.[4] Contrary to the popular myth, the libretto was approved by the Emperor before any music was written by Mozart.[5]
The Imperial Italian opera company paid Mozart 450 florins for the work;[6] this was three times his (low) yearly salary when he had worked as a court musician in Salzburg.[7] Da Ponte was paid 200 florins.[6]
Performance history[edit]
Figaro premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786, with a cast listed in the "Roles" section below. Mozart himself directed the first two performances, conducting seated at the keyboard, the custom of the day. Later performances were conducted by Joseph Weigl.[8] The first production was given eight further performances, all in 1786.[9]
Although the total of nine performances was nothing like the frequency of performance of Mozart's later success, The Magic Flute, which for months was performed roughly every other day,[7] the premiere is generally judged to have been a success. The applause of the audience on the first night resulted in five numbers being encored, seven on 8 May.[10] Joseph II, who, in addition to his empire, was in charge of the Burgtheater,[11] was concerned by the length of the performance and directed his aide Count Rosenberg as follows:
To prevent the excessive duration of operas, without however prejudicing the fame often sought by opera singers from the repetition of vocal pieces, I deem the enclosed notice to the public (that no piece for more than a single voice is to be repeated) to be the most reasonable expedient. You will therefore cause some posters to this effect to be printed.[12]
The requested posters were printed up and posted in the Burgtheater in time for the third performance on 24 May.[13]
The newspaper Wiener Realzeitung carried a review of the opera in its issue of 11 July 1786. It alludes to interference probably produced by paid hecklers, but praises the work warmly:
Mozart's music was generally admired by connoisseurs already at the first performance, if I except only those whose self-love and conceit will not allow them to find merit in anything not written by themselves.
The public, however ... did not really know on the first day where it stood. It heard many a bravo from unbiassed connoisseurs, but obstreperous louts in the uppermost storey exerted their hired lungs with all their might to deafen singers and audience alike with their St! and Pst; and consequently opinions were divided at the end of the piece.
Apart from that, it is true that the first performance was none of the best, owing to the difficulties of the composition.
But now, after several performances, one would be subscribing either to the cabal or to tastelessness if one were to maintain that Herr Mozart's music is anything but a masterpiece of art.
It contains so many beauties, and such a wealth of ideas, as can be drawn only from the source of innate genius.[14]
The Hungarian poet Ferenc Kazinczy was in the audience for a May performance, and later remembered the powerful impression the work made on him:
[Nancy] Storace [see below], the beautiful singer, enchanted eye, ear, and soul. – Mozart directed the orchestra, playing his fortepiano; the joy which this music causes is so far removed from all sensuality that one cannot speak of it. Where could words be found that are worthy to describe such joy?[15]
Joseph Haydn appreciated the opera greatly, writing to a friend that he heard it in his dreams.[16] In summer 1790 Haydn attempted to produce the work with his own company at Eszterháza, but was prevented from doing so by the death of his patron, Nikolaus Esterházy.[17]
Other early performances[edit]
The Emperor requested a special performance at his palace theater in Laxenburg, which took place in June 1786.[18]
The opera was produced in Prague starting in December 1786 by the Pasquale Bondini company. This production was a tremendous success; the newspaper Prager Oberpostamtszeitung called the work "a masterpiece",[19] and said "no piece (for everyone here asserts) has ever caused such a sensation."[20] Local music lovers paid for Mozart to visit Prague and hear the production; he listened on 17 January 1787, and conducted it himself on the 22nd.[21] The success of the Prague production led to the commissioning of the next Mozart/Da Ponte opera, Don Giovanni, premiered in Prague in 1787; see Mozart and Prague.
The work was not performed in Vienna during 1787 or 1788, but starting in 1789 there was a revival production.[22] For this occasion Mozart replaced both arias of Susanna with new compositions, better suited to the voice of Adriana Ferrarese del Bene who took the role. For Deh vieni he wrote Al desio di chi t'adora – "[come and fly] To the desire of [the one] who adores you" (K. 577) in July 1789, and for Venite, inginocchiatevi he wrote Un moto di gioia – "A joyous emotion", (K. 579), probably in mid-1790.[23]
Roles[edit]
The voice types which appear in this table are those listed in the critical edition published in the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe.[24] In modern performance practice, Cherubino is usually assigned to a mezzo-soprano (sometimes also Marcellina), Count Almaviva to a baritone, and Figaro to a bass-baritone.[25]
Role
Voice type
Premiere cast, 1 May 1786
(Conductor: W. A. Mozart)
Count Almaviva bass Stefano Mandini
Countess Rosina Almaviva soprano Luisa Laschi
Susanna, the countess's maid soprano Nancy Storace
Figaro, personal valet to the count bass Francesco Benucci
Cherubino, the Count's page soprano (en travesti) Dorotea Bussani
Marcellina, Doctor Bartolo's housekeeper soprano Maria Mandini
Bartolo, doctor from Seville, also a practicing lawyer bass Francesco Bussani
Basilio, music teacher tenor Michael Kelly
Don Curzio, judge tenor Michael Kelly
Barbarina, Antonio's daughter soprano Anna Gottlieb
Antonio, the Count's gardener, Susanna's uncle bass Francesco Bussani
Chorus of peasants, villagers, and servants
Synopsis[edit]
The Marriage of Figaro continues the plot of The Barber of Seville several years later, and recounts a single "day of madness" (la folle journée) in the palace of Count Almaviva near Seville, Spain. Rosina is now the Countess; Dr. Bartolo is seeking revenge against Figaro for thwarting his plans to marry Rosina himself; and Count Almaviva has degenerated from the romantic youth of Barber into a scheming, bullying, skirt-chasing baritone. Having gratefully given Figaro a job as head of his servant-staff, he is now persistently trying to exercise his droit du seigneur – his right to bed a servant girl on her wedding night – with Figaro's bride-to-be, Susanna, who is the Countess's maid. He keeps finding excuses to delay the civil part of the wedding of his two servants, which is arranged for this very day. Figaro, Susanna, and the Countess conspire to embarrass the Count and expose his scheming. He retaliates by trying to compel Figaro legally to marry a woman old enough to be his mother, but it turns out at the last minute that she really is his mother. Through Figaro's and Susanna's clever manipulations, the Count's love for his Countess is finally restored.
Place: Count Almaviva's estate, Aguas-Frescas, three leagues outside Seville, Spain.[26]
Overture[edit]
Overture
Performed by Musopen Symphony (4:00)
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The overture is in the key of D major; the tempo marking is presto; i.e. very fast. The work is well known and often played independently as a concert piece.
Act 1[edit]
A partly furnished room, with a chair in the centre.
Figaro happily measures the space where the bridal bed will fit while Susanna tries on her wedding bonnet in front of a mirror (in the present day, a more traditional French floral wreath or a modern veil are often substituted, often in combination with a bonnet, so as to accommodate what Susanna happily describes as her wedding cappellino). (Duet: Cinque, dieci, venti – "Five, ten, twenty"). Figaro is quite pleased with their new room; Susanna far less so (Duettino: Se a caso madama la notte ti chiama – "If the Countess should call you during the night"). She is bothered by its proximity to the Count's chambers: it seems he has been making advances toward her and plans on exercising his droit du seigneur, the purported feudal right of a lord to bed a servant girl on her wedding night before her husband can sleep with her. The Count had the right abolished when he married Rosina, but he now wants to reinstate it. Figaro is livid and plans to outwit the Count (Cavatina: Se vuol ballare signor contino – "If you want to dance, sir count").
Figaro departs, and Dr. Bartolo arrives with Marcellina, his old housekeeper. Marcellina has hired Bartolo as legal counsel, since Figaro had once promised to marry her if he should default on a loan she had made to him, and she intends to enforce that promise. Bartolo, still irked at Figaro for having facilitated the union of the Count and Rosina (in The Barber of Seville), promises, in comical lawyer-speak, to help Marcellina (aria: La vendetta – "Vengeance").
Bartolo departs, Susanna returns, and Marcellina and Susanna share an exchange of very politely delivered sarcastic insults (duet: Via resti servita, madama brillante – "After you, brilliant madam"). Susanna triumphs in the exchange by congratulating her rival on her impressive age. The older woman departs in a fury.
Act 1: Cherubino hides behind Susanna's chair as the Count arrives.
Cherubino then arrives and, after describing his emerging infatuation with all women, particularly with his "beautiful godmother" the Countess (aria: Non so più cosa son – "I don't know anymore what I am"), asks for Susanna's aid with the Count. It seems the Count is angry with Cherubino's amorous ways, having discovered him with the gardener's daughter, Barbarina, and plans to punish him. Cherubino wants Susanna to ask the Countess to intercede on his behalf. When the Count appears, Cherubino hides behind a chair, not wanting to be seen alone with Susanna. The Count uses the opportunity of finding Susanna alone to step up his demands for favours from her, including financial inducements to sell herself to him. As Basilio, the music teacher, arrives, the Count, not wanting to be caught alone with Susanna, hides behind the chair. Cherubino leaves that hiding place just in time, and jumps onto the chair while Susanna scrambles to cover him with a dress.
When Basilio starts to gossip about Cherubino's obvious attraction to the Countess, the Count angrily leaps from his hiding place (terzetto: Cosa sento! – "What do I hear!"). He disparages the "absent" page's incessant flirting and describes how he caught him with Barbarina under the kitchen table. As he lifts the dress from the chair to illustrate how he lifted the tablecloth to expose Cherubino, he finds ... the self same Cherubino! The count is furious, but is reminded that the page overheard the Count's advances on Susanna, something that the Count wants to keep from the Countess. The young man is ultimately saved from punishment by the entrance of the peasants of the Count's estate, a preemptive attempt by Figaro to commit the Count to a formal gesture symbolizing his promise that Susanna would enter into the marriage unsullied. The Count evades Figaro's plan by postponing the gesture. The Count says that he forgives Cherubino, but he dispatches him to his own regiment in Seville for army duty, effective immediately. Figaro gives Cherubino mocking advice about his new, harsh, military life from which all luxury, and especially women, will be totally excluded (aria: Non più andrai – "No more gallivanting").[27]
Act 2[edit]
A handsome room with an alcove, a dressing room on the left, a door in the background (leading to the servants' quarters) and a window at the side.
No. 11 Cavatina Porgi, amor
Provided by Musopen (3:36)
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The Countess laments her husband's infidelity (aria: Porgi, amor, qualche ristoro – "Grant, love, some comfort"). Susanna comes in to prepare the Countess for the day. She responds to the Countess's questions by telling her that the Count is not trying to seduce her; he is merely offering her a monetary contract in return for her affection. Figaro enters and explains his plan to distract the Count with anonymous letters warning him of adulterers. He has already sent one to the Count (via Basilio) that indicates that the Countess has a rendezvous of her own that evening. They hope that the Count will be too busy looking for imaginary adulterers to interfere with Figaro and Susanna's wedding. Figaro additionally advises the Countess to keep Cherubino around. She should dress him up as a girl and lure the Count into an illicit rendezvous where he can be caught red-handed. Figaro leaves.
Voi che sapete cosa è amor
Performed in 1910 by Nellie Melba (3:24)
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Cherubino arrives, sent in by Figaro and eager to co-operate. Susanna urges him to sing the song he wrote for the Countess (aria: Voi che sapete che cosa è amor – "You ladies who know what love is, is it what I'm suffering from?"). After the song, the Countess, seeing Cherubino's military commission, notices that the Count was in such a hurry that he forgot to seal it with his signet ring (which would be necessary to make it an official document).
Susanna and the Countess then begin with their plan. Susanna takes off Cherubino´s cloak, and she begins to comb his hair and teach him to behave and walk like a woman (aria of Susanna: Venite, inginocchiatevi – “Come, kneel down before me”). Then she leaves the room through a door at the back to get the dress for Cherubino, taking his cloak with her.
While the Countess and Cherubino are waiting for Susanna to come back, they suddenly hear the Count arriving. Cherubino hides in the closet. The Count demands to be allowed into the room and the Countess reluctantly unlocks the door. The Count enters and hears a noise from the closet. He tries to open it, but it is locked. The Countess tells him it is only Susanna, trying on her wedding dress. At this moment, Susanna re-enters unobserved, quickly realizes what's going on, and hides behind a couch (Trio: Susanna, or via, sortite – "Susanna, come out!"). The Count shouts for her to identify herself by her voice, but the Countess orders her to be silent. Furious and suspicious, the Count leaves, with the Countess, in search of tools to force the closet door open. As they leave, he locks all the bedroom doors to prevent the intruder from escaping. Cherubino and Susanna emerge from their hiding places, and Cherubino escapes by jumping through the window into the garden. Susanna then takes Cherubino's former place in the closet, vowing to make the Count look foolish (duet: Aprite, presto, aprite – "Open the door, quickly!").
The Count and Countess return. The Countess, thinking herself trapped, desperately admits that Cherubino is hidden in the closet. The enraged Count draws his sword, promising to kill Cherubino on the spot, but when the door is opened, they both find to their astonishment only Susanna (Finale: Esci omai, garzon malnato – "Come out of there, you ill-born boy!"). The Count demands an explanation; the Countess tells him it is a practical joke, to test his trust in her. Shamed by his jealousy, the Count begs for forgiveness. When the Count presses about the anonymous letter, Susanna and the Countess reveal that the letter was written by Figaro, and then delivered by Basilio. Figaro then arrives and tries to start the wedding festivities, but the Count berates him with questions about the anonymous note. Just as the Count is starting to run out of questions, Antonio the gardener arrives, complaining that a man has jumped out of the window and broken his flowerpots. The Count immediately realizes that the jumping fugitive was Cherubino, but Figaro claims it was he himself who jumped out of the window, and claims to have injured his foot while landing. Figaro, Susanna, and the Countess attempt to discredit Antonio as a chronic drunkard whose constant inebriation makes him unreliable and prone to fantasy, but Antonio brings forward a paper which, he says, was dropped by the escaping man. The Count orders Figaro to prove he was the jumper by identifying the paper (which is, in fact, Cherubino's appointment to the army). Figaro is at a loss, but Susanna and the Countess manage to signal the correct answers, and Figaro identifies the document. His victory is, however, short-lived: Marcellina, Bartolo, and Basilio enter, bringing charges against Figaro and demanding that he honor his contract to marry Marcellina. The Count happily postpones the wedding in order to investigate the charge.
Act 3[edit]
A rich hall, with two thrones, prepared for the wedding ceremony.
The Count mulls over the confusing situation. At the urging of the Countess, Susanna enters and gives a false promise to meet the Count later that night in the garden (duet: Crudel! perchè finora – "Cruel girl, why did you make me wait so long"). As Susanna leaves, the Count overhears her telling Figaro that he has already won the case. Realizing that he is being tricked (recitative and aria: Hai già vinta la causa! ... Vedrò, mentr'io sospiro – "You've already won the case!" ... "Shall I, while sighing, see"), he resolves to punish Figaro by forcing him to marry Marcellina.
Figaro's hearing follows, and the Count's judgment is that Figaro must marry Marcellina. Figaro argues that he cannot get married without his parents' permission, and that he does not know who his parents are, because he was stolen from them when he was a baby. The ensuing discussion reveals that Figaro is Rafaello, the long-lost illegitimate son of Bartolo and Marcellina. A touching scene of reconciliation occurs. During the celebrations, Susanna enters with a payment to release Figaro from his debt to Marcellina. Seeing Figaro and Marcellina in celebration together, Susanna mistakenly believes that Figaro now prefers Marcellina to her. She has a tantrum and slaps Figaro's face. Marcellina explains, and Susanna, realizing her mistake, joins the celebration. Bartolo, overcome with emotion, agrees to marry Marcellina that evening in a double wedding (sextet: Riconosci in questo amplesso – "Recognize in this embrace").
All leave, before Barbarina, Antonio's daughter, invites Cherubino back to her house so they can disguise him as a girl. The Countess, alone, ponders the loss of her happiness (aria: Dove sono i bei momenti – "Where are they, the beautiful moments"). Meanwhile, Antonio informs the Count that Cherubino is not in Seville, but in fact at his house. Susanna enters and updates her mistress regarding the plan to trap the Count. The Countess dictates a love letter for Susanna to send to the Count, which suggests that he meet her (Susanna) that night, "under the pines". The letter instructs the Count to return the pin which fastens the letter (duet: Sull'aria...che soave zeffiretto – "On the breeze... What a gentle little zephyr").
A chorus of young peasants, among them Cherubino disguised as a girl, arrives to serenade the Countess. The Count arrives with Antonio and, discovering the page, is enraged. His anger is quickly dispelled by Barbarina, who publicly recalls that he had once offered to give her anything she wants, and asks for Cherubino's hand in marriage. Thoroughly embarrassed, the Count allows Cherubino to stay.
The act closes with the double wedding, during the course of which Susanna delivers her letter to the Count (Finale: Ecco la marcia – "Here is the procession"). Figaro watches the Count prick his finger on the pin, and laughs, unaware that the love-note is an invitation for the Count to tryst with Figaro's own bride Susanna. As the curtain drops, the two newlywed couples rejoice.
Act 4[edit]
The garden, with two pavilions. Night.
Following the directions in the letter, the Count has sent the pin back to Susanna, giving it to Barbarina. Unfortunately, Barbarina has lost it (aria: L'ho perduta, me meschina – "I have lost it, poor me"). Figaro and Marcellina see Barbarina, and Figaro asks her what she is doing. When he hears the pin is Susanna's, he is overcome with jealousy, especially as he recognises the pin to be the one that fastened the letter to the Count. Thinking that Susanna is meeting the Count behind his back, Figaro complains to his mother, and swears to be avenged on the Count and Susanna, and on all unfaithful wives. Marcellina urges caution, but Figaro will not listen. Figaro rushes off, and Marcellina resolves to inform Susanna of Figaro's intentions. Marcellina sings an aria lamenting that male and female wild beasts get along with each other, but rational humans can't (aria: Il capro e la capretta – "The billy-goat and the she-goat"). (This aria and Basilio's ensuing aria are usually omitted from performances due to their relative unimportance, both musically and dramatically; however, some recordings include them.)
Motivated by jealousy, Figaro tells Bartolo and Basilio to come to his aid when he gives the signal. Basilio comments on Figaro's foolishness and claims he was once as frivolous as Figaro was. He tells a tale of how he was given common sense by "Donna Flemma" ("Dame Prudence") and learned the importance of not crossing powerful people. (aria: In quegli anni – "In those years"). They exit, leaving Figaro alone. Figaro muses bitterly on the inconstancy of women (recitative and aria: Tutto è disposto ... Aprite un po' quegli occhi – "Everything is ready ... Open those eyes a little"). Susanna and the Countess arrive, each dressed in the other's clothes. Marcellina is with them, having informed Susanna of Figaro's suspicions and plans. After they discuss the plan, Marcellina and the Countess leave, and Susanna teases Figaro by singing a love song to her beloved within Figaro's hearing (aria: Deh vieni, non tardar – "Oh come, don't delay"). Figaro is hiding behind a bush and, thinking the song is for the Count, becomes increasingly jealous.
The Countess arrives in Susanna's dress. Cherubino shows up and starts teasing "Susanna" (really the Countess), endangering the plan. (Finale: Pian pianin le andrò più presso - "Softly, softly I'll approach her") Fortunately, the Count gets rid of him by striking out in the dark. His punch actually ends up hitting Figaro, but the point is made and Cherubino runs off.
The Count now begins making earnest love to "Susanna" (really the Countess), and gives her a jeweled ring. They go offstage together, where the Countess dodges him, hiding in the dark. Onstage, meanwhile, the real Susanna enters, wearing the Countess' clothes. Figaro mistakes her for the real Countess, and starts to tell her of the Count's intentions, but he suddenly recognizes his bride in disguise. He plays along with the joke by pretending to be in love with "my lady", and inviting her to make love right then and there. Susanna, fooled, loses her temper and slaps him many times. Figaro finally lets on that he has recognized Susanna's voice, and they make peace, resolving to conclude the comedy together (Pace, pace, mio dolce tesoro - "Peace, peace, my sweet treasure").
The Count, unable to find "Susanna", enters frustrated. Figaro gets his attention by loudly declaring his love for "the Countess" (really Susanna). The enraged Count calls for his people and for weapons: his servant is seducing his wife. (Ultima Scena: Gente, gente, all'armi, all'armi – "Gentlemen, to arms!") Bartolo, Basilio and Antonio enter with torches as, one by one, the Count drags out Cherubino, Barbarina, Marcellina and the "Countess" from behind the pavilion.
All beg him to forgive Figaro and the "Countess", but he loudly refuses, repeating "no" at the top of his voice, until finally the real Countess re-enters and reveals her true identity. The Count, seeing the ring he had given her, realizes that the supposed Susanna he was trying to seduce was actually his wife. Ashamed and remorseful, he kneels and pleads for forgiveness himself (Contessa perdono! – "Countess, forgive me!"). The Countess, more kind than he (Più docile io sono – "I am more mild"), forgives her husband and all are contented. The opera ends in universal celebration.
Instrumentation[edit]
Libretto 1786
The Marriage of Figaro is scored for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, timpani, and strings; the recitativi are accompanied by a keyboard instrument, usually a fortepiano or a harpsichord, often joined by a cello. The instrumentation of the recitativi is not given in the score, so it is up to the conductor and the performers. A typical performance usually lasts around 3 hours.
Frequently omitted numbers[edit]
Two arias from Act 4 are often omitted: one in which Marcellina regrets that people (unlike animals) abuse their mates ("Il capro e la capretta"), and one in which Don Basilio tells how he saved himself from several dangers in his youth, by using the skin of an ass for shelter and camouflage ("In quegli anni").[28]
Mozart wrote two replacement arias for Susanna when the role was taken over by Adriana Ferrarese in the 1789 revival. The replacement arias, "Un moto di gioia" (replacing "Venite, inginocchiatevi" in Act 2) and "Al desio di chi t'adora" (replacing "Deh vieni, non tardar" in Act 4), in which the two clarinets are replaced with basset horns, are normally not used in modern performances. A notable exception was a series of performances at the Metropolitan Opera in 1998 with Cecilia Bartoli as Susanna.[29]
Critical discussion[edit]
Lorenzo Da Ponte wrote a preface to the first published version of the libretto, in which he boldly claimed that he and Mozart had created a new form of music drama:
In spite ... of every effort ... to be brief, the opera will not be one of the shortest to have appeared on our stage, for which we hope sufficient excuse will be found in the variety of threads from which the action of this play [i.e. Beaumarchais's] is woven, the vastness and grandeur of the same, the multiplicity of the musical numbers that had to be made in order not to leave the actors too long unemployed, to diminish the vexation and monotony of long recitatives, and to express with varied colours the various emotions that occur, but above all in our desire to offer as it were a new kind of spectacle to a public of so refined a taste and understanding.[30]
Charles Rosen (in The Classical Style) proposes to take Da Ponte's words quite seriously, noting the "richness of the ensemble writing",[31] which carries forward the action in a far more dramatic way than recitatives would. Rosen also suggests that the musical language of the classical style was adapted by Mozart to convey the drama: many sections of the opera musically resemble sonata form; by movement through a sequence of keys, they build up and resolve musical tension, providing a natural musical reflection of the drama. As Rosen writes:
The synthesis of accelerating complexity and symmetrical resolution which was at the heart of Mozart's style enabled him to find a musical equivalent for the great stage works which were his dramatic models. The Marriage of Figaro in Mozart's version is the dramatic equal, and in many respects the superior, of Beaumarchais's work.[32]
This is demonstrated in the closing numbers of all four acts: as the drama escalates, Mozart eschews recitativi altogether and opts for increasingly sophisticated writing, bringing his characters on stage, revelling in a complex weave of solo and ensemble singing in multiple combinations, and climaxing in seven- and eight-voice tutti for acts 2 and 4.
Mozart cleverly uses the sound of two horns playing together to represent cuckoldry, in the act 4 aria "Aprite un po' quegli occhi".[33] Verdi later used the same device in Ford's aria in Falstaff.[34][35]
Johannes Brahms said "In my opinion, each number in Figaro is a miracle; it is totally beyond me how anyone could create anything so perfect; nothing like it was ever done again, not even by Beethoven."[36]
Other uses of the melodies[edit]
A musical phrase from the act 1 trio of The Marriage of Figaro (where Basilio sings Così fan tutte le belle) was later reused, by Mozart, in the overture to his opera Così fan tutte.[37] Mozart also quotes Figaro's aria Non più andrai in the second act of his opera Don Giovanni; it is also used as a military march. Further, Mozart used it in 1791 in his Five Contredanses, K. 609, No. 1. Mozart reused the music of the Agnus Dei of his earlier Krönungsmesse (Coronation Mass) for the Countess' Dove sono, in C major instead of the original F major.[38] Mozart also reused the motif that begins his early bassoon concerto in another aria sung by the Countess, Porgi, amor.[citation needed] Franz Liszt quoted the opera in his Fantasy on Themes from Mozart's Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni.
In 1819, Henry R. Bishop wrote an adaptation of the opera in English, translating from Beaumarchais's play and re-using some of Mozart's music, while adding some of his own.[39]
In his 1991 opera, The Ghosts of Versailles, which includes elements of Beaumarchais's third Figaro play (La Mère coupable) and in which the main characters of The Marriage of Figaro also appear, John Corigliano quotes Mozart's opera, especially the overture, several times.
Recordings[edit]
Main article: The Marriage of Figaro discography
See also[edit]
Opera portal
List of operas by Mozart
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ "Statistics for the five seasons 2009/10 to 2013/14". Operabase. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Mann, William. The Operas of Mozart. Cassell, London, 1977, p. 366 (in chapter on Le Nozze di Figaro).
Jump up ^ The librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte in his memoirs asserted that the play was banned only for its sexual references. See the Memoirs of Lorenzo Da Ponte, trans. Elisabeth Abbott (New York: Da Capo Press, 1988), 150.
Jump up ^ While the political content was suppressed, the opera enhanced the emotional content. According to Stendhal, Mozart "transformed into real passions the superficial attachments that amuse Beaumarchais's easy-going inhabitants of [Count Almaviva's castle] Aguas Frescas". Stendhal's French text is in: Dümchen, Sybil; Nerlich, Michael, eds. (1994). Stendhal – Text und Bild (in German). Tübingen: Gunter Narr. ISBN 978-3-8233-3990-8.
Jump up ^ Nathan Broder. Essay on the opera in the Schirmer edition[full citation needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Deutsch 1965, p. 274
^ Jump up to: a b (Solomon 1995)
Jump up ^ Deutsch 1965, p. 272 Deutsch says Mozart played a harpsichord; for conflicting testimony, see below.
Jump up ^ These were: 3, 8, 24 May; 4 July, 28 August, 22 (perhaps 23) of September, 15 November, 18 December (Deutsch 1965, p. 272)
Jump up ^ Deutsch (1965), p. 272
Jump up ^ Rice (1999), p. 331)
Jump up ^ 9 May 1786, quoted from Deutsch 1965, p. 272
Jump up ^ (Deutsch 1965, p. 275)
Jump up ^ Quoted in Deutsch (1965), p. 278
Jump up ^ From Kazinczy's 1828 autobiography; quoted in Deutsch (1965)
Jump up ^ The letter, to Marianne von Genzinger, is printed in Geiringer 1982, pp. 90–92
Jump up ^ (Landon & Jones 1988, p. 174)
Jump up ^ (Deutsch 1965)
Jump up ^ (Deutsch 1965, p. 281)
Jump up ^ (Deutsch 1965, p. 280)
Jump up ^ (Deutsch 1965, p. 285)
Jump up ^ Performance dates: 29 and 31 August; 2, 11, 19 September; 3, 9, 24 October; 5, 13, 27 November; 8 January 1790; 1 February; 1, 7, 9, 19, 30 May; 22 June; 24, 26 July; 22 August; 3, 25 September; 11 October; 4, 20 January 1791; 9 February; from Deutsch 1965, p. 272
Jump up ^ Dexter Edge, "Mozart's Viennese Copyists" (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 2001), 1718–34.
Jump up ^ Le nozze di Figaro, p. 2, NMA II/5/16/1-2 (1973)
Jump up ^ See Robinson (1986) p. 173; Chanan (1999) p. 63; and Singher and Singher (2003) p. 150. Mozart (and his contemporaries) never used the terms "mezzo-soprano" or "baritone". Women's roles were listed as either "soprano" or "contralto", while men's roles were listed as either "tenor" or "bass". Many of Mozart's baritone and bass-baritone roles derive from the basso buffo tradition, where no clear distinction was drawn between bass and baritone, a practice that continued well into the 19th century. Similarly, mezzo-soprano as a distinct voice type was a 19th-century development (Jander, Steane, Forbes, Harris, and Waldman 2001). Modern re-classifications of the voice types for Mozartian roles have been based on analysis of contemporary descriptions of the singers who created those roles and their other repertoire, and on the role's tessitura in the score.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Hugh (2006). "Ten – Leaving Madrid.". Beaumarchais in Seville: an intermezzo. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-300-12103-2. Retrieved 27 August 2008. Synopsis based on Melitz (1921).
Jump up ^ This piece became so popular that Mozart himself, in the final act of his next opera Don Giovanni, transformed the aria into table music played by a woodwind ensemble, and alluded to by Leporello as "rather well-known sounds".
Jump up ^ Brown-Montesano, Kristi (2007). Understanding the Women of Mozart’s Operas, p. 207. University of California Press. ISBN 052093296X
Jump up ^ Gossett, Philip (2008). Divas and Scholars: Performing Italian Opera, pp. 239–240. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226304876
Jump up ^ English translation taken from Deutsch 1965, 273–274
Jump up ^ Rosen 1997, 182
Jump up ^ Rosen 1997, 183
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/aug/14/glyndebourne-2012-the-marriage-of-figaro-musical-guide
Jump up ^ http://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs_reviews.asp?item_code=8.110198-99&catNum=8110198&filetype=About+this+Recording&language=English
Jump up ^ https://bachtrack.com/review-falstaff-maestri-winters-gardner-cbso-birmingham-july-2016
Jump up ^ Harris, Robert, What to listen for in Mozart, 2002, ISBN 0743244044, p. 141; in a different translation, Peter Gay, Mozart: A Life, Penguin, New York, 1999, p. 131.
Jump up ^ Cairns, David (2007). Mozart and His Operas. Penguin. p. 256. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.catholicchorale.org/event/w-a-mozart-coronation-mass-k-317/
Jump up ^ Bishop, Henry R. (1819). The Marriage of Figaro: A Comic Opera in Three Acts. Piccadilly: John Miller.
Sources
Chanan, Michael (1999). From Handel to Hendrix: the composer in the public sphere. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-706-4
Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press.
Geiringer, Karl; Irene Geiringer (1982). Haydn: A Creative Life in Music (3rd ed.). University of California Press. xii, 403. ISBN 0-520-04316-2.
Gutman, Robert W. (2001). Mozart: A Cultural Biography. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-601171-9
Jackson, Roland John (2005). Performance practice: a dictionary-guide for musicians. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94139-3
Jander, Owen; Steane, J.B.; Forbes, Elizabeth; Harris, Ellen T.; and Waldman, Gerald (2001). "Baritone" and "Mezzo-soprano [mezzo]", in Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (eds.), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-60800-3.
Landon, H. C. Robbins; David Wyn Jones (1988). Haydn: His Life and Music. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-37265-9.
Melitz, Leo (1921). The Opera Goer's Complete Guide (translated by Richard Sanger. Dodd, Mead and Co.
Rice, John A. (1999) Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Robinson, Paul A. (1986). Opera & ideas: from Mozart to Strauss. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9428-1
Rosen, Charles (1997). The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.
Singher, Martial and Singher, Eta (2003). An Interpretive Guide to Operatic Arias: A Handbook for Singers, Coaches, Teachers, and Students. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-02354-6
External links[edit]
Italian Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Le nozze di Figaro
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Le nozze di Figaro.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Marriage of Figaro
Le nozze di Figaro: Score and critical report (in German) in the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe
Complete libretto
Full orchestral score (German/Italian)
Italian/English side by side translation
Italian/English side by side translation
Mozart's Opera Marriage of Figaro, containing the Italian text, with an English translation, and the Music of all of the Principal Airs, Ditson (1888)
The Marriage of Figaro: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Complete recording at Mozart Archiv
Photos of 21st century productions of The Marriage of Figaro in Germany and Switzerland (in German)
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Figaro lässt sich scheiden (Klebe, 1963)
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Figaro Gets a Divorce (Langer, 2016)
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Law and order (politics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In politics, law and order refers to demands for a strict criminal justice system, especially in relation to violent and property crime, through stricter criminal penalties. These penalties may include longer terms of imprisonment, mandatory sentencing, three-strikes laws, and in some countries, capital punishment.
Supporters of "law and order" argue that incarceration is the most effective means of crime prevention. Opponents of law and order argue that a system of harsh criminal punishment is ultimately ineffective because it does not address underlying or systemic causes of crime.
Contents
[hide]
1 Political issue in the United States
1.1 Causes
1.1.1 Riots
1.1.2 Crime
1.2 Results
2 International issue
3 Criticisms
4 Order without law
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 References
Political issue in the United States[edit]
"Law and order" became a powerful conservative theme in the U.S. in the 1960s. The leading proponents in the late 1960s were Republicans Ronald Reagan (as governor of California) and Richard Nixon (as presidential candidate in 1968). They used it to dissolve a liberal consensus about crime that involved federal court decisions and a pushback against illegal drugs and violent gang activity. White ethnics in northern cities turned against the Democratic party, blaming it for being soft on crime and rioters.[1]
The political demand for "law and order" was made by John Adams and Thomas Jefferson in the 1780s and 1790s.[2][3] It was a political slogan in Kentucky around 1900 after the assassination of Governor William Goebel.[4] The term was used by Barry Goldwater in his run for president in 1964.
Liberals, Flamm (2005) argues, were unable to craft a compelling message for anxious voters. Instead, liberals either ignored the crime crisis, claimed that law and order was a racist ruse, or maintained that social programs would solve the "root causes" of civil disorder, which by 1968 seemed increasingly unlikely and contributed to a loss of faith in the ability of the government to do what it was sworn to do—protect personal security and private property. Conservatives rejected the liberal notions. "How long are we going to abdicate law and order," House GOP leader Gerald Ford demanded in 1966, "in favor of a soft social theory that the man who heaves a brick through your window or tosses a firebomb into your car is simply the misunderstood and underprivileged product of a broken home?"
Flamm (2005) documents how conservatives constructed a persuasive message that argued that the Civil Rights Movement had contributed to racial unrest and Johnson's Great Society had rewarded rather than punished the perpetrators of violence. Conservatives demanded that the national government should promote respect for law and order and contempt for those who violated it, regardless of cause.
After Reagan took office in 1981 and started appointing tough conservative judges, the law became a weapon against crime. The number of prisoners tripled from 500,000 in 1980 to 1.5 million in 1994. Conservatives at the state level built many more prisons and convicts served much longer terms, with less parole. By the time they were released they were much older and thus much less violent.[5]
Causes[edit]
Two developments were involved.
Riots[edit]
After the murder of Martin Luther King, riots broke out in over 100 cities, with nights of violence against police and looting and burning of local white-owned businesses. The inner neighborhoods of many major cities, such as Detroit, Los Angeles, Newark and New York, were burned out. National Guard and Army troops were called out. At one point machine gun units were stationed on the steps of the Capitol building in Washington to prevent rioters from burning it down. Every summer from 1964 through 1970 was a "long hot summer".[6][7][8][9]
Crime[edit]
Secondly there was a dramatic rise in violent street crime, including drug-related murders, as well as armed robberies, rapes and violent assaults. Inner city neighborhoods became far more violent and people tried to move out to safer ones. The number of violent crimes more than tripled from 288,000 in 1960 (including 9,110 murders) to 1,040,000 in 1975 (including 20,510 murders). Then the numbers levelled off.[10]
In response to sharply rising rates of crime in the 1960s, treatment of criminal offenders, both accused and convicted, became a highly divisive topic in the 1968 U.S. Presidential Election. Republican Vice Presidential candidate Spiro Agnew, then the governor of Maryland, often used the expression; Agnew and Nixon won and were reelected in 1972.[11]
Results[edit]
Advocates of stricter policies toward crime and those accused of crime have won many victories since the issue became important. Highlights include stringent laws dealing with the sale and use of illicit drugs. For example, the Rockefeller drug laws passed in New York state in 1973—and later, laws mandating tougher sentences for repeat offenders, such as the three-strikes laws adopted by many U.S. states starting in 1993 and the re-legalization of the death penalty in several states.[11]
Opponents of these and similar laws have often accused advocates of racism. Civil rights groups have steadfastly opposed the trend toward harsher measures generally. The law-and-order issue caused a deep rift within the Democratic Party in the late 1960s and 1970s, and this rift was seen by many political scientists as a major contributing factor in Ronald Reagan's two successful Presidential runs in 1980 and 1984. In both elections, millions of registered Democrats voted for Reagan, and they collectively became known as "Reagan Democrats". Many of these voters eventually changed their party registration and became Republicans, especially in the South.[11]
Though violent crimes are the primary focus of law-and-order advocates, quality-of-life crimes are sometimes also included under the law-and-order umbrella, particularly in local elections. A tough stance on this matter greatly helped Rudy Giuliani win two terms as mayor of New York in the 1990s, and was also widely cited as propelling Gavin Newsom to victory over a more liberal opponent in San Francisco's mayoral election of 2003. Richard Riordan also became Los Angeles' new mayor in 1993 for the first time in 20 years after Tom Bradley retired.
Platt (1995) argues that the intensity of law-and-order campaigns represents a significant shift in criminal justice that involves modernization and increased funding for police technology and personnel, privatization of security services and surveillance, higher rates of incarceration, and greater racial inequality in security and punishment.[12]
International issue[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2017)
Crime has also become a prominent issue in Canadian, British, Australian, South African, French, and New Zealand politics, following the lead of the United States.
Criticisms[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2009)
Critics of law-and-order politics commonly point to actual and potential abuses of judicial and police powers, including police brutality and misconduct, racial profiling, prison overcrowding, and miscarriages of justice. As an example, they argue that while crime in New York City dropped under Mayor Giuliani, reports of police brutality increased during the same period. This period included the fatal shootings of Amadou Diallo and Sean Bell, and the Abner Louima incident.[13][14][15]
In extreme cases, civil unrest has broken out in retaliation against law-and-order politics, as happened in London's Brixton district in 1981, Los Angeles in 1992, France in 2005, and Ferguson, Missouri in 2014.[citation needed]
In 2009, Pennsylvania juvenile court judges Mark Ciavarella and Michael Conahan were pleaded guilty in the "kids for cash" scandal, of taking kickbacks from private prison industry officials in exchange for sentencing over 1,000 youths to prison terms for minor offenses.[16][17]
Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio, a role model of tougher sentencing campaigners for his hardline corrections policies, was investigated by the FBI – starting in 2009 – for alleged abuses of power and intimidation of dissenting officials, among other controversies.[18][19]
A United States Supreme Court ruling in 2011 ordered the State of California to cut its inmate population, citing prison overcrowding to be in violation of the Eighth Amendment.[20]
Order without law[edit]
In a limited number of cases, it can be argued that order can be maintained without law. Robert Ellickson, in his book Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes, concludes that it is sometimes possible for order to be maintained without law in small, close-knit groups. Ellickson examines a rural community in California in which cattle openly roam and sometimes destroy crops. He finds that since social norms call for the cattle owner to pay for the damaged crops, the disputes are settled without law. According to Ellickson, not only is the law not necessary to maintain order in this case, but it is more efficient for social norms to govern the settling of disputes.[21]
See also[edit]
Back to Basics (campaign)
Civil disobedience
Culture war
Ira Carmen
Justice of the Peace
Peace, order and good government (Commonwealth)
Queen's peace (common law)
Penal harm
Penal populism
Three-strikes law
War on Drugs
Wedge politics
Zero tolerance
Zucht und Ordnung
Further reading[edit]
Flamm, Michael W. Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s (2005)[22]
Hameiri, Shahar. "Governing disorder: the Australian Federal Police and Australia's new regional frontier," Pacific Review, Dec 2009, Vol. 22 Issue 5, pp 549–574
Niaz, Ilhan. "The Debate on Law and Order and Development: Pakistani Elite's Orientations," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies," Summer 2009, Vol. 32 Issue 4, pp 1-19
Platt, Anthony M. "The Politics of Law and Order," Social Justice Volume: 21. Issue: 3. 1994. pp 3+[23]
Don Weatherburn. Law and Order in Australia: Rhetoric and Reality (Sydney: The Federation Press, 2004
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Michael W. Flamm, Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s (2005).
Jump up ^ John Adams (1856). The works of John Adams, second President of the United States. Volume 1. p. 439. ISBN 9781623764623.
Jump up ^ Thomas Jefferson (1829). Memoir, correspondence, and miscellanies from the papers of T. Jefferson. p. 370.
Jump up ^ Tribune Almanac and Political Register: 1901. 1901. pp. 92–93.
Jump up ^ FBI, Uniform Crime Reports (2009)
Jump up ^ Ann K. Johnson, Urban Ghetto Riots, 1965-1968 (1996)
Jump up ^ Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Race, Space, and Riots in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles (2007)
Jump up ^ Robert M. Fogelson, Violence as Protest: A Study of Riots and Ghettos (1971)
Jump up ^ National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report on Civil Disorders (1968), the famous the Kerner Commission Report
Jump up ^ FBI Uniform Crime Reports. Violent crimes included murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assault. Source: Table Ec1-10 - Estimated crimes known to police, by type of offense: 1960-1997, in Susan Carter, ed. Historical Statistics of the United States Millennial Edition Online (2009)
^ Jump up to: a b c Flamm, Law and Order (2005)
Jump up ^ Anthony M. Platt, "Crime Rave", Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine, June 1995, Vol. 47#2 pp 35-46
Jump up ^ "Rudy Giuliani on Crime". Ontheissues.org. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
Jump up ^ "Giuliani and Violence in Pre-9/11 New York". Huffingtonpost.com. 2011-05-25. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
Jump up ^ "Trial Puts Giuliani, NYPD on Defensive". Washingtonpost.com. 1999-03-30. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
Jump up ^ "Americas | US judges admit taking kickbacks". BBC News. 2009-02-13. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
Jump up ^ "US judges admit to jailing children for money". Stuff.co.nz. Reuters. 22 February 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Wingett, Yvonne (2009-05-22). "Sources: FBI asking questions on Arpaio". Azcentral.com. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
Jump up ^ Wingett, Yvonne (2010-03-05). "FBI expands Joe Arpaio probe to Maricopa County Attorney". Azcentral.com. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-03-05. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
Jump up ^ Fischel, William A. (1993-01-01). "Review of Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes". Land Economics. 69 (1): 113–115. JSTOR 3146284. doi:10.2307/3146284.
Jump up ^ Civil Rights. Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s (Columbia Studies in Contemporary American History): Michael W. Flamm: 9780231115131: Amazon.com: Books. Amazon.com. ASIN 023111513X. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Jump up ^ "The Politics of Law and Order" by Platt, Anthony M. - Social Justice, Vol. 21, Issue 3, Fall 1994 | Online Research Library: Questia Reader". Questia.com. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
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