text:
NASA
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation).
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Seal
Emblem

Flag
Agency overview
Formed
July 29, 1958; 59 years ago (1958-07-29)
Preceding agency
NACA (1915–1958)[1]
Jurisdiction
United States government
Headquarters
Two Independence Square, Washington, D.C., U.S.
38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
Motto
For the Benefit of All[2]
Employees
17,381+[3]
Annual budget
US$19.5 billion[4] (2017),[5] also see Budget of NASA
Agency executives
Robert M. Lightfoot Jr., Acting Administrator & Associate Administrator[6]
Krista Paquin, Deputy Associate Administrator[7]
Website
nasa.gov
Part of a series of articles on the
Space policy of the United States
NASA
Space policy of the United States
Apollo program
US manned space programs[show]
Apollo
Apollo–Soyuz (joint)
Skylab
Constellation
ISS (joint)
Gemini
Manned Orbiting Laboratory
Manned Venus flyby
Mercury
Orion
Space Shuttle
Space Transportation System
Shuttle–Mir (joint)
US space probes[show]
Vanguard
Explorer 1
Pioneer
Mariner
Ranger
Surveyor
Lunar Orbiter
Viking
Voyager
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
New Horizons
Expendable launch vehicles[show]
Vanguard
Juno I
Mercury-Redstone
Mercury-Atlas
Gemini-Titan II
Titan
III
IV)
Atlas-Agena
Apollo-Saturn
I
IB
V
Atlas-Centaur
Atlas V
Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle
Ares I
Ares V
Space Launch System
Notable figures[show]
Robert Goddard
Wernher von Braun
Lyndon B. Johnson
John F. Kennedy
James Webb
Robert Gilruth
George Low
George Mueller
Maxime Faget
Kurt Debus
Rocco Petrone
Christopher Kraft, Jr.
Gene Kranz
Guenter Wendt
Alan Shepard
John Glenn
Neil Armstrong
Gene Franklin
Astronauts[show]
The Mercury Seven
Gemini/Apollo astronauts
NASA Astronaut Corps
v
t
e
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.[note 1]
President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958[10] with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958.[11][12]
Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System,[13] advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program,[14] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons,[15] and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs.[16] NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite.
Contents
[hide]
1 Creation
2 Staff and leadership
3 NASA Advisory Council
4 Space flight programs
4.1 Manned programs
4.1.1 X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)
4.1.2 Project Mercury (1958–1963)
4.1.3 Project Gemini (1961–1966)
4.1.4 Apollo program (1961–1972)
4.1.5 Skylab (1965–1979)
4.1.6 Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–1975)
4.1.7 Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)
4.1.8 International Space Station (1993–present)
4.1.8.1 Commercial programs (2006–present)
4.1.9 Beyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010–2017)
4.2 Unmanned programs
4.3 Activities 2010-2017
4.4 Recent and planned activities
4.5 Humans to Mars
5 Scientific research
5.1 Climate study
6 Facilities
7 Budget
8 Environmental impact
9 Observations
10 Spacecraft
11 Planned spacecraft
12 Examples of missions by target
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References
16 External links
16.1 General
16.2 Further reading
Creation
Main article: Creation of NASA
William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James E. Webb (background) discussing the Mariner program, with a model presented.
From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1.[17] In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. On January 12, 1958, NACA organized a "Special Committee on Space Technology", headed by Guyford Stever.[12] On January 14, 1958, NACA Director Hugh Dryden published "A National Research Program for Space Technology" stating:[18]
It is of great urgency and importance to our country both from consideration of our prestige as a nation as well as military necessity that this challenge [Sputnik] be met by an energetic program of research and development for the conquest of space... It is accordingly proposed that the scientific research be the responsibility of a national civilian agency... NACA is capable, by rapid extension and expansion of its effort, of providing leadership in space technology.[18]
While this new federal agency would conduct all non-military space activity, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.[19]
On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 43-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities.[20] A NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.[21] Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works.[22] Earlier research efforts within the US Air Force[20] and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.[23] In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the California Institute of Technology.[20]
Staff and leadership
Main article: List of NASA Administrators
Charles Bolden speaks after landing of the last Space Shuttle mission, STS-135
The agency's leader, NASA's administrator, is nominated by the President of the United States subject to approval of the US Senate, and reports to him or her and serves as senior space science advisor. Though space exploration is ostensibly non-partisan, the appointee usually is associated with the President's political party (Democratic or Republican), and a new administrator is usually chosen when the Presidency changes parties. The only exceptions to this have been: James C. Fletcher, appointed by Republican Richard Nixon but stayed through May 1977 into the term of Democrat Jimmy Carter; Daniel Goldin, appointed by Republican George H. W. Bush and stayed through the administration of Democrat Bill Clinton; and Robert M. Lightfoot, Jr., associate administrator under Democrat Barack Obama kept on as acting administrator by Republican Donald Trump.[6] Though the agency is independent, the survival or discontinuation of projects can depend directly on the will of the President.[24]
The first administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan appointed by Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower. During his term he brought together the disparate projects in American space development research.[25]
The third administrator, James E. Webb (1961–1968), appointed by President John F. Kennedy, was a Democrat who first publicly served under President Harry S. Truman. In order to implement the Apollo program to achieve Kennedy's Moon landing goal by the end of the 1960s, Webb directed major management restructuring and facility expansion, establishing the Houston Manned Spacecraft (Johnson) Center and the Florida Launch Operations (Kennedy) Center. Capitalizing on Kennedy's legacy, President Lyndon Johnson kept continuity with the Apollo program by keeping Webb on when he succeeded Kennedy in November 1963. But Webb resigned in October 1968 before Apollo achieved its goal, and Republican President Richard M. Nixon replaced Webb with Republican Thomas O. Paine.
James Fletcher was responsible for early planning of the Space Shuttle program during his first term as administrator under President Nixon. He was appointed for a second term as administrator from May 1986 through April 1989 by President Ronald Reagan to help the agency recover from the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
Former astronaut Charles Bolden served as NASA's twelfth administrator from July 2009 to January 20, 2017.[26] Administrator Bolden is one of three former astronauts who became NASA administrators, along with Richard H. Truly (served 1989–1992) and Frederick D. Gregory (acting, 2005).
The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction.[27] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United States.[28]
NASA Advisory Council
In response to the Apollo 1 accident which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's aerospace programs. In the aftermath of the Shuttle Columbia accident, Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to Congress.[29] By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).[30]
Space flight programs
Main article: List of NASA missions
At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von Braun is at center.
NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including "grand tours" of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.
Manned programs
The experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the Soviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude, 260,000 feet (80 km).[31]
X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)
Main article: North American X-15
X-15 in powered flight
The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force and Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.[32] Requests for proposal were issued on December 30, 1954, for the airframe, and February 4, 1955, for the rocket engine. The airframe contract was awarded to North American Aviation in November 1955, and the XLR30 engine contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, and three planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched from the wing of one of two NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number 52-003, and NB52B, tail number 52-008 (known as the Balls 8). Release took place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and a speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h).
Twelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air Force, Navy, and NACA (later NASA). A total of 199 flights were made between 1959 and 1968, resulting in the official world record for the highest speed ever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current as of 2014[update]), and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4,519 miles per hour (7,273 km/h).[33] The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).[34] Eight of the pilots were awarded Air Force astronaut wings for flying above 260,000 feet (80 km), and two flights by Joseph A. Walker exceeded 100 kilometers (330,000 ft), qualifying as spaceflight according to the International Aeronautical Federation. The X-15 program employed mechanical techniques used in the later manned spaceflight programs, including reaction control system jets for controlling the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits, and horizon definition for navigation.[34] The reentry and landing data collected were valuable to NASA for designing the Space Shuttle.[32]
Project Mercury (1958–1963)
Main article: Project Mercury
John Glenn on Friendship 7: first US orbital flight, 1962
Shortly after the Space Race began, an early objective was to get a person into Earth orbit as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. The US Air Force's Man in Space Soonest program considered many manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, to small ballistic space capsules.[35] By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic capsule.[36]
When NASA was created that same year, the Air Force program was transferred to it and renamed Project Mercury. The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard Freedom 7, launched by a Redstone booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight.[37] John Glenn became the first American to be launched into orbit, by an Atlas launch vehicle on February 20, 1962, aboard Friendship 7.[38] Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight Faith 7, May 15–16, 1963.[39]
The Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own single-pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They sent the first man in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into a single Earth orbit aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, one month before Shepard's flight.[40] In August 1962, they achieved an almost four-day record flight with Andriyan Nikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.
Project Gemini (1961–1966)
Main article: Project Gemini
Ed White on Gemini 4: first US spacewalk, 1965
Based on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration flights, developing space rendezvous techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome the Soviets' lead and to support the Apollo manned lunar landing program, adding extravehicular activity (EVA) and rendezvous and docking to its objectives. The first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3, was flown by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965.[41] Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous, docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.[42][43]
Under the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in launching two manned flights before Gemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight in 1963 and the first EVA in 1964. After this, the program was canceled, and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft, their answer to Apollo.
Apollo program (1961–1972)
Main article: Apollo program
Apollo 11: Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, 1969.
The U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in the space race (by putting the first man into space) motivated President John F. Kennedy to ask the Congress on May 25, 1961, to commit the federal government to a program to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which effectively launched the Apollo program.[44]
Apollo was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It cost more than $20 billion in 1960s dollars[45] or an estimated $213 billion in present-day US dollars.[46] (In comparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $27.2 billion, accounting for inflation.)[46][47] It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects.[48] The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventually return to Earth.[note 2]
The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon in December 1968.[49] Shortly before, the Soviets had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon.[50] On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced[51][52] and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.[53]
Apollo 17: LRV-003, 1972.
The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed by Buzz Aldrin, while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7 kilograms (842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind.[54] The Moon landing marked the end of the space race; and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind when he stepped down on the Moon.[55]
Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body.[56] Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit to date. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.
Skylab (1965–1979)
Main article: Skylab
Skylab space station, 1974
Skylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station.[57] Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973, atop the first two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974.[57] It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.[57] NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979.[58]
To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the station. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet (320 m3), which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.[58]
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–1975)
Main article: Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
Soviet and American crews with spacecraft model, 1975.
On May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other.[59] This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus Apollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the Space Shuttle in April 1981.[60]
The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program[61] and the International Space Station.
Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)
Main article: Space Shuttle program
Launch of a Space Shuttle.
Mae Jemison working in Spacelab in 1992. Spacelab was a major NASA collaboration with Europe's space agencies
The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981,[62] the 20th anniversary of the first known human space flight.[63]
Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid-fuel launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only major component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643 km (115–400 miles)[64] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb).[65] Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.[64]
On 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, designed in cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an airlock.[66] Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.[67]
In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle–Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003.[68] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss.[68] NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.[69]
International Space Station (1993–present)
Main article: International Space Station
The International Space Station as seen by the final STS mission
The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module.[70] NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).[71][72] The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.[70] It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016.[73][74][needs update] The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements[75] which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya),[76][77] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.[75]
Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.[78] The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.[79] Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational.[80] The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past 17 years and 118 days, having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.[81][82]
The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2018, is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[83] The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz.[84] The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[85]
The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020, and may be extended beyond 2028.[86]
Commercial programs (2006–present)
Main articles: Commercial Resupply Services and Commercial Crew Development
Dragon being berthed to the ISS in May 2012
Cygnus berthed to the ISS in September 2013
The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.[87] The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successfully completed the milestone.[88] Companies were also required to raise an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal.[89]
On December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation.[90] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft.[91] Orbital Sciences uses its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012.[92] The first Cygnus resupply mission occurred in September 2013.[93] The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[94]
Dragon V2
Rendering of CST-100 in orbit
The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was started in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth.[95] It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace.[96] Like COTS, CCDev is also a fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.[88]
In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four companies.[97] In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems.[98] In 2014, the winners of the final round were announced.[99] SpaceX's Dragon V2 (planned to be launched on a Falcon 9 v1.1) received a contract valued up to $2.6 billion and Boeing's CST-100 (to be launched on an Atlas V) received a contract valued up to $4.2 billion.[100] NASA expects these vehicles to begin transporting humans to the ISS in 2017.[100]
Beyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010–2017)
For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the Space Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.[101] During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed a new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerly planned Ares V.[102] In his speech, Obama called for a manned mission to an asteroid as soon as 2025, and a manned mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[102] The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and signed into law on October 11, 2010.[103] The act officially canceled the Constellation program.[103]
The Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV be chosen within 90 days of its passing; the launch vehicle was given the name "Space Launch System". The new law also required the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft.[104] The Orion spacecraft, which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this role.[105] The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.[106] The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 mt into LEO. It is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130 mt.[105][107]
Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, was launched on December 5, 2014, atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket.[107] Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a circumlunar trajectory, which is planned for 2019.[107] The first manned flight of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission 2 (EM-2) is to launch in 2022; it is a 10- to 14-day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit.[107] EM-3 is planned to deliver a crew of 4 to Lunar orbit along with the first module of Deep Space Gateway.
On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced plans to build a series of new X-planes over the next 10 years.[108] One of the planes will reportedly be a supersonic vehicle that burns low-carbon biofuels and generates quiet sonic booms.[108]
NASA plans to build full scale deep space habitats such at the Nautilus-X and Deep Space Gateway as part of its Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) program.[109]
In 2017 NASA was directed to get humans to Mars by 2033.[110]
Unmanned programs
Main article: Unmanned NASA missions
Pioneer 3 and 4 launched in 1958 and 1959, respectively
JWST main mirror assembled, November 2016
More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system.[111] Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA.[112] The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.
The first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects.[113] A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.[114]
The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The first was Mariner in the 1960s and '70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from another planet (Mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner 10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.[115]
The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.[116]
Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet.[117] Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making the first (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983. For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.[118]
Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.[119][120] Communication can be difficult with deep space travel. For instance, it took about three hours for a radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft when it was more than halfway to Pluto.[121] Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.[122]
On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.[123][124][125]
Activities 2010-2017
Radioisotope within a graphite shell that goes into the generator.
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are Juno for Jupiter, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini(1997–2017), and Juno (2011–). In the early 2000s, NASA was put on course for the Moon, however in 2010 this program was cancelled (see Constellation program). As part of that plan the Shuttle was going to be replaced, however, although it was retired its replacement was also cancelled leaving the USA with no human spaceflight launcher for the first time in over three decades
The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[126]
Vision mission for an interstellar precursor spacecraft by NASA
On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent moon base.[127] The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However, in 2009, the Augustine Committee found the program to be on an "unsustainable trajectory."[128] In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.[129]
Since 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been[130]
Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system
Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe
Create innovative new space technologies
Advance aeronautics research
Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA's aeronautics and space activities
Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities to participate
In August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two space telescopes from the National Reconnaissance Office. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope.[131]
In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars.[132] The Orion MPCV conducted an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket in December 2014.[133]
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is currently scheduled to launch in spring 2019.[134]
Curiosity's wheel on Mars, 2012
Curiosity's wheel battered wheel after several years of exploration, 2017
On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars. On August 27, 2012, Curiosity transmitted the first pre-recorded message from the surface of Mars back to Earth, made by Administrator Charlie Bolden:
Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking to you via the broadcast capabilities of the Curiosity Rover, which is now on the surface of Mars.
Since the beginning of time, humankind’s curiosity has led us to constantly seek new life...new possibilities just beyond the horizon. I want to congratulate the men and women of our NASA family as well as our commercial and government partners around the world, for taking us a step beyond to Mars.
This is an extraordinary achievement. Landing a rover on Mars is not easy – others have tried – only America has fully succeeded. The investment we are making...the knowledge we hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about the possibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bring benefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and explorers, as it prepares the way for a human mission in the not too distant future. Thank you.[135]
Recent and planned activities
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are Juno for Jupiter, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini(1997–2017), and Juno (2011–).
The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[126]
There was a new executive administration in the United States, which directed NASA to send Humans to Mars by the year 2033.[136][137] Foci in general for NASA were noted as human space exploration, space science, and technology.[138]The Europa Clipper and Mars 2020 continue to be supported for their planned schedules.[139]
InSight, planned for launch and landing on Mars in 2018
New Horizons, Kuiper belt object flyby EOY 2018, January 2019 planned
Osiris-Rex, en route for asteroid sample return in the 2020s
Mars 2020 rover
Europa Clipper
Misc. Discovery Missions
James Webb Space Telescope
Parker Solar Probe
Humans to Mars
Langley's Mars Ice Dome design from 2016 for a Mars base
Orion at ISS artwork
The NASA Authorization Act of 2017 which included $19.5 billion in funding for that fiscal year, also directed NASA to get humans near or on the surface of Mars by the early 2030s.[140]
Current NASA Mars assets:
2001 Mars Odyssey
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
MAVEN
Opportunity (rover) (surface)
Curiosity (rover) (surface)
Planned:
InSight (lander)
Mars 2020
Human spaceflight assets current and planned:
International Space Station
Orion capsule
Space Launch System
Mars mission design from the SEI ("90 day study") (example of Mars mission design)
Scientific research
Main article: NASA research
For technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA, see NASA spin-off technologies.
NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate conducts aeronautics research.
NASA has made use of technologies such as the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG), which is a type of Radioisotope thermoelectric generator used on space missions.[141] Shortages of this material have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the millennia.[142] An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material was New Horizons 2.[142]
The earth science research program was created and first funded in the 1980s under the administrations of Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush.[143][144]
NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named Cubes in Space.[145] It is jointly organized by NASA and the global education company I Doodle Learning, with the objective of teaching school students aged 11—18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017 the world's smallest satellite, Kalam SAT, built by an Indian team, was launched.[citation needed]
Climate study
NASA also researches and publishes on climate issues.[146] Its statements concur with the interpretation that the global climate is heating.[147] Bob Walker, who has advised the 45th President of the United States Donald Trump on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as NOAA.[148]
Facilities
Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California
Vehicle Assembly and Launch Control at Kennedy Space Center
Main article: NASA facilities
NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at the Kennedy Space Center and own special aircraft, for instance two Boeing 747 that transport Space Shuttle orbiter.
John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, where all flight control is managed for manned space missions. JSC is the lead NASA center for activities regarding the International Space Station and also houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains, and provides astronauts as crew members for US and international space missions.
Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed.[149] The JPL worked together with ABMA, one of the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.
FCR 1 in 2009 during the STS-128 mission, JSC in Houston
The ten NASA field centers are:
John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida
Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Facility), Edwards, California
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, near Pasadena, California
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
John C. Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi
Numerous other facilities are operated by NASA, including the Wallops Flight Facility in Wallops Island, Virginia; the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana; the White Sands Test Facility in Las Cruces, New Mexico; and Deep Space Network stations in Barstow, California; Madrid, Spain; and Canberra, Australia.
Budget
NASA's budget from 1958 to 2012 as a percentage of federal budget
An artist's conception, from NASA, of an astronaut planting a US flag on Mars. A manned mission to Mars has been discussed as a possible NASA mission since the 1960s.
Main article: Budget of NASA
NASA's budget has generally been approximately 1% of the federal budget from the early 1970s on, after briefly peaking at approximately 4.41% in 1966 during the Apollo program.[24][150] Public perception of NASA's budget has differed significantly from reality; a 1997 poll indicated that most Americans responded that 20% of the federal budget went to NASA.[151]
The percentage of federal budget that NASA has been allocated has been steadily dropping since the Apollo program and in 2012 it was estimated at 0.48% of the federal budget.[152] In a March 2012 meeting of the United States Senate Science Committee, Neil deGrasse Tyson testified that "Right now, NASA’s annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform the country from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow."[153][154]
For Fiscal Year 2015, NASA received an appropriation of US$18.01 billion from Congress—$549 million more than requested and approximately $350 million more than the 2014 NASA budget passed by Congress.[155]
In Fiscal Year 2016, NASA received $19.3 billion.[156]
There was a new executive administration in the United States, which lead to the NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017, which set the budget at around 19.5 billion for 2017.[157] The budget is also reported as 19.3 billion for 2017, with 19.1 billion proposed for 2018.[158]
Examples of some proposed 2018 (fiscal year) budgets:[159]
Human exploration: $3.7 billion
Planetary science: $1.9 billion
Earth science: $1.8 billion
Aeronautics: $0.6 billion
Environmental impact
The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely effect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolic rocket propellants, such as hydrazine, are highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.[160] However, carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed 802,620,000 US gallons (3.0382×109 L) gallons of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single Falcon 9 rocket first stage burns around 25,000 US gallons (95,000 L) of kerosene fuel per launch.[161][162] Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the SSME, is almost entirely water vapor.[163] NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled Constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.[164] In contrast, ion engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion.[165][166]
On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.[167]
An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.[168]
Observations
Plot of orbits of known Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (size over 460 feet (140 m) and passing within 4.7 million miles (7.6×10^6 km) of Earth's orbit)
Various nebulae observed from a NASA space telescope
1 Ceres
Pluto
Jupiter
Spacecraft
Hardware comparison of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury[note 3]
Hubble Space Telescope, astronomy observatory in Earth orbit since 1990. Also visited by the Space Shuttle
Curiosity rover, roving Mars since 2012
Planned spacecraft
James Webb Space Telescope
Orion spacecraft design as of January 2013
Space Launch System concept art
Mars 2020 design art
Examples of missions by target
Here are some selected examples of missions to planetary-sized objects. Other major targets of study are the Earth itself, the Sun, and smaller solar system bodies like asteroids and comets. In addition, the moons of the planets or body are also studied.
Examples of robotic missions
Spacecraft
Launch
year
Mercury
Venus
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
Mariner 2 1962 Flyby
Mariner 4 1964 Flyby
Mariner 5 1967 Flyby
Mariner 6 and 7 1969 Flyby
Mariner 9 1971 Orbiter
Pioneer 10 1972 Flyby
Pioneer 11 1973 Flyby Flyby
Mariner 10 1973 Flyby Flyby
Viking 1 and Viking 2 1975 Orbiters
Landers
Voyager 1 1977 Flyby Flyby
Voyager 2 1977 Flyby Flyby Flyby Flyby
Galileo 1989 Flyby Orbiter
Magellan 1989 Orbiter
Mars Global Surveyor 1996 Orbiter
Cassini 1997 Flyby Flyby Orbiter
Mars Odyssey 2001 Orbiter
Spirit and Opportunity 2003 Rovers
MESSENGER 2004 Orbiter Flyby
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2005 Orbiter
New Horizons 2006 Flyby Flyby
Juno 2011 Orbiter
Curiosity (Mars Science Laboratory) 2011 Rover
MAVEN 2013 Orbiter
Spacecraft
Launch
year
Mercury
Venus
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
Examples of missions for the Sun
Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph
Solar Dynamics Observatory
STEREO
Ulysses (spacecraft)
Parker Solar Probe
See also
Government of the United States portal
Spaceflight portal
Astronomy Picture of the Day
Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office
List of government space agencies
List of NASA aircraft
List of NASA missions
List of United States rockets
NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program
NASA awards and decorations
NASA insignia
NASA Research Park
NASA TV
NASAcast
Small Explorer program
Space policy of the Barack Obama administration
TechPort (NASA)
French space program
Russian space program
Chinese space program
Notes
Jump up ^ NASA is an independent agency that is not a part of any executive department but reports directly to the President.[8][9]
Jump up ^ The descend stage of the LM stayed on the Moon after landing while the ascend stage brought the two astronauts back to the CSM and then fell back to the Moon.
Jump up ^ From left to right: Launch vehicle of Apollo (Saturn 5), Gemini (Titan 2) and Mercury (Atlas). Left, top-down: Spacecraft of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-Redstone launch vehicles are left out.
References
Jump up ^ US Centennial of Flight Commission, NACA. centennialofflight.net. Retrieved on November 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ Lale Tayla & Figen Bingul (2007). "NASA stands "for the benefit of all."—Interview with NASA's Dr. Süleyman Gokoglu". The Light Millennium.
Jump up ^ "Workforce Profile". NASA. January 11, 2011. Retrieved December 17, 2012.
Jump up ^ https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_2017_nasa_agency_fact_sheet.pdf
Jump up ^ Dreier, Casey (December 18, 2015). "[Updated] An Extraordinary Budget for NASA in 2016 - Congressional omnibus increases the space agency's budget by $1.3 billion". The Planetary Society. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Administrator, NASA Content (January 30, 2017). "Robert M. Lightfoot Jr., Acting Administrator".
Jump up ^ Dunbar, Brian (January 8, 2015). "NASA Organization Structure".
Jump up ^ "Official US Executive Branch Web Sites - Newspaper and Current Periodical Reading Room (Serial and Government Publications Division, Library of Congress)". loc.gov. Retrieved May 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". hq.nasa.gov. Retrieved May 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ike in History: Eisenhower Creates NASA". Eisenhower Memorial. 2013. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The National Aeronautics and Space Act". NASA. 2005. Retrieved August 29, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Bilstein, Roger E. (1996). "From NACA to NASA". NASA SP-4206, Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. NASA. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-0-16-004259-1. Retrieved May 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ Netting, Ruth (June 30, 2009). "Earth—NASA Science". Archived from the original on July 16, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Netting, Ruth (January 8, 2009). "Heliophysics—NASA Science". Archived from the original on July 16, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Roston, Michael (August 28, 2015). "NASA's Next Horizon in Space". New York Times. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ Netting, Ruth (July 13, 2009). "Astrophysics—NASA Science". Archived from the original on July 16, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The NACA, NASA, and the Supersonic-Hypersonic Frontier" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Erickson, Mark. Into the Unknown Together—The DOD, NASA, and Early Spaceflight (PDF). ISBN 1-58566-140-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2009.
Jump up ^ Subcommittee On Military Construction, United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Armed Services (January 21–24, 1958). Supplemental military construction authorization (Air Force).: Hearings, Eighty-fifth Congress, second session, on H.R. 9739.
^ Jump up to: a b c "T. KEITH GLENNAN". NASA. August 4, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Executive Order 10849 (Wikisource)
Jump up ^ von Braun, Werner (1963). "Recollections of Childhood: Early Experiences in Rocketry as Told by Werner Von Braun 1963". MSFC History Office. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Van Atta, Richard (April 10, 2008). "50 years of Bridging the Gap" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 24, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Fouriezos, Nick (May 30, 2016). "Your Presidential Candidates ... For the Milky Way". OZY. Retrieved May 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "T. Keith Glennan biography". NASA. August 4, 2006. Retrieved July 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ Cabbage, Michael (July 15, 2009). "Bolden and Garver Confirmed by U.S. Senate" (Press release). NASA. Archived from the original on October 28, 2009. Retrieved July 16, 2009.
Jump up ^ Shouse, Mary (July 9, 2009). "Welcome to NASA Headquarters". Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ Information for Non U.S. Citizens, NASA (downloaded September 16, 2013)
Jump up ^ NASA Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel
Jump up ^ NASA Advisory Council--Background and Charter
Jump up ^ The Air Force definition of outer space differs from that of the International Aeronautical Federation, which is 100 kilometers (330,000 ft).
^ Jump up to: a b Aerospaceweb, North American X-15. Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved on November 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ Aircraft Museum X-15." Aerospaceweb.org, November 24, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b NASA, X-15 Hypersonic Research Program, retrieved October 17, 2011
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Project 7969 Archived October 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved October 17, 2011
Jump up ^ NASA, Project Mercury Overview Archived June 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved October 17, 2011
Jump up ^ Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1989). "11-4 Shepard's Ride". In Woods, David; Gamble, Chris. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (url). Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series. NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1989). "13-4 An American in Orbit". In Woods, David; Gamble, Chris. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (url). Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series. NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Mercury Manned Flights Summary". NASA. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NASA history, Gagarin". NASA. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Barton C. Hacker; James M. Grimwood (December 31, 2002). "10-1 The Last Hurdle". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (url). NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ Barton C. Hacker; James M. Grimwood (December 31, 2002). "12-5 Two Weeks in a Spacecraft". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ Barton C. Hacker; James M. Grimwood (December 31, 2002). "13-3 An Alternative Target". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ John F. Kennedy "Landing a man on the Moon" Address to Congress on YouTube, speech
Jump up ^ Butts, Glenn; Linton, Kent (April 28, 2009). "The Joint Confidence Level Paradox: A History of Denial, 2009 NASA Cost Symposium" (PDF). pp. 25–26. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 26, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Nichols, Kenneth David (1987). The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made, pp 34–35. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-06910-X. OCLC 15223648.
Jump up ^ "Saturn V". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on October 7, 2011. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Siddiqi, Asif A. (2003). The Soviet Space Race with Apollo. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. pp. 654–656. ISBN 0-8130-2628-8.
Jump up ^ "Apollo 9: Earth Orbital trials". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Apollo 10: The Dress Rehearsal". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The First Landing". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Chaikin, Andrew (March 16, 1998). A Man on the Moon. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-027201-7.
Jump up ^ The Phrase Finder:...a giant leap for mankind, retrieved October 1, 2011
Jump up ^ 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions. NASA, 1999.
^ Jump up to: a b c Belew, Leland F., ed. (1977). Skylab Our First Space Station—NASA report (PDF). NASA. NASA-SP-400. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Benson, Charles Dunlap and William David Compton. Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab. NASA publication SP-4208.
Jump up ^ Gatland, Kenneth (1976). Manned Spacecraft, Second Revision. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. p. 247. ISBN 0-02-542820-9.
Jump up ^ Grinter, Kay (April 23, 2003). "The Apollo Soyuz Test Project". Archived from the original on July 25, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ NASA, Shuttle-MIR history, retrieved October 15, 2011
Jump up ^ Bernier, Serge (May 27, 2002). Space Odyssey: The First Forty Years of Space Exploration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81356-3.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Vostok 1, retrieved October 18, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b NASA, Shuttle Basics, retrieved October 18, 2011
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Shuttle, retrieved October 18, 2011
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Spacelab Archived October 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved October 20, 2011
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, HST Archived August 18, 2011, at WebCite. Retrieved October 20, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Watson, Traci (January 8, 2008). "Shuttle delays endanger space station". USA Today. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ "NASA's Last Space Shuttle Flight Lifts Off From Cape Canaveral". KHITS Chicago. July 8, 2011. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b John E. Catchpole (June 17, 2008). The International Space Station: Building for the Future. Springer-Praxis. ISBN 978-0-387-78144-0.
Jump up ^ "Human Spaceflight and Exploration—European Participating States". European Space Agency (ESA). 2009. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ Gary Kitmacher (2006). Reference Guide to the International Space Station. Canada: Apogee Books. pp. 71–80. ISBN 978-1-894959-34-6. ISSN 1496-6921.
Jump up ^ Gerstenmaier, William (October 12, 2011). "Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier Associate Administrator for HEO NASA before the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science, Space and Technology U. S. House of Representatives" (PDF). United States House of Representatives. Retrieved August 31, 2012.
Jump up ^ Afanasev, Igor; Vorontsov, Dmitrii (January 11, 2012). "The Russian ISS segment is to be completed by 2016". Air Transport Observer. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "ISS Intergovernmental Agreement". European Space Agency (ESA). April 19, 2009. Archived from the original on June 10, 2009. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station". NASA. January 29, 1998. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ Zak, Anatoly (October 15, 2008). "Russian Segment: Enterprise". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved August 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ "ISS Fact sheet: FS-2011-06-009-JSC" (PDF). NASA. 2011. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ "MCB Joint Statement Representing Common Views on the Future of the ISS" (PDF). International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board. February 3, 2010. Retrieved August 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ Leone, Dan (June 20, 2012). "Wed, 20 June, 2012 NASA Banking on Commercial Crew To Grow ISS Population". Space News. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station". NASA. November 17, 2008. Retrieved March 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ Boyle, Rebecca (November 11, 2010). "The International Space Station Has Been Continuously Inhabited for Ten Years Today". Popular Science. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ International Space Station, Retrieved October 20, 2011
Jump up ^ Chow, Denise (November 17, 2011). "U.S. Human Spaceflight Program Still Strong, NASA Chief Says". Space.com. Retrieved July 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Potter, Ned (July 17, 2009). "Space Shuttle, Station Dock: 13 Astronauts Together". ABC News. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Leone, Dan (March 29, 2012). "Sen. Mikulski Questions NASA Commercial Crew Priority". Space News. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ "NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners" (Press release). NASA. August 18, 2006. Retrieved November 21, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b "Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight" (PDF). Rendezvous. NASA. 2010. pp. 10–17. Retrieved February 14, 2011. Just as in the COTS projects, in the CCDev project we have fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones" Thorn said. "There’s no extra money invested by NASA if the projects cost more than projected.
Jump up ^ McAlister, Phil (October 2010). "The Case for Commercial Crew" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved July 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts". NASA, December 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Space Exploration Technologies Corporation – Press". Spacex.com. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ Clark, Stephen (June 2, 2012). "NASA expects quick start to SpaceX cargo contract". SpaceFlightNow. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bergin, Chris (September 28, 2013). "Orbital's Cygnus successfully berthed on the ISS". NASASpaceFlight.com (not affiliated with NASA). Retrieved October 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule". NASA. May 22, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Berger, Brian (February 1, 2011). "Biggest CCDev Award Goes to Sierra Nevada". Imaginova Corp. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Morring, Frank (October 10, 2012). "Boeing Gets Most Money With Smallest Investment". Aviation Week. Retrieved October 5, 2012.
Jump up ^ Dean, James (April 18, 2011). "NASA awards $270 million for commercial crew efforts". space.com. Archived from the original on April 19, 2011. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NASA Announces Next Steps in Effort to Launch Americans from U.S. Soil". NASA. August 3, 2012. Retrieved August 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bolden, Charlie. "American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil". NASA.gov. Retrieved September 16, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Foust, Jeff (September 19, 2014). "NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions". Space News. Retrieved September 21, 2014. “We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given,” Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. “Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that.”
Jump up ^ Achenbach, Joel (February 1, 2010). "NASA budget for 2011 eliminates funds for manned lunar missions". Washington Post. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "President Barack Obama on Space Exploration in the 21st Century". Office of the Press Secretary. April 15, 2010. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Today – President Signs NASA 2010 Authorization Act". Universetoday.com. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ Svitak, Amy (March 31, 2011). "Holdren: NASA Law Doesn't Square with Budgetary Reality". Space News. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bill Text - 111th Congress (2009-2010) - THOMAS (Library of Congress)". loc.gov.
Jump up ^ "NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System". NASA. September 14, 2011. Retrieved April 28, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bergin, Chris (February 23, 2012). "Acronyms to Ascent – SLS managers create development milestone roadmap". NASA. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Grady, Mary (June 5, 2016). "NASA and DARPA plan to release new X-Planes". Yahoo Tech. Retrieved June 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "NASA builds deep space habitats on Earth". Retrieved December 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Launch History (Cumulative)" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NASA Experimental Communications Satellites, 1958–1995". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NASA, Explorers program". NASA. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ NASA mission STS-31 (35) Archived August 18, 2011, at WebCite
Jump up ^ "JPL, Chapter 4. Interplanetary Trajectories". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Missions to Mars". The Planet Society. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Missions to Jupiter". The Planet Society. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "JPL Voyager". JPL. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Pioneer 10 spacecraft send last signal". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The golden record". JPL. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "New Horizon". JHU/APL. Archived from the original on May 9, 2010. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Voyages Beyond the Solar System: The Voyager Interstellar Mission". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ NASA Staff (November 26, 2011). "Mars Science Laboratory". NASA. Retrieved November 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NASA Launches Super-Size Rover to Mars: 'Go, Go!'". New York Times. Associated Press. November 26, 2011. Retrieved November 26, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Chang (August 6, 2012). "Curiosity Rover Lands Safely on Mars". The New York Times. Retrieved August 6, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, Jim (September 15, 2008). "NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere". NASA. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ NASA Office of Public Affairs (December 4, 2006). "GLOBAL EXPLORATION STRATEGY AND LUNAR ARCHITECTURE" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee" (PDF). Office of Science and Technology Policy. October 22, 2009. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Goddard, Jacqui (February 2, 2010). "Nasa reduced to pipe dreams as Obama cancels Moon flights". The Times. London. Retrieved May 19, 2010.
Jump up ^ "NASA Strategic Plan, 2011" (PDF). NASA Headquarters.
Jump up ^ Boyle, Rebecca (June 5, 2012). "NASA Adopts Two Spare Spy Telescopes, Each Maybe More Powerful than Hubble". Popular Science. Popular Science Technology Group. Retrieved June 5, 2012.
Jump up ^ "NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System". NASA. September 14, 2011. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ "NASA's Orion Flight Test Yields Critical Data". NASA.
Jump up ^ "NASA's James Webb Space Telescope to be Launched Spring 2019". NASA. September 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ JPL, NASA. "First Recorded Voice from Mars". nasa.gov.
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ [3]
Jump up ^ [4]
Jump up ^ [5]
Jump up ^ "US Government Issues NASA Demand, 'Get Humans to Mars By 2033'". Futurism. 2017-03-09. Retrieved 2018-02-16.
Jump up ^ "Radioisotope Power Systems for Space Exploration" (PDF). March 2011. Retrieved March 13, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b New Horizons II Final Report - March 2005
Jump up ^ Eric Berger, Houston Chronicle, April 29, 2015 "A history primer: NASA’s robust Earth Science program now under attack originated in the Reagan and Bush administrations," http://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2015/04/a-history-primer-nasas-robust-earth-science-program-now-under-attack-originated-in-the-reagan-and-bush-administrations/
Jump up ^ Eric Berger, "Ars Tecnica," October 29, 2015, "Republicans outraged over NASA earth science programs… that Reagan began" https://arstechnica.com/science/2015/10/republicans-outraged-over-nasa-earth-science-programs-that-reagan-began/
Jump up ^ "Cubes in Space". www.cubesinspace.com. Retrieved July 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ NASA's climate page. climate.nasa.gov/
Jump up ^ NASA, July 19, 2016 "2016 Climate Trends Continue to Break Records" https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/climate-trends-continue-to-break-records
Jump up ^ Jason Samenow, "Washington Post," July 23, 2016 "Trump adviser proposes dismantling NASA climate research" https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2016/11/23/trump-adviser-proposes-dismantling-nasa-climate-research/
Jump up ^ "MSFC_Fact_sheet" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved October 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Simon. (February 1, 2010) Nasa budgets: US spending on space travel since 1958 |Society. theguardian.com. Retrieved on August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Launius, Roger D. "Public opinion polls and perceptions of US human spaceflight". Division of Space History, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Jump up ^ "Fiscal Year 2013 Budget Estimates" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Past, Present, and Future of NASA — U.S. Senate Testimony". Hayden Planetarium. March 7, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Past, Present, and Future of NASA — U.S. Senate Testimony (Video)". Hayden Planetarium. March 7, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ Clark, Stephen (December 14, 2014). "NASA gets budget hike in spending bill passed by Congress". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ [6]
Jump up ^ [7]
Jump up ^ [https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/03/16/trumps-nasa-budget-preserves-mars-mission-cuts-earth-science-asteroid-trip-education/99227378/
Jump up ^ [8]
Jump up ^ "Rocket Soot Emissions and Climate Change". The Aerospace Corporation. July 31, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Short-Term Energy Outlook" (PDF). U.S. Energy Information Administration. February 9, 2016. U.S. Petroleum and Other Liquids
Jump up ^ "Spaceflight Now - Dragon Mission Report - Mission Status Center". Retrieved July 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Space Shuttle Main Engines". NASA. July 16, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Constellation Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement". NASA. August 1, 2011. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ Shiga, David (September 28, 2007). "Next-generation ion engine sets new thrust record". NewScientist. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ Goto, T; Nakata Y; Morita S (2003). "Will xenon be a stranger or a friend?: the cost, benefit, and future of xenon anesthesia". Anesthesiology. 98 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1097/00000542-200301000-00002. PMID 12502969. Archived from the original on August 11, 2011. Retrieved September 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ Michael K. Ewert (2006). "Johnson Space Center's Role in a Sustainable Future" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 27, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ "NASA - NASA's New Building Awarded the U.S. Green Building Council LEED Gold Rating". nasa.gov.
External links
Listen to this article (info/dl)

This audio file was created from a revision of the article "NASA" dated September 1, 2005, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
More spoken articles
Wikimedia Commons has media related to NASA.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
National Aeronautics and Space Act
Wikisource has original works written by or about:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
General
Official NASA site
NASA Engineering and Safety Center
NASA Photos and NASA Images
NASA Launch Schedule
NASA Television and NASA podcasts
NASA on Google+
NASA's channel on YouTube
@NASA on Twitter
NASA on Facebook
NASA in the Federal Register
NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site
The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth
NASA Documents relating to the Space Program, 1953–62, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Online documents pertaining to the early history and development of NASA, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
NASA records available for research at the National Archives at Atlanta
Technical Report Archive and Image Library (TRAIL) – historic technical reports from NASA and other federal agencies
NASA Alumni League, NAL Florida Chapter, NAL JSC Chapter
Works by NASA at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about NASA at Internet Archive
Further reading
How NASA works on howstuffworks.com
NASA History Division
Monthly look at Exploration events
NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System
NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server
NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past
Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly
[show]
v
t
e
NASA
Policy and history
History
NACA (1915)
National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958)
Space Task Group (1958)
Paine (1986)
Rogers (1986)
Ride (1987)
Space Exploration Initiative (1989)
Augustine (1990)
U.S. National Space Policy (1996)
CFUSAI (2002)
CAIB (2003)
Vision for Space Exploration (2004)
Aldridge (2004)
Augustine (2009)
General
Space Race
Administrator and Deputy Administrator
Chief Scientist
Astronaut Corps
Budget
Spin-off technologies
NASA TV
NASA Social
Launch Services Program
Kennedy Space Center
Vehicle Assembly Building
Launch Complex 39
Launch Control Center
Johnson Space Center
Mission Control
Lunar Sample Laboratory
Robotic programs
Past
Hitchhiker
Mariner
Mariner Mark II
MESUR
Mars Surveyor '98
New Millennium
Lunar Orbiter
Pioneer
Planetary Observer
Ranger
Surveyor
Viking
Project Prometheus
Mars Scout
Current
Living With a Star
Lunar Precursor Robotic Program
Earth Observing System
Great Observatories program
Explorer
Small explorer
Voyager
Discovery
New Frontiers
Mars Exploration Rover
Human spaceflight
programs
Past
X-15 (suborbital)
Mercury
Gemini
Apollo
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (with the Soviet space program)
Skylab
Space Shuttle
Shuttle–Mir (with Roscosmos State Corporation)
Constellation
Current
International Space Station
Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS)
Commercial Crew Development (CCDev)
Orion
Individual featured
missions
(human and robotic)
Past
COBE
Apollo 11
Mercury 3
Mercury-Atlas 6
Magellan
Pioneer 10
Pioneer 11
Galileo
GALEX
GRAIL
WMAP
Space Shuttle
Sojourner rover
Spirit rover
LADEE
MESSENGER
Aquarius
Cassini
Currently
operating
MRO
2001 Mars Odyssey
Dawn
New Horizons
Kepler
International Space Station
Hubble Space Telescope
Spitzer
RHESSI
Swift
THEMIS
Mars Exploration Rover
Curiosity rover
timeline
Opportunity rover
observed
GOES 14
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
GOES 15
Van Allen Probes
SDO
Juno
Mars Science Laboratory
timeline
NuSTAR
Voyager 1/2
WISE
MAVEN
MMS
OSIRIS-REx
Future
JPSS
James Webb Space Telescope
WFIRST
InSight
Mars 2020
NISAR
Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite
Europa Clipper
Communications
and navigation
Canberra
Deep Space Atomic Clock
Deep Space Network (Goldstone
Madrid
Near Earth Network
Space Flight Operations Facility)
Space Network
NASA lists
Astronauts
by name
by year
Apollo astronauts
List of NASA aircraft
List of NASA missions
unmanned missions
List of NASA contractors
List of United States rockets
List of NASA cancellations
List of Space Shuttle missions
crews
NASA images
and artwork
Earthrise
The Blue Marble
Family Portrait
Pale Blue Dot
Pillars of Creation
Mystic Mountain
Solar System Family Portrait
The Day the Earth Smiled
Fallen Astronaut
Lunar plaques
Pioneer plaques
Voyager Golden Record
NASA insignia
Gemini and Apollo medallions
Mission patches
Category
Commons
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
NASA facilities
NASA Headquarters
Primary 10 centers
Space/space flight
Goddard Space Flight Center
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Johnson Space Center
Kennedy Space Center
Marshall Space Flight Center
Stennis Space Center
Research
Ames Research Center
Armstrong Flight Research Center
Glenn Research Center
Langley Research Center
Other facilities
Michoud Assembly Facility
Wallops Flight Facility
White Sands Test Facility
Goddard Institute for Space Studies
Santa Susana Field Laboratory
Scientific Balloon Flight Facility
Independent Verification and Validation Facility
Deep Space Network
Goldstone
Madrid
Canberra
Space Flight Operations Facility
[show]
Articles and topics related to NASA
[show]
v
t
e
Public-sector space agencies
Africa
ASAL
GSSTC
NARRS
NASRDA
SANSA
Americas
North America
CSA
AEM
NASA
AFSPC
South America
CONAE
AEB
DCTA
INPE
ITA
CCE
ABAE
IVIC
Asia
East Asia
CNSA
CALT
CAST
CCF
CGWIC
COSTIND
JAXA
ISAS
NAL
NASDA
NICT
USEF
NRSC
NADA
KARI
SaTReC
NSPO
Southeast Asia
LAPAN
MNSA
PAGASA
SSTA
IN.Genius
GISTDA
South Asia
SPARRSO
ISRO
Antrix Corp
DoS
SUPARCO
Southwest Asia
MAKA1
IAIO
ISA
SAHA
ISA
NCSR
GORS
TÜBİTAK UZAY
UAESA
Central Asia
KazCosmos
TNSA
Europe
ASA
BSA1
BISA
SRTI
CSO
DTU Space
ECSS
ESA
EUMETSAT
EUSC
CNES
DLR
ISARS
HSO
ASI
Luxinnovation
SRON
NSC
CBK
ROSA
RKA1
SRI1
VKO
SSP
INTA
SNSB
SSO
TÜBİTAK UZAY
UKSA
SSAU1
Oceania
CSIRO
NZSA
World
APSCO
COSPAR
IAA
INTELSAT
Interkosmos
Intersputnik
UNCOPUOS
UNOOSA
European Space Agency
See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
[show]
v
t
e
Research and development agencies of the federal government of the United States
Independent agencies
National Science Foundation (NSF)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development
Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA)
Smithsonian Institution research centers and programs
Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service (ARS)
National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA)
Economic Research Service (ERS)
United States Forest Service Research and Development (R&D)
Commerce
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Defense
Air Force
Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)
Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC)
Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center (NWC)
Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)
Army
Army Research, Development and Engineering Command (RDECOM)
U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC)
Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC)
Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC)
Army Research Lab (ARL)
Navy
Office of Naval Research (ONR)
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)
Naval Medical Research Center (NMRC)
Naval Warfare Centers
Air (NAWC)
Surface (NSWC)
Undersea (NUWC)
Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance (NCCOSC)
Naval Postgraduate School (NPS)
Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL)
Other
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USU)
Education
Institute of Education Sciences (IES)
National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR)
Energy
Office of Science (DOE SC)
Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E)
National Laboratories
Health and Human Services
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Food and Drug Administration science and research programs
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)
Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA)
Homeland Security
Directorate for Science and Technology (S&T)
Coast Guard Research & Development Center (CG RDC)
Interior
United States Geological Survey (USGS)
Justice
National Institute of Justice (NIJ)
Transportation
Research and Innovative Technology Administration
Federal Aviation Administration Research, Engineering, and Development
Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology
Veterans Affairs
Veterans Health Administration Office of Research and Development (ORD)
Multi-agency initiatives
U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP)
Networking and Information Technology Research and Development Program (NITRD)
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI)
Judicial branch
Federal Judicial Center
Policy-making bodies
Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP)
Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) (defunct)
House Committee on Science, Space and Technology
Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 146202023
LCCN: n78087581
ISNI: 0000 0001 1456 7559
GND: 2294-9
SELIBR: 123881
SUDOC: 027773299
BNF: cb11868484t (data)
ULAN: 500265440
NDL: 00276299
NKC: kn20010711417
BNE: XX148293
SNAC: w60w92qf
PIC: 328444
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NASA&oldid=828018926"
Categories:
NASA
Government agencies established in 1958
1958 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Government of the United States
Webby Award winners
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Webarchive template webcite links
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Good articles
Use American English from July 2015
All Wikipedia articles written in American English
Use mdy dates from July 2017
Coordinates not on Wikidata
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2015
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017
Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters
Pages using Columns-list with deprecated parameters
Spoken articles
Articles with hAudio microformats
Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia
Articles with Project Gutenberg links
Articles with Internet Archive links
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers
Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers
Wikipedia articles with PIC identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Wikisource
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
Ænglisc
العربية
Aragonés
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Estremeñu
Euskara
فارسی
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gàidhlig
Galego
ગુજરાતી
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
Қазақша
Kiswahili
Kurdî
ລາວ
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Lumbaart
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Baso Minangkabau
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nederlands
नेपाली
日本語
Napulitano
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
پنجابی
Papiamentu
پښتو
Piemontèis
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Română
Русский
संस्कृतम्
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
Yorùbá
粵語
Žemaitėška
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 28 February 2018, at 02:12.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: This is a good article. Follow the link for more information.

attrs: href title

values: mw-indicator-good-star mw-indicator

values: mw-indicator-pp-default mw-indicator

values: mw-indicator-spoken-icon mw-indicator

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/NASA_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
NASA (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: caption

attrs: href class

values: Flag of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration.svg

values: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

values:
/wiki/Two_Independence_Square
mw-redirect
Two Independence Square

values: Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location

values:
/wiki/Administrator_of_NASA
mw-redirect
Administrator of NASA

values:
/wiki/Deputy_Administrator_of_NASA
mw-redirect
Deputy Administrator of NASA

values: Category:Space program of the United States

values: padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;padding: 0 0.2em; font-size: 200%; font-weight: normal

values: Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding: 0px 5px 5px 5px

values: font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; background: transparent; text-align: left; padding-left: 5px; padding-top: 3px

values:
/wiki/Shuttle-Mir_Program
mw-redirect
Shuttle-Mir Program

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Expendable_launch_vehicle
mw-redirect
Expendable launch vehicle

values:
/wiki/Robert_Goddard
mw-redirect
Robert Goddard

values:
/wiki/Robert_Gilruth
mw-redirect
Robert Gilruth

values:
/wiki/Guenter_Wendt
mw-redirect
Guenter Wendt

values: Template:United States space program sidebar

values: Template talk:United States space program sidebar

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: Independent agencies of the United States government

values:
/wiki/List_of_space_agencies
mw-redirect
List of space agencies

values:
/wiki/Space_science
mw-redirect
Space science

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Hugh_Dryden
mw-redirect
Hugh Dryden

values:
/wiki/Space_technology
mw-redirect
Space technology

values:
/wiki/Langley_Aeronautical_Laboratory
mw-redirect
Langley Aeronautical Laboratory

values:
/wiki/Ames_Aeronautical_Laboratory
mw-redirect
Ames Aeronautical Laboratory

values:
/wiki/List_of_NASA_Administrators
mw-redirect
List of NASA Administrators

values: List of Administrators and Deputy Administrators of NASA

values:
/wiki/Robert_M._Lightfoot,_Jr.
mw-redirect
Robert M. Lightfoot, Jr.

values:
/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson
mw-redirect
Lyndon Johnson

values:
/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon
mw-redirect
Richard M. Nixon

values:
/wiki/Citizenship_in_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Citizenship in the United States

values: Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (page does not exist)

values: Space Program Advisory Council (page does not exist)

values: Research and Technology Advisory Council (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Manned_mission_to_Mars
mw-redirect
Manned mission to Mars

values: plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update

values:
/wiki/Astronaut_Badge
mw-redirect
Astronaut Badge

values:
/wiki/Saturn_rocket
mw-redirect
Saturn rocket

values:
/wiki/Lunar_Laser_Ranging_Experiment
mw-redirect
Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment

values: List of space exploration milestones, 1957-1969

values:
/wiki/Celestial_body
mw-redirect
Celestial body

values:
/wiki/Microgravity_environment
mw-redirect
Microgravity environment

values:
/wiki/Apollo_Command_Module
mw-redirect
Apollo Command Module

values:
/wiki/Statute_mile
mw-redirect
Statute mile

values:
/wiki/Japanese_Experiment_Module
mw-redirect
Japanese Experiment Module

values:
/wiki/Russian_Federal_Space_Agency
mw-redirect
Russian Federal Space Agency

values:
/wiki/Solar_arrays
mw-redirect
Solar arrays

values:
/wiki/Proton_(rocket)
mw-redirect
Proton (rocket)

values: Assembly of the International Space Station

values:
/wiki/Low_Earth_Orbit
mw-redirect
Low Earth Orbit

values: The launch date of the modules have significantly slipped, and there is now some debate on whether they will ever launch.

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Russian_Federation
mw-redirect
Russian Federation

values: List of International Space Station expeditions

values: List of International Space Station visitors

values:
/wiki/Dragon_spacecraft
mw-redirect
Dragon spacecraft

values:
/wiki/Falcon_9_rocket
mw-redirect
Falcon 9 rocket

values:
/wiki/Orion_spacecraft
mw-redirect
Orion spacecraft

values:
/wiki/Deep_Space_Gateway
mw-redirect
Deep Space Gateway

values: Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships

values:
/wiki/Inner_Solar_System
mw-redirect
Inner Solar System

values:
/wiki/In-situ_resource_utilization
mw-redirect
In-situ resource utilization

values: Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee

values:
/wiki/Solar_system
mw-redirect
Solar system

values: 2012 National Reconnaissance Office space telescope donation to NASA

values:
/wiki/Orion_Multi-Purpose_Crew_Vehicle
mw-redirect
Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

values:
/wiki/Near-Earth_asteroids
mw-redirect
Near-Earth asteroids

values:
/wiki/NASA_spin-off_technologies
mw-redirect
NASA spin-off technologies

values: Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate

values: Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

values:
/wiki/George_H.W._Bush
mw-redirect
George H.W. Bush

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California

values: Vehicle Assembly Building and Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center

values:
/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson_Space_Center
mw-redirect
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

values: Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center

values:
/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Space_Center
mw-redirect
John F. Kennedy Space Center

values:
/wiki/John_H._Glenn_Research_Center
mw-redirect
John H. Glenn Research Center

values:
/wiki/Deep_Space_Network
mw-redirect
Deep Space Network

values: Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex

values: Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex

values: Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex

values: United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation

values:
/wiki/Ion_engines
mw-redirect
Ion engines

values: United States Environmental Protection Agency

values: background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;

values:
/wiki/Mars_Odyssey
mw-redirect
Mars Odyssey

values: background: #DFDFFF; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values:
/wiki/Curiosity_rover
mw-redirect
Curiosity rover

values: float: left; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1em;

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values: Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office

values: NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program

values: Awards and decorations of the United States government

values: Space policy of the Barack Obama administration

values:
/wiki/Russian_space_program
mw-redirect
Russian space program

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: United States federal executive departments

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.loc.gov/rr/news/fedgov.html

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values:
nofollow
https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/15223648

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1496-6921

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.ato.ru/content/building-sand

values:
nofollow
http://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.cubesinspace.com/index.html

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12502969

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 100px; right: 0px; bottom: 0px; height: 0px; width: 0px;

values: left: 50%; top: 50%; margin-left: -35px; margin-top: -27.5px;

values:
mwPlayerContainer k-player videoHolder
width: 200px; position: relative;

values:
float: left; margin-left: 5px;
floatnone

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help
mw-redirect
Wikipedia:Media help

values: font-size: xx-small; line-height: 1.6em; margin-left: 60px;

values: wikisource:National Aeronautics and Space Act

values: s:Portal:National Aeronautics and Space Administration

values:
nofollow
http://www.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://nix.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.nasaimages.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://plus.google.com/+NASA

values:
nofollow
external text
https://twitter.com/NASA

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.facebook.com/NASA/?fref=ts

values:
nofollow
http://www.nasawatch.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.technicalreports.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nalhq.com

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nalfl.com

values:
nofollow
https://www.nal-jsc.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://history.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://www.spacehistory101.com/
external text

values:
row
navbox-group
text-align: center;;width:1%

values:
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: center;

values: Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program

values: Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry

values: President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy

values:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

values: Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory

values: Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer

values: Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager

values: List of surface features of Mars seen by Opportunity

values: Space Communications and Navigation Program

values: Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex

values: NASA space-flown Gemini and Apollo medallions

values:
navbox-abovebelow
3
text-align: center;;font-weight:bold;

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center

values: Independent Verification and Validation Facility

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Template talk:Public-sector space agencies

values: Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre

values: National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences

values: National Space Research and Development Agency

values: Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales

values: Department of Aerospace Science and Technology

values: Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research

values: China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology

values: China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation

values: Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense

values: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

values: National Space Development Agency of Japan

values: National Institute of Information and Communications Technology

values: Institute for Unmanned Space Experiment Free Flyer

values: National Aerospace Development Administration

values: KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center

values: National Institute of Aeronautics and Space

values: Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency

values: Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization

values: Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission

values: TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute

values: European Cooperation for Space Standardization

values: Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing

values: Netherlands Institute for Space Research

values: Space Research Centre of Polish Academy of Sciences

values: Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial

values: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

values: Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

values: International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

values: United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

values: United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs

values: Timeline of first orbital launches by country

values: Template:United States research agencies

values: Template talk:United States research agencies

values:
/wiki/Government_of_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Government of the United States

values:
/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency
mw-redirect
Environmental Protection Agency

values: Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity

values: National Institute of Food and Agriculture

values: National Institute of Standards and Technology

values: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

values: United States Department of the Air Force

values: United States Army Research, Development and Engineering Command

values: United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command

values: Engineer Research and Development Center

values:
/wiki/Army_Research_Lab
mw-redirect
Army Research Lab

values: Naval Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance Center

values: United States Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory

values: Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences

values: National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research

values: United States Department of Energy National Laboratories

values: United States Department of Health and Human Services

values: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

values: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

values: Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority

values: United States Department of Homeland Security

values: DHS Directorate for Science and Technology

values: United States Coast Guard Research & Development Center

values: United States Department of the Interior

values: United States Department of Transportation

values: Research and Innovative Technology Administration

values: United States Department of Veterans Affairs

values: Veterans Health Administration Office of Research and Development

values: Networking and Information Technology Research and Development

values: United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology

values: United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/146202023

values:
nofollow
external text
http://isni.org/isni/0000000114567559

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/2294-9

values:
nofollow
external text
https://libris.kb.se/auth/123881

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.idref.fr/027773299

values: Category:Government agencies established in 1958

values: Category:1958 establishments in Washington, D.C.

values: Category:Organizations based in Washington, D.C.

values: Category:Government of the United States

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Webarchive template webcite links

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages

values: Category:Use American English from July 2015

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2015

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017

values: Category:Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters

values: Category:Pages using Columns-list with deprecated parameters

values: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

values: Category:Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia

values: Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links

values: Category:Articles with Internet Archive links

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with PIC identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/NASA
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasa
Nasa – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Old English
ang
ang
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Banjar
bjn
bjn
interlanguage-link-target

values: NASA – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Greek
el
el
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values: Nacia Aeronaŭtika kaj Kosma Administracio – Esperanto

values:
https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Extremaduran
ext
ext
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values: National Aeronautics and Space Administration – French

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Hakka Chinese
hak
hak
interlanguage-link-target

values: 미국 항공우주국 – Korean

values: नासा – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values: Geimferðastofnun Bandaríkjanna – Icelandic

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Kurdish
ku
ku
interlanguage-link-target

values: Administratio nationalis aeronautica et spatialis – Latin

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Pentadbiran Aeronautik dan Angkasa Kebangsaan – Malay

values:
https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Minangkabau
min
min
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Mongolian
mn
mn
interlanguage-link-target

values: National Aeronautics and Space Administration – Dutch

values: アメリカ航空宇宙局 – Japanese

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values: National Aeronautics and Space Administration – Occitan

values:
https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Oromo
om
om
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Papiamento
pap
pap
interlanguage-link-target

values: Aministrassion Nassional dl'Areonàutica e dlë Spassi – Piedmontese

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Kara-Kalpak
kaa
kaa
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Saterland Frisian
stq
stq
interlanguage-link-target

values: Administrata Kombëtare Aeronautike Hapësinore Amerikane – Albanian

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values: National Aeronautics and Space Administration – Slovak

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasa
Nasa – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: தேசிய வானூர்தியியல் மற்றும் விண்வெளி நிர்வாகம் (ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்கா) – Tamil

values:
https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Tatar
tt
tt
interlanguage-link-target

values: నేషనల్ ఏరోనాటిక్స్ మరియు స్పేస్ అడ్మినిస్ట్రేషన్ – Telugu

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Yoruba
yo
yo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
NASA – Samogitian
bat-smg
bat-smg
interlanguage-link-target

values: 美国国家航空航天局 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-NASA rootpage-NASA skin-vector action-view