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Cultural landscape
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Sunrise Matobo Hills, Zimbabwe.
A cultural landscape, as defined by the World Heritage Committee, is the "cultural properties [that] represent the combined works of nature and of man."[1]
"a landscape designed and created intentionally by man"
an "organically evolved landscape" which may be a "relict (or fossil) landscape" or a "continuing landscape"
an "associative cultural landscape" which may be valued because of the "religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural element."
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the concept
2 Examples
2.1 Tongariro National Park, New Zealand (1993)
2.2 Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, Australia (1994)
2.3 Rice Terraces of Philippine Cordilleras (1995)
2.4 Cultural Landscape of Sintra Portugal (1995)
2.5 Portovenere, Cinque Terre, and the Islands (Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto), Italy (1997)
2.6 Hortobágy National Park, Hungary (1999)
2.7 Matobo Hills, Zimbabwe (2003)
2.8 Dresden Elbe Valley, Germany (2004)
2.9 Qhapaq Ñan (Andean Road System), Peru, Columbia, Equator, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile (2014)
2.10 West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou, China (2011)
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
History of the concept[edit]
The concept of 'cultural landscapes' can be found in the European tradition of landscape painting.[2] From the 16th century onwards, many European artists painted landscapes in favor of people, diminishing the people in their paintings to figures subsumed within broader, regionally specific landscapes.[3]
The word "landscape" itself combines 'land' with a verb of Germanic origin, "scapjan/ schaffen" to mean, literally, 'shaped lands'.[4] Lands were then considered shaped by natural forces, and the unique details of such landshaffen (shaped lands) became themselves the subject of 'landscape' paintings.[3]
The geographer Otto Schlüter is credited with having first formally used “cultural landscape” as an academic term in the early 20th century.[5] In 1908, Schlüter argued that by defining geography as a Landschaftskunde (landscape science) this would give geography a logical subject matter shared by no other discipline.[5][6] He defined two forms of landscape: the Urlandschaft (transl. original landscape) or landscape that existed before major human induced changes and the Kulturlandschaft (transl. 'cultural landscape') a landscape created by human culture. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes.
It was Carl O. Sauer, a human geographer, who was probably the most influential in promoting and developing the idea of cultural landscapes.[7] Sauer was determined to stress the agency of culture as a force in shaping the visible features of the Earth’s surface in delimited areas. Within his definition, the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium with and through which human cultures act.[8] His classic definition of a 'cultural landscape' reads as follows:
“The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group. Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result"
Since Schlüter's first formal use of the term, and Sauer's effective promotion of the idea, the concept of 'cultural landscapes has been variously used, applied, debated, developed and refined within academia, when, in 1992, the World Heritage Committee elected to convene a meeting of the 'specialists' to advise and assist redraft the Committee's Operational Guidelines to include 'cultural landscapes' as an option for heritage listing properties that were neither purely natural nor purely cultural in form (i.e. 'mixed' heritage).[9]
The World Heritage Committee's adoption and use of the concept of 'cultural landscapes' has seen multiple specialists around the world, and many nations identifying 'cultural landscapes', assessing 'cultural landscapes', heritage listing 'cultural landscapes', managing 'cultural landscapes', and effectively making 'cultural landscapes' known and visible to the world, with very practical ramifications and challenges.[9]
A 2006 academic review of the combined efforts of the World Heritage Committee, multiple specialists around the world, and nations to apply the concept of 'cultural landscapes', observed and concluded that:
"Although the concept of landscape has been unhooked for some time from its original art associations ... there is still a dominant view of landscapes as an inscribed surface, akin to a map or a text, from which cultural meaning and social forms can simply be read."[10]
Within academia, any system of interaction between human activity and natural habitat is regarded as a cultural landscape. In a sense this understanding is broader than the definition applied within UNESCO, including, as it does, almost the whole of the world's occupied surface, plus almost all the uses, ecologies, interactions, practices, beliefs, concepts, and traditions of people living within cultural landscapes.[9] Following on this, geographer Xoán Paredes defines cultural landscape as:
"... the environment modified by the human being in the course of time, the long-term combination between anthropic action on this environment and the physical constraints limiting or conditioning human activity. It is a geographical area – including natural and cultural resources – associated to historical evolution, which gives way to a recognizable landscape for a particular human group, up to the point of being identifiable as such by others."[11][12]
Some Universities now offer specialist degrees in the study of cultural landscapes, including, for instance, the Universities of Naples, St.-Étienne, and Stuttgart who offer a Master of Cultural Landscapes diploma.
Examples[edit]
The World Heritage Committee has identified and listed a number of areas or properties as cultural landscapes of universal value to humankind, including the following:[13]
Tongariro National Park, New Zealand (1993)[edit]
Tongariro Mahuia River in the Tongariro National Park, New Zealand
"In 1993 Tongariro National Park, became the first property to be inscribed on the World Heritage List under the revised criteria describing cultural landscapes. The mountains at the heart of the park have cultural and religious significance for the Maori people and symbolize the spiritual links between this community and its environment. The park has active and extinct volcanoes, a diverse range of ecosystems and some spectacular landscapes."
Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, Australia (1994)[edit]
"This park, formerly called Uluru (Ayers Rock – Mount Olga) National Park, features spectacular geological formations that dominate the vast red sandy plain of central Australia. Uluru, an immense monolith, and Kata Tjuta, the rock domes located west of Uluru, form part of the traditional belief system of one of the oldest human societies in the world. The traditional owners of Uluru-Kata Tjuta are the Anangu Aboriginal people."
Rice Terraces of Philippine Cordilleras (1995)[edit]
The Batad rice terraces, The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, the first site to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List cultural landscape category in 1995.[14]
"For 2,000 years, the high rice fields of the Ifugao have followed the contours of the mountains. The fruit of knowledge handed down from one generation to the next, and the expression of sacred traditions and a delicate social balance, they have helped to create a landscape of great beauty that expresses the harmony between humankind and the environment."
Cultural Landscape of Sintra Portugal (1995)[edit]
"In the 19th century Sintra became the first centre of European Romantic architecture. Ferdinand II turned a ruined monastery into a castle where this new sensitivity was displayed in the use of Gothic, Egyptian, Moorish and Renaissance elements and in the creation of a park blending local and exotic species of trees. Other fine dwellings, built along the same lines in the surrounding serra, created a unique combination of parks and gardens which influenced the development of landscape architecture throughout Europe".
Portovenere, Cinque Terre, and the Islands (Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto), Italy (1997)[edit]
"The Ligurian coast between Cinque Terre and Portovenere is a cultural landscape of great scenic and cultural value. The layout and disposition of the small towns and the shaping of the surrounding landscape, overcoming the disadvantages of a steep, uneven terrain, encapsulate the continuous history of human settlement in this region over the past millennium."
Hortobágy National Park, Hungary (1999)[edit]
Hungarian Grey Cattle in Hortobágy National Park.
Hortobágy National Park is the largest continuous natural grassland in Europe, which means that it was not formed as a result of deforestation or river control. The first Hungarian national park (established in 1973), it is the country's largest protected area (82 thousand hectares). A significant part of it is Biosphere Reserve and a quarter of its area enjoys international protection under the Ramsar Convention on the conservation of wetlands.[15]
Matobo Hills, Zimbabwe (2003)[edit]
The area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The large boulders provide abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from the early Stone Age right through to early historical times, and intermittently since. They also feature an outstanding collection of rock paintings. The Matopo Hills continue to provide a strong focus for the local community, which still uses shrines and sacred places closely linked to traditional, social and economic activities.
Dresden Elbe Valley, Germany (2004)[edit]
"The 18th- and 19th-century cultural landscape of Dresden Elbe Valley ... features low meadows, and is crowned by the Pillnitz Palace and the centre of Dresden with its numerous monuments and parks from the 16th to 20th centuries. The landscape also features 19th- and 20th-century suburban villas and gardens and valuable natural features."
This landscape was struck from the World Heritage list in 2009, due to the construction of a four lane highway across the Elbe.[16]
Qhapaq Ñan (Andean Road System), Peru, Columbia, Equator, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile (2014)[edit]
This site is an extensive Inca communication, trade and defence network of roads covering 30,000 km. Constructed by the Incas over several centuries and partly based on pre-Inca infrastructure, this extraordinary network through one of the world’s most extreme geographical terrains linked the snow-capped peaks of the Andes – at an altitude of more than 6,000 m – to the coast, running through hot rainforests, fertile valleys and absolute deserts. It reached its maximum expansion in the 15th century, when it spread across the length and breadth of the Andes. The Qhapac Ñan, Andean Road System includes 273 component sites spread over more than 6,000 km that were selected to highlight the social, political, architectural and engineering achievements of the network, along with its associated infrastructure for trade, accommodation and storage, as well as sites of religious significance. [16]
The West Lake of Hangzhou World Heritage Site. According to the UNESCO, it reflects "an idealized fusion between humans and nature."[17]
West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou, China (2011)[edit]
"The West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou, comprising the West Lake and the hills surrounding its three sides, has inspired famous poets, scholars and artists since the 9th century. It comprises numerous temples, pagodas, pavilions, gardens and ornamental trees, as well as causeways and artificial islands."
See also[edit]
Environment portal
Cultural region
Ecomuseum
Historic American Landscapes Survey (HALS) — Heritage Documentation Program of the U.S. National Park Service, archived physically + online at the Library of Congress.
Landscape architecture
Lists of World Heritage Sites
Native American use of fire — North America.
Natural landscape
Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape
References[edit]
Jump up ^ UNESCO (2012) Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention [1]. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Paris. Page 14.
Jump up ^ PANNELL, S (2006) Reconciling Nature and Culture in a Global Context: Lessons form the World Heritage List. James Cook University. Cairns, Australia. Page 62
^ Jump up to: a b GIBSON, W.S (1989) Mirror of the Earth: The World Landscape in Sixteenth-Century Flemish Painting. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey
Jump up ^ HABER, W (1995) Concept, Origin, and Meaning of Landscape. UNESCO's Cultural Landscapes of Universal Value: Components of a Global Strategy. UNESCO, New York. Pages 38-42.
^ Jump up to: a b JAMES, P.E & MARTIN, G (1981) All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical Ideas. John Wiley & Sons. New York, p.177.
Jump up ^ ELKINS, T.H (1989) Human and Regional Geography in the German-speaking lands in the first forty years of the Twentieth Century. ENTRIKEN, J. Nicholas & BRUNN, Stanley D (Eds) Reflections on Richard Hartshorne's The nature of geography. Occasional publications of the Association of the American Geographers, Washington DC. Page 27
Jump up ^ JAMES, P.E & MARTIN, G (1981) All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical Ideas. John Wiley & Sons. New York. Page 321-324.
Jump up ^ SAUER, C (1925) The Morphology of Landscape. University of California Publications in Geography. Number 22. Pages 19-53
^ Jump up to: a b c FOWLER, P.J (2003) World Heritage Cultural Landscapes 1992 - 2002. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Paris, France.
Jump up ^ PANNELL, S (2006) Reconciling Nature and Culture in a Global Context: Lessons form the World Heritage List. James Cook University, Cairns. Page 63
Jump up ^ PAREDES, X. (2015a) A utilidade do celtismo. Celticidade galaica no S.XXI. Proceedings of Jornadas das Letras Galego-Portuguesas 2012-2014, DTS and SAGA. Pages 175-190
Jump up ^ PAREDES, X. (2017) I can see my hillfort from here. Personal site (last access July 30, 2017).
Jump up ^ Cultural Landscape UNESCO. Accessed 9 January 2008
Jump up ^ Malig, Jojo (26 June 2012). "Philippine rice terraces no longer in danger". ABS-CBN News. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Hungarian Tourism Plc., Hortobágy National Park
Jump up ^ http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/522/
Jump up ^ Ancient Chinese cultural landscape, the West Lake of Hangzhou, inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List.
Bibliography[edit]
Conzen, M., 1993, 'The historical impulse in Geographical writing about the United States 1850 1990', in Conzen, M., Rumney, T. and Wynn, G., A Scholar's Guide to Geographical Writing on the American and Canadian Past, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 3 90.
Denevan William M., 1992, 'The Americas before and after 1492: Current Geographical Research', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 82, No. 3, pp. 369–385.
Elkins, T. H., 1989, 'Human and Regional Geography in the German-speaking lands in the first forty years of the Twentieth Century', in J. Nicholas Entrikin & Stanley D. Brunn (eds). Reflections on Richard Hartshorne's The nature of geography, Occasional publications of the Association of the American Geographers, Washington DC. 17-34.
James, P. E. and Martin, G., 1981, All Possible Worlds: A history of geographical ideas, John Wiley & Sons, New York
Jones, M., 2003, 'The Concept of Cultural Landscape: Discourse and Narratives', in H. Palang & G. Fry (eds.), Landscape Interfaces. Cultural Heritage in Changing Landscapes, Dordrecht, 21-51
Sauer, C., 1925, The Morphology of Landscape, University of California Publications in Geography, 22:19-53.
Fedorov, R. Genesis of the cultural landscape of Urals and Siberia. // Journal of Eurasian Studies. Volume 4, Issue 2, 2013, P. 207–216
External links[edit]
UNESCO Webpage Article on 'Cultural Landscapes' identifying all listed cultural landscapes Accessed 9 January 2008
UNESCO World Heritage Committee's Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention Accessed 11 November 2007
UNESCO World Heritage Series publication entitled "World Heritage Cultural Landscapes 1992 - 2002 Accessed 9 January 2008
PANNELL, S (2006) Reconciling Nature and Culture in a Global Context: Lessons form the World Heritage List. James Cook University, Cairns. Accessed 11 November 2007
International Federation of Landscape Architects Cultural Landscapes Committee Accessed 26 January 2009
Hungarian Tourism Plc., Hortobágy National Park Accessed 11 April 2012
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text:
Sweat gland
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Sweat gland
A cross-section of the human skin, with the sweat gland labeled at the bottom
Details
Precursor
Ectoderm[3]
System
Integumentary[3]
Nerve
Eccrine: cholinergic sympathetic nerves[4]
Apocrine: adrenergic nerves[5]
Identifiers
Latin
Glandula sudorifera[1][2]
MeSH
D013545
TA
A16.0.00.029
FMA
59152
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Sweat glands, also known as sudoriferous or sudoriparous glands, from Latin sudor, meaning 'sweat',[6][7] are small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat. Sweat glands are a type of exocrine gland, which are glands that produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct. There are two main types of sweat glands that differ in their structure, function, secretory product, mechanism of excretion, anatomic distribution, and distribution across species:
Eccrine sweat glands are distributed almost all over the human body, in varying densities, with the highest density in palms and soles, then on the head, but much less on the trunk and the extremities. Its water-based secretion represents a primary form of cooling in humans.[8]
Apocrine sweat glands are mostly limited to the axilla (armpits) and perianal areas in humans.[8] They are not significant for cooling in humans, but are the sole effective sweat glands in hoofed animals, such as the camels, donkeys, horses, and cattle.[9][10][11]
Ceruminous glands (which produce ear wax), mammary glands (which produce milk), and ciliary glands in the eyelids are modified apocrine sweat glands.[2][12]
Contents
1 Structure
2 Distribution
2.1 Animals
3 Types
3.1 Eccrine
3.2 Apocrine
3.3 Apoeccrine
3.4 Others
4 Sweat
4.1 Mechanism
4.2 Stimuli
4.2.1 Thermal
4.2.2 Emotional
4.2.3 Gustatory
4.3 Antiperspirant
5 Pathology
5.1 Tumors
5.2 As signs in other illnesses
6 See also
7 Gallery
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Structure[edit]
Body of a sweat gland cut in various directions
Generally, sweat glands consist of a secretory unit consisting of a base rolled into a glomerulum, and a duct that carries the sweat away.[13] The secretory coil or base, is set deep in the lower dermis and hypodermis, and the entire gland is surrounded by adipose tissue.[2][14][8] In both sweat gland types, the secretory coils are surrounded by contractile myoepithelial cells that function to facilitate excretion of secretory product.[15][16] The secretory activities of the gland cells and the contractions of myoepithelial cells are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the circulating hormones. The distal or apical part of the duct that opens to the skin's surface is known as the acrosyringium.[17]
Each sweat gland receives several nerve fibers that branch out into bands of one or more axons and encircle the individual tubules of the secretory coil. Capillaries are also interwoven among sweat tubules.[18]
Differences Between Eccrine & Apocrine Sweat Glands
Eccrine Glands
Apocrine Glands
Overall diameter of secretory coil 500-700 µm 800 µm
Diameter of individual secretory tubule 30-40 µm 80-100 µm[19]
Composition of secretory unit single layer, mixed clear cells & dark cells single layer columnar cells[17]
Composition of ductal epithelium two or more layers of cuboidal cells double layer of cuboidal cells [20]
Duct opens to skin surface hair follicle, sometimes nearby skin surface
Distribution[edit]
The number of active sweat glands varies greatly among different people, though comparisons between different areas (ex. axillae vs. groin) show the same directional changes (certain areas always have more active sweat glands while others always have fewer).[21] According to Henry Gray's estimates, the palm has around 370 sweat glands per cm2; the back of the hand has 200 per cm2; the forehead has 175 per cm2; the breast, abdomen, and forearm have 155 per cm2; and the back and legs have 60–80 per cm2.[2]
In the finger pads, sweat glands are somewhat irregularly spaced on the epidermal ridges. There are no pores between the ridges, though sweat tends to spill into them.[21] The thick epidermis of the palms and soles causes the sweat glands to become spirally coiled.[2]
Animals[edit]
Non-primate mammals have eccrine sweat glands only on the palms and soles. Apocrine glands cover the rest of the body, though they are not as effective as humans' in temperature regulation (with the exception of horses').[8] Prosimians have a 1:20 ratio of follicles with apocrine glands versus follicles without.[22] They have eccrine glands between hairs over most of their body (while humans have them between the hairs on their scalp).[9]
The overall distribution of sweat glands varies among primates: the rhesus and patas monkeys have them on the chest; the squirrel monkey has them only on the palms and soles; and the stump-tailed macaque, Japanese monkey, and baboon have them over the entire body.[23]
Domestic animals[which?] have apocrine glands at the base of each hair follicle, but eccrine glands only in foot pads and snout. Their apocrine glands, like those in humans, produce an odorless oily milky secretion evolved not to evaporate and cool but rather coat and stick to hair so odor-causing bacteria can grow on it.[24] Eccrine glands on their foot pads, like those on palms and soles of humans, did not evolve to cool either but rather increase friction and enhance grip.
Dogs and cats have apocrine glands that are specialized in both structure and function located at the eyelids (Moll's glands), ears (ceruminous glands), anal sac, prepuce vulva, and circumanal area.[25]
Types[edit]
Eccrine[edit]
Main article: Eccrine sweat gland
Eccrine sweat glands are everywhere except the lips, ear canal, prepuce, glans penis, labia minora, and clitoris. They are ten times smaller than apocrine sweat glands, do not extend as deeply into the dermis, and excrete directly onto the surface of the skin.[8][5][26][4] The proportion of eccrine glands decreases with age.[27]
The clear secretion produced by eccrine sweat glands is termed sweat or sensible perspiration. Sweat is mostly water, but it does contain some electrolytes, since it is derived from blood plasma. The presence of sodium chloride gives sweat a salty taste.
The total volume of sweat produced depends on the number of functional glands and the size of the surface opening. The degree of secretory activity is regulated by neural and hormonal mechanisms (men sweat more than women). When all of the eccrine sweat glands are working at maximum capacity, the rate of perspiration for a human being may exceed three liters per hour,[28] and dangerous losses of fluids and electrolytes can occur.
Eccrine glands have three primary functions:
Thermoregulation: sweat cools the surface of the skin and reduces body temperature.[29]
Excretion: eccrine sweat gland secretion can also provide a significant excretory route for water and electrolytes.[30]
Protection: eccrine sweat gland secretion aids in preserving the skin's acid mantle, which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.[31]
Apocrine[edit]
Main article: Apocrine sweat gland
Apocrine sweat glands are found in the armpit, areola (around the nipples), perineum (between the anus and genitals), in the ear, and in the eyelids. The secretory portion is larger than that of eccrine glands (making them larger overall). Rather than opening directly onto the surface of the skin, apocrine glands secrete sweat into the pilary canal of the hair follicle.[8]
Before puberty, the apocrine sweat glands are inactive;[32] hormonal changes in puberty cause the glands to increase in size and begin functioning.[33] The substance secreted is thicker than eccrine sweat and provides nutrients for bacteria on the skin: the bacteria's decomposition of sweat is what creates the acrid odor.[34] Apocrine sweat glands are most active in times of stress and sexual excitement.[35]
In mammals (including humans), apocrine sweat contains pheromone-like compounds to attract other organisms within their species. Study of human sweat has revealed differences between men and women in apocrine secretions and bacteria.[36]
Apoeccrine[edit]
Some human sweat glands cannot be classified as either apocrine or eccrine, having characteristics of both; such glands are termed apoeccrine.[37] They are larger than eccrine glands, but smaller than apocrine glands.[38] Their secretory portion has a narrow portion similar to secretory coils in eccrine glands as well as a wide section reminiscent of apocrine glands.[39]
Apoeccrine, found in the armpits and perianal region, have ducts opening onto the skin surface.[40] They are presumed to have developed in puberty from the eccrine glands,[41] and can comprise up to 50% of all axillary glands. Apoeccrine glands secrete more sweat than both eccrine and apocrine glands, thus playing a large role in axillary sweating.[42] Apoeccrine glands are sensitive to cholinergic activity, though they can also be activated via adrenergic stimulation.[37] Like eccrine glands, they continuously secrete a thin, watery sweat.[42]
Others[edit]
Specialized sweat glands, including the ceruminous glands, mammary glands, ciliary glands of the eyelids, and sweat glands of the nasal vestibulum, are modified apocrine glands.[43][5] Ceruminous glands are near the ear canals, and produce cerumen (earwax) that mixes with the oil secreted from sebaceous glands.[44][43] Mammary glands use apocrine secretion to produce milk.[45]
Sweat[edit]
Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, sodium salts, and nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface.[30][46] The main electrolytes of sweat are sodium and chloride,[47] though the amount is small enough to make sweat hypotonic at the skin surface.[48] Eccrine sweat is clear, odorless, and is composed of 98–99% water; it also contains NaCl, fatty acids, lactic acid, citric acid, ascorbic acid, urea, and uric acid. Its pH ranges from 4 to 6.8.[49] On the other hand, the apocrine sweat has a pH of 6 to 7.5; it contains water, proteins, carbohydrate waste material, lipids, and steroids. The sweat is oily, cloudy, viscous, and originally odorless;[49] it gains odor upon decomposition by bacteria. Because both apocrine glands and sebaceous glands open into the hair follicle, apocrine sweat is mixed with sebum.[41]
Mechanism[edit]
In apocrine secretion (pictured), portions of the cell are pinched off and later disintegrate.
It was originally thought that both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands used merocrine secretion, where vesicles in the gland released sweat via exocytosis, leaving the entire cell intact.[37][7] More recent studies have revealed that apocrine glands release sweat in the hair follicle via apocrine secretion, where portions of the cell are actually pinched off, and disintegrate later to excrete sweat.[50][7]
In both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, the sweat is originally produced in the gland's coil, where it is isotonic with the blood plasma there.[51] When the rate of sweating is low, salt is conserved and reabsorbed by the gland's duct; high sweat rates, on the other hand, lead to less salt reabsorption and allow more water to evaporate on the skin (via osmosis) to increase evaporative cooling.[52]
Secretion of sweat occurs when the myoepithelial cell cells surrounding the secretory glands contract.[20] Eccrine sweat increases the rate of bacterial growth and volatilizes the odor compounds of apocrine sweat, strengthening the latter's acrid smell.[53]
Normally, only a certain number of sweat glands are actively producing sweat. When stimuli call for more sweating, more sweat glands are activated, with each then producing more sweat.[54][13]
Stimuli[edit]
Thermal[edit]
Both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands participate in thermal (thermoregulatory) sweating,[55] which is directly controlled by the hypothalamus. Thermal sweating is stimulated by a combination of internal body temperature and mean skin temperature.[29] In eccrine sweat glands, stimulation occurs via activation by acetylcholine, which binds to the gland's muscarinic receptors.[56]
Emotional[edit]
Emotional sweating is stimulated by stress, anxiety, fear, and pain; it is independent of ambient temperature. Acetylcholine acts on the eccrine glands and adrenaline acts on both eccrine and apocrine glands to produce sweat.[37] Emotional sweating can occur anywhere, though it is most evident on the palms, soles of the feet, and axillary regions.[29] Sweating on the palms and soles is thought to have evolved as a fleeing reaction in mammals: it increases friction and prevents slipping when running or climbing in stressful situations.[55]
Gustatory[edit]
Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste "hot"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response.[37]
Antiperspirant[edit]
Unlike deodorant, which simply reduces axillary odor without affecting body functions, antiperspirant reduces both eccrine and apocrine sweating.[57][49] Antiperspirants, which are classified as drugs, cause proteins to precipitate and mechanically block eccrine (and sometimes apocrine) sweat ducts.[58] The metal salts found in antiperspirants alters the keratin fibrils in the ducts; the ducts then close and form a "horny plug". The main active ingredients in modern antiperspirants are aluminum chloride, aluminum chlorohydrate, aluminum zirconium chlorohydrate, and buffered aluminum sulfate.[49]
On apocrine glands, antiperspirants also contain antibacterial agents such as trichlorocarbanilide, hexamethylene tetramine, and zinc ricinoleate.[59][60] The salts are dissolved in ethanol and mixed with essential oils high in eugenol and thymol (such as thyme and clove oils). Antiperspirants may also contain levomethamphetamine[60]
Pathology[edit]
Diseases of the sweat glands include:
Fox-Fordyce disease
The apocrine sweat glands become inflamed, causing a persistent, itchy rash, usually in the axillae and pubic areas.[61]
Frey's Syndrome
If the auriculotemporal nerve is damaged (most often as a result of a Parotidectomy), excess sweat can be produced in the rear of the cheek area (just below the ear) in response to stimuli that cause salivation.[62]
Heatstroke
When the eccrine glands become exhausted and unable to secrete sweat. Heatstroke can lead to fatal hyperpyrexia (extreme rise in body temperature).[59]
Hyperhidrosis
(also known as polyhidrosis or sudorrhea) is a pathological, excessive sweating that can be either generalized or localized (focal hyperhidrosis); focal hyperhidrosis occurs most often on the palms, soles, face, scalp and axillae. Hyperhidrosis is usually brought on by emotional or thermal stress,[63] but it can also occur or with little to no stimulus.[59] Local (or asymmetrical) hyperhidrosis is said to be caused by problems in the sympathetic nervous system: either lesions[63] or nerve inflammation.[64] Hyperhidrosis can also be caused by trench foot or encephalitis.[64]
Milaria rubra
Also called prickly heat. Milaria rubra is the rupture of sweat glands and migration of sweat to other tissues. In hot environments, the skin's horny layer can expand due to sweat retention, blocking the ducts of eccrine sweat glands. The glands, still stimulated by high temperatures, continues to secrete. Sweat builds up in the duct, causing enough pressure to rupture the duct where it meets the epidermis. Sweat also escapes the duct to adjacent tissues (a process called milaria).[59][65] Hypohydrosis then follows milaria (postmiliarial hypohydrosis).[66]
Osmidrosis
Often called bromhidrosis, especially in combination with hyperhidrosis. Osmohidrosis is excessive odor from apocrine sweat glands (which are overactive in the axillae).[63] Osmidrosis is thought to be caused by changes in the apocrine gland structure rather than changes in the bacteria that acts on sweat.[53]
Tumors[edit]
Sweat gland tumors include:[67]
Acrospiroma
Aggressive digital papillary adenocarcinoma
Apocrine gland carcinoma
Ceruminoma
Cutaneous myoepithelioma
Cylindroma
Eccrine carcinoma
Hidradenoma papilliferum
Hidrocystoma
Microcystic adnexal carcinoma
Mucinous carcinoma
Papillary eccrine adenoma
Syringadenoma papilliferum
Syringofibroadenoma
Syringoma
Adenolipomas are lipomas associated with eccrine sweat glands.[68]
As signs in other illnesses[edit]
Many diseases cause sweat gland dysfunction:
Acromegaly, a result of excess growth hormone, causes the size of sweat glands increase, which leads to thicker skin.[69]
Aquagenic wrinkling of the palms, in which white papules develop on the palms after exposure to water, can sometimes come with abnormal aquaporin 5 in the sweat glands.[70]
Cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed by a sweat test, as the disease causes the sweat glands ducts to reabsorb less chloride, leading to higher concentrations of chloride in the secreted sweat.[71]
Ectodermal dysplasia can present a lack of sweat glands.[72]
Fabry disease, characterized by excess globotriaosylceramide (GL3), causes a decrease in sweat gland function due to GL3 deposits in the eccrine glands.[73]
GM1 gangliosidoses, characterized by abnormal lipid storage, leads to vacuolization in eccrine sweat gland cells.[74]
Hunter syndrome can include metachromin granules and mucin in the cytoplasm of the eccrine sweat gland cells.[75]
Hypothyroidism's low levels of thyroid hormone lead to decreased secretions from sweat glands; the result is dry, coarse skin.[76]
Kearns–Sayre syndrome, a disease of the mitochondria, involves abnormal mitochondria in eccrine sweat glands.[77]
Lafora disease is a rare genetic disorder marked by the presence of abnormal polyglucosan deposits. These "Lafora bodies" appear in the ducts of sweat glands, as well as the myoepithelial cells of apocrine glands.[78]
Lichen striatus, a self-limited eruption of small, slightly scaly papules, includes a lymphoid infiltrate around eccrine sweat glands.[79]
Metachromatic leukodystrophy, a lysosomal storage disease, leads to the accumulation of lipopigments and lysosomal residual bodies in the epithelial cells of sweat glands.[80]
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis causes abnormal deposits of lipopigment in sweat gland epithelial cells (among other places).[81]
Neutral lipid storage disease includes abnormal lipid deposits in cells, including those of the sweat gland.[82]
Niemann-Pick disease type C, another lipid storage disease, includes abnormal lipid storage in sweat glands.[83]
Schindler disease causes cytoplasmic vacuoles that appear to be empty or contain filamentous material to manifest in eccrine sweat gland cells.[84]
Small fiber peripheral neuropathy can damage the nerves that control the sweat glands. The sweat gland nerve fiber density test can diagnose this condition.[85]
See also[edit]
Sudomotor
Gallery[edit]
Transverse view of the skin with sweat glands highlighted
Transverse view of the eyelid with sweat glands highlighted
A human mammary gland
Notes[edit]
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James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; Elston, Dirk M. (2011). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology (11th ed.). London: Elsevier. ISBN 9781437703146.
Krstic, Radivoj V. (18 March 2004). Human Microscopic Anatomy: An Atlas for Students of Medicine and Biology. Springer. pp. 464, 466–469. ISBN 9783540536666.
Rubin, Raphael; Strayer, David Sheldon (29 March 2011). Rubin's Pathology: Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1043, 1048. ISBN 9781605479682.
Shibasaki, Manabu; Wilson, Thad E.; Crandall, Craig G. (2006). "Neural control and mechanisms of eccrine sweating during heat stress and exercise". Journal of Applied Physiology. 100 (5): 1692–1701. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01124.2005. ISSN 8750-7587. PMID 16614366.
Sørensen, Vibeke W.; Prasad, Gaya (1973). "On the fine structure of horse sweat glands". Zeitschrift für Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte. 139 (2): 173–183. doi:10.1007/BF00523636. PMID 4352229.
Slegers, J. F. G. (1964). "The mechanism of sweat-secretion" (pdf). Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere. Springer-Verlag. 279 (3): 265–273. doi:10.1007/BF00362480. ISSN 1432-2013. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
Tsai, Ren-Yu (1 January 2006). "Treatment of Excessive Axillary Sweat Syndrome (Hyperhidrosis, Osmidrosis, Bromhidrosis) with Liposuction". In Shiffman, Melvin A.; Di Giuseppe, Alberto. Liposuction: Non-Cosmetic Applications. Germany: Springer. pp. 496–497. ISBN 9783540280439.
Wilke, K.; Martin, A.; Terstegen, L.; Biel, S. S. (June 2007). "A short history of sweat gland biology" (pdf). International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 29 (3): 169–179. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00387.x. ISSN 1468-2494. PMID 18489347.
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