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Spanish colonization of the Americas
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Flag of Spanish conquistadors with crown of Castile on a red flag, used by Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro and others
The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States). It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492–1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850–1950).
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the emancipation of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, which were finally given up in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Conquests
1.1 West Indies
1.2 Mexico
1.3 Peru
1.4 Río de la Plata and Paraguay
1.5 New Granada
2 Governing
2.1 Dominions
2.1.1 North
2.1.2 South
3 19th century
3.1 Demographic impact
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
6.1 Historiography
7 External links
Conquests[edit]
Iberian territory of Crown of Castile. .
Overseas north territory of Crown of Castile (New Spain and Philippines)
Overseas south territory of Crown of Castile (Perú, New Granada and Río de la Plata)
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.[1]
West Indies[edit]
Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish-occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present-day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas,[2] in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién.[3]
Mexico[edit]
Main article: Spanish conquest of Mexico
For more details on this topic, see Spanish conquest of Yucatán and Spanish conquest of Guatemala.
Spanish Conquest of Mexico, meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma II
Map depicting Cortes' invasion route
The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations.[4][5][6] But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city-states' political hierarchy and social structure in place.
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519, marks the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Established by Charles V in 1535, the first viceroy was Don Antonio de Mendoza.
Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833.
Peru[edit]
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Vasco Núñez de Balboa claiming possession of the South Sea (Pacific Ocean)
Map depicting the route of Pizarro from Panama to Cuzco
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
Río de la Plata and Paraguay[edit]
European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad" and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires." The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
New Granada[edit]
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Muisca
See also: Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations
Between 1537 and 1543, six[citation needed] Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command.[7] It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern-day Colombia and parts of Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia.[8]
Governing[edit]
Main articles: Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroyalty of Peru, and Intendant § The Spanish Monarchy
Argentine Cabildo council
Spain's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, México City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroyalties into an Intendant system, raise more revenue and promote greater efficiency.
Dominions[edit]
Juan Ponce de León (Santervás de Campos, Valladolid, Spain). He was one of the first Europeans to arrive to the current United States because he led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named.
North[edit]
Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821)
Las Californias
Nuevo Reino de León
Nuevo Santander
Nueva Vizcaya
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Nueva Extremadura
Nueva Galicia
Captaincy General of the Philippines (administered by New Spain from 1565 to 1821, then after Mexican independence transferred to and directly administered by Madrid until 1898)
Captaincy General of Cuba (until 1898) – Included in this captaincy general until 1819 was La Florida, Spain's North American colonies in what is now the southeastern United States.
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico (until 1898)
Santo Domingo (last Spanish rule 1861–1865)
Captaincy General of Guatemala
South[edit]
Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819)
Captaincy General of Venezuela
Viceroyalty of Perú (1542–1824)
Captaincy General of Chile (1541–1818)
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1814)
19th century[edit]
Main article: Spanish American wars of independence
Spanish colonialization in the Americas.
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country.
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first two were in present-day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present-day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish–American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self-governing unincorporated territory.
Demographic impact[edit]
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.[9]
In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the "Defender of the Indians" estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492.[citation needed]
The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1–2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century.[citation needed] The overwhelming cause of decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896–1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821–1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846–1910).[10][11][12]
See also[edit]
New Spain portal
Colombia portal
Argentina portal
Ecuador portal
Venezuela portal
Atlantic World
Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
Black Legend
Habsburg Spain
Inter caetera
List of largest empires
New Spain
Old Spanish Trail (trade route)
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Smallpox Epidemics in the New World
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
Spanish conquest of El Salvador
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
Spanish conquest of Honduras
Spanish conquest of Petén
Spanish conquest of the Maya
Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North America
Valladolid debate
Viceroyalty of Peru
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, S.L. Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003 pp. 35–36.
Jump up ^ [1] Sucre State Government: Cumaná in History (Spanish)
Jump up ^ Tibesar, A.S. (1957). "The Franciscan Province of the Holy Cross of Espanañola, 1505–1559". The Americas. 13 (4): 377–389. doi:10.2307/979442. JSTOR 979442.
Jump up ^ Robert S. Chamberlain, The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan. Washington DC: Carnegie Institution.
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, The War for Mexico's West. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2010.
Jump up ^ Philip W. Powell, Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: North America's Last Frontier War. Tempe: Center for Latin America Studies, Arizona State University 1975. First published by University of California Press 1952.
Jump up ^ Clements Markham, The Conquest of New Granada (1912) online
Jump up ^ Avellaneda Navas, José Ignacio. The Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995) ISBN 978-0-8263-1612-7
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=lvvynCzrJOwC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=emigraci%C3%B3n+espa%C3%B1ola+a+las+indias+cifras&source=bl&ots=WIWVcSlOdq&sig=4XmK7Gkv36L6qQ4jItqp7a553dI&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwinzqqfsrLPAhWKAsAKHXbSBf0Q6AEINzAE#v=onepage&q=emigraci%C3%B3n%20espa%C3%B1ola%20a%20las%20indias%20cifras&f=false
Jump up ^ Baumhoff, Martin A. 1963. Ecological Determinants of Aboriginal California Populations. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 49:155–236.
Jump up ^ Powers, Stephen. 1875. "California Indian Characteristics". Overland Monthly 14:297–309. on-line
Jump up ^ Cook's judgement on the effects of U.S rule upon the native Californians is harsh: "The first (factor) was the food supply... The second factor was disease. ...A third factor, which strongly intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian. He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved, beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not only given no assistance in the struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter. The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally incredible, and not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident."Cook, Sherburne F. 1976b. The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970. University of California Press, Berkeley|p. 200
Bibliography[edit]
Brading, D. A., The First America: the Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Clark, Larry R. Spanish Attempts to Colonize Southeast North America: 1513–1587 (McFarland & Company, 2010) ISBN 978-0-7864-5909-4
Elliott, J. H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007)
Hanke, Lewis. The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1965).
Haring, Clarence H. The Spanish Empire in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1947)
Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763 (HarperCollins, 2004)
Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (Vol. 1. London: Macmillan, 1918)
Portuondo, María M. Secret Science: Spanish Cosmography and the New World (Chicago: Chicago UP, 2009).
Restall, Matthew and Felipe Fernández-Armesto. The Conquistadors: A Very Short Introduction (2012) excerpt and text search
Thomas, Hugh. Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan (2005)
Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North America (Yale University Press, 1992)
Historiography[edit]
Alejandro Cañeque. "The Political and Institutional History of Colonial Spanish America" History Compass (April 2013) 114 pp 280–291, DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12043
Weber, David J. "John Francis Bannon and the Historiography of the Spanish Borderlands: Retrospect and Prospect." Journal of the Southwest (1987): 331–363.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Spanish colonization of the Americas
Spanish Exploration and Conquest of North America
Spain in America (Edward Gaylord Bourne, 1904) 'Spain in America'
The Spanish Borderlands (Herbert E. Bolton, 1921) 'The Spanish Borderlands'
Indigenous Puerto Rico DNA evidence upsets established history
The short film Spanish Empire in the New World (1992) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
“The Political Force of Images,” Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820.
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text:
Summer Holiday (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Summer Holiday"
Single by Cliff Richard and The Shadows
from the album Summer Holiday
B-side
"Dancing Shoes"
Released
2 June 1963
Format
7" single
Recorded
9 May & 19 November 1962, EMI Studios, London
Genre
Pop
Length
2:03
Label
Columbia (EMI) DB 4977[1]
Songwriter(s)
Bruce Welch, Brian Bennett[1]
Producer(s)
Norrie Paramor[1]
Cliff Richard and The Shadows singles chronology
"String Module Error: Match not found"
(String Module Error: Match not found) "Summer Holiday"
(1963) "Lucky Lips"
(1963)
"The Next Time" /
Bachelor Boy (1962) "Summer Holiday"
(1963) "Lucky Lips"
(1963)
"Summer Holiday" is a song recorded by Cliff Richard and The Shadows, written by rhythm guitarist Bruce Welch and drummer Brian Bennett.[1] It is taken from the film of the same name,[1] and was released as the second single from the film in February 1963. It went to number one in the UK Singles Chart for a total of three weeks, as had the first single from the film, "The Next Time".[2] After "Summer Holiday" had spent two weeks at number one, The Shadows' instrumental "Foot Tapper" - also from the same film - took over the top spot for one week, before "Summer Holiday" returned to the top spot for one further week.[3] The track is one of Richard's best known titles and it remains a staple of his live shows. It was one of six hits Richard performed at his spontaneous gig at the 1996 Wimbledon Championships when rain stopped the tennis.
The melody of the song is used in the chorus of the 1986 rap tune "Holiday Rap", by the Dutch duo MC Miker G & DJ Sven.[citation needed]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rice, Jo (1982). The Guinness Book of 500 Number One Hits (1st ed.). Enfield, Middlesex: Guinness Superlatives Ltd. p. 70. ISBN 0-85112-250-7.
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. pp. 147–8. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "Number 1 Singles – 1960s". The Official Charts Company. Archived from the original on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
External links[edit]
Song info
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"The Wayward Wind" by Frank Ifield UK number-one single
14 March 1963 – 21 March 1963
4 April 1963 Succeeded by
"Foot Tapper" by The Shadows
[show]
v
t
e
Cliff Richard
Albums (UK)
1950s:
Cliff (1959, live)
Cliff Sings (1959)
1960s:
Me and My Shadows (1960)
21 Today (1961)
Listen to Cliff! (1961)
32 Minutes and 17 Seconds (1962)
The Young Ones (1962, soundtrack)
Summer Holiday (1963, soundtrack)
When in Spain (1963)
Wonderful Life (1964, soundtrack)
Cliff Richard (1965)
When in Rome (1965)
Love is Forever (1965)
Finders Keepers (1966, soundtrack)
Two a Penny (1968, soundtrack)
1970s:
Tracks 'n Grooves (1970)
Take Me High (1974, soundtrack)
I'm Nearly Famous (1976)
Every Face Tells a Story (1977)
Small Corners (1978, gospel)
Green Light (1978)
Thank You Very Much (1979, live)
Rock 'n' Roll Juvenile (1979)
1980s:
I'm No Hero (1980)
Wired for Sound (1981)
Now You See Me, Now You Don't (1982, gospel)
Dressed for the Occasion (1983, live)
Silver (1983)
The Rock Connection (1984)
Always Guaranteed (1987)
Stronger (1989)
1990s:
From a Distance: The Event (1990, live)
Together with Cliff Richard (1991)
The Album (1993)
Songs from Heathcliff (1995, stage show album)
Real as I Wanna Be (1998)
2000s:
Wanted (2001)
Cliff at Christmas (2003)
Something's Goin' On (2004)
Two's Company The Duets (2006)
Love... The Album (2007, Part new songs, part compilation)
Reunited – Cliff Richard and The Shadows (2009)
2010s:
Bold as Brass (2010)
Soulicious (2011)
The Fabulous Rock 'n' Roll Songbook (2013)
Just... Fabulous Rock 'n' Roll (2016)
EPs (UK)
Serious Charge
Compilations (UK)
Cliff's Hit Album (1963)
Love Songs (1981)
Walking in the Light (1984, Gospel)
Private Collection: 1979–1988 (1988)
The Hit List (1994)
At the Movies 1959–1974 (1996)
The Whole Story: His Greatest Hits (2000)
And They Said It Wouldn't Last (My 50 Years in Music) (2008)
The 50th Anniversary Album (2008)
75 at 75 (2015)
Stronger Thru the Years (2017)
Filmography
Serious Charge (1959)
Expresso Bongo (1959)
The Young Ones (Soundtrack album) (1961)
Summer Holiday (Soundtrack album) (1963)
Wonderful Life (Soundtrack album) (1964)
Finders Keepers (1966)
Two a Penny (1967)
Take Me High (1973)
Related articles
Discography
Concert tours
The Shadows
Book:Cliff Richard
[show]
v
t
e
Cliff Richard singles discography
1950s
"Move It" (1958)
"High Class Baby" (1958)
"Livin' Lovin' Doll" (1959)
"Mean Streak" (1959)
"Living Doll" (1959)
"Travellin' Light" (1959)
1960s
"Please Don't Tease" (1960)
"I Love You" (1960)
"A Girl Like You" (1961)
"When the Girl in Your Arms..." (1961)
"The Young Ones" / "We Say Yeah" (1962)
"I'm Lookin' Out the Window" / "Do You Want to Dance?" (1962)
"It'll Be Me" (1962)
"The Next Time" / "Bachelor Boy" (1962)
"Summer Holiday" (1963)
"Lucky Lips" (1963)
"It's All in the Game" (1963)
"I Only Have Eyes for You" (1964)
"Constantly (L'Edera)" (1964)
"The Twelfth of Never" (1964)
"The Minute You're Gone" (1965)
"Blue Turns to Grey" (1966)
"Visions" (1966)
"All My Love" (1967)
"Congratulations" (1968)
"Girl, You'll Be a Woman Soon" (1968)
"Marianne" (1968)
"Early in the Morning" (1969)
1970s
"Sunny Honey Girl" (1971)
"Power to All Our Friends" (1973)
"Honky Tonk Angel" (1975)
"Miss You Nights" (1976)
"Devil Woman" (1976)
"Green Light" (1979)
"We Don't Talk Anymore" (1979)
1980s
"Carrie" (1980)
"Dreamin'" (1980)
"Suddenly" (1980)
"A Little in Love" (1980)
"Daddy's Home" (live) (1981)
"True Love Ways" (live) (1983)
"Baby You're Dynamite" / "Ocean Deep" (1984)
"Donna" (1984 US)
"Two to the Power of Love" (1984)
"Living Doll" (1986)
"All I Ask of You" (1986)
"Mistletoe and Wine" (1988)
"The Best of Me" (1989)
"I Just Don't Have the Heart" (1989)
"Lean On You" (1989)
"Whenever God Shines His Light" (1989)
1990s
"Stronger Than That" (1990)
"Silhouettes" (live) (1990)
"From a Distance" (live) (1990)
"Saviour's Day" (1990)
"Scarlet Ribbons" (1991)
"We Should Be Together" (1991)
"Peace in Our Time" (1993)
"All I Have to Do Is Dream" (live) / "Miss You Nights" (1994)
"Can't Keep this Feeling In" (1998)
"The Millennium Prayer" (1999)
2000s
"Somewhere Over the Rainbow"/"What a Wonderful World" (medley) (2001)
"Yesterday Once More" (2006)
"Move It" (2006)
"When I Need You" (2007)
"Mistletoe and Wine" (re-entry) (2008)
"Thank You for a Lifetime" (2008)
"Singing the Blues" (2009)
2010s
"Rip It Up" (2013)
"Since I Lost My Baby" (2014)
"Roll Over Beethoven" (2016)
"Blue Suede Shoes" (2017)
Book:Cliff Richard
This 1960s pop song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Summer_Holiday_(song)&oldid=772165546"
Categories:
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Native American religion
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Bear Butte, in South Dakota, is a sacred site for over 30 Plains tribes.
Native American religions are the spiritual practices of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. This article focuses on Native North Americans. Traditional Native American ceremonial ways can vary widely, and are based on the differing histories and beliefs of individual tribes, clans and bands. Early European explorers describe individual Native American tribes and even small bands as each having their own religious practices. Theology may be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, or some combination thereof. Traditional beliefs are usually passed down in the forms of oral histories, stories, allegories and principles, and rely on face to face teaching in one's family and community.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Major Native American religions
2.1 Christianity
2.2 Earth Lodge Religion
2.3 Ghost Dances
2.4 Indian Shaker Religion
2.5 Longhouse Religion
2.6 Mexicayotl
2.7 Native American Church
2.8 Waashat Religion
3 Ceremonies
3.1 Sun Dance
4 Religious leaders
5 Congressional legislation affecting Native American religion
5.1 American Indian Religious Freedom Act
5.2 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
5.3 Religious Freedom Restoration Act
5.4 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Overview[edit]
From the 1600s, European Catholic and Protestant denominations sent missionaries to convert the tribes to Christianity. Some of these conversions occurred through government and Christian church cooperative efforts, that forcibly removed Native American children from their families into a Christian/state government-operated system of American Indian boarding schools (aka The Residential Schools) where Native children were taught European Christian beliefs, the values of mainstream white culture, and the English language. This forcible conversion and suppression of Indigenous languages and cultures continued through the 1970s.[1][2][3]
As part of the US government's suppression of traditional Indigenous religions, most ceremonial ways were banned for over 80 years by a series of US Federal laws that banned traditional sweat lodge and sun dance ceremonies, among others.[4] This government persecution and prosecution continued until 1978 with the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA).[5]
Some non-Native anthropologists estimate membership in traditional Native American religions in the 21st century to be about 9000 people.[6][7] Since Native Americans practicing traditional ceremonies do not usually have public organizations or membership rolls, these "members" estimates are likely substantially lower than the actual numbers of people who participate in traditional ceremonies. Native American spiritual leaders also note that these academic estimates substantially underestimate the numbers of participants because a century of US Federal government persecution and prosecutions of traditional ceremonies caused believers to practice their religions in secrecy. Many adherents of traditional spiritual ways also attend Christian services, at least some of the time, which can also affect statistics. Since the 80 years of those prior legal persecutions ended with AIRFA, some sacred sites in the United States are now protected areas under law.[8]
Major Native American religions[edit]
Christianity[edit]
Main article: Christianity
European Christian missionaries were very active and established missions and religious schools among Native peoples.[9] According to Jacob Neusner, Native American Christianity is often "fundamentalist in theology, conservative in their practice, and often revivalistic and evangelical."[10]
Christianity was seen by government officials as a tool in cultural assimilation;[11] many Native American Christians developed a syncretic combination of their traditional belief systems and Christianity, as with the Native American Church. For example, St. David Pendleton Oakerhater (Cheyenne), who was canonized as an Episcopal saint but was a Sun Dancer, as well. According to James Treat, Native American Christians "have constructed and maintained their ... religious identities with a variety of considerations in mind.... Many native Christians accomplish this identification without abandoning or rejecting native religious traditions."[11]
On August 15, 1986, at the General Synod of the United Church of Canada, Robert Jamieson, a former Mohawk chief, addressed the 375 delegates calling on the church to recognize “the authenticity of native spirituality.” In response, the Synod’s moderator Robert Smith offered an Apology. In part Smith said: “In our zeal to tell you of the good news of Jesus Christ, we were closed to the value of your spirituality. . . . We ask you to forgive us and to walk together with us in the Spirit of Christ, so our peoples may be blessed and God’s creation healed.”[12] The full Apology can be read at Smith’s Apology.
Two years after Smith’s Apology, the All Native Circle Conference (ANCC) was formed in 1988 as a conference of the United Church of Canada. It is “based on different Aboriginal cultural ways of life and languages.” It understands and honours “the cultural values, mission and ministry of Native Peoples.”[13]
Earth Lodge Religion[edit]
The Earth Lodge Religion was founded in northern California and southern Oregon tribes such as the Wintun. It spread to tribes such as the Achomawi, Shasta, and Siletz, to name a few. It was also known as the "Warm House Dance" among the Pomo. It predicted occurrences similar to those predicted by the Ghost Dance, such as the return of ancestors or the world's end. The Earth Lodge Religion impacted the later religious practice, the Dream Dance, belonging to the Klamath and the Modoc.[14]
Ghost Dances[edit]
1891 Sioux Ghost Dance. Ghost Dances influenced many Native American religions.
"Ghost Dance" is a very general term that encompasses different religious revitalization movements in the Western United States. In 1870, a Ghost Dance was founded by the Paiute prophet Wodziwob, and in 1889–1890, a Ghost Dance Religion was founded by Wovoka (Jack Wilson), who was also a Northern Paiute. The Ghost Dance was meant to serve as a connection with traditional ways of life and to honor the dead while predicting their resurrection.[14]
In December 1888, Wovoka, who was thought to be the son of the medicine man Tavibo (Numu-tibo'o), fell sick with a fever during an eclipse of the sun, which occurred on January 1, 1889. Upon his recovery he claimed that he had visited the spirit world and the Supreme Being and predicted that the world would soon end, then be restored to a pure aboriginal state in the presence of the messiah. All Native Americans would inherit this world, including those who were already dead, in order to live eternally without suffering. In order to reach this reality, Wovoka stated that all Native Americans should live honestly, and shun the ways of whites (especially the consumption of alcohol). He called for meditation, prayer, singing, and dancing as an alternative to mourning the dead, for they would soon resurrect. Wovoka's followers saw him as a form of the messiah and he became known as the "Red Man's Christ."
Tavibo had participated in the Ghost Dance of 1870 and had a similar vision of the Great Spirit of Earth removing all white men, and then of an earthquake removing all human beings. Tavibo's vision concluded that Native Americans would return to live in a restored environment and that only believers in his revelations would be resurrected. This religion spread to many tribes on reservations in the West, including the Shoshone, Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota). In fact, some bands of Lakota and Dakota were so desperate for hope during wartime that they strengthened their militancy after making a pilgrimage to Nevada in 1889–1890. They provided their own understanding to the Ghost Dance which included the prediction that the white people would disappear. A Ghost Dance gathering at Wounded Knee in December 1890 was invaded by the Seventh Cavalry, who massacred unarmed Lakota and Dakota people.[15]
The earliest Ghost Dance heavily influenced religions such as the Earth Lodge, Bole-Maru Religion, and the Dream Dance. The Caddo Nation still practices the Ghost Dance today.[16]
Indian Shaker Religion[edit]
Also known as Tschadam, the Indian Shaker Religion was influenced by the Waashat Religion and founded by John Slocum, a Squaxin Island member. The name comes from the shaking and twitching motions used by the participants to brush off their sins. The religion combines Christianity with traditional Indian teachings. This religion is still practiced today in the Indian Shaker Church.[14]
Longhouse Religion[edit]
Main article: Longhouse Religion
This replica of a Six Nations (Haudenosaunee) longhouse represents where the traditional practices take place.
The Longhouse Religion, founded in 1799 by Seneca Handsome Lake, revitalized Native American religion among the Iroquois. The doctrine of the Longhouse Religion, also called the Handsome Lake Religion is the Gaiwiio, or "Good Word".[17] Gaiwiio combines elements of Christianity with long-standing Iroquois beliefs. The Longhouse Religion is still practiced by Six Nations people today.
Mexicayotl[edit]
Main article: Mexicayotl
Mesoamerican symbol widely used by the Mexicas as a representation of Ometeotl.
Mexicayoal (Nahuatl word meaning "Essence of the Mexican", "Mexicanity"; Spanish: Mexicanidad; see -yotl) is a movement reviving the indigenous religion, philosophy and traditions of ancient Mexico (Aztec religion and Aztec philosophy) amongst the Mexican people.[18]
The movement came to light in the 1950s, led by Mexico City intellectuals, but has grown significantly on a grassroots level only in more recent times, also spreading to the Chicanos of North America.[19] Their rituals involve the mitotiliztli.[20] The followers, called Mexicatl (singular) and Mexicah (plural), or simply Mexica, are mostly urban and suburban people.[19]
The Mexicayotl movement started in the 1950s with the founding of the group Nueva Mexicanidad by Antonio Velasco Piña. In the same years Rodolfo Nieva López founded the Movimiento Confederado Restaurador de la Cultura del Anáhuac,[21] the co-founder of which was Francisco Jimenez Sanchez who in later decades became a spiritual leader of the Mexicayotl movement, endowed with the honorific Tlacaelel. He had a deep influence in shaping the movement, founding the In Kaltonal ("House of the Sun", also called Native Mexican Church) in the 1970s.[22]
From the 1970s onwards Mexcayotl has grown developing in a web of local worship and community groups (called calpulli or kalpulli)[19] and spreading to the Mexican Americans or Chicanos in the United States. It has also developed strong ties with Mexican national identity movements and Chicano nationalism.[23] Sanchez's Native Mexican Church (which is a confederation of calpullis) was officially recognised by the government of Mexico in 2007.[24]
Native American Church[edit]
Main article: Native American Church
Peyote's illegal status in the United States prevents non-Natives from participating in peyote ceremonies.
The Peyote Religion legally termed and more properly known as the Native American Church has also been called the "Peyote Road" or the "Peyote Way", is a religious tradition involving the ceremonial and sacred use of Lophophora williamsii (peyote).[25] Use of peyote for religious purposes is thousands of years old and some have thought it to have originated within one of the following tribes: the Carrizo, the Lipan Apache, the Mescalero Apache, the Tonkawa, the Karankawa, or the Caddo, with the Plains Cree, Carrizo and the Lipan Apache being the three most likely sources. In Mexico the Huichol, Tepehuán, and other Native Mexicans use peyote.[26] Since then, despite several efforts to make peyote ceremonies illegal, ceremonial peyote use has spread from the Mexico area to Oklahoma and other western parts of the United States.[27] Notable Native American Church (NAC) members include Quannah Parker, the founder of the NAC, and Big Moon of the Kiowa tribe.
Waashat Religion[edit]
The Waashat Religion is also called the Washani Religion, Longhouse Religion, Seven Drum Religion, Sunday Dance Religion, Prophet Dance, and Dreamer Faith. The Wanapam Indian Smohalla (c. 1815–1895) used wáashat rituals to build the religion in the Pacific Northwest. Smohalla claimed that visions came to him through dreams and that he had visited the spirit world and had been sent back to teach his people. The name waasaní spoke to what the religion was about; it meant both dancing and worship.[28] He led a return to the original way of life before white influences and established ceremonial music and dancing. Smohalla's speaking was called Yuyunipitqana for "Shouting Mountain".[14]
The Dreamer Faith, and its elements of dancing, foreshadowed the later Ghost Dances of the plains peoples.[28][28] It was a back–to–our–heritage religion.[28] Believers thought that white people would disappear and nature would return to the way it was before they came.[28] To achieve this, the Natives must do the things required by the spirits, like a Weyekin.[28] What the spirits wanted was to throw off violent ways, cast off white culture, and not buy, sell or disrespect the Earth.[28] They must also dance the Prophet Dance (wáashat).[28]
The religion combined elements of Christianity with Native beliefs, but it rejected white-American culture.[28] This made it difficult to assimilate or control the tribes by the United States.[28] The U.S. was trying to convert the Plains tribes from hunter-gatherers to farmers, in the European-American tradition.[28] They wanted to remake the Natives, but found a problem with those who followed the Dreamer Cult: "Their model of a man is an Indian ...They aspire to be Indian and nothing else."[28]
Prophets of the movement included Smohalla (of the Wanapam people), Kotiakan (of the Yakama nation) and Homli (of the Walla Walla).[28] Their messages were carried along the Columbia River to other communities.[28] It is unclear exactly how it started or when Christianity influenced the earlier form, but it is thought to have something to do with the arrival of non-Indians or an epidemic and a prophet with an apocalyptic vision. The Waashat Dance involves seven drummers, a salmon feast, use of eagle and swan feathers and a sacred song sung every seventh day.[14]
Ceremonies[edit]
Sun Dance[edit]
Main article: Sun Dance
The sun dance is a religious ceremony practiced by a number of Native American and First Nations Peoples, primarily those of the Plains Nations. Each tribe that has some type of sun dance ceremony has their own distinct practices and ceremonial protocols. In many cases, the ceremony is held in a private and is not open to the public. Most details of the ceremony are kept from public knowledge out of great respect for, and the desire for protection of, the traditional ways. Many of the ceremonies have features in common, such as specific dances and songs passed down through many generations, the use of traditional drums, the sacred pipe, praying, fasting and, in some cases, the piercing of skin.
In Canada, the Plains Cree call this ceremony the Thirst Dance; the Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwe) call it the Rain Dance; and the Blackfoot (Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani) call it the Medicine Dance. It is also practiced by the Canadian Dakota and Nakoda, and the Dene.
Religious leaders[edit]
Leaders in Native religions include Popé, who led the Pueblo revolt in 1675, Quautlatas, who inspired the Tepehuan Revolt against the Spanish in 1616, Neolin, Tenskwatawa, Kenekuk, Smohalla, John Slocum, Wovoka, Black Elk and many others.
Tenskwatawa, by George Catlin.
From time to time important religious leaders organized revivals. In Indiana in 1805, Tenskwatawa (called the Shawnee Prophet by Americans) led a religious revival following a smallpox epidemic and a series of witch-hunts. His beliefs were based on the earlier teachings of the Lenape prophets, Scattamek and Neolin, who predicted a coming apocalypse that would destroy the European-American settlers.[29] Tenskwatawa urged the tribes to reject the ways of the Americans: to give up firearms, liquor, American style clothing, to pay traders only half the value of their debts, and to refrain from ceding any more lands to the United States. The revival led to warfare led by his brother Tecumseh against the white settlers.[30]
Congressional legislation affecting Native American religion[edit]
Sign for a Native American church
American Indian Religious Freedom Act[edit]
Main article: American Indian Religious Freedom Act
The American Indian Religious Freedom Act is a United States Federal Law and a joint resolution of Congress that provides protection for tribal culture and traditional religious rights such as access to sacred sites, freedom to worship through traditional ceremony, and use and possession of sacred objects for American Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts, and Native Hawaiians. It was passed on August 11, 1978.
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act[edit]
Main article: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub.L. 101-601, 104 Stat. 3048, is a United States federal law passed on 16 November 1990 requiring federal agencies and institutions that receive federal funding[1] to return Native American cultural items and human remains to their respective peoples. Cultural items include funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony.
Religious Freedom Restoration Act[edit]
Main article: Religious Freedom Restoration Act
The Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993 (also known as RFRA), is a 1993 United States federal law aimed at preventing laws that substantially burden a person's free exercise of religion. It was held unconstitutional as applied to the states in the City of Boerne v. Flores decision in 1997, which ruled that the RFRA is not a proper exercise of Congress's enforcement power. However, it continues to be applied to the federal government - for instance, in Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal - because Congress has broad authority to carve out exemptions from federal laws and regulations that it itself has authorized. In response to City of Boerne v. Flores, some individual states passed State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts that apply to state governments and local municipalities.
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples[edit]
Main article: Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly during its 61st session at UN Headquarters in New York City on 13 September 2007. Article 31 in particular emphasises that Indigenous Peoples have the right to their cultural heritage, including ceremonial knowledge, as protected intellectual property.
See also[edit]
Bahá'í Faith and Native Americans
Crow religion
Cultural appropriation
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Falls Creek Baptist Conference Center
Great Spirit
Indigenous intellectual property
Medicine man
Midewiwin
Mormonism and Native Americans
Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of North America
Religious rights
Plastic shaman
Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States
Traditional knowledge
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Hall, Anna (12-16-2013) "Time for Acknowledgement: Christian-Run Native American Boarding Schools Left Legacy of Destruction" in Sojourners
Jump up ^ Smith, Andrea (March 26, 2007) "Soul Wound: The Legacy of Native American Schools" in Amnesty International Magazine
Jump up ^ Boxer, Andrew (2009) "Native Americans and Federal Government" in History Review
Jump up ^ Rhodes, John (January 1991) "An American Tradition: The Religious Persecution Of Native Americans." Montana Law Review Volume 52, Issue 1, Winter 1991
Jump up ^ Public Law No. 95-341, 92 Stat. 469 (Aug. 11, 1978)
Jump up ^ James T. Richardson (2004). Regulating Religion: Case Studies from Around the Globe. Springer. p. 543.
Jump up ^ "NJJN" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-21.
Jump up ^ United States (2013). Indian sacred sites: balancing protection issues with federal management. America in the 21st century : political and economic issues. Christopher N. Griffiths (ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 1628082844.
Jump up ^ Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., Salvation and the Savage: An Analysis of Protestant Missions and American Indian Response, 1787-1862 (1965)
Jump up ^ Neusner, Jacob, ed. World Religions in America: An Introduction. Westminster. John Knox Press: Louisville, 2003. P. 18.
^ Jump up to: a b Ellis, Clyde. "American Indian and Christianity". Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
Jump up ^ S. J. Samartha, One Christ–Many Religions: Toward a Revised Christology. 1991. (Reprint. Wipf and Stock, 2015), 30. and Smith’s Apology.
Jump up ^ All Native Circle Conference
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Waldman 230
Jump up ^ Waldman 230–231
Jump up ^ Cross, Phil. "Caddo Songs and Dances". Caddo Legacy from Caddo People. Retrieved 27 Nov 2012.
Jump up ^ Waldman, Carl. (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian. P. 229. Checkmark Books. New York. ISBN 978-0-8160-6859-3.
Jump up ^ Yolotl González Torres. The Revival of Mexican Religions: The Impact of Nativism. Numen - International Review for the History of Religions. Vol. 43, No. 1 (Jan., 1996; published by: BRILL), pp. 1-31
^ Jump up to: a b c Susanna E. Rostas. Mexicanidad: The Resurgence of the Indian in Popular Mexican Nationalism. University of Cambridge, 1997.
Jump up ^ Jennie Marie Luna. Danza Azteca: Indigenous Identity, Spirituality, Activism and Performance. San Jose State University, Department of Mexican American Studies. 2011
Jump up ^ Lauro Eduardo Ayala Serrano. Tiempo Indígena: la construcción de imaginarios prehispánicos.
Jump up ^ Tlacaelel Francisco Jimenez Sanchez biography. In Kaltonal, 2005.
Jump up ^ Zotero Citlalcoatl. AMOXTLI YAOXOCHIMEH.
Jump up ^ Religión prehispánica renace en el siglo 21. Vanguardia, 2008.
Jump up ^ Waldman 231
Jump up ^ Stewart, Omer C. Peyote Religion: A History. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman and London, 1987. P. 47
Jump up ^ Stewart, Omer C. 327
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Andrew H. Fisher. "American Indian Heritage Month: Commemoration vs. Exploitation". Archived from the original on February 25, 2015. Retrieved 2012-01-04. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Adam Jortner, The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier (2011)
Jump up ^ Rachel Buff, "Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa: Myth, Historiography and Popular Memory." Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques (1995): 277-299.
References[edit]
Brown, Brian Edward. "Religion, Law, and the Land: Native Americans and the Judicial Interpretations of Sacred Land." Greenwood Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-313-30972-4.
Buff, Rachel. "Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa: Myth, Historiography and Popular Memory." Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques (1995): 277-299.
Carpenter, Kristen A., A Property Rights Approach to Sacred Sites: Asserting a Place for Indians as Nonowners, 52 UCLA Law Review 1061 (2005).
Carpenter, Kristen A., Individual Religious Freedoms in American Indian Tribal Constitutional Law, "The Indian Civil Rights Act at Forty." UCLA American Indian Studies Publications, 2012, ISBN 978-0-935626-67-4.
Getches, David H., Wilkinson, Charles F., Williams, Robert A. Jr. "Cases and Materials on Federal Indian Law- Fifth Edition." Thomas West Company: United States, 1998. ISBN 978-0-314-14422-5.
Stewart, Omer C. Peyote Religion: A History. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman and London, 1987. ISBN 978-0-8061-2068-3.
Waldman, Carl. (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian. Checkmark Books. New York. ISBN 978-0-8160-6859-3.
Utter, Jack. American Indians: Answers to Today’s Questions. 2nd edition. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8061-3313-3.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Native American religion.
Guide to Research in Native American Religions — University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Native_American_religion&oldid=804370304"
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Native American religion
Religion in North America
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