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Martin Cooper (inventor)
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Martin Cooper
Martin Cooper in 2010
Born
(1928-12-26) December 26, 1928 (age 89)
Chicago, Illinois, United States
Residence
Del Mar, California, United States
Nationality
American
Education
Illinois Institute of Technology (B.S.E.E.; M.S.E.E.)
Occupation
Inventor
Entrepreneur
Executive
Employer
Motorola
Founder & CEO of ArrayComm
Co-Founder & Chairman of Dyna LLC
Known for
Inventing handheld cellular mobile phone making world's first handheld cellular mobile phone call.
Spouse(s)
Arlene Harris (m. 1991)
Awards
Marconi Prize (2013)
Website
www.dynallc.com
Martin "Marty" Cooper (born December 26, 1928) is an American engineer. He is a pioneer in the wireless communications industry, especially in radio spectrum management, with eleven patents in the field.[1][2]
While at Motorola in the 1970s, Cooper invented the first handheld cellular mobile phone (distinct from the car phone) in 1973 and led the team that developed it and brought it to market in 1983.[3][4] He is considered the "father of the (handheld) cell phone"[1][3][5][6] and is also cited as the first person in history to make a handheld cellular phone call in public.[7]
Cooper is co-founder of numerous communications companies with his wife and business partner Arlene Harris;[8] He is co-founder and current Chairman of Dyna LLC, in Del Mar, California. Cooper also sits on committees supporting the U.S. Federal Communications Commission[9] and the United States Department of Commerce.
Contents
1 Education
2 Career
2.1 Cellular Business Systems
2.2 Dyna LLC
2.3 GreatCall, Inc
2.4 Arraycomm
3 Cooper's law
4 Publications
4.1 Latest publications
5 Awards and affiliations
6 References
7 External links
Education[edit]
Martin was born in Hernando to Ukrainian Jewish Immigrants.[10][11][12] He graduated from Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in 1950. After graduating he served as a submarine officer during the Korean War.[1] In 1957, he earned his master's degree from IIT in electrical engineering and in 2004 received an honorary doctorate degree from IIT. He serves on the university's board of trustees.
Career[edit]
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Motorola
Cooper left his first job at Teletype Corporation in Chicago in 1954 and joined Motorola, Inc. (Schaumburg, Illinois) as a senior development engineer in the mobile equipment group. He developed products including the first cellular-like portable handheld police radio system, produced for the Chicago police department in 1967. [13][14]
By the early 1970s, Cooper headed up Motorola's communications systems division.[7] Here he conceived of the first portable cellular phone in 1973 and led the 10-year process of bringing it to market.[5] Car phones had been in limited use in large U.S. cities since the 1930s but Cooper championed cellular telephony for more general personal, portable communications.[15] He believed the cellular phone should be a "personal telephone – something that would represent an individual so you could assign a number; not to a place, not to a desk, not to a home, but to a person." [7] While it has been stated Cooper's vision for the device was inspired by Captain James T. Kirk using his Communicator on the television show Star Trek,[16] Cooper himself later said that his actual inspiration was Dick Tracy's wrist radio.[17]
Top management at Motorola supported Cooper's mobile phone concept, investing $100 million between 1973 and 1993 before any revenues were realized.[18] Cooper assembled a team that designed and assembled a product in less than 90 days. That original handset, called the DynaTAC 8000x (DYNamic Adaptive Total Area Coverage) weighed 2.5 pounds (1.1 kg), measured 10 inches (25 cm) long and was dubbed "the brick" or "the shoe" phone.[19] A very substantial part of the DynaTAC was the battery which weighed four to five times more than a modern cell phone.[4] The phone had only 20 minutes of talk time before requiring a 10-hour recharge but according to Cooper, "The battery lifetime wasn't really a problem because you couldn't hold that phone up for that long!" By 1983 and after four iterations, the handset was reduced to half its original weight.
Cooper is the lead inventor named on "radio telephone system" filed on October 17, 1973, with the U.S. Patent Office and later issued as U.S. Patent 3,906,166.[20] John Francis Mitchell, Motorola's Chief of Portable Communication Products (and Cooper's Manager and Mentor) and the engineers who worked for Cooper and Mitchell are also named on the patent.
On April 3, 1973, Cooper and Mitchell demonstrated two working phones to the media and to passers-by prior to walking into a scheduled press conference at the New York Hilton in midtown Manhattan. Standing on Sixth avenue near the Hilton, Cooper made the first handheld cellular phone call in public from the prototype DynaTAC. The call connected him to a base station Motorola had installed on the roof of the Burlington House (now the AllianceBernstein Building) and into the AT&T land-line telephone system.[13] Reporters and onlookers watched as Cooper dialed the number of his chief competitor Dr. Joel S. Engel at ATT.[21] "Joel, this is Marty. I'm calling you from a cell phone, a real handheld portable cell phone." [22] That public demonstration landed the DynaTAC on the July 1973 cover of Popular Science Magazine.[13] As Cooper recalls from the experience: "I made numerous calls, including one where I crossed the street while talking to a New York radio reporter – probably one of the most dangerous things I have ever done in my life."
Cooper holding a DynaTAC cellphone in 2007
That first cell phone began a fundamental technology and communications market shift to making phone calls to a person instead of to a place.[3][19] Bell Labs had introduced the idea of cellular communications in 1947, but their first systems were limited to car phones which required roughly 30 pounds (12 kg) of equipment in the trunk.[21] Motorola gained Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval for cellular licenses to be assigned to competing entities and prevented an AT&T monopoly on cellular service.[13]
Cooper worked at Motorola for 29 years; building and managing both its paging and cellular businesses. He also led the creation of trunked mobile radio, quartz crystals, oscillators, liquid crystal displays, piezo-electric components, Motorola A. M. stereo technology and various mobile and portable two-way radio product lines.
Cooper rose to Vice-President and Corporate Director of Research and Development at Motorola.[1] In addition to his work on the mobile cellular phone, he was instrumental in expanding the technology of pagers from use within a single building to use across multiple cities.[5] Cooper also worked with inventor Clifford L. Rose to fix a flaw in quartz crystals used in Motorola's radios which encouraged the Company to mass-produce the first crystals used in wrist watches.[5]
Cellular Business Systems[edit]
In 1983, the first commercial cellular phone service began operation in the United States and the DynaTAC phone became available to consumers at a list price of around $4,000 ($9,000 in 2011 dollars) but Cooper left Motorola before the launch. That year, he co-founded Cellular Business Systems, Inc. (CBSI), which came to dominate the cellular billing industry with 75 percent market share. In 1986, Cooper sold CBSI to Cincinnati Bell (now Convergys) for $23 million.
Dyna LLC[edit]
Cooper and his wife Arlene Harris founded Dyna LLC in 1986 as a home base for their developmental and support activities for the new companies, Subscriber Computing Inc., Cellular Pay Phone, Inc. (CPPI), SOS Wireless Communications and Accessible Wireless; the later two of which together created the underpinning for the creation of GreatCall, were all launched from Dyna LLC.
From his Dyna headquarters Cooper continues to write and lecture about wireless communications, technological innovation, the Internet and R&D management. He serves on industry, civic and national governmental groups including the U.S. Department of Commerce Spectrum Advisory Committee that advises the Secretary of Commerce of the United States on spectrum policy and the Federal Communication Commission's (FCC) Technological Advisory Council.
GreatCall, Inc[edit]
In 1986 Cooper co-founded Cellular Payphone Inc. (CPPI), the parent company of GreatCall, Inc., Innovator of the Jitterbug cell phone (in partnership with Samsung).[23] GreatCall is the first complete end-to-end value-added service provider in the cellular industry to focus on simplicity with primary emphasis on boomers and senior citizens.
Arraycomm[edit]
In 1992 Cooper co-founded Arraycomm a developer of software for mobile antenna technologies. Under his leadership, the Company grew from a seed-funded startup in San Jose, California, into the world leader in smart antenna technology with 400 patents issued or pending, worldwide.[24]
Cooper's law[edit]
Cooper found that the ability to transmit different radio communications simultaneously and in the same place has grown at the same pace since Guglielmo Marconi's first transmissions in 1895. This led Cooper to formulate the Law of Spectral Efficiency, otherwise known as Cooper's Law. The Law states that the maximum number of voice conversations or equivalent data transactions that can be conducted in all of the useful radio spectrum over a given area doubles every 30 months.[5][24]
Publications[edit]
Latest publications[edit]
"The Myth of Spectrum Scarcity" Position Paper, March 2010.
"Mobile WiMax – Fourth-Generation Wireless," Bechtel Communications Technical Journal, September 2007.
"The Need for Simplicity," in the anthology "Mobile Persuasion: 20 Perspectives on the Future of Behavior Change," published by Stanford University in 2007.
"Antennas Get Smart" in Scientific American, July 2003.
"Personal Communications in 2025" for Eta Kappa Nu Electrical and Computer Engineering Honor Society, Autumn 2005.
"Everyone is Wrong" in Technology Review, June 2001.[25]
Awards and affiliations[edit]
Mensa.[26]
1984 – IEEE Centennial Medal and Fellow
1995 – Wharton Infosys Business Transformation Award
1996 – Radio Club of America Fred Link Award and Life Fellow with the International Engineering Consortium
2000 – "Red Herring" Magazine Top Ten Entrepreneurs of 2000
2000 – RCR Wireless News Hall of Fame Inaugural Member
2002 – American Computer Museum George Stibitz Computer and Communications Pioneer Award
2002 – Wireless Systems Design Industry Leader Award
2006 – CITA Emerging Technologies Award
2007 – Wireless World Research Forum Fellow
2007 – Global Spec Great Moments Engineering Award
2008 – CE Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame Award
October 2008 – Wireless History Foundation, Top U.S. Wireless Innovators of All Time.
2009 – Prince of Asturias Award for scientific and technical research.[27]
2009 – Life Trustee, Illinois Institute of Technology
2010 – Radio Club of America, Lifetime Achievement Award
October 2010 – Member, National Academy of Engineering
2011 – Inaugural Mikhail Gorbachev: The Man Who Changed the World Awards Nominee
2011 – Webby Award for Lifetime Achievement
2012 – Washington Society of Engineers, Washington Award
2013 – Charles Stark Draper Prize, National Academy of Engineering
2013 – Marconi Prize[28]
2013 – Honorary doctorate awarded by the students and the rector of Hasselt University on the occasion of the university's 40th anniversary[29]
2014 IEEE-Eta Kappa Nu Eminent Member [1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2008. encyclopedia.com
Jump up ^ Companies Try to Create Room on Radio Spectrum, The New York Times, July 6, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b c A Chat With the Man Behind the Mobiles, BBC, April 21, 2003
^ Jump up to: a b Meet Marty Cooper, the Inventor of the Mobile Phone, BBC, April 23, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Father of the Cell Phone, Economist, June 4, 2009
Jump up ^ The Cell Phone: Marty Cooper's Big Idea, CBS News 60 Minutes, June 11, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c 38 years ago he made the first cell phone call, CNN. April 3, 2011
Jump up ^ Wireless Hall of Fame – Arlene Harris, RCR Wireless, May 26, 2007
Jump up ^ Carriers Warn of Crisis in Mobile Spectrum, The New York Times, April 17, 2012
Jump up ^ http://www.jewoftheweek.net/2011/12/14/jews-of-the-week-martin-cooper-joel-engel/
Jump up ^ http://jewishcurrents.org/april-3-the-first-cell-phone-call/
Jump up ^ http://www.amuseum.org/jahf/nomination/nomination2.html
^ Jump up to: a b c d Oehmke, Ted (January 6, 2000) Cell Phone Ruin the Opera? Meet the Culprit, The New York Times
Jump up ^ Reed, Brad (May 9, 2011) Meet the guy who made the first cellphone call 40 years ago today, Network World.
Jump up ^ Best Inventions of 2007, Time.
Jump up ^ "How William Shatner Changed the World—Martin Cooper, mobile phone inventor". Youtube. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Video interview with Marty Cooper". Scene World. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Inventor of the Cell Phone Says No to AT&T-Mobile, Yes to Apps, and More, PC Magazine, April 15, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Inventor of Cell Phone: We Knew Someday Everybody Would Have One, CNN Tech, July 9, 2010
Jump up ^ Cooper, Martin et al. "All Signaling" U.S. Patent 3,906,166, Issued September 1, 1975
^ Jump up to: a b April 3, 1973: Motorola Calls AT&T...by Cell, Wired, April 3, 2008
Jump up ^ Twitter, Telegram and Email: Famous First Lines, BBC News, March 21, 2011
Jump up ^ Cooper's Calling, ITP Net, April 21, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b Antennas Get Smart, Scientific American, June 9, 2003
Jump up ^ "Everyone Is Wrong" | MIT Technology Review
Jump up ^ "They're Accomplished, They're Famous, and They're MENSANS". Mensa Bulletin. American Mensa (476): 25. July 2004. ISSN 0025-9543.
Jump up ^ "The fathers of the mobile phone and email, Prince of Asturias Award Laureates for Technical and Scientific Research" (Press release). Fundación Príncipe de Asturias. June 17, 2009. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ The Marconi Society
Jump up ^ Academische Openingszitting 2013–2014. uhasselt.be. September 27, 2013
External links[edit]
Marty Cooper interviewed on the TV show Triangulation on the TWiT.tv network
MartyMobile on Twitter
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Directive Principles
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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India
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The Directive Principles of State Policy are the guidelines or principles given to the federal institutes governing the state of India, which must be kept in mind while making or executing a law. These provisions, contained in Part IV (Article 36-51) of the Constitution of India, are not enforceable by any court, but the principles laid down therein are considered irrefutable in the governance of the country, making it the duty of the State[1] to apply these principles in making laws to establish a just society in the country. The principles have been inspired by the Directive Principles given in the Constitution of Ireland relate to social justice, economic welfare, foreign policy, and legal and administrative matters.
Directive Principles are classified under the following categories: economic and socialistic, political and administrative, justice and legal, environmental, protection of monuments and peace and security.
Contents
1 History
2 Characteristics
3 Directives
4 Implementation
5 Amendments
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
History[edit]
See also: Indian independence movement
The concept of Directive Principles of State Policy was borrowed from the Irish Constitution. The makers of the Constitution of India were influenced by the Irish nationalist movement, particularly the Irish Home Rule Movement. Hence, the Directive Principles of the Indian constitution have been greatly influenced by the Directive Principles of Social Policy.[2] The idea of such policies "can be traced to the Declaration of the Rights of Man proclaimed by Revolutionary France and the Declaration of Independence by the American Colonies."[3] The Indian constitution was also influenced by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Indians, who were seeking independence from British rule and their own government, were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland from British rule and the development of the Irish constitution. Also, the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Irish Constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.
In 1928, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental, representation for religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the government. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political party of the time) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights, as well as socio-economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom.[4] Committing themselves to socialism in 1936, the Congress leaders took examples from the constitution of the erstwhile USSR, which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges.
When India obtained independence on 15 August 1947, the task of developing a constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India, composing of elected representatives under the presidency of Dr. Rajendra Prasad. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws.[5] Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee, while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairperson of committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects. A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member States to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions.
Both the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy were included in the I Draft Constitution (February 1948), the II Draft Constitution (17 October 1948) and the III and final Draft Constitution (26 November 1949), prepared by the Drafting Committee.
Characteristics[edit]
While debating on DPSP in the Constituent Assembly, Dr. Ambedkar stated on 19 November 1948 as given below high lighting that the DPSP shall be the basis of future governance of the country:[6]
It is the intention of this Assembly that in future both the legislature and the executive should not merely pay lip service to these principles enacted in this part, but that they should be made the basis of all executive and legislative action that may be taken hereafter in the matter of the governance of the country.
Directive Principles of State Policy aim to create social and economic conditions under which the citizens can lead a good life. They also aim to establish social and economic democracy through a welfare state. Though the Directive Principles are not-justiciable rights of the people but fundamental in the governance of the country, it shall be the duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws per Article 37. Besides, all executive agencies of union and states should also be guided by these principles.[1] Even the judiciary has to keep them in mind in deciding cases.[7][8]
Per Article 37, state and union governments, as duty, shall make further detailed policies and laws for implementation considering DPSPs as fundamental policy. In contrary to Article 37, many policies have been implemented by state and union governments which go against the DPSPs such as using intoxicating drinks as source of major tax revenue instead of implementing prohibition for better health of people, separation of judiciary from executive, uniform civil code for the citizen, etc. When the union government feels that a DPSP is no longer useful to the nation, it shall be deleted from Constitution by bringing a constitutional amendment to remove ambiguity in policy making / direction. Judiciary can repeal any policy/law devised by the government which is diametrically opposite to any DPSP.
An existing policy in line with DPSP can not be reversed, however it can be expanded further in line with DPSP. The policy changes applicable under DPSP shall not be reversible unless the applicable DPSP is deleted by constitutional amendment (ex. prohibition implemented once in a state can not be repealed later as long as it is part of DPSP)
Directives[edit]
The directive principles ensure that the State[1] shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which social, economic and political justice is animated/informed in all institutions of life per Article 38 (1).[6] Dr. Ambedkar clarified as given below in the Constituent Assembly debates on Article 38 high lighting its inevitable implementation.
... The word 'strive' which occurs in the Draft Constitution, in judgement, is very important. We have used it because our intention is even when there are circumstances which prevent the Government, or which stand in the way of the Government giving effect to these Directive Principles, they shall, even under hard and unpropitious circumstances, always strive in the fulfilment of these Directives. That is why we have used the word 'strive'. Otherwise, it would be open for any Government to say that the circumstances are so bad, that the finances are so inadequate that we cannot even make an effort in the direction in which the Constitution asks us to go.
Also, the State shall strive to minimise the inequalities in income and endeavour to eliminate economic inequality as well as inequalities in status and opportunities, not only among individuals, but also among groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations per Article 38 (2). The State shall aim for securing right to an adequate means of livelihood for all citizens, both men and women as well as equal pay for equal work for both men and women. The State should work to prevent concentration of wealth and means of production in a few hands, and try to ensure that ownership and control of the material resources is distributed to best serve the common good. Child abuse and exploitation of workers should be prevented. Children should be allowed to develop in a healthy manner and should be protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment per Article 39. The State shall provide free legal aid to ensure that equal opportunities for securing justice is ensured to all, and is not denied by reason of economic or other disabilities per Article 39A. The State shall also work for organisation of village panchayats and help enable them to function as units of self-government per Article 40. The State shall endeavour to provide the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, within the limits of economic capacity per Article 41 as well as provide for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief per Article 42.
The State should also ensure living wage and proper working conditions for workers, with full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural activities. Also, the promotion of cottage industries in rural areas is one of the obligations of the State per Article 43 The State shall take steps to promote their participation in management of industrial undertakings per Article 43A. Article 43B is added to the DPSP to promote Co-operative Societies by the 97th constitutional amendment in 2012 and also made enforceable by courts with the addition of Part-IXB (The Co-operative Societies) to the constitution.
Also, the State shall endeavour to secure a uniform civil code for all citizens per Article 44 and provide free and compulsory education to all children till they attain the age of 14 years per Article 45. This directive regarding education of children was added by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.[9] It should work for the economic and educational upliftment of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections of the society as per Article 46
The directive principles commit the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health, particularly by prohibiting intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health except for medicinal purposes per Article 47. It should also organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines by improving breeds and prohibiting slaughter of cows, calves, other milch and draught cattle per Article 48.[10] It should protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and wild life of the country per Article 48A. This directive, regarding protection of forests and wildlife was added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.[11]
Protection of monuments, places and objects of historic and artistic interest and national importance against destruction and damage per Article 49 and separation of judiciary from executive in public services per Article 50 are also the obligations of the State as laid down in the directive principles. Finally Article 51 ensure that the State shall strive for the promotion and maintenance of international peace and security, just and honourable relations between nations, respect for international law and treaty obligations, as well as settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
Implementation[edit]
There is no need of any constitutional amendment and simple legislation by the Parliament is adequate to implement the Directive Principles as applicable laws per Article 245 as they are already enshrined in the constitution. The State has made few efforts till now to implement the Directive Principles.
The Programme of Universalisation of Elementary Education and the five-year plans has been accorded the highest priority in order to provide free education to all children up to the age of 14 years.The 86th constitutional amendment of 2002 inserted a new article, Article 21-A, into the Constitution, that seeks to provide free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years.[9] Welfare schemes for the weaker sections are being implemented both by the Central and State governments. These include programmes such as boys' and girls' hostels for scheduled castes' or scheduled tribes' students.[12] The year 1990-1991 was declared as the "Year of Social Justice" in the memory of B.R. Ambedkar.[13] The government provides free textbooks to students belonging to scheduled castes or scheduled tribes pursuing medicine and engineering courses. During 2002-2003, a sum of Rs. 47.7 million was released for this purpose.[14] In order that scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are protected from atrocities, the Government enacted the Prevention of Atrocities Act, which provided severe punishments for such atrocities.[15]
Several Land Reform Acts were enacted to provide ownership rights to poor farmers.[16] Up to September 2001, more than 20,000,000 acres (80,000 km²) of land had been distributed to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and the landless poor. The thrust of banking policy in India has been to improve banking facilities in the rural areas.[17] The Minimum Wages Act of 1948 empowers government to fix minimum wages for employees engaged in various employments.[18] The Consumer Protection Act of 1986 provides for the better protection of consumers. The act is intended to provide simple, speedy and inexpensive redressal to the consumers' grievances, award relief and compensation wherever appropriate to the consumer.[citation needed] The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976, provides for equal pay for equal work for both men and women.[19] The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana was launched in 2001 to attain the objective of gainful employment for the rural poor. The programme was implemented through the Panchayati Raj institutions.[20]
Panchayati Raj now covers almost all states and Union territories.[21] One-third of the total number of seats have been reserved for women in Panchayats at every level; in the case of Bihar, half the seats have been reserved for women.[22][23] Legal aid at the expense of the State has been made compulsory in all cases pertaining to criminal law, if the accused is too poor to engage a lawyer. Judiciary has been separated from the executive in all the states and Union territories except Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland.[14]
India's Foreign Policy has also to some degree been influenced by the DPSPs. India, in the past has condemned all acts of aggression and has also supported the United Nations' peace-keeping activities. By 2004, the Indian Army had participated in 37 UN peace-keeping operations. India played a key role in the passing of a UN resolution in 2003, which envisaged better co-operation between the Security Council and the troop-contributing countries.[24] India has also been in favour of nuclear disarmament.[14]
Per Article 38 (1), prompt rendering of the justice by courts is part of animating judiciary.[25] Rendering prompt justice is the foremost purpose of the constitution as enshrined in the Preamble to the constitution also.[6] However the judiciary is failing dismally in this respect by causing inordinate delay considering time of rendering justice in a case arbitrarily is its constitutional liberty.[26]
Amendments[edit]
Changes in Directive Principles require a Constitutional amendment which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of the Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two-thirds of the members present and voting and by the absolute majority of the house – whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.
Article 31-C, amended by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 seeking to upgrade the DPSPs. If laws are made to give effect to any of the Directive Principles overriding Fundamental Rights, they shall not be invalid on the grounds that they take away the Fundamental Rights. In Minerva Mills v. Union of India case, Supreme Court ruled that 42nd Amendment Act to the Article 31C is not valid and ultra vires.
Articles 38 (2), was added by the Forty-fourth Amendment Act, 1978 of the Constitution
Articles 43A, was added by the Forty-second Amendment Act, 1976 of the Constitution
Articles 43B, was added by the 97th Amendment Act, 2012 of the Constitution.
Article 45, which ensures Provision for free and compulsory education for children, was added by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.[9]
Article 48A, which ensures Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life, was added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
Article 49, was modified by the Seventh Amendment Act, 1956 of the Constitution
Article 39A, which includes To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid, was added by the 42nd Amendment.
Article 39(f), which states To secure opportunities for healthy development of children was added by the 42nd Amendment, 1976.
See also[edit]
Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India
Fundamental Rights in India
Government of India
Parliament of India
List of amendments of the Constitution of India
Writs in Indian law
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c The term "State" includes all authorities within the territorial periphery of India. It includes the Government of India, the Parliament of India, the Government and legislature of the states of India. It also includes all local or other authorities such as Municipal Corporations, Municipal Boards, District Boards, Panchayats etc. To avoid confusion with the term states and territories of India, State (encompassing all the authorities in India) has been capitalized and the term state is in lower case.
Jump up ^ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, pg. A-39
Jump up ^ Pylee, M.V. (1999). India's Constitution. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company. ISBN 81-219-1907-X.
Jump up ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan. Patel: A Life. p. 206.
Jump up ^ UNI. "Sardar Patel was the real architect of the Constitution". Rediffmail.com. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Constituent Assembly of India - Volume VII". 19 November 1948. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, pg. A-39 to A-40
Jump up ^ Sinha, Savita, Das, Supta & Rashmi, Neeraja (2005), Social Science – Part II, pg. 29
^ Jump up to: a b c 86th Amendment Act, 2002.
Jump up ^ Article 48
Jump up ^ 42nd Amendment Act, 1976
Jump up ^ Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, pg. A-44
Jump up ^ "Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar". ambedkarfoundation.nic.in. Dr. Ambedkar Foundation. Archived from the original on 5 May 2006. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tayal, B.B. & Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, pg. A-45
Jump up ^ "Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1995". hrw.org. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ 40th Amendment Act, 1976
Jump up ^ "Banking Policy and Trends" (PDF). indiabudget.nic.in. Union Budget and Economic Survey. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "Minimum Wages Act, 1948". helplinelaw.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "Equal Remuneration Act, 1976". indialawinfo.com. Archived from the original on 22 March 2006. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana, 2001" (PDF). rural.nic.in. Ministry of Rural Development, India. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "Panchayati Raj in India". empowerpoor.org. Poorest Areas Civil Society. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ 73rd Amendment Act, 1992
Jump up ^ "Seat Reservation for Women in Local Panchayats" (PDF). p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2007. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "Indian and United Nations". Permanent Mission of India to the United Nations. Archived from the original on 4 May 2006. Retrieved 29 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "Rule of law index, 2016". Retrieved 3 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "What causes judicial delay? Judgements diluting time frames in Code of Civil Procedure worsen the problem of adjournments". Retrieved 13 September 2017.
References[edit]
Basu, Durga Das (1988), Shorter constitution of India, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India
Basu, Durga Das (1993), Introduction to the constitution of India, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India
"Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty; 1995 ICHRL 69". worldlii.org. World Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 25 May 2006. Date of ruling 15 December 1995
Laski, Harold Joseph (1930), Liberty in the Modern State, New York and London: Harpers and Brothers
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India; AIR 1978 S.C. 597, (1978).
Pylee, M.V. (1999), India’s constitution, New Delhi: S. Chand and Company, ISBN 81-219-1907-X
Sinha, Savita; Das, Supta; Rashmi, Neeraja (2005), Social Science – Part II Textbook for Class IX, New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, India, ISBN 81-7450-351-X
Singh, J. P.; Dubey, Sanjay; Rashmi, Neeraja; Srinivasan, M. V. (2005), Social Science – Part II Textbook for Class X, New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, India, ISBN 81-7450-373-0
Tayal, B.B.; Jacob, A. (2005), Indian History, World Developments and Civics, District Sirmour, Himachal Pradesh: Avichal Publishing Company, ISBN 81-7739-096-1
O'Flaharty, W.D.; J.D.M., Derrett (1981), The Concept of Duty in Asia; African Charter on Human and People's Right of 1981
Article 29 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
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