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Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution
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The Seventh Amendment (Amendment VII) to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights. This amendment codifies the right to a jury trial in certain civil cases and inhibits courts from overturning a jury's findings of fact.
An early version of the Seventh Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by James Madison, along with the other amendments, in response to Anti-Federalist objections to the new Constitution. Congress proposed a revised version of the Seventh Amendment to the states on September 28, 1789, and by December 15, 1791, the necessary three-quarters of the states had ratified it. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the amendment on March 1, 1792.
The Seventh Amendment is generally considered one of the more straightforward amendments of the Bill of Rights. While the Seventh Amendment's provision for jury trials in civil cases has never been incorporated (i.e., applied to the states) almost every state voluntarily complies with this requirement. The prohibition of overturning a jury's findings of fact applies to federal cases, state cases involving federal law, and to review of state cases by federal courts.[1] United States v. Wonson (1812) established the historical test, which interpreted the amendment as relying on English common law to determine whether a jury trial was necessary in a civil suit. The amendment thus does not guarantee trial by jury in cases under maritime law, in lawsuits against the government itself, and for many parts of patent claims. In all other cases, the jury can be waived by consent of the parties.
The amendment additionally guarantees a minimum of six members for a jury in a civil trial. The amendment's twenty dollar threshold has not been the subject of much scholarly or judicial writing; that threshold remains applicable despite the inflation that has occurred since the 18th century.
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Background
3 Proposal and ratification
4 Judicial interpretation
4.1 Historical test
4.2 Jury size
4.3 Twenty Dollars Clause
4.4 Re-examination of facts
5 Notes
6 References
6.1 Bibliography
7 External links
Text[edit]
The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows:
In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.[2]
The Bill of Rights in the National Archives
The hand-written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights, 1789, cropped to just show the text later ratified as the Seventh Amendment
Background[edit]
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation, a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes.[3] George Mason, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia's Declaration of Rights, proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties be included. Other delegates—including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison—disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked implying that the federal government had power to violate every other right (this concern eventually led to the Ninth and Tenth Amendments). After a brief debate, Mason's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations.[4] In the final days of the convention, North Carolina delegate Hugh Williamson proposed a guarantee of trial by jury in federal civil cases, but a motion to add this guarantee was also defeated.[5]
However, adoption of the Constitution required that nine of the thirteen states ratify it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("Anti-Federalism") was partly based on the Constitution's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights.[6]
One charge of the Anti-Federalists was that giving the U.S. Supreme Court jurisdiction "both as to law and fact" would allow it to deny the findings of jury trials in civil cases. Responding to these concerns, five state ratification conventions recommended a constitutional amendment guaranteeing the right to jury trial in civil cases.[7]
Proposal and ratification[edit]
Main article: United States Bill of Rights
James Madison, drafter of the Bill of Rights
In the 1st United States Congress, following the state legislatures' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the Bill of Rights 1689.[8] Among them was an amendment protecting findings of fact in civil cases exceeding a certain dollar value from judicial review. Madison proposed that this amendment should be added directly to Article III, though Congress later determined to add the proposed Bill of Rights to the end of the Constitution, leaving the original text intact.[7] Congress also reduced Madison's proposed twenty amendments to twelve, and these were proposed to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789.[9][10]
By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification, opinions had shifted in both parties. Many Federalists, who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights, now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti-Federalists' most effective criticism. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, now opposed it, realizing that the Bill's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention, which they desired.[11] Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.[12]
On November 20, 1789, New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments, rejecting an amendment to regulate congressional pay raises. On December 19 and 22, respectively, Maryland and North Carolina ratified all twelve amendments.[13] On January 19, 25, and 28, 1790, respectively, South Carolina, New Hampshire, and Delaware ratified the Bill, though New Hampshire rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises, and Delaware rejected the Congressional Apportionment Amendment.[13] This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten, but the process stalled in other states: Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify, while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments, but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so.[12][a]
In February through June 1790, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island ratified eleven of the amendments, though all three rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises. Virginia initially postponed its debate, but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791, the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven. Vermont ratified on November 3, 1791, approving all twelve amendments, and Virginia finally followed on December 15, 1791.[12] Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1, 1792.[14]
Judicial interpretation[edit]
The Seventh Amendment is generally considered one of the more straightforward amendments of the Bill of Rights. Scholar Charles W. Wolfram states that it has usually "been interpreted as if it were virtually a self-explanatory provision".[15][16]
Unlike most of the provisions of the Bill of Rights, the Seventh Amendment has never been applied to the states. The Supreme Court stated in Walker v. Sauvinet (1875), Minneapolis & St. Louis Railroad v. Bombolis (1916) and Hardware Dealers' Mut. Fire Ins. Co. of Wisconsin v. Glidden Co. (1931) that states were not required to provide jury trials in civil cases.[16] Nonetheless, most states voluntarily guarantee the right to a civil jury trial,[17] and they must do so in certain state court cases that are decided under federal law.[18]
Historical test[edit]
Justice Joseph Story issued the first judicial opinion on the amendment in United States v. Wonson (1812).[19]
The first judicial opinion issued on the amendment came in United States v. Wonson (1812), in which the federal government wished to retry the facts of a civil case it had lost against Samuel Wonson.[19] Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, acting as a circuit court judge, ruled for Wonson, stating that to retry the facts of the case would violate the Seventh Amendment. Regarding the amendment's phrase "the rules of common law", Story wrote:
Beyond all question, the common law here alluded to is not the common law of any individual state, (for it probably differs in all), but it is the common law of England, the grand reservoir of all our jurisprudence. It cannot be necessary for me to expound the grounds of this opinion, because they must be obvious to every person acquainted with the history of the law.[20]
Wonson's ruling established the historical test, which interpreted the amendment as relying on English common law to determine whether a jury trial was necessary in a civil suit. Applying the historical test in Parsons v. Bedford (1830), for example, the Supreme Court found that jury trials were not constitutionally guaranteed for cases under maritime law, an area in which English common law did not require juries. The Court further clarified this rule as a fixed historical test in Thompson v. Utah (1898), which established that the relevant guide was English common law of 1791, rather than that of the present day.[16] In Chauffeurs, Teamsters, and Helpers Local No. 391 v. Terry (1990), the Court explained that the right to a jury trial provided by the Seventh Amendment encompasses more than the common law forms of action recognized in 1791 (when the Bill of Rights was ratified), but rather any lawsuit in which parties’ legal rights were to be determined, as opposed to suits that only involve equitable rights and remedies.[21]
In Galloway v. United States (1943), the Court permitted a directed verdict (a verdict ordered by a judge on the basis of overwhelming lack of evidence) in a civil suit, finding that it did not violate the Seventh Amendment under the fixed historical test.[16] The Court extended the amendment's guarantees in Beacon Theatres v. Westover (1959) and Dairy Queen, Inc. v. Wood (1962), ruling in each case that all issues that required trial by jury under English common law also required trial by jury under the Seventh Amendment.[7] This guarantee was also further extended to shareholder suits in Ross v. Bernhard (1970)[7] and to copyright infringement lawsuits in Feltner v. Columbia Pictures TV (1998).[16]
In Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc. (1996), the Court ruled that many parts of patent claims are questions of law rather than of fact, and that the Seventh Amendment guarantee of a jury trial therefore does not necessarily apply. Lawsuits against the federal government itself do not receive Seventh Amendment protections due to the doctrine of sovereign immunity. In Lehman v. Nakshian (1981), the Court ruled that citizens may sue the federal government only in cases where such right has been granted by act of Congress.[16]
Jury size[edit]
The Supreme Court has held that the Seventh Amendment's guarantee of a jury trial also guarantees a jury of sufficient size. The Court found a six-member jury sufficient to meet the amendment's requirements in Colgrove v. Battin (1973).
Twenty Dollars Clause[edit]
Little historical evidence exists to interpret the Twenty Dollars Clause, which was added in a closed session of the Senate, and is often omitted in judicial and scholarly discussion of the amendment. A Harvard Law Review article described it as "mysterious ... of shrouded origin and neglected for two centuries", stating that "no one believes that the Clause bears on the right protected by the Seventh Amendment."[22] According to law professor Philip Hamburger, this clause was intended to become obsolete by inflation, so that its application to more cases would be phased out gradually.[23]
Congress has never extended federal diversity jurisdiction to amounts that small. Under federal law (28 U.S.C. §1332), the amount in dispute must exceed $75,000 for a case to be heard in federal court based on diversity of the parties' citizenship (the parties are from different states or different countries).[24] However, civil cases may arise in federal court that are not diversity cases (e.g., in places like the District of Columbia that are federal jurisdictions), in which case the Twenty Dollars Clause may apply.[25]
Re-examination of facts[edit]
The Re-Examination Clause of the Seventh Amendment states: "In suits at common law, ... no fact tried by jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law." This clause forbids any court from reexamining or overturning any factual determinations made by a jury guaranteeing that facts decided by that jury cannot be reexamined at a later date.[26][27] Exceptions to this prohibition are possible if it is later determined that legal errors were made or evidence submitted was insufficient in some way. In such cases the reexamination is conducted by another jury so that the decision is still left in the hands of the people.[27] The clause applies only to cases where private rights—i.e., rights that exist between private citizens—have been violated.[27] The Re-Examination Clause applies not only to federal courts, but also to "a case tried before a jury in a state court and brought to the Supreme Court on appeal."[28]
Justice Samuel Nelson wrote the opinion of the Supreme Court in The Justices v. Murray, 76 U.S. 9 Wall. 274 (1869), in which he quoted Justice Joseph Story to explain the modes to reexamine facts tried by juries according to common law: “Mr. Justice Story […] referring to this part of the amendment, observed […] that it was 'a prohibition to the courts of the United States to re-examine any facts tried by a jury in any other manner [than according to Common Law].' […] He further observed that 'the only modes known to the common law to re-examine such facts was the granting of a new trial by the court where the issue was tried, or the award of a venire facias de novo, by the appellate court, for some error of law that had intervened in the proceedings.'”[1]
As common law provided, the judge could set aside (or nullify) a jury verdict when the judge decided that the verdict was contrary to the evidence or the law. Common law precluded the judge from himself entering a verdict; a new trial, with a new jury, was the only course permissible. In Slocum v. New York Insurance Co. (1913), the Supreme Court upheld this rule. Later cases have undermined Slocum, but generally only when the evidence is overwhelming, or if a specific law provides narrow guidelines by which there can be no reasonable question as to the required outcome, may the court enter "judgment as a matter of law" or otherwise set aside the jury's findings.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ All three states later ratified the Bill of Rights for sesquicentennial celebrations in 1939.[12]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Justices v. Murray 76 U.S. 274 (1869)". Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center. Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ United States Government Printing Office. "SEVENTH AMENDMENT ---- CIVIL TRIALS ---- CONTENTS" (PDF). gpo.gov.
Jump up ^ Wood, pp. 14–16
Jump up ^ Beeman, pp. 341–43
Jump up ^ "CRS Annotated Constitution". Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. Retrieved October 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ Maier, p. 431
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mahoney, Dennis J. (1986). "Seventh Amendment". Encyclopedia of the American Constitution. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Labunski, p. 192
Jump up ^ "Bill of Rights". National Archives. Archived from the original on April 4, 2013. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Wood, p. 69
Jump up ^ Wood, p. 71
^ Jump up to: a b c d Levy, Leonard W. (1986). "Bill of Rights (United States)". Encyclopedia of the American Constitution. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required). Retrieved July 16, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Labunski, p. 245
Jump up ^ Labunski, p. 255
Jump up ^ Wolfram, p. 639
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Seventh Amendment". Constitutional Amendments. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required). January 1, 2008. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Moses, Margaret. "What the Jury Must Hear: The Supreme Court's Evolving Seventh Amendment Jurisprudence", George Washington Law Review, Vol. 68, p. 185 (2000) (in "the two states where the civil jury trial right is not constitutionally based, it is nonetheless provided either by statute or court rule"). See generally West Virginia Constitution, art. III (using a threshold amount of twenty dollars as in the U.S. Constitution).
Jump up ^ Dice v. Akron, C. & Y. R.R., 342 U.S. 359 (1952).
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfram, p. 640
Jump up ^ Wolfram, p. 641
Jump up ^ Chauffeurs, Teamsters, and Helpers Local No. 391 v. Terry, 494 U.S. 558 (1990)
Jump up ^ "The Twenty Dollars Clause". The Harvard Law Review. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required). March 1, 2005. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hamburger, Philip. "The Constitution's Accommodation of Social Change", Michigan Law Review, Vol. 88, pp. 296-97 (1989).
Jump up ^ Baicker-Mckee, p. 1266
Jump up ^ Capital Traction Co. v. Hof, 174 U.S. 1 (1899).
Jump up ^ "The First Ten Amendments or The Bill of Rights". Revolutionary War and Beyond. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The 7th Amendment". Revolutionary War and Beyond. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis, and Interpretation - 1992 Edition --> Amendments to the Constitution --> Seventh Amendment - Civil Trials". U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1992. p. 1464. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
Bibliography[edit]
Baicker-McKee, Steven; William M. Janssen; and John B. Corr (2008) [1997]. A Student's Guide to the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. Thomson West.
Beeman, Richard (2009). Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution. Random House.
Labunski, Richard E. (2006). James Madison and the struggle for the Bill of Rights. Oxford University Press.
Levy, Leonard Williams (1995). Seasoned Judgments: The American Constitution, Rights, and History. Transaction Publishers.
Maier, Pauline (2010). Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788. Simon and Schuster.
Wolfram, Charles W. (1973). "The Constitutional History of the Seventh Amendment", 57 Minnesota Law Review 639, 670-71.
External links[edit]
Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation.
CRS Annotated Constitution: Seventh Amendment
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Macaroni and cheese
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Macaroni and cheese
Course
Main or side dish
Place of origin
England
Region or state
Widespread throughout United Kingdom, United States, Canada
Serving temperature
Hot or warm
Main ingredients
Macaroni, cheddar sauce (or a mix of bechamel sauce cheddar or parmesan cheese), milk, butter, flour
Food energy
(per serving)
400 (Kraft) kcal
Cookbook: Macaroni and cheese Media: Macaroni and cheese
Macaroni and cheese—also called mac and cheese in American, Canadian, and macaroni pie in Caribbean English;[1] and macaroni cheese in the United Kingdom[2]—is a dish of English origin, consisting of cooked macaroni pasta and a cheese sauce, most commonly cheddar. It can also incorporate other ingredients, such as breadcrumbs, meat and vegetables.[3][4]
Traditional macaroni and cheese is a casserole baked in the oven; however, it may be prepared in a sauce pan on top of the stove or using a packaged mix.[4] The cheese is often first incorporated into a Béchamel sauce to create a Mornay sauce, which is then added to the pasta. In the United States, it is considered a comfort food.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 American history
1.2 Canadian history
2 Regional variations
3 Prepared and packaged mixes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Pasta and cheese casseroles have been recorded as early as the 14th century in the Italian cookbook, Liber de Coquina, one of the oldest medieval cookbooks, which featured a dish of parmesan and pasta. A cheese and pasta casserole known as makerouns was recorded in the famous medieval English cookbook, the Forme of Cury, which was also written in the 14th century.[7] It was made with fresh, hand-cut pasta which was sandwiched between a mixture of melted butter and cheese. The recipe given (in Middle English) was:
"Take and make a thynne foyle of dowh. and kerve it on peces, and cast hem on boillyng water & seeþ it wele. take chese and grate it and butter cast bynethen and above as losyns. and serue forth."
This is the above recipe in modern English:
"Make a thin foil of dough and cut it in pieces. Put them in boiling in water and seethe them well. Grate cheese and add it with butter beneath and above as with losyns [a dish similar to lasagne], and serve."[8]
The first modern recipe for the dish was included in Elizabeth Raffald's 1770 book, The Experienced English Housekeeper. Raffald's recipe is for a Béchamel sauce with cheddar cheese—a Mornay sauce in French cooking—which is mixed with macaroni, sprinkled with Parmesan, and baked until bubbly and golden. Another recipe from 1784 stated that the small tubes of macaroni must be boiled, then drained in a sifter before being moved to a frying pan. Heavy cream is then added to the macaroni along with a "knob of butter" rolled in flour, and it must be cooked for five minutes before being transferred to a dish and topped with toasted Parmesan and pepper.[9] The famous British Victorian cookbook Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management included two recipes for the dish. One recipe states:
"The macaroni, (which should be "tender but perfectly firm, no part being allowed to melt, and the form entirely preserved" – lest one be tempted to cook it for so long it actually disintegrated) is then topped with more cheese, pepper and breadcrumbs, before receiving a final dose of melted butter for good measure and being placed before a "bright fire" to brown the crumbs, or grilled with a salamander broiler.[10]
In the United Kingdom, during the 2010s, it has seen a surge in popularity, becoming widespread as a meal and as a side order in both fast food and upmarket restaurants.[11]
American history[edit]
The American president Thomas Jefferson encountered macaroni both in Paris and in northern Italy. He drew a sketch of the pasta and wrote detailed notes on the extrusion process. In 1793, he commissioned American ambassador to Paris William Short to purchase a machine for making it. Evidently, the machine was not suitable, as Jefferson later imported both macaroni and Parmesan cheese for his use at Monticello.[12] In 1802, Jefferson served "a pie called macaroni" at a state dinner. The menu of the dinner was reported by Reverend Manasseh Cutler, who apparently was not fond of the cheesy macaroni dish.[13] Nevertheless, since that time, baked macaroni and cheese has remained popular in the United States.
Baked macaroni and cheese
A recipe called "macaroni and cheese" appeared in the 1824 cookbook The Virginia Housewife written by Mary Randolph. Randolph's recipe had three ingredients: macaroni, cheese, and butter, layered together and baked in a hot oven.[14] The cookbook was the most influential cookbook of the 19th century, according to culinary historian Karen Hess.[15] Similar recipes for macaroni and cheese occur in the 1852 Hand-book of Useful Arts, and the 1861 Godey's Lady's Book. By the mid-1880s, cookbooks as far west as Kansas and Festus, Missouri, included recipes for macaroni and cheese casseroles. Factory production of the main ingredients made the dish affordable, and recipes made it accessible, but not notably popular. As it became accessible to a broader section of society, macaroni and cheese lost its upper class appeal.[16]
Canadian history[edit]
Macaroni and Cheese was brought to Canada by British immigrants, coming from other parts of the British Empire. Macaroni and cheese recipes have been attested in Canada since at least Modern Practical Cookery in 1845, which suggests a puff pastry lining (suggesting upper-class refinement); a sauce of cream, egg yolks, mace, and mustard; and grated Parmesan or Cheshire cheese on top. Canadian Cheddar cheese was also becoming popularized at this time and was likely also used during that era.[17]
Macaroni and cheese is very popular in modern-day Canada. Kraft Dinner is the most popular brand of packaged macaroni and cheese. Sasha Chapman, writing in The Walrus, considered it to be Canada's national dish, ahead of poutine.[17]
Regional variations[edit]
Pasta other than macaroni noodles are often used: most any short-cut extruded pasta and many of the decorative cut pasta will do, particularly those with folds and pockets to hold the cheese. The dish may still be referred to as "macaroni and cheese" when made with a different pasta; while "shells and cheese" is sometimes used when it is made with Conchiglie.
While Cheddar cheese is most commonly used for macaroni and cheese, other cheeses may also be used—usually sharp in flavor—and two or more cheeses can be combined. Popular recipes include using Gruyere, Gouda, Havarti, and Parmesan cheese.
Macaroni and cheese can be made by simply layering slices of cheese and pasta (often with butter and/or evaporated milk) then baking in a casserole, rather than preparing as a cheese sauce.[3] Also, some like to include a crunchy topping to their baked macaroni and cheese by topping it off with bread crumbs or crushed crackers, which also keeps the noodles on top from drying out when baking.
Macaroni and cheese pizza
One novelty presentation is deep-fried macaroni and cheese found at fairs and food carts.[18] In Scotland, the dish can often be found incorporated into a pastry shell, known as a macaroni pie. Macaroni and cheese pizza can be found on recipe web sites and US restaurant menus, such as Cici's Pizza.[19]
A similar traditional dish in Switzerland is called Älplermagronen (Alpine herder's macaroni), which is also available in boxed versions. Älplermagronen are made of macaroni, cream, cheese, roasted onions, and in some recipes, potatoes. In the Canton of Uri, the potatoes are traditionally omitted, and in some regions, bacon or ham is added. The cheese is often Emmental cheese or Appenzeller cheese. It is usually accompanied by apple sauce.
Extra ingredients sometimes incorporated into the dish include bacon, jalapeños, tomatoes, onions, leeks, dried herbs, Tabasco sauce, sautéed mushrooms, ham, ground beef, sliced hot dogs, Spam, lobster, canned tuna or salmon, peas and broccoli.[20]
Prepared and packaged mixes[edit]
A plate of pre-packaged Kraft macaroni cheese, served with tomato and sausage
Packaged macaroni and cheese is available in frozen form or as boxed ingredients for simplified preparation. Boston Market, Michelina's, Kraft, and Stouffer's are some of the more recognizable brands of prepared and frozen macaroni and cheese available in the United States. "Macaroni and cheese loaf" can be found in some stores.[21]
A variety of packaged mixes which are prepared in a sauce pan on the stove or in a microwave oven are available. They are usually modeled on Kraft Macaroni & Cheese (known as Kraft Dinner in Canada), which was introduced in 1937 with the slogan "make a meal for four in nine minutes." It was an immediate success in the US and Canada amidst the economic hardships of the Depression. During the Second World War, rationing led to increased popularity for the product which could be obtained two boxes for one food rationing stamp.[22] The 1953 Better Homes and Gardens Cookbook includes a recipe for the dish with Velveeta, which had been reformulated in that year. The boxed Kraft product is immensely popular in Canada, where it is the most-purchased grocery item in the country.
Boxed mixes consist of uncooked pasta and either a liquid cheese sauce (often labeled "deluxe") or powdered ingredients to prepare it. The powdered cheese sauce is mixed with either milk or water, and margarine, butter, or olive oil and added to the cooked noodles. Some mixes prepared in a microwave cook the pasta in the sauce.
Another popular variant is jarred macaroni cheese sauce, which is especially popular in the UK and US, available under the Dolmio and Ragú brands, among others. The pasta is purchased and prepared separately, then mixed with the heated cheese sauce.
Powdered cheese sauce, very similar to what is found inside a box of macaroni and cheese mix, is also sold separately without the pasta. This product is produced by several companies, most notably Bisto, Cabot, and Kraft.
A number of different products on the market use this basic formulation with minor variations in ingredients.[23]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Chili mac
List of casserole dishes
List of cheese dishes
Macaroni casserole
Macaroni pie
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Barbadian Macaroni Pie Recipe". 24 Feb 2017.
Jump up ^ BBC, Recipes, Macaroni cheese
^ Jump up to: a b Moskin, Julia (4 January 2006). "Macaroni and Lots of Cheese". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Perfect Macaroni and Cheese". Martha Stewart Living. 66 (February 1999). Retrieved September 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ Joseph, Dana (10 May 2012). "American food: the 50 greatest dishes". CNN Travel.
Jump up ^ Clark, Liam (27 July 2016). "What is Macaroni and Cheese (Mac and Cheese)?". Forkit.
Jump up ^ James L. Matterer. "Makerouns". Godecookery.com. Retrieved 2010-10-20.
Jump up ^ "The Forme Of Cury". Gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ Townsends (2018-02-26). "'Macaroni' - A Recipe From 1784". YouTube. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
Jump up ^ Mrs Beeton's Household Management - Mrs. Beeton (Isabella Mary), Isabella Beeton. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ Samuel Muston (2013-05-02). "How did macaroni and cheese become elevated to the new sought-after side dish?". The Independent. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ McLaughlin, Jack. Jefferson and Monticello: the Biography of a builder. p. 229.
Jump up ^ Cutler, William Parker, Julia Perkins Cutler, Ephraim Cutler Dawes, Peter Force (1888). Life, Journal, and Correspondence of Mannasseh Cutler, Volume 2. R. Clarke & Co. pp. 71–72.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Randolph, Mary; Hess (Editor), Karen (1984). The Virginia House-wife (Facsimile First ed.). Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. p. ix. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Kummer, Corby (July 1986). "Pasta". The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Chapman, Sasha (September 2012). "Manufacturing Taste". The Walrus. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bryan Martin (May 27, 2014). "Deep fried mac and cheese: A hipster hit".
Jump up ^ "Pizza Menu: Adventurous Tastes". Retrieved Feb 24,2017.
Jump up ^ "50 Mac and Cheese Recipes". foodnetwork.com. Retrieved May 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ellis-Christensen, Tricia. "What is Macaroni and Cheese Loaf?". wiseGEEK. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Kraft Macaroni & Cheese: A History. Chicago Tribune. 14 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Guide to Macaroni and Cheese Spread of ratings for all 130 products in Macaroni and Cheese evaluated by GoodGuide.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Macaroni & Cheese
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Macaroni and cheese.
A brief history of mac and cheese, commentary on National Public Radio
Steingarten, Jeffrey (1997). The Man Who Ate Everything. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70202-4. The chapter, "Back of the Box", was first published in 1992. :)
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