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Tip of the tongue
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This article is about the psychological phenomenon. For the anatomical portion of the tongue, see Anterior tongue.
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Tip of the tongue (or TOT) is the phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.[1] The phenomenon's name comes from the saying, "It's on the tip of my tongue."[2][3][4] The tip of the tongue phenomenon reveals that lexical access occurs in stages.[5][6]
People experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon can often recall one or more features of the target word, such as the first letter, its syllabic stress, and words similar in sound and/or meaning.[3] Individuals report a feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found.[3][7] While many aspects of the tip-of-the-tongue state remain unclear, there are two major competing explanations for its occurrence, the direct-access view and the inferential view. The direct-access view posits that the state occurs when memory strength is not enough to recall an item, but is strong enough to trigger the state. The inferential view claims that TOTs aren't completely based on inaccessible, yet activated targets; rather they arise when the rememberer tries to piece together different clues about the word. Emotional-induced retrieval often causes more TOT experiences than an emotionally neutral retrieval, such as asking where a famous icon was assassinated rather than simply asking the capital city of a state.[8] Emotional TOT experiences also have a longer retrieval time than non-emotional TOT experiences. The cause of this is unknown but possibilities include using a different retrieval strategy when having an emotional TOT experience rather than a non-emotional TOT experience, fluency at the time of retrieval, and strength of memory.[9]
TOT states should be separated from FOK (feeling of knowing) states. FOK, in contrast, is the feeling that one will be able to recognize - from a list of items - an item that is currently inaccessible. There are still currently opposing articles of the separability of the process underlying these concepts. However, there is some evidence that TOTs and FOKs draw on different parts of the brain. TOTs are associated with the anterior cingulate, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and right inferior cortex while FOKs are not.[10]
An occasional tip-of-the-tongue state is normal for people of all ages. TOT becomes more frequent as people age.[1] TOT is only a medical condition when it becomes frequent enough to interfere with learning or daily life. This disorder is called anomic aphasia when acquired by brain damage, usually from a head injury, stroke, or dementia.[11]
The tip of the tongue phenomenon has implications for research in psycholinguistics, memory, and metacognition.[2]
Contents
1 History
2 Universality
3 Causes
3.1 Direct-access view
3.1.1 Blocking hypothesis
3.1.2 Incomplete-activation hypothesis
3.1.3 Transmission-deficit model
3.2 Inferential view
3.2.1 Cue-familiarity theory
3.2.2 Accessibility heuristic
4 Phenomenon in the brain
4.1 Neuroimaging techniques used in the study of TOT
4.2 Neurological activation in the TOT state
5 Influential factors
5.1 Effects of bilingualism
5.2 Effects of drugs
5.2.1 Lorazepam
5.2.2 Caffeine
5.3 Effects of age
5.4 Effects of emotion
5.5 Effects of disorders
5.5.1 Anomic aphasia
5.5.2 Dyslexia
5.6 Effects of priming
5.7 Effects of gestures
5.8 Effects of age of acquisition
6 See also
7 References
History[edit]
William James was the first psychologist to describe the tip of the tongue phenomenon, although he did not label it as such
The term "tip of the tongue" is borrowed from colloquial usage,[2] and possibly a calque from the French phrase avoir le mot sur le bout de la langue ("having the word on the tip of the tongue"). The tip of the tongue phenomenon was first described as a psychological phenomenon in the text The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890), although he did not label it as such.[7]
Sigmund Freud also discussed unconscious psychological factors, such as unconscious thoughts and impulses that might cause forgetting familiar words.[12]
The first empirical research on this phenomenon was undertaken by Harvard researchers Roger Brown and David McNeill and published in 1966 in the Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.[3] Brown and McNeill wanted to determine whether the feeling of imminent retrieval experienced in the tip of the tongue state was based on actual retrieval ability or was just an illusion.[13]
In their study, Brown and McNeill read out definitions of rare words to the study participants and asked them to name the object being defined, and the target word was later read by the experimenter.[3] Participants were instructed to report whether they experienced a tip of the tongue state.[3][13] Three types of positive TOT states were identified by Brown and McNeill:
the participant recognized the word read by the experimenter as the word he had been seeking,
the participant correctly recalled the word before it was read by the experimenter, and
subject recalled the word they were seeking before the target word was read by the experimenter, but the recalled word was not the intended target.[3]
If a participant indicated a tip of the tongue state, they were asked to provide any information about the target word they could recall.[3][13] Brown and McNeill found that participants could identify the first letter of the target word, the number of syllables of the target word, words of similar sound, words of similar meaning, syllabic pattern, and the serial position of some letters in the target word better than would be expected by chance.[3][13] Their findings demonstrated the legitimacy of the feeling of knowing experienced in a tip of the tongue state. This study was the foundation for subsequent research about tip of the tongue phenomenon.
Universality[edit]
Tip of the tongue experiences occur in people regardless of gender. The tip of the tongue phenomenon is known to occur in young adulthood, middle age, and older adulthood. Tip of the tongue experiences in childhood have not been studied. Education level is not thought to be a factor in the experience of tip of the tongue states. Monolinguals, bilinguals, and multilinguals all experience tip of the tongue states, although with varying frequencies (see Effects of bilingualism).
Many languages other than English have equivalent colloquial terms for the tip of the tongue experience, suggesting that it is a common experience across cultures.[2] In a study by B. L. Schwartz (1999), 45 of the 51 languages surveyed have an idiom referring to the tip of the tongue phenomenon that references the tongue, mouth, or throat as a metaphor.[2] The direct English translations of these idioms are "on the tongue", "on the tip/point/head of the tongue", "on the top of the tongue", "on the front of the tongue", "sparkling at the end of the tongue", and "in the mouth and throat".[2] Notably, the languages studied that did not have an equivalent idiom for the tip of the tongue were American Sign Language, Amharic, Icelandic, Indonesian, Kalenjin, and Kiswahili.[2] However, tip of the finger experiences are reported by signers.[14]
Causes[edit]
See also: Influential factors
The causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching viewpoints: the direct-access view and the inferential view.[2]
Direct-access view[edit]
The direct-access view of the tip of the tongue phenomenon postulates that TOTs are experienced when memory strength for the item, while not strong enough to be recalled, has sufficient strength to signal a TOT state.[2] That is, the rememberer has direct access to the target word's presence in memory, even though it cannot be immediately recalled. Theories of the causes of tip of the tongue phenomenon that adopt direct-access views include the blocking hypothesis, the incomplete activation hypothesis, and the transmission deficit model.[2]
Blocking hypothesis[edit]
See also: Blocking effect
The blocking hypothesis states that retrieval cues elicit the retrieval of a word related to the target that then blocks the retrieval of the correct word and causes the tip of the tongue phenomenon to occur.[2] In other words, TOTs occur when plausible but incorrect responses to a query come to mind quickly. The person recognizes that the related words are incorrect but cannot retrieve the correct word because it is inhibited.[2] These related words are termed blockers because they block the ability to retrieve the correct word.[2] This accounts for why TOTs predict memory performance. Once the inhibition of the correct word is removed or the blockers are forgotten, the TOT will be resolved.[2] Evidence for this hypothesis is minimal as it is difficult to measure.[2] Most research that takes on this approach give participants blockers and see if they produce TOT states.[2] This method is controversial as it is unclear if the blockers given produce TOT states or act as retrieval cues.[2]
The hypothesis that blockers act more like retrieval cues is mainly supported by the idea of phonological similarities between the target word and the blocker word. Phonological blockers are words that sound similar to the target word. According to Bown & Harley, “phonological neighbours (of blockers) usually act as support in lexical retrieval rather than as a hindrance”.[15] In contrast, there is also an argument that phonological blockers hinder the ability to retrieve the target word causing a tip of the tongue state.[16]
There is actually more support for the idea that blockers act as neither primers nor enhancers, but rather more like a side effect. In Metcalf & Kornell’s research the incubation period helped participants to retrieve the word by the same amount for the original non-blocked TOTs and the blocked TOTs.[2] This suggests that blockers have no effect on the retrieval or the causes of tip of the tongue states.
Incomplete-activation hypothesis[edit]
The incomplete activation hypothesis states that TOTs occur when the target word in memory is not sufficiently activated to be recalled but rememberers can sense its presence nonetheless.[2] The accessibility of the target word fluctuates due to factors that increase its activation level, such as cues.[2] The target word's activation level may fluctuate to a level that is high enough for it to be retrieved and the TOT state to be resolved.[2]
Transmission-deficit model[edit]
The transmission deficit model is based on a multi-component theory of memory representation that suggests that semantic and phonological information is stored in memory and retrieved separately. The transmission deficit model posits that TOTs occur when there is activation of the semantic component of the target word memory but this activation does not pass on to the phonological level of the memory of the target word.[2] Thus, TOTs are caused by the deficit in transmission of activation from the semantic memory store to the phonological memory store.[17]
According to cognitive psychologists, Deborah M. Burke of Pomona College and Donald G. MacKay of the University of California, Los Angeles, this phenomenon occurs due to primarily three reasons, all surrounding the basis of weak neural connections.[18] One, the lack of frequent use of a word; two, if a word has not been in recent use; and three, aging.[18]
Inferential view[edit]
The inferential view of TOTs claims that TOTs arise from clues about the target that the rememberer can piece together.[2] This is to say that the rememberer infers their knowledge of the target word, and the imminence of retrieval depends upon the information that they are able to access about the target word from their memory. These views disregard the presence of the target word in memory as having an effect on creating tip of the tongue states.
Cue-familiarity theory[edit]
Cue-familiarity theory suggests that the strong feelings elicited by recognizing a familiar cue about the target word cause the tip of the tongue phenomenon.[2] A familiar cue should create a TOT state, whether or not the target word is known.[2] When one encounters a cue for a target word, the level of recognition is assessed, and a strong level of recognition will elicit a tip of the tongue state.[2] It has been found that cues that are repetitive tend to create more TOTs than if one single cue is given.[2] This might suggest that cue factors can play a role in causing TOT states.[2]
Accessibility heuristic[edit]
The accessibility heuristic states that TOTs are elicited by the quantity and strength of the information that is retrieved from memory when the target word itself is not.[2] When searching for a target word, the more information that is retrieved from memory, and the more the information retrieved is perceived to be related to the target word, the more likely a TOT state will be elicited.
Phenomenon in the brain[edit]
Neuroimaging techniques used in the study of TOT[edit]
The body of research on the neurological mechanisms of the tip of the tongue phenomenon is limited. The research in this area has used magnetoencephalography(MEG)[19] and event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).[20][21]
Neurological activation in the TOT state[edit]
The anterior cingulate cortex shows increased activation in TOT states
Several areas of the brain show increased activation in a TOT state. The following is a list of the specific structures that show increased activation during a tip of the tongue state:
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)[20][21][22]
Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)[23]
Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)[20][21]
Right inferior prefrontal cortex (RIPC)[20]
Bilateral anterior frontal cortex[20]
Posterior medial parietal cortex[20]
Bilateral lateral parietal cortex[20]
Bilateral superior prefrontal cortex[20]
Supramarginal gyrus[21]
Superior temporal gyrus[21]
Supplementary motor area[21][22]
Left insular cortex[22]
It was also shown[23] that in TOT state the activation of the parahippocampal gyrus is decreased.
Not much is known about the exact function of these areas in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The areas activated during TOT may vary depending on the nature of the target word. For example, if the target word is a person's name, the fusiform face area will likely show activation as the rememberer processes the person's face. Problems like this make it difficult to determine what areas are specifically implicated in TOT states, and which are a byproduct of other cognitive functions. However, some inferences can be made about the roles of these structures based on theories of their functions derived from other studies of these structures, unrelated to TOT. It is hypothesized that the anterior cingulate cortex and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex operate as a circuit to detect conflict, and may perform this role in detecting the conflict between the feeling of knowing the target word and the recall failure.[20] The anterior cingulate cortex is also implicated in emotion and may show activation because of the emotional response to the tip of the tongue state.[8] The posterior medial parietal cortex, bilateral lateral parietal cortex, and the bilateral superior prefrontal cortex are involved in retrieval and evaluation, and therefore may play a role in the metacognitive processes involved in the tip of the tongue phenomenon such as the evaluation of one's own knowledge and the probability of retrieval.[20]
Influential factors[edit]
Effects of bilingualism[edit]
There is a significant difference in the amount of TOTs experienced by monolinguals and bilinguals.[24] Bilinguals seem to report the same amount of TOTs as monolinguals for proper names but significantly more TOTs for other words.[24] Specifically, when adjusted for the degree of use of the dominant and less-dominant language, bilinguals have more TOTs with the less-dominant language.[24][25] In a task of picture-naming, bilingual speakers were slower than monolinguals, even when they could use their first and dominant language. This could possibly be the result of bilinguals using the words less often than monolingual speakers.[26] Bilinguals also represent virtually twice as many words and additional cognitive mechanisms for activation and inactivation of languages. Such mechanisms introduce added processing burden that monolinguals do not face. In addition, even when a task seems monolingual, bilingual system is never functionally "off." [24]
Effects of drugs[edit]
Lorazepam[edit]
Lorazepam is a type of benzodiazepine, a psychoactive drug used for the short-term treatment of anxiety, insomnia, acute seizures including status sedation of hospitalized patients, as well as sedation of aggressive patients.[27] Research has been conducted to investigate the effects of lorazepam on TOT states in response to general knowledge question. In a recall task, participants who received lorazepam showed the same number of total recall answers to participants who had not received lorazepam.[27] However, the lorazepam participants produced more incorrect recall responses to their TOT states.[27] Lorazepam may inhibit the retrieval of the correct response.[27] Participants under the influence of lorazepam did not experience the subjective feeling that they were in a TOT state (i.e., the feeling of being on the verge of recalling the word).[27] These participants experienced the subjective feeling of a TOT state only after they were told that their response was incorrect.[27] As a result, it appears that these participants are not aware that their answer is incorrect and only experience the subjective feeling of TOT states if they are told their answer is incorrect. Lorazepam may create conditions where alternative answers come to mind more easily.[27] Furthermore, lorazepam suppresses emotions, which may be why participants taking this drug do not experience the subjective feelings that accompany TOT states; thus enabling the recall of alternative responses.[27] These findings suggest that lorazepam does not increase the probability of TOT states but it does inhibit the retrieval of correct responses and the subjective feeling of TOT states, leading participants to give incorrect answers without being aware.
Caffeine[edit]
Caffeine can have multiple effects at the cellular level but is primarily notable for the alertness effect that it has on people.[28] Research has been performed involving phonological priming and TOTs in which participants took either 200 mg of caffeine or a placebo.[28] The participants answered 100 general knowledge questions, each with one correct answer. For each question, participants read 10 priming words that were displayed on a monitor for a short period of time. Each list of 10 priming words had between two and eight words that were phonologically related to the correct answer of the question, with the remaining words being unrelated.[28] Caffeinated participants had fewer TOT experiences than the placebo group, suggesting better memory recall. However, in the unrelated condition, the caffeinated group did not do as well as the placebo group in their ability to retrieve words. The results suggest that this dose of caffeine (equivalent to two cups of coffee) can temporarily hinder a person’s short-term recall of certain words. Moreover, the general advantageous effect of caffeine on attention can be ruled out.[28]
Effects of age[edit]
Age is an important factor when considering TOT states. There are complaints that problems recalling information increases with age. The frequency of TOTs increases in adulthood and even more so during the elderly years.[29][30] Compared with young adults, older adults generally report having more TOT states, fewer alternate words, and less phonological information about the target word.[31] The underpinnings of TOT with regard to age have focused on neurological brain differences. Current research uses neuroimaging methods to access the presence of different brain patterns when a younger and older individual is experiencing a TOT state. It is found that older and younger individuals employ a similar network of brain regions during TOT states such as the prefrontal cortex, left insula, and sensorimotor cortex.[22] However, older individuals show differences in activity in some areas compared to younger individuals.[22] TOTs increase with age-related gray matter loss in the left insula for older individuals.[29] This is accompanied by less activity in the left insula and is related to higher frequency of TOTs.[22] Furthermore, it was found that older individuals have over-activation in their prefrontal cortex when experiencing TOT states.[32] This may indicate a continued search when the retrieval process fails and a TOT state is experienced.[32] More specifically, greater activation in the sensorimotor cortex in older individuals and less in younger adults may reflect differences in the knowledge that is used to retrieve the target information.[32] Priming words during word retrieval tests generally reduces the frequency of TOTs and improves the retrieval of the target word and has been shown to have a larger benefit for older adults.[22][29] This is consistent with the spreading activation model, where neural connections are strengthened when used more.[29] Although older people experience more tip of the tongue states more often than any other category, recent studies have shown that frequent tip of the tongue states are not linked at all to dementia, which is common in the elderly.[33] Despite the association of increased age with lower levels of episodic memory and more frequent TOT states, the two phenomena seem to be largely independent of one another.[33]
Effects of emotion[edit]
It is well documented that emotion influences many memory variables such as the amount of memory recalled and attributions of nostalgia.[8] The issue regarding emotion and TOT is how it influences the tip-of-the-tongue state and the information that is trying to be recalled. It is common for individuals to ascribe emotions to TOTs.[8] It is suggested that the majority of individuals experience TOTs negatively.[8] It has been shown that experiencing an emotion predicts TOT memory performance later.[8] Emotional TOTs are more likely to be recalled later than TOTs that had no emotional experience attached.[8] Emotion and TOT are related to the metacognitive theory that is mentioned above. In this theory, TOTs inform our cognitive system if the information we are trying to recall is accessible.[8] Thus, emotions may play a role in experiencing TOT. Some research has shown that questions that elicit emotional arousal create TOTs more so than questions that aren’t emotionally arousing.[8] It has also been found that emotional arousal can extend to subsequent questions or information being recalled even if they are not emotionally arousing themselves.[8] It was found that emotional arousal increased the likelihood of experiencing TOT.[8] Neuroimaging has also found activation in some areas that are associated with emotion; specifically in the anterior cingulate cortex.[8]
Effects of disorders[edit]
If the inability to recall words, phrases, or names is a temporary but debilitating disorder, it is known as lethologica.
Anomic aphasia[edit]
Anomic aphasia is the inability to recall words and names and is a common symptom of patients with Aphasia and Alzheimer's disease (AD).[34] Research has been conducted to find out how these particular diseases affect TOTs in these individuals. In a study by Beeson, Holland, and Murray (1997), participants with Alzheimer's disease and three classic aphasic syndromes (Broca’s, anomic, and conduction aphasia) were instructed to name famous people. Those with anomic aphasia showed to be superior to the other groups in their ability to naming famous people that were presented.[34] This finding was expected as the group has relatively mild aphasia. However, the Broca’s conduction and AD groups did not differ in immediate or delayed naming of famous faces.[34] All of the groups provided some basic identifying semantic information for at least half of the items presented, suggesting a fair number of items potentially in TOT.[34] Conduction and Broca’s groups showed strongest evidence of TOT, performing better than the other groups in identification of initial letters.[34]
Dyslexia[edit]
Dyslexia, which is a reading disability in which a person is unable to read and interpret words, letters, and symbols, has also been known to have an effect on the frequency of TOT experiences. In one study, dyslexic children experienced TOT states more often than children who read normally as well as showed “more errors in the phonological […] step of word retrieval.” However, dyslexic children were still able to recall the semantic meaning behind each word that induced a TOT state.[35]
Effects of priming[edit]
Research on priming and practice use single word tests to assess for the presence of TOT states. The first letter of the target word or a similar-sounding word is given in order to prime for the target word. Evidence that comes from the usefulness of priming and practice in reducing TOT states is that most information in TOT states is low-frequency; that is, it has not been used or recalled for some time.[4] The recency of information use can influence the retrieval process of that information.[4] The presentation of a prime is only needed once for it to facilitate TOT state resolution.[36] Support for priming has been found in that when individuals are given the first letter of the word they are trying to recall, they are more likely to overcome their TOT state.[4] When the prime is a related word instead of the first letter, an interesting effect occurs: When the prime word has similar phonology to the target word, an increase in the frequency of TOT states and a higher frequency of correctly recalled words when the TOT state is resolved is observed.[37] Incorrect words come to mind involuntarily that share similar phonological features with the target word.[36] Thus, phonological similarity can both decrease and increase TOT states. However, it is possible to fix this problem by changing the syntactic class of the priming word.[36] Priming words that are in the same syntactic class as the target word create no difference in TOT state resolution.[36] The TOT state resolution was the same for priming words in the same syntactic class and unrelated priming words.[36] If the priming word is being listed in conjunction with other unrelated priming words, then the position is of importance.[36] The earlier in the list the priming word is, the less likely it is to help resolve the TOT state.[36]
Effects of gestures[edit]
It is not yet known if gesturing helps or not in finding the word in a TOT experience. This is because it is unclear if the participant is using gestures as their regular form of communication that accompanies language or if they are using gestures in order to help them overcome their TOT experience and retrieve the target word.[38]
Effects of age of acquisition[edit]
The speed and accuracy with which speakers retrieve a word is influenced by the age in life at which that word was first learned. Specifically, early-acquired words tend to be named more quickly and accurately than late-acquired words (age of acquisition effect). It has been observed that the probability of experiencing a TOT state depends on the age at which the word is acquired in life: more TOT states are obtained with late-acquired than with early-acquired words.[39]
See also[edit]
Memory and aging
Psycholinguistics
Neurolinguistics
Metamemory
Aphasia and in particular anomic aphasia
Neuroanatomy of memory
TOTimal
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Gollan, T. H.; Bonanni, M. P.; Montoya, R. I. (2005). "Proper names get stuck on bilingual and monolingual speakers' tip of the tongue equally often". Neuropsychology. 19 (3): 278–287. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.278.
Jump up ^ Gollan, T. H.; Silverberg, N. B. (2001). "Tip-of-the-tongue states in Hebrew–English bilinguals". Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 4 (1): 63–83. doi:10.1017/S136672890100013X.
Jump up ^ Ivanova, I.; Costa, A. (2008). "Does bilingualism hamper lexical access in speech production?" (PDF). Acta Psychologica. 127 (2): 277–288. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.06.003. PMID 17662226.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Bacon, E.; Schwartz, BL.; Paire-Ficout, L.; Izaute, M. (Jun 2007). "Dissociation between the cognitive process and the phenomenological experience of TOT: effect of the anxiolytic drug lorazepam on TOT states". Conscious Cogn. 16 (2): 360–73. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2006.05.001. PMID 16798012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lesk, V. E.; Womble, S. P. (2004). "Caffeine, priming, and tip of the tongue: evidence for plasticity in the phonological system". Behavioural Neuroscience. 118 (3): 453–461. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.118.3.453. PMID 15174922.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Shafto, M.; Burke, D.; Stamatakis, E.; Tam, P.; Tyler, L. (2007). "On the Tip-of-the-Tongue: Neural Correlates of increased Word-finding Failures in Normal Aging". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 19: 2060–2070. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.12.2060. PMC 2373253  .
Jump up ^ Heine, M.; Ober, B.; Shenaut, G. (1999). "Naturally Occurring and Experimentally Induced Tip-of-the-Tongue Experiences in Three Adult Age Groups". Psychology and Aging. 14 (3): 445–457. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.14.3.445.
Jump up ^ White, Katherine K.; Abrams, Lise (2002). "Does priming specific syllables during tip-of-the-tongue states facilitate word retrieval in older adults?". Psychology and Aging. 17 (2): 226–235. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.226.
^ Jump up to: a b c Galdo-Alvarez, S.; Lindin, M.; Diaz, F. (2009). "Age-related prefrontal over-recruitment in semantic memory retrieval: Evidence from successful face naming and tip of-the-tongue state". Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology. 82: 89–96. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.06.003.
^ Jump up to: a b Salthhouse, Timothy, and Arielle Mandell. "Do Age-Related Increases in Tip-of-the-Tongue Experiences Signify Episodic Memory Impairments?." Psychological Science 2013; 10: n. pag. Sage Journals. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Beeson, P.M.; Holland, A.L.; Murray, L.L. (1997). "'Naming famous people: An examination of tip-of-the-tongue phenomena in aphasia and Alzheimer's disease'". Aphasiology. 11 (4): 323–336. doi:10.1080/02687039708248474.
Jump up ^ Hanly, Sarah; Vandenberg, Brian (9 August 2009). "Tip-of-the-Tongue and Word Retrieval Deficits in Dyslexia" (PDF). Journal of Learning Disabilities. 43: 15–23. doi:10.1177/0022219409338744.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Abrams, L.; Rodriguez, E. (2005). "Syntactic Class Influences Phonological Priming of Tip-of-the-Tongue Resolution". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 12: 1018–1023. doi:10.3758/bf03206437.
Jump up ^ Askari, N (1999). "Priming Effects on Tip-of-the-tongue States in Farsi-English Bilinguals". Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 28: 197–212.
Jump up ^ Beattie, G; Coughlin, J (1999). "An Experimental Investigation of the Role of Iconic Gestures In Lexical Access Using the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon". British Journal of Psychology. 90: 35–56. doi:10.1348/000712699161251. PMID 10085545.
Jump up ^ Navarrete, E; Pastore, M; Valentini, R; Peressotti, P (2015). "First learned words are not forgotten: Age-of-acquisition effects in the tip-of-the-tongue experience". Memory & Cognition. 43 (7): 1085–1103. doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0525-3.
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text:
Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!"
Song by the Beatles
from the album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Released
26 May 1967 (1967-05-26)[1]
Recorded
17 and 20 February and 28, 29, 31 March 1967
Genre
Circus music[2]
Length
2:37
Label
Parlophone
Songwriter(s)
Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)
George Martin
Audio sample
file
help
"Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles, from their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. It was primarily written and composed by John Lennon, with additional input claimed by Paul McCartney.[3][4] The song is credited to Lennon–McCartney.
Contents
[hide]
1 Inspiration
2 Recording
3 Personnel
4 Covers and influence
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Inspiration[edit]
A reproduction of the Pablo Fanque Circus Royal poster from 1843 upon which the song is based
The inspiration to write the song was a 19th-century circus poster for Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal appearance at Rochdale. Lennon purchased the poster in an antique shop on 31 January 1967, while the Beatles were filming the promotional videos for "Strawberry Fields Forever" and "Penny Lane" in Sevenoaks, Kent.[5] Lennon claimed years later to still have the poster in his home.[6] "Everything from the song is from that poster," he explained, "except the horse wasn't called Henry."[7] (The poster identifies the horse as "Zanthus".)
"Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" is credited to Lennon–McCartney, but Lennon said he had written it entirely himself.[6] McCartney disagrees;[3] in a 2013 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, he said: "I read, occasionally, people say, 'Oh, John wrote that one.' I say, 'Wait a minute, what was that afternoon I spent with him, then, looking at this poster?' He happened to have a poster in his living room at home. I was out at his house, and we just got this idea, because the poster said 'Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite' – and then we put in, you know, 'there will be a show tonight,' and then it was like, 'of course,'… The song just wrote itself. So, yeah, I was happy to kind of reclaim it as partially mine.'"[4]
Mr. Kite is believed to be William Kite, who worked for Pablo Fanque from 1843 to 1845.
Pablo Fanque, the Victorian circus owner, who employed William Kite in the 1840s
"Mr. J. Henderson" was John Henderson, a wire-walker, equestrian, trampoline artist, and clown. While the poster made no mention of "Hendersons" plural, as Lennon sings, John Henderson did perform with his wife Agnes, the daughter of circus owner Henry Hengler. The Hendersons performed throughout Europe and Russia during the 1840s and 1850s.[8] A hogshead is a large wooden cask.
Recording[edit]
One of the most musically complex songs on Sgt. Pepper, it was recorded by the Beatles on 17 February 1967 with overdubs on 20 February (organ sound effects), 28 March (harmonica, organ, guitar), 29 March (more organ effects) and 31 March.[9] Lennon wanted the track to have a "carnival atmosphere", and told producer George Martin that he wanted "to smell the sawdust on the floor". In the middle eight bars, multiple recordings of fairground organs and calliope music were spliced together to attempt to produce this request. In a 1968 interview, Martin recalled that he achieved this "by playing the Hammond organ myself and speeding it up".[10] In addition to Hammond organ, a 19th century steam organ was found for hire to enhance the carnival atmosphere effect.[11] After a great deal of unsuccessful experimentation, Martin instructed recording engineer Geoff Emerick to chop the tape into pieces with scissors, throw them up in the air, and re-assemble them at random.[12]
Before the start of the first take, Lennon sings the words "For the benefit of Mr. Kite!" in a joke accent, then Emerick announces, "For the Benefit of Mr. Kite! This is take 1." Lennon immediately responds, "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!", reinforcing his title preference from a phrase lifted intact from the original Pablo Fanque poster. The exchange is recorded in The Beatles Recording Sessions[5] and audible on track 8 of disc 2 of Anthology 2. The original recording can also be heard during the loading screen for the song if it is downloaded in the video game The Beatles: Rock Band.
Although Lennon once said of the song that he "wasn't proud of that" and "I was just going through the motions",[13] in 1980 he described it as "pure, like a painting, a pure watercolour".[7]
"Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" was one of three songs from the Sgt. Pepper album that was banned from playing on the BBC, supposedly because the phrase "Henry the Horse" combined two words that were individually known as slang for heroin. Lennon denied that the song had anything to do with heroin.[6][7]
Personnel[edit]
John Lennon — double-tracked lead vocals and harmony vocals, Hammond organ, tape loops and harmonica
Paul McCartney — bass guitar, backwards lead guitar
George Harrison — harmonica
Ringo Starr — drums, tambourine, shaker and harmonica
George Martin — piano, harmonium, Lowrey organ, Wurlitzer organ, glockenspiel, tape loops and Hammond organ[10]
Mal Evans — bass harmonica
Neil Aspinall — harmonica
Geoff Emerick — tape loops
Covers and influence[edit]
The Bee Gees, with Maurice Gibb on lead vocals, and George Burns performed the song in the 1978 film Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Burns plays the Mr. Kite character as the mayor of the band's home town and the song is played by the band as a playful announcement of their return to the town for Mr. Kite's benefit.
Električni Orgazam recorded a version on their 1983 cover album Les Chansones Populaires.
Billy Connolly recorded a mostly spoken-word recording of the song for the George Martin compilation In My Life.
In the film Across the Universe, Eddie Izzard appears in a cameo as Mr. Kite, a circus ringmaster and does a cover of the song in a spoken form, adlibbing in between verses.
In 2009, Cheap Trick released Sgt. Pepper Live, which includes the song.
The Residents performed a cover of the song at a 40th Anniversary celebration of Sgt. Pepper with the London Sinfonietta.
Les Fradkin has an instrumental cover in his 2007 release Pepper Front to Back.
Easy Star All-Stars covered the song on the album Easy Star's Lonely Hearts Dub Band.
Eric McFadden covered this song on his Devil Moon CD (2005).
Frank Sidebottom covered this song on the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band 21st anniversary charity album Sgt. Pepper Knew My Father.
Al Di Meola covered the song on his 2013 CD All Your Life.
The Beat Bugs covered this song on Season 1's soundtrack, which is available on iTunes.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Everett 1999, p. 123. "In the United Kingdom Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band...was rush-released six days ahead of its official date, June 1."
Jump up ^ Ronald P. Grelsamer (1 September 2010). Into the Sky with Diamonds: The Beatles and the Race to the Moon in the Psychedelic '60S. AuthorHouse. p. 252. ISBN 978-1-4520-7053-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Miles 1997, pp. 318.
^ Jump up to: a b Vozick-Levinson, Simon (25 July 2013). "Q&A: Paul McCartney Looks Back on His Latest Magical Mystery Tour". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewisohn 1988, p. 98.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Lennon–McCartney Songalog: Who Wrote What" (PDF). Hit Parader. Vol. Winter 1977 [reprint of April 1972] no. 101. pp. 38–41. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sheff 2000, p. 183.
Jump up ^ "The Hendersons Were Not There (and neither was Mr Kite)- Sheffield 1848". Chrishobbs.com. 28 March 1914. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, pp. 98, 99, 105–106.
^ Jump up to: a b Gilliland 1969, show 45, track 3, 6:22.
Jump up ^ Emerick 2006.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 99.
Jump up ^ The Beatles 2000, p. 243.
References[edit]
The Beatles (2000). The Beatles Anthology. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-2684-8.
Everett, Walter (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512941-0.
Gilliland, John (1969). "Sergeant Pepper at the Summit: The very best of a very good year" (audio). Pop Chronicles. University of North Texas Libraries.
Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Beatles Recording Sessions. New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 0-517-57066-1.
Miles, Barry (1997). Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-5249-6.
Sheff, David (2000). All We Are Saying: The Last Major Interview with John Lennon and Yoko Ono. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-25464-4.
External links[edit]
Alan W. Pollack's Notes on "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!"
Discussion of the original poster
A short film, containing close-up shots of the original poster
Comparisons of modern reproductions of the poster with the original
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
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"Within You Without You"
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Poynting vector
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In physics, the Poynting vector represents the directional energy flux (the energy transfer per unit area per unit time) of an electromagnetic field. The SI unit of the Poynting vector is the watt per square metre (W/m2). It is named after its discoverer John Henry Poynting who first derived it in 1884.[1]:132 Oliver Heaviside[1]:132 and Nikolay Umov[2]:147 also independently discovered the Poynting vector.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Interpretation
3 Formulation in terms of microscopic fields
4 Time-averaged Poynting vector
5 Examples and applications
5.1 Coaxial cable
5.2 Resistive dissipation
5.3 Plane waves
5.4 Radiation pressure
5.5 Static fields
6 Adding the curl of a vector field
7 References
8 Further reading
Definition[edit]
In Poynting's original paper and in many textbooks, the Poynting vector is defined as[3] [4][5]
S = E × H , {\displaystyle \mathbf {S} =\mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {H} ,}
where bold letters represent vectors and
E is the electric field vector;
H is the magnetic field's auxiliary field vector.
This expression is often called the Abraham form.[6] The Poynting vector is usually denoted by S or N.
In the "microscopic" version of Maxwell's equations, this definition must be replaced by a definition in terms of the electric field E and the magnetic field B (it is described later in the article).
It is also possible to combine the electric displacement field D with the magnetic field B to get the Minkowski form of the Poynting vector, or use D and H to construct yet another version. The choice has been controversial: Pfeifer et al.[7] summarize and to a certain extent resolve the century-long dispute between proponents of the Abraham and Minkowski forms (see Abraham–Minkowski controversy).
The Poynting vector represents the particular case of an energy flux vector for electromagnetic energy. However, any type of energy has its direction of movement in space, as well as its density, so energy flux vectors can be defined for other types of energy as well, e.g., for mechanical energy. The Umov–Poynting vector[8] discovered by Nikolay Umov in 1874 describes energy flux in liquid and elastic media in a completely generalized view.
Interpretation[edit]
A DC circuit consisting of a battery (V) and resistor (R), showing the direction of the Poynting vector (S, blue) in the space surrounding it, along with the fields it is derived from; the electric field (E, red) and the magnetic field (H, green). In the region around the battery the Poynting vector is directed outward, indicating power flowing out of the battery into the fields; in the region around the resistor the vector is directed inward, indicating field power flowing into the resistor. Across any plane P between the battery and resistor, the Poynting flux is in the direction of the resistor. The magnitudes (lengths) of the vectors are not shown accurately; only the directions are significant.
The Poynting vector appears in Poynting's theorem (see that article for the derivation), an energy-conservation law:
∂ u ∂ t = − ∇ ⋅ S − J f ⋅ E , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}=-\mathbf {\nabla } \cdot \mathbf {S} -\mathbf {J_{\mathrm {f} }} \cdot \mathbf {E} ,}
where Jf is the current density of free charges and u is the electromagnetic energy density for linear, nondispersive materials, given by
u = 1 2 ( E ⋅ D + B ⋅ H ) , {\displaystyle u={\frac {1}{2}}\!\left(\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathbf {D} +\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathbf {H} \right)\!,}
where
E is the electric field;
D is the electric displacement field;
B is the magnetic field;
H is the magnetic auxiliary field.[9]:258–260
The first term in the right-hand side represents the electromagnetic energy flow into a small volume, while the second term subtracts the work done by the field on free electrical currents, which thereby exits from electromagnetic energy as dissipation, heat, etc. In this definition, bound electrical currents are not included in this term, and instead contribute to S and u.
For linear, nondispersive and isotropic (for simplicity) materials, the constitutive relations can be written as
D = ε E , H = 1 μ B , {\displaystyle \mathbf {D} =\varepsilon \mathbf {E} ,\quad \mathbf {H} ={\frac {1}{\mu }}\mathbf {B} ,}
where
ε is the permittivity of the material;
μ is the permeability of the material.[9]:258–260
Here ε and μ are scalar, real-valued constants independent of position, direction, and frequency.
In principle, this limits Poynting's theorem in this form to fields in vacuum and nondispersive linear materials. A generalization to dispersive materials is possible under certain circumstances at the cost of additional terms.[9]:262–264
Formulation in terms of microscopic fields[edit]
The "microscopic" version of Maxwell's equations admits only the fundamental fields E and B, without a built-in model of material media. Only the vacuum permittivity and permeability are used, and there is no D or H. When this model is used, the Poynting vector is defined as
S = 1 μ 0 E × B , {\displaystyle \mathbf {S} ={\frac {1}{\mu _{0}}}\mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} ,}
where
μ0 is the vacuum permeability;
E is the electric field;
B is the magnetic field.
The corresponding form of Poynting's theorem is
∂ u ∂ t = − ∇ ⋅ S − J ⋅ E , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}=-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {S} -\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathbf {E} ,}
where J is the total current density and the energy density u is given by
u = 1 2 ( ε 0 E 2 + 1 μ 0 B 2 ) , {\displaystyle u={\frac {1}{2}}\!\left(\varepsilon _{0}\mathbf {E} ^{2}+{\frac {1}{\mu _{0}}}\mathbf {B} ^{2}\right)\!,}
where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity. It can be derived directly from Maxwell's equations in terms of total charge and current and the Lorentz force law only.
The two alternative definitions of the Poynting vector are equal in vacuum or in non-magnetic materials, where B = μ0H. In all other cases, they differ in that S = (1/μ0) E × B and the corresponding u are purely radiative, since the dissipation term −J ⋅ E covers the total current, while the E × H definition has contributions from bound currents which are then excluded from the dissipation term.[10]
Since only the microscopic fields E and B occur in the derivation of S = (1/μ0) E × B, assumptions about any material present are completely avoided, and Poynting vector and theorem are universally valid, in vacuum as in all kinds of material. This is especially true[clarification needed] for the electromagnetic energy density, in contrast to the "macroscopic" form E × H.[10]
Time-averaged Poynting vector[edit]
The above form for the Poynting vector represents the instantaneous power flow due to instantaneous electric and magnetic fields. More commonly, problems in electromagnetics are solved in terms of sinusoidally varying fields at a specified frequency. The results can then be applied more generally, for instance, by representing incoherent radiation as a superposition of such waves at different frequencies and with fluctuating amplitudes.
We would thus not be considering the instantaneous E(t) and H(t) used above, but rather a complex (vector) amplitude for each which describes a coherent wave's phase (as well as amplitude) using phasor notation. Note that these complex amplitude vectors are not functions of time, as they are understood to refer to oscillations over all time. A phasor such as E m {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{\mathrm {m} }} } is understood to signify a sinusoidally varying field whose instantaneous amplitude E(t) follows the real part of E m e j ω t {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{\mathrm {m} }} e^{j\omega t}} where ω is the (radian) frequency of the sinusoidal wave being considered.
In the time domain it will be seen that the instantaneous power flow will be fluctuating at a frequency of 2ω. But what is normally of interest is the average power flow in which those fluctuations are not considered. In the math below, this is accomplished by integrating over a full cycle T = 2 π / ω {\displaystyle T=2\pi /\omega } . The following quantity, still referred to as a "Poynting vector", is expressed directly in terms of the phasors as:
S m = 1 2 E m × H m ∗ {\displaystyle \mathbf {S_{m}} ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {E_{m}} \times \mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} }
where * denotes the complex conjugate. The time-averaged power flow (according to the instantaneous Poynting vector averaged over a full cycle, for instance) is then given by the real part of S m {\displaystyle \mathbf {S} _{m}} . The imaginary part is usually ignored, however it signifies "reactive power" such as the interference due to a standing wave or the near field of an antenna. In a single electromagnetic plane wave (rather than a standing wave which can be described as two such waves travelling in opposite directions), E and H are exactly in phase, so S m {\displaystyle \mathbf {S_{m}} } is simply a real number according to the above definition.
The equivalence of Re  ( S m ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} (\mathbf {S} _{m})} to the time-average of the instantaneous Poynting vector S can be shown as follows.
S ( t ) = E ( t ) × H ( t ) = Re ( E m e j ω t ) × Re ( H m e j ω t ) = 1 2 ( E m e j ω t + E m ∗ e − j ω t ) × 1 2 ( H m e j ω t + H m ∗ e − j ω t ) = 1 4 ( E m × H m ∗ + E m ∗ × H m + E m × H m e 2 j ω t + E m ∗ × H m ∗ e − 2 j ω t ) = 1 2 Re ( E m × H m ∗ ) + 1 2 Re ( E m × H m e 2 j ω t ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {S(t)} &=\mathbf {E(t)} \times \mathbf {H(t)} \\&=\operatorname {Re} \!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }e^{j\omega t}\right)\times \operatorname {Re} \!\left({\mathbf {H_{m}} }e^{j\omega t}\right)\\&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }e^{j\omega t}+{\mathbf {E_{m}^{*}} }e^{-j\omega t}\right)\times {\tfrac {1}{2}}\!\left({\mathbf {H_{m}} }e^{j\omega t}+{\mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} }e^{-j\omega t}\right)\\&={\tfrac {1}{4}}\!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} }+{\mathbf {E_{m}^{*}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}} }+{\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}} }e^{2j\omega t}+{\mathbf {E_{m}^{*}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} }e^{-2j\omega t}\right)\\&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\operatorname {Re} \!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} }\right)+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\operatorname {Re} \!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}} }e^{2j\omega t}\right)\!.\end{aligned}}}
The average of the instantaneous Poynting vector S over time is given by:
⟨ S ⟩ = 1 T ∫ 0 T S ( t ) d t = 1 T ∫ 0 T [ 1 2 Re ( E m × H m ∗ ) + 1 2 Re ( E m × H m e 2 j ω t ) ] d t . {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {S} \rangle ={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{0}^{T}\mathbf {S} (t)\,dt={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{0}^{T}\!\left[{\tfrac {1}{2}}\operatorname {Re} \!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} }\right)+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\operatorname {Re} \!\left({\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times {\mathbf {H_{m}} }e^{2j\omega t}\right)\right]dt.}
The second term is the double-frequency component having an average value of zero, so we find:
⟨ S ⟩ = Re ( 1 2 E m × H m ∗ ) = Re ( S m ) {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {S} \rangle =\operatorname {Re} \!\left({\tfrac {1}{2}}{\mathbf {E_{m}} }\times \mathbf {H_{m}^{*}} \right)=\operatorname {Re} \!\left(\mathbf {S_{m}} \right)}
According to some conventions the factor of 1/2 in the above definition may be left out. Multiplication by 1/2 is required to properly describe the power flow since the magnitudes of E m {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{\mathrm {m} }} } and H m {\displaystyle \mathbf {H_{\mathrm {m} }} } refer to the peak fields of the oscillating quantities. If rather the fields are described in terms of their root mean square (rms) values (which are each smaller by the factor 2 / 2 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}/2} ), then the correct average power flow is obtained without multiplication by 1/2.
Examples and applications[edit]
Coaxial cable[edit]
Poynting vector in a coaxial cable, shown in red.
For example, the Poynting vector within the dielectric insulator of a coaxial cable is nearly parallel to the wire axis (assuming no fields outside the cable and a wavelength longer than the diameter of the cable, including DC). Electrical energy delivered to the load is flowing entirely through the dielectric between the conductors. Very little energy flows in the conductors themselves, since the electric field strength is nearly zero. The energy flowing in the conductors flows radially into the conductors and accounts for energy lost to resistive heating of the conductor. No energy flows outside the cable, either, since there the magnetic fields of inner and outer conductors cancel to zero.
Resistive dissipation[edit]
If a conductor has significant resistance, then, near the surface of that conductor, the Poynting vector would be tilted toward and impinge upon the conductor. Once the Poynting vector enters the conductor, it is bent to a direction that is almost perpendicular to the surface.[11]:61 This is a consequence of Snell's law and the very slow speed of light inside a conductor. The definition and computation of the speed of light in a conductor can be given.[12]:402 Inside the conductor, the Poynting vector represents energy flow from the electromagnetic field into the wire, producing resistive Joule heating in the wire. For a derivation that starts with Snell's law see Reitz page 454.[13]:454
Plane waves[edit]
In a propagating sinusoidal linearly polarized electromagnetic plane wave of a fixed frequency, the Poynting vector always points in the direction of propagation while oscillating in magnitude. The time-averaged magnitude of the Poynting vector is found as above to be:
⟨ S ⟩ = 1 2 η | E m | 2 {\displaystyle \langle S\rangle ={\frac {1}{2\eta }}|E_{\mathrm {m} }|^{2}}
where Em is the complex amplitude of the electric field and η is the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium, or just η0 = 377Ω for a plane wave in free space. This directly follows from the above expression for the average Poynting vector using phasor quantities, and the fact that in a plane wave the magnetic field H m {\displaystyle H_{\mathrm {m} }} is equal to the electric field E m {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {m} }} divided by η (and thus exactly in phase).
In optics, the time-averaged value of the radiated flux is technically known as the irradiance, more often simply referred to as the intensity.
Radiation pressure[edit]
The density of the linear momentum of the electromagnetic field is S/c2 where S is the magnitude of the Poynting vector and c is the speed of light in free space. The radiation pressure exerted by an electromagnetic wave on the surface of a target is given by
P r a d = ⟨ S ⟩ c . {\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {rad} }={\frac {\langle S\rangle }{\mathrm {c} }}.}
Static fields[edit]
Poynting vector in a static field, where E is the electric field, H the magnetic field, and S the Poynting vector.
The consideration of the Poynting vector in static fields shows the relativistic nature of the Maxwell equations and allows a better understanding of the magnetic component of the Lorentz force, q(v × B). To illustrate, the accompanying picture is considered, which describes the Poynting vector in a cylindrical capacitor, which is located in an H field (pointing into the page) generated by a permanent magnet. Although there are only static electric and magnetic fields, the calculation of the Poynting vector produces a clockwise circular flow of electromagnetic energy, with no beginning or end.
While the circulating energy flow may seem nonsensical or paradoxical, it is necessary to maintain conservation of momentum. Momentum density is proportional to energy flow density, so the circulating flow of energy contains an angular momentum.[14] This is the cause of the magnetic component of the Lorentz force which occurs when the capacitor is discharged. During discharge, the angular momentum contained in the energy flow is depleted as it is transferred to the charges of the discharge current crossing the magnetic field.
Adding the curl of a vector field[edit]
The Poynting vector occurs in Poynting's theorem only through its divergence ∇ ⋅ S, that is, it is only required that the surface integral of the Poynting vector around a closed surface describe the net flow of electromagnetic energy into or out of the enclosed volume. This means that adding a field to S which has zero divergence will result in a field which satisfies this required property of a Poynting vector field according to Poynting's theorem. Since the divergence of any curl is zero, one can add the curl of any vector field to the Poynting vector and the resulting vector field S' will still satisfy Poynting's theorem.[9]:258–260
However the theory of special relativity, in which energy and momentum are defined locally and invariantly via the stress–energy tensor, shows that the above given expression for the Poynting vector is unique.[9]:258–260,605–612
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Stratton, Julius Adams (1941). Electromagnetic Theory (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-470-13153-4.
Jump up ^ Turowski, Janusz; Turowski, Marek (2014). Engineering Electrodynamics: Electric Machine, Transformer, and Power Equipment Design (1st ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-8932-2.
Jump up ^ Poynting, John Henry (1884). "On the Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 175: 343–361. doi:10.1098/rstl.1884.0016.
Jump up ^ Grant, Ian S.; Phillips, William R. (1990). Electromagnetism (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, David J. (2012). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-85656-2.
Jump up ^ Kinsler, Paul; Favaro, Alberto; McCall, Martin W. (2009). "Four Poynting Theorems". European Journal of Physics. 30 (5): 983. Bibcode:2009EJPh...30..983K. arXiv:0908.1721  . doi:10.1088/0143-0807/30/5/007.
Jump up ^ Pfeifer, Robert N. C.; Nieminen, Timo A.; Heckenberg, Norman R.; Rubinsztein-Dunlop, Halina (2007). "Momentum of an Electromagnetic Wave in Dielectric Media". Reviews of Modern Physics. 79 (4): 1197. Bibcode:2007RvMP...79.1197P. arXiv:0710.0461  . doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.79.1197.
Jump up ^ Umov, Nikolay Alekseevich (1874). "Ein Theorem über die Wechselwirkungen in Endlichen Entfernungen". Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. 19: 97–114.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jackson, John David (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Richter, Felix; Florian, Matthias; Henneberger, Klaus (2008). "Poynting's Theorem and Energy Conservation in the Propagation of Light in Bounded Media". Europhysics Letters Association. 81 (6): 67005. Bibcode:2008EL.....8167005R. arXiv:0710.0515  . doi:10.1209/0295-5075/81/67005.
Jump up ^ Harrington, Roger F. (2001). Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-471-20806-8.
Jump up ^ Hayt, William (2011). Engineering Electromagnetics (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-338066-7.
Jump up ^ Reitz, John R.; Milford, Frederick J.; Christy, Robert W. (2008). Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory (4th ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-58174-7.
Jump up ^ Feynman, Richard Phillips (2011). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. II: Mainly Electromagnetism and Matter (The New Millennium ed.). New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02494-0.
Further reading[edit]
Becker, Richard (1982). Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions (1st ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-64290-1.
Edminister, Joseph; Nahvi, Mahmood (2013). Electromagnetics (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-183149-9.
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