text:
A Star Is Born (2018 soundtrack)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A Star Is Born
Soundtrack album by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper
Released
October 5, 2018
Recorded
2017–2018
Studio
Woodrow Wilson Studios (Hollywood, California)
EastWest Studios, The Village West (Los Angeles, California)
Shangri-La Studios (Malibu, California)
Electric Lady Studios (New York, New York)
Length
70:01
Label
Interscope
Producer
Paul "DJWS" Blair
Dave Cobb
Bradley Cooper
Lady Gaga
Nick Monson
Lukas Nelson
Brian Newman
Mark Nilan Jr.
Benjamin Rice
Lady Gaga chronology
Joanne
(2016) A Star Is Born
(2018)
Singles from A Star Is Born
"Shallow"
Released: September 27, 2018
A Star Is Born is the soundtrack album to the 2018 musical film of the same name, performed by its stars Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper. It was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records.[1] Gaga and Cooper collaborated on the soundtrack album with an assortment of country musicians, including Lukas Nelson, who also stars in the film as a member of Cooper's band. For the more pop-oriented songs on the soundtrack, Gaga teamed up with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow. The soundtrack also includes contributions from Jason Isbell, Mark Ronson, Diane Warren, and Andrew Wyatt of Miike Snow. Commercially, it has topped the charts in Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Contents
1 Background and development
2 Writing and recording
3 Music and lyrics
4 Release
5 Critical reception
6 Commercial performance
7 Track listing
8 Charts
9 Release history
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Background and development[edit]
In March 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Bradley Cooper was in talks to make his directorial debut with A Star Is Born, the fourth remake of the 1937 film of the same name.[2] Lady Gaga was officially attached to the film in August 2016, with the studio green-lighting the project to begin production in early 2017.[3] Cooper plays Jackson Maine, "a veteran country singer who discovers and eventually falls in love with a struggling singer-songwriter named Ally, played by Gaga."[4] Gaga "helped inform Cooper's performance as a musician".[5]
Cooper spent two-and-a-half years prepping for the film and determining what kind of musician his character would be. He worked with a number of musicians and vocal coach Roger Love.[6] Cooper said, "by the end he just kind of started developing into his own sort of creation. If I had another year of prep, it would have been complete rock, but now it's some sort of hybrid."[6]
Writing and recording[edit]
Cooper described the soundtrack "an evolution, like the story."[7] Gaga and Cooper were writing songs for the soundtrack during filming, leading to "so many different incarnations of each song."[7] Cooper added that "the music really became a character in the movie. There is no lyric that's ever in any point of the movie that doesn't have exactly to do with where one of them is or hopes to be or regrets being. That was our launching pad and then it was just about discovering what songs fit in the right places."[7] Jason Isbell wrote a song for Cooper's character, which became "the sword with which a lot of the music spawned from [Cooper]". Isbell sent the song through Dave Cobb, a Nashville-based producer with whom Cooper had been collaborating.[8]
Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) after seeing him perform at Desert Trip in October 2016 and asked him to work on the film as a music consultant.[9] Nelson said he began "writing songs for the movie, just for the heck of it, and sending them over to the producer, and they started liking them. Then Lady Gaga came by and I met her and we clicked. We became good friends, and we started writing together."[10] Gaga, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on Nelson's self-titled album released in 2017.[11] Nelson and his band, Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real, appear in the film as Cooper's backing band.[6]
Gaga reunited with producer Mark Ronson and songwriter Hillary Lindsey, who had both contributed to her previous studio album Joanne (2016).[6] She worked with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow on the soundtrack's more pop-oriented numbers performed by her character Ally. Much of the album was recorded live on set, at Gaga's insistence.[1][6]
Music and lyrics[edit]
Billboard described the soundtrack as "integral to the plotline", adding that "many of the lyrics are about wanting and longing for change, but noting the struggle. Some express the great love and beautiful bond the booze-addled rock star (Jackson Maine, played by Cooper) and neophyte singer-songwriter (Ally, played by Lady Gaga) have for each other", and concluding that "the music stands up, movie or no movie. They are timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener."[12]
Release[edit]
The soundtrack's track list and release date were announced on August 30, 2018.[4] Interscope Records tweeted that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film."[13] Its track "Shallow" was released on September 27 as the album's lead single.[14]
Critical reception[edit]
Professional ratings
Aggregate scores
Source
Rating
Metacritic 78/100[15]
Review scores
Source
Rating
AllMusic [16]
The Daily Telegraph [17]
The Guardian [18]
NME [19]
Pitchfork 7.4/10[20]
Rolling Stone [21]
Slant Magazine [22]
The soundtrack received positive response from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album has an average score of 78, based on 8 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[15] In a positive review, The Washington Post called the soundtrack a "five-star marvel" and stated that it is a possible contender to win a Grammy Award.[23] Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian gave the album a positive review, acknowledging "Bradley Cooper shows he can sing as well as act and direct", but that "it is Lady Gaga’s pop prowess that lifts each track, be it spectacular piano ballads or heart-rending duets"[18]
In a positive review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, said "All the songs make sense narratively and on their own, so they hold together well and would amount to a first-rate soundtrack", but criticized the dialogue included in the album.[16] Rolling Stone's Brittany Spanos gave the soundtrack four stars out of a possible five, saying "The music Gaga helps write for this stretch in Ally’s career...is gorgeous--romantic without being trite and powerful."[21] Nick Reilly of NME complimented the album's "emotionally charged songs that feel entirely appropriate for this heartfelt tale of doomed romance", adding that the album is "one of the best Hollywood soundtracks of recent years."[19]
Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick gave the album a moderately positive review, saying the soundtrack was enjoyable, but criticized the "slightly awkward journey from rock balladry to slickly superficial pop" and stated that "there is also a weird disconnect as the soundtrack shifts gear to anodyne modern pop".[17] Jeremy Winograd of Slant Magazine, in a mixed review, was critical of the album, saying "There’s undoubtedly a strong 10-song album lodged at the core of A Star Is Born, but unlike the film, wherein an outsized sense of sentimentality is rendered affecting by the more grounded performances, there’s not nearly enough substance here to justify all the bombast."[22]
Commercial performance[edit]
A Star Is Born opened atop the US Billboard 200 with 231,000 album-equivalent units, including 162,000 pure album sales. It had the biggest overall sales week for a soundtrack in over three years, and is Gaga's fifth US number-one album as well as Cooper's first. Gaga extended her record as the female artist with the most chart-topping albums during the 2010s, breaking her tie with Taylor Swift. Beside its pure album sales, A Star Is Born earned 37,000 in stream-equivalent units and 32,000 from track-equivalent units.[24] The soundtrack spent a second week at number one there with 143,000 album-equivalent units (86,000 being pure sales), and became Gaga's second album to top the chart for two consecutive weeks after Born This Way (2011).[25] It then held the country's summit for a third week in a row with 109,000 equivalent units (61,000 pure sales), becoming the first soundtrack since High School Musical 2 in 2007 to top the chart for its first three weeks. Additionally it became Gaga's longest running chart-topping album in the country.[26]
A Star Is Born entered at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 18,000 equivalent units, earning the top sales and digital song download honors and the seventh highest on-demand streams for the week. The soundtrack was Gaga's third album to reach the summit in the nation and her first since Born This Way.[27] The soundtrack held the top position for the next week, with another 12,000 equivalent units and was also the top-selling album.[28] It had an 11% increase in sales during the third week and remained atop the charts, selling close to 14,000 equivalent units. Like in the United States, the soundtrack became Gaga's longest running chart-topping album in Canada for Gaga.[29]
In the United Kingdom, A Star Is Born faced competition from Twenty One Pilots' fifth studio album, Trench, with the midweek chart suggesting the latter to emerge as the top album. A Star Is Born pulled ahead at the last moment according to Alan Jones from Music Week, and debuted atop the UK Albums Chart with 31,816 units (including 6,178 from stream-equivalent units). It became Gaga's fourth album to reach number one in the nation and first since Artpop (2013), as well as Cooper's first entry on the chart.[30][31] The soundtrack was then displaced by Jess Glynne's Always In Between the following week, and it fell to number two, selling 24,732 equivalent units.[32][33] For the week ending November 1, 2018, the soundtrack moved back atop the chart with 24,982 copies sold (including 6,645 from sales-equivalent streams). "Shallow" also reached the top of the UK Singles Chart that week, making Gaga and Cooper score an Official UK Chart double, this being Gaga's third time to do so.[34][35]
A Star Is Born opened at number one in Ireland and Scotland,[36][37] and was Gaga's third number one in the former.[38] During its third week atop the Irish chart, the soundtrack attained its highest sales tally.[39] In France, the soundtrack sold 8,700 units and debuted at number seven on the SNEP Albums Chart, and held the same position the next week with another 8,000 units.[40][41] In Australia, A Star Is Born entered at number three on the ARIA Albums Chart, giving Gaga her seventh top 10 album in the country and her sixth to reach the top three.[42] Two weeks later, the soundtrack reached the top of the charts, becoming Gaga's third album to reach the Australian charts summit after The Fame Monster and Born This Way.[43] The soundtrack debuted at number six in the New Zealand Albums Chart, and after two weeks reached the top.[44]
Track listing[edit]
Standard version[45]
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Producer(s)
Length
1. "Intro" 0:20
2. "Black Eyes" (performed by Bradley Cooper)
Cooper
Lukas Nelson
Cooper
Nelson
Lady Gaga[a][b]
3:03
3. "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga)
Harold Arlen
E.Y. Harburg
Claire Louise Whittleston[46]
0:42
4. "Fabulous French" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper, Lady Gaga, Anthony Ramos and D.J. "Shangela" Pierce) 0:19
5. "La Vie en rose" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Louiguy
Édith Piaf
Gaga
Brian Newman
2:59
6. "I'll Wait for You" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:19
7. "Maybe It's Time" (performed by Bradley Cooper) Jason Isbell
Cooper
Benjamin Rice
Gaga[a]
2:39
8. "Parking Lot" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:31
9. "Out of Time" (performed by Bradley Cooper)
Cooper
Nelson
Cooper
Nelson
2:52
10. "Alibi" (performed by Bradley Cooper)
Gaga
Cooper
Nelson
Gaga
Cooper
Nelson
3:03
11. "Trust Me" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:32[e]
12. "Shallow" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)
Gaga
Mark Ronson
Anthony Rossomando
Andrew Wyatt
Gaga
Rice
3:35
13. "First Stop, Arizona" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:10
14. "Music to My Eyes" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)
Gaga
Nelson
Nelson 3:19
15. "Diggin' My Grave" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper) Paul Kennerley
Gaga
Nelson
3:57
16. "I Love You" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:19
17. "Always Remember Us This Way" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Natalie Hemby
Hillary Lindsey
Lori McKenna
Dave Cobb
Gaga
3:30
18. "Unbelievable" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga and Rafi Gavron) 0:28
19. "How Do You Hear It?" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:14
20. "Look What I Found" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Mark Nilan Jr.
Nick Monson
Paul "DJWS" Blair
Nelson
Aaron Raitiere
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
2:55
21. "Memphis" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:24
22. "Heal Me" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
Julia Michaels
Justin Tranter
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
3:16
23. "I Don't Know What Love Is" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)
Gaga
Nelson
Gaga[c]
Nelson
Nilan[b]
Monson[b]
2:57
24. "Vows" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga) 0:17
25. "Is That Alright?" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
Raitiere
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
3:11
26. "SNL" (dialogue; featuring Alec Baldwin, Donald King, Michael Mancini and Gena Rositano) 0:13
27. "Why Did You Do That?" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Diane Warren
Nilan
Monson
Blair
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
3:04
28. "Hair Body Face" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
Rice[d]
3:22
29. "Scene 98" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga) 0:35[f]
30. "Before I Cry" (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
Gaga
Nilan
Monson
Blair
4:18
31. "Too Far Gone" (performed by Bradley Cooper)
Cooper
Nelson
Cooper
Nelson
1:26
32. "Twelve Notes" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga and Sam Elliott) 1:03
33. "I'll Never Love Again" (film version) (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)
Gaga
Hemby
Lindsey
Raitiere
Gaga
Rice
4:41
34. "I'll Never Love Again" (extended version) (performed by Lady Gaga)
Gaga
Hemby
Lindsey
Raitiere
Gaga
Rice
5:28
Total length: 70:01[g]
showVersion without dialogue[47]
No.
Title
Length
1. "Black Eyes" 3:03
2. "La Vie en rose" 2:59
3. "Maybe It's Time" 2:39
4. "Out of Time" 2:52
5. "Alibi" 3:03
6. "Shallow" (radio edit) 3:37
7. "Music to My Eyes" 3:19
8. "Diggin' My Grave" 3:57
9. "Always Remember Us This Way" 3:30
10. "Look What I Found" 2:55
11. "Heal Me" 3:16
12. "I Don't Know What Love Is" 2:57
13. "Is That Alright?" 3:11
14. "Why Did You Do That?" 3:04
15. "Hair Body Face" 3:22
16. "Before I Cry" 4:18
17. "Too Far Gone" 1:26
18. "I'll Never Love Again" (film version) (radio edit) 4:41
19. "I'll Never Love Again" (extended version) (radio edit) 5:28
Total length: 63:37
Notes
^[a] – additional vocal production
^[b] – additional production
^[c] – main and additional production
^[d] – vocal production
^[e] – 0:31 on clean version of the album
^[f] – 0:34 on clean version of the album
^[g] – 69:59 for clean version of the album
Charts[edit]
Chart (2018)
Peak
position
Argentinian Albums (CAPIF)[48]
3
Australian Albums (ARIA)[49]
1
Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[50]
2
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[51]
4
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[52]
4
Canadian Albums (Billboard)[53]
1
Croatia International Albums (HDU)[54]
3
Czech Albums (ČNS IFPI)[55]
1
Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[56]
3
Estonian Albums (IFPI)[57]
1
Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[58]
12
French Albums (SNEP)[59]
7
German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[60]
5
Greek Albums (IFPI Greece)[61]
4
Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)[62]
15
Icelandic Albums (Tonlist)[63]
4
Irish Albums (OCC)[64]
1
Italian Albums (FIMI)[65]
4
New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[44]
1
Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[66]
2
Polish Albums (ZPAV)[67]
32
Portuguese Albums (AFP)[68]
2
Scottish Albums (OCC)[37]
1
Slovak Albums (ČNS IFPI)[69]
1
South African Albums (RiSA)[70]
18
South Korean Albums (Gaon)[71]
37
South Korean International Albums (Gaon)[72]
1
Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[73]
2
Swedish Compilation (Sverigetopplistan)[74]
1
Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[75]
1
UK Albums (OCC)[76]
1
UK Soundtrack Albums (OCC)[77]
1
US Billboard 200[78]
1
US Soundtrack Albums (Billboard)[79]
1
US Top Tastemaker Albums (Billboard)[80]
1

Release history[edit]
Region
Date
Format
Label
Ref.
Various
October 5, 2018
Digital download
Streaming
CD
LP
Interscope [81]
Japan
November 7, 2018
CD
LP
[82]
See also[edit]
Book: A Star Is Born (2018 film)
List of artists who have achieved simultaneous UK and US number-one hits
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2018
List of number-one albums of 2018 (Australia)
List of number-one albums of 2018 (Canada)
List of number-one albums of 2018 (Ireland)
List of number-one albums from the 2010s (New Zealand)
List of number-one albums of 2018 (Scotland)
List of number-one hits of 2018 (Switzerland)
List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2010s
List of UK Album Downloads Chart number ones of the 2010s
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Reed, Ryan (August 30, 2018). "Lady Gaga, Bradley Cooper Detail 'A Star Is Born' Soundtrack". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr, Mike (March 24, 2015). "Bradley Cooper To Make Directing Debut, Hopes To Star With Beyonce In 'A Star Is Born' For Warner Bros". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved April 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr, Mike (August 16, 2016). "'A Star Is Born' Gets Warner Bros Green Light; Bradley Cooper Directs, Stars With Lady Gaga". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on August 17, 2016. Retrieved August 17, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Rao, Sonia (August 30, 2018). "What we know about the lengthy 'A Star Is Born' soundtrack, like its copious amount of Bradley Cooper". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Amy (August 30, 2018). "Lady Gaga on letting go for 'A Star Is Born' and what Bradley Cooper insisted she do before filming". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 6, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Nolfi, Joey (December 6, 2017). "Get to know the songwriters behind Lady Gaga's A Star Is Born". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 6, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stack, Tim (August 11, 2018). "Inside the creation of the thrilling new A Star Is Born soundtrack". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Betts, Stephen (December 6, 2017). "Jason Isbell, Lukas Nelson Songs to Appear in Lady Gaga's 'A Star Is Born'". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Greene, Andy (April 4, 2018). "Lukas Nelson Talks Writing With Lady Gaga, Gigging With Neil Young". Rolling Stone. Retrieved September 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Finn, Timothy (February 2, 2018). "He's worked with Neil Young, Gaga and his dad, Willie Nelson. Now he's coming to KC". The Kansas City Star. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ Stephens, Samantha (September 18, 2017). "How Lady Gaga Brought Lukas Nelson and Promise of the Real's "Find Yourself" to Life". CMT. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ Bliss, Karen (September 10, 2018). "Lady Gaga Praises 'A Star Is Born' Co-Star Bradley Cooper's Talents at Toronto Premiere: 'He Sings From His Soul'". Billboard. Retrieved September 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ @Interscope (August 30, 2018). "#AStarIsBornSoundtrack features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. Pre-order the music from the film now, out Oct. 5. smarturl.it/ASIBSoundtrack @StarIsBornMovie #AStarIsBorn" (Tweet). Retrieved September 3, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Balancia, Donna (September 25, 2018). "REVIEW: Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper Let the Music Shine in 'A Star Is Born'". California Rocker. Retrieved September 25, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "A Star Is Born (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)". Metacritic. Retrieved October 11, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas Erlewine, Stephen (October 5, 2018). "Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper - A Star Is Born [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack]". AllMusic. Retrieved October 5, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b McCormick, Neil (October 5, 2018). "Lady Gaga & Bradley Cooper: A Star Is Born soundtrack, review: an enjoyable but very peculiar album". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved October 15, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Beaumont-Thomas, Ben (October 5, 2018). "A Star Is Born soundtrack review – instant classics full of Gaga's emotional might". The Guardian. Retrieved October 5, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Reilly, Nick (October 8, 2018). "'A Star Is Born' – soundtrack review". NME. Retrieved October 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Fitzmaurice, Larry (October 8, 2018). "Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper - A Star Is Born Original Motion Picture Soundtrack". Pitchfork. Retrieved October 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Spannos, Brittany (October 5, 2018). "Review: Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper Shine Bright on the 'A Star Is Born' Soundtrack". Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 5, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Winograd, Jeremy (October 10, 2018). "A Star Is Born Original Soundtrack". Slant Magazine. Retrieved October 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Mark (October 4, 2018). "Review: 'A Star Is Born' soundtrack is a five-star marvel". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (October 14, 2018). "Lady Gaga & Bradley Cooper's 'A Star Is Born' Soundtrack Debuts at No. 1 on Billboard 200 Albums Chart". Billboard. Retrieved October 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (October 21, 2018). "'A Star Is Born' Soundtrack Spends Second Week at No. 1 on Billboard 200 Chart". Billboard. Retrieved October 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (October 28, 2018). "'A Star Is Born' Soundtrack Earns Third Week at No. 1 on Billboard 200 Chart, Future & Juice WRLD Debut at No. 2". Billboard. Retrieved October 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ Tuch, Paul (October 15, 2018). "A Star Is Reborn At No. 1 On This Week's Albums Chart". FYIMusicNews. Retrieved October 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ Tuch, Paul (October 22, 2018). "Rap Dominates This Week's Chart, But A Star Is Born Remains No. 1". FYIMusicNews. Retrieved October 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ Tuch, Paul (October 29, 2018). "Ginette Reno, Arkells Debut With Strong Numbers On This Week's Chart". FYIMusicNews. Retrieved October 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ Myers, Justin (October 12, 2018). "Lady Gaga tops Official Albums Chart for fourth time thanks to A Star Is Born". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ Jones, Alan (October 12, 2018). "Charts analysis: A Star Is Born races to No.1". Music Week. Retrieved October 12, 2018. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Ainsley, Helen (October 19, 2018). "Jess Glynne scores second Number 1 album with Always In Between". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 21, 2018.
Jump up ^ Jones, Alan (October 20, 2018). "Charts analysis: Jess Glynne sophomore album races to No.1". Music Week. Retrieved October 22, 2018. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Myers, Justin (October 26, 2018). "Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper score the Official Chart double as Shallow becomes Gaga's fifth UK Number 1". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ Jones, Alan (October 26, 2018). "Charts analysis: A Star Is Reborn on albums chart". Music Week. Retrieved October 27, 2018. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Mapstone, Lucy (October 12, 2018). "Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper top charts with A Star Is Born soundtrack". Irish Independent. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ White, Jack (October 12, 2018). "The A Star Is Born soundtrack bests Twenty One Pilots for Official Irish Albums Chart Number 1". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ White, Jack (October 26, 2018). "Lady Gaga & Bradley Cooper's A Star Is Born holds at Number 1, Dua Lipa returns to Top 3 on the Official Irish Albums Chart". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ruelle, Yohann (October 15, 2018). "Top Albums : Trois Cafés Gourmands détrône Mylène Farmer, Angèle devant Lady Gaga". PureBreak Charts (in French). Retrieved October 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ruelle, Yohann (October 29, 2018). "Top Albums : Johnny Hallyday entre dans l'histoire et fait le triplé, SCH dans le top 5". PureBreak Charts (in French). Retrieved October 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ryan, Gavin (October 14, 2018). "Australian Albums : twenty one pilots 'Trench' Lands At No 1". Noise11. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "A Star Is Born Jumps To #1". Australian Recording Industry Association. October 27, 2018. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "NZ Top 40 Albums Chart". Recorded Music NZ. October 29, 2018. Retrieved October 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "A Star Is Born Soundtrack | Credits". A Star Is Born. Interscope Records. Archived from the original on October 11, 2018. Retrieved October 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Over the Rainbow: BMI Work #21904915". BMI. Retrieved October 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ "A Star Is Born (Without Dialogue)". Spotify. Retrieved October 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Los discos más vendidos: "TRENCH" de TWENTY ONE PILOTS se quedó con en el primer puesto en la semana del 15 al 21 de Octubre". Diario de Cultura (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on October 22, 2018. Retrieved October 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ "ARIA Australian Top 50 Albums". Australian Recording Industry Association. October 29, 2018. Retrieved October 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Soundtrack / Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper – A Star Is Born" (in German). Hung Medien. Retrieved October 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Soundtrack / Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper – A Star Is Born" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Soundtrack / Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper – A Star Is Born" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lady Gaga Chart History (Canadian Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lista prodaje 41. tjedan 2018" (in Croatian). HDU. Retrieved October 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Czech Albums – Top 100". ČNS IFPI. Note: On the chart page, select 201842 on the field besides the word "Zobrazit", and then click over the word to retrieve the correct chart data. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Soundtrack / Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper – A Star Is Born" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved October 19, 2018.
Jump up ^ Nestor, Siim (October 22, 2018). "EESTI TIPP-40 MUUSIKAS: Lenna kihutas koos nubluga, aga". Eesti Ekspress (in Estonian). Retrieved October 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Elokuvamusiikki: A Star Is Born" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland. Retrieved October 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Le Top de la semaine : Top Albums (Week 41, 2018)". Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Soundtrack – A Star Is Born" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official IFPI Charts Top-75 Albums Sales Chart Εβδομάδα: 41/2018" (in Greek). IFPI Greece. Archived from the original on October 29, 2018. Retrieved October 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top 40 album DVD és válogatáslemez-lista – 2018. 42. hét" (in Hungarian). MAHASZ. Retrieved October 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Tonlistinn Vika 42 – 2018" (in Icelandic). Tonlistinn. Archived from the original on October 25, 2018. Retrieved October 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Irish Albums Chart Top 50". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Album – Classifica settimanale WK 42 (dal 2018-10-12 al 2018-10-18)" (in Italian). Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana. Retrieved October 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top 40 Albums uke 42, 2018". VG-lista. Retrieved October 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Oficjalna lista sprzedaży :: OLiS - Official Retail Sales Chart". OLiS. Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry. Retrieved October 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Portuguesecharts.com – Soundtrack / Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper – A Star Is Born". Hung Medien. Retrieved October 28, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Slovak Albums – Top 100". ČNS IFPI. Retrieved October 22, 2018. Note: On the chart page, select SK Albums and "201842" on the field besides the word "Zobrazit", and then click over the word to retrieve the correct chart data.
Jump up ^ "South Africa Top 20" (in Africans). Recording Industry of South Africa. October 27, 2018. Archived from the original on October 29, 2018. Retrieved October 29, 2018. CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
Jump up ^ "South Korea Gaon Album Chart". On the page, select "2018.10.14~2018.10.20" to obtain the corresponding chart. Gaon Chart Retrieved October 25, 2018.
Jump up ^ "South Korea Gaon International Album Chart". On the page, select "2018.10.07~2018.10.13", then "국외", to obtain the corresponding chart. Gaon Chart Retrieved October 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Albumes – Semana 42 (12/10 a 18/10)". Productores de Música de España. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Veckolista Samlingar – Vecka 41, 12 oktober 2018" (in Swedish). Sverigetopplistan. October 12, 2018. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Soundtrack / Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper – A Star Is Born". Hung Medien. Retrieved October 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Soundtrack Albums Chart Top 50". Official Charts Company. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lady Gaga Chart History (Billboard 200)". Billboard. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lady Gaga Chart History (Soundtrack Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lady Gaga Chart History (Top Tastemaker Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved October 26, 2018.
Jump up ^ "A Star Is Born – Official store". Warner Bros. Retrieved September 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "'A Star Is Born (Movie)' Original Soundtrack" (in Japanese). CDJapan. Retrieved October 25, 2018.
External links[edit]
A Star Is Born Music Official website
show
v
t
e
A Star Is Born
Films
1937
1954
1976
2018
Music
1954 soundtrack
"The Man That Got Away"
1976 soundtrack
"Evergreen"
2018 soundtrack
"La Vie en rose"
"Shallow"
"Always Remember Us This Way"
"Is That Alright?"
"I'll Never Love Again"
Related
What Price Hollywood?
show
v
t
e
Lady Gaga
Awards and nominations
Discography
Live performances
Songs
Videography
Studio albums
The Fame
Born This Way
Artpop
Cheek to Cheek
Joanne
Soundtracks
A Star Is Born
Compilations
The Remix
Born This Way: The Remix
Born This Way: The Collection
Extended plays
The Cherrytree Sessions
Hitmixes
The Fame Monster
A Very Gaga Holiday
Concert tours
The Fame Ball Tour
Fame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga
The Monster Ball Tour
Born This Way Ball
ArtRave: The Artpop Ball
Cheek to Cheek Tour
Joanne World Tour
One-off shows
ArtRave
Dive Bar Tour
Residencies
Lady Gaga Live at Roseland Ballroom
Lady Gaga Enigma
Documentaries
Gaga: Five Foot Two
Television
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour: At Madison Square Garden
A Very Gaga Thanksgiving
Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular
Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga: Cheek to Cheek Live!
Super Bowl LI halftime show
Fragrances
Lady Gaga Fame
Eau de Gaga
Bibliography
Lady Gaga x Terry Richardson
Related articles
Aleiodes gaga
Born This Way Foundation
Doll Domination Tour
Gaga (plant)
Gagadon
Haus of Gaga
Joanne Trattoria Cookbook
Lady Gaga: Queen of Pop
"Lisa Goes Gaga"
Meat dress
"Perform This Way"
TechHaus Volantis
Book
Category
Portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_soundtrack)&oldid=866524684"
Categories:
2018 soundtracks
Film soundtracks
Lady Gaga albums
Hidden categories:
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)
CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr)
CS1 Estonian-language sources (et)
CS1 Greek-language sources (el)
CS1 Icelandic-language sources (is)
CS1 Italian-language sources (it)
CS1 maint: Unrecognized language
CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)
CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)
Use mdy dates from October 2018
Articles with hAudio microformats
Track listings with input errors
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Deutsch
Español
Français
한국어
Italiano
Magyar
Polski
Português
Русский
Türkçe
Tiếng Việt
中文
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 30 October 2018, at 21:31 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: p

attrs: colspan class style

values: text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;font-style: italic; background-color: gainsboro

values:
/wiki/Hollywood,_California
mw-redirect
Hollywood, California

values:
/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California
mw-redirect
Los Angeles, California

values:
/wiki/New_York,_New_York
mw-redirect
New York, New York

values:
/wiki/Lukas_Nelson
mw-redirect
Lukas Nelson

values: width: 33%; text-align: center; vertical-align: top; padding: .2em .1em .2em 0

values: width: 33%; text-align: center; vertical-align: top; padding: .2em 0 .2em .1em

values: background: transparent; width: 100%; min-width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse

values: Shallow (Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper song)

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Edit section: Background and development

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: float:right;clear:right;width:24.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:center;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;padding:0;border-spacing:0

values:
/wiki/Rolling_Stone_(magazine)
mw-redirect
Rolling Stone (magazine)

values: List of artists who have achieved simultaneous number-one UK Single and Album

values:
tlheader mbox-text
5
text-align:left;background-color:#fff

values:
/wiki/E.Y._Harburg
mw-redirect
E.Y. Harburg

values: padding:0 10px 0 0;text-align:right;background-color:#eee

values:
tlheader mbox-text
3
text-align:left;background-color:#fff

values: display: none; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);

values: display: none; background-color: rgb(247, 247, 247);

values: tracklist collapsible collapsed mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
col
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers

values: International Federation of the Phonographic Industry

values: Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique

values: Association of Hungarian Record Companies

values: Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry

values:
/wiki/Top_Tastemaker_Albums
mw-redirect
Top Tastemaker Albums

values: wikitable sortable plainrowheaders jquery-tablesorter

values: List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2018

values: List of number-one albums of 2018 (Australia)

values: List of number-one albums of 2018 (Canada)

values: List of number-one albums of 2018 (Ireland)

values: List of number-one hits of 2018 (Switzerland)

values: List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2010s

values: The site requires a paid subscription to access this page.

values:
nofollow
external text
http://lyrics.astarisbornmusic.com

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.webcitation.org/73MkrFMmA

values: Australian Recording Industry Association

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.webcitation.org/73WpXNHry

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.ifpi.gr/charts_el.html

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.webcitation.org/73PWPHStd

values:
nofollow
https://plotutidindi.is/tonlistinn/
external text

values:
/wiki/Polish_Music_Charts
mw-redirect
Polish Music Charts

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.webcitation.org/73XOHaECa

values:
nofollow
http://www.rsg.co.za/
external text

values: Category:CS1 maint: Unrecognized language

values:
nofollow
http://www.sverigetopplistan.se/
external text

values:
nofollow
https://astarisbornmusic.com/
external text

values: Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
Lady_Gaga
fn
font-size:114%;margin:0 4em

values: List of awards and nominations received by Lady Gaga

values:
*Awards_and_nominations
*Discography
*Live_performances
*Songs
*Videography

values:
navbox-abovebelow
2
background: #EEEEEE;

values:
row
navbox-group
width:1%;background: #EEEEEE;

values: Fame Kills: Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga

values: Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular

values: Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga: Cheek to Cheek Live!

values: nowraplinks vcard hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)

values: Category:CS1 Croatian-language sources (hr)

values: Category:CS1 Estonian-language sources (et)

values: Category:CS1 Greek-language sources (el)

values: Category:CS1 Icelandic-language sources (is)

values: Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)

values: Category:CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)

values: Category:CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)

values: Category:Use mdy dates from October 2018

values: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

values: Category:Track listings with input errors

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_soundtrack)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: Ulduz doğuldu (film musiqisi, 2018) – Azerbaijani

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: 스타 이즈 본 (사운드트랙) – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: A Star Is Born (filmzene, 2018) – Hungarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Narodziny gwiazdy (ścieżka dźwiękowa) – Polish

values: A Star Is Born (trilha sonora de 2018) – Portuguese

values: A Star Is Born (саундтрек, 2018) – Russian

values: A Star Is Born (film müziği albümü, 2018) – Turkish

values: A Star Is Born (album nhạc phim) – Vietnamese

values: 一個巨星的誕生 (2018年版原聲帶) – Chinese

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-A_Star_Is_Born_2018_soundtrack rootpage-A_Star_Is_Born_2018_soundtrack skin-vector action-view


text:
Social penetration theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The social penetration theory (SPT) proposes that, as relationships develop, interpersonal communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more intimate ones.[1] The theory was formulated by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor[2] in 1973 to understand relationship development between individuals. Altman and Taylor notes that relationships "involve different levels of intimacy of exchange or degree of social penetration".[3] The social penetration theory is known as an objective theory, meaning that the theory is based on data drawn from experiments, and not from conclusions based on individuals' specific experiences.
The social penetration theory states that the relationship development occurs primarily through self-disclosure, or intentionally revealing personal information such as personal motives or desires, feelings, thoughts, and experiences to others. This theory is also guided by the assumptions that relationship development is systematic and predictable. Through self-disclosure, relationships development follows particular trajectory, moving from superficial layers of exchanges to more intimate ones.[3] Self-disclosure is the major way to bring a relationship to a new level of intimacy.
Contents
[hide]
1 Assumptions
2 Self-disclosure
2.1 Disclosure reciprocity
2.2 Onion metaphor
2.3 Stages
2.4 De-penetration
2.5 Breadth and depth
2.5.1 (1) Breadth
2.5.2 (2) Depth
2.5.3 (3) Relationship between depth and breadth
2.6 Barriers
2.7 Stranger-on-the-train phenomenon
3 Rewards and costs assessment
3.1 Social exchange theory
3.2 Outcome
3.3 Comparison level
3.4 Comparison level of alternatives
4 Applications
4.1 Interpersonal communication
4.1.1 Gender-based difference in self-disclosure
4.1.2 Patient self-disclosure in psychotherapy
4.1.3 Self-disclosure and individuals with social phobia
4.1.4 Server-patron mutual disclosure in restaurant industry
4.2 Organizational communication
4.3 Media-mediated communication
4.3.1 Self-disclosure in reality TV
4.4 Computer-mediated communication
4.4.1 Celebrity's self-disclosure on social media
4.4.2 Social networking
4.4.3 Online dating
4.4.4 Blogging and online chatting
5 Criticism
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Assumptions[edit]
Social penetration theory is based on four basic assumptions.[4] First, relationship development moves from superficial layers to intimate ones. For instance, on a first date, people tend to present their outer images only, talking about hobbies. As the relational development progresses, wider and more controversial topics such as political views are included in the conversations. Second, interpersonal relationships develop in a generally systematic and predictable manner. This assumption indicates the predictability of relationship development. Although it is impossible to foresee the exact and precise path of relational development, there is certain trajectory to follow. As Altman and Taylor note, "People seem to possess very sensitive tuning mechanisms which enable them to program carefully their interpersonal relationships."[3] Third, relational development could move backward, resulting in de-penetration and dissolution. For example, after prolonged and fierce fights, a couple who originally planned to get married may decide to break up and turn to be strangers ultimately. Fourth, self-disclosure is the key to facilitate relationship development. Self-disclosure means disclosing and sharing personal information to others. It enables individuals to know each other and plays a crucial role in determining how far a relationship can go, because gradual exploration of mutual selves is essential in the process of social penetration.[3]
Self-disclosure[edit]
The self-disclosure is a purposeful disclosure of personal information to another person.[5] Disclosure may include sharing both high-risk and low-risk information as well as personal experiences, ideas, attitudes, feelings, values, past facts and life stories, and even future hopes, dreams, ambitions, and goals. In sharing information about themselves, people make choices about what to share and with whom to share it. Altman and Taylor believe that opening inner self to other is the main route to reach to intimate relationships.
As for the speed of self-disclosure, Altman and Taylor were convinced that the process of social penetration moves a lot faster in the beginning stages of a relationship and slows considerably. In other words, penetration is rapid at the start but slows down quickly as the tightly wrapped inner layers are reached. Those who are able to develop a long-term, positive reward/cost outcome are the same people who are able to share important matches of breadth categories. The early reward/cost assessment have a strong impact on the relationship's reactions and involvement, and expectancies in a relationship regarding the future play a major role on the outcome of the relationship.
Disclosure reciprocity[edit]
Self-disclosure is reciprocal, especially in the early stages of relationship development. Disclosure reciprocity is an indispensable component in SPT.[4] Disclosure reciprocity is a process in which when one person reveals personal information of a certain intimacy level, the other person will in turn disclose information of the same level.[6] It is two-way disclosure, or mutual disclosure. Disclosure reciprocity can induce positive and satisfactory feelings and drive forward relational development. This is because as mutual disclosure take place between individuals, they might feel a sense of emotional equity. Disclosure reciprocity occurs when the openness of one person is reciprocated with the same degree of the openness from the other person.[4] For instance, when an individual shares his or her thoughts regarding to sky-rocketing rents in New York City, the other individual expresses his or her views as well.
Onion metaphor[edit]
Social penetration is known for its onion analogy, which implies that self-disclosure is the process of tearing layers or concentric circles away.[4] The onion denotes various layers of personality. It is sometimes called the "onion theory" of personality. Personality is like a multi-layered onion with public self on the outer layer and private self at the core. As time passes and intimacy grows, the layers of one's personality begin to unfold to reveal the core of the person. Three major factors influence self-revelation and begin the process of the onion theory, which are personal characteristics, reward/cost assessments, and the situational context.[7]
Onion Metaphor - Social Penetration Theory
Stages[edit]
The development of relationship is not automatic but rather occurs through the skills of partners in revealing or disclosing first their attitudes and latter their personalities, inner character, and true selves. This is done in a reciprocal manner. The main factor that acts as a catalyst in the development of relationships is proper self disclosure. Altman and Taylor proposes that there are four major stages in social penetration:
Orientation stage: In this first stage, individuals engage in small talk and simple, harmless clichés like, 'Life's like that'. This first stage follows the standards of social desirability and norms of appropriateness.[3] The outer images are presented and peripheral information are exchanged.
Exploratory affective stage: Individuals start to reveal the inner self bit by bit, expressing personal attitudes about moderate topics such as government and education. This may not be the whole truth as individuals are not yet comfortable to lay themselves bare. This is the stage of casual friendship, and many relationships do not go past this stage.
Affective stage: Individuals are getting more comfortable to talk about private and personal matter, and there are some forms of commitment in this stage. Personal idioms, or words and phrases that embody unique meanings between individuals, are used in conversations. Criticism and arguments may arise. A comfortable share of positive and negative reactions occurs in this stage. Relationships become more important to both parties, more meaningful and more enduring. It is a stage of close friendships and intimate partners.[4]
Stable stage: The relationship now reaches a plateau in which some of the deepest personal thoughts, beliefs, and values are shared and each can predict the emotional reactions of the other person. This stage is characterized with complete openness, raw honesty and a high degree of spontaneity.[4]
De-penetration stage (optional): When the relationship starts to break down and costs exceed benefits, then there is a withdrawal of disclosure which leads to termination of the relationship.[8]
De-penetration[edit]
De-penetration is a gradual process of layer-by-layer withdrawal and it cause relationship and intimacy level to move backward and to fade away. According to Altman and Taylor, when de-penetration occurs, "interpersonal exchange should proceed backwards from more to less intimate areas, should decrease in breadth or volume, and, as a result, the total cumulative wedge of exchange should shrink".[3] A warm friendship between two people will deteriorate if they begin to close off areas of their lives that had earlier been opened. Relational retreat takes back of what has earlier been exchanged in the building of a relationship. Relationships are likely to break down not in an explosive argument but in a gradual cooling off of enjoyment and care. What is worth noting is that Tolstedt and Stokes finds that in the de-penetration process, the self-disclosure breadth reduces, while self-disclosure depth increases.[9] It is because when intimate relationship is dissolving, a wide range of judgments, feelings and evaluations, particularly the negative ones, are involved in conversations.[9]
Breadth and depth[edit]
Both depth and breadth are related to the onion model. As the wedge penetrates the layers of the onion, the degree of intimacy (depth) and the range of areas in an individual's life that an individual chooses to share (breadth) increases.
(1) Breadth[edit]
The breadth of penetration is the range of areas in an individual's life being disclosed, or the range of topics discussed. For instance, one segment could be family, a specific romantic relationship, or academic studies. Each of these segments or areas are not always accessed at the same time. One could be completely open about a family relationship while hiding an aspect of a romantic relationship for various reasons such as abuse or disapproval from family or friends. It takes genuine intimacy with all segments to be able to access all areas of breadth at all times.[10]
(2) Depth[edit]
The depth of penetration is a degree of intimacy. This does not necessarily refer to sexual activity, but how open and close someone can become with another person despite their anxiety over self-disclosure. Doing this will give the person more trust in the relationship and make them want to talk about deeper things that would be discussed in normal, everyday conversation. This could be through friendship, family relationships, peers, and even romantic relationships with either same-sex or opposite-sex partners.
How do people move to deeper intimacy levels? When talking with one person over time, someone could make more topics to talk about so the other person will start to open up and express what they feel about the different issues and topics. This helps the first person to move closer to getting to know the person and how they react to different things. This is applicable when equal intimacy is involved in friendship, romance, attitudes and families.
(3) Relationship between depth and breadth[edit]
It is possible to have depth without breadth and even breadth without depth. For instance, depth without breadth could be where only one area of intimacy is accessed. "A relationship that could be depicted from the onion model would be a summer romance. This would be depth without breadth." On the other hand, breadth without depth would be simple everyday conversations. An example would be when passing by an acquaintance and saying, "Hi, how are you?" without ever really expecting to stop and listen to what this person has to say is common. To get to the level of breadth and depth, both parties have to work on their social skills and how they present themselves to people. They have to be willing to open up and talk to each other and express themselves. One person could share some information about their personal life and see how the other person responds. If they do not want to open up the first time, the first person has to keep talking to the second person and have many conversations to get to the point where they both feel comfortable enough for them to want to talk to each other about more personal topics.
The relationship between breadth and depth can be similar to that used in technology today. Pennington describes in a study that
"... With a click of the mouse to accept them as a "friend" roommates across the country can learn: relationships status (single, engaged, it's complicated), favorite movies, books, TV shows, religious views, political views, and a whole lot more if someone takes the time to fill out an entire Facebook profile"[11]
Because of social media sites like Facebook, the breadth of subjects can be wide, as well as the depth of those using the platforms. Users of these platforms seem to feel obligated to share simple information as was listed by Pennington, but also highly personal information that can now be considered general knowledge. Because of social media platforms and user's willingness to share personal information, the law of reciprocity is thrown out the window in favor of divulging personal information to countless followers/friends without them sharing the same level of vulnerability in return. In cases like this, there is depth without much breadth.[11]
Barriers[edit]
Several factors can affect the amount of self-disclosure between partners: gender, race, religion, personality, social status and ethnic background. For example, some cultures, like the Japanese, value personal privacy more than others. Therefore, a Japanese person may not self-disclose nearly as much or as enthusiastically as, say, a French person. Partners who come from different religious backgrounds may hesitate to share thoughts or attitudes that concern matters of faith. Men often refrain from expressing deep emotions out of fear of social stigma. Such barriers can slow the rate of self-disclosure and even prevent relationships from forming. In theory, the more dissimilar two people are, the more difficult or unlikely self-disclosure becomes.
Stranger-on-the-train phenomenon[edit]
Most of the time individuals engage in self-disclosure strategically, carefully evaluating what to disclose and what to be reserved, since disclosing too much in the early stage of relationship is generally considered as inappropriate, which can end or suffocate a relationship. Whereas, in certain contexts, self-disclosure does not follow the pattern. This exception is known as "stranger-on-the-train (or plane or bus)" phenomenon, in which individuals reveal personal information with complete strangers in public spaces rapidly.[4] For instance, on a night coach from London to Paris, two individuals sitting next to each other may start conversation very soon, and somehow a wide range of topics including controversial and very personal ones may be discussed. In such situations, self-disclosure is spontaneous rather than strategic. This specific concept can be known as verbal leakage, which is defined by Floyd as "unintentionally telling another person something about yourself".[12] Social Penetration Theory operates under the impression that the self-disclosure given is not only truthful, meaning the speaker believes what is being said to be true, but intentional.[13] Self-disclosure can be defined as "the voluntary sharing of personal history, preferences, attitudes, feelings, values, secrets, etc., with another person".[14] The information given in any relationship, whether acquaintance or a well-established relationship, should be voluntarily shared, otherwise it does not follow the laws of reciprocity, and would fall under the verbal leakage umbrella, or the stranger-on-the-train phenomenon.[13] It is still a puzzle why such instant intimacy could occur. Some researchers argue that revealing our inner self to complete strangers is deemed as "cathartic exercise" or "service of confession", which allows individuals to unload emotions and express deeper thoughts without being haunted by the potential unfavorable comments or judgements.[15] This is because people tend to take lightly and dismiss responses from strangers, who do not really matter in their lives. Some researcher suggests that this phenomenon occurs because individuals feel less vulnerable to open up to strangers who they are not expected to see again.[16]
Rewards and costs assessment[edit]
Social exchange theory[edit]
Further information: Social exchange theory
Social exchange theory states that humans weigh each relationship and interaction with another human on a reward cost scale without realizing it. If the interaction was satisfactory, then that person or relationship is looked upon favorably. But if an interaction was unsatisfactory, then the relationship will be evaluated for its costs compared to its rewards or benefits. People try to predict the outcome of an interaction before it takes place. Coming from a scientific standpoint, Altman and Taylor were able to assign letters as mathematical representations of costs and rewards. They also borrowed the concepts from Thibaut and Kelley's in order to describe the relation of costs and rewards of relationships. Thibaut and Kelley's key concepts of relational outcome, relational satisfaction, and relational stability serve as the foundation of Irwin and Taylor's rewards minus costs, comparison level, and comparison level of alternatives.
A major factor of disclosure is an individual calculation in direct relation to benefits of the relationship at hand. Each calculation is unique in its own way because every person prefers different things and therefore will give different responses to different questions.
An example of how rewards and costs can influence behaviour is if an individual were to ask another individual on a date. If they say 'yes', then the first individual has gained a reward, making them more likely to repeat this action. However, if they reply with 'No', then they have received a punishment which in turn would stop them from repeating an action like that in the future. The more someone discloses to their partner, the greater the intimacy reward will be. When the individuals involved in the relationship hold positive values in this calculation, intimacy proceeds at an accelerated rate. In the relationship, if both parties are dyad, the cost exceeds the rewards. The relationship then will slow considerably, and future intimacy is less likely to happen. The basic formula in which some can process this in most situations is: Behaviour (profits) = Rewards of interaction − costs of interaction.
Outcome[edit]
This means that people want to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs when they are in a relationship with somebody. According to Altman and Taylor, relationships are sustained when they are relatively rewarding when the outcome is positive and discontinued when they are relatively costly (when the outcome is negative).
Outcome = Rewards − Costs
A positive result will in return result in more disclosure.
Comparison level[edit]
The first standard that we use to evaluate the outcomes of a situation is comparison level. As defined by Thibaut and Kelley, comparison level is the standard by which individuals evaluate the desirability of group membership. A group is defined as "two or more interdependent individuals who influence one another through social interaction". In this instance, the group refers to a dyadic relationship, but it can really be extended to any type of group. "A person's comparison level (CL) is the threshold above which an outcome seems attractive". That is, when groups fall above the CL they are seen as being satisfying to the individual, and when they fall below the CL they are seen as being unsatisfying. We take an average of outcomes from the past as a benchmark to determine what makes us happy or sad so that we may develop the threshold, or comparison level, in which an outcome appears attractive. Past experiences shape one's thoughts and feelings about developing relationships, and in this way, an individual's CL is very much influenced by these previous relationships.
Comparison level of alternatives[edit]
A person's CL is the threshold above which an outcome appears attractive. Comparison level only predicts when we are satisfied with membership in a given relationship, or group. Therefore, Thibaut and Kelley also say that people use a comparison level for alternatives to evaluate their outcomes. Basically, CLalt is determined by "the worst outcome a person will accept and still stay in a relationship." As such, comparison level for alternatives is a better predictor for whether or not a person will join or leave a relationship, or group. However, even if a relationship is unhealthy, a person might choose to remain in it because it is better than what they perceive the real world to be. Trends and sequences are one of the major factors when evaluating a relationship.
Applications[edit]
Interpersonal communication[edit]
The value of social penetration theory initially lies in the area of interpersonal communication. Scholars have been using the concepts and onion model to explore the development of counter-sex/romantic relationships, friendships, parent-child relationships, employer-employee relationships, and caregiver-patient relationships and beyond. Some of the key findings are described as follows.
Researchers have found out that in parent-child relationships, information derived from the child's spontaneous disclosure in daily activities was most closely connected to generating and maintaining his/her trust in parents, indicating the importance of developing shallow but broad relationships with children through everyday conversation rather than long-lasting profound lectures (Kerr, Stattin & Trost, 1999). Scholars also use this theory to examine other factors influencing the social penetration process in close friendships. As Mitchell and William (1987) put it, ethnicity and sex do have impact on the friendship foster. The survey results indicates that more breadth of topics occurs in penetration process in black friendship than white.[17] Regarding the caregiver-patient relationship, developing a social penetrated relationship with institution disclosed breadth and depth information and multiple effective penetration strategies is critical to the benefits of the patients (Yin & Lau, 2005). Nurses could apply the theory into daily interactions with patients, as doctors could in their articulations when consulting or announcing.
In addition, the relationship between nonverbal behavior and the social penetration process has been of interest. A study conducted among university drama student actresses discovers that casual acquaintances discussing intimate topics tended to use more intensive nonverbal behaviors than good friends do (Keiser & Altman, 1976).
Gender-based difference in self-disclosure[edit]
Research demonstrates that there are significant gender differences in self-disclosure, particularly emotional self-disclosure, or expressing personal feelings and emotions, such as "Sometimes, I feel lonely to study abroad and to be away from my family."[6] Emotional self-disclosure is at core of intimate relationship developments, because unlike factual (descriptive) self-disclosure, or sharing superficial self-relevant facts, such as "I'm studying abroad in Japan", it is more personal and more effective to cultivate intimacy.[18] Emotional self-disclosure makes individuals "transparent" and vulnerable to others.[6] According to previous studies, females are more socially oriented, whereas males are more task-oriented, and thus females are believed to be more socially interdependent than males.[19] This is one of the reasons that contributes to the gender difference in self-disclosure. In friendship between females, emotional attachments such as sharing emotions, thoughts, experiences, and supports are at the core, while friendships between males tend to focus on activities and companionships.[6] Overall, women's friendships are described as more intimate than men's friendship.
In addition, there is a gender difference regarding to topics revealed. Men tend to disclose their strengths. On the contrary, women disclose their fear more.[6] Both men and women are prone to disclose their emotions to the same-sex friends more, but women are prone to reveal more than men to both same-sex as well as cross-sex friends.[16] What is worth noting is that according to a research conducted among Pakistan students, women extensively disclose their feelings, while emotions such as depression, anxiety and fear are more likely being disclosed to male friends, because men are perceived as more capable to deal with such emotions.[6]
Patient self-disclosure in psychotherapy[edit]
Patient self-disclosure has been a prominent issue in therapy, particularly in psychotherapy. Early studies have shown that patients' self-disclosure is positively related to treatment outcomes.[16] Freud is a pioneer in encouraging his patients to totally open up in psychotherapy.[16] Many early clinical innovations, such as lying on the couch and therapist's silence, are aimed to create an environment, an atmosphere, that allows patients to disclose their deepest self, and free them from concerns facilitating conscious suppression of emotions or memories.[16] Nonetheless, even with such efforts, as Barry A. Farber puts it, in psychotherapy "full disclosure is more of an ideal than an actuality."[16] Patients are prone to reveal certain topics to the therapists, such as disliked characteristics of self, social activities, as well as relationship with friends and significant ones; while tend to avoid discussing certain issues, such as sexual-oriented experiences, immediately experienced negative reactions (e.g feeling misunderstood or confused) due to conscious inhibition.[16]
In psychotherapy, patients have to deal with the tension between confessional relief and confessional shame all the time.[16] It has been shown that length of therapy and the strength of the therapeutic alliance are two major factors that affect self-disclosure in psychotherapy.[16] As social penetration theory indicates, the longer patients spent time with their therapists, the broader becomes the range of issues being discussed, and more topics are marked with depth.[16] The greater the depth of the discussions, the more likely the patient feels being vulnerable. Therefore, the trust built over time among the patient and the therapist is essential to reach a mode of deep discussion. Therapeutic alliance is the bond between the patient and the therapist. To strengthen the alliance, cultivating a comfortable atmosphere for self-disclosure and self-discovery, is important.[16]
Self-disclosure and individuals with social phobia[edit]
Social phobia, or social anxiety disorder (SAD), is a disorder in which individuals are experienced with overwhelming levels of fear in social situations and interactions. Individuals with social phobia tend to adopt strategic avoidance of social interactions, which makes it challenging for them to disclose themselves to others and reveal emotions. Self-disclosure is the key to foster intimate relationship, in which individuals can receive needed social supports. Close friendship and romantic relationship are two major sources for social supports, which have protective effect and play a crucial role in helping individuals with social phobia to cope with distress.[20] Due to the profound impacts of the anxiety disorder, it has been found that late marriage or staying unmarried for the lifetime is prevailing among population with social phobia.[20] This is problematic, because being unable to gain needed social supports from intimate ones further confines the social phobic in the loneliness and depression that they have been suffering from.[20] In response to the problem, Sparrevohn and Rapee suggest that improving communication skill, particularly self-disclosure and emotional expression, should be included in future social phobia treatment, so the life quality of individuals with social phobia can be improved.[20]
Server-patron mutual disclosure in restaurant industry[edit]
As social penetration theory suggests, disclosure reciprocity induces positive emotion which is essential for retaining close and enduring relationships. In service industry, compared with securing new customers, maintaining long-term relationships with existing customers is more cost-effective.[19] Therefore, engaging with current customers is a crucial topic in restaurant industry. Hwang et al. indicates that mutual disclosure is the vital factor for establishing trust between customers and servers.[21] Effective server disclosure, such as sincere advice about menu choices and personal favorite dishes, can elicit reciprocity of information exchange between servers and customers. The received information regarding to the taste and preference of the customers then can be used to provide tailored services, which in turn can positively strengthen customers' trust, commitment and loyalty toward the restaurant.[19]
Hwang et al. suggest that server disclosure is more effective to evoke customer disclosure in female customers, who are more likely to reveal personal information than their male counterparts.[19] In addition, studies have shown that factors such as expertise (e.g. servers' knowledge and experience), customer-oriented attribute (e.g. listening to the concerns from the customers attentively), as well as marital status influence mutual disclosure in the restaurant setting. Expertise is positively correlated to both customer and server disclosure.[21] Server disclosure is only effective in inducing disclosure and positive feelings from unmarried patrons who are more welcome to have a conversation with the servers.[21]
Organizational communication[edit]
The ideas posited by the theory have been researched and re-examined by scholars when looking at organizational communication. Some scholars explored the arena of company policy making, demonstrating that the effect company policies have on the employees, ranging from slight attitudinal responses (such as dissatisfaction) to radical behavioral reactions (such as conflicts, fights and resignation). In this way, sophisticated implementation of controversial policies is required (Baack, 1991). Social penetration theory offers a framework allowing for an explanation of the potential issues.
Media-mediated communication[edit]
Self-disclosure in reality TV[edit]
Reality TV shows are gaining popularity in the last decades, and the trend is still growing. Reality TV is a genre that is characterized with real-life situations and very intimate self-disclosure in the shows.Self-disclosure in reality show can be considered as self-disclosure by media characters and the relationship between the audience and the media character is parasocial.[22]
In reality show, self-disclosure are usually delivered in the form of a monologue, which is similar real-life self-disclosure and gives the audience the illusion that the messages are directed to them.[22] According to social penetration theory, self-disclosure should follow certain stages, moving from the superficial layers to the central layers gradually. Nonetheless, rapid self-disclorue of intimate layers is a norm in reality TV shows, and unlike in interpersonal interactions, viewers prefer early intimate disclosure and such disclosure leads to liking rather than inducing uncomfortable feeling.[22] Heavy viewers are more accustomed to the norm of early intimate disclosure, because provocative stimuli and voyeuristic are what they are searching for in such shows.[22]
Computer-mediated communication[edit]
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) can be thought of as another way in which people can develop relationships. The Internet has been thought to broaden the way people communicate and build relationships by providing a medium in which people could be open-minded and unconventional and circumvent traditional limitations like time and place. (Yum & Hara, 2005)
Some theorists[who?] find this concept impossible and there are barriers to this idea. Since there are risks and there is usually more uncertainty about whether the person on the other side of the computer is being real and truthful, or deceitful and manipulative for one reason or another there is no possible way to build a relationship. A lack of face-to-face communication can cause heightened skepticism and doubt. Since this is possible, there is no chance to make a long-lasting and profound connection.
However, there are other researchers who have found that self-disclosure online tends to reassure people that if they are rejected, at least it’s more likely to be by strangers and not family or friends; thus, reinforcing the desire to self-disclose online, rather than face-to-face. (Panos, 2014)[23] Not only are people meeting new people to make friends, but many people are meeting and initiating romantic relationships online. (Yum & Hara, 2005) In another study, it was found that "CMC dyads compensated for the limitations of the channel by making their questions more intimate than those who exhibited face-to-face" (Sheldon, 2009).
Celebrity's self-disclosure on social media[edit]
Social media has turned to be a crucial platform for celebrities to engage with their followers. On social medias, the boundaries between interpersonal and mass communication is blurred, and parasocial interaction (PSI) is adopted strategically by celebrities to enhance liking, intimacy and credibility from their followers.[24] As Ledbetter and Redd notes, "During PSI, people interact with a media figure, to some extent, as if they were in an actual interpersonal relationships with the target entity."[24] For celebrities, professional self-disclosure (e.g. information as to upcoming events) and personal self-disclosure (e.g. emotions and feelings) are two primary ways to cultivate illusory intimacy with their followers and to expand their fan bases. What is worth noting is that unlike in real-life interpersonal relationship, disclosure reciprocity is not expected in parasocial interactions, although through imagined interactions on social medias, followers do feel they are connected to the media figures.[18]
Social networking[edit]
Self-disclosure has been studied when it comes to face-to-face interactions. Since social networking sites are relatively new phenomena, there are not as many studies done about how people disclose information online compared to a one-on-one interaction. There have been surveys conducted about how social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, LinkedIn, hi5, myyearbook, or Friendster affect interactions between human beings. On Facebook, users are able to determine their level and degree of self-disclosure by setting their privacy settings (McCarthy, 2009).[25] People achieve the breadth via posting about their everyday lives and sharing surface information while developing intimate relationships with great depth by sending private Facebook messages and creating closed groups.
There was a study done about the connection on how couples or other romantic relationships have trust, commitment, and affection towards each other and the amount of self-disclosure each person gives to the one another. There are several criteria to the study. One important is how the couple met. If they met before talking over the Internet, they are more likely to reveal personal information due to the higher levels of trust. According to Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna (1985) the best way to be able to trust someone is to be able to foretell or calculate how another person will act or react to any given information. In other words, we are more probable to release information about ourselves if we can predict the behavior of the other person.
"The hyperpersonal perspective suggests that the limited cues in CMC are likely to result in over attribution and exaggerated or idealized perceptions of others and that those who meet and interact via CMC use such limited cues to engage in optimized or selective self-presentation". (Walther, 1996) In other words, there could be deceitful or dishonest intents involved from people on the Internet. There is the possibility that someone could mislead another person because there are more opportunities to build a more desirable identity without fear of persecution. If there is no chance of ever meeting the person on the other end of the computer, then there is a high risk of falsifying information and credentials.
Other theorists such as Rubin and Bargh say that because of the blockade of the computer, it increases how likely people are to be true and honest about themselves. There is also the idea that there will not be any fear of consequences for less than respectable decisions made in the past. Computer-mediated communication has also been thought to even speed up the intimacy process because computers allow individual communication to be more, rather than less, open and accommodating about the characteristics of the person or persons involved. Both ideas and types of theories can be proven and disproven, but it all depends on how an individual uses and or abuses computer-mediated communication.
Research has also been done to see what types of people tend to benefit most from online self-disclosure. The "social compensation" or "poor-get-richer" hypothesis (Sheldon, 2009) suggests that those who have poor social networks and social anxiety can get more benefit by disclosing themselves freely and creating new relationships through the Internet (Sheldon, 2009). We can see from this that those who may be more introverted are more likely to disclose information on the internet. They find that it is a safe space, and it takes away the factor of having to speak in front of groups of people. However, other research has been done to prove that extraverts are more likely to disclose information online. This brings in the "rich-get-richer" hypothesis (Sheldon, 2009) that states that "the Internet primarily benefits extraverted individuals...[and] online communication...increases the opportunities for extraverted adolescents to make friends... [the research concluded that] extraverted individuals disclosed more online than introverted" (Sheldon, 2009).
Online dating[edit]
Some scholars posit that when initiating a romantic relationship, there are important differences between internet dating sites and other spaces, such as the depth and breadth of the self-disclosed information taken place before they go further to one-on-one conversation (Monica, 2007).[26] Studies have shown that in real life, adolescents tend to engage in sexual disclosure according to the level of relationship intimacy, which supports the social penetration model; but in cyberspace, men present a stronger willingness and interest to communicate without regarding the current intimacy status or degree (Yang, Yang & Chiou, 2010).[27] There are also many counter-examples of the theory that exist in romantic relationship development. Some adolescents discuss the most intimate information when they first meet online or have sex without knowing each other thoroughly. Contrary to the path stated by social penetration theory, the relationship would have developed from the core – the highest depth – to the superficial surface of large breadth. In this way, sexual disclosure on the part of adolescents under certain circumstances departs from the perspective of the social penetration theory.
Blogging and online chatting[edit]
With the advent of Internet, blogs and online chatrooms have appeared all over the globe. There are personal bloggers and professional bloggers – those who write blog posts for a company they work for. Generally, those who blog on a professional level don’t disclose personal information. They only disclose information relative to the company they work for. However, those who blog on a personal level have also made a career out of their blogging – there are many who are making money for sharing their lives with the world.
According to Jih-Hsin Tang, Cheng-Chung Wang, bloggers tend to have significantly different patterns of self-disclosure for different target audiences. The online survey which involved 1027 Taiwanese bloggers examined the depth and breath of what bloggers disclosed to the online audience, best friend and parents as well as nine topics they revealed.[28] Tang and Wang (2012), based on their research study on the relationship between the social penetration theory and blogging, discovered that "bloggers disclose their thoughts, feelings, and experiences to their best friends in the real world the deepest and widest, rather than to their parents and online audiences. Bloggers seem to express their personal interests and experiences in a wide range of topics online to document their lives or to maintain their online social networks." As we can see, blogging is another medium that we can use to understand social penetration theory in today's world. Regarding online chat, research conducted by Dietz-Uhler, Bishop Clark and Howard shows that "once a norm of self-disclosure forms, it is reinforced by statements supportive of self-disclosures but not of non-self disclosures".[29]
Criticism[edit]
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (March 2014)
The scope of the theory is limited[4]
Theory not fully supported by data[citation needed]
Highest reciprocity may occur at middle levels; may be cycles of disclosure and reserve[citation needed]
Needs take account of gender (males less open)[citation needed]
Disclosure can increase as relationship deteriorates[citation needed]
Single comparison (CL) index too simplistic[citation needed]
In close relationships, self-centeredness lessens[citation needed]
Onion metaphor: sexual; disclosure is active, usually symmetrical; self is not simply revealed but is constructed[citation needed]
The original theory did not account for gender differences in vulnerability, but later research concludes that males are less open than females.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Personal boundaries
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Griffin, E. (2011). A first look at communication theory. (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ "Dalmas Taylor, University Administrator, Dies at 64". Washington Post. January 29, 1998. Retrieved July 3, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Altman, I. & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New York: Holt.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h West, Richard (2013). Introducing Communication Theory-Analysis and Application, 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0073534282.
Jump up ^ Howard, S. (2011). A Primer on Communication and Communicative Disorders. (1st Edition). "a Primer on communication studies, Howard, S. (2001)".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Sultan, Sarwat; Chaudry, Huma (2008). "Gender-based Differences in the Patterns of Emotional Self-disclosure". Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research. 23: 107–122.
Jump up ^ Infante, D. A., cancer, A. S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building Communication Theory. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Changing Minds, Straker, D (2002-2013)".
^ Jump up to: a b Tolstedt, Betsy E.; Stokes, Joseph P. (1984). "Self-disclosure, intimacy and the de-penetration process". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 46: 84–90. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.1.84.
Jump up ^ "Social Penetration, Straker, D (2002-2013)".
^ Jump up to: a b Pennington, N. (2008). Will you be my friend: Facebook as a model for the evolution of the social penetration theory. Conference Papers --National Communication Association, 1.
Jump up ^ Floyd, K. (2011). Interpersonal Communication (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
^ Jump up to: a b Floyd, K. (2011). Interpersonal Communication (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Jump up ^ Griffin, E. A., Ledbetter, A., & Sparks, G. G. (2015). A First Look at Communication Theory (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Jump up ^ Hensley, Wayne E. (1996). "A Theory of the Valenced Other: the Intersection of the Looking-glass-self and Social Penetration". Social Behavior and Personality. 24: 293–308. doi:10.2224/sbp.1996.24.3.293.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Farber, Barry A. (2003). "Patient Self-Disclosure: A Review of the Research". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 59: 589–600. doi:10.1002/jclp.10161.
Jump up ^ Hammer, M. R; Gudykunst, W. B (1987). "Hammer, M. R., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1987). The influence of ethnicity and sex on social penetration in close friendships. Journal of Black Studies, 418-437.". Journal of Black Studies. 17: 418–437. doi:10.1177/002193478701700403.
^ Jump up to: a b Kim, Jihyun (2016). "Celebrity's Self-disclosure on Twitter and Parasocial Relationships: a Mediating Role of Social Presence". Computers in Human Behavior. 62: 570–577. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.083.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hwang, Jinsoon; Han, Heesup; Kim, Seongseop (2014). "How Can Employees Engage Customers? Application of Social Penetration Theory to the Full-service Restaurant Industry by Gender". International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 27: 1117–1134. doi:10.1108/ijchm-03-2014-0154.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sparrevohn, Roslyn M.; Rapee, Ronald M. (2009). "Self-disclosure, emotional expression and intimacy within romantic relationships of people with social phobia". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 47: 1074–1078. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.07.016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hwang, Jinsoo; Kim, Samuel Seongseop; Hyun, Sunghyup Sean (2013). "The role of server-patron mutual disclosure in the formation of rapport with and revisit intentions of patrons at full-service restaurants: The moderating roles of marital status and educational level". International Journal of Hospitality Management. 33: 64–75. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.01.006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Tal-Or, Nurit; Hershman-Shitrit, Michal (2015). "Self-Disclosure and the Liking of Participants in Reality TV: Self-Disclosure in Reality TV". Human Communication Research. 41: 245–267. doi:10.1111/hcre.12047.
Jump up ^ Panos, Dionysis (2014). "I on the Web: Social Penetration Theory Revisited". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences: 185–205. doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n19p185.
^ Jump up to: a b Ledbetter, Andrew M.; Redd, Shawn M. (2016). "Celebrity Credibility on Social Media: A Conditional Process Analysis of Online Self-Disclosure Attitude as a Moderator of Posting Frequency and Parasocial Interaction". Western Journal of Communication. 80: 601–618. doi:10.1080/10570314.2016.1187286.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, A. "Social penetration theory and facebook" (PDF). Retrieved 22 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Whitty (2008). "Revealing the 'real'me, searching for the 'actual'you: Presentations of self on an internet dating site". Computers in Human Behavior. 24 (4): 1707–1723. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.07.002.
Jump up ^ Yang, M.L; Yang,C.C; Chiou,W.B (2010). "Differences in Engaging in Sexual Disclosure Between Real Life and Cyberspace Among Adolescents: Social Penetration Model Revisited.". Current Psychology. 29 (2): 144–154. doi:10.1007/s12144-010-9078-6.
Jump up ^ Tang, Jih-Hsin; Cheng-Chung Wang (2012). "Self-Disclosure Among Bloggers: Re-Examination of Social Penetration Theory". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 5. 15: 245–250. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0403.
Jump up ^ B, Dietz-Uhler; Bishop Clark C; Howard E (2005). "Formation of and Adherence to A Self-disclosure Norm in an Online Chat". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 8: 114–120. doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.114.
Further reading[edit]
Thibaut, J. W. & Kelley, H. H. (1952). The social psychology of groups. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Altman, I.; Vinsel, A.; Brown, B. (1981). "Dialectic conceptions in social psychology: An application to social penetration and privacy regulation". Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 14: 107–160. doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60371-8.
Berg, J (1984). "Development of friendship between roommates". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 46: 346–356. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.2.346.
Griffin, Em. (2009). A first look at communication theory. NY, Ny: McGraw-Hill. p. 114.
Petronio, S. (2002). Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure. SUNY Albany.
Shafer, M. (November 18, 1999). Social penetration theory.
Taylor, D.; Altman, I. (1975). "Self-disclosure as a function of reward-cost outcomes". Sociometry. 38: 18–31. PMID 1124400. doi:10.2307/2786231.
VanLear, C. A. (1987). "The formation of social relationships: A longitudinal study of social penetration". Human Communication Research. 13: 299–322. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1987.tb00107.x.
VanLear, C. A. (1991). "Testing a cyclical model of communicative openness in relationship development: Two longitudinal studies". Communication Monographs. 58: 337–361. doi:10.1080/03637759109376235.
Werner, C.; Altman, I.; Brown, B. B. (1992). "A transactional approach to interpersonal relations: Physical environment, social context and temporal qualities". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 9: 297–323. doi:10.1177/0265407592092008.
Yum, Y. K.; Hara, K. (2005). "Computer-mediated relationship development: A cross-cultural comparison". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 11 (1): 133–152. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.tb00307.x.
Pennington, N. (2008). "Will You Be My Friend: Facebook as a model for the evolution of the social penetration theory". National Communication Association.
Sheldon, P. (2009). ""I'll poke you. You'll poke me!" Self-disclosure, social attraction, predictability and trust as important predictors of Facebook relationships". Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. 3 (2): article 1.
Paul DiMaggio; Eszter Hargittai; W. Russell Neuman; John P. Robinson (2001). "Social Implications of the Internet" (PDF). Annual Review of Sociology. 27: 307–336. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.307.
Arun Jacob (November 11, 2009). "Social Penetration Theory".
"Social Penetration Theory". ChangingMinds.org. Retrieved July 3, 2016.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_penetration_theory&oldid=802519369"
Categories:
Interpersonal communication
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2014
Articles needing cleanup from March 2014
All pages needing cleanup
Articles with sections that need to be turned into prose from March 2014
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Русский
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 September 2017, at 17:43.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

attrs: href title

value: sup

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Edit section: (3) Relationship between depth and breadth

values: Edit section: Stranger-on-the-train phenomenon

values: Edit section: Rewards and costs assessment

values: Edit section: Comparison level of alternatives

values: Edit section: Interpersonal communication

values: Edit section: Gender-based difference in self-disclosure

values: Edit section: Patient self-disclosure in psychotherapy

values: Edit section: Self-disclosure and individuals with social phobia

values:
/wiki/Social_phobia
mw-redirect
Social phobia

values: Edit section: Server-patron mutual disclosure in restaurant industry

values: Edit section: Organizational communication

values: Edit section: Media-mediated communication

values: Edit section: Self-disclosure in reality TV

values:
/wiki/Reality_TV_show
mw-redirect
Reality TV show

values: Edit section: Computer-mediated communication

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2014)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values: Edit section: Celebrity's self-disclosure on social media

values:
/wiki/Social_networking_sites
mw-redirect
Social networking sites

values:
/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)
mw-redirect
Trust (social sciences)

values: Edit section: Blogging and online chatting

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:Embedded_list
mw-redirect
Wikipedia:Embedded list

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Prose

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2224%2Fsbp.1996.24.3.293

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjclp.10161

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2016.03.083

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1108%2Fijchm-03-2014-0154

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brat.2009.07.016

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijhm.2013.01.006

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1111%2Fhcre.12047

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.5901%2Fmjss.2014.v5n19p185

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2007.07.002

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1089%2Fcyber.2011.0403

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1089%2Fcpb.2005.8.114

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1124400

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2786231

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2014

values: Category:Articles needing cleanup from March 2014

values: Category:Articles with sections that need to be turned into prose from March 2014

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Social_penetration_theory
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Теория социального проникновения – Russian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Social_penetration_theory rootpage-Social_penetration_theory skin-vector action-view