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List of NBA champions
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hideNational Basketball Association awards and honors
Championship
O'Brien Trophy
Brown Trophy (defunct)
Individual awards
All-Star Game MVP
Bill Russell Finals MVP
Coach of the Year
Defensive Player of the Year
Executive of the Year
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship
Community Assist Award
Most Improved Player
Most Valuable Player
Rookie of the Year
Sixth Man of the Year
Sportsmanship Award
Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year
Lifetime Achievement Award
Honors
All-NBA Team
All-Rookie Team
All-Defensive Team
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The National Basketball Association (NBA) (formerly Basketball Association of America (BAA) from 1946 to 1949) Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the NBA's postseason. All Finals have been played in a best-of-seven format, and contested between the winners of the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference (formerly Divisions before 1970), except in 1950 in which the Eastern Division champion faced the winner between the Western and Central Division champions. Prior to 1949, the playoffs were instituted a three-stage tournament where the two semifinal winners played each other in the finals.[1][2][3] The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
The home-and-away format in the NBA Finals is in a 2–2–1–1–1 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 5 and 7) during 1947–1948, 1950–1952, 1957–1970, 1972–1974, 1976–1977, 1979–1984, 2014–present. It was previously in a 2–3–2 format (the team with the better regular season record plays on their home court in Games 1, 2, 6 and 7) during 1949, 1953–1955, and 1985–2013,[4][5][6][7][8][9] in a 1–1–1–1–1–1–1 format during 1956 and 1971[10][11] and in a 1–2–2–1–1 format during 1975 and 1978.[12][13]
The Eastern Conference/Division leads the Western Conference/Division in series won (38–32). The defunct Central Division won one championship. The Boston Celtics and the Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers alone own almost half of the titles, having won a combined 33 of 70 championships.
Contents
[hide]
1 Champions
2 Results by teams
3 Notes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Champions
Numbers in parentheses in the table are NBA Finals appearances as of the date of that NBA Finals, and are used as follows:
Winning team and losing team columns indicate the conference (or division, prior to 1971), number of appearances in an NBA Finals, and each respective teams' NBA Finals record to date.
Year
Winning team
Coach
Games
Losing team
Coach
Ref
1947 Philadelphia Warriors (1, 1–0) Gottlieb, EddieEddie Gottlieb 4–1 Chicago Stags (1, 0–1) Olsen, HaroldHarold Olsen [14]
1948 Baltimore Bullets (1, 1–0) Jeannette, BuddyBuddy Jeannette 4–2 Philadelphia Warriors (2, 1–1) Eddie Gottlieb [15]
1949 Minneapolis Lakers (W) (1, 1–0) Kundla, JohnJohn Kundla 4–2 Washington Capitols (E) (1, 0–1) Auerbach, RedRed Auerbach [16]
1950 Minneapolis Lakers (C) (2, 2–0) John Kundla 4–2 Syracuse Nationals (E) (1, 0–1) Cervi, AlAl Cervi [17]
1951 Rochester Royals (W) (1, 1–0) Harrison, LesLes Harrison 4–3 New York Knicks (E) (1, 0–1) Lapchick, JoeJoe Lapchick [18]
1952 Minneapolis Lakers (W) (3, 3–0) John Kundla 4–3 New York Knicks (E) (2, 0–2) Joe Lapchick [19]
1953 Minneapolis Lakers (W) (4, 4–0) John Kundla 4–1 New York Knicks (E) (3, 0–3) Joe Lapchick [20]
1954 Minneapolis Lakers (W) (5, 5–0) John Kundla 4–3 Syracuse Nationals (E) (2, 0–2) Al Cervi [21]
1955 Syracuse Nationals (E) (3, 1–2) Al Cervi 4–3 Fort Wayne Pistons (W) (1, 0–1) Eckman, CharlesCharles Eckman [22]
1956 Philadelphia Warriors (E) (3, 2–1) Senesky, GeorgeGeorge Senesky 4–1 Fort Wayne Pistons (W) (2, 0–2) Charles Eckman [23]
1957 Boston Celtics (E) (1, 1–0) Red Auerbach 4–3 St. Louis Hawks (W) (1, 0–1) Hannum, AlexAlex Hannum [24]
1958 St. Louis Hawks (W) (2, 1–1) Alex Hannum 4–2 Boston Celtics (E) (2, 1–1) Red Auerbach [25]
1959 Boston Celtics (E) (3, 2–1) Red Auerbach 4–0 Minneapolis Lakers (W) (6, 5–1) John Kundla [26]
1960 Boston Celtics (E) (4, 3–1) Red Auerbach 4–3 St. Louis Hawks (W) (3, 1–2) Macauley, EdEd Macauley [27]
1961 Boston Celtics (E) (5, 4–1) Red Auerbach 4–1 St. Louis Hawks (W) (4, 1–3) Seymour, PaulPaul Seymour [28]
1962 Boston Celtics (E) (6, 5–1) Red Auerbach 4–3 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (7, 5–2) Schaus, FredFred Schaus [29]
1963 Boston Celtics (E) (7, 6–1) Red Auerbach 4–2 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (8, 5–3) Fred Schaus [30]
1964 Boston Celtics (E) (8, 7–1) Red Auerbach 4–1 San Francisco Warriors (W) (4, 2–2) Alex Hannum [31]
1965 Boston Celtics (E) (9, 8–1) Red Auerbach 4–1 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (9, 5–4) Fred Schaus [32]
1966 Boston Celtics (E) (10, 9–1) Red Auerbach 4–3 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (10, 5–5) Fred Schaus [33]
1967 Philadelphia 76ers (E) (4, 2–2) Alex Hannum 4–2 San Francisco Warriors (W) (5, 2–3) Sharman, BillBill Sharman [34]
1968 Boston Celtics (E) (11, 10–1) Russell, BillBill Russell 4–2 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (11, 5–6) van Breda Kolff, ButchButch van Breda Kolff [35]
1969 Boston Celtics (E) (12, 11–1) Bill Russell 4–3 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (12, 5–7) Butch van Breda Kolff [36]
1970 New York Knicks (E) (4, 1–3) Holzman, RedRed Holzman 4–3 Los Angeles Lakers (W) (13, 5–8) Mullaney, JoeJoe Mullaney [37]
1971 Milwaukee Bucks (WC) (1, 1–0) Costello, LarryLarry Costello 4–0 Baltimore Bullets (EC) (1, 0–1) Shue, GeneGene Shue [38]
1972 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (14, 6–8) Bill Sharman 4–1 New York Knicks (EC) (5, 1–4) Red Holzman [39]
1973 New York Knicks (EC) (6, 2–4) Red Holzman 4–1 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (15, 6–9) Bill Sharman [40]
1974 Boston Celtics (EC) (13, 12–1) Heinsohn, TomTom Heinsohn 4–3 Milwaukee Bucks (WC) (2, 1–1) Larry Costello [41]
1975 Golden State Warriors (WC) (6, 3–3) Attles, AlAl Attles 4–0 Washington Bullets (EC) (2, 0–2) Jones, K. C.K. C. Jones [42]
1976 Boston Celtics (EC) (14, 13–1) Tom Heinsohn 4–2 Phoenix Suns (WC) (1, 0–1) MacLeod, JohnJohn MacLeod [43]
1977 Portland Trail Blazers (WC) (1, 1–0) Ramsay, JackJack Ramsay 4–2 Philadelphia 76ers (EC) (5, 2–3) Gene Shue [44]
1978 Washington Bullets (EC) (3, 1–2) Motta, DickDick Motta 4–3 Seattle SuperSonics (WC) (1, 0–1) Wilkens, LennyLenny Wilkens [45]
1979 Seattle SuperSonics (WC) (2, 1–1) Lenny Wilkens 4–1 Washington Bullets (EC) (4, 1–3) Dick Motta [46]
1980 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (16, 7–9) Westhead, PaulPaul Westhead 4–2 Philadelphia 76ers (EC) (6, 2–4) Cunningham, BillyBilly Cunningham [47]
1981 Boston Celtics (EC) (15, 14–1) Fitch, BillBill Fitch 4–2 Houston Rockets (WC) (1, 0–1) Harris, DelDel Harris [48]
1982 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (17, 8–9) Riley, PatPat Riley 4–2 Philadelphia 76ers (EC) (7, 2–5) Billy Cunningham [49]
1983 Philadelphia 76ers (EC) (8, 3–5) Billy Cunningham 4–0 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (18, 8–10) Pat Riley [50]
1984 Boston Celtics (EC) (16, 15–1) K. C. Jones 4–3 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (19, 8–11) Pat Riley [51]
1985 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (20, 9–11) Pat Riley 4–2 Boston Celtics (EC) (17, 15–2) K. C. Jones [52]
1986 Boston Celtics (EC) (18, 16–2) K. C. Jones 4–2 Houston Rockets (WC) (2, 0–2) Bill Fitch [53]
1987 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (21, 10–11) Pat Riley 4–2 Boston Celtics (EC) (19, 16–3) K. C. Jones [54]
1988 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (22, 11–11) Pat Riley 4–3 Detroit Pistons (EC) (3, 0–3) Daly, ChuckChuck Daly [55]
1989 Detroit Pistons (EC) (4, 1–3) Chuck Daly 4–0 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (23, 11–12) Pat Riley [56]
1990 Detroit Pistons (EC) (5, 2–3) Chuck Daly 4–1 Portland Trail Blazers (WC) (2, 1–1) Adelman, RickRick Adelman [57]
1991 Chicago Bulls (EC) (1, 1–0) Jackson, PhilPhil Jackson 4–1 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (24, 11–13) Dunleavy, MikeMike Dunleavy [58]
1992 Chicago Bulls (EC) (2, 2–0) Phil Jackson 4–2 Portland Trail Blazers (WC) (3, 1–2) Rick Adelman [59]
1993 Chicago Bulls (EC) (3, 3–0) Phil Jackson 4–2 Phoenix Suns (WC) (2, 0–2) Westphal, PaulPaul Westphal [60]
1994 Houston Rockets (WC) (3, 1–2) Tomjanovich, RudyRudy Tomjanovich 4–3 New York Knicks (EC) (7, 2–5) Pat Riley [61]
1995 Houston Rockets (WC) (4, 2–2) Rudy Tomjanovich 4–0 Orlando Magic (EC) (1, 0–1) Hill, BrianBrian Hill [62]
1996 Chicago Bulls (EC) (4, 4–0) Phil Jackson 4–2 Seattle SuperSonics (WC) (3, 1–2) Karl, GeorgeGeorge Karl [63]
1997 Chicago Bulls (EC) (5, 5–0) Phil Jackson 4–2 Utah Jazz (WC) (1, 0–1) Sloan, JerryJerry Sloan [64]
1998 Chicago Bulls (EC) (6, 6–0) Phil Jackson 4–2 Utah Jazz (WC) (2, 0–2) Jerry Sloan [65]
1999 San Antonio Spurs (WC) (1, 1–0) Popovich, GreggGregg Popovich 4–1 New York Knicks (EC) (8, 2–6) Van Gundy, JeffJeff Van Gundy [66]
2000 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (25, 12–13) Phil Jackson 4–2 Indiana Pacers (EC) (1, 0–1) Bird, LarryLarry Bird [67]
2001 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (26, 13–13) Phil Jackson 4–1 Philadelphia 76ers (EC) (9, 3–6) Brown, LarryLarry Brown [68]
2002 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (27, 14–13) Phil Jackson 4–0 New Jersey Nets (EC) (1, 0–1) Scott, ByronByron Scott [69]
2003 San Antonio Spurs (WC) (2, 2–0) Gregg Popovich 4–2 New Jersey Nets (EC) (2, 0–2) Byron Scott [70]
2004 Detroit Pistons (EC) (6, 3–3) Larry Brown 4–1 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (28, 14–14) Phil Jackson [71]
2005 San Antonio Spurs (WC) (3, 3–0) Gregg Popovich 4–3 Detroit Pistons (EC) (7, 3–4) Larry Brown [72]
2006 Miami Heat (EC) (1, 1–0) Pat Riley 4–2 Dallas Mavericks (WC) (1, 0–1) Johnson, AveryAvery Johnson [73]
2007 San Antonio Spurs (WC) (4, 4–0) Gregg Popovich 4–0 Cleveland Cavaliers (EC) (1, 0–1) Brown, MikeMike Brown [74]
2008 Boston Celtics (EC) (20, 17–3) Rivers, DocDoc Rivers 4–2 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (29, 14–15) Phil Jackson [75]
2009 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (30, 15–15) Phil Jackson 4–1 Orlando Magic (EC) (2, 0–2) Van Gundy, StanStan Van Gundy [76]
2010 Los Angeles Lakers (WC) (31, 16–15) Phil Jackson 4–3 Boston Celtics (EC) (21, 17–4) Doc Rivers [77]
2011 Dallas Mavericks (WC) (2, 1–1) Carlisle, RickRick Carlisle 4–2 Miami Heat (EC) (2, 1–1) Spoelstra, ErikErik Spoelstra [78]
2012 Miami Heat (EC) (3, 2–1) Erik Spoelstra 4–1 Oklahoma City Thunder (WC) (4, 1–3) Brooks, ScottScott Brooks [79]
2013 Miami Heat (EC) (4, 3–1) Erik Spoelstra 4–3 San Antonio Spurs (WC) (5, 4–1) Gregg Popovich [80]
2014 San Antonio Spurs (WC) (6, 5–1) Gregg Popovich 4–1 Miami Heat (EC) (5, 3–2) Erik Spoelstra [81]
2015 Golden State Warriors (WC) (7, 4–3) Kerr, SteveSteve Kerr 4–2 Cleveland Cavaliers (EC) (2, 0–2) Blatt, DavidDavid Blatt [82]
2016 Cleveland Cavaliers (EC) (3, 1–2) Lue, TyronnTyronn Lue 4–3 Golden State Warriors (WC) (8, 4–4) Steve Kerr [83]
2017 Golden State Warriors (WC) (9, 5–4) Steve Kerr 4–1 Cleveland Cavaliers (EC) (4, 1–3) Tyronn Lue [84]
2018 Golden State Warriors (WC) (10, 6–4) Steve Kerr 4–0 Cleveland Cavaliers (EC) (5, 1–4) Tyronn Lue [85]
Results by teams
Teams
Win
Loss
Total
Year(s) won
Year(s) lost
Boston Celtics 17 4 21 1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1976, 1981, 1984, 1986, 2008 1958, 1985, 1987, 2010
Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers 16 15 31 1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1972, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010 1959, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1973, 1983, 1984, 1989, 1991, 2004, 2008
Philadelphia/San Francisco/Golden State Warriors 6 4 10 1947, 1956, 1975, 2015, 2017, 2018 1948, 1964, 1967, 2016
Chicago Bulls 6 0 6 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998 —
San Antonio Spurs 5 1 6 1999, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2014 2013
Syracuse Nationals/Philadelphia 76ers 3 6 9 1955, 1967, 1983 1950, 1954, 1977, 1980, 1982, 2001
Fort Wayne/Detroit Pistons 3 4 7 1989, 1990, 2004 1955, 1956, 1988, 2005
Miami Heat 3 2 5 2006, 2012, 2013 2011, 2014
New York Knicks 2 6 8 1970, 1973 1951, 1952, 1953, 1972, 1994, 1999
Houston Rockets 2 2 4 1994, 1995 1981, 1986
Cleveland Cavaliers 1 4 5 2016 2007, 2015, 2017, 2018
St. Louis/Atlanta Hawks 1 3 4 1958 1957, 1960, 1961
Baltimore/Washington Bullets/Washington Wizards 1 3 4 1978 1971, 1975, 1979
Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder 1 3 4 1979 1978, 1996, 2012
Portland Trail Blazers 1 2 3 1977 1990, 1992
Milwaukee Bucks 1 1 2 1971 1974
Dallas Mavericks 1 1 2 2011 2006
Baltimore Bullets (original) (folded in 1954)[a] 1 0 1 1948 —
Rochester/Cincinnati Royals/Kansas City/Sacramento Kings 1 0 1 1951 —
Phoenix Suns 0 2 2 — 1976, 1993
New Orleans/Utah Jazz 0 2 2 — 1997, 1998
New Jersey/Brooklyn Nets 0 2 2 — 2002, 2003
Orlando Magic 0 2 2 — 1995, 2009
Chicago Stags (folded in 1950) 0 1 1 — 1947
Washington Capitols (folded in 1951) 0 1 1 — 1949
Indiana Pacers 0 1 1 — 2000
Buffalo Braves/San Diego/Los Angeles Clippers — — —
Charlotte Hornets/Bobcats — — —
Denver Nuggets — — —
Minnesota Timberwolves — — —
New Orleans Hornets/Pelicans — — —
Toronto Raptors — — —
Vancouver/Memphis Grizzlies — — —
Notes
Jump up ^ Not affiliated with the present-day Washington Wizards who were known as the Baltimore/Capital/Washington Bullets from 1963 to 1997.
See also
National Basketball Association portal
NBA Playoffs
Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award
List of NBA Development League champions
List of NBA championship head coaches
List of NBA players with most championships
References
Jump up ^ Rosen, Charley (2008). The First Tip-Off: The Incredible Story of the Birth of the NBA. Mc-Graw Hill. pp. 211–212. ISBN 0-07-148785-9.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Corrie; Reheuser, Rob; et al. (2006). Sporting News Official 2006–2007 NBA Guide. Sporting News Books. ISBN 0-89204-854-9.
Jump up ^ Brown, Donald H. (2007). A Best of Basketball Story. AuthorHouse. pp. 4–5. ISBN 1-4343-4193-3.
Jump up ^ "1948–49 Minneapolis Lakers Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1952–53 Minneapolis Lakers Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1953–54 Minneapolis Lakers Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1954–55 Syracuse Nationals Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Ryan, Bob (June 23, 2005). "Time to turn back clock on format". Boston Globe. Retrieved May 14, 2008.
Jump up ^ Windhorst, Brian (October 23, 2013). "Vote is unanimous to change Finals". ESPN.com. Retrieved October 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "1955–56 Philadelphia Warriors Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1970–71 Milwaukee Bucks Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Archived from the original on August 4, 2011. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1974–75 Golden State Warriors Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1977–78 Washington Bullets Schedule and Results Summary". basketball-reference.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "1947 BAA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1948 BAA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1949 BAA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1950 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1951 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1952 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1953 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1954 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1955 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1956 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1957 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1958 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1959 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1960 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1961 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1962 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1963 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1964 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1965 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1966 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1967 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1968 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1969 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1970 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1971 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1972 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1973 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1974 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1975 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1976 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1977 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1978 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1979 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1980 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1981 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1982 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1983 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1984 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1985 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1986 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1987 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1988 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1989 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1990 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1991 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1992 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1993 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1994 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1995 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1996 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1997 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1998 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "1999 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2000 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2001 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2002 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2003 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2004 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2005 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2006 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2007 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2008 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2009 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2010 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2011 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2012 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2013 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2014 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2015 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2016 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2017 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "2018 NBA Finals". Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
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1947 1948 1949
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1947: Philadelphia Warriors
1948: Baltimore Bullets
1949: Minneapolis Lakers
1950: Minneapolis Lakers
1951: Rochester Royals
1952: Minneapolis Lakers
1953: Minneapolis Lakers
1954: Minneapolis Lakers
1955: Syracuse Nationals
1956: Philadelphia Warriors
1957: Boston Celtics
1958: St. Louis Hawks
1959: Boston Celtics
1960: Boston Celtics
1961: Boston Celtics
1962: Boston Celtics
1963: Boston Celtics
1964: Boston Celtics
1965: Boston Celtics
1966: Boston Celtics
1967: Philadelphia 76ers
1968: Boston Celtics
1969: Boston Celtics
1970: New York Knicks
1971: Milwaukee Bucks
1972: Los Angeles Lakers
1973: New York Knicks
1974: Boston Celtics
1975: Golden State Warriors
1976: Boston Celtics
1977: Portland Trail Blazers
1978: Washington Bullets
1979: Seattle SuperSonics
1980: Los Angeles Lakers
1981: Boston Celtics
1982: Los Angeles Lakers
1983: Philadelphia 76ers
1984: Boston Celtics
1985: Los Angeles Lakers
1986: Boston Celtics
1987: Los Angeles Lakers
1988: Los Angeles Lakers
1989: Detroit Pistons
1990: Detroit Pistons
1991: Chicago Bulls
1992: Chicago Bulls
1993: Chicago Bulls
1994: Houston Rockets
1995: Houston Rockets
1996: Chicago Bulls
1997: Chicago Bulls
1998: Chicago Bulls
1999: San Antonio Spurs
2000: Los Angeles Lakers
2001: Los Angeles Lakers
2002: Los Angeles Lakers
2003: San Antonio Spurs
2004: Detroit Pistons
2005: San Antonio Spurs
2006: Miami Heat
2007: San Antonio Spurs
2008: Boston Celtics
2009: Los Angeles Lakers
2010: Los Angeles Lakers
2011: Dallas Mavericks
2012: Miami Heat
2013: Miami Heat
2014: San Antonio Spurs
2015: Golden State Warriors
2016: Cleveland Cavaliers
2017: Golden State Warriors
2018: Golden State Warriors
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Stroop effect
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Green Red Blue
Purple Red Purple
Mouse Top Face
Monkey Top Monkey
Naming the font color of a printed word is an easier and quicker task if word meaning and font color are not incongruent. If both are printed in red, the average time to say "RED" in response to the word 'Green' is greater than the time to say "RED" in response to the word 'Mouse'.
In psychology, the Stroop effect is a demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue", "green", or "red") is printed in a color that is not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color. The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop, who first published the effect in English in 1935.[1] The effect had previously been published in Germany in 1929.[2][3][4] The original paper has been one of the most cited papers in the history of experimental psychology, leading to more than 700 replications.[4] The effect has been used to create a psychological test (Stroop test) that is widely used in clinical practice and investigation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Experiment
2 Experimental findings
3 Neuroanatomy
4 Theories
4.1 Processing speed
4.2 Selective attention
4.3 Automaticity
4.4 Parallel distributed processing
5 Cognitive development
6 Uses
6.1 Stroop test
7 Variations
7.1 Warped words
7.2 Emotional
7.3 Spatial
7.4 Numerical
7.5 Reverse
8 In popular culture
9 External links
10 References
Experiment[edit]
Stimulus 1: Purple Brown Red Blue Green
Stimulus 2: Brown Green Blue Green
Stimulus 3: ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀
Examples of the three stimuli and colors used for each of the activities of the original Stroop article.[1]
Figure 1 from Experiment 2 of the original description of the Stroop Effect (1935). 1 is the time that it takes to name the color of the dots while 2 is the time that it takes to say the color when there is a conflict with the written word.[1]
The effect was named after John Ridley Stroop, who published the effect in English in 1935 in an article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology entitled "Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions" that includes three different experiments.[1] However, the effect was first published in 1929 in Germany by Erich Rudolf Jaensch,[2] and its roots can be followed back to works of James McKeen Cattell and Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt in the nineteenth century.[3][4]
In his experiments, Stroop administered several variations of the same test for which three different kinds of stimuli were created: Names of colors appeared in black ink: Names of colors in a different ink than the color named; and Squares of a given color.[1]
In the first experiment, words and conflict-words were used (see first figure). The task required the participants to read the written color names of the words independently of the color of the ink (for example, they would have to read "purple" no matter what the color of the font). In experiment 2, stimulus conflict-words and color patches were used, and participants were required to say the ink-color of the letters independently of the written word with the second kind of stimulus and also name the color of the patches. If the word "purple" was written in red font, they would have to say "red", rather than "purple". When the squares were shown, the participant spoke the name of the color. Stroop, in the third experiment, tested his participants at different stages of practice at the tasks and stimuli used in the first and second experiments, examining learning effects.[1]
Unlike researchers now using the test for psychological evaluation,[5] Stroop used only the three basic scores, rather than more complex derivative scoring procedures. Stroop noted that participants took significantly longer to complete the color reading in the second task than they had taken to name the colors of the squares in Experiment 2. This delay had not appeared in the first experiment. Such interference were explained by the automation of reading, where the mind automatically determines the semantic meaning of the word (it reads the word "red" and thinks of the color "red"), and then must intentionally check itself and identify instead the color of the word (the ink is a color other than red), a process that is not automated.[1]
Experimental findings[edit]
Stimuli in Stroop paradigms can be divided into 3 groups: neutral, congruent and incongruent. Neutral stimuli are those stimuli in which only the text (similarly to stimuli 1 of Stroop's experiment), or color (similarly to stimuli 3 of Stroop's experiment) are displayed.[6] Congruent stimuli are those in which the ink color and the word refer to the same color (for example the word "pink" written in pink). Incongruent stimuli are those in which ink color and word differ.[6] Three experimental findings are recurrently found in Stroop experiments.[6] A first finding is semantic interference, which states that naming the ink color of neutral stimuli (e.g. when the ink color and word do not interfere with each other) is faster than in incongruent conditions. It is called semantic interference since it is usually accepted that the relationship in meaning between ink color and word is at the root of the interference.[6] The second finding, semantic facilitation, explains the finding that naming the ink of congruent stimuli is faster (e.g. when the ink color and the word match) than when neutral stimuli are present (e.g. stimulus 3; when only a coloured square is shown). The third finding is that both semantic interference and facilitation disappear when the task consists of reading the word instead of naming the ink. It has been sometimes called Stroop asynchrony, and has been explained by a reduced automatization when naming colors compared to reading words.[6]
In the study of interference theory, the most commonly used procedure has been similar to Stroop's second experiment, in which subjects were tested on naming colors of incompatible words and of control patches. The first experiment in Stroop's study (reading words in black versus incongruent colors) has been discussed less. In both cases, the interference score is expressed as the difference between the times needed to read each of the two types of cards.[4] Instead of naming stimuli, subjects have also been asked to sort stimuli into categories.[4] Different characteristics of the stimulus such as ink colors or direction of words have also been systematically varied.[4] None of all these modifications eliminates the effect of interference.[4]
Neuroanatomy[edit]
Brain imaging techniques including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) have shown that there are two main areas in the brain that are involved in the processing of the Stroop task.[7][8] They are the anterior cingulate cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.[9] More specifically, while both are activated when resolving conflicts and catching errors, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex assists in memory and other executive functions, while the anterior cingulate cortex is used to select an appropriate response and allocate attentional resources.[10]
The posterior dorsolateral prefrontal cortex creates the appropriate rules for the brain to accomplish the current goal.[10] For the Stroop effect, this involves activating the areas of the brain involved in color perception, but not those involved in word encoding.[11] It counteracts biases and irrelevant information, for instance, the fact that the semantic perception of the word is more striking than the color in which it is printed. Next, the mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortex selects the representation that will fulfil the goal. The relevant information must be separated from irrelevant information in the task; thus, the focus is placed on the ink color and not the word.[10] Furthermore, research has suggested that left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during a Stroop task is related to an individual's’ expectation regarding the conflicting nature of the upcoming trial, and not so much on the conflict itself. Conversely, the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex aims to reduce the attentional conflict and is activated after the conflict is over.[9]
Moreoever, the posterior dorsal anterior cingulate cortex is responsible for what decision is made (i.e. whether you will say the incorrect answer [written word] or the correct answer [ink color]).[9] Following the response, the anterior dorsal anterior cingulate cortex is involved in response evaluation—deciding whether the answer is correct or incorrect. Activity in this region increases when the probability of an error is higher.[12]
Theories[edit]
There are several theories used to explain the Stroop effect and are commonly known as ‘race models’. This is based on the underlying notion that both relevant and irrelevant information are processed in parallel, but "race" to enter the single central processor during response selection.[13] They are:
Processing speed[edit]
This theory suggests there is a lag in the brain's ability to recognize the color of the word since the brain reads words faster than it recognizes colors.[14] This is based on the idea that word processing is significantly faster than color processing. In a condition where there is a conflict regarding words and colors (e.g., Stroop test), if the task is to report the color, the word information arrives at the decision-making stage before the color information which presents processing confusion. Conversely, if the task is to report the word, because color information lags after word information, a decision can be made ahead of the conflicting information.[15]
Selective attention[edit]
The Selective Attention Theory that color recognition as opposed to reading a word, requires more attention, the brain needs to use more attention to recognize a color than to word encoding, so it takes a little longer.[16] The responses lend much to the interference noted in the Stroop task. This may be a result of either an allocation of attention to the responses or to a greater inhibition of distractors that are not appropriate responses.
Automaticity[edit]
This theory is the most common theory of the Stroop effect.[17][not in citation given] It suggests that since recognizing colors is not an "automatic process" there is hesitancy to respond; whereas, the brain automatically understands the meaning of words as a result of habitual reading. This idea is based on the premise that automatic reading does not need controlled attention, but still uses enough attentional resources to reduce the amount of attention accessible for color information processing.[18] Stirling (1979) introduced the concept of response automaticity. He demonstrated that changing the responses from colored words to letters that were not part of the colored words increased reaction time while reducing Stroop interference.[19]
Parallel distributed processing[edit]
This theory suggests that as the brain analyzes information, different and specific pathways are developed for different tasks.[20] Some pathways, such as reading, are stronger than others, therefore, it is the strength of the pathway and not the speed of the pathway that is important.[17] In addition, automaticity is a function of the strength of each pathway, hence, when two pathways are activated simultaneously in the Stroop effect, interference occurs between the stronger (word reading) path and the weaker (color naming) path, more specifically when the pathway that leads to the response is the weaker pathway.[21]
Cognitive development[edit]
In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, several variations of the Stroop task have been used to study the relations between speed of processing and executive functions with working memory and cognitive development in various domains. This research shows that reaction time to Stroop tasks decreases systematically from early childhood through early adulthood. These changes suggest that speed of processing increases with age and that cognitive control becomes increasingly efficient. Moreover, this research strongly suggests that changes in these processes with age are very closely associated with development in working memory and various aspects of thought.[22][23] The stroop task also shows the ability to control behavior. If asked to state the color of the ink rather than the word, the participant must overcome the initial and stronger stimuli to read the word. This inhibitions show the ability for the brain to regulate behavior.[24]
Uses[edit]
The Stroop effect has been widely used in psychology. Among the most important uses is the creation of validated psychological tests based on the Stroop effect permit to measure a person's selective attention capacity and skills, as well as their processing speed ability.[25] It is also used in conjunction with other neuropsychological assessments to examine a person's executive processing abilities,[17] and can help in the diagnosis and characterization of different psychiatric and neurological disorders.
Researchers also use the Stroop effect during brain imaging studies to investigate regions of the brain that are involved in planning, decision-making, and managing real-world interference (e.g., texting and driving).[26]
Stroop test[edit]
Stroop effect
Medical diagnostics
MeSH
D057190
[edit on Wikidata]
The Stroop effect has been used to investigate a person's psychological capacities; since its discovery during the twentieth century, it has become a popular neuropsychological test.[27]
There are different test variants commonly used in clinical settings, with differences between them in the number of subtasks, type and number of stimuli, times for the task, or scoring procedures.[27][28] All versions have at least two numbers of subtasks. In the first trial, the written color name differs from the color ink it is printed in, and the participant must say the written word. In the second trial, the participant must name the ink color instead. However, there can be up to four different subtasks, adding in some cases stimuli consisting of groups of letters "X" or dots printed in a given color with the participant having to say the color of the ink; or names of colors printed in black ink that have to be read.[27] The number of stimuli varies between fewer than twenty items to more than 150, being closely related to the scoring system used. While in some test variants the score is the number of items from a subtask read in a given time, in others it is the time that it took to complete each of the trials.[27] The number of errors and different derived punctuations are also taken into account in some versions.[27]
This test is considered to measure selective attention, cognitive flexibility and processing speed, and it is used as a tool in the evaluation of executive functions.[27][28] An increased interference effect is found in disorders such as brain damage, dementias and other neurodegenerative diseases, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, or a variety of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, addictions, and depression.[27][29][30]
Variations[edit]
The Stroop test has additionally been modified to include other sensory modalities and variables,[31] to study the effect of bilingualism,[32] or to investigate the effect of emotions on interference.[33][34][35]
Warped words[edit]
For example, the warped words Stroop effect produces the same findings similar to the original Stroop effect. Much like the Stroop task, the printed word's color is different from the ink color of the word; however, the words are printed in such a way that it is more difficult to read (typically curved-shaped).[36] The idea here is the way the words are printed slows down both the brain's reaction and processing time, making it harder to complete the task.
Emotional[edit]
The emotional Stroop effect serves as an information processing approach to emotions. In an emotional Stroop task, an individual is given negative emotional words like "grief," "violence," and "pain" mixed in with more neutral words like "clock," "door," and "shoe".[36] Just like in the original Stroop task, the words are colored and the individual is supposed to name the color. Research has revealed that individuals that are depressed are more likely to say the color of a negative word slower than the color of a neutral word.[37] While both the emotional Stroop and the classic Stroop involve the need to suppress irrelevant or distracting information, there are differences between the two. The emotional Stroop effect emphasizes the conflict between the emotional relevance to the individual and the word; whereas, the classic Stroop effect examines the conflict between the incongruent color and word.[36]
Spatial[edit]
The spatial Stroop effect demonstrates interference between the stimulus location with the location information in the stimuli.[38] In one version of the spatial Stroop task, an up or down-pointing arrow appears randomly above or below a central point. Despite being asked to discriminate the direction of the arrow while ignoring its location, individuals typically make faster and more accurate responses to congruent stimuli (i.e., an down-pointing arrow located below the fixation sign) than to incongruent ones (i.e., a up-pointing arrow located below the fixation sign).[38] A similar effect, the Simon effect, uses non-spatial stimuli.[13]
Numerical[edit]
The Numerical Stroop effect demonstrates the close relationship between numerical values and physical sizes. Digits symbolize numerical values but they also have physical sizes. A digit can be presented as big or small (e.g., 5 vs. 5), irrespective of its numerical value. Comparing digits in incongruent trials (e.g., 3 5) is slower than comparing digits in congruent trials (e.g., 5 3) and the difference in reaction time is termed the numerical Stroop effect. The effect of irrelevant numerical values on physical comparisons (similar to the effect of irrelevant color words on responding to colors) suggests that numerical values are processed automatically (i.e., even when they are irrelevant to the task).[39]
Reverse[edit]
Another variant of the classic Stroop effect is the reverse Stroop effect. It occurs during a pointing task. In a reverse Stroop task, individuals are shown a page with a black square with an incongruent colored word in the middle — for instance, the word "red" written in the color green — with four smaller colored squares in the corners.[40] One square would be colored green, one square would be red, and the two remaining squares would be other colors. Studies show that if the individual is asked to point to the color square of the written color (in this case, red) they would present a delay.[40] Thus, incongruently-colored words significantly interfere with pointing to the appropriate square. However, some research has shown there is very little interference from incongruent color words when the objective is to match the color of the word.[17]
In popular culture[edit]
The Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day! software program, produced by Ryūta Kawashima for the Nintendo DS portable video game system, contains an automated Stroop Test administrator module, translated into game form.[41]
MythBusters used the Stroop effect test to see if males and females are cognitively impaired by having an attractive person of the opposite sex in the room. The "myth", i.e. hypothesis, was "busted" ,i.e., disproved.[42]
A Nova episode used the Stroop Effect to illustrate the subtle changes of the mental flexibility of Mount Everest climbers in relation to altitude.[43]
External links[edit]
Online lesson with online demonstration of the Stroop effect via PsyToolkit
Interactive Stroop test at the Open Cognition Lab
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Stroop, John Ridley (1935). "Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 18 (6): 643–662. doi:10.1037/h0054651. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ Jump up to: a b Jaensch, E.R (1929). Grundformen menschlichen Seins. Berlin: Otto Elsner.
^ Jump up to: a b Jensen AR, Rohwer WD (1966). "The Stroop color-word test: a review". Acta psychologica. 25 (1): 36–93. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(66)90004-7. PMID 5328883.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g MacLeod CM (March 1991). "Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review". Psychological Bulletin. 109 (2): 163–203. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.163. PMID 2034749. (registration required)
Jump up ^ Golden, CJ (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A Manual for Clinical and Experimental Uses. Chicago, Illinois: Skoelting. pp. 1–32.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e van Maanen L, van Rijn H, Borst JP (December 2009). "Stroop and picture-word interference are two sides of the same coin". Psychon Bull Rev. 16 (6): 987–99. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.6.987. PMID 19966248.
Jump up ^ Pardo, Jose V; Pardo, Patricia J; Janer, Kevin W; Raichle, Marcus E (1 January 1990). "The anterior cingulate cortex mediates processing selection in the Stroop attentional conflict paradigm" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 87: 256–259. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.1.256. PMC 53241  . PMID 2296583.
Jump up ^ Taylor, S (1997). "Isolation Of Specific Interference Processing In The Stroop Task: PET Activation Studies". NeuroImage. 6 (2): 81–92. doi:10.1006/nimg.1997.0285. PMID 9299382.
^ Jump up to: a b c Milham, M (2003). "Practice-related Effects Demonstrate Complementary Roles Of Anterior Cingulate And Prefrontal Cortices In Attentional Control". NeuroImage. 18 (2): 483–493. doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(02)00050-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Banich, M; et al. (2000). "fMRI Studies of Stroop Tasks Reveal Unique Roles of Anterior and Posterior Brain Systems in Attentional Selection". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 12 (6): 988–1000. doi:10.1162/08989290051137521.
Jump up ^ Bush, G; et al. (1998). "The Counting Stroop: An Interference Task Specialized For Functional Neuroimaging Validation Study With Functional MRI". Human Brain Mapping. 6 (4): 270–288. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0193(1998)6:4<270::aid-hbm6>3.3.co;2-h.
Jump up ^ Gruber, S; et al. (2002). "Stroop Performance in Normal Control Subjects: An fMRI Study". NeuroImage. 16: 349–360. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1089.
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, A (2004). Attention: theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.
Jump up ^ McMahon, M. "What Is the Stroop Effec". Retrieved November 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lamers, M.J.; et al. (2010). "Selective Attention And Response Set In The Stroop Task". Memory & Cognition. 38 (7): 893–904. doi:10.3758/mc.38.7.893.
Jump up ^ McMahon, M. "What Is the Stroop Effect". Retrieved November 11, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McMahon, M. "What Is the Stroop Effect?". Retrieved November 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Monahan, J.S (2001). "Coloring single Stroop elements: Reducing automaticity or slowing color processing". Journal of General Psychology. 128 (1): 98–112. doi:10.1080/00221300109598901.
Jump up ^ Stirling, N (1979). "Stroop interference: An input and an output phenomenon". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 31: 121–132. doi:10.1080/14640747908400712.
Jump up ^ Cohen, J.D. (1990). "On The Control Of Automatic Processes: A Parallel Distributed Processing Account Of The Stroop Effect". Psychological Review. 97 (3): 332–361. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.3.332.
Jump up ^ Cohen, J.D.; et al. (1990). "On The Control Of Automatic Processes: A Parallel Distributed Processing Account Of The Stroop Effect". Psychological Review. 97 (3): 332–361. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.3.332.
Jump up ^ Demetriou, A., Christou, C., Spanoudis, G., & Platsidou, M. (2002). The development of mental processing: Efficiency, working memory, and thinking. Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development, 67, Serial Number 268.
Jump up ^ Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou, M. (1993). The architecture and dynamics of developing mind: Experien¬tial structuralism as a frame for unifying cognitive developmental theories. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, Serial Number 234.
Jump up ^ Kellogg, Ronald T. (2013). The making of the mind : the neuroscience of human nature. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-61614-733-4.
Jump up ^ Lamers, M.J. (2010). "Selective Attention And Response Set In The Stroop Task". Memory & Cognition. 38 (7): 893–904. doi:10.3758/mc.38.7.893.
Jump up ^ Root-Bernstein, R (2007). "Brain Aging: Models, Methods, And Mechanisms". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 298 (23): 2798–2799. doi:10.1001/jama.298.23.2798.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Howieson, Diane Black; Lezak, Muriel Deutsch; Loring, David W. (2004). "Orientation and attention". Neuropsychological assessment. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 3365–367. ISBN 0-19-511121-4. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Strauss, Esther; Sherman, Elizabeth M.S.; Spreen, Otfried (2006). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 477–499. ISBN 0-19-515957-8. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
Jump up ^ Lansbergen MM, Kenemans JL, van Engeland H (March 2007). "Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis". Neuropsychology. 21 (2): 251–62. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.2.251. PMID 17402825.
Jump up ^ Barch DM, Braver TS, Carter CS, Poldrack RA, Robbins TW (January 2009). "CNTRICS final task selection: executive control". Schizophr Bull. 35 (1): 115–35. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn154. PMC 2643948  . PMID 19011235.
Jump up ^ Roberts KL, Hall DA (June 2008). "Examining a supramodal network for conflict processing: a systematic review and novel functional magnetic resonance imaging data for related visual and auditory stroop tasks". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 20 (6): 1063–78. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20074. PMID 18211237.
Jump up ^ Rosselli M, Ardila A, Santisi MN, et al. (September 2002). "Stroop effect in Spanish-English bilinguals". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS. 8 (6): 819–27. doi:10.1017/S1355617702860106. PMID 12240746.
Jump up ^ Williams JM, Mathews A, MacLeod C (July 1996). "The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology". Psychol Bull. 120 (1): 3–24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3. PMID 8711015.
Jump up ^ Kimble MO, Frueh BC, Marks L (June 2009). "Does the modified Stroop effect exist in PTSD? Evidence from dissertation abstracts and the peer reviewed literature". J Anxiety Disord. 23 (5): 650–5. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.02.002. PMC 2844871  . PMID 19272751.
Jump up ^ Waters AJ, Sayette MA, Franken IH, Schwartz JE (June 2005). "Generalizability of carry-over effects in the emotional Stroop task". Behav Res Ther. 43 (6): 715–32. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.06.003. PMID 15890165.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Stroop Effect". Brainstorm Psychology. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Frings, C; et al. (2010). "Decomposing the emotional Stroop effect". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1: 42–49. doi:10.1080/17470210903156594.
^ Jump up to: a b Wuhr, P (2007). "A Stroop Effect For Spatial Orientation". The Journal of General Psychology. 134 (3): 285–294. doi:10.3200/genp.134.3.285-294.
Jump up ^ Henik, A; Tzelgov, J (1982). "Is three greater than five: The relation between physical and semantic size in comparison tasks". Memory & Cognition. 10: 389–395. doi:10.3758/BF03202431.
^ Jump up to: a b Durgin, F (2000). "The Reverse Stroop Effect". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 7 (1): 121–125. doi:10.3758/bf03210730.
Jump up ^ "Get the Scoop on Stroop". Retrieved 2009-03-03.
Jump up ^ List of MythBusters episodes#cite note-2014eps-36
Jump up ^ Gail Rosenbaum (November 2000). "NOVA Online - Everest - Test Your Brain". Retrieved 2008-10-14.
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