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Kodiak bear
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Kodiak bear
Kodiak Bear at the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Ursidae
Genus: Ursus
Species: U. arctos
Subspecies: U. a. middendorffi
Trinomial name
Ursus arctos middendorffi
Merriam, 1896[1]
The Kodiak bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi), also known as the Kodiak brown bear, sometimes the Alaskan brown bear, inhabits the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in southwest Alaska.[2] It is the largest recognized subspecies of brown bear, and one of the two largest bears alive today, the other being the polar bear.[3]
Physiologically, the Kodiak bear is very similar to the other brown bear subspecies, such as the mainland grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) and the now-extinct California grizzly bear (U. a. californicus†), with the main difference being in size. While there is generally much variation in size between brown bears in different areas, most usually weigh between 115 and 360 kg (254 and 794 lb).[4] The Kodiak bear, on the other hand, commonly reaches sizes of 300 to 600 kg (660 to 1,320 lb), and has even been known to exceed weights of 680 kg (1,500 lb).[2] Despite this large variation in size, the diet and lifestyle of the Kodiak bear does not differ greatly from that of other brown bears.
Encounters between people and Kodiak bears have been very frequent since the ancient times. Today, these encounters have become more common as a result of the increase in the human population in the region. Such encounters have included the hunting of bears by humans for their fur or meat, and, less commonly, attacks by bears upon humans. More recently, as conservation efforts have become more commonplace, concerns over the sustenance and stability of the Kodiak bear population have arisen. The IUCN classifies Ursus arctos, the species to which the Kodiak belongs, as being of "least concern" in terms of endangerment or extinction. However, the IUCN does not differentiate between subspecies; therefore, it is unknown whether the Kodiak bear population is as healthy as is stated. As a result, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, along with, to a lesser extent, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, closely monitors the number of bears hunted in the state.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Taxonomy
1.2 Color
1.3 Size
1.4 Distribution and density
2 Life history
2.1 Reproduction and survival
2.2 Denning
2.3 Home range
2.4 Habitat and feeding habits
3 Behavior
3.1 Senses and intelligence
3.2 Interactions with other bears
3.3 Interactions with people
4 History and management
4.1 Prehistory
4.2 Commercial harvests
4.3 Guided hunters and competition for resources
4.4 Changes in land status
4.5 Plan
4.6 Genetic diversity and endangerment
4.7 Hunt-management
4.8 Bear-viewing
5 Cultural significance
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Description[edit]
Taxonomy[edit]
Taxonomist C.H. Merriam was first to recognize the Kodiak bear as a unique subspecies of the brown bear, and he named it "Ursus middendorffi" in honor of the celebrated Baltic naturalist, Dr. A. Th. von Middendorff.[1] Subsequent taxonomic work merged all North American brown bears into a single species (Ursus arctos). Genetic samples from bears on Kodiak have shown that they are related to brown bears on the Alaska Peninsula and Kamchatka, Russia, and all brown bears roughly north of the US. Kodiak bears have been genetically isolated since at least the last ice age (10,000 to 12,000 years ago) and very little genetic diversity exists within the population.[5] Although the current population is healthy and productive, and has shown no overt adverse signs of inbreeding, it may be more susceptible to new diseases or parasites than other, more diverse brown bear populations.
Color[edit]
Hair colors range from blonde to orange (typically females or bears from southern parts of the archipelago) to dark brown. Cubs often retain a white "natal ring" around their neck for the first few years of life. The Kodiak bears' color is similar to that of their very close relative, the grizzly bear.[citation needed]
Size[edit]
Adult
The size range for females (sows) is from 181 to 318 kg (399 to 701 lb), and for males (boars), it is 272 to 635 kg (600 to 1,400 lb).[2][6] Mature males average 477–534 kg (1,052–1,177 lb) over the course of the year,[7] and can weigh up to 680 kg (1,500 lb) at peak times. Females are typically about 20% smaller and 30% lighter than males,[2] and adult sizes are attained when they are 6 years old. Bears weigh the least when they emerge from their dens in the spring, and can increase their weight by 20–30%[6] during late summer and fall. Captive bears can sometimes attain weights that are considerably greater than those of their counterparts in the wilderness.
An average adult male measures 244 cm (8 ft 0 in) in length, and stands 133 cm (4 ft 4 in) tall at the shoulder. The largest recorded wild male weighed 751 kg (1,656 lb), and had a hind foot measurement of 46 cm (18 in).[7] A large male Kodiak bear stands up to 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall at the shoulder, when it is standing on all four legs. When standing fully upright on its hind legs, a large male could reach a height of 3 m (9.8 ft).[2] The largest verified size for a captive Kodiak bear was for a specimen that lived at the Dakota Zoo in Bismarck, North Dakota. Nicknamed "Clyde," he weighed 966 kg (2,130 lb) when he died in June 1987 at the age of 22. According to zoo director Terry Lincoln, Clyde probably weighed close to 1,090 kg (2,400 lb) a year earlier. He still had a fat layer of 9 in (23 cm) when he died.[8][a]
Kodiak bears are the largest brown bear, comparable in size to polar bears. This makes Kodiak bears and polar bears both the two largest members of the bear family and Kodiak bears the largest extant terrestrial[b] carnivorans.[3]
The standard method of evaluating the size of bears is by measuring their skulls. Most North American hunting organizations and management agencies use calipers to measure the length of the skull (back of sagittal crest on the back of the skull to the front tooth), and the width (maximum width between the zygomatic arches — "cheek bones"). The total skull size is the sum of these two measurements. The largest bear ever killed in North America was from Kodiak Island, with a total skull size of 78.1 cm (30.7 in), and eight of the top 10 brown bears listed in the Boone and Crockett record book are from Kodiak.[12] The average skull size of Kodiak bears that were killed by hunters in the first five years of the 21st century was 63.8 cm (25.1 in) for boars, and 55.4 cm (21.8 in) for sows.[13]
Distribution and density[edit]
This brown bear population only occurs on the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago (Kodiak, Afognak, Shuyak, Raspberry, Uganik, Sitkalidak, and adjacent islands). The Kodiak bear population was estimated to include 3,526 bears in 2005, yielding an estimated archipelago-wide population density of 270 bears per 1000 km2 (700 per 1000 sq.mi). During the past decade the population has been slowly increasing.[14]
Life history[edit]
Reproduction and survival[edit]
Mother bear with cubs
Kodiak bears reach sexual maturity at age five, but most sows are over nine years old when they successfully wean their first litter. The average time between litters is four years. Sows continue to produce cubs throughout their lives, but their productivity diminishes after they are 20 years old.[15] Mating season for Kodiak bears is during May and June. They are serially monogamous (having one partner at a time), staying together from two days to two weeks. As soon as the egg is fertilized and divides a few times, it enters a state of suspended animation until autumn when it finally implants on the uterine wall and begins to grow again. Cubs are born in the den during January or February.[2] Weighing less than 450 g (1 lb) at birth with little hair and closed eyes, they suckle for several months, emerging from the den in May or June, weighing 6.8–9.1 kilograms (15–20 pounds).[2] Typical litter sizes on Kodiak are two or three cubs,[2] with a long-term average of 2.4 cubs per litter.[15] However, Kodiak bears have six functional nipples and litters up to six cubs have been reported.[16] Sows are sometimes seen with five or six cubs in tow, probably due to adopting cubs from other litters.[2] Most cubs stay with their mothers for three years. Almost half of the cubs die before they leave,[15] with cannibalism by adult males being one of the major causes of death.
Kodiak bears that have recently left their mothers, at ages 3–5 years, have high mortality rates[2] with only 56% of males and 89% of females surviving.[14] Most young female bears stay within or near their mother’s home range, while most males move farther away. Most adult sows die of natural causes (56%), while most adult male bears are killed by hunters (91%).[14] The oldest known boar in the wild was 27 years old, and the oldest sow was 35.[17]
Denning[edit]
Kodiak bears begin entering their dens in late October. Pregnant sows are usually the first to go to dens; males are the last. Males begin emerging from their dens in early April, while sows with new cubs may stay in dens until late June. Bears living on the north end of Kodiak Island tend to have longer denning periods than bears in the southern areas. Most Kodiak bears dig their dens in hill or mountain sides and they use a wide variety of denning habitats depending on which part of the archipelago they live. Almost a quarter of the adult bears forgo denning, staying somewhat active throughout the winter.[2][14]
Home range[edit]
Bears on Kodiak are naturally active during the day, but when faced with competition for food or space, they adopt a more nocturnal (active at night) lifestyle. This behavior is especially evident in the bears that live near and within Kodiak City. Kodiak bears do not defend territories, but they do have traditional areas that they use each year (home ranges). Because of the rich variety of foods available on Kodiak, the bears on the archipelago have some of the smallest home ranges of any brown bear populations in North America[18] and a great deal of overlap occurs among the ranges of individual bears. Home ranges of adult sows on Kodiak Island average 130 km2 (50 sq mi), while boar home ranges average 250 km2 (97 sq mi).[14]
Habitat and feeding habits[edit]
Kodiak bear with a salmon
The islands of the Kodiak Archipelago have a subpolar oceanic climate with cool temperatures, overcast skies, fog, windy conditions and moderate to heavy precipitation throughout most of the year. Although the archipelago only covers about 13,000 km2 (5,000 sq mi), a rich variety of topography and vegetation ranges from dense forests of Sitka spruce on the northern islands, to steep, glaciated mountains rising to Koniag Peak's 1,360 m (4,470 ft) along the central spine of Kodiak Island, to rolling hills and flat tundra on the south end of the archipelago. About 14,000 people live on the archipelago, primarily in and around the city of Kodiak and six outlying villages. Roads and other human alterations are generally limited to Afognak Island and the northeastern part of Kodiak Island. About half of the archipelago is included in the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge.[14]
Bears live throughout the archipelago, adapting to local resources and retaining relatively small home ranges and comparable densities in most habitats. Emerging vegetation and animals that died during the winter are the first foods bears eat in the spring. As summer progresses, a wide variety of vegetation supplies nutritional needs until salmon return. Salmon runs extend from May through September on most of the archipelago and bears consume the five species of Pacific salmon that spawn in local streams and lakes. In the late summer and early fall, bears consume several types of berries. Bears also feed on wind-rowed seaweed and invertebrates on some beaches throughout the year. Although deer are abundant on the archipelago and mountain goats are abundant on Kodiak Island, few Kodiak bears actively prey on them. Another food source available year-round is the garbage supplied by the human population of Kodiak Island.The bears are showing interest in early arriving Elder Berries.[19][14]
Behavior[edit]
Senses and intelligence[edit]
The Kodiak bear is much like other brown bears in intelligence, although its tendency to feed in large dense groups leads to more complex social behaviors.
Interactions with other bears[edit]
Kodiak bears are generally solitary in nature; however, when food is concentrated in small areas, such as along salmon spawning streams, grass/sedge flats, berry patches, a dead whale, or even an open garbage dump, they often occur in large groups. Along a few streams on Kodiak, up to 60 bears can be seen simultaneously in a 2.6 km2 (1.0 sq mi) area. To maximize food intake at these ecologically important areas, bears have learned to minimize fighting and fatal interactions by developing a complex communication (both verbal and body posturing) and social structure.
Interactions with people[edit]
In most circumstances, Kodiak bears keep away and attempt to avoid encounters with people. The most notable exceptions to this behavior pattern occur when bears are surprised, threatened, or attracted by human food, garbage, or hunter-killed game. Bear safety precautions aim at avoiding such situations, understanding bear needs and behavior, and learning how to recognize the warning signs bears give when stressed.[20][21]
One fatal bear attack on a person on the Kodiak archipelago occurred in 1999.[22] The National Geographic Society filmed a television program about two brown bear attacks. A fatal attack occurred on Uganik Island (November 3, 1999), which is part of the Kodiak archipelago; the other attack occurred on Raspberry Island, home to two full-service wilderness lodges. Both hunters were returning to game they had killed previously and left alone to go kill another. One of the hunters was killed by the bear and the other, after being attacked, stabbed the bear with a knife, then recovered his rifle and killed the attacking bear. Prior to that, the last fatality was in 1921.[23] Both incidents involved hunters who were hunting by themselves. About once every other year, a bear injures a person on Kodiak.[24]
History and management[edit]
Kodiak bear
Prehistory[edit]
Early human occupants of the archipelago when the land was locked into the ice age looked to the sea for their sustenance. At that time, Kodiak Natives (Alutiiqs) occasionally hunted bears, using their meat for food, hides for clothing and bedding, and teeth for adornment. Traditional stories often revolved around the similarity between bears and humans, and around the mystical nature of bears because of their proximity to the spirit world.[25]
Commercial harvests[edit]
Russian hunters came to the area in the late 18th century to capitalize on the abundant fur resources. Bear hides were considered a "minor fur" and sold for about the same price as river otter pelts. The number of bears harvested increased substantially when sea otter populations declined and after the United States acquired Alaska in 1867,[citation needed] bear harvests on Kodiak increased, peaking at as many as 250 bears per year. Commercial fishing activities increased in the late 1880s and canneries proliferated throughout the archipelago. Bears were viewed as competitors for the salmon resource and were routinely shot when seen on streams or coasts. At the same time, sportsmen and scientists had recognized the Kodiak bear as the largest in the world, and they voiced concerns about overharvesting the population.[23]
Guided hunters and competition for resources[edit]
Professional interest in guided Kodiak bear hunts and a concern for unregulated resource use in frontier lands such as Alaska prompted the territorial government’s newly established Alaska Game Commission to abolish commercial bear hunting (selling the hides) on the archipelago in 1925. The impacts of the new regulations seemed to restore bear populations on the Kodiak islands. By the 1930s, ranchers on northeast Kodiak reported an increase in bear problems and demanded action. Bears were also seen as a threat to the expanding commercial salmon-fishing industry. To address the dilemma of conserving bears while protecting cattle, salmon, and people, President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge by executive order in 1941.[25] The 7,700 km2 (1,900,000 acres) refuge roughly encompasses the southwestern two-thirds of Kodiak Island, Uganik Island, the Red Peaks area on northwestern Afognak Island, and all of Ban Island.
Alaska achieved statehood in 1959 and assumed responsibility for managing the state’s wildlife. The Alaska Board of Game reduced bear-hunting seasons on Afognak and Raspberry Islands and on the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge, but liberalized bear seasons on nonrefuge lands on Kodiak. During the 1960s, state biologists worked with ranchers along the Kodiak road system to examine and reduce the predation problem. Biologists reported that cattle and bears were not compatible on the same ranges and potential solutions included poisons, fences to isolate cattle ranges, and aerial shooting of bears. Again, sport hunters voiced their support for Kodiak bears. In spite of public pressure, the state continued actively pursuing and dispatching problem bears until 1970.[26]
Changes in land status[edit]
In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) resolved many long-standing land issues with aboriginal Alaskans statewide. The impacts were felt strongly on the archipelago as large areas were conveyed to the Native corporations. Federal management of the National Forest lands on Afognak was transferred to Native Corporation ownership with passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 (ANILCA), and the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge lost control of 130,000 hectares (310,000 acres) of prime bear habitat (more than 17% of refuge lands).[25]
In 1975, construction of a logging road began on Afognak Island, and timber harvesting began in 1977. In 1979, work began on an environmental impact statement for the Terror Lake hydroelectric project on Kodiak Island. That project included an earthen dam on Terror Lake with Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge and a 10 km (6 mi) tunnel through a mountain ridge to a penstock and powerhouse in the Kizhuyak River drainage. The hydro project was the first significant invasion of inland bear habitat on Kodiak Island. To address the opposition encountered from the public and agencies, a mitigation settlement was negotiated in 1981 which included brown bear research and establishment of the Kodiak Brown Bear Trust.[27] The hydroelectric project was completed in 1985. Human alteration of bear habitat on Kodiak and Afognak Islands spurred renewed interest and funding for bear research on the archipelago, resulting in a surge of baseline and applied bear research on Kodiak through the 1980s and 1990s.
Bears were not directly harmed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, although some were displaced from traditional feeding and traveling areas by cleanup crews. No one was injured by a bear, and no Kodiak bears were killed. To mitigate the adverse impacts of the spill, Exxon reached a settlement with the state and federal governments. Paradoxically, the impacts of the oil spill and the subsequent cleanup and settlement proved to be beneficial to bears on Kodiak. Bear-safety training exposed thousands of workers to factual information about bears, and money from the settlement fund was used for funding land acquisitions. By the close of the 20th century, over 80% of the refuge lands that had been lost as a result of ANCSA and ANILCA were reinstated into the refuge, either through direct purchase or by means of conservation easements. Lands were also purchased in America, Westtown, and Shuyak Islands and transferred into state ownership. The Kodiak Brown Bear Trust coordinated a coalition of sportsmen and other wildlife conservation groups from around the nation to lobby for use of settlement funds to acquire Kodiak lands. The groups also directly contributed funding to protect small parcels of important bear habitat around the islands.[25]
Plan[edit]
Preserved bear in a sporting-goods store in Kodiak, which has the island's only commercial airport and which is where hunters obtain state licenses and begin their hunts
In 2001, a citizens advisory committee was established to work closely with the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), with the cooperation of Kodiak NWR, to develop a management plan addressing several problems that affect bears, including hunting, habitat, and viewing. The resulting Kodiak Archipelago Bear Conservation and Management Plan[28] was crafted over several months by representatives from 12 diverse user groups, which, after hearing from a variety of experts from agencies and receiving extensive public input, developed more than 270 recommendations for managing and conserving Kodiak bears. Despite the diversity of viewpoints expressed by members of the group, all of the recommendations were by consensus.
The underlying themes of the recommendations were continued conservation of the bear population at its current level, increased education programs to teach people how to live with bears on Kodiak, and protection of bear habitat with allowances for continued human use of the archipelago. Although the group's role is merely advisory, government management agencies expressed a commitment to implement all of the regulations that were feasible and within their legal jurisdictions.
Genetic diversity and endangerment[edit]
The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List does not list subspecies. The brown bear species, of which the Kodiak subspecies is a member, is listed as Lower Risk or Least Concern.[29] The Kodiak is not listed as an endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service.[30]
Hunt-management[edit]
Kodiak bear research and habitat protection is done cooperatively by the ADF&G and Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. Bear hunting is managed by the ADF&G, and hunting regulations are established by the Alaska Board of Game. Currently, a finely tuned management system distributes hunters in 32 different areas during two seasons (spring: April 1 – May 15, and fall: October 25 – November 30). Each year, about 4,500 people apply for the 496 permits offered for Kodiak bear hunts (two-thirds to Alaska residents, one-third to nonresidents). Nonresidents are required to hire a registered guide who is authorized to hunt in a particular area, and this can cost from $10,000–$22,000. All hunters must come into the Alaska Department of Fish and Game office in Kodiak prior to going into the field for a brief orientation and must check out before they leave the island. Every bear that is legally killed on the archipelago must be inspected by an ADF&G wildlife biologist before it can be taken from the islands.[31] Pelts receive a stamp from an ADF&G officer if the hunter and guide provide proper documentation to prove licensing. Pelts cannot be transported or legally preserved or sold without the official stamp. Hunting laws are strictly enforced by the ADF&G officers who often have the full support of the local community. Illegal hunting and fishing is frowned upon by the community which maintains a healthy respect for the island's environmental laws, as well. Stiff penalties accompany illegal hunting and fishing. The island's remote location makes trafficking in illegal pelts difficult for would-be poachers.
Since statehood, the reported number of Kodiak bears killed by hunters has ranged from 77 (1968–1969) to 206 (1965–1966). From 2000 to 2006, an average of 173 Kodiak bears were killed by hunters each year (118 during the fall season and 55 in the spring season). Over 75% of those were males. An additional nine bears were reported killed annually in defense of life or property during the same time. The number of large, trophy-sized bears (total skull size at least 28 inches (71 cm)) killed by hunters in recent years has been increasing. In the 1970s, only 2.5% of the bears killed on Kodiak were trophy-sized; in the 1990s and 2000s, the proportion increased to almost 9%.[13]
Bear-viewing[edit]
A floatplane based in Kodiak takes guests from a wilderness lodge on Raspberry Island for a day of bear viewing.
In the past 20 years, bear viewing has become increasingly popular on Kodiak and other parts of Alaska. The most accessible bear-viewing location on Kodiak, Frazer River, had over 1,100 people come in 2007. Visitor numbers have been increasing at about 10% annually and development of additional bear viewing areas on Kodiak is planned. Also, other bear viewing opportunities exist through air-taxi, charter boat, remote lodge, and trekking operations on the archipelago.
Although bear-viewing is often considered a "nonconsumptive" use, it can have serious impacts on bear populations if it is not conducted properly. Most viewing occurs at places where bears congregate because of feeding opportunities that are critical to their survival. If some bears avoid these areas because people are there, those bears may not get the fat and protein they need to make it through the upcoming winter. Consequently, unmanaged bear viewing could affect several bears, especially productive sows with cubs.
Often, bear-viewing and bear-hunting are considered incompatible. Even if the bear population is healthy and bear hunting is sustainable, ethical questions arise especially if hunting occurs near viewing areas and either during or soon after the viewing season. Many feel that it is not fair to encourage bears to be close to people during the summer, only to allow them to be shot in the fall. The Kodiak bear plan recognized bear hunting as a legitimate, traditional, and biologically justifiable activity. It recommended that agencies find ways to make bear hunting and bear viewing compatible on the archipelago.[28]
Cultural significance[edit]
The Aluutiq people hold the bear with importance. Its Alutiiq name is Taquka’aq (Bear),[32][33] with the pronunciation varying between Northern and Southern dialects.[34]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For comparison, the record for the Californian grizzly[9] and polar bears[10] in the wilderness is about 998 kg (2,200 lb).
Jump up ^ Treating Pinnipeds as marine mammals.[11]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Merriam, C. Hart (1896). "Preliminary Synopsis of the American Bears". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 10: 69–71. Ursus middendorffi sp. nov. Kadiak Bear
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k "Kodiak Bear Fact Sheet" (PDF). Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife Conservation. 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
^ Jump up to: a b "Polar bear, (Ursus maritimus)" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2008. Appearance. The polar bear is the largest member of the bear family, with the exception of the Alaska’s Kodiak brown bears, which equal polar bears in size. (Overview page Archived 2015-02-17 at the Wayback Machine.)
Jump up ^ "Mammalian Species: Ursus arctos" (PDF). April 23, 1993. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved March 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Talbot, S. L. J. R. Gust, G. K. Sage, A. Fischbach, K. Amstrup, W. Leacock, and L.Vav Daele. (2006). Genetic characterization of brown bears of the Kodiak Archipelago. Final report to the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge, Kodiak Alaska, U.S.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bear Facts Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge". Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
Jump up ^ "Kodiak Bears". bear.org.
Jump up ^ LaFee, Scott (2008-05-29). "Seeds of doubt". San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ Dell'Amore, C. (2011): Biggest Bear Ever Found, National Geographic News, Published February 3, 2011
Jump up ^ Illiger, J. K. W. (1811). Prodromus Systematis Mammalium et Avium (in Latin). Sumptibus C. Salfeld. pp. 138–39.
Jump up ^ Buckner, E. L. and J. Reneau. 2005. Records of North American Big Game. Boone & Crockett Club; 12.00 edition (October 1, 2005).
^ Jump up to: a b Van Daele, L.J. (1 July 2002 – 30 June 2004). "Unit 8 brown bear management report". In C. Brown. Brown bear management report of survey and inventory activities (PDF). Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, Alaska, U.S. pp. 74–101. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-22. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Van Daele, L.J. (2007). "Population dynamics and management of brown bears on Kodiak Island, Alaska" (PDF). Doctoral dissertation. University of Idaho, Moscow, U.S. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barnes, V.G. and Van Daele, L.J. (2006). Productivity of female brown bears on Kodiak Island, Alaska. Job completion report for Challenge Cost Share Project. Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge, Kodiak, Alaska, U.S.
Jump up ^ Barnes, V.G. (1993). "Cub Adoption by Brown Bears, Ursus arctos middendorffi, on Kodiak Island, Alaska". The Canadian Field-Naturalist. 107: 365–367.
Jump up ^ "Kodiak Archipelago Bear. Conservation and Management Plan. Part 2. Biology, History, and Management of Kodiak Bears" (PDF). Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife Conservation. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 5, 2006. (all plan documents)
Jump up ^ McLoughlin, P. D.; Ferguson, S. H.; Messier, F. (2000). "Intraspecific variation in home range overlap with habitat quality: a comparison among brown bear populations". Evolutionary Ecology. 14 (1): 39–60. doi:10.1023/A:1011019031766.
Jump up ^ "Climate change is luring Kodiak bears away from their iconic salmon streams". Retrieved 1 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Quinth, Stefan (2006). "A guide to brown bear country (DVD)". Camera Q Productions. Archived from the original on February 10, 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Alaska's bears webpage". Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife Conservation. 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Aho, Karen (6 November 1999). "Wounds, not cold, killed hunter exam finds". Anchorage Daily News. Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Dodge, Harry B. (2004). Kodiak Island and its bears. Great Northwest Publishing and Distributing Company. Anchorage, Alaska U.S. ISBN 0937708305.
Jump up ^ Alaska Department of Fish and Game files, 211 Mission Road, Kodiak, Alaska 99615 U.S.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Van Daele, L.J. (2003). The History of Bears on the Kodiak Archipelago. Alaska Natural History Association. Anchorage, Alaska, U.S.
Jump up ^ Troyer, W. (2005). Into brown bear country. Fairbanks, Alaska: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 1-889963-72-0.
Jump up ^ Smith, R. B.; Van Daele, L. J. (1990). "Impacts of hydroelectric development on brown bears, Kodiak Island, Alaska". International Conference on Bear Research and Management. 8: 93–103. JSTOR 3872907.
^ Jump up to: a b "Kodiak Archipelago Bear Conservation and Management Plan. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, U.S." Alaska Department of Fish & Game. 2002. Archived from the original on September 22, 2006. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Ursus arctos". IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "Endangered Species program, list of mammals endangered on the US". US Fish and Wildlife service. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "Hunting Kodiak bears — a question and answer guide". Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 2008. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006. Retrieved 30 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Bear". Alutiiq Museum. 2017. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Kodiak Alutiiq Language Level I & II Teaching Resource Workbook" (PDF). Native Village of Afognak. 2009. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ Taquka'aq. "Alutiiqlanguage.org". Retrieved 2017-07-21.
External links[edit]
Media related to Kodiak Bear at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Ursus arctos middendorffi at Wikispecies
[hide]
v
t
e
Extant brown bear subspecies
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Ursidae
Genus: Ursus
Species: arctos
Eurasian brown bear (U. a. arctos)
Kamchatka brown bear (U. a. beringianus)
East Siberian brown bear (U. a. collaris)
Grizzly bear (U. a. horribilis)
Himalayan brown bear (U. a. isabellinus)
Ussuri brown bear (U. a. lasiotus)
Marsican brown bear (U. a. marsicanus)
Syrian brown bear (U. a. syriacus)
Kodiak bear (U. a. middendorffi)
Tibetan blue bear (U. a. pruinosus)
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q237260
EoL: 1266086
GBIF: 6163850
iNaturalist: 147090
ITIS: 726993
MSW: 14000982
NCBI: 116961
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kodiak_bear&oldid=827978424"
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Mammals described in 1896
Apex predators
Bears
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Fauna of Alaska
Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska
Mammals of the United States
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Birthday
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Birthday (disambiguation).
"Birth date", "Birthdate", and "Date of birth" redirect here; see also birth certificate.
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Candles spell out the traditional English birthday greeting
A birthday is an occasion when a person or institution celebrates the anniversary of their birth. Birthdays are celebrated in numerous cultures, often with gifts, cards, a party, or a rite of passage.
Many religions celebrate the birth of their founders with special holidays (e.g. Christmas, Buddha's Birthday).
There is a distinction between birthday and birthdate: The former, other than February 29, occurs each year (e.g. January 15), while the latter is the exact date a person was born (e.g., January 15, 2001).
Contents
[hide]
1 Legal conventions
2 Cultural conventions
3 Traditions
3.1 Name days
3.2 Official birthdays
4 Frequency
5 Time zones and birthminutes
6 Leap day
7 In cultures and religions
7.1 Ancient Persia
7.2 Ancient Rome
7.3 China
7.4 Judaism
7.5 Christianity
7.5.1 Christianity: Early centuries
7.5.2 Christianity: Medieval
7.5.3 Religious: Modern
7.6 Islam
7.7 Hinduism
7.8 Buddhism (Mahayana)
7.9 Sikhism
7.10 North Korea
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Legal conventions
In most legal systems, one becomes designated as an adult on a particular birthday (usually between 12 and 21), and reaching age-specific milestones confers particular rights and responsibilities. At certain ages, one may become eligible to leave full-time education, become subject to military conscription or to enlist in the military, to consent to sexual intercourse, to marry, to marry without parental consent, to vote, to run for elected office, to legally purchase (or consume) alcohol and tobacco products, to purchase lottery tickets, or to obtain a driver's licence. The age of majority is the age when minors cease to legally be considered children and assume control over their persons, actions, and decisions, thereby terminating the legal control and legal responsibilities of their parents or guardians over and for them. Most countries set the age of majority between 18 and 21.
A one-year-old girl playing with her birthday balloons in Bangladesh
Cultural conventions
Many cultures have one or more coming of age birthdays:
Little girl in traditional birthday hat used in Canada and the U.S.
In Canada and the United States, families often mark a girl's 16th birthday with a "sweet sixteen" celebration - often represented in popular culture.
In some Hispanic countries, as well as in Portuguese-speaking Brazil, the quinceañera (Spanish) or festa de quinze anos (Portuguese) celebration traditionally marks a girl's 15th birthday.[1]
In Nepal and India, on a child's first birthday, their head is shaved while being held by a special fire. Removal of the hair is believed to cleanse the child of any evil in past lives, and symbolizes a renewal of the soul.[2] Hindu male children of some castes, like Brahmins, have the 12th or 13th birthday replaced with a grand "thread ceremony". The child takes a blessed thread and wears it, symbolizing his coming of age. This is called the Upanayana.[3]
In the Philippines, a coming-of-age party called a debut is held for girls on their 18th birthday, and for boys on their 21st birthday.
In some Asian countries that follow the zodiac calendar, there is a tradition of celebrating the 60th birthday.
In Korea, many celebrate a traditional ceremony of Baek-il (Feast for the 100th day) and Doljanchi (child's first birthday).
In Japan there is a Coming of Age Day, for all of those who have turned 20 years of age.
In British Commonwealth nations cards from the Royal Family are sent to those celebrating their 100th and 105th birthday and every year thereafter.[4]
In Ghana, on their birthday, children wake up to a special treat called "oto" which is a patty made from mashed sweet potato and eggs fried in palm oil. Later they have a birthday party where they usually eat stew and rice and a dish known as "kelewele", which is fried plantain chunks.[citation needed]
Jewish boys have a bar mitzvah on their 13th birthday. Jewish girls have a bat mitzvah on their 12th birthday, or sometimes on their 13th birthday in Reform and Conservative Judaism. This marks the transition where they become obligated in commandments of which they were previously exempted and are counted as part of the community.[5]
The birthdays of historically significant people, such as national heroes or founders, are often commemorated by an official holiday marking the anniversary of their birth.
Catholic saints are remembered by a liturgical feast on the anniversary of their "birth" into heaven a.k.a. their day of death. The ancient Romans marked the anniversary of a temple dedication or other founding event as a dies natalis, a term still sometimes applied to the anniversary of an institution (such as a university).
A person's golden or grand birthday, also referred to as their "lucky birthday", "champagne birthday", or "star birthday",[citation needed] occurs when they turn the age of their birth day (e.g., when someone born on the 25th of the month turns 25 or when someone born on the ninth turns nine).[6]
An individual's Beddian birthday, named in tribute to firefighter Bobby Beddia,[7] occurs during the year that his or her age matches the last two digits of the year he or she was born.[8]
In many cultures and jurisdictions, if a person's real birthday is not known (for example, if he or she is an orphan), then their birthday may be considered to be January 1.[9] That tradition is followed with horses, their age becoming one, on the first day of the year following their birth and being counted annually after that.
Traditions
Child with Snow White Cake, circa 1910–1940.
Girl's Birthday Party, circa 2011.
In many parts of the world[vague] an individual's birthday is celebrated by a party where a specially made cake, usually decorated with lettering and the person's age, is presented. The cake is traditionally studded with the same number of lit candles as the age of the individual, or a number candle representing their age. The celebrated individual will usually make a silent wish and attempt to blow out the candles in one breath; if successful, a tradition holds that the wish will be granted. In many cultures, the wish must be kept secret or it won't "come true". Presents are bestowed on the individual by the guests appropriate to her/his age. Other birthday activities may include entertainment (sometimes by a hired professional, i.e. a clown, magician, or musician), and a special toast or speech by the birthday celebrant. The last stanza of Patty Hill's and Mildred Hill's famous song, "Good Morning to You" (unofficially titled "Happy Birthday to You") is typically sung by the guests at some point in the proceedings. In some countries a piñata takes the place of a cake.
Name days
Main article: Name day
In some historically Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox countries such as Italy, Spain, France, parts of Germany, Poland, Russia, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia, and throughout Latin America, it is common to have a 'name day'/'Saint's day'. It is celebrated in much the same way as a birthday, but it is held on the official day of a saint with the same Christian name as the birthday person; the difference being that one may look up a person's name day in a calendar, or easily remember common name days (for example, John or Mary); however in pious traditions, the two were often made to concur by giving a newborn the name of a saint celebrated on its birthday, or possibly the name of a feast, for example, Noel or Pascal (French for Christmas and "of Easter"); as another example, Togliatti was given Palmiro as his first name because he was born on Palm Sunday.
Official birthdays
Colored lanterns at the Lotus Lantern Festival in Seoul, South Korea, celebrating the anniversary of the Buddha's birthday
Some notables, particularly monarchs, have an official birthday on a fixed day of the year, which may not necessarily match the day of their birth, but on which celebrations are held. Examples are:
Jesus Christ's traditional birthday is celebrated as Christmas Eve or Christmas Day around the world, on December 24 or 25, respectively. As some Eastern churches use the Julian calendar, December 25 will fall on January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. These dates are traditional and have no connection with the actual birthday date of Jesus, which was an unknown date, likely around September or possibly early October.[10][11]
Similarly, the birthdays of the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist are liturgically celebrated on September 8 and June 24, especially in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions (although for those Eastern Orthodox churches using the Julian calendar the corresponding Gregorian dates are September 21 and July 7 respectively). As with Christmas, the dates of these celebrations are traditional and probably have no connection with the actual birthdays of these individuals (and if Jesus was born in September or October, it would seem likely that John the Baptist, who was traditionally regarded to be six months older,[12] was born around March or April).
The Queen's Official Birthday in Australia, Fiji, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
The Grand Duke's Official Birthday in Luxembourg is typically celebrated on June 23. This is different from the monarch's actual date of birth, which is on April 16.
Koninginnedag in the Kingdom of the Netherlands was typically celebrated on April 30. Queen Beatrix fixed it at the birthday of her mother, the previous queen, to avoid the winter weather associated with her own birthday in January. The present monarch's birthday is 27 April, and is also celebrated on that day and has replaced the 30th of April celebration of Koninginnedag.
The current Japanese Emperor Akihito's official birthday is December 23, which is a national holiday in Japan, whereas his actual date of birth is on November 12.
The previous Japanese Emperor Showa (Hirohito)'s birthday was April 29. After his death, the holiday was kept as "Showa no Hi", or "Showa Day". This holiday falls close to Golden Week, the week in late April and early May.
Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-Il's birthdays are celebrated in North Korea as a national holiday.
Washington's Birthday, commonly referred to as Presidents' Day, is a federal holiday in the United States that celebrates the birthday of George Washington. President Washington's birthday is observed on the third Monday of February each year. However, his actual birth date was either February 11 (Old Style), or February 22 (New Style).
In India, every year October 2 which marks the Birthday of Mahatma Gandhi, is declared as a holiday. All the liquor shops are closed across the country in honour of Gandhi not consuming liquor.
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is a federal holiday in the United States marking the birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, which is around the time of King's birthday, January 15.
Mawlid is the official birthday of Muhammad and is celebrated on the 12th or 17th day of Rabi' al-awwal by adherents of Sunni and Shia Islam respectively. These are the two most commonly accepted dates of birth of Muhammad.
Frequency
A cake indicating a tenth birthday celebration
According to a public database of births, birthdays in the United States are quite evenly distributed for the most part, but there tend to be more births in September and October.[13] This may be because there is a holiday season nine months before (the human gestation period is about nine months), or because the longest nights of the year also occur in the Northern Hemisphere nine months before. However, it appears the holidays have more of an effect on birth rates than the winter: New Zealand, a Southern Hemisphere country, has the same September and October peak with no corresponding peak in March and April.[14] The least common birthdays tend to fall around public holidays, such as Christmas, New Years Day and fixed-date holidays such as July 4 in the US. This is probably due to hospitals and birthing centres not offering labor inductions and elective Caesarean sections on public holidays.
Based on Harvard University research of birth records in the United States between 1973 and 1999, September 16 is the most common birthday in the United States and December 25 the least common birthday (other than February 29, because of leap years).[15] In 2011, October 5 and 6 were reported as the most frequently occurring birthdays.[16]
In New Zealand, the ten most common birthdays all fall within a thirteen-day period, between September 19 and October 1, corresponding to conception in December. The ten least common birthdays (other than February 29) are December 24–27, January 1–2, February 6, March 22, April 1 and April 25. This is based on all live births registered in New Zealand between 1980 and 2014.[14]
According to a study by the Yale School of Public Health, positive and negative associations with culturally significant dates may influence birth rates. The study shows a 5.3% decrease in spontaneous births and a 16.9% decrease in Caesarean births on Halloween, compared to dates occurring within one week before and one week after the October holiday. In contrast, on Valentine's Day there is a 3.6% increase in spontaneous births and a 12.1% increase in Caesarean births.[17]
Time zones and birthminutes
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A person's birthday and birthminute is usually recorded according to the time zone of the place of birth. Therefore, for example, if one is born on October 20 at 13:13 UTC+11 in Sydney, Australia, this would be recorded as October 19 at 19:13 UTC−7 in Los Angeles. Such a person, if spending his or her birthday in Los Angeles, would celebrate on October 19. Due to the irregularity of the International Date Line, no person would celebrate his or her birthday on the same day everywhere in the world, and a person born between 10:00 and 11:59 UTC would have three possible birthdays at various positions on the globe. (since the earliest time zone used in the world is UTC-12 and the latest is UTC+14).
Leap day
In the Gregorian calendar (a common solar calendar), February in a leap year has 29 days instead of the usual 28, so the year lasts 366 days instead of the usual 365.
A person born on February 29 may be called a "leapling" or a "leaper".[18] In common years they usually celebrate their birthdays on February 28. In some situations, March 1 is used as the birthday in a non-leap year since it is the day following February 28.
Technically, a leapling will have fewer birthday anniversaries than their age in years. This phenomenon is exploited when a person claims to be only a quarter of their actual age, by counting their leap-year birthday anniversaries only. In Gilbert and Sullivan's 1879 comic opera The Pirates of Penzance, Frederic the pirate apprentice discovers that he is bound to serve the pirates until his 21st birthday rather than until his 21st year.
For legal purposes, legal birthdays depend on how local laws count time intervals.
In cultures and religions
Ancient Persia
According to Herodotus (5th century BC), of all the days in the year, the one which the Persians celebrate most is their birthday. It was customary to have the board furnished on that day with an ampler supply than common: the richer people eat wholly baked cow, horse, camel, or donkey, while the poorer classes use instead the smaller kinds of cattle.[19][20]
Ancient Rome
The Romans enthusiastically celebrated birthdays with hedonistic parties and generous presents.[21]
China
Chinese birthday traditions reflect the culture's deep-seated focus on longevity and wordplay. From the homophony between 酒 ("rice wine") and 久 (meaning "long" in the sense of time passing), osmanthus and other rice wines are traditional gifts for birthdays in China. Longevity noodles are another traditional food consumed on the day,[22] although western-style birthday cakes are increasingly common among urban Chinese.
Judaism
In Judaism, the perspective on birthday celebrations is disputed by various rabbis, although today it is accepted practice by most of the faithful.[23] In the Hebrew Bible, the one single mention of a celebration being held in commemoration of someone's day of birth is for the Egyptian Pharaoh which is recorded in Genesis 40:20.[24] Rabbi Moshe Feinstein always acknowledged birthdays.[25] The Lubavitcher Rebbe encouraged people to celebrate their birthdays, by gathering friends, making positive resolutions, and through various religious observances.[26] According to Rabbi Yissocher Frand, the anniversary of a person's birth is a special day for that person's prayers to be accepted.[27]
The bar mitzvah of 13-year-old Jewish boys, or bat mitzvah for 12-year-old Jewish girls, is perhaps the only Jewish celebration undertaken in what is often perceived to be in coalition with a birthday. Despite modern celebrations where the secular "birthday" element often overshadows the essence of it as a religious rite, the essence of a bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah celebration is entirely religious in origin (i.e. the attainment of religious maturity according to Jewish law), however, and not secular. With or without the birthday celebration, the child nevertheless becomes a bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah, and the celebration may be on that day or any date after it.
Christianity
Christianity: Early centuries
Origen in his commentary "On Levites" writes that Christians should not only refrain from celebrating their birthdays, but should look on them with disgust.[28]
Orthodox Christianity in addition to birthdays, also celebrate the name day of a person.
Christianity: Medieval
Ordinary folk celebrated their saint's day (the saint they were named after), but nobility celebrated the anniversary of their birth.[citation needed] The "Squire's Tale", one of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, opens as King Cambuskan proclaims a feast to celebrate his birthday.[29]
Religious: Modern
While almost all Christians accept the practice today, Jehovah's Witnesses and some Sacred Name groups refrain from celebrating birthdays due to the custom's pagan origins, its connections to magic and superstitions. While Christmas is the celebration of Christ's Birth, some religious groups see it as being portrayed in a negative light.[30][31][32]
Islam
Some Muslim especially from Salafi school of thought[33] oppose the celebration of a birthday as a sin, as it is considered an "innovation" of the faith, or bi'dah while other clerics have issued statements saying that the celebration of a birthday is permissible.[34][35]
Some Muslims migrating to the United States adopt the custom of celebrating birthdays, especially for children, but others resist.[36]
There is also a great deal of controversy regarding celebrating Mawlid (the anniversary of the birth of Muhammad). While a section of Islam strongly favours it,[37] others decry such celebrations, terming them as out of the scope of Islam.[38]
Hinduism
Hindus celebrate the birth anniversary day every year when the day that corresponds to lunar month or solar month (Sun Signs Nirayana System – Sourava Mana Masa) of birth and has the same asterism (Star/Nakshatra) as that of the date of birth. That age is reckoned whenever Janma Nakshatra of the same month passes.
Hindus regard death to be more auspicious than birth since the person is liberated from the bondages of material society. Also, traditionally, rituals & prayers for the departed are observed on 5th and 11th day with many relatives gathering.
Buddhism (Mahayana)
Main article: Buddha's birthday
Many monasteries celebrate the anniversary of Buddha's birth, usually in a highly formal, ritualized manner. They treat Buddha's statue as if it was Buddha himself, as if he were alive; bathing, and "feeding" him.[39]
Sikhism
Sikhs celebrate the anniversary of the birth of Guru Nanak.
North Korea
In North Korea, people do not celebrate birthdays on July 8 and December 17 because these were the dates of the deaths of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il, respectively. More than 100,000 North Koreans celebrate displaced birthdays on July 9 or December 18 to avoid these dates. A person born on July 8 before 1994 may change their birthday, with official recognition.[40] Kim Il-sung's birthday, Day of the Sun, is the most important public holiday of the country,[41] and Kim Jong-il's birthday is celebrated as Day of the Shining Star.[42]
See also
Various birthdays are mentioned on the pages devoted to each day of the year, from January 1 to December 31
Birthday paradox
Birthday attack
East Asian age reckoning – a different method of age reckoning to birthdays that is used in some Asian countries
Half-birthday
Death anniversary/Yahrzeit
Unbirthday
Sashtiabdhapoorthi
Birthstones
References
Jump up ^ Quinceañeras – Hispanic Culture. Bellaonline.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Birthday traditions. happy-birthday-wishes.eu
Jump up ^ Sacred Thread Ceremony[dead link]. hinduyuva.org (2006)
Jump up ^ Queen and anniversary messages. Royal.gov.uk. Retrieved on 2013-01-01. Archived February 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rabbi Shraga (2000-01-17) ABC's of Bar/Bat Mitzvah. Aish.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Golden birthday@Everything2.com. Everything2.com (2003-03-01). Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ A Firefighter's Theorem. Newyorker.com. Retrieved on 2014-12-27.
Jump up ^ Beddian Theory. Dustbury.com. Retrieved on 2014-12-27.
Jump up ^ On New Year's Day, wish a 'Happy Birthday' to 202,000 refugees. syracuse.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ http://www.cortright.org/birth.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.hwcoc.org.au/birthdayofchrist.html
Jump up ^ http://www.keyway.ca/htm2001/20010811.htm
Jump up ^ Anybirthday. Anybirthday. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Most common birthday in New Zealand". Statistics New Zealand. 17 September 2015. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "How Common Is Your Birthday?". The New York Times. 2006-12-19.
Jump up ^ Christina Ng (2011-10-05) Oct. 5: America’s Most Common Birthday ABC News
Jump up ^ Greenwood, Michael. (2011-10-10) Halloween, Valentine’s Day Found to Influence Birth Timing. Publichealth.yale.edu. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Hall, C. (February 29, 2008), "Leap Year Babies Hop Through Hoops of Joy, Pain of Novelty Birthday", Detroit Free Press |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herodotus-iii
Jump up ^ http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herodotus-persians.asp
Jump up ^ Kathryn Argetsinger (1992). "Birthday Rituals: Friends and Patrons in Roman Poetry and Cult". Classical Antiquity. 11 (2): 175–193. JSTOR 25010971. doi:10.2307/25010971.
Jump up ^ Li Xiaoxiang. Origins of Chinese People and Customs (2004) p. 101. Asiapac Books (Singapore). ISBN 9812293841.
Jump up ^ Reb Chaim HaQoton: Happy Birthday! April 17, 2007
Jump up ^ "Birthday in Torah". Just Asked. GatewaysOnline.com. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
Jump up ^ Zvi (Far Rockaway) (2010-05-13). "Birthdays". Flatbush Jewish Journal.
Jump up ^ Chabad.org. "The Jewish Birthday".
Jump up ^ Rechel Weingarten (2010-05-13). "Birthday Celebrations". Flatbush Jewish Journal.
Jump up ^ John Bugge (1975) Early Christians,” notes The World Book Encyclopedia, “considered the celebration of anyone’s birth to be a pagan custom.” The ancient Greeks, for instance, believed that each person had a protective spirit that attended the person’s birth and thereafter watched over him. That spirit “had a mystic relation with the god on whose birthday the individual was born,” says the book The Lore of Birthdays. Birthdays also have a long-standing and an intimate link with astrology and the horoscope. 11 Besides rejecting birthday customs on account of pagan and spiritistic roots, God’s servants of old likely rejected them on principle as well. Why? These were humble, modest men and women who did not view their arrival in the world as so important that it should be celebrated. (Micah 6:8; Luke 9:48) Rather, they glorified Jehovah and thanked him for the precious gift of life.—Psalm 8:3, 4; 36:9; Revelation 4:11. Virginitas: an essay in the history of a medieval ideal, Springer ISBN 9024716950, p. 69
Jump up ^ Margaret Hallissy (1995) A Companion to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0313291896, p. 300
Jump up ^ Awake! July 8, 2004, p. 30 "Religions refrain from any celebrations or customs that continue to involve false religious beliefs or activities that violate their principles. For example, their views definitely put birthday celebrations in a bad light."
Jump up ^ The World Book Encyclopedia: Vol. 3, p. 416
Jump up ^ Are Birthday Celebrations Christian?. Thercg.org. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Nahid Kabir Young American Muslims: Dynamics of Identity Edinburgh University Press 2012 ISBN 978-0-748-66996-7 page 45
Jump up ^ Birthday parties | IslamToday – English. En.islamtoday.net. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Souhail Karam (2008-08-31). "Birthday parties against Islam says top Saudi cleric". Reuters. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
Jump up ^ Mona H. Faragallah, Walter R. Schumm and Farrell J. Webb (1997). "Acculturation of Arab-American Immigrants: An Exploratory Study". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 28 (3): 182. JSTOR 41603515.
Jump up ^ Imam Jalaluddin al-Suyuti Celebrating Eid-e-Milad-un-Nabi. (PDF). Nooremadinah.net. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Salman Mohammed (2011-02-06) Milad un Nabi or Prophet Birthday : Celebrate or Not?. Systemoflife.com Article. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
Jump up ^ Sarah J. Horton (2007) Living Buddhist statues in early medieval and modern Japan, Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 1403964203 p. 24
Jump up ^ Ju Seongha (2011-12-30) 北 김정은 시대 北 12월 17일生 사라진다. news.donga.com
Jump up ^ MacLeod, Calum (26 April 2013). "Korean defectors recall 'Day of the Sun'". USA Today. Contributing: Jueyoung Song, Duck Hwa Hong. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Neville, Tim (15 February 2015). "Happy birthday? North Korea celebrates Kim Jong Il's legacy". CNN. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Birthday.
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Wikidata has the property: date of birth (P569) (see uses)
What's your number?, by Population Action International
What's your number?, by the BBC
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