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Korean Armistice Agreement
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Korean Armistice Agreement
Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement in P’anmunjŏm
Signed
27 July 1953
Location
P’anmunjŏm
Signatories
William Kelly Harrison, Jr.
Nam Il
Peng Dehuai
Parties
United Nations Command
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
People's Republic of China
Languages
English, Korean, Chinese
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Korean Armistice Agreement
The Korean Armistice Agreement is the armistice which serves to ensure a complete cessation of hostilities of the Korean War. It was signed by U.S. Army Lieutenant General William Harrison, Jr. representing the United Nations Command (UNC), North Korean General Nam Il representing the Korean People's Army (KPA), and the Chinese People’s Volunteer Army (PVA).[1] The armistice was signed on July 27, 1953, and was designed to "insure a complete cessation of hostilities and of all acts of armed force in Korea until a final peaceful settlement is achieved."[2] No "final peaceful settlement" has been achieved. The signed armistice established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (de facto a new border between the two nations), put into force a cease-fire, and finalized repatriation of prisoners of war. The Demilitarized Zone runs not far from the 38th parallel, which separated North and South Korea before the Korean War.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Armistice discussions
3 Effects
4 Subsequent events
4.1 Failure of the Geneva Conference
4.2 United States abrogation of paragraph 13(d)
4.3 United Nations statements
4.4 North Korean announcements to withdraw from the agreement
5 Commemorations
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Sources
8 Further reading
Background[edit]
By mid-December 1950, the United States was discussing terms for an agreement to end the Korean War.[3] The desired agreement would end the fighting, provide assurances against its resumption, and protect the future security of UNC forces.[4] The United States asked there needed to be a military armistice commission of mixed membership that would supervise all agreements.[3] Both sides would need to agree to "cease the introduction into Korea of any reinforcing air, ground or naval units or personnel ... and to refrain from increasing the level of war equipment and material existing in Korea."[3] The U.S. also desired to make a demilitarized zone that would be roughly 20 miles wide.[3] The agreement would address the issue of prisoners of war which the U.S. believed should be exchanged on a one-for-one basis.[3]
While talks of a possible armistice agreement were circulating, in late May and early June 1951, the President of the Republic of Korea (ROK, South Korea) Syngman Rhee opposed peace talks. He believed the ROK should continue to expand its army in order to march all the way to the Yalu River and completely unify the nation.[5] The UNC did not endorse Rhee’s position.[5] Even without UNC support, Rhee and the South Korean government launched a massive effort to mobilize the public to resist any halt in the fighting short of the Yalu River.[6] Other ROK officials supported Rhee’s ambitions and the National Assembly of South Korea unanimously passed a resolution endorsing a continued fight for an “independent and unified country.”[6] At the end of June, however, the Assembly decided to support armistice talks,[6] although President Rhee continued to oppose it.[7]
Like Syngman Rhee, North Korean leader Kim Il-sung also sought complete unification. The North Korean side was slow to support armistice talks and only on June 27, 1951 – seventeen days after armistice talks had begun – did it change its slogan of "drive the enemy into the sea" to "drive the enemy to the 38th parallel."[8] North Korea was pressured to support armistice talks by allies the People's Republic of China (PRC, China) and the Soviet Union, whose support enabled North Korea to continue fighting.
Armistice discussions[edit]
Site of negotiations in 1951
Talks concerning an armistice started July 10, 1951,[9] in Kaesŏng, a city occupied by North Korea in North Hwanghae Province near the South Korean border.[10] The two primary negotiators were Chief of Army Staff General Nam Il, a North Korean Deputy Premier, and United States Vice Admiral Charles Turner Joy.[11] After a period of two weeks, on June 26, 1951, a five-part agenda was agreed upon[12] and this guided talks until signing of the armistice on July 27, 1953. The items to be discussed were:
Adoption of agenda.
Fixing a military demarcation line between both sides so as to establish a demilitarized zone as a basic condition for cessation of hostilities in Korea.
Concrete arrangements for realization of a ceasefire and armistice in Korea, including composition, authority and functions of a supervisory organization for carrying out the terms of a truce and armistice.
Arrangements relating to prisoners of war.
Recommendations to the governments of the countries concerned on both sides.[12]
Colonel level discussions on 11 October 1951
After the agenda was decided, talks proceeded slowly with off and on again discussions. The longest gap between discussions started on August 23, 1951,[12] during the morning before sunrise, when North Korea and its allies claimed the conference site in Kaesŏng had been bombed. North Korea requested the UNC conduct an immediate investigation, which concluded there was evidence a UNC aircraft had attacked the conference site. The evidence, however, appeared to be manufactured. The Communists subsequently refused to permit an investigation during daylight hours.[13]
Armistice talks did not start again until October 25, 1951.[9] The U.S. would not allow further discussion to take place in Kaesŏng.[14] Panmunjom, a nearby village in Kyŏnggi Province bordering North and South Korea, was chosen as the new location for peace agreement deliberations conditional on sharing responsibility for protection of the village by both powers.[15]
The on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years,[16] first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighbouring village of Panmunjom.[17] A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation.[18] The PVA, KPA, and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north,[19] which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans.[20] In the final armistice agreement, signed on 27 July 1953, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the Chairman Indian General K. S. Thimayya, was set up to handle the matter.[21]
In 1952, the United States elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president-elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War.[22] With the United Nations' acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice,[23] the KPA, the PVA, and the UN Command ceased fire with the battle line approximately at the 38th parallel. Upon agreeing to the armistice, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has since been patrolled by the KPA and ROKA, United States, and Joint UN Commands. Discussions continued slowly because of difficulties regarding demarcation of the border between North and South Korea. China and North Korea believed and expected the line to remain at the 38th parallel. Within weeks, however, both nations accepted the Kansas Line, the place where the two sides had confronted each other at the time.[9] In March 1953, the death of Joseph Stalin helped spur negotiations. While Chinese leader Mao Zedong was not willing to compromise then, the new Soviet leadership issued a statement two weeks after Stalin's death, calling for a quick end to hostilities.[24]
The building where the armistice was signed, now housing the North Korea Peace Museum
Questions of how to handle repatriation of prisoners of war was also an issue during negotiations. The Communists held 10,000 POWs and the UNC held 150,000 POWs.[3] The People's Volunteer Army (PVA), Korean People's Army (KPA), and the UNC could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be sent back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans.[8] In the final armistice agreement, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission was set up to handle the matter.[25] The agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. The Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC) was established to prevent reinforcements being brought into Korea, either additional military personnel or new weapons, and NNSC member inspection teams from Czechoslovakia, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland operated throughout Korea.
On July 19, 1953, delegates reached agreement covering all issues on the agenda regarding an armistice.[26] On July 27, 1953, at 10:00 a.m. the armistice was signed by Nam Il, delegate of the Koreans People's Army and the Chinese People's Volunteers, and William K. Harrison Jr., UNC delegate.[2] Twelve hours after the signing of the document, all regulations approved in the armistice commenced.[27]
Effects[edit]
The signed armistice established a “complete cessation of all hostilities in Korea by all armed force”[2] that was to be enforced by the commanders of both sides. Essentially a complete cease-fire was put into force. The armistice is however only a cease-fire between military forces, rather than an agreement between governments.[28] No peace treaty was signed which means that the Korean War has not officially ended.
The Demilitarized Zone compared to the earlier 38th parallel de facto border
The armistice also established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The DMZ was decided to be a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the two Korean nations.[29] The Demilitarized Zone follows the Kansas Line where the two sides actually confronted each other at the time of the signed armistice. The DMZ is currently the most heavily defended national border in the world.
The Armistice also established regulations regarding prisoners of war. The agreement stated that “Within sixty (60) days after this agreement becomes effective each side shall, without offering any hindrance, directly repatriate and hand over in groups all those prisoners of war in its custody who insist on repatriation to the side to which they belonged at the time of capture.”[2] Ultimately, more than 22,000 North Korean or Chinese soldiers refused repatriation. On the opposite side, 327 South Korean soldiers, 21 American soldiers and 1 British soldier also refused repatriation, and remained in North Korea or in China. (See: List of American and British defectors in the Korean War.)
In addition to the established regulations listed above, the armistice also gave recommendation to the “governments of the countries concerned on both sides that, within three (3) months after the Armistice Agreement is signed and becomes effective, a political conference of a higher level of both sides be held by representatives appointed respectively to settle through negotiation the questions of the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Korea, the peaceful settlement of the Korean question, etc.”[2] Even in 2017, 64 years after the signing of the armistice agreement, these issues have not been settled as a peaceful settlement of the Korean question has not been reached and American troops still reside in South Korea.
After the armistice was signed the war is considered to have ended even though there was no official peace treaty. Despite the three-year war, the Korean peninsula greatly resembled what it did before the war with national borders at similar locations. The views of the U.S. is that Americans won the war, at least in the views of President Barack Obama,[30] while North Korea and China both claim that they won the Korean War.[31]
Subsequent events[edit]
Failure of the Geneva Conference[edit]
Main article: Geneva Conference (1954)
Article IV (Paragraph 60) of the Armistice Agreement calls for a political conference to be held within 3 months of the signing of the agreement in order "to insure the peaceful settlement of the Korean question".[2] A conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland on April 1954, missing the 3 month timeline by 6 months. The conference focused on two separate conflicts: the conflict in Korea, and the conflict in Indochina. Participants in the talks on the conflict in Korea involved the US, USSR, France, China, along with North and South Korea. The conference on the Korean conflict was concluded in June of the same year without any agreement or declaration.
United States abrogation of paragraph 13(d)[edit]
Play media
Deployment of U.S. atomic weapons in Korea in 1958
Paragraph 13(d) of the Armistice Agreement mandated that neither side introduce new weapons into Korea, other than piece-for-piece replacement of equipment. In September 1956 the U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Radford indicated that the U.S. military intention was to introduce atomic weapons into Korea, which was agreed to by the U.S. National Security Council and President Eisenhower.[32] However paragraph 13(d) prevented the introduction of nuclear weapons and missiles.[33] The U.S. unilaterally abrogated paragraph 13(d), breaking the Armistice Agreement, despite concerns by United Nations allies.[34][35][36] At a meeting of the Military Armistice Commission on June 21, 1957, the U.S. informed the North Korean representatives that the United Nations Command no longer considered itself bound by paragraph 13(d) of the armistice.[37][38] In January 1958 nuclear armed Honest John missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were deployed to South Korea,[39] followed within a year by atomic demolition munitions[40] and nuclear armed Matador cruise missiles with the range to reach China and the Soviet Union.[35][41]
The U.S. believed that North Korea had introduced new weapons contrary to 13(d), but did not make specific allegations.[42] North Korea also believed the U.S. had introduced new weapons earlier, citing Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission inspection team reports for August 1953 to April 1954.[32][43]
North Korea denounced the abrogation of paragraph 13(d).[36] North Korea responded militarily by digging massive underground fortifications resistant to nuclear attack, and forward deployment of its conventional forces so that the use of nuclear weapons against it would endanger South Korean and U.S. forces as well. In 1963 North Korea asked the Soviet Union and China for help in developing nuclear weapons, but was refused.[35]
Following the abrogation of paragraph 13(d), the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC) largely lost its function, and became primarily office based in the DMZ with a small staff.
United Nations statements[edit]
In 1975, the U.N. General Assembly adopted resolutions endorsing the desirability of replacing the Armistice Agreement with a peace treaty and dissolving the UNC.[44][45]
In October 1996, the U.N. Security Council, by a statement of the President of the Council, urged that the Armistice Agreement should be fully observed until replaced by a new peace mechanism. Approving nations included the United States and the Peoples Republic of China, two of the armistice's signatories, effectively refuting any suggestion that the armistice was no longer in force.[44]
North Korean announcements to withdraw from the agreement[edit]
Depiction of a banner during a 1989 student festival in Pyongyang, prior to calls from the DPRK to leave the agreement.
North Korea has announced that it will no longer abide by the armistice at least 6 times, in the years 1994, 1996, 2003, 2006, 2009, and 2013.[46][47]
On April 28, 1994, North Korea announced that it would cease participating in the Military Armistice Commission, but would continue contact at Panmunjom through liaison officers and maintain the general conditions of the armistice. North Korea stated it regarded the U.S. deployment of Patriot missiles in South Korea as terminating the armistice.[48][49]
On May 27, 2009, North Korea announced it no longer felt bound by the armistice agreement.[50] There were two isolated violent incidents in 2010, the ROKS Cheonan sinking (attributed to North Korea, despite denials) and the North Korean Bombardment of Yeonpyeong.
In 2013 North Korea argued the armistice was meant to be a transitional measure. North Korea had made a number of proposals for replacing it with a peace treaty, but the U.S. had not responded in a serious way. It further argued the Military Armistice Commission and Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission had long been effectively dismantled, paralysing the supervisory functions of the armistice. North Korea believes the annual U.S. and South Korean exercises Key Resolve and Foal Eagle are provocative and threaten North Korea with nuclear weapons.[51] JoongAng Ilbo reported the U.S. vessels equipped with nuclear weapons were participating in the exercise,[52] and The Pentagon publicly announced that B-52 bombers flown over South Korea were reaffirming the U.S. "nuclear umbrella" for South Korea.[53]
In March 2013, North Korea announced that it was scrapping all non-aggression pacts with South Korea, along with other escalations such as closing the border and closing the direct phone line between the two Koreas.[54] North Korea stated it had the right to make a preemptive nuclear attack.[54] A United Nations spokesman stated the armistice agreement had been adopted by the U.N. General Assembly, and could not be unilaterally dissolved by either North Korea or South Korea.[55] On March 28, 2013, the U.S. sent two B-2 Spirit stealth bombers to South Korea to participate in ongoing military exercises in the region, including the dropping of inert munitions on a South Korean bomb range. This was the first B-2 non stop, round-trip mission to Korea from the United States.[56] Following this mission, North Korean state media announced that it was readying rockets to be on standby to attack U.S. targets.[57] In May 2013, North Korea offered to enter into negotiations for a peace treaty to replace the armistice agreement.[58][59][60]
In August 2016, North Korea installed anti-personnel mines to prevent potential defectors of its front-line border guards around the "Bridge of No Return,” situated in the Joint Security Area (JSA).[61] The UN Command has protested this move as it violates the Armistice agreement which specifically prohibits armed guards and anti-personnel mines.[61]
The U.S. position, as expressed in 2010, is that a peace treaty can only be negotiated when North Korea "takes irreversible steps toward denuclearization".[62]
Commemorations[edit]
Over the years, United States Presidents have made proclamations in support of the National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day. On 26 July 2017, President Donald Trump proclaimed July 27 as National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day.[63][64][65]
North Korea commemorates July 27 as a national holiday known as Day of Victory in the Great Fatherland Liberation War.
See also[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Korean Armistice Agreement
Korean conflict
Northern Limit Line
Korean reunification
Military Demarcation Line
Index of Korea-related articles
North Korea and weapons of mass destruction
Peace treaty
International law
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Niksch, Larry A. (5 January 2010). North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Development and Diplomacy (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. p. 2. RL33590. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2015. North Korea’s position on a Korean peace treaty (an old North Korean proposal going back to 1974) contrasted sharply in three respects with positions of the Obama Administration, which [Stephen] Bosworth reiterated and reportedly were contained in a letter from President Obama to North Korean leader, Kim Jong‑il, delivered by Bosworth. First, as reportedly stated by Bosworth, the Obama Administration would engage in a negotiation of a peace treaty when North Korea ‘takes irreversible steps toward denuclearization’. North Korea appears to seek the denuclearization issue merged into a U.S.–North Korean peace treaty negotiation. Second, Bosworth repeated the position of the Obama Administration (and the Bush Administration) that U.S. normalization of diplomatic relations with North Korea would be a main element of U.S. reciprocity in return for North Korean denuclearization. North Korea rejects diplomatic relations as a quid pro quo for denuclearization (a position that North Korea set out in January 2009). Third, North Korea’s longstanding agenda for a peace treaty and its repeated definition of ‘denuclearization of the Korean peninsula’ have focused on securing a major diminution of the U.S. military presence in South Korea and around the Korean peninsula (which North Korea defines as elimination of ‘the U.S. nuclear threat’). The Obama Administration, like the Bush Administration, never has expressed a willingness to negotiate on U.S. military forces as part of a denuclearization negotiation.
Jump up ^ Office of the Press Secretary (26 July 2017). "President Donald J. Trump Proclaims July 27, 2017, as National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day". whitehouse.gov. Washington, D.C.: White House. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
Jump up ^ Trump, Donald [@realDonaldTrump] (26 July 2017). "President Trump Proclaims July 27, 2017, as National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day" (Tweet). Retrieved 28 July 2017 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ Eschiliman, Bob (27 July 2017). "President Trump Vows America Will Never Forget the Veterans of the 'Forgotten War'". Charisma. Lake Mary, Florida: Charisma Media. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
Sources[edit]
Agov, Avram (2013). "North Korea's Alliances and the Unfinished Korean War" (PDF). The Journal of Korean Studies. Vancouver: University of British Columbia. 18 (2): 225–262.
Catchpole, Brian (2000). The Korean War (1st ed.). New York City: Basic Books. pp. 216, 320, 322. ASIN 0786707801. ISBN 978-0786707805. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Mount, Graeme S.; Laferriere, André (2004). The Diplomacy of War: The Case of Korea. Québec: Black Rose Books. pp. 122–123. ASIN 1551642395. ISBN 978-1551642390. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Stokesbury, James L. (1988). A Short History of the Korean War (1st ed.). New York City: William Morrow and Company. pp. 144–153, 187–199, 240, 242–245. ASIN 0688063772. ISBN 978-0688063771. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Stokesbury, James L. (30 January 1990). Korean Short History. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-688-09513-0.
Stueck, William Whitney (1995). The Korean War: An International History (1st ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 211–212, 214–216, 225, 229, 237. ASIN 0691037671. ISBN 978-0691037677. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
Selden, Mark; So, Alvin Y. (2004). War and state terrorism: the United States, Japan, and the Asia-Pacific in the long twentieth century. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 77–80. ISBN 978-0742523913.
Further reading[edit]
Watry, David M. (2014). Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. ASIN 080715718X. ISBN 978-0807157183. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
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Absorption (skin)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Skin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin. Along with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route of exposure for toxic substances and route of administration for medication. Absorption of substances through the skin depends on a number of factors, the most important of which are concentration, duration of contact, solubility of medication, and physical condition of the skin and part of the body exposed.
Skin (percutaneous, dermal) absorption is the transport of chemicals from the outer surface of the skin both into the skin and into circulation. Skin absorption relates to the degree of exposure to and possible effect of a substance which may enter the body through the skin. Human skin comes into contact with many agents intentionally and unintentionally. Skin absorption can occur from occupational, environmental, or consumer skin exposure to chemicals, cosmetics, or pharmaceutical products. Some chemicals can be absorbed in enough quantity to cause detrimental systemic effects. Skin disease (dermatitis) is considered one of the most common occupational diseases.[1] In order to assess if a chemical can be a risk of either causing dermatitis or other more systemic effects and how that risk may be reduced one must know the extent to which it is absorbed, thus dermal exposure is a key aspect of human health risk assessment.
Contents
[hide]
1 Factors influencing absorption
2 Structures influencing absorption
3 Conditions affecting skin absorption
4 Medical use of skin absorption
5 Measurement of skin absorption
5.1 Direct measurement
5.2 In vivo
5.3 Ex vivo
5.4 In vitro
5.5 Indirect measurement
5.5.1 Skin contact with dry chemical
5.5.2 Skin contact with chemical in solution (water, etc.)
5.5.3 Skin contact with gas or aerosol
6 Controlling skin absorption
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Factors influencing absorption[edit]
Along with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route of exposure for bioactive substances including medications.[2] Absorption of substances through the skin depends on a number of factors:
Concentration
Molecular Weight of the molecule[3]
Duration of contact
Solubility of medication
Physical condition of the skin
Part of the body exposed including the amount of hair on the skin.
In general the rate of absorption of chemicals through skin follows the following scheme from fastest to slowest: Scrotal > Forehead > Armpit≥ Scalp > Back = Abdomen > Palm = under surface of the foot.[4]
Structures influencing absorption[edit]
To be absorbed through the skin, a chemical must pass through the epidermis, glands, or hair follicles. Sweat glands and hair follicles make up about 0.1 to 1.0 percent of the total skin surface.[2] Though small amounts of chemicals may enter the body rapidly through the glands or hair follicles, they are primarily absorbed through the epidermis. Chemicals must pass through the seven cell layers of epidermis before entering the dermis where they can enter the blood stream or lymph and circulate to other areas of the body. Toxins and toxicants can move through the layers by passive diffusion. The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis and the rate-limiting barrier in absorption of an agent.[4] Thus, how quickly something passes through this thicker outer layer determines the overall absorption. The stratum corneum is primarily composed of lipophilic cholesterol, cholesterol esters and ceramides. Thus lipid-soluble chemicals make it through the layer and into the circulation faster, however nearly all molecules penetrate it to some minimal degree.[5]
Diagram of skin structures
Conditions affecting skin absorption[edit]
Agents that injure the stratum corneum, such as strong acids, are absorbed faster than chemicals that do not.[6] Skin damage due to burns, abrasions, wounds and skin diseases also increase absorption. Thus populations with skin damage may be more susceptible to adverse effects of agents that are absorbed through the skin. Certain solvents like dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) act as carriers and are frequently used to transport medication through the skin. DMSO increases the permeability of the stratum corneum.[7][8] Surfactants like sodium lauryl-sulfate increase the skin penetration of water-soluble substances, possibly by increasing the skin permeability of water.[7]
Medical use of skin absorption[edit]
Dermal application of a medication or chemical allows treatment to be localized, unlike ingestion or injection. Some medications seem to be more effective (or are more efficient) using the dermal route of administration. Some ingested drugs are heavily metabolized by the liver and may be inactivated, but using a dermal application bypasses this metabolism step allowing more parent compound to enter the peripheral circulation. If a drug is absorbed well through the skin it may be used as a means of systemic medication. Dermal dosage forms include: liniments, braces, lotions, ointments, creams, dusting powders, aerosols, and transdermal patches.[9] Specially designed patches are currently used to deliver fentanyl, nicotine and other compounds. Slower skin absorption versus oral or injectable may allow patches to provide medication for 1 to 7 days.[10] For instance nitroglycerin given transdermally may provide hours of protection against angina whereas the duration of effect sublingually may only be minutes.[11]
Measurement of skin absorption[edit]
The amount of chemical that is absorbed through the skin can be measured directly or indirectly. Studies have shown there are species differences in the absorption of different chemicals. Measurements in rats, rabbits or pigs may or may not reflect human absorption.[6] Finding the rate at which agents penetrate the skin is important for assessing the risk from exposures.
Direct measurement[edit]
In vivo[edit]
A chemical may be directly applied to the skin followed by blood and urine measurements at set time points after application to assess the amount of chemical that entered the body. The concentration in the blood or urine at particular time points can be graphed to show and area under the curve and the extent and duration of absorption and distribution to provide a measure of systemic absorption. This can be done in animals or humans with a dry chemical powder or a chemical in solution.[12] Rats are commonly used for these experiments. An area of skin is shaved before the chemical is applied. Often the area of chemical application is covered to prevents ingestion or rubbing off of the test material. Samples of blood and urine are taken at specific time intervals following application (0.5, 1, 2, 4, 10, and 24 hours) and in some protocols at the chosen end time the animal maybe necropsied and tissue samples may also be evaluated for the presence of the test chemical.[13] In some test protocols many animals may be tested and necropsies may occur at set intervals after exposure. Biomonitoring, such as taking urine samples at intervals, from workers exposed to chemicals may provide some information but it is difficult to distinguish dermal from inhalation exposure using this method.
Ex vivo[edit]
The permeability properties of the stratum corneum are, for the most part, unchanged after its removal from the body.[13] Skin that has been removed carefully from animals may also be used to see the extent of local penetration by putting it in a chamber and applying the chemical on one side and then measuring the amount of chemical that gets into a fluid on the other side.[10] One example of this ex vivo technique is the isolated perfused porcine flap.[4] This method was first described in 1986 as a humane alternative to in vivo animal testing.[14]
In vitro[edit]
Techniques such as static diffusion cells (Franz cells) and flow-through diffusion cells (Bronaugh cells) have also been used.[4] The Franz Cell apparatus consists of two chambers separated by a membrane of animal or human skin. Human skin is preferred but due to ethical and other considerations is not always available. Human skin often may come from autopsies or plastic surgeries.[15] The test product is applied to the membrane via the top chamber. The bottom chamber contains fluid from which samples are taken at regular intervals for analysis to determine the amount of active that has permeated the membrane at set time points.
Bronaugh cells are similar to Franz cells but use a flow-through system beneath the membrane layer and samples of the liquid below are taken continuously rather than at set time points.[16] Bronaugh cells have been replaced with inline cells by some manufacturers.
Indirect measurement[edit]
It is sometimes impossible for humane reasons to apply a drug to the skin and measure its absorption. Sarin, a nerve gas, can be absorbed through intact skin and be lethal at low concentrations. Thus if one needs to assess the risk of Sarin exposure one must take skin absorption and other routes into account but one cannot ethically test Sarin on human subjects; thus ways of modeling the risk from skin exposure of the agent have been found.
Models are used in some instances to predict the amount of exposure or absorption and to assess public health hazards. In order to assess the risk of a chemical causing a health issue one must assess the chemical and the exposure. Exposure modeling depends on several factors and assumptions.
The surface area of skin exposed. The surface area of an adult is about 20,900 cm2 and the surface area of a child of 6 years is about 9,000 cm2. These figures and figures for other body parts or portions can be found in the EPA Exposures Handbook 1996[17] or estimated using other databases.[18]
The duration of exposure (in hours, minutes, etc.)
The concentration of the chemical
The permeability coefficient of the chemical (how easy it is for the chemical to get through the skin). This may be estimated using an octanol-water partitioning coefficient (a measurement of the uptake from aqueous solution into powdered stratum corneum).[19]
The weight of the person. Standard weight of an adult 71.8 kg, a 6 year old child 22 kg and female of child bearing age 60 kg are generally used.[17]
The nature of the exposure (Is it a cream applied to the whole body or just a small area? or is it a bath in a dilute solution?)
Skin contact with dry chemical[edit]
To calculate the dose of chemical a person is exposed to one must multiply the surface area of the skin exposed by the concentration of the chemical in the substance that comes into contact with the skin by the time in contact by the permeability coefficients and any unit conversion factors needed then divide by the weight of the person.
A simple mathematical formula to estimate dose for single exposure is:
concentration of chemical x surface area exposed x permeability coefficient / body weight.
Models for this can be found in the EPA Standard operating procedures for residential exposure assessment.[20] These models establish guidelines for estimating pesticide exposure so that one can judge the risk and take appropriate actions if the risk is judged to be too great given the exposure.
Skin contact with chemical in solution (water, etc.)[edit]
This can be modeled similarly to the dry chemical but one has to take into account the amount of solution the skin comes into contact with. Three scenarios for exposure to chemicals in solution have been proposed and modeled.
a. A person could be exposed partially to a solution for a period of time. For instance if one stood in contaminated flood water for a period of time, or one worked in a situation where the hands and lower arms were immersed in a solution for a period of time. This type of scenario depends on the skin area exposed and the duration of exposure as well as the concentration of the chemical in the solution. One may have to adjust the absorption coefficients for the different area of the body as the feet are more callused on the bottom and will allow less chemical through than the lower leg. The rate of absorption of chemicals follows the following general scheme from fastest to slowest: Scrotal > Forehead > Armpit≥ Scalp > Back = Abdomen > Palm = under surface of the foot.[4] The dermal absorption of a dilute solution by partial leg or arm exposure has been modeled by Scharf.[12] The EPA also has guidance on calculating the dermally absorbed doses of chemicals from contaminated water.[21]
Mathematical formula:
Dermally absorbed dose rate = concentration in water x surface area exposed x exposure time x permeability coefficient x conversion factors.
b. The second scenario is total body immersion, such as swimming in a pool or lake. Exposure in Swimming pools is only partially dermal and a SWIMODEL has been proposed[22] This model takes into account not only the skin exposure but also considers ocular, ingestion, inhalation, and mucous membrane exposure that may occur due to being totally immersed. A second model dealing primarily with skin absorption was created by Scharf to assess the risk of overspray of pesticide from aerial spraying on swimming pools.[12] These models use whole body surface area rather than the surface area of specific parts for the mathematical input.
c. The third scenario is splash, or droplet exposure. This model takes into account that not all water carrying a chemical that comes into contact with skin stays on the skin long enough to allow absorption. Only that portion of a chemical in the solution that stays in contact with the skin is available for absorption. This may be modeled using water adherence factors as postulated by Gujral 2011[23]
Skin contact with gas or aerosol[edit]
This is a minor contributor and has been ignored in most risk assessments of chemicals as a route of exposure for gaseous or aerosolized toxicants. More research is needed in this area.[24]
Controlling skin absorption[edit]
If skin exposure and absorption are deemed to indicate a risk various methods to reduce absorption can be undertaken.
Labels of chemicals can be adapted to require the use of gloves or protective clothing.
Warnings to wash immediately if the chemical comes into contact with skin can be made.
Close pools or lakes to swimmers.
Limit the exposure time to chemicals, i.e. workers can only work with certain chemicals for a certain length of time per day.
See also[edit]
Absorption (chemistry)
Absorption (pharmacokinetics)
Dermal patch
Epidermis (skin)
Exposure assessment
Exposure to toxins
Topical medication
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Workplace Safety & Health Topics: Skin Exposures & Effects. CDC. Retrieved April 17, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Eaton, DL and Klaassen Curtis D. Principles of Toxicology. in Cassarett & Doull's Toxicology, The Basic Science of Poisons. 5th edition. 1996. McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ Bos, JD; Meinardi, MM (2000). "The 500 Dalton rule for the skin penetration of chemical compounds and drugs". Exp. Dermatol. 9: 165–9. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0625.2000.009003165.x. PMID 10839713.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Baynes, RE and Hodgson E. Absorption and Distribution of Toxicants. in Chapter 6 of A Textbook of modern toxicology. 3rd edition. 2004, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Jump up ^ Morganti, P., Ruocco, E., Wolf, R., & Ruocco, V. (2001). "Percutaneous absorption and delivery systems." Clin Dermatol. 19: 489-501.
^ Jump up to: a b Rozman, KK and Klaassen CD. Absorption, Distribution and Excretion of Toxicants. in Cassarett & Doull's Toxicology, The Basic Science of Poisons. 5th edition. 1996. McGraw-Hill
^ Jump up to: a b Baggot JD. Disposition and Fate of Drugs in the Body. Chapter 5 in Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 6th edition, 1988 Iowa State Press, Ames.
Jump up ^ Booth NH, Topical Agents. Chap 44 in Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 6th edition, 1988 Iowa State Press, Ames.
Jump up ^ Davis, LE. Drug presentation and prescribing. Chap 3 in Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 6th edition, 1988 Iowa State Press, Ames.
^ Jump up to: a b Rice, RH and Cohen DE. Toxic Responses of the Skin. in Cassarett & Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons. 5th Edition. 1996. McGraw-Hill
Jump up ^ Shargel, L and Yu, A. Chapter 11. Modified-release drug products and drug delivery systems. in Applied Biopharmaceuts and Pharmacokinetics. 3rd edition. 1993 Appleton & Lange.
^ Jump up to: a b c Scharf, JE; et al. (2008). "Dermal absorption of a dilute aqueous solution of malathion". J. Emerg. Trauma Shock. 1: 70–73.
^ Jump up to: a b World Health Organization, Enivironmental Health Criteria 235, Dermal Absorption, 2006.
Jump up ^ Riviere JE et al. The isolated perfused porcine skin flap (IPPSF). I. A novel in vitro model for percutaneous absorption and cutaneous toxicology studies. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1986 Oct;7(3):444-53.
Jump up ^ Dressler WE (1999) Hair dye absorption. In: Bronaugh RL & Maibach HI eds. Percutaneous absorption: drugs–cosmetics–mechanisms–methodology, 3rd ed. New York, Marcel Dekker, pp 685–716 (Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol. 97).
Jump up ^ Bronaugh, R.L.; Stewart, R.F. (1985). "Methods for percutaneous absorption studies. IV. The flowthrough diffusion cell". J. Pharm. Sci. 74: 64–67. doi:10.1002/jps.2600740117.
^ Jump up to: a b EPA Exposure Handbook 1996
Jump up ^ Yu, CY et al. Human body surface area database and estimation formula. Burns. 2010 Aug;36(5):616-29..
Jump up ^ Wester; et al. (1987). "In vivo and vitro binding to powdered human stratum corneum as methods to evaluate skin absorption of environmental chemical contaminiants from ground and surface water". J Toxicol Environ health. 21: 367–374. doi:10.1080/15287398709531025.
Jump up ^ EPA 2012 Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs) for Residential Exposure Assessment
Jump up ^ US Enivironmental Protection Agency. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment)-Final. Washington, DC: US EPA, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, EPA/540/R/99/005, OSWER 9285.7-02EP, July 2004.
Jump up ^ Dang, 1996 EPA SOP Estimating post application dermally absorbed dose from chemicals in Swimming pools
Jump up ^ Gujral, J. S.; Proctor, D. M.; Su, S. H.; Fedoruk, J. M. (2011). "Water Adherence Factors for Human Skin". Risk Analysis. 31: 1271–1280. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01601.x.
Jump up ^ Rauma M. et al. Predicting the absorption of chemical vapours. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2013 Feb;65(2):306-14. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.03.012. Epub 2012 Mar 21.
External links[edit]
Skin Exposures & Effects, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
EDETOX database
WHO, Environmental Health Criteria 235, Dermal Absorption
EPA 2012 Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs) for Residential Exposure Assessment
Description of Franz cells
[1]
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Sprockets (Saturday Night Live)
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Title card from Saturday Night Live's Sprockets, with the title superimposed over the flash of a nuclear explosion.
Mike Myers as Dieter.
Sprockets was a recurring comedy sketch created by comedians Mike Myers and actor Dana Andersen, portraying a fictional West German television talk show. The sketch was created for the Second City Theatre, and became more widely known when Myers brought it to Saturday Night Live. The show parodied German art culture in the 1980s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 List of SNL episodes featuring Dieter
3 Proposed film adaptation
4 References
5 External links
Development[edit]
The sketch parodied German stereotypes, especially those pertaining to German seriousness, efficiency, and precision. Myers later ported the character to television for the Canadian sketch comedy show It's Only Rock & Roll and the American sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live.
Myers played "Dieter", a bored, disaffected West German expressionist and minimalist who would interview celebrities in whom he was demonstrably barely interested, and then invariably sought to bring the discussion around to his "limited" monkey, Klaus, seated on a platform atop a miniature column. Myers has stated he based the character on a waiter he encountered in Toronto[1] as well as German musician Klaus Nomi.[2]
Appearing effeminate (he'd later introduce his lover Helmut, played by Will Ferrell), and rotating his shoulders (he occasionally described becoming so excited that his genitals were sucked up into his body cavity), Myers' costume in the character of Dieter consisted of black tights, black turtleneck sweater, round, wire-rimmed glasses, and slicked back hair. On several occasions, the sketch featured a section entitled Germany's Most Disturbing Home Videos, which showcased scenes of old men's heads spinning around, dying cats, ants, and other disturbing sights.
The theme song for the sketch was Kraftwerk's 1986 song "Electric Café", sped up by playing the 33⅓ rpm album at 45 rpm, then looped.[citation needed]
Recurring and memorable quotes from the sketches include:
"You have disturbed me almost to the point of insanity...There. I am insane now."
"Touch my monkey!" and "Liebe meine Abschminke!" ("Love my makeup remover!"—but it sounds like a plausible German word for monkey to English-only speakers), a recurring reference to Dieter's pet monkey, Klaus. Dieter told his guests that being allowed to touch Klaus was a privilege, but Klaus would often bite them when they tried to do so.
"Your story (questions, setup) has become tiresome," whenever Dieter became - inevitably - bored with a guest.
"I am as happy as a little girl.", while pinching his shirt.
"I am filled with anticipation (remorse), and it is most delicious."
"Your presence intimidates me to the point of humiliation."
"Now is ze time on Sprockets vhen ve dance!" This was always uttered frantically at the end of the sketch, after which several Sprockets crew members dressed identically to Dieter joined him onstage to jerkily dance to techno music. (The techno music was another looped sample of "Electric Café", played at 45 rpm.)
Some later sketches featured Dieter outside of his talk show environment starring in parodies of game shows, TV dance parties, and art films.
List of SNL episodes featuring Dieter[edit]
All appearances were in the form of Sprockets shows, except where indicated.
Karl-Heinz Shalke (Kyle MacLachlan) obliges Dieter's request to "touch my monkey".
April 15, 1989 host: Dolly Parton (featuring Ben Stiller as Butch Patrick)[3]
May 20, 1989 host: Steve Martin
September 30, 1989 host: Bruce Willis (featuring Dana Carvey as James Stewart)[4]
November 18, 1989 host: Woody Harrelson (featuring Harrelson as filmmaker Graus Grek, giving his plans for his new "EuroTrash" theme park)
December 16, 1989 (in "Dieter In Space") host: Andie MacDowell
March 17, 1990 (in "Dieter's Dance Party") host: Rob Lowe
September 29, 1990 (in "Germany's Most Disturbing Home Videos") (featuring Kyle MacLachlan as Karl-Heinz Shalke, the wacky neighbor in Munich TV's hit sit-com Who Are You to Accuse Me?)[5]
December 15, 1990 host: Dennis Quaid
April 13, 1991 host: Catherine O'Hara
February 15, 1992 (in "Love Werks") host: Jason Priestley
May 16, 1992 host: Woody Harrelson (featuring Harrelson as filmmaker Gregor Voss)[6]
March 20, 1993 (in "Dieter's Dream") host: Miranda Richardson
November 20, 1993 (in "Das Ist Jeopardy!") host: Nicole Kidman
March 22, 1997 (in "The Insane Academy Awards") host: Mike Myers
Proposed film adaptation[edit]
The sketch was to be the basis for a film to be released in 2001, featuring Myers, Will Ferrell, David Hasselhoff, and Jack Black, but the project was abandoned in June 2000 after Myers became dissatisfied with his own script.[7] Less than a week after Myers informed Universal Studios of his decision, the studio sued Myers for their $3.8 million in pre-production costs.[7] One month later, Myers was hit with a second lawsuit, this time from Imagine Entertainment. "He claimed he had not approved the screenplay. Who wrote the screenplay--Myers," the Imagine lawsuit stated. Imagine claims Myers backed out after it and Universal agreed to his demands for more pay and millions of dollars were spent in pre-production. "This was not the first time Myers engaged in such conduct," the suit contended. "He has followed a pattern and practice of breaking his promises, betraying the trust of others and causing serious damage to those with whom he deals through selfish, egomaniacal and irresponsible conduct." The Imagine lawsuit sought more than $30 million in actual damages plus punitive damages.[8] Myers subsequently countersued both parties,[9] and eventually both lawsuits were later settled out of court.[10]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Profiles of Mike Myers and Julia Roberts". CNN. 2002-08-03. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
Jump up ^ "Episode 518 - Mike Myers". WTF with Marc Maron. 2014-07-28. Retrieved 2014-07-31.
Jump up ^ "Sprockets 1989-04-15". Saturday Night Live Transcripts. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
Jump up ^ "Sprockets 1989-09-30". Saturday Night Live Transcripts. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
Jump up ^ "Sprockets 1990-09-29". Saturday Night Live Transcripts. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
Jump up ^ "Sprockets 1992-05-16". Saturday Night Live Transcripts. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
^ Jump up to: a b "A Done Dieter". Entertainment Weekly. 2000-06-16. Retrieved 2009-01-10.
Jump up ^ "Myers Slapped With Second Lawsuit". ABC News. 2001-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Mike Myers to Countersue in Film Dispute", ABC News (July 7, 2001).
Jump up ^ "Myers, studio settle 'Dieter' lawsuit", Chicago Sun-Times (August 11, 2000).
External links[edit]
"Studios See Green in Less-Than-Worthy 'SNL' Film Spinoffs", Los Angeles Times (1999-10-01)
"Spielberg to mediate in Dieter dispute", The Guardian (2000-06-16)
"Chris Tucker: $25M for 'Rush Hour 3'", Fox News (2006-05-11)
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