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Presbyterian polity
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Presbyterian (or presbyteral) polity is a method of church governance ("ecclesiastical polity") typified by the rule of assemblies of presbyters, or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session or consistory, though other terms, such as church board, may apply.[1] Groups of local churches are governed by a higher assembly of elders known as the presbytery or classis; presbyteries can be grouped into a synod, and presbyteries and synods nationwide often join together in a general assembly. Responsibility for conduct of church services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder, or a minister of the word and sacrament.
Presbyterian polity was developed as a rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops (episcopal polity), but also differs from the congregationalist polity in which each congregation is independent. In contrast to the other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down (as higher assemblies exercise limited but important authority over individual congregations, e.g., only the presbytery can ordain ministers, install pastors, and start up, close, and approve relocating a congregation) and from the bottom up (e.g., the moderator and officers are not appointed from above but are rather elected by and from among the members of the assembly). This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva. It is strongly associated with French, Dutch, Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and the Reformed and Presbyterian churches.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Basis
3 Offices
3.1 Elder
3.2 Minister
3.3 Deacon
4 Governing bodies
4.1 Session
4.2 Presbytery
4.3 Synod
4.4 General assembly
5 Regions
5.1 British Isles
5.2 France
5.3 Italy
6 Cultural influences
7 See also
8 References and notes
9 External links
History[edit]
Among the early church fathers, it was noted that the offices of elder and bishop were identical, and were not differentiated until later, and that plurality of elders was the norm for church government.[citation needed] St. Jerome (347–420) "In Epistle Titus", vol. iv, said, "Elder is identical with bishop; and before the urging of the devil gave rise to factionalism in religion, so much that it was being said among the people, 'I am of Paul, I of Apollos, I of Cephas', the churches were governed by a joint council of elders. After it was... decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among the presbyters should be placed over the others."[2] This observation was also made by Chrysostom (349–407) in "Homilia i, in Phil. i, 1" and Theodoret (393–457) in "Interpret ad. Phil. iii", 445.
Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg, who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity.[3] The first modern implementation was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541.[3]
Basis[edit]
Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible:
"Bishop" (Koine Greek "episcopos") and "elder" (Koine Greek "presbyteros") are (in this view) synonymous terms. Episcopos means literally overseer and describes the function of the elder, rather than the maturity of the officer. A bishop holds the highest office of the church (there is no Patriarch or Pope over bishops).
Preaching (the ministry of the Word) and the administration of the sacraments is ordinarily entrusted to specially trained elders (known as ministers of the Word and Sacrament,[4] sometimes called "teaching elders") in each local congregation, approved for these tasks by a governing presbytery, or classis, and called by the local congregation.
In addition to these ministers, there are also "others … with gifts for government … commonly call[ed] "elders"[4] or "ruling elders" (but not in the sense of "presbyteros").
Pastoral care, church discipline, leadership and legislation are committed to the care of ruling assemblies of presbyters among whom the ministers and "ruling elders" are equal participants.
All Christian people together are the priesthood (see priesthood of all believers), on behalf of whom the elders are called to serve by the consent of the congregation.
Presbyterianism uses a conciliar method of church government (that is, leadership by the group or council). Thus, the presbyters and "elders" govern together as a group, and at all times the office is for the service of the congregation, to pray for them and to encourage them in the faith. The elders together exercise oversight (episcopacy) over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight.
Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of the New Testament and earliest churches. However, sometimes it is admitted that episcopacy was a form of government that was used very early in the church for practical reasons.
Presbyterianism is also distinct from congregationalism, in that individual congregations are not independent, but are answerable to the wider church, through its governing bodies (presbyteries, synods and assemblies). Moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Congregational churches are sometimes called "Presbyterian" if they are governed by a council of elders; but the difference is that every local congregation is independent, and its elders are accountable to its members, and congregationalism's wider assemblies are not ordinarily empowered to enforce discipline. Thus, these are ruled by elders only at the level of the congregations, which are united with one another by covenants of trust. Reformed Baptist churches are organized to be governed by elders, on the congregationalist model.
Offices[edit]
Elder[edit]
The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by John Henry Lorimer, 1891. National Gallery of Scotland.
There are two types of elder; the teaching elder (see The Minister below) and the ruling elder. An excerpt from Miller (1831) expands this. [5](Chapter 1)
In every Church completely organized, that is, furnished with all the officers which Christ has instituted and which are necessary for carrying into full effect the laws of his kingdom, there ought to be three classes of officers, viz: at least one Teaching Elder, Bishop, or Pastor — a bench of Ruling Elders — and Deacons. The first to "minister in the Word and Doctrine", and to dispense the sacraments; — the second to assist in the inspection and government of the Church; — and the third to "serve tables"; that is, to take care of the Church's funds destined for the support of the poor, and sometimes to manage whatever relates to the temporal support of the gospel and its ministers.
Depending upon the specific denomination, teaching elders may also be referred to with terms such as "Minister of Word and Sacrament".[6]
The elders are persons chosen from among the congregation and ordained for this service. Beyond that, practices vary: sometimes elders are elected by the congregation, [7] sometimes appointed by the session, in some denominations elders serve for life, others have fixed terms, and some churches appoint elders on a rotation from among willing members in good standing in the church.[citation needed] However, in many churches, ruling elders retain their ordination for life, even though they serve fixed terms. Even after the end of their terms, they may be active in presbyteries or other bodies, and may serve communion.[8]
In addition to sitting on the session and other church courts, ruling elders have duties as individuals. Again, Miller (1831) explains, [5](Chapter 9)
It is their duty to have an eye of inspection and care over all the members of the congregation; and, for this purpose, to cultivate a universal and intimate acquaintance, as far as may be, with every family in the flock of which they are made "overseers".
Minister[edit]
See also: Holy Orders § Presbyterian churches
In some denominations they are called Ministers of Word and Sacrament, and in others they are called Teaching Elders. Ministers called to a particular congregation are called pastors, and serve a function analogous to clergy in other denominations.[4] (Because ruling elders are often ordained in a fashion nearly identical to teaching elders, the distinction between lay and clergy is not as clear under the Presbyterian system as in others.[5])
Ministers may be considered equal in status with the other elders, but they have a distinct ordination and distinct function. They are the primary preachers and teachers, celebrants of sacraments. There are sometimes further distinctions between the minister and the other elders. Some Presbyterian denominations enroll ministers as members of their respective congregations, while others enroll the minister as a member of the regional presbytery. The presbyteries are responsible for the ordination of the ministers.
Until the 20th century, only men had been eligible for ordination as elders or ministers of the word and sacrament. This is widely not the case any longer, although it is usually considered a demarcation issue, distinguishing "liberal" from "conservative" Presbyterian denominations. In North America, the Reformed Church in America, Christian Reformed Church in North America (both of Dutch Reformed heritage), Presbyterian Church in Canada, Evangelical Presbyterian Church, ECO: A Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians, Cumberland Presbyterian Church and Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) are denominations with presbyterian polity which allow for the ordination of women.
The general assembly of a denomination often decides on what grounds a person may be ordained, but the ordination of ministers is the right of the presbytery or classis, and the right to extend a call to a minister is the privilege of the members of the parish or congregation. [4] [7] [9]
Deacon[edit]
The office of deacon has different meanings among different presbyterian churches. In some churches, deacons exercise responsibility for practical matters of finance and fabric, either separately or together with the elders. In some cases deacons administer the welfare matters of the congregation, while a separate board of management or trustees administers the other material business of the congregation, such as its endowments, salaries and buildings.
Governing bodies[edit]
Session[edit]
Main article: Session (Presbyterian)
Elders make decisions for the local parish through an elected council called the Session (Latin. sessio from sedere "to sit"), sometimes the Kirk session, church session, or (in Continental Reformed usage) consistory. The members of the session are the pastor(s) of that congregation (sometimes referred to as a teaching elder) and the installed ruling or canon elders (ruling or canon because they are responsible for measuring the spiritual life and work of a congregation). In some Continental Reformed churches, deacons are members of the consistory; others, such as the Christian Reformed Church in North America, distinguish between the consistory, comprising the pastor and elders, and the council, which comprises the pastor(s), the elders, and the deacons.[10]
In most denominations the pastor serves as Moderator and presides over the session (primus inter pares), in which all elders have an equal vote.[5](Chapter 9) In some denominations, the pastor is not given a vote; however, in a sitting body of an even number or with a quorum of the session counted she or he can break a tie by a casting vote.
In the Polity of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the pastor and associate pastor(s) have votes as members of the session on any and all matters;[11] however, often she or he refrains from voting except in tie situations. The Pastor is not a voting member of the congregation.[12]
With the Session there is one person, sometimes an elder but not always, that will be given the title, "Clerk of Session." This person is more or less the secretary for Session. They take notes on each meeting and is given the ability to keep meetings on track.
Presbytery[edit]
Presbytery flags of the Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu
In presbyterianism, congregations are united in accountability to a regional body called the presbytery, or, in Continental Reformed terminology, the classis, which comes from the Latin word for "fleet." Presbyteries are made up of the minister and an elder 'commissioned' from each parish, as well as other clergy, such as theological college professors, chaplains, and retired ministers. When there is a larger number of ordained ministers than ruling elders, additional ruling elders are appointed to redress the imbalance. The commissioners of the presbytery are expected to exercise their own judgement and are not required to represent the majority view of their congregations. In some Dutch Reformed bodies, a classis serves as a delegated body, which ceases to exist in between meetings, whereas a presbytery exists perpetually.
The officers of a presbytery are a moderator and a stated or principal clerk. The moderator acts as chair of presbytery meetings and has a casting, but not deliberative, vote. As with the moderators of synods and assemblies, the moderatorship is a primus inter pares position appointed by the presbytery itself. The moderator is addressed as "moderator" during meetings, but his/her position has no bearing outside of the presbytery meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts, although typically the moderator (especially if a member of the clergy) will conduct worship and oversee ordinations and installations of ministers as a "liturgical" bishop, and other ordinances which are seen as acts of the presbytery.
The stated or principal clerk takes minutes and deals with the correspondence of the presbytery, and is often appointed for an indefinite term. Presbytery Clerks are the ecclesiastical administrators and generally regarded as substantially influential due to their greater experience of the governance of the church and their ordering of the business of the presbytery. They are thus very much more than secretaries and often in fact are the lynch pin of the organisation.
Presbyteries meet at a regularity between monthly and quarterly, some half-yearly.
Synod[edit]
In denominations too large for all the work of the denomination to be done by a single presbytery, the parishes may be divided into several presbyteries under synods and general assemblies, the synod being the lower court of the two. In the United Church of Canada, this is referred to as "conferences" and "General Council." However, the United Church of Canada does not bear the formal ecclesiastical structure of classic Presbyterianism.
Often all members of the constituent presbyteries are members of the synod. Like the commissioners to presbyteries, the commissioners to synods do not act on instruction from their congregations or presbyteries, but exercise their own judgement. A synod also has a moderator and clerk, and generally meet less often than the presbytery.
Some presbyterian churches, like the Orthodox Presbyterian Church and Presbyterian Church in America have no intermediate court between the presbytery and the general assembly.
General assembly[edit]
The general assembly (or general synod) is the highest court of presbyterian polity. Each presbytery selects a number of its members to be commissioners to the general assembly. The general assembly is chaired by its own moderator, who is usually elected to a single term. He or she is addressed as moderator during meetings, but like the other moderators, his/her position has no bearing outside of the assembly meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts. He or she presides over meetings of the assembly, and may be called on in a representative function for the remainder of the year.
The stated clerk and deputy clerk of the general assembly administer the minutes, correspondence, and business of the assembly. In some cases a separate business convenor is appointed to deal with the agenda. General assemblies meet less regularly than their subordinate courts, often annually, or in the case of the Presbyterian Church (USA), every other year.
The General Assembly also has members serve as Advisory Delegates. There are four different types of advisory delegates, each with a focus on a different area in the Presbyterian Church like young adult, theological student, missionary and ecumenical. The role of an advisory delegate is to speak about issues or topics that commissioners would usually not worry about or care to speak about during a General Assembly meeting. Advisory Delegates may not present motions or vote in meetings of the General Assembly.[13]
The powers of the general assembly are usually wide-ranging. However, they may be limited by some form of external review. For example, the rules of the Church of Scotland include the Barrier Act, which requires that certain major changes to the polity of the church be referred to the presbyteries, before being enacted by the general assembly.
Regions[edit]
See also: Presbyterianism § Regions
British Isles[edit]
The word "Presbyterianism," when capitalized, often refers specifically to churches founded on principles of presbyterian polity in the British Isles and their derivatives in other countries.[14]
France[edit]
Huguenot Cross
In France, presbyterianism is represented by the Eglise Reformée de France. There are also Lutherans and Evangelicals. The logo is a Huguenot Cross (Croix Huguenote) with the burning bush.
Italy[edit]
The origins of the Waldensian Evangelical Church lie in the medieval Waldensian movement for religious reform. The Waldensians adopted Calvinist theology during the Reformation and became the Italian branch of the Reformed churches. In 1975 the Waldensian Church joined with the Italian Methodist Church to form the Union of Waldensian and Methodist Churches, which is a member of the World Council of Churches, the World Communion of Reformed Churches, and the World Methodist Council.
Cultural influences[edit]
Robert Burns published a brief irreverent poem, On A Celebrated Ruling Elder, as an elegy for a Scottish Presbyterian.[15]
See also[edit]
Calvinism portal
Christianity portal
Christian federalism
Presbyterianism
Reformed churches
Congregational church
Moderators and clerks in the Church of Scotland
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Presbyterian Historical Society
For a full list of individual denominations see List of Christian denominations#Reformed Churches and List of Christian denominations#Presbyterianism
References and notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For example, the Church of the Nazarene, which subscribes to a body of religious doctrines that are quite distinct from those of most properly named Presbyterian denominations (and which instead descends historically from the Wesleyan Holiness Movement), employs a blend of congregationalist, episcopal, and presbyterian polities; its local churches are governed by an elected body known as the church board or simply "board members"; the term elder in the Nazarene Church has a different use entirely, referring to an ordained minister of that denomination.
Jump up ^ W.A. Jurgens, "The Faith of the Early Fathers." The Order of St. Benedict, Inc., 1979, pg. 194
^ Jump up to: a b "Presbyterianism, n." OED Online. Draft revision March 2007. Oxford University Press. Retrieved on February 8, 2008, http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50187752.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Westminster Assembly, 1645A "The Form of Presbyterial Church-Government" (ASSEMBLY AT EDINBURGH, February 10, 1645, Sess. 16. ACT of the GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the KIRK of SCOTLAND, approving the Propositions concerning Kirk-government, and Ordination of Ministers). Online at CRTA, retrieved on September 6, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Miller, Samuel (1842), An essay on the warrant, nature, and duties of the office of the ruling elder in the Presbyterian Church, Edinburgh: [s.n.]
Jump up ^ Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), 2007. "Book of Order"
^ Jump up to: a b Catholic Encyclopedia 1914, Presbyterianism by J. A. MCHUGH. Online edition retrieved on September 6, 2006.
Jump up ^ Presbyterian Publications Office, London, 1884, "The Qualifications and Duties of Elders", in Matthews, George D. ed "Alliance of the Reformed Church Holding the Presbyterian System, Minutes and Proceedings of the Third General Council, Belfast, 1884"
Jump up ^ As an example of qualifications for office as teaching elder, many denominations require a period of theological education at university level.
Jump up ^ Christian Reformed Church of North America Church Order Article 35 a-b(2015)
Jump up ^ PCUSA Book of Order G-10.0101
Jump up ^ PCUSA Book of Order G-7.0308
Jump up ^ "General Assembly" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Benedict, Philip (2002). Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0300105070.
Jump up ^ Burns, Robert. "On A Celebrated Ruling Elder" available online in English translation from The World Burns Club. Retrieved on August 25, 2006.
External links[edit]
World Alliance of Reformed Churches
Catholic Encyclopedia 1914, Presbyterianism by J. A. MCHUGH. Online edition
Samuel Miller, 1831. An Essay, on the Warrant, Nature and Duties of the Office of the Ruling Elder, in the Presbyterian Church (New York). Book in the public domain, available online at The Internet Archive and CRTA.
Westminster Assembly, 1645 "The Form of Presbyterial Church-Government" online at reformed.org
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Brass monkey (colloquialism)
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Brass Monkey of Stanthorpe, Queensland, a place known for its "brass monkey weather", complete with a set of balls
The phrase "cold enough to freeze the balls off (or on) a brass monkey" is a colloquial expression used by some English speakers. The reference to the testes (as the term balls is commonly understood to mean) of the brass monkey appears to be a 20th-century variant on the expression, prefigured by a range of references to other body parts, especially the nose and tail.
The story goes that cannonballs used to be stored aboard ship in piles, on a brass frame or tray called a 'monkey'. In very cold weather the brass would contract, spilling the cannonballs: hence very cold weather is 'cold enough to freeze the balls off a brass monkey'. There are several problems with this story, as follows:
the term 'monkey' is not otherwise recorded as the name for such an object
the rate of contraction of brass in cold temperatures is unlikely to be fast enough to cause the reputed effect
the phrase is actually first recorded as 'freeze the tail off a brass monkey', which removes any essential connection with balls.
It therefore seems most likely that the phrase is simply a humorous reference to the fact that metal figures will become very cold to the touch in cold weather.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Usage
2.1 Cunard
2.2 Beverage
2.3 Inventions
3 Supposed etymology
4 References
History[edit]
During the 19th and 20th centuries, small monkeys cast from the alloy brass were very common tourist souvenirs from China and Japan. They usually, but not always, came in a set of three representing the Three Wise Monkeys carved in wood above the Shrine of Toshogu in Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan. These monkeys were often cast with all three in a single piece. In other sets they were made singly. Although three was the usual number, some sets of monkeys added a fourth, with its hand covering its genitals. Old brass monkeys of this type are collectors' items.[1][2] Michael Quinion, advisor to The Oxford English Dictionary and author of the website World Wide Words, writes, "it's more than likely the term came from them".[3]
Usage[edit]
Early references to "brass monkeys" in the 19th century have no references to balls at all, but instead variously say that it is cold enough to freeze the tail, nose, ears, and whiskers off a brass monkey; or hot enough to "scald the throat" or "singe the hair" of a brass monkey.[4]
An early known recorded use of the phrase "brass monkey" appears in the humorous essay "On Enjoying Life" by Eldridge Gerry Paige (writing under the pseudonym Dow, Jr.), published in the New York Sunday Mercury and republished in the book Short Patent Sermons by Dow, Jr.: "When you love, [...] your heart, hands, feet and flesh are as cold and senseless as the toes of a brass monkey in winter."[5]
Another early published instance of the phrase appeared in 1847, in a portion of Herman Melville's autobiographical narrative Omoo:[6]
"It was so excessively hot in this still, brooding valley, shut out from the Trades, and only open toward the leeward side of the island, that labor in the sun was out of the question. To use a hyperbolical phrase of Shorty's, 'It was 'ot enough to melt the nose h'off a brass monkey.'"
An early recorded mentioning of the freezing a "brass monkey" dates from 1857, appearing in C.A. Abbey, Before the Mast, p. 108: "It would freeze the tail off a brass monkey".[7]
The story "Henry Gardner" (10 April 1858) has "its blowing hard enough to blow the nose off a brass monkey".[8]
The poem "Lines on a heavy prospector and his recent doings in the North-West" (20 June 1865) has "It would freeze off a brass monkey's nose"[9]
The article "Echoes from England" (23 May 1868) has "that same east wind ... would shave the whiskers off a brass monkey"[10]
The Story of Waitstill Baxter, by Kate Douglas Wiggin (1913) has "The little feller, now, is smart's a whip, an' could talk the tail off a brass monkey".[3]
The Ivory Trail, by Talbot Mundy (1919) has "He has the gall of a brass monkey".[3]
Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938) wrote in one of his notebooks:[11]
Ernest said, "It would freeze the balls off a brass monkey — that's how cold it gets."
The play, "The Animal Kingdom" (1932), by Philip Barry, has the following passage:
GRACE: Well, I guess I'd better be "barging along," as they say. I'm sure it's getting colder by the minute.
TOM: Yes—I think we'd best bring the brass monkeys in tonight.[12]
Cunard[edit]
The "brass monkey" is the nickname of the house flag of the Cunard Line, adopted in 1878, a lion rampant or on a field gules holding a globe.[13] The reference is almost certainly irreverent humour, rather than a source of the expression, of which variants predate it.
Beverage[edit]
A "brass monkey" is one of any number of citrus-flavored alcoholic drinks.[citation needed] In 1986, the hip hop band the Beastie Boys released a single called "Brass Monkey" from their album Licensed to Ill, although the song's lyrics are focused on the cocktail of the same name.
Inventions[edit]
US Patent 4634021 describes:
A release mechanism is disclosed for releasing an object such as a ball from a body under the force of gravity. A bimetallic element obstructs or opens an opening in the body for retaining or releasing the object depending upon the temperature of the bimetallic element. The release mechanism may be incorporated into a novelty "brass monkey" for "emasculating" the monkey when the temperature decreases to a predetermined temperature at which the balls in the "brass monkey" are permitted to drop to a base which is designed to produce an audible sound when struck by the balls.[14]
Supposed etymology[edit]
It is often stated that the phrase originated from the use of a brass tray, called a "monkey", to hold cannonballs on warships in the 16th to 18th centuries. Supposedly, in very cold temperatures the "monkey" would contract, causing the balls to fall off.[15] However, nearly all historians and etymologists consider this story to be a myth. This story has been discredited by the U.S. Department of the Navy,[16] etymologist Michael Quinion, and the Oxford English Dictionary (OED).[17]
They give five main reasons:
The OED does not record the term "monkey" or "brass monkey" being used in this way.
The purported method of storage of cannonballs ("round shot") is simply false. The shot was not stored on deck continuously on the off-chance that the ship might go into battle. Indeed, decks were kept as clear as possible.
Furthermore, such a method of storage would result in shot rolling around on deck and causing a hazard in high seas. The shot was stored on the gun or spar decks, in shot racks—longitudinal wooden planks with holes bored into them, known as shot garlands in the Royal Navy, into which round shot was inserted for ready use by the gun crew.
Shot was not left exposed to the elements where it could rust. Such rust could lead to the ball not flying true or jamming in the barrel and exploding the gun. Indeed, gunners would attempt to remove as many imperfections as possible from the surfaces of balls.
The physics do not stand up to scrutiny. The contraction of both balls and plate over the range of temperatures involved would not be particularly large. The effect claimed possibly could be reproduced under laboratory conditions with objects engineered to a high precision for this purpose, but it is unlikely it would ever have occurred in real life aboard a warship.
The reference is most likely a humorous reference to emphasize how cold it is.[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Three Wise Monkeys". OldCopper.org. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Schuttenhelm, Emil. "The three wise monkeys that hear, see and speak no evil". three-monkeys.info. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Quinion, Michael. "Brass Monkey weather". World Wide Words. Retrieved July 21, 2005. it was first recorded in the USA, in the 1850s...in the oldest example known, from Herman Melville’s Omoo (1850)
Jump up ^ Mikkelson, Barbara (July 13, 2007). "Brass Monkeyshines". Snopes.com. Retrieved March 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Dow, Jr. (1845). Short Patent Sermons. New York: republished online at Google Books. p. 108.
Jump up ^ "Pacific Rovings". Living Age. New York: republished online at Google Books. 14 (167): 151.
Jump up ^ Lighter, J.E. (1997). Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-43464-X.
Jump up ^ "Henry Gardner". Australian Home Companion and Band of Hope Journal. Sydney, NSW: National Library of Australia. 10 April 1858. p. 121. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lines on a heavy prospector and his recent doings in the North-West". Launceston Examiner (Morning. ed.). Tasmania: National Library of Australia. 20 June 1865. p. 5. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Echoes from England". The Australasian (Melbourne, Vic. : 1864 - 1946). Melbourne, Vic.: National Library of Australia. 23 May 1868. p. 650. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
Jump up ^ The Notebooks of Thomas Wolfe, vol. 2, edited by Richard S. Kennedy and Paschal Reeves, University of North Carolina Press, 1970, p. 497.
Jump up ^ Barry, Philip J.Q. (1932). The Animal Kingdom. Samuel French Ltd.
Jump up ^ Rogers, John (1984). Origins of Sea Terms. Mystic, Connecticut: Mystic Seaport Museum. p. 23. ISBN 978-0913372319.
Jump up ^ "Release mechanism". FreePatentsOnline.com. 6 January 1987.
Jump up ^ "Covey Crump, supporting the "cannonball frame" theory". Archived from the original on 2008-06-17.
Jump up ^ US Naval Historical Center Archived 2015-02-03 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "What is the origin of the term 'brass monkey'?". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 2016-04-30.
Oxford University Press. "binnacle". The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
Roget, Peter Mark. "monkey". Roget's Thesaurus (1911). Archived from the original on May 20, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
Beavis, Bill (1994). Salty Dog Talk: The Nautical Origins of Everyday Expressions. New York: Sheridan House. ISBN 0-924486-82-1.
Isil, Olivia A. (1996). When a Loose Cannon Flogs a Dead Horse, There's the Devil to Pay. Camden, Maine: International Marine. ISBN 0-07-032877-3. Pages 23–24
King, Dean (1995). A Sea of Words. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-3816-7.
The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1993. ISBN 0-19-861258-3.
"The Brass Monkey Motorcycle Rally". Retrieved June 17, 2008.
"Brass Monkeys". The Phrase Finder. Retrieved July 21, 2005. itself citing
Cassidy, Frederick G.; Houston Hall, Joan, eds. (1996). Dictionary of American Regional English. 3. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 642.
Granville, Wilfred (1962). A Dictionary of Sailors' Slang. London: Andre Deutch. p. 77.
Kemp, Peter, ed. (1976). Oxford Companion to Ships & the Sea. New York: Oxford University; Press. p. 556.
The Oxford English Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press. 1933.
Partridge, Eric. A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English (8th ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 917.
Longridge, C. Nepean (1981). The Anatomy of Nelson's Ships. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 64.
The Visual Dictionary of Ships and Sailing. New York: Dorling Kindersley. 1991. p. 17.
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Mobile virtual network enabler
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A mobile virtual network enabler (MVNE) is a company that provides network infrastructure and related services, such as business support systems, administration and operations support systems to a Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO). This enables MVNOs to offer services to their own customers with their own brands. The MVNE does not have a relationship with consumers, but rather is a provider of network enablement platforms and services.
MVNEs specialise in planning, implementation and management of mobile services. Typically this includes SIM provisioning and configuration, customer billing, customer relationship management and value-added service platforms. In effect, they enable an MVNO to outsource both the initial integration with the MNO and the ongoing business and technical operations management. A related type of company is mobile virtual network aggregator, or MVNA. MVNE is a telecom solution, whereas MVNA is a business model which includes wholesale of an operator's airtime and routing of traffic over the MVNE's own switches.
The benefits of using an MVNE include a reduction in the upfront capital expenses of an MVNO, financing arrangements offered by MVNEs to cover start-up costs and reduced wholesale airtime costs achieved through economies of scale of hosting multiple MVNOs on a single MVNE platform. The other benefits could be reduced operational expenses by outsourcing management of business and technical operations, smoother launch processes and benefiting from previous experience of the MVNE as a negotiating channel for smaller MVNOs to reach a wholesale agreement with the MNO.
However, not all MVNEs are the same. There is significant variation in the level of experience, technical capability, integration and operational support. Furthermore, using an MVNE may not be appropriate for all MVNOs. The considerations for this decision are manifold, however, some of the key reasons for an MVNO against using an MVNE are:
The MVNO is large enough to achieve volume efficiency when going direct to the host operator (usually several hundred thousand subscribers);
The brand and distribution channels are sufficiently strong to negotiate a joint-venture or direct relationship and obtain better margins;
The MVNO has access to existing telecoms infrastructure, for example switches, international capacity, fixed infrastructure and billing platforms.
Adoption of the MVNE model will have a significant impact on the margins of an MVNO business, acting either to improve or shrink these margins relative to direct or self-build models. As such, the decision to use an MVNE should not be taken lightly as the impacts could range from customer experience to business efficiency.
List of Mobile virtual network enabler[edit]
Arterra Mobility
Effortel
Qualution Systems
See also[edit]
Business Process Framework (eTOM)
Mobile virtual network operator
Mobile network operator
Operations, administration and management (OAM)
References[edit]
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