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The Galleria
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This article is about the mall in Houston. For other structures named "Galleria", see Galleria (disambiguation).
The Galleria
The Galleria main hall showing the ice rink and large skylight
Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
Location
Uptown District, Houston, Texas, United States
Coordinates
29°44′27″N 95°27′49″W / 29.7407°N 95.4636°W / 29.7407; -95.4636Coordinates: 29°44′27″N 95°27′49″W / 29.7407°N 95.4636°W / 29.7407; -95.4636
Address
5085 Westheimer Road
Opening date
November 16, 1970 (47 years ago) (1970-11-16)[1]
Developer
Hines Interests Limited Partnership
Management
Simon Property Group
Owner
Simon Property Group (50.4%), Walton Street Real Estate Funds, Sony Corporation[citation needed] & CalPERS
No. of stores and services
375
No. of anchor tenants
4
Total retail floor area
2,237,000 sq ft (207,800 m2)[2]
No. of floors
4
Public transit access
METRO Routes 20, 33, 82, 283
Website
www.simon.com
The Galleria, stylized theGalleria or the Houston Galleria, is an upscale mixed-use urban development shopping mall located in the Uptown District of Houston, Texas, United States.[3][4][5][6] The development consists of a retail complex, as well as the Galleria Office Towers complex,[7] two Westin hotels, and a private health club. The office towers and hotels are separately owned and managed from the shopping center.
With 3 million total square feet (280,000 m²) of space that includes 2.4 million (223,000 m²) of gross leasable area with over 375 stores, the Galleria is the largest mall in Texas and seventh-largest in the United States.[8][9] It is currently anchored by Neiman Marcus, Nordstrom, Saks Fifth Avenue, and Macy's.
Contents
1 History
2 Anchors and stores
2.1 Anchors
2.2 Former anchors
3 Lodging, offices and entertainment
3.1 Lodging
3.2 Offices
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Exterior sign
The idea of an indoor shopping center with a hotel was envisioned in the 1940s by oilman Glenn H. McCarthy where a second phase was to include the Shamrock Hotel; this concept was scrapped right after the Hilton Hotel franchise took over the Shamrock in 1955. Glenn H. McCarthy's abandoned concept would influence Gerald Hines in the late 1960s.[10][11]
The Galleria was developed by Gerald D. Hines, opening on November 16, 1970.[1] The new shopping center, anchored by Neiman Marcus, was modeled after the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, borrowing, as its most distinctive architectural feature, a glazed barrel vault spanning the central axis of the mall. When it opened the mall had 600,000 ft² (56,000 m²) of retail space. The original skylights — which graced among other things a large, floor-level, ice rink, open year-round - had three hanging chandeliers along with the incorporation of the Houston Oaks Hotel (now The Westin Oaks Houston).[citation needed]
The first expansion, known as Galleria II, was completed in 1976 and added 360,000 ft² (33,000 m²) of retail space on two levels, as well as Lord & Taylor and Frost Bros. Marshall Field's joined the mall in 1979, in a store designed by noted architect Philip Johnson. Galleria II included office space (known as the Galleria Financial Center since the early 1990s) and a second hotel, the Galleria Plaza Hotel (now The Westin Galleria Houston). In 1986, a second expansion, Galleria III, opened with a new wing to the west of Marshall Field's, anchored by Macy's. This brought the mall to almost 1.6 million ft².[citation needed]
Galleria IV expansion
In February 1989 the Galleria was 93% occupied, making it the mall with the fifth highest percentage of occupied space in the Houston area.[12]
Marshall Field's sold its store to Saks Fifth Avenue in 1996, while the mall itself was sold by Hines Interests in 1999 to a partnership of Urban Shopping Centers, Inc. and institutional funds advised by Walton Street Capital, LLC. The Walton Street affiliated funds separately purchased the office and hotel buildings at this time. Urban, in turn, was purchased by Netherlands-headquartered real estate investment group Rodamco North America, N.V. in 2000. Rodamco sold part of its stake in 2001 to the real estate investment arm of CalPERS as it tried to thwart a hostile takeover by a consortium including The Westfield Group and Simon Property Group. Ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the buyout, Rodamco's ownership interest and management operation of the mall was acquired by Simon Property Group in early 2002.
During all these rapid ownership changes, development continued on a third expansion of the shopping center, known as Galleria IV. Completed in March 2003, it added 800,000 sq ft (74,000 m2) to the south, anchored by Nordstrom and Foley's, as well as an additional 70 stores. Upon completion of Galleria IV, the shopping mall totaled 2.4 million ft² (220,000 m²) of retail space which include many high-end boutiques, such as Louis Vuitton, Gucci, Kate Spade, Cartier, Carolina Herrera, Ralph Lauren, Giorgio Armani, Jimmy Choo, Bvlgari, Valentino, Coach, Fendi, Chanel, Christofle, Tiffany & Co. Yves Saint Laurent, Burberry, Versace, Prada, and Tory Burch.
In January 2005, Lord & Taylor closed their store, with its former space being partially demolished and incorporated into the mall as an additional 100,000 ft² (9,300 m²) of retail space that opened in August 2006. This redevelopment included a Kona Grill, Oceanaire Seafood Room, Del Frisco's Steakhouse, Gigi's Asian Bistro, and nine other retail stores. During the reconstruction, some of the former Lord & Taylor infrastructure was recycled although a section of catwalks dating back to the Galleria II's 1976 expansion was demolished; this trend was similar to the Galleria IV's expansion in 2002.
In 2005, after the merger of the parent companies of Macy's and Foley's, it was announced that the Macy's store at Sage would close and that the Macy's will buy the Foley's. The Foley's was replaced by Macy's in September 2006, but the original Macy's continued to operate until 2014, both as separate full-line department stores.
In 2009, The Rainforest Cafe, a popular theme restaurant, opened near the ice rink, replacing Bennigan's. It closed in 2018 replaced by Footaction USA.
Forbes ranked the Galleria as one of the world's best shopping malls.[13]
Anchors and stores[edit]
Visitors shopping on several levels at the Galleria
With 35 million annual visitors, The Galleria has constantly been named the most visited attraction in Greater Houston.[14] Department stores and other tenants earn their highest sales in the Houston area at the Galleria.
Anchors[edit]
Macy's (250,000 sq ft., opened 2003 as Foley's, became Macy's in 2006)
Neiman Marcus Flagship Store (224,000 sq ft., opened 1969)
Nordstrom (226,000 sq ft., opened 2003)
Saks Fifth Avenue Flagship Store (210,000 sq ft., opened 1979 as Marshall Field's, closed 1996 and reopened as Saks Fifth Avenue in 1997)
Dillard's, which technically is not a part of the Galleria, is located across the street from Neiman Marcus. The store is linked to the Galleria by a pedestrian crosswalk (with a pedestrian-only traffic light at Post Oak Boulevard). This location ranks constantly among the highest grossing for Dillard's.
Former anchors[edit]
Macy's (Galleria III) (262,600 sq ft., opened 1986, redubbed in 2006 as "Macy's at Sage") was closed in April 2014.[15] Galleria III was demolished and is being rebuilt as a new wing with Saks Fifth Avenue as anchor. The existing Saks will be repurposed as part of the new Galleria III wing.
Surrounding the Galleria are other upscale shopping centers and districts such as River Oaks District, BLVD Place, Uptown Collection, Uptown Park, Rice Village, and Highland Village that feature similar stores and retail mix.
Lodging, offices and entertainment[edit]
Polar Ice at the Galleria
The Galleria includes a 20,000-square-foot (1,900 m2) ice skating facility with 80 feet (24 m) x 180-foot (55 m) rink. The rink, known as "Polar Ice" and originally built in 1970, was the first ever built inside a mall.[16] The rink is positioned below the mall's central glass atrium which was originally added by Hines to increase the visibility of the stores in the lower level.[17] There is a jogging track on the roof around the atrium with a view to this rink. About 50 restaurants and specialty food stores at all prices and service points are located throughout the Galleria complex.
Lodging[edit]
Two Westin hotels are also located directly in the Galleria complex, The Westin Galleria and the Westin Oaks (prior to 1984, both hotels were known as the Galleria Plaza Hotel and Houston Oaks Hotel when Westin Hotels and Resorts was known as Western International Hotels).
Offices[edit]
The Galleria has three office towers with Galleria Financial Center acting as the hub of the mall where the shops and offices share a common atrium with glass elevators and offices overlooking the mall below. The Galleria Financial Center is occupied by many financial institutions such as Merrill Lynch, UBS AG, Citigroup, law offices, financial services companies and energy trading companies. The other two office buildings are Post Oak Tower,[18] and the Galleria Tower. Additionally, Williams Tower is also connected by a walkway.
See also[edit]
Houston portal
List of largest shopping malls in the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hassell, Greg. "20 CANDLES AFIRE ON GALLERIA ICE/Mall changed face of city, competitors." Houston Chronicle. November 11, 1990. Business 1. Retrieved on August 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Do Business at The Galleria, a Simon Property". Business.simon.com. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ "City Of Houston TIRZ #16 As Enlarged & Census" (PDF). Houstontx.gov. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
Jump up ^ "Welcome To The Galleria - A Shopping Center In Houston, TX - A Simon Property". Simon.com. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
Jump up ^ "Uptown Houston" Map. Uptown Houston. Uptwon-houston.com, Accessed July 22, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Contact Archived 2014-01-30 at the Wayback Machine.." Galleria Office Towers. Retrieved on February 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Galleria - Houston - Properties". Hines.com. 14 October 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ Shamrock Hotel from the Handbook of Texas Online
Jump up ^ "Behind the Building". AGC Houston. Retrieved 2010-02-22.
Jump up ^ Bivins, Ralph. "Sales at Houston malls rise/Local retailers cite improving economy, shuttle flights." Houston Chronicle. Friday February 17, 1989. Business 1. Retrieved on August 3, 1989.
Jump up ^ Sherman, Lauren. "In Depth: The World's Best Shopping Malls". Forbes.
Jump up ^ "Galleria becomes a fine-dining mecca". 18 June 2008. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
Jump up ^ [3][dead link]
Jump up ^ "Polar Ice Ventures, LLC". Archived from the original on October 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
Jump up ^ Sarnoff, Nancy. "PIONEER IN BUILDING / A towering influence on Houston's landscape / From the Galleria to downtown skyscrapers, developer Gerald Hines reflects on triumphs." Houston Chronicle. Sunday June 10, 2007. B1 MetFront.
Jump up ^ "Post Oak Tower, Houston". Houston Architecture. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Galleria.
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Distributive justice
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Distributive justice concerns the nature of a socially just allocation of goods in a society. A society in which incidental inequalities in outcome do not arise would be considered a society guided by the principles of distributive justice. The concept includes the available quantities of goods, the process by which goods are to be distributed, and the resulting allocation of the goods to the members of the society.
Often contrasted with just process, which is concerned with the administration of law, distributive justice concentrates on outcomes. This subject has been given considerable attention in philosophy and the social sciences.
In social psychology, distributive justice is defined as perceived fairness of how rewards and costs are shared by (distributed across) group members.[1] For example, when workers of the same job are paid different salaries, group members may feel that distributive justice has not occurred.
To determine whether distributive justice has taken place, individuals often turn to the distributive norms of their group.[1] A norm is the standard of behaviour that is required, desired, or designated as normal within a particular group.[2] If rewards and costs are allocated according to the designated distributive norms of the group, distributive justice has occurred.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of distributive norms
2 In organizations
2.1 Outcomes
3 Wealth
4 The environment
5 In policy positions
6 See also
7 Sources
7.1 Notes
7.2 References
7.3 Further reading
8 External links
Types of distributive norms[edit]
Five types of distributive norm are defined by Donelson R. Forsyth:[1]
Equity: Members' outcomes should be based upon their inputs. Therefore, an individual who has invested a large amount of input (e.g. time, money, energy) should receive more from the group than someone who has contributed very little. Members of large groups prefer to base allocations of rewards and costs on equity.
Equality: Regardless of their inputs, all group members should be given an equal share of the rewards/costs. Equality supports that someone who contributes 20% of the group’s resources should receive as much as someone who contributes 60%.
Power: Those with more authority, status, or control over the group should receive more than those in lower level positions.
Need: Those in greatest needs should be provided with resources needed to meet those needs. These individuals should be given more resources than those who already possess them, regardless of their input.
Responsibility: Group members who have the most should share their resources with those who have less.
In organizations[edit]
This section has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external linking. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the context of organizational justice, distributive justice is conceptualized as fairness associated with outcomes decisions and distribution of resources. The outcomes or resources distributed may be tangible (e.g., pay) as well as intangible (e.g., praise). Perceptions of distributive justice can be fostered when outcomes are perceived to be equally applied (Adams, 1965).
Outcomes[edit]
Distributive justice affects performance when efficiency and productivity are involved (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001). Improving perceptions of justice increases performance (Karriker & Williams, 2009). Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are employee actions in support of the organization that are outside the scope of their job description. Such behaviors depend on the degree to which an organization is perceived to be distributively just (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Karriker & Williams, 2009). As organizational actions and decisions are perceived as more just, employees are more likely to engage in OCBs. Perceptions of distributive justice are also strongly related also to the withdrawal of employees from the organization (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001).
Wealth[edit]
See also: Redistribution (economics)
Distributive justice considers whether the distribution of goods among the members of society at a given time is subjectively acceptable.
Not all advocates of consequentialist theories are concerned with an equitable society. What unites them is the mutual interest in achieving the best possible results or, in terms of the example above, the best possible distribution of wealth.
The environment[edit]
Distributive justice in an environmental context is the equitable distribution of a society's technological and environmental risks, impacts, and benefits. These burdens include air pollution, landfills, industrial factories, and other environmental burdens. Distributive justice is an essential principle of environmental justice because there is evidence that shows that these burdens cause health problems, negatively affect quality of life, and drive down property value.
The potential negative social impacts of environmental degradation and regulatory policies have been at the center environmental discussions since the rise of environmental justice.[4] Historically, environmental burdens fall on poor communities that are predominantly African-American, Native-American, Latino, and Appalachian.[5]
In policy positions[edit]
Distributive justice theory argues that societies have a duty to individuals in need and that all individuals have a duty to help others in need. Proponents of distributive justice link it to human rights.
Many governments are known for dealing with issues of distributive justice, especially countries with ethnic tensions and geographically distinctive minorities. Post-apartheid South Africa is an example of a country that deals with issues of re-allocating resources with respect to the distributive justice framework.
See also[edit]
Philosophy portal
Constitutional economics
Distribution (economics)
Extended sympathy
Environmental justice
Environmental racism
Injustice
Interactional justice
Justice (economics)
Redistributive justice
Restorative justice
Retributive justice
Rule According to Higher Law
Rule of law
Teaching for social justice
Transformative justice
Utilitarianism and/or Consequentialism
Sources[edit]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Forsyth, D. R. (2006). Conflict. In Forsyth, D. R. , Group Dynamics (5th Ed.) (P. 388 - 389) Belmont: CA, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Jump up ^ Farlex (2013) Norm. Farlex clipart collection. Retrieved March 13, 2013 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/norm
Jump up ^ Deutsch, M. (1975). Equity, equality, and need: What determines which value will be used as the basis of distributive justice?. Journal of Social Issues, 31, 137–149.
Jump up ^ McGurty, Eileen (1997). "From NIMBY to Civil Rights: The Origins of the Environmental Justice Movement". Environmental History. 2 (3): 301–323. doi:10.2307/3985352.
Jump up ^ Shrader-Frenchette, Kristin (January 2006). Environmental Justice: Creating Equity, Reclaiming Democracy. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780198034704.
References[edit]
Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P.E. (2001). The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86, 278–321.
Phelps, Edmund S. (1987): "Distributive justice," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 886–88.
Karriker, J.H.; Williams M.L. (2009). "Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Mediated Multifoci Model". Journal of Management 35, 112.
Konow, James (2003): "Which is the fairest one of all?: A positive analysis of justice theories", Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 1188–1239. [1]
Laczniak, Gene R.; Murphy, Patrick E. (2008): “Distributive Justice: Pressing Questions, Emerging Directions, and the Promise of Rawlsian Analysis”, Journal of Macromarketing; Mar2008, Vol. 28 Issue 1, p5–11, 7p, 1 diagram.
"Principle of Distributive Justice", Ascension Health. 28 Feb 2009
Maiese, Michelle. "The Notion of Fair Distribution" Beyond Intractability. June 2003.
Further reading[edit]
Hegtvedt, Karen A.; Markovsky, Barry (1995), "Justice and Injustice", in Cook, Karen S.; Fine, Gary Alan; House, James S., Sociological Perspectives on Social Psychology (1 ed.), Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon (published 1994), pp. 257–280, ISBN 0-205-13716-4
Leventhal, Gerald S.; Karuza, Jurgis Jr.; Fry, William R. (1980), "Beyond Fairness: A Theory of Allocation Preferences", in Mikula, Gerald, Justice and Social Interaction: Experimental and Theoretical Contributions from Psychological Research, New York City, NY: Plenum, pp. 167–218, ISBN 3-456-80787-2
Thomas Bullemore (2013): "Justicia Distributiva y Riesgos", "Academia.edu", URL = <https://www.academia.edu/7153848/Justicia_Distributiva_y_Riesgos>.
External links[edit]
"Distributive Justice". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Distributive Justice on The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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Hard water
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with heavy water.
A bathtub faucet with built-up calcification from hard water.
Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft water"). Hard water is formed when water percolates through deposits of limestone and chalk which are largely made up of calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Hard drinking water may have moderate health benefits, but can pose serious problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment that handles water. In domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by a lack of foam formation when soap is agitated in water, and by the formation of limescale in kettles and water heaters.[1] Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly used to reduce hard water's adverse effects
Contents
[hide]
1 Sources of hardness
1.1 Temporary hardness
1.2 Permanent hardness
2 Effects
2.1 Softening
2.2 Health considerations
3 Measurement
3.1 Hard/soft classification
3.2 Indices
3.2.1 Langelier saturation index (LSI)
3.2.2 Ryznar Stability Index (RSI)
3.2.3 Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI)
3.2.4 Other indices
4 Regional information
4.1 In Australia
4.2 In Canada
4.3 In England and Wales
4.4 In Ireland
4.5 In the United States
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Sources of hardness[edit]
Water's hardness is determined by the concentration of multivalent cations in the water. Multivalent cations are positively charged metal complexes with a charge greater than 1+. Usually, the cations have the charge of 2+. Common cations found in hard water include Ca2+ and Mg2+. These ions enter a water supply by leaching from minerals within an aquifer. Common calcium-containing minerals are calcite and gypsum. A common magnesium mineral is dolomite (which also contains calcium). Rainwater and distilled water are soft, because they contain few ions.[2]
The following equilibrium reaction describes the dissolving and formation of calcium carbonate :
CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇋ Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3− (aq)
The reaction can go in either direction. Rain containing dissolved carbon dioxide can react with calcium carbonate and carry calcium ions away with it. The calcium carbonate may be re-deposited as calcite as the carbon dioxide is lost to atmosphere, sometimes forming stalactites and stalagmites.
Calcium and magnesium ions can sometimes be removed by water softeners.[3]
Temporary hardness[edit]
See also: Carbonate hardness
Temporary hardness is a type of water hardness caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonate minerals (calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate). When dissolved, these minerals yield calcium and magnesium cations (Ca2+, Mg2+) and carbonate and bicarbonate anions (CO32−, HCO3−). The presence of the metal cations makes the water hard. However, unlike the permanent hardness caused by sulphate and chloride compounds, this "temporary" hardness can be reduced either by boiling the water, or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide) through the process of lime softening.[4] Boiling promotes the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is softer upon cooling.
Permanent hardness[edit]
Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content) that cannot be removed by boiling. When this is the case, it is usually caused by the presence of calcium sulphate/calcium chloride and/or magnesium sulphate/magnesium chloride in the water, which do not precipitate out as the temperature increases. Ions causing permanent hardness of water can be removed using a water softener, or ion exchange column.
Total Permanent Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness
The calcium and magnesium hardness is the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions expressed as equivalent of calcium carbonate.
Total permanent water hardness expressed as equivalent of CaCO3 can be calculated with the following formula: Total Permanent Hardness (CaCO3) = 2.5(Ca2+) + 4.1(Mg2+).[5]
Effects[edit]
With hard water, soap solutions form a white precipitate (soap scum) instead of producing lather, because the 2+ ions destroy the surfactant properties of the soap by forming a solid precipitate (the soap scum). A major component of such scum is calcium stearate, which arises from sodium stearate, the main component of soap:
2 C17H35COO− (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) → (C17H35COO)2Ca (s)
Hardness can thus be defined as the soap-consuming capacity of a water sample, or the capacity of precipitation of soap as a characteristic property of water that prevents the lathering of soap. Synthetic detergents do not form such scums.
A portion of the ancient Roman Eifel aqueduct in Germany. In service for about 180 years, the aqueduct had deposits of scale up to 20 cm thick along the walls.
Hard water also forms deposits that clog plumbing. These deposits, called "scale", are composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2), and calcium sulfate (CaSO4).[2] Calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to be deposited as off-white solids on the inside surfaces of pipes and heat exchangers. This precipitation (formation of an insoluble solid) is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration.[6] The resulting build-up of scale restricts the flow of water in pipes. In boilers, the deposits impair the flow of heat into water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the metal boiler components to overheat. In a pressurized system, this overheating can lead to failure of the boiler.[7] The damage caused by calcium carbonate deposits varies on the crystalline form, for example, calcite or aragonite.[8]
The presence of ions in an electrolyte, in this case, hard water, can also lead to galvanic corrosion, in which one metal will preferentially corrode when in contact with another type of metal, when both are in contact with an electrolyte. The softening of hard water by ion exchange does not increase its corrosivity per se. Similarly, where lead plumbing is in use, softened water does not substantially increase plumbo-solvency.[9]
In swimming pools, hard water is manifested by a turbid, or cloudy (milky), appearance to the water. Calcium and magnesium hydroxides are both soluble in water. The solubility of the hydroxides of the alkaline-earth metals to which calcium and magnesium belong (group 2 of the periodic table) increases moving down the column. Aqueous solutions of these metal hydroxides absorb carbon dioxide from the air, forming the insoluble carbonates, giving rise to the turbidity. This often results from the pH being excessively high (pH > 7.6). Hence, a common solution to the problem is, while maintaining the chlorine concentration at the proper level, to lower the pH by the addition of hydrochloric acid, the optimum value being in the range of 7.2 to 7.6.
Softening[edit]
Main article: Water softening
It is often desirable to soften hard water. Most detergents contain ingredients that counteract the effects of hard water on the surfactants. For this reason, water softening is often unnecessary. Where softening is practised, it is often recommended to soften only the water sent to domestic hot water systems so as to prevent or delay inefficiencies and damage due to scale formation in water heaters. A common method for water softening involves the use of ion exchange resins, which replace ions like Ca2+ by twice the number of monocations such as sodium or potassium ions.
Washing soda (sodium carbonate - Na2CO3) is easily obtained and has long been used as a water softener for domestic laundry, in conjunction with the usual soap or detergent.
Health considerations[edit]
The World Health Organization says that "there does not appear to be any convincing evidence that water hardness causes adverse health effects in humans".[1] In fact, the United States National Research Council has found that hard water actually serves as a dietary supplement for calcium and magnesium.[10]
Some studies have shown a weak inverse relationship between water hardness and cardiovascular disease in men, up to a level of 170 mg calcium carbonate per litre of water. The World Health Organization has reviewed the evidence and concluded the data was inadequate to allow for a recommendation for a level of hardness.[1]
Recommendations have been made for the maximum and minimum levels of calcium (40–80 ppm) and magnesium (20–30 ppm) in drinking water, and a total hardness expressed as the sum of the calcium and magnesium concentrations of 2–4 mmol/L.[11]
Other studies have shown weak correlations between cardiovascular health and water hardness.[12][13][14]
Some studies correlate domestic hard water usage with increased eczema in children.[15][16][17]
The Softened-Water Eczema Trial (SWET), a multicenter randomized controlled trial of ion-exchange softeners for treating childhood eczema, was undertaken in 2008. However, no meaningful difference in symptom relief was found between children with access to a home water softener and those without.[18]
Measurement[edit]
Hardness can be quantified by instrumental analysis. The total water hardness is the sum of the molar concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+, in mol/L or mmol/L units. Although water hardness usually measures only the total concentrations of calcium and magnesium (the two most prevalent divalent metal ions), iron, aluminium, and manganese can also be present at elevated levels in some locations. The presence of iron characteristically confers a brownish (rust-like) colour to the calcification, instead of white (the color of most of the other compounds).
Water hardness is often not expressed as a molar concentration, but rather in various units, such as degrees of general hardness (dGH), German degrees (°dH), parts per million (ppm, mg/L, or American degrees), grains per gallon (gpg), English degrees (°e, e, or °Clark), or French degrees (°fH, °F or °F; lowercase f is used to prevent confusion with degrees Fahrenheit). The table below shows conversion factors between the various units.
Hardness unit conversion.
mmol/L
ppm, mg/L
dGH, °dH
gpg
°e, °Clark
°fH
mmol/L
1 0.009991 0.1783 0.171 0.1424 0.09991
ppm, mg/L
100.1 1 17.85 17.12 14.25 10
dGH, °dH
5.608 0.05603 1 0.9591 0.7986 0.5603
gpg
5.847 0.05842 1.043 1 0.8327 0.5842
°e, °Clark
7.022 0.07016 1.252 1.201 1 0.7016
°fH
10.01 0.1 1.785 1.712 1.425 1
The various alternative units represent an equivalent mass of calcium oxide (CaO) or calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that, when dissolved in a unit volume of pure water, would result in the same total molar concentration of Mg2+ and Ca2+. The different conversion factors arise from the fact that equivalent masses of calcium oxide and calcium carbonates differ, and that different mass and volume units are used. The units are as follows:
Parts per million (ppm) is usually defined as 1 mg/L CaCO3 (the definition used below).[19] It is equivalent to mg/L without chemical compound specified, and to American degree.
Grains per Gallon (gpg) is defined as 1 grain (64.8 mg) of calcium carbonate per U.S. gallon (3.79 litres), or 17.118 ppm.
a mmol/L is equivalent to 100.09 mg/L CaCO3 or 40.08 mg/L Ca2+.
A degree of General Hardness (dGH or 'German degree (°dH, deutsche Härte))' is defined as 10 mg/L CaO or 17.848 ppm.
A Clark degree (°Clark) or English degrees (°e or e) is defined as one grain (64.8 mg) of CaCO3 per Imperial gallon (4.55 litres) of water, equivalent to 14.254 ppm.
A French degree (°fH or °f) is defined as 10 mg/L CaCO3, equivalent to 10 ppm.
Hard/soft classification[edit]
Because it is the precise mixture of minerals dissolved in the water, together with the water's pH and temperature, that determine the behavior of the hardness, a single-number scale does not adequately describe hardness. However, the United States Geological Survey uses the following classification into hard and soft water,[20]
Classification
hardness in mg/L
hardness in mmol/L
hardness in dGH/°dH
hardness in gpg
hardness in ppm
Soft 0–60 0–0.60 0-3.37 0-3.50 less than 60
Moderately hard 61–120 0.61–1.20 3.38-6.74 3.56-7.01 60-120
Hard 121–180 1.21–1.80 6.75–10.11 7.06-10.51 120-180
Very hard ≥ 181 ≥ 1.81 ≥ 10.12 ≥ 10.57 > 181
Seawater is considered to be very hard due to various dissolved salts. Typically seawater's hardness is in the range of 6630 ppm. In contrast, freshwater has hardness in the range of 15 - 375 ppm.[21]
Indices[edit]
Several indices are used to describe the behaviour of calcium carbonate in water, oil, or gas mixtures.[22]
Langelier saturation index (LSI)[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Langelier saturation index (sometimes Langelier stability index) is a calculated number used to predict the calcium carbonate stability of water. It indicates whether the water will precipitate, dissolve, or be in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. In 1936, Wilfred Langelier developed a method for predicting the pH at which water is saturated in calcium carbonate (called pHs). The LSI is expressed as the difference between the actual system pH and the saturation pH:
LSI = pH (measured) − pHs
For LSI > 0, water is super saturated and tends to precipitate a scale layer of CaCO3.
For LSI = 0, water is saturated (in equilibrium) with CaCO3. A scale layer of CaCO3 is neither precipitated nor dissolved.
For LSI < 0, water is under saturated and tends to dissolve solid CaCO3.
If the actual pH of the water is below the calculated saturation pH, the LSI is negative and the water has a very limited scaling potential. If the actual pH exceeds pHs, the LSI is positive, and being supersaturated with CaCO3, the water has a tendency to form scale. At increasing positive index values, the scaling potential increases.
In practice, water with an LSI between -0.5 and +0.5 will not display enhanced mineral dissolving or scale forming properties. Water with an LSI below -0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased dissolving abilities while water with an LSI above +0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased scale forming properties.
The LSI is temperature sensitive. The LSI becomes more positive as the water temperature increases. This has particular implications in situations where well water is used. The temperature of the water when it first exits the well is often significantly lower than the temperature inside the building served by the well or at the laboratory where the LSI measurement is made. This increase in temperature can cause scaling, especially in cases such as hot water heaters. Conversely, systems that reduce water temperature will have less scaling.
Water Analysis:
pH = 7.5
TDS = 320 mg/L
Calcium = 150 mg/L (or ppm) as CaCO3
Alkalinity = 34 mg/L (or ppm) as CaCO3
LSI Formula:
LSI = pH - pHs
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) - (C + D) where:
A = (Log10[TDS] - 1)/10 = 0.15
B = -13.12 x Log10(°C + 273) + 34.55 = 2.09 at 25 °C and 1.09 at 82 °C
C = Log10[Ca2+ as CaCO3] - 0.4 = 1.78
(Ca2+ as CaCO3 is also called Calcium Hardness and is calculated as=2.5(Ca2+))
D = Log10[alkalinity as CaCO3] = 1.53
Ryznar Stability Index (RSI)[edit]
The Ryznar stability index (RSI) uses a database of scale thickness measurements in municipal water systems to predict the effect of water chemistry.
Ryznar saturation index (RSI) was developed from empirical observations of corrosion rates and film formation in steel mains. It is defined as:
RSI = 2 pHs – pH (measured)
For 6,5 < RSI < 7 water is considered to be approximately at saturation equilibrium with calcium carbonate
For RSI > 8 water is under saturated and, therefore, would tend to dissolve any existing solid CaCO3
For RSI < 6,5 water tends to be scale forming
Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI)[edit]
The Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI) uses slightly different parameters to quantify the relationship between the saturation state of the water and the amount of limescale deposited.
Other indices[edit]
Other indices include the Larson-Skold Index,[23] the Stiff-Davis Index,[24] and the Oddo-Tomson Index.[25]
Regional information[edit]
The hardness of local water supplies depends on the source of water. Water in streams flowing over volcanic (igneous) rocks will be soft, while water from boreholes drilled into porous rock is normally very hard.
In Australia[edit]
Analysis of water hardness in major Australian cities by the Australian Water Association shows a range from very soft (Melbourne) to hard (Adelaide). Total Hardness levels of calcium carbonate in ppm are: Canberra: 40;[26] Melbourne: 10–26;[27] Sydney: 39.4–60.1;[28] Perth: 29–226;[29] Brisbane: 100;[30] Adelaide: 134–148;[31] Hobart: 5.8–34.4;[32] Darwin: 31.[33]
In Canada[edit]
Prairie provinces (mainly Saskatchewan and Manitoba) contain high quantities of calcium and magnesium, often as dolomite, which are readily soluble in the groundwater that contains high concentrations of trapped carbon dioxide from the last glaciation. In these parts of Canada, the total hardness in ppm of calcium carbonate equivalent frequently exceed 200 ppm, if groundwater is the only source of potable water. The west coast, by contrast, has unusually soft water, derived mainly from mountain lakes fed by glaciers and snowmelt.
Some typical values are: Montreal 116 ppm,[34] Calgary 165 ppm, Regina 496 ppm,[35] Saskatoon 160-180 ppm,[36] Winnipeg 77 ppm,[37] Toronto 121 ppm,[38] Vancouver < 3 ppm,[39] Charlottetown, PEI 140–150 ppm,[40] Waterloo Region 400 ppm, Guelph 460 ppm,[41] Saint John (West) 160-200 ppm.[42]
^ Jump up to: a b c World Health Organization Hardness in Drinking-Water, 2003
^ Jump up to: a b Hermann Weingärtner, "Water" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2006[December], Wiley–VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_001
Jump up ^ Christian Nitsch, Hans-Joachim Heitland, Horst Marsen, Hans-Joachim Schlüussler, "Cleansing Agents" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley–VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a07_137
Jump up ^ "Lime Softening". Retrieved 4 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Lenntech Water hardness calculator".
Jump up ^ Wisconisin DNR - Carbonate chemistry
Jump up ^ Stephen Lower (July 2007). "Hard water and water softening". Retrieved 2007-10-08.
Jump up ^ PP Coetzee (1998). "Scale reduction and scale modification effects induced by Zn" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-03-29.
Jump up ^ Sorg, Thomas J.; Schock, Michael R.; Lytle, Darren A. (August 1999). "Ion Exchange Softening: Effects on Metal Concentrations". Journal AWWA. 91 (8): 85–97. ISSN 1551-8833
Jump up ^ "Drinking Water Hardwater Hardness Calcium Magnesium Scale Stained Laundry". Water-research.net. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
Jump up ^ František Kožíšek Health significance of drinking water calcium and magnesium, February 2003
Jump up ^ Pocock SJ, Shaper AG, Packham RF (April 1981). "Studies of water quality and cardiovascular disease in the United Kingdom". Sci. Total Environ. 18: 25–34. PMID 7233165. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(81)80047-2. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Marque S, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues JF, Commenges D (2003). "Cardiovascular mortality and calcium and magnesium in drinking water: an ecological study in elderly people" (PDF). Eur. J. Epidemiol. 18 (4): 305–9. PMID 12803370. doi:10.1023/A:1023618728056.
Jump up ^ Rubenowitz E, Axelsson G, Rylander R (January 1999). "Magnesium and calcium in drinking water and death from acute myocardial infarction in women". Epidemiology. 10 (1): 31–6. PMID 9888277. doi:10.1097/00001648-199901000-00007.
Jump up ^ McNally NJ, Williams HC, Phillips DR, Smallman-Raynor M, Lewis S, Venn A, Britton J (1998). "Atopic eczema and domestic water hardness". The Lancet. 352 (9127): 527–531. PMID 9716057. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)01402-0.
Jump up ^ Miyake Y, Yokoyama T, Yura A, Iki M, Shimizu T (Jan 2004). "Ecological association of water hardness with prevalence of childhood atopic dermatitis in a Japanese urban area". Environ Res. 94 (1): 33–7. Bibcode:2004ER.....94...33M. PMID 14643284. doi:10.1016/S0013-9351(03)00068-9.
Jump up ^ Arnedo-Pena A, Bellido-Blasco J, Puig-Barbera J, Artero-Civera A, Campos-Cruañes JB, Pac-Sa MR, Villamarín-Vázquez JL, Felis-Dauder C (2007). "Domestic water hardness and prevalence of atopic eczema in Castellon (Spain) school children". Salud Pública De México. 49 (4): 295–301. PMID 17710278. doi:10.1590/S0036-36342007000400009.
Jump up ^ A multicentre randomized controlled trial of ion-exchange water softeners for the treatment of eczema in children: protocol for the Softened Water Eczema Trial (SWET) (ISRCTN: 71423189) http://www.swet-trial.co.uk/
Jump up ^ "Water Hardness". thekrib.com.
Jump up ^ USGS - U.S. Geological Survey Office of Water Quality. "USGS Water-Quality Information: Water Hardness and Alkalinity". usgs.gov.
Jump up ^ Total water hardness
Jump up ^ Corrosion by water
Jump up ^ T.E., Larson and R. V. Skold, Laboratory Studies Relating Mineral Quality of Water to Corrosion of Steel and Cast Iron, 1958 Illinois State Water Survey, Champaign, IL pp. [43] — 46: ill. ISWS C-71
Jump up ^ Stiff, Jr., H.A., Davis, L.E., A Method For Predicting The Tendency of Oil Field Water to Deposit Calcium Carbonate, Pet. Trans. AIME 195;213 (1952).
Jump up ^ Oddo,J.E., Tomson, M.B.,Scale Control, Prediction and Treatment Or How Companies Evaluate A Scaling Problem and What They Do Wrong, CORROSION/92, Paper No. 34, (Houston, TX:NACE INTERNATIONAL 1992). KK
Jump up ^ "Dishwasher and water hardness - Canberra water quality - About Us". actewagl.com.au.
Jump up ^ "Page not found" (PDF). melbournewater.com.au.
Jump up ^ Sydney Typical Drinking Water Analysis
Jump up ^ "Water Corporation of WA - 404" (PDF). watercorporation.com.au.
Jump up ^ Brisbane Drinking Water
Jump up ^ Adelaide Water Quality
Jump up ^ "Hobart City Council, Tasmania Australia". hobartcity.com.au.
Jump up ^ Darwin Water Quality
Jump up ^ "Ville de Montréal - L'eau de Montréal". .ville.montreal.qc.ca. 2013-01-22. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
Jump up ^ Canadian Water Quality Association. "file:///D|/_Current_Sites/cwqa2006/2011/_faq/water_hardness_canada.inc.html [1/29/2013 3:09:35 AM] Water Hardness/Total Households Canadian Cities" (PDF). Retrieved 4 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Saskatoon.ca. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
Jump up ^ 2006 Winnipeg drinking water quality test results
Jump up ^ "Water - Services - Living In Toronto - City of Toronto". toronto.ca.
Jump up ^ GVRD Wash Smart – Water Facts
Jump up ^ "CITY OF CHARLOTTETOWN WATER & SEWER UTILITY Water Report 2006" (PDF). Aquasafecanada.com. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
Jump up ^ "REGION OF WATERLOO Residential Water Softener Performance Study Testing Report #1 April, 2011" (PDF). Regionofwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Public Information Notice: West Side Water Supply | Saint John". www.saintjohn.ca. Retrieved 2017-10-10.
In England and Wales[edit]
Hardness water level of major cities in the UK
Area
Primary source
Level[1]
Manchester Lake District (Haweswater, Thirlmere) Pennines (Longdendale Chain) 1.750 °clark / 25 ppm[2]
Birmingham Elan Valley Reservoirs 3 °clark /
42.8 ppm[3]
Bristol Mendip Hills (Bristol Reservoirs) 16 °clark / 228.5 ppm[4]
Southampton Bewl Water 18.76 °clark / 268 ppm[5]
London (EC1A) Lee Valley Reservoir Chain 19.3 °clark / 275 ppm[6]
Information from the British Drinking Water Inspectorate[7] shows that drinking water in England is generally considered to be 'very hard', with most areas of England, particularly east of a line between the Severn and Tees estuaries, exhibiting above 200 ppm for the calcium carbonate equivalent. Water in London, for example, is mostly obtained from the River Thames and River Lea both of which derive significant proportion of their dry weather flow from springs in limestone and chalk aquifers. Wales, Devon, Cornwall and parts of North-West England are softer water areas, and range from 0 to 200 ppm.[8] In the brewing industry in England and Wales, water is often deliberately hardened with gypsum in the process of Burtonisation.
Generally water is mostly hard in urban areas of England where soft water sources are unavailable. A number of cities built water supply sources in the 18th century as the industrial revolution and urban population burgeoned. Manchester was a notable such city in North West England and its wealthy corporation built a number of reservoirs at Thirlmere and Haweswater in the Lake District to the north. There is no exposure to limestone or chalk in their headwaters and consequently the water quality in Manchester is rated as 'very soft'.[2] Similarly, tap water in Birmingham is also soft as it is sourced from the Elan Valley Reservoirs in Wales.
In Ireland[edit]
The EPA has published a standards handbook for the interpretation of water quality in Ireland in which definitions of water hardness are given.[9] In this section, reference to original EU documentation is given, which sets out no limit for hardness. In turn, the handbook also gives no "Recommended or Mandatory Limit Values" for Hardness. The handbooks does indicate that above the midpoint of the ranges defined as "Moderately Hard", effects are seen increasingly: "The chief disadvantages of hard waters are that they neutralise the lathering power of soap.... and, more important, that they can cause blockage of pipes and severely reduced boiler efficiency because of scale formation. These effects will increase as the hardness rises to and beyond 200 mg/l CaCO3."
In the United States[edit]
A collection of data from the United States found that about half the water stations tested had hardness over 120 mg per litre of calcium carbonate equivalent, placing them in the categories "hard" or "very hard".[10] The other half were classified as soft or moderately hard. More than 85% of American homes have hard water.[11] The softest waters occur in parts of the New England, South Atlantic-Gulf, Pacific Northwest, and Hawaii regions. Moderately hard waters are common in many of the rivers of the Tennessee, Great Lakes, and Alaska regions. Hard and very hard waters are found in some of the streams in most of the regions throughout the country. The hardest waters (greater than 1,000 ppm) are in streams in Texas, New Mexico, Kansas, Arizona, and southern California.[12]
See also[edit]
Water portal
Carbonate hardness
dGH
Water softener
Water quality
Water treatment
Water purification
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Table 2 Drinking Water Hardness". United Utilities. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Drinking water quality". United Utilities. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Severn Trent Water — B1 1DB". Severn Trent Water. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Bristol water hardness level". Bristol Water. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Southern Water — SO14 area". Southern Water. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
Jump up ^ "EC1A 7BE — Water quality in your area". Thames Water. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
Jump up ^ dwi.gov.uk
Jump up ^ anglianwater.co.uk
Jump up ^ Section 36 "Hardness" https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/water/quality/Water_Quality.pdf
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference USGS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Wilson, Amber; Parrott, Kathleen; Ross, Blake (June 1999). "Household Water Quality – Water Hardness". Retrieved 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ Briggs, J.C., and Ficke, J.F.; Quality of Rivers of the United States, 1975 Water Year -- Based on the National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 78-200, 436 p. (1977)
External links[edit]
"Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) Calculato". Akzo Nobel. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
"Water hardness unit converter". Retrieved 29 August 2017.
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