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List of Presidents of the Philippines
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For colonial chief executives of the Philippines prior to the ratification of the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines, see Governor-General of the Philippines.
Malacañang Palace in Manila is the official residence of the President.[note 1] Built in 1750, it has become a prominent symbol of and metonym for the office.
Under the present Constitution of the Philippines, the President of the Philippines (Filipino: Pangulo ng Pilipinas) is both the head of state and the head of government, and serves as the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces.[4] The President is directly elected by qualified voters of the population to a six-year term and must be "a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election". Any person who has served as president for more than four years is barred from running for the position again. Upon an incumbent president's death, permanent disability, resignation, or removal from office, the Vice President assumes the post.[5]
Sixteen people have been sworn into office as president. Following the ratification of the Malolos Constitution in 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo became the inaugural president of the Malolos Republic, considered the First Philippine Republic.[6][note 2] He held that office until 1901 when he was captured by United States forces during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).[4] The American colonization of the Philippines abolished the First Republic,[7] which led an American governor-general to exercise executive power.[8]
In 1935 the US, pursuant to its promise of full Philippine sovereignty,[9] established the Commonwealth of the Philippines following the ratification of the 1935 Constitution, which also restored the presidency. The first national presidential election was held,[note 3] and Manuel L. Quezon (1935–44) was elected to a six-year term, with no provision for re-election,[12] as the second Philippine president and the first Commonwealth president.[note 2] In 1940, however, the Constitution was amended to allow re-election but shortened the term to four years.[4] A change in government occurred three years later when the Second Philippine Republic was organized with the enactment of the 1943 Constitution, which Japan imposed after it occupied the Philippines in 1942 during World War II.[13] José P. Laurel acted as puppet president of the new Japanese-sponsored government;[14] his de facto presidency,[15] not legally recognized until the 1960s,[16] overlapped with that of the president of the Commonwealth, which went into exile. The Second Republic was dissolved after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945; the Commonwealth was restored in the Philippines in the same year with Sergio Osmeña (1944–46) as president.[4]
Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) followed Osmeña when he won the first post-war election in 1946. He became the first president of the independent Philippines when the Commonwealth ended on July 4 of that year. The Third Republic was ushered in and would cover the administrations of the next five presidents, the last of which was Ferdinand Marcos (1965–86),[4] who performed a self-coup by imposing martial law in 1972.[17] The dictatorship saw the birth of Marcos' New Society and the Fourth Republic. His tenure lasted until 1986 when he was deposed in the People Power Revolution. The current constitution came into effect in 1987, marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic.[4]
Of the individuals elected as president, three died in office: two of natural causes (Manuel L. Quezon[18] and Manuel Roxas[19]) and one in a plane crash (Ramon Magsaysay, 1953–57[20]). The longest-serving president is Ferdinand Marcos with 7003736200000000000♠20 years and 57 days in office; he is the only president to have served more than two terms. The shortest is Sergio Osmeña who spent 7002665000000000000♠1 year and 300 days in off.
Two women have held the office: Corazon Aquino (1986–92), who ascended to the presidency upon the successful People Power Revolution of 1986 and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–10), who, as Vice President, ascended to the presidency upon Estrada's resignation and was elected to a full six-year term in 2004.
Contents
[hide]
1 Key
2 Presidents
2.1 1899–1901: First Republic (Malolos Republic)
2.2 1935–46: Commonwealth
2.3 1943–45: Second Republic
2.4 1946–72: Third Republic
2.5 1972–87: Fourth Republic
2.6 1987-Present: Fifth Republic
3 Timeline
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
6.1 Works cited
7 External links
Key[edit]
The colors indicate the political party affiliation of each individual.
Key
Party
English name
Abbreviation
Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas Association for Service to the New Philippines KALIBAPI
Kilusang Bagong Lipunan New Society Movement KBL
Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino Struggle of the Patriotic Filipino Masses LAMMP
Lakas ng Tao–Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino–Christian Muslim Democrats People Power–Partner of the Free Filipino–Christian Muslim Democrats Lakas–Kampi–CMD
Lakas ng Tao–National Union of Christian Democrats People Power–National Union of Christian Democrats Lakas–NUCD
Liberal Party Liberal
Nacionalista Party Nationalist Party Nacionalista
Partido Demokratiko Pilipino–Lakas ng Bayan Philippine Democratic Party–People's Power PDP–Laban
United Nationalist Democratic Organization UNIDO
Non-partisan N/A
Presidents[edit]
1899–1901: First Republic (Malolos Republic)[edit]
The First Philippine Republic was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 at Malolos, and ended on March 23, 1901 when President Emilio F. Aguinaldo was captured by the Americans at Palanan.
President of the First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic)[21]
No.
overall
[note 2]
No.
in era
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Term
[note 4]
Vice President
Refs.
1 1
Emilio Aguinaldo
1869–1964
(Lived: 94 years)
January 23, 1899 March 23, 1901
[note 5]
[note 6] Non-partisan (1899)
1
(1899) None
[note 7] [10]
[11]
1935–46: Commonwealth[edit]
The Commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 at Manila, and ended upon independence on July 4, 1946.
Presidents of the Philippine Commonwealth[21]
No.
overall
[note 2]
No.
in era
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Term
[note 4]
Vice President
Refs.
2 1
Manuel L. Quezon
1878–1944
(Lived: 65 years)
November 15, 1935
[note 8] August 1, 1944
[note 9]
[note 10] Nacionalista (1935)
2
(1935) Sergio Osmeña [30]
[31]
[32]
[12]
(1941)
3
(1941)
(1944)
4
[note 11] 2
Sergio Osmeña Sr.
1878–1961
(Lived: 83 years)
August 1, 1944 May 28, 1946
[note 12]
[note 13] Nacionalista Vacant
[note 14] [33]
[34]
[12]
5 3
Manuel A. Roxas
1892–1948
(Lived: 56 years)
May 28, 1946 July 4, 1946
Liberal
[note 15] (1946)
5
(1946)
[note 11] Elpidio Quirino
May 28, 1946 –
July 4, 1946 [37]
[38]
[35]
1943–45: Second Republic[edit]
The Second Republic was inaugurated on October 14, 1943 in Manila, and ended when President Jose P. Laurel dissolved the republic on August 17, 1945, in Tokyo.
President of the Second Philippine Republic[21]
No.
overall
[note 2]
No.
in era
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Term
[note 4]
Vice President
Refs.
3 1
José P. Laurel
1891–1959
(Lived: 68 years)
October 14, 1943
[note 16] August 17, 1945
[note 17]
[note 6] KALIBAPI
[note 18] (1943)
4
(1943) None
[note 19] [43]
[46]
1946–72: Third Republic[edit]
The Third Republic started when independence was granted by the Americans on July 4, 1946, and ended upon the imposition of martial law by President Ferdinand E. Marcos on September 21, 1972.
Presidents of the Third Philippine Republic[21][note 20]
No.
overall
[note 2]
No.
in era
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Term
[note 4]
Vice President
Refs.
5 1
Manuel A. Roxas
1892–1948
(Lived: 56 years)
July 4, 1946 April 15, 1948
[note 21] Liberal
[note 15] (1946)
5
(1946)
(1948) Elpidio Quirino
July 4, 1946 –
April 17, 1948 [37]
[38]
[35]
Vacant
April 15–17, 1948 [48]
6 2
Elpidio Quirino
1890–1956
(Lived: 65 years)
April 17, 1948 December 30, 1953
[note 12] Liberal
[note 22] Vacant
[note 14]
April 17, 1948 –
December 30, 1949 [50]
[51]
[35]
[49]
(1949)
6
(1949) Fernando Lopez
December 30, 1949 –
December 30, 1953
7 3
Ramon Magsaysay
1907–1957
(Lived: 49 years)
December 30, 1953 March 17, 1957
[note 23] Nacionalista (1953)
7
(1953)
(1957) Carlos P. Garcia [53]
[54]
[55]
8 4
Carlos P. Garcia
1896–1971
(Lived: 74 years)
March 18, 1957 December 30, 1961
[note 12] Nacionalista Vacant
[note 14]
March 18 –
December 30, 1957 [56]
[57]
[55]
[58]
(1957)
8
(1957) Diosdado Macapagal
December 30, 1957 –
December 30, 1961
9 5
Diosdado Macapagal
1910–1997
(Lived: 86 years)
December 30, 1961 December 30, 1965
[note 12] Liberal (1961)
9
(1961) Emmanuel Pelaez [59]
[60]
[61]
10 6
Ferdinand E. Marcos
1917–1989
(Lived: 72 years)
December 30, 1965 February 25, 1986
[note 12]
[note 24] Nacionalista (1965)
10
(1965) Fernando Lopez
December 30, 1965 –
September 23, 1972
[note 25] [67]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[26]
(1969)
11
[note 26]
[note 27]
(1969)
None
[note 28]
September 23, 1972 –
February 25, 1986
KBL (1981)
12
[note 29]
(1981)
1972–87: Fourth Republic[edit]
President Ferdinand E. Marcos ruled by decree when he declared martial law on September 21, 1972. He inaugurated the "New Society" after a new constitution was ratified on January 17, 1973. He declared the Fourth Republic on January 17, 1981, after martial law was lifted.
Presidents of the Fourth Philippine Republic[21][note 30]
No.
overall
[note 2]
No.
in era
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Term
[note 4]
Vice President
Refs.
10 1
Ferdinand E. Marcos
1917–1989
(Lived: 72 years)
December 30, 1965 February 25, 1986
[note 12]
[note 24] Nacionalista (1965)
10
(1965) Fernando Lopez
December 30, 1965 –
September 23, 1972
[note 25] [67]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[26]
(1969)
11
[note 26]
[note 27]
(1969)
None
[note 28]
September 23, 1972 –
February 25, 1986
KBL (1981)
12
[note 29]
(1981)
11 2
Corazon C. Aquino
1933–2009
(Lived: 76 years)
February 25, 1986
[note 31] June 30, 1992 UNIDO (1986)
13
(1986) Salvador H. Laurel [73]
[74]
[66]
1987-Present: Fifth Republic[edit]
President Corazon Aquino inaugurated the Fifth Republic after the present constitution was ratified. The plebiscite happened on February 2, 1987.
Presidents of the Fifth Philippine Republic[21][note 32]
No.
overall
[note 2]
No.
in era
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Term
[note 4]
Vice President
Refs.
11 1
Corazon C. Aquino
1933–2009
(Lived: 76 years)
February 25, 1986
[note 31] June 30, 1992 UNIDO (1986)
13
(1986) Salvador H. Laurel [73]
[74]
[66]
12 2
Fidel V. Ramos
Born 1928
(89 years old)
June 30, 1992 June 30, 1998 Lakas–NUCD (1992)
14
(1992) Joseph Ejercito Estrada [76]
[77]
[78]
13 3
Joseph Ejercito Estrada
Born 1937
(80 years old)
June 30, 1998 January 20, 2001
[note 33]
[note 6] LAMMP (1998)
15
(1998)
(2001) Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo [80]
[81]
[82]
14 4
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
Born 1947
(70 years old)
January 20, 2001 June 30, 2010 Lakas–NUCD Vacant
[note 14]
January 20 –
February 7, 2001 [83]
[84]
[82]
[85]
Teofisto Guingona Jr.
February 7, 2001 –
June 30, 2004
Lakas–Kampi–CMD (2004)
16
(2004) Noli L. de Castro
[note 34]
June 30, 2004 –
June 30, 2010
15 5
Benigno S. Aquino III
Born 1960
(58 years old)
June 30, 2010 June 30, 2016 Liberal (2010)
17
(2010) Jejomar C. Binay [86]
[87]
[88]
16 6
Rodrigo Duterte
Born 1945
(72 years old)
June 30, 2016 Incumbent PDP–Laban (2016)
18
(2016) Maria Leonor G. Robredo [89]
Timeline[edit]
See also: List of Presidents of the Philippines by time in office
See also[edit]
Philippines portal
President of the Philippines
List of unofficial Presidents of the Philippines
First Lady or First Gentleman of the Philippines
Vice President of the Philippines
List of Vice Presidents of the Philippines
Prime Minister of the Philippines
Constitution of the Philippines
Timeline of Philippine history
List of current heads of state and government
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The President has three official residences, with the Malacañang Palace Complex as the principal abode and workplace.[1] The other two are Mansion House in Baguio, the official summer residence,[2] and Malacañang sa Sugbo (Malacañang of Cebu), the official residence in Cebu.[3]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h In chronological order, the presidents started with Manuel Luis M. Quezon,[22] who was then succeeded by Sergio Osmeña as the second president,[23] until the recognition of Emilio Aguinaldo[24] and José P. Laurel's[16] presidencies in the 1960s.[subnote 1][subnote 2] With Aguinaldo as the first president and Laurel as the third, Quezon and Osmeña are thus listed as the second and the fourth, respectively.[4][21]
Jump up ^ Emilio Aguinaldo, the official first president, was elected by the Malolos Congress and not by popular vote.[10][11]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f For the purposes of numbering, a presidency is defined as an uninterrupted period of time in office served by one person. For example, Manuel Luis M. Quezon was elected in two consecutive terms and is counted as the second president (not the second and third).[subnote 3] Upon the death of fifth president, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino became the sixth president even though he simply served out the remainder of Roxas' term and was not elected to the presidency in his own right.
Jump up ^ Term ended when Aguinaldo was captured by US forces in Palanan, Isabela, during the Philippine–American War.[4][subnote 4]
^ Jump up to: a b c Later sought election or re-election to a non-consecutive term.[subnote 5]
Jump up ^ The Malolos Constitution did not provide for a vice president.[29]
Jump up ^ Term began with the formal establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth.[9][subnote 3]
Jump up ^ Died, in office, of tuberculosis in Saranac Lake, New York.[18]
Jump up ^ Term was originally until November 15, 1943, due to constitutional limitations as provided by the 1940 amendment of the 1935 Constitution, which shortened the terms of the president and the vice president from six to four years but allowed re-election.[subnote 5] Quezon was not intended to serve the full four years of the second term he won in the 1941 election because a ten-year presidency would have been considered excessive. In 1943, however, due to World War II, he and Vice President Sergio Osmeña, who was also re-elected, had to take an emergency oath of office, extending their tenure.[4][12]
^ Jump up to: a b See § 1943–45: Second Republic.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Unseated (lost re-election).[subnote 5]
Jump up ^ Sought an election for a full term, but was unsuccessful.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Prior to the ratification of the 1987 Constitution, there was no mechanism by which a vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled.[5][28] Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was the first president to fill such a vacancy under the provisions of the Constitution when she appointe Teofisto Guingona Jr.
^ Jump up to: a b The Liberal Party was not yet a party in itself at the time, but only a wing of the Nacionalista Party.[35] It split and became a separate party by 1947.[36]
Jump up ^ Term began with the establishment of Japan's puppet Second Republic after it occupied the Philippines during World War II.[13][39] The Commonwealth continued its existence as a government in exile in Australia and the United States.[9][40] The Philippines had two concurrent presidents by this time:[4] a de jure (the Commonwealth president) and a de facto (Laurel).[15] Because of his status, he was not considered a legitimate president until the 1960s.[16]
Jump up ^ Term ended when he dissolved the Second Republic in the wake of Japan's surrender to the Allies two days prior.[16][39][subnote 2] The Commonwealth was re-established in the Philippines,[13] with Sergio Osmeña as the fourth president.[4][subnote 6]
Jump up ^ Previously affiliated with the Nacionalista Party,[43] but was elected by the National Assembly under the Japanese-organized KALIBAPI, a "non-political service organization" as it described itself.[44] All pre-war parties were replaced by the KALIBAPI.[13][16]
Jump up ^ The 1943 Constitution did not provide for a vice president.[29][45]
Jump up ^ The Third Republic began when the Philippine Commonwealth ended on July 4, 1946.[4][47]
Jump up ^ Died, in office, of a heart attack in Clark Air Base, Pampanga.[19]
Jump up ^ The Liberal Party was split into two opposing wings for the 1949 election: the Avelino wing, led by presidential aspirant José Avelino, and the Quirino wing.[49]
Jump up ^ Died, in office, in a plane crash in Mount Manunggal, Cebu.[20][52]
^ Jump up to: a b Deposed in the People Power Revolution.[subnote 7]
^ Jump up to: a b Term ended upon Marcos' declaration of martial law.[29][subnote 8][subnote 9]
^ Jump up to: a b Imposed martial law, as a self-coup, on September 23, 1972, through Proclamation No. 1081, shortly before the end of his second and final term in 1973.[subnote 8] General Order No. 1, which detailed the transfer of all powers to the president, was also issued, enabling Marcos to rule by decree.[17]
^ Jump up to: a b Served concurrently as prime minister from June 12, 1978, to June 30, 1981.[67][subnote 9]
^ Jump up to: a b The 1973 Constitution was amended through a plebiscite held on January 27, 1984 to re-establish the vice presidency.[29][72][subnote 9]
^ Jump up to: a b The 1973 Constitution, as amended in 1981, did not place restrictions on re-election.[subnote 5]
Jump up ^ Martial law was lifted by Ferdinand Marcos on January 17, 1981, through Proclamation No. 2045,[17] marking the beginning of the Fourth Republic.[47]
^ Jump up to: a b Assumed presidency by claiming victory in the disputed 1986 snap election.[subnote 7]
Jump up ^ Corazon Aquino promulgated a provisional constitution called the 1986 Freedom Constitution on March 25, 1986.[75] It remained in effect until it was supplanted by the current constitution on February 2, 17 87,[75] which ushered the Fifth Republic.[4]
Jump up ^ Deposed after the Supreme Court declared Estrada as resigned, and, as a result, the office of the president vacant, after the Second EDSA Revolution.[79]
Jump up ^ Allied with the Koalisyon ng Katapatan at Karanasan sa Kinabukasan (Coalition of Truth and Experience for Tomorrow).[85]
Subnotes
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference MalolosRepublic was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Jump up to: a b The Second Republic was later declared by the Supreme Court of the Philippines as a de facto, illegitimate government on September 17, 1945.[16] Its laws were considered null and void;[4][16] despite this, Laurel was included in the official roster of Philippine presidents in the 1960s.[16]
^ Jump up to: a b Emilio F. Aguinaldo would be counted as the second president if he had won the 1935 election because the presidency was abolished and remained defunct until November 15, 1935. During that period, the executive power was exercised by the Governor-General of the US military government and the Insular Government, the precursor of the Philippine Commonwealth.[8]
Jump up ^ Aguinaldo took the oath of allegiance to the US nine days later, effectively ending the republic.[7][25]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Before the ratification of the 1981 amendment of the 1973 Constitution, which removed the limit on re-election to the office for another six-year term,[26][27] presidents were elected to a four-year term with the possibility of re-election, as the amended 1935 Constitution specified: "No person shall serve as [p]resident for more than eight consecutive years."[28] When the 1987 Constitution was imposed and, in effect, superseded the previous constitutions, the president is no longer eligible for any re-election. It does, however, allow a person who had assumed the presidency to seek for a full six-year term if he or she has not yet "served as such for more than four years".[5]
Jump up ^ The Commonwealth had already been temporarily restored in Tacloban on October 23, 1944, during the Battle of Leyte,[41] before it was proclaimed "reestablished as provided by law" on February 27, 1945.[42]
^ Jump up to: a b Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino both took their oath of office on February 25, 1986. In effect, the Philippines again had two simultaneous presidents, albeit for nine hours only.[62] Marcos was proclaimed on February 15 the winner of the widely denounced February 7 snap election,[62][63] which he called after opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., his chief rival and Corazon's wife, was assassinated in 1983.[64] However, in a separate NAMFREL tally dated February 16, Aquino was found the actual duly-elected president.[65][66] The events led to the People Power Revolution on February 22–25, which forced Marcos to leave to exile in Hawaii and installed Aquino to the office.[62][64][66]
^ Jump up to: a b Accounts differ on when martial law was officially established. While sources such as Raymond Bonner have written that Proclamation No. 1081 was signed on September 23, 1972, Primitivo Mijares, a former journalist for Marcos, and the Bangkok Post stated that it was on September 17, only postdated to September 21 because of Marcos' numerological beliefs that were related to the number seven. Marcos claimed to have signed it on September 21, and as of 9 p.m. Philippine Standard Time (UTC+08:00) on September 22, the country was under martial law. He formally announced it in a live television and radio broadcast on September 23. The official date when martial law was set was on September 21 (because it was a date that was divisible by seven), but September 23 is generally considered the correct date because it was when the nation was informed and thus the proclamation was put into full effect.[17]
^ Jump up to: a b c On January 17, 1973, while martial law was still in effect, the 1973 Constitution was ratified, which suspended the 1935 Constitution and ended the Third Republic.[29][47] What Marcos called a New Society (Bagong Lipunan) began,[47] introducing a parliamentary form of government;[71] the vice presidency was abolished and the presidential succession provision was devolved to the prime minister.[29]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ortiguero, Romsanne (October 22, 2014). "TRAVEL Inside Malacañang Complex, 3 places to visit for a charming date with history". News5. TV5. Archived from the original on June 30, 2016. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Mansion House". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Sisante, Jam (August 6, 2010). "Malacañang sa Sugbo still the president's official residence in Cebu". GMA News and Public Affairs. GMA Network. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "The Executive Branch". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Tucker 2009, p. 8
^ Jump up to: a b Cite error: The named reference FirstRep was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Jump up to: a b Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 281
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Commonwealth of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Emilio Aguinaldo". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, p. 203
^ Jump up to: a b c d PCDSPO 2015, pp. 62–64
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jose, Ricardo T. (1997). Afterword. His Excellency Jose P. Laurel, President of the Second Philippine Republic: Speeches, Messages and Statements, October 14, 1943 to December 19, 1944. By Laurel, José P. Manila: Lyceum of the Philippines in cooperation with the José P. Laurel Memorial Foundation. ISBN 971-91847-2-8. Retrieved June 18, 2016 – via Presidential Museum and Library.
Jump up ^ Staff writer(s); no by-line. (September 3, 1945). "The Philippines: End of a Puppet". Time. Retrieved July 5, 2016. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b "Today is the birth anniversary of President Jose P. Laurel". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Staff writer(s); no by-line. (October 14, 2015). "Second Philippine Republic". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Declaration of Martial Law". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Tejero, Constantino C. (November 8, 2015). "The real Manuel Luis Quezon, beyond the posture and bravura". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Staff writer(s); no by-line. (April 16, 1948). "Heart Attack Fatal to Philippine Pres. Roxas". Schenectady Gazette. Manila. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Death Anniversary of President Ramon Magsaysay". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. March 17, 2013. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Philippine Presidents". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on May 27, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Quezon, Manuel Luis M. (December 30, 1941). "Second Inaugural Address of President Quezon". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Staff writer(s); no by-line. (October 19, 1961). "Sergio Osmena, Second President of the Philippines". Toledo Blade. Manila: Block Communications. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Pascual, Federico D., Jr. (September 26, 2010). "Macapagal legacy casts shadow on today's issues". The Philippine Star. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Tucker 2009, p. 496
^ Jump up to: a b c PCDSPO 2015, pp. 125–126
Jump up ^ "1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b The 1935 Constitution:
"The 1935 Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
"1935 Constitution amended". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Office of the Vice President". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Manuel L. Quezon". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 204
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, pp. 54–56
Jump up ^ "Sergio Osmeña". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 206
^ Jump up to: a b c d PCDSPO 2015, pp. 74–76
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 78
^ Jump up to: a b "Manuel Roxas". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, p. 207
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, p. 72
Jump up ^ Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 415
Jump up ^ Staff writer(s); no by-line. (September 4, 2012). "Sergio Osmeña: Remembering the Grand Old Man of Cebu". National Historical Commission of the Philippines. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ MacArthur, Douglas (February 27, 1945). "Speech of General Douglas MacArthur upon turning over to President Sergio Osmena the full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth Government under the Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Jose P. Laurel". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, pp. 66–67
Jump up ^ "The 1943 Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 205
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Third Republic". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Staff writer(s); no by-line. (November 16, 2012). "The ritual climbing of the main stairs of.." Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved July 21, 2016 – via Tumblr. On the morning of April 17, 1948, Vice President Elpidio Quirino–fresh off a coast guard cutter from the Visayas–ascended the staircase to pay his respects to the departed President Manuel Roxas, and to take his oath of office as [p]resident of the Philippines. The country had been without a [p]resident for two days.
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, pp. 80–82
Jump up ^ "Elpidio Quirino". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 208
Jump up ^ Staff writer(s); no by-line. (March 18, 1957). "Magsaysay Dead in Plane Crash". St. Petersburg Times. Manila: Times Publishing Company. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ramon Magsaysay". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 209
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, pp. 85–88
Jump up ^ "Carlos P. Garcia". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 210
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, pp. 91–93
Jump up ^ "Diosdado Macapagal". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 211
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, pp. 96–98
^ Jump up to: a b c Reaves, Joseph A. (February 26, 1986). "Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules". Chicago Tribune. Manila: Tribune Publishing. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Resolution No. 38". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. February 15, 1986. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Chandler & Steinberg 1987, pp. 431–442
Jump up ^ "1986 Tally Board". National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections. February 16, 1986. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d PCDSPO 2015, pp. 132–134
^ Jump up to: a b c "Ferdinand E. Marcos". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, p. 212
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, pp. 101–104
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, pp. 108–110
Jump up ^ Sicat, Gerardo P. (September 23, 2015). "Marcos and his failure to provide for an orderly political succession". The Philippine Star. Retrieved July 9, 2016. The transitional nature of the political system according to the 1973 Constitution was left undefined in view of the martial law government. This constitution adopted a British-style parliamentary system.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 130
^ Jump up to: a b "Corazon C. Aquino". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, p. 213
^ Jump up to: a b "Philippine Constitutions". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Fidel V. Ramos". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 214
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, pp. 142–143
Jump up ^ Calica, Aurea (January 21, 2001). "SC: People's welfare is the supreme law". The Philippine Star. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Joseph Ejercito Estrada". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 215
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, pp. 147–149
Jump up ^ "Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 216
^ Jump up to: a b PCDSPO 2015, pp. 153–155
Jump up ^ "Benigno S. Aquino III". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, p. 217
Jump up ^ PCDSPO 2015, pp. 159–161
Jump up ^ "Presidency and Vice Presidency by the Numbers: Rodrigo Roa Duterte and Leni Robredo". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Retrieved July 13, 2016.
Works cited[edit]
Agoncillo, Teodoro A.; Guerrero, Milagros C. (1970). History of the Filipino People (3rd ed.). Malaya Books.
Chandler, David Porter; Steinberg, David Joel (1987). In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Revised ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1110-0.
Guevara, Sulpicio, ed. (2005) [1898]. The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899. Compiled, edited, and translated into English by Sulpicio Guevara. Manila: National Historical Institute (published 1972). ISBN 971-538-055-7 – via University of Michigan Library.
Philippine Electoral Almanac (PDF) (Revised and expanded ed.). Manila: Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. 2015. ISBN 978-971-95551-6-2 – via Internet Archive.
Tucker, Spencer, ed. (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History. 1 (Illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Presidents of the Philippines.
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Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA)[1] was enacted by Congress in 1986 as an amendment to existing computer fraud law (18 U.S.C. § 1030), which had been included in the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984. The law prohibits accessing a computer without authorization, or in excess of authorization.
The original 1984 bill was enacted in response to concern that computer-related crimes might go unpunished. The House Committee Report to the original computer crime bill characterized the 1983 techno-thriller film WarGames—in which a young Matthew Broderick breaks into a U.S. military supercomputer programmed to predict possible outcomes of nuclear war and unwittingly almost starts World War III—as “a realistic representation of the automatic dialing and access capabilities of the personal computer.”[2]
The CFAA was written to increase the scope of the previous version of 18 U.S.C. § 1030 while, in theory, limiting federal jurisdiction to cases "with a compelling federal interest-i.e., where computers of the federal government or certain financial institutions are involved or where the crime itself is interstate in nature." (see "Protected Computer", below). In addition to amending a number of the provisions in the original section 1030, the CFAA also criminalized additional computer-related acts. Provisions addressed the distribution of malicious code and denial of service attacks. Congress also included in the CFAA a provision criminalizing trafficking in passwords and similar items.[1]
Since then, the Act has been amended a number of times—in 1989, 1994, 1996, in 2001 by the USA PATRIOT Act, 2002, and in 2008 by the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act.
In January 2015 Barack Obama proposed expanding the CFAA and the RICO Act in his Modernizing Law Enforcement Authorities to Combat Cyber Crime proposal.[3] DEF CON organizer and Cloudflare researcher Marc Rogers, Senator Ron Wyden, and Representative Zoe Lofgren have stated opposition to this on the grounds it will make many regular Internet activities illegal, and moves further away from what they were trying to accomplish with Aaron's Law.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Protected computers
2 Criminal offenses under the Act
3 Specific sections
4 Notable cases and decisions referring to the Act
4.1 Criminal Cases
4.2 Civil Cases
5 Criticism
5.1 Aaron Swartz
6 Amendments history
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Protected computers[edit]
The only computers, in theory, covered by the CFAA are defined as "protected computers". They are defined under section 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2) to mean a computer:
exclusively for the use of a financial institution or the United States Government, or any computer, when the conduct constituting the offense affects the computer's use by or for the financial institution or the Government; or
which is used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication, including a computer located outside the United States that is used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States...
In practice, any ordinary computer has come under the jurisdiction of the law, including cellphones, due to the inter-state nature of most internet communication.[6]
Criminal offenses under the Act[edit]
(a) Whoever—
(1) having knowingly accessed a computer without authorization or exceeding authorized access, and by means of such conduct having obtained information that has been determined by the United States Government pursuant to an Executive order or statute to require protection against unauthorized disclosure for reasons of national defense or foreign relations, or any restricted data, as defined in paragraph y. of section 11 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, with reason to believe that such information so obtained could be used to the injury of the United States, or to the advantage of any foreign nation willfully communicates, delivers, transmits, or causes to be communicated, delivered, or transmitted, or attempts to communicate, deliver, transmit or cause to be communicated, delivered, or transmitted the same to any person not entitled to receive it, or willfully retains the same and fails to deliver it to the officer or employee of the United States entitled to receive it;
(2) intentionally accesses a computer without authorization or exceeds authorized access, and thereby obtains—
(A) information contained in a financial record of a financial institution, or of a card issuer as defined in section 1602 (n) [1] of title 15, or contained in a file of a consumer reporting agency on a consumer, as such terms are defined in the Fair Credit Reporting Act (15 U.S.C. 1681 et seq.);
(B) information from any department or agency of the United States; or
(C) information from any protected computer;
(3) intentionally, without authorization to access any nonpublic computer of a department or agency of the United States, accesses such a computer of that department or agency that is exclusively for the use of the Government of the United States or, in the case of a computer not exclusively for such use, is used by or for the Government of the United States and such conduct affects that use by or for the Government of the United States;
(4) knowingly and with intent to defraud, accesses a protected computer without authorization, or exceeds authorized access, and by means of such conduct furthers the intended fraud and obtains anything of value, unless the object of the fraud and the thing obtained consists only of the use of the computer and the value of such use is not more than $5,000 in any 1-year period;
(5)
(A) knowingly causes the transmission of a program, information, code, or command, and as a result of such conduct, intentionally causes damage without authorization, to a protected computer;
(B) intentionally accesses a protected computer without authorization, and as a result of such conduct, recklessly causes damage; or
(C) intentionally accesses a protected computer without authorization, and as a result of such conduct, causes damage and loss.
(6) knowingly and with intent to defraud traffics (as defined in section 1029) in any password or similar information through which a computer may be accessed without authorization, if—
(A) such trafficking affects interstate or foreign commerce; or
(B) such computer is used by or for the Government of the United States;
(7) with intent to extort from any person any money or other thing of value, transmits in interstate or foreign commerce any communication containing any—
(A) threat to cause damage to a protected computer;
(B) threat to obtain information from a protected computer without authorization or in excess of authorization or to impair the confidentiality of information obtained from a protected computer without authorization or by exceeding authorized access; or
(C) demand or request for money or other thing of value in relation to damage to a protected computer, where such damage was caused to facilitate the extortion[7]
Specific sections[edit]
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(1): Computer Espionage. This section takes much of its language from the Espionage Act of 1917, with the notable addition being that it also covers information related to "Foreign Relations", not simply "National Defense" like the Espionage Act.
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(2): Computer trespassing, and taking government, financial, or commerce info
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(3): Computer trespassing in a government computer
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(4): Committing fraud with computer
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(5): Damaging a protected computer (including viruses, worms)
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(6): Trafficking in passwords of a government or commerce computer
18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(7): Threatening to damage a protected computer
18 U.S.C. § 1030(b): Conspiracy to violate (a)
18 U.S.C. § 1030(c): Penalties
Notable cases and decisions referring to the Act[edit]
The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is both a criminal law and a statute that creates a private right of action, allowing private individuals and companies to sue to recover damages caused by violations of this law. There have been a number of notable court cases interpreting the CFAA in both criminal and civil cases.
Criminal Cases[edit]
United States v. Morris (1991), 928 F.2d 504, decided March 7, 1991. After the release of the Morris worm, an early computer worm, its creator was convicted under the Act for causing damage and gaining unauthorized access to "federal interest" computers. The Act was amended in 1996, in part, to clarify language whose meaning was disputed in the case.[8]
United States v. Lori Drew, 2008. The cyberbullying case involving the suicide of a girl harassed on myspace. Charges were under 18 USC 1030(a)(2)(c) and (b)(2)(c). Judge Wu decided that using 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(2)(C) against someone violating a terms of service agreement would make the law overly broad. 259 F.R.D. 449 [9][10]
United States v. Collins et al, 2011. A group of men and women connected to the collective Anonymous signed a plea deal to charges of conspiring to disrupt access to the payment website PayPal in response to the payment shutdown to Wikileaks over the Wau Holland Foundation which was part of a wider Anonymous campaign, Operation Payback.[11][12] They later became known under the name PayPal 14.
United States v. Aaron Swartz, 2011. Aaron Swartz allegedly entered an MIT wiring closet and set up a laptop to mass-download articles from JSTOR. He allegedly avoided various attempts by JSTOR and MIT to stop this, such as MAC address spoofing. He was indicted for violating CFAA provisions (a)(2), (a)(4), (c)(2)(B)(iii), (a)(5)(B), and (c)(4)(A)(i)(I),(VI).[13] The case was dismissed after Swartz committed suicide in January 2013.[14]
United States v. Nosal, 2011. Nosal and others allegedly accessed a protected computer to take a database of contacts from his previous employer for use in his own business, violating 1030(a)(4)[15][16] This is a complex case with two trips to the Ninth Circuit, and another seen as likely after the latest conviction in 2013.[17]
United States v. Peter Alfred-Adekeye 2011. Adekeye allegedly violated (a)(2), when he allegedly downloaded CISCO IOS, allegedly something that the CISCO employee who gave him an access password did not permit. Adekeye was CEO of Multiven and had accused CISCO of anti-competitive practices.[18]
United States v Sergey Aleynikov, 2011. Aleynikov was a programmer at Goldman Sachs accused of copying code, like high-frequency trading code, allegedly in violation of 1030(a)(2)(c) and 1030(c)(2)(B)i-iii and 2. This charge was later dropped, and he was instead charged with theft of trade secrets and transporting stolen property.[19][20]
United States v Nada Nadim Prouty, circa 2010.[21] Prouty was an FBI and CIA agent who was prosecuted for having a fraudulent marriage to get US residency. She claims she was persecuted by a U.S. attorney who was trying to gain media coverage by calling her a terrorist agent and get himself promoted to a federal judgeship.[22]
United States v. Neil Scott Kramer, 2011. Kramer was a court case where a cellphone was used to coerce a minor into engaging sex with an adult. Central to the case was whether a cellphone constituted a computer device. Ultimately, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit found that a cell phone can be considered a computer if "the phone perform[s] arithmetic, logical, and storage functions", paving the way for harsher consequences for criminals engaging with minors over cellphones.[23]
United States v. Kane, 2011. Exploiting a software bug in a poker machine does not constitute hacking[24] because the poker machine in question was not a “protected computer” under the statute (not being connected to the Internet it was judged not to qualify as "protected computer" affecting interstate commerce) and because the sequence of button presses that triggered the bug were considered "not exceed their authorized access." As of November 2013[update] the defendant still faces a regular wire fraud charge.[25]
Civil Cases[edit]
Theofel v. Farey Jones, 2003 U.S. App. Lexis 17963, decided August 28, 2003 (U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit), holding that the use of a civil subpoena which is "patently unlawful," "in bad faith," or "at least gross negligence" to gain access to stored email is a breach of both the CFAA and the Stored Communications Act.[26]
International Airport Centers, L.L.C. v. Citrin, 2006, 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(5)(A)(i), in which Jacob Citrin deleted files from his company computer before he quit, in order to conceal alleged bad behavior while he was an employee.[27]
LVRC Holdings v. Brekka, 2009 1030(a)(2), 1030(a)(4), in which LVRC sued Brekka for allegedly taking information about clients and using it to start his own competing business.[28][29]
Craigslist v. 3Taps, 2012. 3Taps was accused by Craigslist of breaching CFAA by circumventing an IP block in order to access Craigslist's website and scrape its classified ads without consent. In August 2013, US federal judge found 3Taps's actions violated CFAA and that it faces civil damages for “unauthorized access”. Judge Breyer wrote in his decision that "the average person does not use “anonymous proxies” to bypass an IP block set up to enforce a banning communicated via personally-addressed cease-and-desist letter".[30][31] He also noted "Congress apparently knew how to restrict the reach of the CFAA to only certain kinds of information, and it appreciated the public v. nonpublic distinction — but [the relevant section] contains no such restrictions or modifiers."[32]
Lee v. PMSI, Inc., 2011. PMSI, Inc. sued former employee Lee for violating the CFAA by browsing Facebook and checking personal email in violation of the company's acceptable use policy. The court found that breaching an employer's acceptable use policy was not "unauthorized access" under the act and, therefore, did not violate the CFAA.
Sony Computer Entertainment America v. George Hotz and Hotz v. SCEA, 2011. SCEA sued "Geohot" and others for jailbreaking the PlayStation 3 system. The lawsuit alleged, among other things, that Hotz violated 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(2)(c) ([by] taking info from any protected computer). Hotz denied liability and contested the Court's exercise of personal jurisdiction over him.[33] The parties settled out of court. The settlement caused Geohot to be unable to legally hack the PlayStation 3 system furthermore.
Pulte Homes, Inc. v. Laborers' International Union 2011. Pulte Homes brought a CFAA suit against the Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA). After Pulte fired an employee represented by the union, LIUNA urged members to call and send email to the company, expressing their opinions. As a result of the increased traffic, the company's email system crashed.[34][35]
Criticism[edit]
Provisions of the CFAA that effectively make it a federal crime to violate the terms of service of Internet sites have been criticized for allowing companies to forbid legitimate activities such as research, or remove protections found elsewhere in law. Terms of service can be changed at any time without notifying users. Tim Wu called the CFAA “the worst law in technology”.[36]
Aaron Swartz[edit]
The government was able to bring such disproportionate charges against Aaron because of the broad scope of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) and the wire fraud statute. It looks like the government used the vague wording of those laws to claim that violating an online service’s user agreement or terms of service is a violation of the CFAA and the wire fraud statute.
Using the law in this way could criminalize many everyday activities and allow for outlandishly severe penalties.
When our laws need to be modified, Congress has a responsibility to act. A simple way to correct this dangerous legal interpretation is to change the CFAA and the wire fraud statutes to exclude terms of service violations. I will introduce a bill that does exactly that.
Rep. Zoe Lofgren, Jan 15, 2013 [37]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Rep Zoe Lofgren Introduces Bipartisan Aaron's Law
In the wake of the prosecution and subsequent suicide of Aaron Swartz (who hacked into MIT computer networks to download scholarly research articles funded by taxpayers and was later criticised), lawmakers proposed amending the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Representative Zoe Lofgren drafted a bill that would help "prevent what happened to Aaron from happening to other Internet users".[37] Aaron's Law (H.R. 2454, S. 1196[38]) would exclude terms of service violations from the 1984 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute, despite the fact that Swartz was not prosecuted based on Terms of Service violations.[39]
In addition to Lofgren's efforts, Representatives Darrell Issa and Jared Polis (also on the House Judiciary Committee) raised questions about the government's handling of the case. Polis called the charges "ridiculous and trumped up," referring to Swartz as a "martyr."[40] Issa, chair of the House Oversight Committee, announced an investigation of the Justice Department's prosecution.[40][41]
By May 2014, Aaron's Law was stalled in committee, reportedly due to tech company Oracle's financial interests.[42]
Aaron's Law was reintroduced in May 2015 (H.R. 2454, S. 1030[43]) and again stalled.
Amendments history[edit]
2008[1]
Eliminated the requirement that information must have been stolen through an interstate or foreign communication, thereby expanding jurisdiction for cases involving theft of information from computers;
Eliminated the requirement that the defendant’s action must result in a loss exceeding $5,000 and created a felony offense where the damage affects ten or more computers, closing a gap in the law;
Expanded 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(7) to criminalize not only explicit threats to cause damage to a computer, but also threats to (1) steal data on a victim's computer, (2) publicly disclose stolen data, or (3) not repair damage the offender already caused to the computer;
Created a criminal offense for conspiring to commit a computer hacking offense under section 1030;
Broadened the definition of “protected computer” in 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2) to the full extent of Congress’s commerce power by including those computers used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication; and
Provided a mechanism for civil and criminal forfeiture of property used in or derived from section 1030 violations.
See also[edit]
Defense Secrets Act of 1911 / Espionage Act of 1917 / McCarran Internal Security Act 1950
California Comprehensive Computer Data Access and Fraud Act
Electronic Communications Privacy Act
LVRC Holdings LLC v. Brekka
In re DoubleClick
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority v. Anderson
Information technology audit
Information technology security audit
Computer fraud
The Hacker Crackdown (mentions the law, & the eponymous Chicago task force)
Protected computer
WikiLeaks
Weev
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Jarrett, H. Marshall; Bailie, Michael W. (2010). "Prosecution of Computer Crimes" (PDF). justice.gov. Office of Legal Education Executive Office for United States Attorneys. Retrieved June 3, 2013.
Jump up ^ H.R. Rep. 98-894, 1984 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3689, 3696 (1984).
Jump up ^ "SECURING CYBERSPACE - President Obama Announces New Cybersecurity Legislative Proposal and Other Cybersecurity Efforts". Whitehouse.gov. January 13, 2015. Retrieved January 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Democrats, Tech Experts Slam Obama's Anti-Hacking Proposal". Huffington Post. January 20, 2015. Retrieved January 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Obama, Goodlatte Seek Balance on CFAA Cybersecurity". US News. January 27, 2015. Retrieved January 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Varma, Corey. "What is the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act". www.coreyvarma.com. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. "18 USC 1030".
Jump up ^ United States v. Morris (1991) , 928 F.2d 504, 505 (2d Cir. 1991).
Jump up ^ U.S. v. Lori Drew, scribd
Jump up ^ US v Lori Drew, psu.edu KYLE JOSEPH SASSMAN,
Jump up ^ David Gilbert (December 6, 2013). "PayPal 14 'Freedom Fighters' Plead Guilty to Cyber-Attack". International Business Times.
Jump up ^ Alexa O'Brien (December 5, 2013). "Inside the 'PayPal 14' Trial". The Daily Beast.
Jump up ^ See Internet Activist Charged in M.I.T. Data Theft, By NICK BILTON New York Times, July 19, 2011, 12:54 PM, as well as the Indictment
Jump up ^ Dave Smith, Aaron Swartz Case: U.S. DOJ Drops All Pending Charges Against The JSTOR Liberator, Days After His Suicide, International Business Times, January 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ U.S. v. Nosal, uscourts.gov, 2011
Jump up ^ Appeals Court: No Hacking Required to Be Prosecuted as a Hacker, By David Kravets, Wired, April 29, 2011
Jump up ^ Kravets, David (April 24, 2013). "Man Convicted of Hacking Despite Not Hacking". Wired.
Jump up ^ US v Adekeye Indictment. see also Federal Grand Jury indicts former Cisco Engineer By Howard Mintz, 08/05/2011, Mercury News
Jump up ^ US v Sergey Aleynikov, Case 1:10-cr-00096-DLC Document 69 Filed 10/25/10
Jump up ^ Ex-Goldman Programmer Described Code Downloads to FBI (Update1), David Glovin and David Scheer - July 10, 2009, Bloomberg
Jump up ^ Plea Agreement, U.S. District Court, Eastern District of Michigan, Southern Division. via debbieschlussel.com
Jump up ^ Sibel Edmond's Boiling Frogs podcast 61 Thursday, 13. October 2011. Interview with Prouty by Peter B. Collins and Sibel Edmonds
Jump up ^ "United States of America v. Neil Scott Kramer" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Poulsen, Kevin (May 7, 2013). "Feds Drop Hacking Charges in Video-Poker Glitching Case". Wired.
Jump up ^ No Expansion of CFAA Liability for Monetary Exploit of Software Bug | New Media and Technology Law Blog
Jump up ^ "Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals: Stored Communications Act and Computer Fraud and Abuse Act Provide Cause of Action for Plaintiff | Stanford Center for Internet and Society". Cyberlaw.stanford.edu. Retrieved September 10, 2010.
Jump up ^ US v Jacob Citrin, openjurist.org
Jump up ^ U.S. v Brekka 2009
Jump up ^ Kravets, David, Court: Disloyal Computing Is Not Illegal, Wired, September 18, 2009.
Jump up ^ Kravets, David (August 20, 2013). "IP Cloaking Violates Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, Judge Rules". Wired.
Jump up ^ Craigslist v. 3taps | Digital Media Law Project
Jump up ^ 3Taps Can't Shake Unauthorized Craigslist Access Claims - Law360
Jump up ^ See the links to the original lawsuit documents which are indexed here
Jump up ^ techdirt.com 2011 8 9, Mike Masnick, "Sending Too Many Emails to Someone Is Computer Hacking"
Jump up ^ Hall, Brian, Sixth Circuit Decision in Pulte Homes Leaves Employers With Few Options In Response To Union High Tech Tactics, Employer Law Report, 3 August 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Christian Sandvig and Karrie Karahalios (2006-07-01). "Most of what you do online is illegal. Let's end the absurdity". The Guardian.
^ Jump up to: a b Reilly, Ryan J. (January 15, 2013). "Congresswoman Introduces 'Aaron's Law' Honoring Swartz". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ H.R. 2454 at Congress.gov; H.R. 2454 at GovTrack; H.R. 2454 Archived November 12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. at OpenCongress. S. 1196 at Congress.gov; S. 1196 at GovTrack; S. 1196 Archived November 12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. at OpenCongress.
Jump up ^ news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57564193-93/new-aarons-law-aims-to-alter-controversial-computer-fraud-law/
^ Jump up to: a b Sasso, Brendan. "Lawmakers slam DOJ prosecution of Swartz as 'ridiculous, absurd' - The Hill's Hillicon Valley". Thehill.com. Retrieved 2013-01-16.
Jump up ^ Reilly, Ryan J. (January 15, 2013). "Darrell Issa Probing Prosecution Of Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer Who Killed Himself". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2013-01-16.
Jump up ^ Dekel, Jonathan (May 1, 2014). "Swartz doc director: Oracle and Larry Ellison killed Aaron's Law". Postmedia.
Jump up ^ H.R. 1918 at Congress.govS. 1030 at Congress.gov
External links[edit]
18 U.S.C. § 1030, text of the law
Cybercrime: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. 1030 and Related Federal Criminal Laws, by Charles Doyle, CRS, 12 27 2010, (FAS.org)
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AlphaServer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
AlphaServer 2000 running Red Hat Linux
AlphaServer 2100A
AlphaServer was the name given to a series of server computers, produced from 1994 onwards by Digital Equipment Corporation, and later by Compaq and HP. As the name suggests, the AlphaServers were based on the DEC Alpha 64-bit microprocessor. Supported operating systems for AlphaServers are Tru64 UNIX (formerly Digital UNIX), OpenVMS, MEDITECH MAGIC[1] and Windows NT (on earlier systems, with AlphaBIOS ARC firmware), while enthusiasts have provided alternative operating systems such as Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD.
Some AlphaServer models were rebadged in white enclosures as Digital Servers for the Windows NT server market. These so-called "white box" models comprised the following:
Digital Server 3300/3305: rebadged AlphaServer 800
Digital Server 5300/5305: rebadged AlphaServer 1200
Digital Server 7300/7305/7310: rebadged AlphaServer 4100
As part of the roadmap to phase out Alpha-, MIPS- and PA-RISC-based systems in favor of Itanium-based systems at HP, the most recent AlphaServer systems reached their end of general availability on 27 April 2007. The availability of upgrades and options was discontinued on 25 April 2008, approximately one year after the systems were discontinued. Support for the most recent AlphaServer systems, the DS15A, DS25, ES45, ES47, ES80 and GS1280 is being provided by HP Services as of 2008. These systems are scheduled to reach end of support sometime during 2012, although HP has stated that this event may be delayed.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Models
1.1 Avanti Family
1.2 Sable Family
1.3 Mikasa Family
1.4 Noritake Family
1.5 Rawhide Family
1.6 Turbolaser Family
1.7 Lynx Family
1.8 Tsunami Family
1.9 Titan Family
1.10 Wildfire Family
1.11 AlphaServer SC
1.12 Marvel Family
2 References
3 External links
Models[edit]
In approximate chronological order, the following AlphaServer models were produced:
Avanti Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Max. Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
200 4/100 Mustang 1 21064
(EV4) 100 512 KB 21071 8 to 384 MB 1 PCI
1 or 2 PCI/ISA
1 ISA Desktop ? ?
4/166 166 ? ?
4/233 21064A
(EV45) 233 ? ?
400 4/166 Mustang S 1 21064
(EV4) 166 512 KB 21071 8 to 384 MB
(6x 72-pin SIMMs, 3 banks) 2 PCI
1 PCI/ISA
3 ISA Mini-tower ? ?
4/233 21064A
(EV45) 233 ? ?
300 4/266 Melmac 1 21064A
(EV45) 266 2 MB ? 512 MB
(8x 72-pin SIMMs, 2 banks) 1 PCI
1 PCI/ISA
1 ISA Desktop
or
rackmount ? ?
Sable Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
2100 4/200 Sable 1, 2, 3 or 4 21064
(EV4) 200 1 MB / CPU ? 2 GB
(1 GB if 4 CPU) 3 PCI,
8 EISA Pedestal or rack ? ?
4/233 Sable45 21064A
(EV45) 233 1 MB / CPU ? ? ?
4/275 275 4 MB / CPU ? ? ?
5/250 Gamma-Sable 21164
(EV5) 250 4 MB / CPU ? ? ?
5/300 291 ? ? ?
5/375 21164A
(EV56) 375 ? ? ?
2000 4/200 Demi-Sable 1 or 2 21064
EV4 190 1 MB / CPU ? 640 MB 3 PCI,
7 EISA,
1 PCI/EISA Pedestal ? ?
4/233 Demi-Sable45 21064A
(EV45) 233 1 MB / CPU ? 1 GB 3 PCI,
7 EISA ? ?
4/275 275 4 MB / CPU ? ? ?
5/250 Demi-Gamma 21164
(EV5) 250 4 MB / CPU ? ? ?
5/300 291 ? ? ?
5/375 21164A
(EV56) 375 4 or 8 MB / CPU ? ? ?
The AlphaServer 2100 was briefly sold as the Digital 2100 before the AlphaServer brand was introduced.
Mikasa Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
1000 4/200 Mikasa 1 21064 (EV4) 200 2 MB ? 512 MB 2 PCI,
1 PCI/EISA,
7 EISA Pedestal
or
rackmount ? ?
4/233 Mikasa+ 21064A
(EV45) 233 ? ? 1995 ?
4/266 266 ? 1 GB
(20× 72-pin SIMMs, 4 banks)1 ? ?
5/300 Mikasa-Pinnacle 21164
(EV5) 300 ? ? ?
^1 Each bank contained five SIMMs. The initial four SIMMs were used for data; the fifth SIMM was used for ECC.
Noritake Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
1000A 4/233 Noritake 1 21064A
(EV45) 233 2 MB ? 1 GB
(20x 72-pin SIMMs, 4 banks)1 7 PCI
2 ISA Pedestal
or
rackmount ? ?
4/266 266 ? ? ?
5/300 Noritake-Pinnacle 21164 (EV5) 300 ? ? ?
5/333 333 ? ? ?
5/400 Noritake-Primo 21164A
(EV56) 400 ? ? ?
5/500 500 8 MB ? 1997-04-14[3] ?
800 5/333 Corelle 1 21164A
(EV56) 333 2 MB ? 2 GB
(8x ECC EDO DIMMs, 2 banks) 3 PCI
2 EISA
1 PCI-X/EISA Mini-tower (can be converted to rackmount) 1997-04-14[3] ?
5/400 400 ? ?
5/500 500 ? 1997-10-27[4] ?
^1 5 modules per bank, 5th module used for ECC, later 1000A 5/500 systems have 16 slots, 4 modules with ECC per bank
Rawhide Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache / CPU
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
4000 5/300 Wrangler/Durango Up to two 21164
(EV5) 300 2 MB ? 4 GB 8-16 PCI
(including 3 shared PCI/EISA) Pedestal/rackmount 1996-09-04[5] ?
5/400 21164A
(EV56) 400 4 MB ? ?
5/466 466 4 MB ? ? ?
5/533 533 4 MB ? 1997-10-27[4] ?
5/600 600 8 MB ? ? ?
4100 5/300E Dodge Up to four 21164
(EV5) 300 None Custom 32 MB to 8 GB 5 PCI,
3 PCI/EISA Pedestal/rackmount ? ?
5/300 300 2 MB ? ?
5/400 21164A
(EV56) 400 4 MB ? ?
5/466 466 ? ?
5/533 533 ? ?
5/600 600 8 MB ? ?
1200 5/400 Tincup Up to two 21164A
(EV56) 400 4 MB / proc. ? 4 GB 4 PCI-X,
1 PCI,
1PCI-X/EISA Pedestal 1997-10-27[4] ?
5/533 533 ? ?
Turbolaser Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache / CPU
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
8200 5/300 TurboLaser 2 to 6 EV5 300 4 MB Custom
ASICs 12 GB 132 PCI slots,
8 EISA slots 19" rack 1995-04-11 ?
5/350 350 ? ?
5/440 EV56 437 4 MB ? ?
5/625 612 ? ?
8400 5/300 TurboLaser Up to 14 EV5 300 4 MB Custom
ASICs 28 GB 144 PCI,
8 EISA,
XMI Cabinet 1995-04-11 ?
5/350 350 ? ?
5/440 EV56 437 4 MB ? ?
5/625 612 ? ?
GS60 6/525 TL6 2 to 8 EV6 525 4 MB ? 12 GB 132 PCI,
8 EISA 19" rack 1998-10-19[6] ?
6/700 EV67 700 8 MB ? 1999-11-11 ?
GS60E 6/525 TL6 2 to 6
(later 8) EV6 525 4 MB ? 12 GB 132 PCI,
8 EISA 19" rack 1999-07-19 ?
6/700 EV67 700 8 MB ? 1999-11-11 ?
GS140 6/525 TL6 2 to 14 EV6 525 4 MB ? 28 GB 144 PCI,
8 EISA,
24 XMI Cabinet 1998-10-19[6] ?
6/700 EV67 700 8 MB ? 1999-11-11 ?
Lynx Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
2000A Demi-Lynx (EV45),
Demi-Gamma-Lynx (EV5) Up to two EV45, EV5 or EV56 233, 250, 275, 300, 375, 400 ? ? ? ? Pedestal ? ?
2100A 4/275 Lynx Up to 4 21064A
(EV45) 275 4 MB ? 2 GB, 1 GB for 4 CPU 8 PCI,
3 EISA Pedestal ? ?
5/250 Gamma-Lynx 21164
(EV5) 250 4 MB ? ? ?
5/300 300 ? ? ?
5/375 375 8 MB ? ? ?
Tsunami Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
DS10 6/466 WebBrick 1 EV6 466 2 MB ? 2 GB 3 PCI-X,
1 PCI desktop 1999-05-10 ?
67/600 EV67 600 2 MB ? ? ?
DS10L 6/466 Slate 1 EV6 466 2 MB ? 1 GB 1 PCI-X rackmount (1U) ? ?
6/600 EV67 600 2 MB ? ? ?
DS20 6/500 Goldrush Up to 2 21264 (EV6) 500 4 MB ? 4 GB 5PCI-X,
1 PCI-X/ISA pedestal/rackmount ? ?
DS20E 6/500 Goldrack Up to 2 EV6 500 4 MB ? 4 GB 5PCI-X,
1 PCI-X/ISA pedestal/rackmount ? ?
6/667 EV67 667 8 MB ? ? ?
68/833 EV68AL 833 8 MB ? 2001-07-16 ?
DS20L 68/833 Shark 2 EV68AL 833 4 MB 21271(Tsunami) 2 GB 2 PCI-X Rackmount (1U) 2001-07-16 ?
ES40 6/500 Clipper Up to 4 EV6 500 4 MB ? Model 1: 16 GB
Model 2: 32 GB Model 1: 6 PCI-X
Model 2: 10 PCI-X pedestal/rackmount ? ?
6/667 EV67 667 8 MB ? ? ?
68/833 EV68AL 833 8 MB ? 2001-02-12 ?
Titan Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
DS15 68/1000 HyperBrick 1 EV68CB 1000 2 MB ? 4 GB 4 PCI-X 33 MHz or
2 PCI-X 66 MHz Tower 2003-10-20 2007-04-27
DS25 68/1000 Granite Up to 2 EV68CB 1000 8 MB ? 16 GB 6 PCI-X Tower/5U Rackmount 2002-08-04[7] ?
ES45 68/1000 Privateer Up to 4 EV68CB 1000 8 MB ? 1: Up to 16 GB
2: Up to 32 GB 1: AGP 4x, 6 PCI-X
2: 10 PCI-X Pedestal/8U rackmount, tower ? ?
68/1250 1250 16 MB ? 2002-08-04[7] ?
Wildfire Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of CPUs
CPU
CPU MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
GS80 Wildfire Model 4:
2 to 4
Model 8:
2 to 8 21264A
(EV67) 731 4 MB Custom Up to 64 GB 33 MHz PCI-X:
Up to 16 buses,
56 slots Rack ? ?
21264C
(EV68CB) 1001 4, 8 MB ? ?
1224 4, 8, 16 MB 2002-08-04[7] ?
GS160 Wildfire Model 8:
2 to 8
Model 16:
2 to 16 21264A
(EV67) 731 4 MB Custom Up to 128 GB 33 MHz PCI-X:
Up to 32 buses,
112 slots Rack(s) ? ?
21264C
(EV68CB) 1001 4, 8 MB ? ?
1224 4, 8, 16 MB 2002-08-04[7] ?
GS320 Wildfire Model 24:
2 to 24
Model 32:
2 to 32 21264A
(EV67) 731 4 MB Custom Up to 256 GB 33 MHz PCI-X:
Up to 64 buses,
224 slots Rack(s) ? ?
21264C
(EV68CB) 1001 4, 8 MB ? ?
1224 4, 8, 16 MB 2002-08-04[7] ?
AlphaServer SC[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU
MHz
B-cache
Chipset
Max. Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
SC20 68/833 ? 8 to 256 21264B
EV68AL 833 2 MB ? 2 GB/node 2 PCI-X Rack(s) ? ?
SC40 67/667 Sierra 16 to 512 21264A
EV67 667 8 MB ? 24 GB/node 10 PCI-X Rack(s) ? ?
SC40 68/833 21264B
EV68AL 833 ? ? ?
SC45 68/1250 Sierra 16 to 4096 21264C
EV68CB 1250 16 MB ? 32 GB/node 10 PCI-X Rack(s) ? ?
The AlphaServer SC was a supercomputer constructed from a set of individual DS20L, ES40 or ES45 servers (called "nodes") mounted in racks. Every node was connected to every other node using a Quadrics elan3 interconnect and the systems were designed and used primarily for high-performance technical computing. An AlphaServer SC45 supercomputer was still ranked #6 in the world as late as November 2004.[8]
Marvel Family[edit]
Model
Code name
# of
CPUs
CPU
CPU MHz
Scache
Chipset
Memory
Expansion
Enclosure
Introduced
Discontinued
ES47
Tower ? 2 21364
(EV7) 1000 1.75 MB On-die Up to 16 GB 1 4× AGP
1 133 MHz PCI-X
4 66 MHz PCI-X Tower 2003-01-20 2007-04-27
1150 2004-08-16
ES47 Marvel 2P 2 to 4 21364
(EV7) 1000 1.75 MB On-die Up to 32 GB Up to 4 4× AGP
32 PCI-X 4U or 8U
rackmount 2003-01-20 2007-04-27
1150 2004-08-16
ES80 Marvel 4x2P 2 to 8 21364
(EV7) 1000 1.75 MB On-die Up to 64 GB Up to 8 4× AGP
64 PCI-X Rack 2003-01-20 2007-04-27
1150 2004-08-16
GS1280 Marvel 8P 2 to 64 21364
(EV7) 1150 1.75 MB On-die Up to 512 GB Up to
64 4× AGP
512 PCI-X
192 PCI Rack(s) 2003-01-20 2007-04-27
21364
(EV7z) 1300 2004-08-16
The AlphaServer GS1280 originally supported a maximum of 16 microprocessors. In October 2003, the number of microprocessors supported was increased to 64 and the supported memory capacity was doubled to 8 GB per microprocessor.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ftp://www.hp.com/pub/alphaserver/archive/DECinfo/info_3/infosheet/MEDITECH_MAGIC_on_the_Compaq_06may1999LIW0LIPF.pdf "Compaq MEDITECH MAGIC Brochure 06 may 1999"
Jump up ^ Ann McQuaid. "Dear Valued AlphaServer Customer", April 28, 2007. Hewlett-Packard Company.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, Jim (1997-04-14). "Digital makes servers available". CNET News".
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis, Jim (1997-10-27). "Digital has new Alpha, Intel servers". CNET News.
Jump up ^ Davis, Jim (1996-09-04). "DEC: more power, less money". CNET News.
^ Jump up to: a b Shankland, Stephen (1998-10-19). "Compaq rolls out Alpha server". CNET News.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e ComputerWire (2002-08-04). "HP refreshes midrange PA, Alpha servers". The Register.
Jump up ^ www.top500.org Top 10 Supercomputing Sites, November 2004
Notes
AlphaServer GS80, GS160, and GS320 Systems Technical Summary. Hewlett-Packard Company.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to DEC.
HP AlphaServer range
DIGITAL Product Catalogue Winter 1997, Digital Equipment International, 1997.
Compaq Alpha System and Model Code Names (at archive.org)
FreeBSD/alpha 6.1 Hardware Notes
About NetBSD/alpha
The OpenBSD/alpha port
Debian Alpha system types
[hide]
v
t
e
Digital Equipment Corporation computers
PDP
18-bit
PDP-1
PDP-4
PDP-7
PDP-9
PDP-15
12-bit
LINC
PDP-5
PDP-8
PDP-12
LINC-8
DECmate
PDP-14 PLC
36-bit
PDP-6
PDP-10
DECSYSTEM-20
16-bit
PDP-11
DEC Professional
VAX
VAX-11
MicroVAX
VAX 8000
VAXstation
Firefly
VAXserver
VAX 6000
VAX 4000
VAX 9000
VAXft
VAX 7000/10000
x86
Rainbow 100
VAXmate
DECstation
Multia
Digital Personal Workstation
MIPS
DECstation
DECsystem (see "36-bit" for DECSYSTEM-20 and the PDP-10/DECsystem-10))
Alpha
DEC 3000 AXP
DEC 4000 AXP
DEC 7000/10000 AXP
DECpc AXP 150
DEC 2000 AXP
Multia
AlphaServer
AlphaStation
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AlphaServer&oldid=794814618"
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