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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
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Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers), a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers.
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The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The first two pages of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,
in (from left to right) German, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Turkish and Russian
Signed
3 March 1918 (during the First World War)
Location
Brest-Litovsk, Bialystok-Grodno District
(Ukraine under German occupation)[1]
Condition
Ratification
Signatories
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Bulgaria
Ottoman Empire
Russian SFSR
Languages
Bulgarian
German
Hungarian
Russian
Ottoman Turkish
en:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk at Wikisource
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), that ended Russia's participation in World War I. The treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk (Polish: Brześć Litewski; since 1945 Brest), after two months of negotiations. The treaty was agreed upon by the Bolshevik government to stop further advances by German and Austro-Hungarian forces. According to the treaty, Soviet Russia defaulted on all of Imperial Russia's commitments to the Triple Entente alliance.
In the treaty, Bolshevik Russia ceded the Baltic States to Germany; they were meant to become German vassal states under German princelings.[2] Russia also ceded its province of Kars Oblast in the South Caucasus to the Ottoman Empire and recognized the independence of Ukraine. According to Spencer Tucker, a historian of World War I, "The German General Staff had formulated extraordinarily harsh terms that shocked even the German negotiator."[3] Congress Poland was not mentioned in the treaty, as Germans refused to recognize the existence of any Polish representatives, which in turn led to Polish protests.[4] When Germans later complained that the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 was too harsh on them, the Allied Powers (and historians favorable to the Allied Powers) responded that it was more benign than Brest-Litovsk.[5]
The treaty was effectively terminated in November 1918,[6] when Germany surrendered to the Allies. However, in the meantime it did provide some relief to the Bolsheviks, already fighting the Russian Civil War, by the renunciation of Russia's claims on modern-day Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine and Lithuania.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Peace negotiations
3 The terms of the Treaty
3.1 Signing
3.2 Territorial cessions in eastern Europe
3.3 Transfer of territory to the Ottoman Empire
3.4 Russian-German financial agreement of August 1918
4 Lasting effects
5 Portraits
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background[edit]
Main articles: Eastern Front (World War I) and Russian Revolution
By 1917, Germany and Imperial Russia were stuck in a stalemate on the Eastern Front of World War I and the Russian economy had nearly collapsed under the strain of the war effort. The large numbers of war casualties and persistent food shortages in the major urban centers brought about civil unrest, known as the February Revolution, that forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. The Russian Provisional Government that replaced the Tsar (initially presided by prince Georgy Lvov, later by Alexander Kerensky), decided to continue the war on the Entente side. Foreign Minister Pavel Milyukov sent the Entente Powers a telegram, known as Milyukov note, affirming to them that the Provisional Government would continue the war with the same war aims that Imperial Russia did.
The pro-war Provisional Government was opposed by the self-proclaimed Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, dominated by leftist parties. Its Order No. 1 called for an overriding mandate to soldier committees rather than army officers. The Soviet started to form its own paramilitary power, the Red Guards, in March 1917.
The continuing war led the German Government to agree to a suggestion that they should favor the opposition Communist Party (Bolsheviks), who were proponents of Russia's withdrawal from the war. Therefore, in April 1917, Germany transported Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin and thirty-one supporters in a sealed train from exile in Switzerland to Finland Station, Petrograd.[7] Upon his arrival in Petrograd, Lenin proclaimed his April Theses, which included a call for turning all political power over to workers' and soldiers' soviets (councils) and an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war. Throughout 1917, Bolsheviks called for the overthrow of the Provisional Government and an end to the war. Following the disastrous failure of the Kerensky Offensive, discipline in the Russian army deteriorated completely. Soldiers would disobey orders, often under the influence of Bolshevik agitation, and set up soldiers' committees to take control of their units after deposing the officers. Russian and German soldiers occasionally fraternized.
The defeat and ongoing hardships of war led to anti-government riots in Petrograd, the "July Days" of 1917. Several months later, on 7 November (25 October old style), Red Guards seized the Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional Government in what is known as the October Revolution.
A top priority of the newly established Soviet government was to end the war. On 8 November 1917 (26 October 1917 O.S) Vladimir Lenin signed the Decree on Peace, which was approved by the Second Congress of the Soviet of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies. The Decree called "upon all the belligerent nations and their governments to start immediate negotiations for peace" and proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from World War I. Leon Trotsky was appointed Commissar of Foreign Affairs in the new Bolshevik government. In preparation for peace talks with the representatives of the German government and the representatives of the other Central Powers, Leon Trotsky appointed his good friend, Adolph Joffe, to represent the Bolsheviks at the peace conference.
Peace negotiations[edit]
Lev Kamenev arrives at Brest-Litovsk.
Trotsky greeted by German officers.
Special edition of the Lübeckischen Anzeigen, Headline: “Peace with Ukraine”.
On 15 December 1917, an armistice between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers was concluded. On 22 December, peace negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk.
Arrangements for the conference were the responsibility of General Max Hoffmann, chief of staff of the Central Powers' forces on their Eastern Front (Oberkommando-Ostfront). The delegations that had negotiated the armistice were made stronger. Prominent additions on the Central Powers’ side were the foreign ministers of Germany Richard von Kühlmann and of Austria-Hungary Count Ottokar Czernin, both the Ottoman grand vizier Talat Pasha and Foreign Minister Nassimy Bey. The Bulgarians were headed by Minister of Justice Popoff, who was later joined by Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov.[8][9]
The Russian delegation was led by Adolph Joffe who had already led their armistice negotiators, but his group was made more cohesive by eliminating most of the representatives of social groups, like peasants and sailors, and the addition of tsarist general Aleksandr Samoilo and the noted Marxist historian Mikhail Pokrovsky. It still included as the representative for women Anastasia Bizenko, who had assassinated a high Imperial official. Again the negotiators met in the fortress in Brest Litovsk, while the delegates were housed in temporary wooden structure in its courtyards, because the city had been burnt to the ground in 1915 by the retreating Russian army. They were cordially welcomed by the commander of the Eastern Front, Prince Leopold of Bavaria, who sat with Joffe on the head table at the opening banquet with one hundred guests.[10] As they had during the armistice negotiations both sides continued to eat dinner and supper together amicably intermingled in the officer's mess.
When the conference convened Kühlmann asked Joffe to present the Russian conditions for peace. He made six points, all variations of the Bolshevik slogan of peace with "no annexations or indemnities". The Central Powers accepted these principles "but only in case all belligerents [including the nations of the Entente] without exception pledge themselves to do the same".[11] They did not intend to annex territories occupied by force. Joffe telegraphed this marvelous news to Petrograd. Thanks to informal chatting in the mess, one of Hoffmann's aides, Colonel Friedrich Brinckmann, realized that the Russians had optimistically misinterpreted the Central Power's meaning.[12] It fell to Hoffmann to set matters straight at dinner on 27 December: Poland, Lithuania and Courland, already occupied by the Central Powers, were determined to separate from Russia, on the principle of self-determination that the Bolsheviks themselves espoused. Joffe "looked as if he had received a blow on the head".[13] Pokrovsky wept as he asked how they could speak of "peace without annexations when Germany was tearing eighteen provinces away from the Russian state".[14] The Germans and Austro-Hungarian planned to annex slices of Polish territory and to set up a rump Polish state with what remained, while the Baltic provinces were to become client states ruled by German princes. Czernin was beside himself with this hitch that was slowing the negotiations; self-determination was anathema to his government and they urgently needed grain from the east because Vienna was on the verge of starvation. He proposed to make a separate peace.[15] Kühlmann warned that if they negotiated separately Germany would immediately withdraw all its divisions from the Austrian front; Czernin dropped that threat. The food crisis in Vienna was eventually eased by "forced drafts of grain from Hungary, Poland, and Romania and by a last moment contribution from Germany of 450 truck-loads of flour",[16] At the Russian request they agreed to recess the talks for twelve days.
The Russians only hopes were that given time their allies would agree to join the negotiations or that the western European proletariat would revolt, so their best strategy was to prolong the negotiations. As Foreign Minister Leon Trotsky wrote "To delay negotiations, there must be someone to do the delaying".[17] Therefore Trotsky replaced Joffe as the leader.
On the other side there were significant political realignments. On New Year's Day in Berlin the Kaiser insisted that Hoffmann reveal his views on the future German-Polish border. He advocated taking a small slice of Poland; Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted much more. They were furious with Hoffmann for breaching the chain of command and wanted him dismissed and sent to command a division. The Kaiser refused, but Ludendorff no longer spoke with Hoffmann on the telephone, now communication was through an intermediary.[18] The German Supreme Commanders were also furious at ruling out of annexations, contending that the peace "must increase Germany's material power".[19] They denigrated Kühlmann and pressed for additional territorial acquisitions. When Hindenburg was asked why they needed the Baltic states he replied, "To secure my left flank for when the next war happens."[20] However the most profound transformation was that a delegation from the Ukrainian Rada, which had declared independence from Russia, had arrived at Brest-Litovsk. They would make peace if they were given the Polish city of Cholm and its surroundings, and then would provide desperately needed grain. Czernin no longer was desperate for a prompt settlement with the Russians.
When they reconvened Trotsky declined the invitation to meet Prince Leopold and terminated shared meals and other sociable interactions with the representatives of the Central Powers. Day after day Trotsky "engaged Kühlmann in debate, rising to subtle discussion of first principles that ranged far beyond the concrete territorial issues that divided them".[21] The Central Powers signed a peace treaty with Ukraine during the night of 8–9 February, even though the Russians had retaken Kiev. German and Austro-Hungarian troops entered Ukraine to prop up the Rada. Finally Hoffmann broke the impasse with the Russians by focusing the discussion on maps of the future boundaries. Trotsky summarized their situation "Germany and Austria-Hungary are cutting off from the domains of the former Russian Empire territories more than 150,000 square kilometers in size."[22] He was granted a nine day recess for the Russians to decide whether to sign.
In Petrograd Trotsky argued passionately against signing, proposing that instead "they should announce the termination of the war and demobilization without signing any peace."[23] Lenin was for signing rather than having an even more ruinous treaty forced on them after a few more weeks of military humiliation. The "Left Communists", led by Nikolai Bukharin and Karl Radek, were sure that Germany, Austria, Turkey, and Bulgaria were all on the verge of revolution. They wanted to continue the war with a newly-raised revolutionary force while awaiting for these upheavals.[24] Consequently Lenin agreed to Trotsky's formula — a position summed up as "no war – no peace" — which was announced when the negotiators reconvened on 10 February 1918. The Russians thought their stalling was succeeding until 16 February when Hoffmann notified them that the war would resume in two days, when fifty-three divisions advanced against the near-empty Russian trenches. On the night of 18 February the Central Committee supported Lenin's resolution that they sign the treaty by a margin of seven to five. Hoffmann kept advancing until 23 February when he presented new terms that included the withdrawal of all Russian troops from Ukraine and Finland. They were give 48 hours to decide. Lenin told the Central Committee that "you must sign this shameful peace in order to save the world revolution".[25] If they did not agree he would resign. He was supported by six Central Committee members, opposed by three, with Trotsky and three others abstaining.[26] Trotsky resigned as foreign minister and was replaced by Grigori Sokolnikov.
When Sokolnikov arrived at Brest-Litovsk he declared "we are going to sign immediately the treaty presented to us as an ultimatum but at the same time refuse to enter into any discussion of its terms".[27] The treaty was signed at 17:50 on 3 March 1918.
The terms of the Treaty[edit]
Signing of armistice between Russia and Germany
Signing[edit]
Borders drawn up in Brest-Litovsk.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March 1918. The signatories were Bolshevik Russia signed by Grigori Yakovlovich Sokolnikov on the one side and the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Ottoman Empire on the other.
The treaty marked Russia's final withdrawal from World War I as an enemy of her co-signatories, on severe terms. In all, the treaty took away territory that included a quarter of the population and industry of the former Russian Empire [28] and nine-tenths of its coal mines.[29]
Territorial cessions in eastern Europe[edit]
Russia renounced all territorial claims in Finland (which it had already acknowledged), Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), Belarus, and Ukraine. The territory of the Kingdom of Poland was not mentioned in the treaty, because Russian Poland had been a personal possession of the Tsar, not part of the Empire.
The treaty stated that "Germany and Austria-Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these territories in agreement with their populations." Most of these territories were in effect ceded to Germany, which intended to have them become economic and political dependencies. The many ethnic German residents (volksdeutsch) would be the ruling elite. New monarchies were created in Lithuania and the United Baltic Duchy (which comprised the modern countries of Latvia and Estonia). The German aristocrats Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach (in Lithuania), and Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (in the United Baltic Duchy), were appointed as rulers.
This plan was detailed by German Colonel General Erich Ludendorff, who wrote, "German prestige demands that we should hold a strong protecting hand, not only over German citizens, but over all Germans."[30]
The occupation of Western Russia ultimately proved a costly blunder for Berlin as over one million German troops lay sprawled out from Poland nearly to the Caspian Sea, all idle and depriving Germany of badly needed manpower in France. The hopes of utilizing Ukraine's grain and coal proved abortive and in addition, the local population became increasingly upset at the occupying army. Revolts and guerrilla warfare began breaking out all over the occupied zone, many of them inspired by Bolshevik agents. German troops had to intervene in Finland to put down an attempted Bolshevik coup, and Ludendorff became increasingly paranoid about his troops being affected by propaganda emanating from Moscow; this was one of the reasons he was reluctant to transfer divisions to the Western Front. The attempt at establishing an independent Ukrainian state under German guidance was unsuccessful as well. Despite all this, Ludendorff completely ruled out the idea of marching on Moscow and Petrograd to remove the Bolshevik government from power.
Germany transferred hundreds of thousands of veteran troops to the Western Front for the 1918 Spring Offensive, which shocked the Allied Powers badly, but ultimately failed. Some Germans later blamed the occupation for significantly weakening the Spring Offensive.
Transfer of territory to the Ottoman Empire[edit]
"Three bones—a bountiful tip", a political cartoon from 1918 by American cartoonist E. A. Bushnell.
At the insistence of Talaat Pasha, the treaty declared that the territory Russia took from the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), specifically Ardahan, Kars, and Batumi, were to be returned. At the time of the treaty, this territory was under the effective control of Armenian and Georgian forces.
Paragraph 3 of Article IV of the treaty states that:
The districts of Erdehan, Kars, and Batum will likewise and without delay be cleared of Russian troops. Russia will not interfere in the reorganization of the national and international relations of these districts, but leave it to the population of these districts to carry out this reorganization in agreement with the neighboring States, especially with the Ottoman Empire.
Russian-German financial agreement of August 1918[edit]
In the wake of Russian repudiation of Tsarist bonds, nationalisation of foreign-owned property and confiscation of foreign assets, Russia and Germany signed an additional agreement on 27 August 1918. Russia agreed to pay six billion marks in compensation to German interests for their losses.
Lasting effects[edit]
"Poland & The New Baltic States": a map from a 1920 British atlas, showing borders left undefined between the treaties of Brest-Litovsk, Versailles and Riga.
Russia's western border in 2014. Thereafter the Crimea has come under Russian administration
The Treaty meant that Russia now was helping Germany win the war by freeing up a million German soldiers for the Western Front[31] and by "relinquishing much of Russia's food supply, industrial base, fuel supplies, and communications with Western Europe."[32][33] According to historian Spencer Tucker, the Allied Powers felt, "The treaty was the ultimate betrayal of the Allied cause and sowed the seeds for the Cold War. With Brest-Litovsk the spectre of German domination in Eastern Europe threatened to become reality, and the Allies now began to think seriously about military intervention [in Russia]."[34]
Immediately after the signing of the treaty, Lenin moved the Soviet Russian government from Petrograd to Moscow.[35] Trotsky blamed the peace treaty on the bourgeoisie, the social revolutionaries,[36] Tsarist diplomats, Tsarist bureaucrats, "the Kerenskys, Tseretelis and Chernovs"[37] the Tsarist regime, and the "petty-bourgeois compromisers".[38]
Relations between Russia and the victors did not go smoothly. The Ottoman Empire broke the treaty by invading the newly created First Republic of Armenia in May 1918. Joffe became the Russian ambassador to Germany. His priority was distributing propaganda to trigger the German revolution. On 4 November 1918 "the Soviet courier's packing-case had 'come to pieces'" in a Berlin railway station;[39] it was filled with insurrectionary documents. Joffe and his staff were ejected from Germany in a sealed train on 5 November 1918. In the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended World War I, one clause abrogated the Brest-Litovsk treaty. Next the Bolshevik legislature (VTsIK) annulled the treaty on 13 November 1918, and the text of the VTsIK Decision was printed in Pravda newspaper the next day. In the year after the armistice following a timetable set by the victors the German Army withdrew its occupying forces from the lands gained in Brest-Litovsk. The fate of the region, and the location of the eventual western border of the Soviet Union, was settled in violent and chaotic struggles over the course of the next three and a half years. The Polish–Soviet War was particularly bitter; it ended with the Treaty of Riga in 1921. Although most of Ukraine fell under Bolshevik control and eventually became one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union, Poland and the Baltic states emerged as independent countries. In the Treaty of Rapallo, concluded in April 1922, Germany accepted the Treaty's nullification, and the two powers agreed to abandon all war-related territorial and financial claims against each other. This state of affairs lasted until 1939. As a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union advanced its borders westward by invading Poland in September 1939 and taking a small part of Finland in November 1939 and annexing the Baltic States, Eastern Poland and Bessarabia in 1940. It thus overturned almost all the territorial losses incurred at Brest-Litovsk, except for the main part of Finland, western Congress Poland, and western Armenia.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk marked a significant contraction of the territory controlled by the Bolsheviks or that they could lay claim to as effective successors of the Russian Empire. While the independence of Finland and Poland was already accepted by them in principle,[citation needed] the loss of Ukraine and the Baltics created, from the Bolshevik perspective, dangerous bases of anti-Bolshevik military activity in the subsequent Russian Civil War (1918–1922). However Bolshevik control of Ukraine and Transcaucasia was at the time fragile or non existent.[40] Many Russian nationalists and some revolutionaries were furious at the Bolsheviks' acceptance of the treaty and joined forces to fight them. Non-Russians who inhabited the lands lost by Bolshevik Russia in the treaty saw the changes as an opportunity to set up independent states.
For the Western Allied Powers, the terms that Germany imposed on Russia were interpreted as a warning of what to expect if Germany and the other Central Powers won the war. Between Brest-Litovsk and the point when the German military situation in the west became dire, some officials in the German government and high command began to favor offering more lenient terms to the Allied Powers in exchange for their recognition of German gains in the east.[citation needed]
The maps show that Russia's post-1991 western border bears a marked similarity to that imposed by the Brest-Litovsk treaty.[citation needed]
Portraits[edit]
Emil Orlik, the Viennese Secessionist artist, attended the conference, at the invitation of Richard von Kühlmann. He drew portraits of all the participants, along with a series of smaller caricatures. These were gathered together into a book, Brest-Litovsk, a copy of which was given to each of the participants.[41]
See also[edit]
World War I portal
History of Belarus
Mitteleuropa
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (9 February 1918), signed by Ukraine
Treaty of Bucharest (1918)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ (in Ukrainian) To whom did Brest belong in 1918? Argument among Ukraine, Belarus, and Germany. Ukrayinska Pravda, 25 March 2011.
Jump up ^ A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918 By Robert A. Kann page 479-480
Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2005). World War One. ABC-CLIO. p. 225.
Jump up ^ Mapping Europe's Borderlands: Russian Cartography in the Age of Empire Steven Seegel - 2012 At Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, no Polish delegation was invited to the negotiations, and in the Polish press, journalists condemned it as yet another partition of the lands east of the Bug River by great powers
Jump up ^ Zara S. Steiner (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933. Oxford U.P. p. 68.
Jump up ^ Fry, Michael Graham; Goldstein, Erik; Langhorne, Richard (2002). Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy. Continuum. p. 188.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1938). Brest-Litovsk : The forgotten peace. London: Macmillan. pp. 36–41.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1938). Brest-Litovsk : the forgotten peace, March 1918. London: Macmillan. pp. 111–112.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, W. B. (1986). Passage through Armageddon. The Russians in war & revolution 1914-1918. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 489–491.
Jump up ^ Czernin, Count Ottokar (1919). In the world war. London: Cassall. p. 228.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1986, p. 490.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, p. 124.
Jump up ^ Hoffmann, Major General Max (1929). War Diaries and other papers. 1. London: Martin Secker. p. 209.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 401.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 491.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, p. 170.
Jump up ^ Trotsky, Leon (1930). "My Life" (PDF). Marxists. Charles Schribner’s Sons. p. 286.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1938, pp. 130-136.
Jump up ^ Ludendorff, General (1920). The General Staff and its problems The history of the relations between the high command and the German Imperial Government as revealed in official documents. 2. London: Hutchinson. p. 209.
Jump up ^ David Stevenson (2009). Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy. Basic Books. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-7867-3885-4.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 494.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 496.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1938). Brest-Litovsk : the forgotten peace, March 1918. London: Macmillan. pp. 185–186.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Ruth (1982). Stalin and German communism: A study ion the origins of the state party. New Brunswick NJ: Transition Books. p. 39.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, p. 260.
Jump up ^ Fischer, 1982, pp. 32-36.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, pp. 268-269.
Jump up ^ John Keegan, The First World War (New York: Vintage Books, 2000), p. 342.
Jump up ^ Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, 1960, p. 57
Jump up ^ Ludendorff, Erich von (1920). The General Staff and its Problems. London. p. 562.
Jump up ^ Jerald A Combs (2015). The History of American Foreign Policy from 1895. Routledge. p. 97.
Jump up ^ Todd Chretien (2017). Eyewitnesses to the Russian Revolution. p. 129.
Jump up ^ Michael Senior (2016). Victory on the Western Front: The Development of the British Army 1914-1918. p. 176.
Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2013). The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. p. 608.
Jump up ^ "LENINE’S MIGRATION A QUEER SCENE", The New York Times, March 16, 1918
Jump up ^ [1] The Military Writings of Leon Trotsky Volume 1, 1918 TWO ROADS "We have not forgotten, in the first place, that the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant the noose that was flung about our neck by the bourgeoisie and the SRs who were responsible for the offensive of June 18."
Jump up ^ [2] The Military Writings of Leon Trotsky Volume 1, 1918 THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL TASKS OF THE SOVIET POWER "Those who bear the guilt of the Brest-Litovsk peace are the Tsarist bureaucrats and diplomats who involved us in the dreadful war, squandering what the people had accumulated, robbing the people – they who kept the working masses in ignorance and slavery. On the other hand, no less guilt rests with the compromisers, the Kerenskys, Tseretelis and Chernovs."
Jump up ^ [3] The Military Writings of Leon Trotsky Volume 1, 1918 WE NEED AN ARMY "the entire burden of recent events, above all, the Brest peace, has fallen tragically upon us only through the previous management of affairs by the Tsarist regime and, following it, by the regime of the petty-bourgeois compromisers".
Jump up ^ Wheeller-Bennett, 1938, p. 359.
Jump up ^ Keegan, John (1999) [1998]. The First World War. London: Pimlico. p. 410. ISBN 0-7126-6645-1.
Jump up ^ Jewish Museum in Prague (2013-2015). Emil Orlik (1870–1932) - Portraits of Friends and Contemporaries [description of exhibition in 2004]. Retrieved 2015-04-03.
Further reading[edit]
Dornik, Wolfram, and Peter Lieb. "Misconceived realpolitik in a failing state: the political and economical fiasco of the Central Powers in the Ukraine, 1918." First World War Studies 4.1 (2013): 111-124.
Kennan, George. Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1941, Kreiger Publishing Company, 1960.
Kettle, Michael. Allies and the Russian Collapse (1981), 287p.
Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John. Brest-Litovsk the Forgotten Peace, March 1918, W. W. Norton & Company, 1969.
External links[edit]
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Yale University Avalon Project), including links to appendices.
Resolution of the Fourth All-Russian (Extraordinary) Soviet Congress Ratifying the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Map of Europe after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, at omniatlas.com.
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text:
I'm Not a Robot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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I'm Not a Robot
Promotional poster
Also known as
I am Not a Robot
She's Not a Robot?!
Original title
로봇이 아니야
Genre
Romantic comedy
Sci-fi[1]
Created by
Han Hee (ko) for MBC
Written by
Kim Sun-mi
Lee Seok-joon
Directed by
Jung Dae-yoon
Starring
Yoo Seung-ho
Chae Soo-bin
Um Ki-joon
Country of origin
South Korea
Original language(s)
Korean
No. of episodes
32[a]
Production
Executive producer(s)
Kim Jin-chun
Producer(s)
Yoo Hyun-jong
Camera setup
Single-camera
Running time
35 minutes[a]
Production company(s)
May Queen Pictures
Distributor
MBC
Release
Original network
MBC
Picture format
1080i (HDTV)
Audio format
Dolby Digital
Original release
December 6, 2017 (2017-12-06) – January 25, 2018 (2018-01-25)
External links
Website
Production website
I'm Not a Robot[3] (Hangul: 로봇이 아니야; RR: Robosi Aniya) is a South Korean television series starring Yoo Seung-ho, Chae Soo-bin and Um Ki-joon. It is written by Kim Sun-mi and directed by Jung Dae-yoon. Producing the series for MBC is May Queen Pictures.[4] It aired on MBC from December 6, 2017 to January 25, 2018 on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55 (KST) for 32 episodes.[5][6][7]
The series was a commercial failure only averaging 3.22% in audience share, and received the lowest viewership ratings in its time-slot throughout its run.[8][9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Cast
2.1 Main
2.2 Supporting
2.2.1 Santa Maria team
2.2.2 KM Financial
2.2.3 People around Min-kyu
2.2.4 People around Ji-ah
2.3 Extended
2.4 Cameo
3 Production
4 Soundtrack
4.1 Part 1
4.2 Part 2
4.3 Part 3
4.4 Part 4
4.5 Part 5
4.6 Part 6
5 Ratings
6 International broadcast
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Synopsis[edit]
Kim Min-kyu (Yoo Seung-ho) lives an isolated life due to a severe allergy to other people. He develops extreme rashes that rapidly spread throughout his body once he makes any form of skin contact. Jo Ji-ah (Chae Soo-bin) is a woman who is trying to make it in life by creating her own businesses. However, after an encounter with Min-kyu, she ends up pretending to be a robot in place of the supposed Aji 3 robot. The Aji 3 robot was developed by Ji-ah's ex-boyfriend, professor Hong Baek-kyun (Um Ki-joon) and his team. The robot was meant to be tested by genius Min-kyu, however an accident caused the robot's battery to malfunction. As Baek-kyun modeled the robot after Ji-ah, the team ends up recruiting her to take the place of Aji 3.
Cast[edit]
Main[edit]
Yoo Seung-ho as Kim Min-kyu (28 years old)
The greatest shareholder of the country's largest financial company with an IQ of 159 but is a "human allergy" patient who cannot be in contact with people. As the business contract states, he is the owner of Aji 3, the robot that was sent to him to be tested. He develops feelings and falls in love with Ji-ah who pretends to be Aji 3 after the malfunction of the robot.
Chae Soo-bin as Jo Ji-ah (28 years old) / Aji 3
Jo Ji-ah: A passionate young entrepreneur who possesses a high emotional intelligence and has great knowledge in mechanics due to her father's influence in his car centre. She was recruited by the Santa Maria robotic team to pretend as Aji 3. She has an IQ of 94.
Aji 3: The world's most advanced humanoid robot among the artificial intelligence models released.[3]
Um Ki-joon as Hong Baek-kyun (34 years old)
Ji-ah's ex-boyfriend who is a world-renowned genius robotics professor and is the creator of the android named Aji 3. He created Aji 3 based on his ex-girlfriend, Ji-ah.
Supporting[edit]
Santa Maria team[edit]
Park Se-wan as "Pai" Angela Jin (30 years old)
Song Jae-ryong as "Hoktal" Kang Dong-won (33 years old)
Kim Min-kyu as "Ssanip" Eddie Park (31 years old)
KM Financial[edit]
Kang Ki-young as Hwang Yoo-chul (28 years old)
Min-kyu's childhood best friend who is the CEO of the company.
Hwang Seung-eon as Ye Ri-el (28 years old)
Min-kyu's childhood friend and first love.
Son Byong-ho as Hwang Do-won
Yoo-chul's father and the president of the company.
Lee Byung-joon as Ye Sung-tae
Ri-el's father and one of the founders of the company.
Lee Hae-young as Mr. Yoon
KM Group Managing Director.
People around Min-kyu[edit]
Um Hyo-sup as Doctor Oh
Min-kyu's doctor.
Kim Ha-kyun as Butler Sung
People around Ji-ah[edit]
Seo Dong-won as Jo Jin-bae
Ji-ah's older brother who is the research team leader of KM Financial.
Lee Min-ji as Sun-hye (28 years old)
Ji-ah's friend who is a cafe owner.
Yoon So-mi as Hong-ju (28 years old)
Ji-ah's schoolmate friend and Jin-bae's wife.
Lee Han-seo as Jo Dong-hyun (8 years old)
Jin-bae and Hong-ju's child.
Extended[edit]
Kim Ki-doo as Miami
Choi Dong-gu as Alps
Cameo[edit]
Ahn Se-ha
Lee Si-eon
Park Chul-min
Hong Yoon-hwa and Kim Min-ki as couple in public bathhouse (Ep. 10)
Production[edit]
Dong Ha and Bang Min-ah were first offered the lead roles, but ultimately declined.[10][11]
The first script reading of the cast was held on September 27, 2017 at MBC Station in Sangam-dong.[12]
Soundtrack[edit]
Part 1[edit]
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Artist
Length
1. "Something" Seo Dong-seong Park Sung-il, Uncle Sam Sung-hoon (Brown Eyed Soul) 03:15
2. "Something" (Inst.) Park Sung-il, Uncle Sam 03:15
Total length: 06:30
Part 2[edit]
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Artist
Length
1. "Know Me" (날 알아줄까) Lohi Lohi Stella Jang 03:35
2. "Know Me" (Inst.) Lohi 03:35
Total length: 07:10
Part 3[edit]
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Artist
Length
1. "Words Of Your Heart" (마음의 말) Lee Chi-hoon Choi Jae-man Kim Yeon-ji 05:05
2. "Words Of Your Heart" (Inst.) Choi Jae-man 05:05
Total length: 10:10
Part 4[edit]
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Artist
Length
1. "Loving A Thing With All One's Heart" (마음 다해 사랑하는 일) Kim Dam-so Kim Dam-so Damsonegongbang 03:46
2. "Loving A Thing With All One's Heart" (Inst.) Kim Dam-so 03:46
Total length: 07:32
Part 5[edit]
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Artist
Length
1. "Here I Stand" (여기 서 있어) Juniel Juniel Juniel 04:05
2. "Here I Stand" (Inst.) Juniel 04:05
Total length: 08:10
Part 6[edit]
No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Artist
Length
1. "Slow Down" (천천히 할래) Vincent Blue Vincent Blue Vincent Blue 04:05
2. "Slow Down" (Inst.) Vincent Blue 04:05
Total length: 08:10
Ratings[edit]
In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings.
NR denotes that the drama did not rank in the top 20 daily programs on that date.
Ep.
Original broadcast date
Average audience share
TNmS[13]
AGB Nielsen[14]
Nationwide
Seoul
Nationwide
Seoul
1
December 06, 2017 4.0% (NR) 4.4% (NR) 4.1% (NR) 4.5% (NR)
2
4.3% (NR) 5.1% (NR) 4.5% (NR) 5.3% (NR)
3
December 07, 2017 3.3% (NR) 3.9% (NR) 3.0% (NR) 3.6% (NR)
4
3.4% (NR) 4.0% (NR) 3.1% (NR) 3.7% (NR)
5
December 13, 2017 3.0% (NR) 3.4% (NR) 2.8% (NR) 3.2% (NR)
6
3.4% (NR) 3.7% (NR) 3.1% (NR) 3.4% (NR)
7
December 14, 2017 4.3% (NR) 5.1% (NR) 2.9% (NR) 3.7% (NR)
8
4.8% (NR) 5.5% (NR) 3.4% (NR) 4.0% (NR)
9
December 20, 2017 3.4% (NR) 4.1% (NR) 2.6% (NR) 3.3% (NR)
10
3.9% (NR) 4.5% (NR) 3.3% (NR) 3.8% (NR)
11
December 21, 2017 2.7% (NR) 3.1% (NR) 2.6% (NR) 3.0% (NR)
12
3.3% (NR) 4.2% (NR) 3.2% (NR) 4.1% (NR)
13
December 27, 2017 3.1% (NR) 3.2% (NR) 2.4% (NR) 2.5% (NR)
14
3.7% (NR) 3.9% (NR) 2.7% (NR) 2.8% (NR)
15
December 28, 2017 3.1% (NR) 3.7% (NR) 2.8% (NR) 3.4% (NR)
16
3.3% (NR) 3.8% (NR) 3.1% (NR) 3.6% (NR)
17
January 03, 2018 3.3% (NR) 3.4% (NR) 3.3% (NR) 3.5% (NR)
18
3.9% (NR) 4.2% (NR) 3.6% (NR) 3.9% (NR)
19
January 04, 2018 3.3% (NR) 3.9% (NR) 2.5% (NR) 3.3% (NR)
20
3.8% (NR) 4.0% (NR) 3.5% (NR) 3.7% (NR)
21
January 10, 2018 3.9% (NR) 4.5% (NR) 3.0% (NR) 3.6% (NR)
22
4.5% (NR) 4.8% (NR) 4.0% (NR) 4.3% (NR)
23
January 11, 2018 3.3% (NR) 3.8% (NR) 2.9% (NR) 3.4% (NR)
24
3.8% (NR) 4.0% (NR) 3.9% (NR) 4.1% (NR)
25
January 17, 2018 3.9% (NR) 4.4% (NR) 3.0% (NR) 3.5% (NR)
26
4.4% (NR) 4.8% (NR) 3.6% (NR) 4.0% (NR)
27
January 18, 2018 3.2% (NR) 4.1% (NR) 2.5% (NR) 3.4% (NR)
28
3.6% (NR) 4.3% (NR) 3.2% (NR) 3.9% (NR)
29
January 24, 2018 3.2% (NR) 3.5% (NR) 3.9% (NR) 4.2% (NR)
30
3.7% (NR) 3.9% (NR) 4.3% (NR) 4.5% (NR)
31
January 25, 2018 3.3% (NR) 3.6% (NR) 3.1% (NR) 3.4% (NR)
32
3.9% (NR) 4.1% (NR) 3.4% (NR) 3.6% (NR)
Average
3.63%
3.86%
3.22%
3.69%
International broadcast[edit]
In the Philippines, the drama is currently airing in ABS-CBN in its Kapamilya Gold block since March 5, 2018 at 5:00 pm PST. The drama is dubbed in Filipino. Meanwhile, the network's regional stations airs the drama at 9:30 am PST to avoid conflict with regional editions of its flagship evening newscast.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b In order to circumvent Korean laws that prevent commercial breaks in the middle of an episode, what would previously have been aired as single 70 minute episodes are now being repackaged as two 35 minute episodes, with two episodes being shown each night with a commercial break between them.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "'로봇이 아니야' 강기영-황승언-박세완-서동원-이민지-김기두, 개성파 라인업 확정(공식)". Naver (in Korean). Sedaily. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Park, Jin-hai (May 16, 2017). "Drama viewers angry over commercial breaks". Press Reader. The Korea Times. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "I'm Not a Robot". MBC Global Media. MBC&iMBC. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Lee, Mi-young. "[단독]'W' 정대윤 PD, '로봇이 아니야'로 복귀…하반기 편성". Naver (in Korean). Joy News 24. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hong, You-kyoung. "Yoo Seung-ho joins cast of 'I'm Not a Robot'". Joins. Korea JoongAng Daily. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kim, Mi-hwa. "유승호X채수빈X엄기준, '로봇이 아니야' 출연 확정(공식)". Naver (in Korean). Star News. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'로봇이 아니야' 김하균-손병호-이병준-엄효섭, 베테랑 라인업(공식)". Naver (in Korean). Sedaily. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Park, Jin-young. "[美친시청률] '흑기사'vs'로봇' 첫방 대결, 김래원 먼저 웃었다". Naver (in Korean). OSEN. Retrieved February 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Bu, Su-jeong. "유승호 채수빈인데…'로봇이 아니야' 최하위 종영". Naver (in Korean). Dailian. Retrieved February 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Baek, Ji-eun. "[공식] 동하 측 "MBC와 합의 하에 '로봇이아니야' 출연고사"". Naver (in Korean). Sports Chosun. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kim, Ji-hyeon. "[단독] 걸스데이 민아, MBC '로봇이 아니야' 출연불발". Naver (in Korean). TV Report. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Park, Jin-young. "[Oh!쎈 컷] '로봇이 아니야' 유승호X채수빈, 열정 가득 첫 대본리딩". Naver (in Korean). Osen. Retrieved October 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TNMS Daily Ratings: this links to current day-select the date from drop down menu". TNMS Ratings (in Korean). Retrieved October 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "AGB Daily Ratings: this links to current day-select the date from drop down menu". AGB Nielsen Media Research (in Korean). Retrieved October 11, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website (in Korean)
I'm Not a Robot at Daum (in Korean)
I'm Not a Robot on IMDb
I'm Not a Robot at HanCinema
I'm Not a Robot at MyDramaList
MBC: Wednesday–Thursday dramas
Previous program
I'm Not a Robot
(December 6, 2017 – January 25, 2018)
Next program
Hospital Ship
(August 30 – November 2, 2017) Behind the White Tower
(January 31, 2018)
Rebroadcast due to the 2018 Winter Olympics
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Time in China
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about time in the People's Republic of China. For time in the Republic of China, see Time in Taiwan. For traditional Chinese time-keeping, see Chinese calendar and the Traditional Chinese timekeeping.
The time in China follows a single standard time offset of UTC+08:00 (eight hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time), despite China spanning five geographical time zones. The official national standard time is called Beijing Time (Chinese: 北京时间) domestically [1] and China Standard Time (CST) internationally.[2] Daylight saving time has not been observed since 1991.[3]
The special administrative regions (SARs) maintain their own time authorities, with standards called Hong Kong Time (香港時間) and Macau Standard Time (澳門標準時間). These have been equivalent to Beijing time since 1992.
In addition, it has been proposed during 2005's NPC & CPPCC of China that provinces in the west (such as Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Chongqing) should use the time offset of UTC+07:00. However, this proposal has not been voted upon yet.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
3 Regions with special time regulations
3.1 Xinjiang
3.2 Hong Kong
3.3 Macau
4 IANA time zone database
4.1 Backward compatibility zone
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Main article: Historical time zones of China
In the 1870s, the Shanghai Xujiahui Observatory was constructed by a French catholic missionary. In 1880s officials in Shanghai French Concession started to provide a time announcement service using the Shanghai Mean Solar Time provided by the aforementioned observatory for ships into and out of Shanghai. By the end of 19th century, the time standard provided by the observatory had been switched to GMT+8.[5] The practice has spread to other coastal ports, and in 1902 the "Coastal Time" was proposed to be the universal timezone for all the coastal ports in China. However, the timezone for the rest of China remained undetermined.[6]
Until 1913, the official time standard for the whole of China was still the apparent solar time of Beijing, the capital of the country at the time. Starting in 1914, the Republic of China government began adopting the Beijing Local Mean Solar Time as the official time standard. By 1918, five standard time zones had been proposed by the Central Observatory of Beiyang government of Republic of China, including the Kunlun (UTC+05:30), Sinkiang-Tibet (UTC+06:00), Kansu-Szechwan (UTC+07:00), Chungyuan (UTC+08:00), and Changpai (UTC+08:30).[5]
The 1947 version timezone assignment
After the defeat of Beiyang government in 1928, the mission of the Central Observatory was moved to Nanjing, and the reference time standard used for the construction of traditional Chinese Calendar was shifted from Beijing Mean Solar Time to GMT+8.[5]
In 1930s, the proposed five timezones had not been fully observed, causing regions in inner China area to adopt their own time standards, resulting in chaos. On 9 March 1939, when the Ministry of the Interior organized a Standard Time Conference in Chongqing, it was decided to adopt the five timezone proposal with slight modification of their borders starting from 1 June, however it was also decided that the entire country would use the Kansu-Szechwan Time (GMT+7) during the Second Sino-Japanese War which began at the time.[5]
Following the end of World War II, the five-timezone system was resumed, although there is little information about the historical usage of time in the Kunlun and Changpai zones. A further refined system with adjustment to zone assignment in the Northwest part of Gansu was announced in 1947 for adoption in 1948. However, as the Chinese Civil War came to its end in 1949-1950, regional governments under the influence of Communist Party of China, other than those in Xinjiang and Tibet, switched to use the same time as Beijing, which is GMT+8, and is later known as Beijing Time or China Standard Time.[5]
There are two independent sources that claim the Communist Party of China, and/or the People's Republic of China, were using apparent solar time for Beijing Time before the period between 27 September 1949 and 6 October 1949, and they adopted the time of GMT+8 within that period of time, however such claim is dubious.[7]
The change in use of time in Tibet is undocumented but is known to use till at least mid-1950s, and the use of time in Xinjiang have been switched back and forth between GMT+6 and GMT+8 during the period of 1969 and 1986 and resulted in the current multiple time standard situation in the area. (see "Xinjiang" section below for detail)[5]
Daylight saving time was observed from 1945 to 1948, and from 1986 to 1991.[5]
In 1997 and 1999, Hong Kong and Macau were transferred to China from the United Kingdom and Portugal and they were established as special administrative regions. Although the sovereignty of the SARs belongs to China, they retain their own policies regarding time zones for historical reasons. Due to their geographical locations, both are within the UTC+08:00 time zone, which is the same as the national standard — Beijing time.
Geography[edit]
As an illustration of the wide range, the daylight hours for the Chinese westernmost—not including Xinjiang due to local customs (see below)—and easternmost county seats are included:[8]
Division
Daylight time
Location
County
Province
1 January
1 July
Westernmost Zanda Tibet 09:41 – 19:49 07:40 – 21:50
Easternmost Fuyuan Heilongjiang 06:54 – 15:18 03:05 – 19:08
Regions with special time regulations[edit]
Xinjiang[edit]
Main article: Xinjiang Time
Map of Xinjiang, together with rest of China
In Xinjiang, two time standards, namely, Beijing Time and Xinjiang Time, are used in parallel.[4][5]
Xinjiang Time, also known as Ürümqi Time (Chinese: 乌鲁木齐时间; pinyin: Wūlǔmùqí Shíjiān), is set due to its geographical location in the westernmost part of the country.[9] The time offset is UTC+06:00, which is two hours behind Beijing, and is shared with neighbouring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
Currently, timezone usage within Xinjiang is roughly split along the ethnic divide, with most ethnic Han following Beijing time and most ethnic Uyghurs following Ürümqi Time.[10][unreliable source?] Some local authorities are now using both time standards side by side.[11][12] Television stations schedule programmes in different time standards according to their nature.[5]
The coexistence of two timezones within the same region causes some confusion among the local population, especially when inter-racial communication occurs. When a time is mentioned in conversation between Han and Uyghur, it is necessary to either explicitly make clear whether the time is in Xinjiang Time or Beijing Time, or convert the time according to the ethnicity of the other party.[13][14][15] The double time standard is particularly observable in Xinjiang Television, which schedules its Chinese channel according to Beijing time and its Uyghur and Kazakh channels according to Xinjiang time. [16]
Regardless, Beijing Time users in Xinjiang usually schedule their daily activities two hours later than those who live in eastern China. As such, stores and offices in Xinjiang are commonly open from 10am to 7pm Beijing Time, which equals 8am to 5pm in Ürümqi Time.[17] This is known as the work/rest time in Xinjiang.[18]
In most areas of Xinjiang, the opening time of local authorities is additionally modified by shifting the morning session 30–60 minutes backward and the afternoon session 30 minutes forward to extend the lunch break for 60–90 minutes, so as to avoid the intense heat during noon time in the area during summer.[12]
Hong Kong[edit]
Main article: Hong Kong Time
Hong Kong maintains its own time authority after transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The Hong Kong Time (Chinese: 香港時間; pinyin: Xiānggǎng Shíjiān; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng sìgaan) is UTC+08:00 all year round, and daylight saving time has not been used since 1979.[19] Greenwich Mean Time was adopted as the basis in 1904, and UTC was adopted as a standard in 1972. Before that, local time was determined by astronomical observations at Hong Kong Observatory using a 6-inch Lee Equatorial and a 3-inch Transit Circle.
Macau[edit]
Macau maintains its own time authority after transfer of sovereignty in 1999. The Macau Standard Time[20] (Chinese: 澳門標準時間; pinyin: Àomén Biāozhǔn Shíjiān; Portuguese: Hora Oficial de Macau[21]) is the time in Macau. The time is UTC+08:00 all year round, and daylight saving time has not been used since 1980.[22]
IANA time zone database[edit]
The territory of the People's Republic of China is covered in the IANA time zone database by the following zones. The reason why Asia/Shanghai is used instead of Beijing is because Shanghai is the most populous location in the zone.[23]
Columns marked with * are from the file zone.tab of the database.
c.c.*
coordinates*
TZ*
comments*
Standard time
Summer time
Notes
CN +3114+12128 Asia/Shanghai Beijing Time tUTC+08:00 —
CN +4348+08735 Asia/Urumqi Xinjiang Time tUTC+06:00 —
HK +2217+11409 Asia/Hong_Kong tUTC+08:00 —
MO +2214+11335 Asia/Macau tUTC+08:00 —
Backward compatibility zone[edit]
The following zones, including Asia/Kashgar, Asia/Chongqing, and Asia/Harbin, are kept in the "backzone" file of the IANA timezone database for backward compatibility.
c.c.*
coordinates*
TZ*
comments*
Standard time
Summer time
Notes
CN +4545+12641 Asia/Harbin tUTC+08:00 — linked back to Asia/Shanghai
CN +2934+10635 Asia/Chongqing tUTC+08:00 — linked back to Asia/Shanghai
CN +3929+07559 Asia/Kashgar tUTC+06:00 — linked back to Asia/Ürümqi
See also[edit]
Historical time zones of China
Hong Kong Time
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "时间的概念". 国家授时中心科普网站. Archived from the original on 2012-10-16.
Jump up ^ "CST – China Standard Time (Time Zone Abbreviation)". timeanddate.com.
Jump up ^ timeanddate.com, Daylight Saving Time in China
^ Jump up to: a b "冷知识："北京时间"的由来". 新华网. 2015-11-03. Retrieved 2015-11-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j GUO, Qing-sheng (2001). "中国标准时制考" [A Study on the Standard Time Changes for the Past 100 Years in China] (PDF). China Historical Materials of Science and Technology (in Chinese). 22 (3): 269–280. 1000-0798(2001)03-0269-12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
Jump up ^ ""北京时间"是怎么来的". 北京日报. 2015-10-28.
Jump up ^ Guo, Qingsheng (2003) "Beijing Time at the Beginning of PRC", China Historical Materials of Science and Technology 24(1)
Jump up ^ "NOAA Solar Calculator". NOAA. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "【讀書時間】在時間的悟透里跋涉或存在".
Jump up ^ "Bending Time in Xinjiang".
^ Jump up to: a b "作息时间". Archived from the original on 12 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "10点日出，半夜吃饭，在新疆用北京时间的烦恼". 纽约时报中文网国际纵览. 17 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "【城市】乌鲁木齐：没有屋顶的博物馆". 南方周末. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Clocks square off in China's far west". Los Angeles Times. 31 March 2009.
Jump up ^ 北京时间的概念
Jump up ^ "The Working-Calendar for The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Government". The Government of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2008. Urumqi Time (GMT+6) is 2 hours behind Beijing Time
Jump up ^ http://news.163.com/14/0117/18/9IQH4FIR00014JB6.html?f=jsearch
Jump up ^ timeanddate.com, Daylight Saving Time in Hong Kong
Jump up ^ Macau Standard Time Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine., Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau
Jump up ^ "O SERVIÇO DE <<HORA EXACTA>> NA INTERNET". Smg.gov.mo. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
Jump up ^ timeanddate.com, Daylight Saving Time in Macau
Jump up ^ Theory and pragmatics of the tz code and data
External links[edit]
Government departments responsible for time services
National Time Service Center, the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Hong Kong Observatory (Hong Kong)
Direcção dos Serviços Meteorológicos e Geofísicos (Macau)
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