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Carnegie Corporation of New York
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This article is about a U.S. philanthropic trust. For other uses, see Carnegie Foundation (disambiguation).
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Carnegie Corporation of New York
Founded
1911; 106 years ago (1911)
Founder
Andrew Carnegie
Focus
Education ("The advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding.")
Location
New York, NY
Area served
Global
Method
Donations and Grants
Key people
See list (Vartan Gregorian, president; Thomas H. Kean, Board Chairman)
Revenue (2014)
$252,292,260[2]
Expenses (2014)
$191,737,566[2]
Endowment
$3.0 billion[1]
Website
Carnegie Corporation
Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 "to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding".[3]
Carnegie Corporation has helped to establish and endowed a variety of institutions, including the Carnegie libraries, the National Research Council, the Russian Research Center at Harvard, and the Children's Television Workshop, and for many years strongly funded Carnegie's other philanthropic organizations, especially Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP), the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT), and the Carnegie Institution for Science (CIS).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Founding and early years
1.2 Frederick P. Keppel
1.3 Charles Dollard
1.4 John Gardner
1.5 Alan Pifer
1.6 David A. Hamburg
1.7 Vartan Gregorian
2 See also
3 Footnotes
4 Further reading
5 External links
History[edit]
Founding and early years[edit]
By 1911 Andrew Carnegie had endowed five organizations in the United States and three in the United Kingdom, and had given away more than $43 million for public library buildings and almost $110 million for other purposes. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, at the age of 76, was tiring of philanthropic decision making. On the advice of Elihu Root, a long-time friend, he decided to establish a trust to which he could transfer the bulk of his remaining fortune and, ultimately, the responsibility for distributing his wealth after his lifetime. Having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions, he selected "corporation" for this last and largest. It was chartered by the State of New York as Carnegie Corporation of New York. The Corporation's capital fund, originally donated as a value of about $135 million, had a market value of $1.55 billion on March 31, 1999.
During 1911 and 1912, Carnegie gave the corporation $125 million, making it the largest single philanthropic trust ever established up to that time. As the residual legatee of his will, the corporation received an additional $10 million when the estate was settled. Carnegie reserved a portion of the endowment to be used for philanthropic purposes in Canada and what were then the British Colonies. This part of the endowment was first known as the Special Fund, then the British Dominions and Colonies Fund, and later the Commonwealth Program. Charter amendments have allowed the corporation to use 7.4 percent of its income in countries that are or have been members of the British Commonwealth.
During the corporation's early years, Carnegie himself was president and a trustee. James Bertram, his private secretary, and Robert A. Franks, his financial agent, were also trustees and, respectively, secretary and treasurer of the corporation. These three comprised the first executive committee and made most of the funding decisions. The other seats on the board were held ex officio by the presidents of the five previously established Carnegie organizations in the United States-Carnegie Institute (of Pittsburgh) (1896), Carnegie Institution of Washington (1902), Carnegie Hero Fund Commission (1904), CFAT (1905), and CEIP (1910). Soon after Carnegie's death during 1919, the trustees elected a full-time, salaried president as chief executive officer of the corporation and made him an ex officio member of the board.
Initially, grants followed the pattern of Carnegie's personal philanthropies. Until 1917, gifts for the construction of public libraries and for the purchase of church organs were continued. The other Carnegie organizations in the United States also received substantial grants for their programs, as did universities, colleges, schools, and general educational agencies. In his letter of gift to his original trustees, Carnegie wrote (employing the simplified spelling he favored): "Conditions upon erth inevitably change; hence, no wise man will bind Trustees forever to certain paths, causes or institutions. I disclaim any intention of doing so. On the contrary, I giv my Trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgement."[citation needed] Thus, over the years, the corporation's priorities for grant making have changed, while always remaining educational.
After Carnegie's death, the corporation began to devote its funding increasingly to scientific research. Convinced of the nation's need to increase scientific expertise and "scientific management", the corporation sought to build facilities for research of the natural and social sciences. Large grants were made to the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the National Bureau of Economic Research, the Food Research Institute at Stanford University, and the Brookings Institution. At this time, the corporation also developed an interest in adult education and lifelong learning as a logical sequel to Carnegie's preoccupation with libraries as "the university of the people". During 1919 it initiated the Americanization Study to explore educational opportunities for adults, primarily new immigrants.
Frederick P. Keppel[edit]
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With Frederick P. Keppel as president from 1923 to 1941, Carnegie Corporation shifted from the creation of public libraries to strengthening library infrastructure, services, and development of adult education, adding arts education to the array of programs in colleges and universities. The foundation's grantmaking during this period had a certain eclecticism and a remarkable perseverance with respect to its chosen causes.
Keppel initiated the famous study of race relations in the United States by the Swedish social economist Gunnar Myrdal, deliberately appointing, during 1937, an "outsider" and a non-American to manage the study on the theory that the task should be performed by someone unencumbered by traditional attitudes or earlier conclusions. Widely heralded, Myrdal's book American Dilemma (1944) had no immediate public policy effect, although it was later much cited in legal challenges to segregation. Keppel believed foundations should make the facts available to the public and let them speak for themselves. His cogent writings about philanthropy left a lasting impression on the foundation field and influenced the organization and leadership of many new foundations.
During 1927 Keppel toured sub-Saharan Africa and recommended the first set of grants to establish public schools in East and southern Africa. Other grants were made for municipal library development in South Africa. During 1928 the corporation initiated the Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa. Better known as the "Carnegie Poor White Study", it served to promote strategies for improving the lives of rural Afrikaner whites and poor whites in general.
According to a memorandum sent to Keppel, there was "little doubt that if the natives were given full economic opportunity, the more competent among them would soon outstrip the less competent whites"[4] Keppel's endorsement for the project of creating the report was motivated by his concern with the maintenance of existing racial boundaries.[4] The preoccupation of the corporation with the so-called poor white problem in South Africa was at least in part the outcome of similar misgivings about the state of poor whites in the American South.[4]
White poverty contradicted notions of racial superiority and hence it became the emphasis of "scientific" study. The report recommended that "employment sanctuaries" be established for poor white workers and that poor white workers should replace "native" black workers in most skilled aspects of the economy.[5] The authors of the report suggested that unless something was done to help poor whites, racial deterioration and miscegenation would be the outcome.[4]
Although policies favoring apartheid began earlier, the report provided endorsement for the idea that the maintenance of white superiority would require help from social institutions.[5][6] The report expressed fear about the loss of white racial pride, and in particular discussed the danger that the poor whites would not be able to resist the process of "Africanisation."[4] In seeking to prevent a class-based philosophy that would unite the poor of all races the report sought to increase race as opposed to class differences as the significant social category.[7]
Charles Dollard[edit]
World War II and its immediate aftermath were a relatively inactive period for Carnegie Corporation. When Charles Dollard, who had joined the staff during 1939 as Keppel's assistant, became president during 1948, the foundation increased its interest in the social sciences, particularly the study of human behavior, and entered the field of international affairs. At Dollard's urging, the corporation funded quantitative, "objective" social science research modeled after the physical sciences and helped to diffuse the ideas throughout major universities. At this time, the corporation became a major proponent of standardized testing in the schools as a means for determining academic merit irrespective of social or economic background. Among other initiatives, it helped to broker establishment of the Educational Testing Service during 1947. In recognition of the United States' increasing need for scholarly and policy expertise in international affairs, the corporation also initiated, with the Ford Foundation, foreign area studies programs in colleges and universities, helping to establish and sustain the Russian Research Center at Harvard University. Following Afrikaner political ascendance during 1951, the corporation ceased grantmaking in South Africa for more than two decades, changing its policy to the development of universities in East and West Africa.
John Gardner[edit]
John W. Gardner was promoted from a staff position to the presidency during 1955 (Gardner simultaneously became president of the CFAT, which was housed at the corporation), the Carnegie Corporation continued to upgrade scholarly competence in foreign area studies and strengthened its programs in liberal arts education. During the early 1960s, it inaugurated a program on continuing education, also funding the development of new models for advanced and professional study for mature women. Gardner's interest in leadership development resulted creation of the White House Fellows program during 1964. Notable among the grant projects to strengthen higher education in sub-Saharan Africa was the 1959-60 Ashby Commission study of Nigeria's needs for postsecondary education, which had the effect of stimulating widespread aid to African nations' systems of higher and professional education from the United Kingdom, Europe, and the United States. While Gardner's strong interest was education, as a psychologist he believed in the value of the behavioral sciences in addressing societal and world problems. At his urging, the corporation funded much of the nation's basic research on cognition, creativity, and the learning process, particularly among young children, in the process associating the topics of psychology and education. The corporation's most important contribution to precollege education reform at this time was a series of studies of education performed by James B. Conant, former president of Harvard University. In particular, Conant's study of comprehensive American high schools (1959) resolved public controversy concerning the purposes of public secondary education, making the case that schools could adequately educate both the academically gifted and the average student.
With Gardner, the corporation began the era of strategic philanthropy - the planned, organized, deliberately constructed means to attain stated ends. It no longer sufficed to fund a socially desirable project; rather, the knowledge must produce useful results and be communicated to the public, the media, and decision makers with the intention of fostering policy debate. A major objective was to develop programs that might be implemented and scaled up by larger organizations, especially government. The change to "institutional transfer" was partly in response to the relatively diminished power of the corporation's resources, making it necessary to achieve "leverage" and "multiplier effects" if it was to have any effect at all.[citation needed] The corporation considered itself as a trendsetter in the world of philanthropy, often funding research or providing seed money for ideas while others financed the more costly operations. As an example, it advanced the ideas resulting in creation of the National Assessment of Educational Progress, later adopted by the federal government.[citation needed] Declaring that a foundation's most precious asset was its sense of direction, Gardner gathered a competent professional staff of generalists whom he called his "cabinet of strategy,"[citation needed] regarding it as a resource for the corporation as important as its endowment.
Alan Pifer[edit]
While Gardner's opinion of educational equality was to multiply the channels through which an individual could pursue opportunity, it was during the term of long-time staff member Alan Pifer, who became acting president during 1965 and president during 1967 (again of both Carnegie Corporation and the CFAT), that the foundation began to respond to claims by various groups, including women, for increased power and wealth. The corporation developed three interlocking objectives: prevention of educational disadvantage; equality of educational opportunity in the schools; and broadened opportunities in higher education. A fourth objective cutting across these programs was to improve the democratic performance of government. Grants were made to reform state government as the laboratories of democracy, underwrite voter education drives, and mobilize youth to vote, among other measures.[citation needed] Use of the legal system became a method for achieving equal opportunity in education, as well as redress of grievance, and the corporation joined the Ford and Rockefeller foundations and others in funding educational litigation by civil rights organizations. It also initiated a multifaceted program to train black lawyers in the South for the practice of public interest law and to increase the legal representation of black people.[citation needed]
Maintaining its commitment to early childhood education, the corporation endorsed the application of research knowledge in experimental and demonstration programs - programs that subsequently provided strong evidence of the positive long-term effects of high-quality early education, particularly for the disadvantaged. An influential study upholding the value of early education was the Perry Preschool Project of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation. Its 1980 report on the progress of sixteen-year-olds who had been enrolled in the experimental preschool programs was crucial in safeguarding Project Head Start at a time when federal social programs were being scaled back. The foundation also promoted educational children's television, initiating the Children's Television Workshop, producer of Sesame Street and other noted children's educational programs. Growing belief in the power of television as an educator prompted formation of the Carnegie Commission on Educational Television, whose recommendations were adopted in the Public Broadcasting Act of 1968 establishing the public broadcasting system. Among the many reports on American education financed during this time, including Charles E. Silberman's acclaimed Crisis in the Classroom (1971), undoubtedly the most controversial was Christopher Jencks's Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in America (1973). The timing of this report, which confirmed quantitative research (e.g., the Coleman Report) showing a weak relationship of public school resources to educational outcomes, corresponded with the foundation's burgeoning interest in improving the effectiveness of schools.[citation needed]
Becoming involved with South Africa again during the mid-1970s, the corporation worked through universities to increase the legal representation of black people and increase the practice of public interest law. At the University of Cape Town, it established the Second Carnegie Inquiry into Poverty and Development in Southern Africa, this time to examine the legacies of apartheid and make recommendations to nongovernmental organizations for actions commensurate with the long-run goal of achieving a democratic, interracial society.
The influx of nontraditional students and "baby boomers" into higher education prompted formation of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education (1967), funded by the CFAT. (During 1972, the CFAT became an independent institution after experiencing three decades of restricted control over its own affairs.) In its more than ninety reports, the commission made detailed suggestions for introducing more flexibility into the structure and financing of higher education. One outgrowth of the commission's work was creation of the federal Pell grants program offering tuition assistance for needy college students. The corporation promoted the Doctor of Arts "teaching" degree as well as various off-campus undergraduate degree programs, including the Regents Degree of the State of New York and Empire State College. The foundation's combined interest in testing and higher education resulted in establishment of a national system of college credit by examination (College-Level Entrance Examination Program of the College Entrance Examination Board). Building on its past programs to promote the continuing education of women, the foundation made a series of grants for the advancement of women in academic life. Two other study groups formed to examine critical problems in American life were the Carnegie Council on Children (1972) and the Carnegie Commission on the Future of Public Broadcasting (1977), the latter formed almost ten years after the first commission.
David A. Hamburg[edit]
David A. Hamburg, a physician, educator, and scientist with a public health background, became president during late 1982 with the intention of mobilizing the best scientific and scholarly talent and thinking around "the prevention of rotten outcomes" - all the way from early childhood to international relations. The corporation lost some of its interest with higher education, placing priority on the education and healthy development of children and adolescents and the preparation of youth for a scientific and technological, knowledge-driven world. During 1984, the corporation established the Carnegie Commission on Education and the Economy. Through its major publication, A Nation Prepared (1986), the foundation reaffirmed the role of the teacher as the "best hope" for ensuring educational quality in elementary and secondary education.[citation needed] An outgrowth of that report was establishment, a year later, of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards to consider ways of attracting able candidates to the teaching profession and recognizing and retaining them. At the corporation's initiative, the American Association for the Advancement of Science issued two reports, Science for All Americans (1989) and Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993), which recommended a common core of learning in science, mathematics, and technology for all citizens and helped set national standards of achievement in these domains.
An entirely new emphasis for the corporation was the danger to world peace posed by the superpower confrontation and weapons of mass destruction.[citation needed] The foundation underwrote scientific study of the feasibility of the proposed federal Strategic Defense Initiative and joined the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation in supporting the analytic work of a new generation of arms control and nuclear nonproliferation experts. After the end of the USSR, Corporation grants helped promote the concept of cooperative security among erstwhile adversaries and projects to build democratic institutions in the former Soviet Union and central Europe. An important undertaking was the Prevention of Proliferation Task Force, coordinated by a grant to the Brookings Institution, which inspired the Nunn-Lugar Amendment to the Soviet Threat Reduction Act of 1991 intended to help dismantle Soviet nuclear weapons and reduce proliferation risks.[citation needed] More recently, the corporation has addressed the problems of interethnic and regional conflict and funded projects seeking to diminish the risks of a wider war resulting from civil strife. Two Carnegie commissions, one on Reducing the Nuclear Danger (1990), the other on Preventing Deadly Conflict (1994), together addressed the full range of dangers associated with human conflict and the use of weapons of mass destruction. The corporation's emphasis in Commonwealth Africa, meanwhile, shifted to women's health and political development and the application of science and technology, including new information systems, in fostering research and expertise within indigenous scientific institutions and universities.
During Hamburg's tenure, dissemination achieved even greater primacy with respect to strategic philanthropy.[citation needed] Emphasis was on consolidation and diffusion of the best available knowledge from social science and education research and the use of such research in improving social policy and practice. Major partners in these endeavors were major institutions that had the capability to influence public thought and action. If "change agent" was a major term during Pifer's time, "linkage" became a byword in Hamburg's, when the corporation increasingly used its convening powers to bring together experts across disciplinary and sectoral boundaries to create policy consensus and promote collaboration.
Continuing tradition, the foundation established in its name several other major study groups, often directed by the president and managed by a special staff. Three groups covered the educational and developmental needs of children and youth from birth to age fifteen: the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1986), the Carnegie Task Force on Meeting the Needs of Young Children (1991), and the Carnegie Task Force on Learning in the Primary Grades (1994). Another, the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government (1988), recommended ways that government at all levels could make more effective use of science and technology in their operations and policies. Jointly with the Rockefeller Foundation, the corporation also financed the National Commission on Teaching & America's Future, whose report, What Matters Most (1996), provided a framework and agenda for teacher education reform across the country. Characteristically these study groups drew on the knowledge generated by the grant programs and from relevant fields and inspired follow-up grantmaking to implement the recommendations
Vartan Gregorian[edit]
During the presidency of Vartan Gregorian the corporation had a review of its management structure and grants programs.[citation needed] During 1998 the corporation established four primary program headings: Education, International Peace and Security, International Development, and Democracy. Special Projects was for making grants other than for the regular program topics and for encouraging cross-program collaboration. Within and across the four main topics, the corporation continued to engage with major issues confronting higher education. Domestically, it emphasized the reform of teacher education and examining the current status and future of liberal arts education in the United States. Abroad, the corporation sought to devise methods for strengthening higher education and public libraries in Commonwealth Africa. As a cross-program initiative, and in cooperation with other foundations and organizations, the corporation instituted a scholars program, offering funding to individual scholars, particularly in the social sciences and humanities, in the independent states of the former Soviet Union.
See also[edit]
Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa
Carnegie library
Andrew Carnegie
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
Nicholas Murray Butler
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Carnegie Annual Reports
^ Jump up to: a b "Carnegie Corporation of New York" (PDF). Foundation Center. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Carnegie Corporation of New York
^ Jump up to: a b c d e The Silent War: Imperialism and the Changing Perception of Race By Frank Füredi. Page 66-67. ISBN 0-8135-2612-4
^ Jump up to: a b Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History By Ann Laura Stoler. Page 66. ISBN 0-8223-3724-X
Jump up ^ Racially segregated school libraries in KwaZulu/Natal, South Africa by Jennifer Verbeek. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, Vol. 18, No. 1, 23-46 (1986)
Jump up ^ The American Century: Consensus and Coercion in the Projection of American Power By David Slater and Peter James Taylor. Page 290. ISBN 0-631-21222-1, 1999
Further reading[edit]
Sara L. Engelhardt (ed.), The Carnegie Trusts and Institutions. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1981.
Ellen C. Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989.
Inderjeet Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie, and Rockefeller Foundations in the Rise of American Power. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
Patricia L Rosenfield, "A world of giving : Carnegie Corporation of New York-- a Century of International Philanthropy." New York : PublicAffairs, 2014.
External links[edit]
Carnegie Corporation of New York
History of the Carnegie Corporation
Carnegie Corporation of New York archives at Columbia University
Time For Ford Foundation & CFR To Divest? Collaboration of the Rockefeller, Ford and Carnegie Foundations with the Council on Foreign Relations
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carnegie_Corporation_of_New_York&oldid=800481903"
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Confederation Bridge
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Confederation Bridge
Confederation Bridge in 2008,
New Brunswick side
Coordinates
46°12′55″N 63°44′45″W / 46.21528°N 63.74583°W / 46.21528; -63.74583Coordinates: 46°12′55″N 63°44′45″W / 46.21528°N 63.74583°W / 46.21528; -63.74583
Carries
2 lanes of NB Route 16/PEI Route 1 (Trans-Canada Highway)
Crosses
Northumberland Strait
Locale
Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island
Cape Jourimain, New Brunswick
Official name
Confederation Bridge / Pont de la Confédération
Other name(s)
The Fixed Link
Maintained by
Strait Crossing Bridge Limited (SCBL)
Characteristics
Design
Multi–span post-tensioned concrete box girder
Total length
12.9 km (8 mi)
Longest span
250 m (820 ft) (43 segments)
History
Opened
May 31, 1997
Statistics
Daily traffic
about 4000[1]
Toll
C$46.50 two-axle automobile
$8.50 per extra axle
$18.50 motorcycle
$8.75 bicycle (transported by shuttle vehicle)
$4.25 pedestrian (transported by shuttle vehicle)
(Paid westbound-only : leaving PEI)
The Confederation Bridge (French: Pont de la Confédération) spans the Abegweit Passage of Northumberland Strait. It links Prince Edward Island with mainland New Brunswick, Canada. Before its official naming, Prince Edward Islanders often referred to the bridge as the "Fixed Link". Construction took place from October 1993 to May 1997[2] and cost C$1.3 billion. The 12.9-kilometre (8 mi) bridge opened on May 31, 1997.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Tolls
3 History
3.1 Water transportation links
3.2 Early proposals
3.3 1988 plebiscite
4 Bridge development
4.1 Constitutional amendment
4.2 Construction
4.3 Naming
4.4 Finishing
4.5 Official opening
4.6 Operation
5 Effect
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Structure[edit]
Heading northbound with Prince Edward Island in view.
The bridge is a two-lane toll bridge that carries the Trans-Canada Highway between Borden-Carleton, Prince Edward Island (at Route 1) and Cape Jourimain, New Brunswick (at Route 16).
It is a multi-span balanced cantilever bridge with a post-tensioned concrete box girder structure. Most of the curved bridge is 40 metres (131 ft) above water with a 60 m (197 ft) navigation span for ship traffic. The bridge rests on 62 piers, of which the 44 main piers are 250 m (820 ft) apart. The bridge is 11 m (36 ft) wide.
The speed limit on the bridge is 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph) but can vary with wind and weather conditions. When travelling at the speed limit, it takes about 12 minutes to cross the bridge.
Tolls[edit]
Tolls only apply when leaving Prince Edward Island (when traveling westbound). The toll rates as of January 2017[ref] are $46.50 for a two-axle automobile and $8.00 for each additional axle. Motorcycles are charged $18.50.
While pedestrians and cyclists are not permitted to cross the bridge, a shuttle service is available. Before 2006, the shuttle was free but since January 1, 2015, the service has charged $4.25 per pedestrian or $8.75 per cyclist when leaving Prince Edward Island.
The other major Northumberland Strait crossing, Wood Islands Ferry from Wood Islands, Prince Edward Island to Caribou, Nova Scotia, currently[ref] charges $72.00 per car (including passengers)[ref] when leaving Prince Edward Island. Other ferry fares include $19.00 per adult pedestrian, $40.00 per motorcycle, and $20.00 per bicycle. Travellers, whether entering the island by bridge and leaving by ferry or vice versa only pay for leaving the island.
History[edit]
Various proposals for a fixed link across the Northumberland Strait can be traced as far back as the 1870s when the province's railway system was developed. Subsequent proposals arose during federal elections in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The ebb and flow of public support for a fixed link was indirectly tied to the varying levels of federal investment in ferry and steamship connections to the province over the years, finally culminating in a proposal in the mid-1980s which resulted in the current bridge being constructed.
Water transportation links[edit]
As a part of Prince Edward Island's admission into the Dominion of Canada in 1873, the Canadian government was obligated to provide...
"efficient steam service for the conveyance of mails and passengers to be established and maintained between the Island and the mainland of the Dominion, winter and summer, thus placing the Island in continuous communication with the Intercolonial Railway and the railway system of the Dominion..."[4]
Following Confederation, early steamship services across Northumberland Strait connected the Island ports of Charlottetown and Georgetown with railway facilities at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Similar services operated from Summerside connected with railway facilities at Shediac, New Brunswick.
The most direct route across the Northumberland Strait, however, was at the 13-kilometre (8.1 mi) wide Abegweit Passage. Infrequent winter service provided by underpowered steamships incapable of breaking sea ice ensured the survival of a passenger and mail service across Abegweit Passage using iceboats until a permanent ferry service was established in the 1910s.
The unsatisfactory winter steamship service and reliance upon primitive iceboats provoked complaints from the Island government until the federal government decided to implement a railcar ferry service across Abegweit Passage between new ports at Port Borden and Cape Tormentine.
In 1912, the federal government promised to open a car ferry between the "Capes" (Cape Traverse, PEI to Cape Tormentine, NB). The privately owned New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island Railway from Sackville, New Brunswick to Cape Tormentine was purchased by the federal government and an order was made with a shipyard in England for an icebreaking railcar ferry, to be called the Prince Edward Island. Ports were developed at Carleton Point, several kilometres west of Cape Traverse, and the existing harbour at Cape Tormentine; the new port at Carleton Point would be named Borden in honour of Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden.
The new ferry entered service in 1915 and operated on the former steamship routes until port facilities were opened in October 1917. Automobile service was added in 1938 and other vessels followed as the ferry service expanded in the post-war years.
This ferry service was initially the responsibility of Canadian Government Railways (1917–1918) and later Canadian National Railway (1918–1983), then a CNR subsidiary CN Marine (1977–1986). In 1986, CN Marine was renamed when all federal government ferry services in Atlantic Canada were transferred to the new Crown corporation Marine Atlantic.
Ferry service years
Scotia I (various years 1917–1957)
Scotia II (various years 1937–1968)
Charlottetown (1931–1941)
Abegweit (1947–1982), renamed Abby (1986–1983)
Confederation (1962–1976)
John Hamilton Gray (1968–1997)
Lucy Maud Montgomery (1969–1973)
Holiday Island (1971–1997)
Vacationland (1971–1997)
Abegweit (1982–1997)
Early proposals[edit]
The bridge viewed from Prince Edward Island
Discussion of a fixed link can be traced to George Howlan, who called for construction of a railway tunnel beneath Abegweit Passage at the same time as the Prince Edward Island Railway was being built across the province in the 1870s. Howlan also raised the issue as a member of the provincial Legislative Assembly, and in March 1891, as a Senator and member of a delegation to meetings on the subject, conducted at the British Parliament. The idea lost favour following his death in 1901.
Talk of a fixed link was revived in the 1950s and 1960s, coinciding with federal election campaigns. The topic was raised in 1957, only two years following the opening of the Canso Causeway, and at the same time as another mega-project, the St. Lawrence Seaway was being constructed. A rockfill causeway was proposed to cross Abegweit Passage, with a 300 m (984 ft) bridge/tunnel to accommodate shipping. This plan was rejected for navigational reasons but was raised again in 1962, and in 1965, the federal government, ignoring concerns of the shipping industry, called for tenders for a $148 million fixed link featuring a tunnel/causeway/bridge. Approach roads and railway lines were constructed at Borden and Jourimain Island but the project was formally abandoned in 1969 upon scientific recommendation in favour of improved ferry services.
Due to the extremely complex tidal regime in the Northumberland Strait consisting of diurnal and semi-diurnal cycles, any attempt to close Abegweit Passage would be next to impossible since the tidal cycles on each side of a causeway would be placed at opposites to each other. It is estimated by tidal experts at the Canadian Hydrographic Service, that tidal currents through a gap in such a causeway would be in excess of 18 knots (33 km/h), powerful enough to counter most commercial ships and to sweep away boulders the size of houses.[5]
1988 plebiscite[edit]
Consideration of a fixed link was renewed in the 1980s by an unsolicited proposal from a Nova Scotia businessman. The federal government favoured the construction of a fixed link chiefly because of the rising costs of providing ferry service (a constitutional requirement dating from PEI's accession to Confederation) and the increasing deficits being incurred by the railway system on PEI (run as part of Canadian National, then a Crown corporation). The federal government proposed to provide a fixed subsidy for the construction and operation of a fixed link, in return for the province agreeing to the abandonment of the ferry service and the railway system.
Following the election of the Progressive Conservative government of Brian Mulroney, with its agenda for regional development through so-called "mega-projects," Public Works Canada called for formal proposals in 1987 and received three offers. These proposals included a tunnel, a bridge, and a combined tunnel-causeway-bridge.
These developments sparked an extremely divisive debate on the Island, and Premier Joe Ghiz promised a plebiscite to gauge public support, which was held on January 18, 1988.
During the plebiscite debate, the anti-link group Friends of the Island cited potential ecological damage from the construction, as well as concerns about the impact on Prince Edward Island's lifestyle in general, and noted that the "mega-project" model has had limited success in other areas of the world, and rarely enriched the local population. The Friends of the Island believed that a fixed link was being pressured by a federal government not willing to shoulder the cost of constitutional obligations for funding an efficient ferry service, and that a link would be built largely for the benefit of mainland tourists and businesses waiting to exploit the Island.
The pro-link group Islanders for a Better Tomorrow noted transportation reliability would result in improvements for exporters and the tourism industry.
The result was 59.4% (in total percentage) in favour of the fixed link.
Bridge development[edit]
The debate did not end with the 1988 plebiscite and the federal government faced numerous legal challenges and a lengthy environmental impact assessment for the project. The developer of the single bridge proposal, Strait Crossing Development Inc., was selected and an announcement that the Northumberland Strait Crossing Project would be built was finally made on December 2, 1992; the developer being required to privately finance all construction through bond markets.
Shareholders of Strait Crossing Development Inc. include:
OMERS, an Ontario public servant pension fund (under the OMERS subsidiary BPC Maritime Corporation)
VINCI Concessions Canada Inc., Montreal, Quebec
Strait Crossing Inc., Calgary, Alberta (at one time part of the W. A. Stephenson / Stephenson Construction International (SCI) Engineers & Constructors Group of Companies)
Constitutional amendment[edit]
As mentioned, the Schedule to the Prince Edward Island Terms of Union in the Constitution of Canada required steamship service to connect the Island's railway system with that of mainland North America. A dedicated ferry service replaced the steamships in 1917 but no changes were made to the constitution. The fixed crossing, however, required a constitutional amendment (see Amendments to the Constitution of Canada).
The Constitution Amendment Proclamation, 1993 (Prince Edward Island) dealt with this issue, as well as the issue of tolls on the crossing. It made clear that the government (or a private body) could charge a toll (an essential part of the government's financing plans) for the crossing without violating the terms of union:
"That a fixed crossing joining the Island to the mainland may be substituted for the steam service referred to in this Schedule... That, for greater certainty, nothing in this Schedule prevents the imposition of tolls for the use of such a fixed crossing between the Island and the mainland, or the private operation of such a crossing;"
Construction[edit]
Bridge segment on display.
The construction, which was carried out by a construction joint venture of Ballast Nedam, GTMI (Canada), Northern Construction and Strait Crossing Inc.,[6] started in the fall of 1993, beginning with preparation of staging facilities. Bridge components were built year-round from 1994 to the summer of 1996, and placement of components began in the fall of 1994 until the fall of 1996. Approach roads, toll plazas, and final work on the structure continued until the spring of 1997, at an estimated total cost of $1 billion.
All bridge components were constructed on land, in purpose-built staging yards located on the shoreline at Amherst Head, fronting on Borden Harbour just east of the town and ferry docks, and an inland facility located at Bayfield, New Brunswick about 3 km (1.9 mi) west of Cape Tormentine. The Amherst Head staging facility was where all large components were built, including the pier bases, ice shields, main spans, and drop-in spans. The Bayfield facility was used to construct components for the near-shore bridges which were linked using a launching truss extending over shallow waters almost 2 km (1.2 mi) from the New Brunswick shore, and .5 km (0.3 mi) from the Prince Edward Island shore.
Diagram of the major parts of the bridge.
Extremely durable high-grade concrete and reinforcing steel were used throughout construction of the pre-cast components, with the estimated lifespan of the bridge being in excess of 100 years. Their sheer size and weight required strengthening of the soil base during the design and preparation work for the Amherst Head staging facility, as well as the use of a crawler transport system to move pieces from fabrication to storage, and onto a nearby pier. These crawler transports, using specially designed teflon-coated concrete rails, earned the nickname lobsters from workers.
All major components were lifted from the Amherst Head staging facility, transported, and placed in Abegweit Passage using the HLV Svanen, a Dutch-built heavy lift catamaran, which during the construction of the fixed link was reportedly the tallest man-made structure in the province. HLV Svanen was custom-built for use on the Great Belt Bridge in the early 1990s, Denmark's largest construction project, and was modified at a French shipyard before working on the Northumberland Strait Crossing Project. Following the placement of the final major component and completion of the bridge structure in Abegweit Passage on November 19, 1996, HLV Svanen returned to Denmark for use in construction of the Øresund Bridge.
Construction of the fixed link required over 5,000 workers ranging from labourers and specialty trades, to engineers, surveyors, and managers. The economic impact of construction on Prince Edward Island was substantial, with the provincial GDP rising over 5% during the construction, providing a short-term economic boom for the Island.
It neared completion in April 1997.[7]
Naming[edit]
The bridge from ground level on the New Brunswick side
Since the Island-coined nickname "Fixed Link" was not considered appropriate,[discuss] and the federal government-coined project name "Northumberland Strait Crossing Project" was deemed awkward, there was a need for a formal name for the structure. Throughout construction, the federal government received suggestions for names and on September 27, 1996, the name "Confederation Bridge" was chosen.[citation needed]
This name is not without controversy as many Islanders feel the word "Confederation" is overused throughout the province, finding use in the name of a Northumberland Ferries Limited vessel (M/V Confederation), a performing arts centre and art gallery (Confederation Centre of the Arts), a shopping centre (Confederation Court Mall), and the province-wide rails to trails system (Confederation Trail), as well as in tourism promotions (e.g., "Birthplace of Confederation"). The preference of Islanders was reportedly to use the name "Abegweit Crossing" which would pay homage to the Abegweit Passage, the vessel M/V Abegweit which the bridge would replace, and to the Mi'kmaq traditional name for the province.[citation needed]
However, at a time when national unity had just been challenged in the razor-thin results of the 1995 Quebec referendum, the federal government opted for a bilingually appropriate and nationally accepted, politically correct name for Canada's longest bridge connecting the mainland portion of the country to the province where the first meetings at the Charlottetown Conference in September 1864 led to the Confederation of British North America.[citation needed]
The President of Ireland, Mary McAleese, during a state visit to Canada in 1998, referred to the bridge as the "Span of Green Gables".[8]
Finishing[edit]
After completing the structure on November 19, 1996, SCI worked throughout the winter, paving the bridge deck, placing protective walls which act as wind barriers, placing bridge deck and navigational lighting, constructing the Borden-Carleton toll plaza, and finishing the New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island approach roads. In separate construction, the federal and provincial governments built a new commercial and tourist development on the abandoned CN rail yards in Borden-Carleton, with phase I of this facility opening in spring 1997 as "Gateway Village". New Brunswick has never received similar federal support to improve the economy of Cape Tormentine, which has become a shadow of its former role in PEI transportation history, although in recent years a new eco-tourist and visitor centre was opened on Jourimain Island near the western end of the bridge.
Official opening[edit]
The official opening for the bridge took place on May 31, 1997, with the first traffic crossing at approximately 5:00 p.m. ADT following a nationally televised ceremony which aired on CBC and included a sailpast of the schooner Bluenose II and several Canadian Coast Guard ships, a flyover by the Snowbirds, and an emotional farewell to the beloved ferries which made their final crossings that evening. It is estimated that almost 75,000 people participated in a "Bridge Walk" and "Bridge Run" during the hours immediately prior to the opening for traffic.
In the days following the opening of the bridge, ferry operator Marine Atlantic disposed of its four vessels. The ferry terminals and docks in both ports were removed over the summer of 1997.
Operation[edit]
The bridge is operated by Strait Crossing Bridge Limited (SCBL), a subsidiary of the Strait Crossing Development Inc. consortium which built the structure. SCBL will privately manage, maintain, and operate the bridge until 2032, when these operations will transfer to the Government of Canada.
The Government of Canada agreed to pay about $44 million a year for 33 years to Strait Crossing Development Inc., this being the subsidy which was formerly paid to Marine Atlantic to cover operating losses of the ferry system. These payments are in effect a mortgage and are being used by the developer to pay off construction costs. In 2032, the bridge's ownership will revert to the federal government.
All tolls charged by SCBL are revenue for the consortium. Toll increases are indexed to inflation and regulated by the federal government. The consortium has rarely commented upon the profitability of the bridge, but during the structure's 10th anniversary, it was revealed that there had been a 30% cost overrun in construction ($330 million), The consortium is forced to cover this out of toll revenue since the federal government ferry subsidy is used to pay for the original tendered price ($1 billion). Operating costs for the bridge have also proven expensive, with warranty repairs for asphalt adherence and the complete replacement of all bridge deck lighting cutting into profits. Toll revenues have fallen over 30% since the bridge opened, largely because of declining tourism traffic and domestic travel and currently range from $25 to $30 million annually. After expenses in 2003, the consortium received a year-end dividend of $2.6 million.[9]
Effect[edit]
Confederation Bridge at Point Confederation
The number of tourists visiting Prince Edward Island increased from 740,000 in 1996 (the year before the bridge opened) to 1,200,000 in 1997,[10] but this dropped back to about 900,000 visitors annually. The number of visitors staying in overnight accommodations in the province actually fell below pre-1996 levels, as many visitors now tour Prince Edward Island in "day trips" out of Moncton or Halifax. Prince Edward Island has responded by building high-end attractions such as golf courses to encourage increased spending by tourists during their shorter stays.[citation needed]
The link has made a difference in the export of food from Prince Edward Island. Potato production has increased dramatically, with industrial farming techniques being used to meet the demand. An increased number of food processing plants, creating items such as french fries and potato chips, have also benefitted from access to the increased potato crop and the ease of transporting off the island. Time-critical seafood has also increased exports from Prince Edward Island since 1997.
There has been a revolution in the island's retail sector since the opening of the Confederation Bridge. Before 1997, big box stores were rare and mostly found in larger centres in the Maritimes such as Halifax, Moncton, or Saint John. Prince Edward Island had a larger number of smaller, family-owned retail stores than other provinces, with few shopping malls and less selection of consumer goods. The opening of the Confederation Bridge was viewed with concern by government and the retail sector alike, as many thought Islanders would use the quicker transportation connection to drive to Moncton for many large-item purchases. While there was a small increase in the number of off-Island shoppers, the provincial government established a program of encouraging big box retailers to establish in the province. This included the elimination of provincial sales tax on clothing and footwear, resulting in a plethora of chains such as Walmart, Sears, Future Shop, Staples, and The Home Depot building stores on the Island. However, many smaller locally owned stores have gone out of business. This is one of the more visible impacts since the opening of the Confederation Bridge.[citation needed]
As a way of further promoting the island's new accessibility, the province issued vehicle licence plates from 1997 to 2006 that featured a likeness of the Confederation Bridge between the serial number. With valid registration, these plates remain visible on the road today.[11]
See also[edit]
Prince Edward Island portal
New Brunswick portal
Canada Roads portal
List of bridges
List of bridges by length
Newfoundland-Labrador fixed link, a similar proposal to connect the island of Newfoundland to the Canadian mainland
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Canada Transportation Act (2000). "Fact sheet". Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Take the High Road: Construction". Strait Crossing Bridge Limited. 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
Jump up ^ CBC Digital Archives. "The Confederation Bridge: P.E.I. Connects". CBC News. Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Canada, Joseph Edwin Crawford Munroe, 1889.
Jump up ^ Dalton, F. K. "Tampering With the Tides". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 55: 176–188. Bibcode:1961JRASC..55..176D.
Jump up ^ structurae.info: "Confederation Bridge"
Jump up ^ * dePalma, Anthony (April 27, 1997). "Canada Paves the Way To Prince Edward Island". New York Times. Retrieved July 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ President of Ireland (2014-07-02). "Speech By President Of Ireland, Mary Mc Aleese, At A Lunch/Reception Hosted By A Federal Minister, Charlottetown". President.ie. 53.359407;-6.317439. Retrieved 2017-08-20.
Jump up ^ CBC (May 31, 2007). "Bridge business not booming in 10th year". CBC News. Retrieved 2007-05-31.
Jump up ^ Government of Canada (1997). "Bridge to Prince Edward Island". Retrieved 2007-02-27.
Jump up ^ Prince Edward Island Licence plates
Further reading[edit]
Macdonald, Copthorne (1997). Bridging the Strait: the story of the Confederation Bridge project. Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-281-4.
Baldacchino, Godfrey (2007). Bridging Islands: the impact of fixed links. Acorn Press. ISBN 978-1-894838-24-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Confederation Bridge.
Confederation Bridge
Confederation Bridge (SC Infrastructure)
Confederation Bridge at Structurae
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