text:
Big Five personality traits and culture
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Cross-cultural psychology as a discipline examines the way that human behavior is different and/or similar across different cultures. One important and widely studied area in this subfield of psychology is personality, particularly the study of Big Five. The Big Five personality traits are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. The Big Five model of personality (also known as the Five Factor Model) has become the most extensively studied model of personality and has broad support, starting in the United States and later in many different cultures.[not in citation given][1] However, there is also some evidence which suggests that the Big Five traits may not be sufficient to completely explain personality in other cultures.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Support for the Big Five across cultures
2 Comparisons in the Big Five across cultures
2.1 Similarities
2.2 Differences
3 Controversy
3.1 HEXACO model of personality
3.2 Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory
3.3 Other possible models
4 References
Support for the Big Five across cultures[edit]
Research suggests that the same five-factor structure of personality can be found in multiple other countries, based on a translated version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory.[3] Over the past decade, studies on the validity of the Five-Factor Model using translations of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory have found broad support across many different studies and in many different countries; in earlier studies, Extraversion and Neuroticism were reported as stable personality scales across several cultures, including German, Dutch, French, Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino samples.[4]
Further research found support for the entire Five-Factor Model in Chinese, Dutch, Italian, Hungarian, German, Australian, South African, Canadian, Finnish, Polish, Portuguese, Israeli, Korean, Japanese, and Filipino samples, in addition to other samples.[4] Across multiple studies, factor analyses of translations of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory in languages from different language families consistently load on five factors that largely correspond to the Big Five personality traits.[4] Additionally, the Big Five traits have been found in the personality ratings of observers in over 50 cultures, indicating that the previous findings were not dependent merely on ratings of the self.[5] Overall, this body of work has established the validity of the Five-Factor model cross-culturally, potentially providing evidence for the Five-Factor Model as a universal taxonomy of personality structure.[3]
Comparisons in the Big Five across cultures[edit]
One approach psychologists have taken when examining Big Five traits in different cultures has been to examine either similarities or differences between cultures. Generally, researchers examine the average levels of a trait (or multiple traits) across an entire culture to make comparisons cross-culturally.[6]
Similarities[edit]
There are many similarities in Big Five trait expression across cultures. For example, differences between men and women in Big Five traits, although small compared to variation within gender, do seem to exist consistently across a number of cultures. In general, women tend to score higher on neuroticism and agreeableness.[7] Additionally, longitudinal studies have found consistency in personality changes that occur across the lifetime, in both adults and adolescents.[8][9] Research in Big Five traits in American and Flemish teens showed similar changes in personality from ages 12 to 18.[9] In addition, the period from young adulthood to middle adulthood is associated with increases in Conscientiousness and Agreeableness and decreases in Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion in several countries, including the United States, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Croatia, and South Korea.[8]
Differences[edit]
It is also important to note that when examining the average personality traits of individuals in cultural groups, differences between cultures seem to exist.[10] Some research compares one culture against another culture on a specific Big Five personality trait; Filipinos, for example, score relatively low on Neuroticism on average, compared to other cultures measured, while scoring in the middle of the scale on Extraversion.[10] Americans, New Zealanders, and Canadians score higher on Extraversion, while scoring moderately on Neuroticism.[10] These differences, however, exist on average, and there is still a large amount of variability in Big Five personality traits that exists within a particular culture.[10] Gender differences in personality tend to be larger in developed societies (such as France and the United States) compared to less-developed cultures (such as Zimbabwe and Malaysia).[2][7] However, although these findings are quite robust, one consideration is that these differences between cultures might be the result of translation errors, differences in self-presentation styles, or even genetic differences.[2][4]
Furthermore, although broad evidence suggests that the Big Five traits do measure meaningful constructs across a great deal of cultures, it is also true that expressions of mean levels of personality are necessarily influenced by culture.[4] That is to say, all individuals scoring high on a certain Big Five personality trait such as Extraversion are likely to enjoy socialization with others, but where, when, and with whom they socialize is necessarily influenced by their cultural milieu.[4] Thus, it may be most productive to think of the Five Factor Model as a framework for beginning to explore systematically individual differences in behavior within a particular culture.[4]
Controversy[edit]
Some controversy exists over whether or not the Big Five are relevant to all other cultures, especially given that the Big Five were developed via factor analysis from English words.[2] Although support for the Big Five across cultures is quite robust, it is unclear whether or not the Big Five personality traits are the best possible measure of personality across all cultures. Some researchers suggest that important aspects of certain cultures are not captured by the Five Factor Model.[2][11]
HEXACO model of personality[edit]
One proposed alternative to the Big Five that has been developed via cross-cultural research is the HEXACO model.[11] This model builds on the research of the Big Five traits, with the novel addition of a trait named Honesty-Humility.[12] Individuals high in the trait of honesty-humility are associated with the characteristics of straightforwardness, modesty, and fairness.[12] In addition, the HEXACO model contains slightly rotated versions of two of the Big Five traits (Agreeableness and Neuroticism) such that sentimentality/toughness becomes part of the old Neuroticism trait (and renamed Emotionality) and anger/even-temper becomes associated with the new Agreeableness trait.[12] This rotation creates less overlap among the six personality traits of the HEXACO, and allows for better prediction of behaviors such as deceit without hostility (e.g. social monitoring).[12] Support for the HEXACO model has been found in multiple countries, including Dutch, French, German, Italian, Korean, Polish, and English samples.[12]
Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory[edit]
Chinese psychologists have attempted to develop an indigenous measure of personality, named the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI).[2] Traits in the CPAI model have also collectively been referred to as "Interpersonal Relatedness," and include:
Harmony (one's inner peace of mind, interpersonal harmony, etc.)
Ren Qing (relationship orientation, which covers adherence to cultural norms of interaction such as those based on reciprocity)
Modernization (contrasted with attitudes toward traditional Chinese beliefs)
Thrift vs. Extravagance
Ah-Q Mentality (defensiveness, externalization of blame)
Face (social behaviors done in order to enhance or avoid damaging one's reputation and honor)[6][13]
Support for this model of personality was originally developed in studies in mainland and Hong Kong, China, but the existence of the Interpersonal Relatedness dimension of personality has also been found in samples from Singapore, Hawaii, and the Midwestern United States.[6]
Other possible models[edit]
Other researchers have found different personality dimensions that may exists in different cultural contexts.[6] For example, one study of a Filipino sample used both indigenous Filipino personality scales and the NEO-PI-R, and although there was overlap between the Filipino scales and the Five Factor Model, researchers also found indigenous factors such as Pagkamadaldal (Social Curiosity) and Pagkamapagsapalaran (Risk-Taking) that had predictive power greater than the Five Factor Model alone.[6][14] Other research using indigenous approaches to traits has taken place in countries such as India, Korea, and Greece.[6] A Chinese factor analysis of traits in 2009 found seven factors (three or four of which resembled Big Five traits). A similar study in Spain in 1997 found seven Spanish personality factors. However, the seven factors were not the same across the two countries.[2] Thus, it is clear that although there is strong support for the Big Five across cultures, some research suggests the existence of other traits besides simply the Big Five, which may ultimately improve our understanding of personality across different cultures.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gosling, S. D.; Rentfrow, P. J.; Swann, W. B. (June 2003). "A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains". Journal of Research in Personality. 37 (6): 504–528. doi:10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00046-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Funder, David (2010). The Personality Puzzle. NY: WW Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-93348-2.
^ Jump up to: a b McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T. (May 1997). "Personality trait structure as a human universal". American Psychologist. 52 (2): 509–516. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.5.509.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g McCrae, R. R.; Costa, P. T.; Del Pilar, G. H.; Rolland, J. P.; Parker, W. D. (January 1998). "Cross-cultural assessment of the five-factor model: The revised NEO personality inventory". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 29 (1): 171–188. doi:10.1177/0022022198291009.
Jump up ^ McCrae, R. R., Terracciano, A., & 78 members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project (March 2005). "Universal features of personality trait terms from the observer's perspective: Data from 50 cultures". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88 (3): 29–44. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.547. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Matsumoto, David; Linda Juang (2008). Culture & Psychology. CA: Thomson & Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-09787-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Costa, P.T.; Terracciano, A.; McCrae, R. R. (August 2001). "Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81 (2): 322–331. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.322. PMID 11519935.
^ Jump up to: a b McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., de Lima, M. P., Simões, A., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Marušić, I., Bratko, D., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Chae, J. & Piedmont, R. L. (March 1999). "Age differences in personality across the adult life span: Parallels in five cultures". Developmental Psychology. 35 (2): 466–477. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.466. PMID 10082017. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., de Lima, M. P., Simões, A., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Marušić, I., Bratko, D., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Chae, J. & Piedmont, R. L. (December 2002). "Personality trait development from age 12 to age 18: Longitudinal, cross-sectional and cross-cultural analyses". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 83 (6): 1456–1468. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1456. PMID 12500824. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d McCrae, R. R., Terracciano, A., & 78 members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project (September 2005). "Personality profiles of cultures: Aggregate personality traits". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 89 (3): 407–425. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.407. PMID 16248722. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Ashton, M.C.; Lee, K.; Perugini, M.; Szarota, P.; de Vries, R. E.; Di Blas, L.; Boies, K.; De Raad, B. (February 2004). "A Six-Factor Structure of Personality-Descriptive Adjectives: Solutions From Psycholexical Studies in Seven Languages". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 86 (2): 356–366. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.356. PMID 14769090.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ashton, M.C. & Lee, K. (October 2005). "Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and the Five-Factor Model". Journal of Personality. 73 (5): 1321–1354. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00351.x. PMID 16138875.
Jump up ^ Cheung, F. M.; Leung, K.; Fan, R. M.; Song, W.S.; Zhang, J. X.; Zhang, H. P. (March 1996). "Development of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 27 (2): 181–199. doi:10.1177/0022022196272003.
Jump up ^ Katigbak, M. S.; Church, A. T.; Guanzon-Lapeña, M. A.; Carlota, A. J.; del Pilar, G. H. (January 2002). "Are indigenous personality dimensions culture specific? Philippine inventories and the five-factor model". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 82 (1): 89–101. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.89. PMID 11811638.
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text:
United States two-dollar bill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Two dollars
(United States)
Value
$2.00
Width
156 mm
Height
66.3 mm
Weight
Approx. 1[1] g
Security features
None
Paper type
75% cotton
25% linen
Years of printing
1862–1966,
1976–present (Federal Reserve Note, current form)
Obverse
Design
Thomas Jefferson
Design date
1928
Reverse
Design
Trumbull's Declaration of Independence
Design date
1976
The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. The third U.S. President (1801–09), Thomas Jefferson, is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraving of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. Throughout the $2 bill's pre-1929 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, silver certificate, Treasury or "Coin" Note and Federal Reserve Bank Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. Production went on until 1966, when the series was discontinued. Ten years passed before the $2 bill was reissued as a Federal Reserve Note with a new reverse design. Two-dollar bills are seldom seen in circulation as a result of banking policies with businesses which has resulted in low production numbers due to lack of demand. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public knowledge that the bill is still in production and circulation, has also inspired urban legends and occasionally has created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases.
Contents
[hide]
1 Denomination overview
2 Rarity
3 History
3.1 Large-sized notes
3.2 Small size notes
3.2.1 1928–1966
3.2.2 1976–present
3.3 Series dates
3.3.1 Large size
3.3.2 Small size
4 Visual snapshot
5 Usage
5.1 Incidents
6 Uncut currency sheets
7 References
8 External links
Denomination overview[edit]
The denomination of two dollars was authorized under a congressional act, and first used in March 1862.[2] The denomination was continuously used until the 1960s; by this time the United States Note was the only remaining class of U.S. currency the two-dollar bill was assigned to. In 1966 it was decided to discontinue production of all United States Notes, which included the two-dollar bill.[3] The two-dollar denomination was not immediately reassigned to the Federal Reserve Note class of United States currency and was thus fully discontinued; the Treasury Department cited the two-dollar bill's low use and unpopularity as the reason for not immediately resuming use of the denomination. In 1976, production of the two-dollar denomination was resumed and the two-dollar bill was finally assigned as a Federal Reserve Note, with a new reverse design featuring John Trumbull's depiction of the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence replacing the previous design of Monticello. It has remained a current denomination since then.[4] It was estimated that if the two-dollar bill replaced approximately half of the one-dollar bills in circulation, the federal government would be able to save about $26 million in 1976 dollars ($112 million adjusted for inflation)[5] over the period from 1976 to 1981, due to reduced production, storage, and shipping costs.[6]
However, due to their limited use, two-dollar bills are not printed as frequently in a new series like other denominations, which are produced according to demand.[7] Some bill acceptors found in vending machines, self checkout lanes, and other automated kiosks are configured to accommodate two-dollar bills, even if the fact is not stated on the label.[8] Although they are generally available at most banks, two-dollar bills are usually not handed out except upon specific request by the customer, and may cause a delay with a trip to the vault.[9]
Rarity[edit]
The seeming rarity of a $2 bill can be attributed to its low printing numbers as a Federal Reserve Note. Hoarding of the series due to lack of public knowledge of the $2 bill has resulted in very few bills seen in circulation.[10] After its initial release, supplies of the Series 1976 two-dollar bill were allowed to dwindle until August 1996 when a new series dated 1995 began to be printed. This series was only printed for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.[11]
Today, there is a common misconception by the general public that the $2 bill is no longer being produced. According to the Treasury, it "receives many letters asking why the $2 bill is no longer in circulation".[12] In response, the Treasury stated: "The $2 bill remains one of our circulating currency denominations... As of April 30, 2007 there were $1,549,052,714 worth of $2 bills in circulation worldwide."
Things such as unusual serial numbers (example: A11111111A), and replacement notes designated by a star in the serial number can raise the collector value. "Collectible" two-dollar bills have been made and sold by coin dealers and others in recent years merely by adding colors and special graphics to regular issue bills by using computer printers. However, these bills are not authorized by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) and are not worth anything more than face value on the collectors' market.[13]
Certain conventions and tourism/convention bureaus capitalize on the scarcity of $2 bills in circulation, encouraging convention attendees and tourists to spend $2 bills in order to illustrate to the host communities the economic impact that the conventions and tourism bring. Sometimes known as "SpendTom" campaigns, the $2 bills linger in the community as a constant reminder. Some campaigns encourage people to participate in a hunt for the bills in order to win prizes.[14]
History[edit]
Large-sized notes[edit]
First $2 bill issued in 1862 as a Legal Tender Note.
Series 1886 $2 Silver Certificate depicting Winfield Scott Hancock
Series 1890 featuring James McPherson. This "Coin Note" was used for government purchases of silver bullion from the mining industry.
(approximately 7.4218 × 3.125 in ≅ 189 × 79 mm)
In March 1862, the first $2 bill was issued as a Legal Tender Note (United States Note) with a portrait of Alexander Hamilton; the portrait of Hamilton used was a profile view and is not the same portrait used currently for the $10 bill. The continental congress based on defending the United States, released on June 25, 1776, began to authorize $2 credit, the circulation of 49,000 copies. Pass two-dollar bill was first used in March 1862. Between 1966 and 1976, two-dollar notes were not printed.
By 1869, the $2 United States Note was redesigned with the now familiar portrait of Thomas Jefferson to the left and a vignette of the United States Capitol in the center of the obverse. This note also featured green tinting on the top and left side of the obverse. Although this note is technically a United States Note, TREASURY NOTE appeared on it instead of UNITED STATES NOTE. The reverse was completely redesigned. This series was again revised in 1874, changes on the obverse included removing the green tinting, adding a red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C., and changing the term TREASURY NOTE to UNITED STATES NOTE. The 1874 design was also issued as Series of 1875 and 1878 and by 1880 the red floral design around WASHINGTON D.C. on the United States Note was removed and the serial numbers were changed to blue. This note with the red floral design was also issued as Series of 1917 but with red serial numbers by that time.[15]
National Bank Notes were issued in 1875 and feature a woman unfurling a flag and a big 2 (Lazy Duce) on the obverse, the reverse has the king of England smoking tobacco and an eagle with a shield.[16]
The second two-dollar denomination in the silver certificate series printed in 1891. This note features United States Secretary of the Treasury William Windom.
In 1886, the first $2 silver certificate with a portrait of United States Civil War General Winfield Scott Hancock on the left of the obverse was issued. This design went on until 1891 when a new $2 Silver Certificate was issued with a portrait of U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom in the center of the obverse.[17]
Two-dollar Treasury, or "Coin", Notes were first issued for government purchases of silver bullion in 1890 from the silver mining industry. The reverse featured large wording of TWO in the center and a numeral 2 to the right surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. In 1891 the reverse of the Series of 1890 Treasury Note was redesigned because the treasury felt that it was too "busy" which would make it too easy to counterfeit. More open space was incorporated into the new design.[18]
In 1896, the "Educational Series" Silver Certificate was issued. The entire obverse of the note was covered in artwork with an allegorical figure of science presenting steam and electricity to commerce and manufacture. The reverse of the note featured portraits of Robert Fulton and Samuel F. B. Morse surrounded by an ornate design that occupied almost the entire note. By 1899, however, The $2 Silver Certificate was redesigned with a small portrait of George Washington surrounded by allegorical figures representing agriculture and mechanics.[19]
Robert Fulton and Samuel Morse depicted on the reverse of the 1896 $2 'Educational Series" Silver Certificate.
The final design of the United States' silver certificate series featuring George Washington, printed in 1899.
The only large-sized, Federal Reserve Note-like $2 bill was issued in 1918 as a Federal Reserve Bank Note. Each note was an obligation of the issuing Federal Reserve Bank and could only be redeemed at the corresponding bank. The obverse of the note featured a borderless portrait of Thomas Jefferson to left and wording in the entire center. The reverse featured a World War I battleship.[20]
Beginning in the 1950s, production of $2 bills began to decrease. The relative scarcity of the bills lead some to start saving any they found, with the inevitable result that the notes became rarer in circulation. Currently, the circulation of $2 bills accounts for around 1% of the U.S. currency in circulation.
Small size notes[edit]
(6.14 × 2.61 in ≅ 156 × 66 mm)
1928–1966[edit]
In 1928, when all U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. The obverse featured a cropped version of Thomas Jefferson's portrait that had been on previous $2 bills. The reverse featured Jefferson's home, Monticello. The note's seal and serial numbers were red. The Series of 1928 $2 bill featured the treasury seal superimposed by the United States Note obligation to the left and a large gray TWO to the right.[21]
In 1953 the $2 bill received minor design changes analogous to the $5 United States Note. The treasury seal was made smaller and moved to the right side of the bill; it was superimposed over the gray word TWO. The United States Note obligation now became superimposed over a gray numeral 2. The reverse remained unchanged.[22]
The final change to $2 United States Notes came in 1963 when the motto IN GOD WE TRUST was added to the reverse over the Monticello.[23] And, because dollar bills were soon to no longer be redeemable in silver, WILL PAY TO THE BEARER ON DEMAND was removed from the obverse. Two-dollar bills, along with $5 and $100 United States Notes, were officially discontinued in August 1966, although they all remain legal tender.
1976–present[edit]
Series 1976 first day of issue $2 bill with a canceled JFK postage stamp.
On April 13, 1976, the Treasury Department reintroduced the $2 bill as a cost-saving measure.[24] Series 1976 $2 bills were redesigned and issued as a Federal Reserve Note. The obverse design remains basically unchanged since 1928 and features the same portrait of Jefferson. A green treasury seal and serial numbers replace the red used on the previous United States Notes. Since the reissue of the bill coincided with the United States Bicentennial, it was decided to use a bicentennial themed design on the reverse. An engraved rendition (not an exact reproduction) of John Trumbull's The Declaration of Independence replaced Monticello on the reverse. First day issues of the new $2 bills could be taken to a post office and stamped with the date "APR 13 1976". In all, 590,720,000 notes from Series 1976 were printed.
Currently, stamped series 1976 $2 bills typically trade for about twice their face value. If the bills were stamped in a city with an unusual name, the value may be slightly higher. However, no first-day-issued 1976 $2 bills with stamps are especially rare or valuable.
Despite their age, crisp, uncirculated series 1976 $2 bills are not uncommon and are not particularly valuable. More than half a billion of these notes were printed and a large amount were saved and hoarded upon their original issue. A typical single uncirculated 1976 $2 bill is worth only slightly above face value. If the note is circulated, then it is only worth its $2 face value.
In 1996 and 1997, 153,600,000 bills were printed[25] as Series 1995 for the Federal Reserve District of Atlanta. In 2004, 121,600,000 of the Series 2003 bills were printed for the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank. An issue of Series 2003A $2 bills was printed from July to September 2006 for all twelve Federal Reserve Banks. In all, 220,800,000 notes were printed.[11]
In February 2012, the B.E.P. printed 512,000 Series 2009 $2 Star Notes, in anticipation of more regular runs being printed later in 2012. Series 2009 $2 bills were issued to banks during the summer of 2012.[26][27]
In November 2013, the B.E.P. began printing series 2013 $2 bills for the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta; these notes entered circulation in early 2014. A total of 44,800,000 notes were ordered for fiscal year 2014, which ran from October 2013 through September 2014.[28]
Series dates[edit]
Large size[edit]
Series 1880 $2 Legal Tender note showing a large brown treasury seal. The signatures of Blanche Bruce & A. U. Wyman. are present on the obverse near the bottom
Type
Series
Registerα
Treasurerα
Sealα
Notes
Legal Tender Note 1862 Lucius E. Chittenden F.E. Spinner Small Red w/rays Also called a "Greenback".
Legal Tender Note 1869 John Allison F.E. Spinner Large Red Nicknamed: "Rainbow Note" from its
red, white, and blue colors.[29]
Legal Tender Note 1874 John Allison F.E. Spinner Small Red w/rays
Legal Tender Note 1875 John Allison New & Wyman Small Red w/rays
Legal Tender Note 1878 Allison & Scofield James Gilfillan Small Red w/rays Scofield/Gilfillan combo is scarce
Legal Tender Note 1880 Scofield, Bruce,
Rosecrans, and Tillman Gilfillan, Wyman, Huston,
Nebeker, and Morgan Large Brown/Red
Small Red scalloped
Legal Tender Note 1917 Teehee, Elliott,
and Speelman John Burke & White Small Red scalloped
National Bank Note Original Colby, Jeffries, and Allison F.E. Spinner Small Red w/rays Jeffries/Spinner combo is very rare
National Bank Note 1875 Allison & Scofield New, Wyman, and Gilfillan Small Red scalloped Nicknamed: "Lazy Deuce" along with
the original series from the position
of the "2" on the note.[30]
Silver Certificate 1886 William S. Rosecrans Jordan, Hyatt, and Huston Large Brown/Red
Small Red scalloped
Silver Certificate 1891 William S. Rosecrans Benjamin Harrison Large Red
Silver Certificate 1891 Rosecrans & Tillman Nebecker & Morgan Small Red scalloped
Silver Certificate 1896 Tillman & Bruce Morgan & Roberts Small Red w/rays Part of the "Educational Series".
Silver Certificate 1899 Lyons, Vernon, Napier,
Parker, Teehee, Elliott,
and Speelman Roberts, Treat, McClung,
Thompson, Burke, and White Blue
Treasury Note 1890 William S. Rosecrans Huston & Nebecker Large Brown
& Small Red scalloped
Treasury Note 1890 William S. Rosecrans Benjamin Harrison Large Red
Treasury Note 1891 Rosecrans, Tillman, and Bruce Nebecker, Morgan, and Roberts Small Red scalloped
Federal Reserve Bank Note 1918 Teehee & Elliott John Burke Blue Nicknamed: "Battleship note" from
the reverse design.[31]
Small size[edit]
The first small-size $2 Legal Tender Note printed (Smithsonian)
Type
Series
Treasurerα
Secretaryα
Seal
Legal Tender Note 1928, 1928-A to G Tate, Woods, Julian,
Clark Mellon, Mills, Morgenthau,
Vinson, Snyder Red
Legal Tender Note 1953, 1953-A to C Priest, Smith, Granahan Humphrey, Anderson, Dillon Red
Legal Tender Note 1963, 1963-A Kathryn E. Granahan Dillon & Fowler Red
Federal Reserve Note 1976 Francine I. Neff William E. Simon Green
Federal Reserve Note 1995 Mary Ellen Withrow Robert E. Rubin Green
Federal Reserve Note 2003 Rosario Marin John W. Snow Green
Federal Reserve Note 2003-A Anna Escobedo Cabral John W. Snow Green
Federal Reserve Note 2009 Rosa Gumataotao Rios Timothy F. Geithner Green
Federal Reserve Note 2013 Rosa Gumataotao Rios Jack Lew Green
^α These are sourced by The Official Red Book (Whitman).[32]
Visual snapshot[edit]
A chronological display of the American two-dollar bill.
Visual collection of the two-dollar bill throughout the history of the United States.
Usage[edit]
Over five million $2 bills are entered into the database of the American currency-tracking website Where's George?.[33] Because $2 bills are uncommon in daily use, their use can make a particular group of spenders visible. A documented case of using two-dollar bills to send a message to a community is the case of Geneva Steel and the communities in surrounding Utah County. In 1989, Geneva Steel paid its employee bonuses in $2 bills. When the bills began to appear in different places, people recognized the importance of the company to the local economy.[34]
Use of the two-dollar bill is also being suggested by some gun rights activists to show support for Second Amendment rights, particularly at stores that allow Open Carry or Concealed carry of weapons on their premises.[35][36] Two-dollar notes have also seen increased usage in situations where tipping is encouraged, especially in strip clubs. This is due to the idea that tips will increase because of the ease of use of a single, higher-denomination bill as the lowest common note in use.[37]
The use of the two-dollar bill is popular among fans and alumni of Clemson University who often bring notes with them when traveling to university athletic events in other localities as a demonstration of their economic impact in an area. The idea was first popularized in 1977 when Georgia Tech had threatened to no longer play the Tigers in football and has since caught on as a token of fandom when traveling to other locations. Fans will often stamp an orange tiger paw (Clemson's logo) on the note as a sign of its origin.[38]
During the 1930s, the $2 bill was often used at East Coast horse race tracks to make a bet. Because of the German and Jewish influence, the bill was locally known in parts of New Jersey as a "zwei-buck", and the upper right corner "2" was sometimes torn off to increase the luck.[citation needed]
Incidents[edit]
The relative scarcity of the $2 bill in everyday circulation has led to confusion at points of sale, as well as overreaction and prosecution of the individual attempting to tender the bill.
In 2005, a man in Baltimore, Maryland was jailed for attempting to use $2 bills to pay a car stereo installation fee that Best Buy originally agreed to waive in the first place.[39]
In 2016, a 13-year-old girl in Texas was detained by police at Fort Bend Independent School District's Christa McAuliffe Middle School, and prevented from eating lunch that day, for attempting to use a $2 bill to pay for chicken nuggets in the school cafeteria.[40][41]
Uncut currency sheets[edit]
Uncut Currency delivery from BEP.
Uncut currency sheets are available from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Some of the recent $2 uncut sheets from Series 1995 and Series 2003 have been collectibles as they come from special non-circulation printings. Most of the Series 1995 $2 uncut sheets had a higher suffix letter in the serial number than regular circulation $2 bills. Uncut $2 sheets from Series 2003 were printed for the Boston (A), New York (B), Atlanta (F), Chicago (G), Minneapolis (I), and Dallas (K) Federal Reserve Districts despite the fact that notes from the Minneapolis district were the only ones released for circulation. Uncut sheets of Series 2003A have also been produced, although in this case circulating currency for all districts has also been made. All two-dollar bills beginning with Series 1995 have been printed in the BEP facility in Fort Worth, Texas (indicated by "FW" preceding the face plate number on the obverse of the note).[11][42][43]
Tipping $2 uncut currency at Starbucks.
Two-Dollar Bill Challenge - Spend only two dollar bills for an entire month.
Uncut sheets of $2 bills are available in various sizes. A 32-subject sheet, which is the original-size sheet on which the notes are printed, is available. Other sheet sizes available have been cut from the original 32-subject sheet. These include half (16-note), quarter (8-note), and eighth (4-note) sheets for $2 bills. Uncut sheets are sold for more than their respective face values.[44] Uncut sheets of large size notes (issued before 1928) also exist, but are extremely rare.[45]
Steve Wozniak, a co-founder of Apple Inc., has been using $2 banknotes separated from 4-bill uncut sheets (glued together into pads), to surprise merchants and waiters; also, because of the notes' unusual appearance, he has been interviewed by a Secret Service agent.[46][47]
It has become common and trendy for patrons of Wolfgang's Steakhouse located on Park Ave in Manhattan to leave a full sheet of $2 (or portion thereof) as a tip for service.[48]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ U.S. Currency Education Program. "Weight of a US Banknote". uscurrency.gov. US Federal Reserve. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Legal Tender Alexander Hamilton: 1862 $2 Currency". The Kennedy Mint. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Six Kinds of United States Paper Currency". friesian.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "About Paper Money - Small-size Bicentennial $2 notes". Coinworld.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Stone, Suzanne J. (March–April 1976). "The $2 Bill Returns" (PDF). The Economic Review. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. 62 (2). Retrieved December 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ "$2.00 still printed?". Ustreas.gov. Archived from the original on July 25, 2010. Retrieved July 27, 2010.
Jump up ^ "$2 accepting vending machines". 4mega-vending.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Use The $2". Retrieved October 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ Why are there so few $2 bills?
^ Jump up to: a b c "Series 2003A $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "FAQs: Denominations of currency". United States Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on August 25, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ bbbconsumeralert (January 27, 2010). "Sometimes a $2 Bill is Just a $2 Bill". Tucson Citizen.com. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Spend Tom 2010". Visit California. January 1, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 88–90. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 91. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 91–92. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 93–94. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. pp. 96–97. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 97. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 98. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 99. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Stone, Suzanne J. (March–April 1976). "The $2 Bill Returns". Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ Bureau of Engraving and Printing. "Annual Production Figures". Archived from the original on March 4, 2007. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Series 2009 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "2012 BEP Production Info via FOIA". WheresGeorge.com. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Series 2013 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "1869 $2 Legal Tender Rainbow Note". usrarecurrency.com. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kathy Lawrence (May 19, 2011). ""Lazy Deuces" — $2 National Bank Notes". currency.ha.com. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fred Reed (July 29, 2009). "Battleship Note Projects American Naval Strength". numismaster.com. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Arthur L. & Ira S. Friedberg (2014). A guide Book of United States Paper Money 4th Edition. Whitman. pp. 56–68.
Jump up ^ http://www.wheresgeorge.com/wrapper.php?page=denom
Jump up ^ Tad Walch (May 17, 2003). "Geneva workers give their $2 worth". Deseret News. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
Jump up ^ "2A supporters start Buycott to battle the Starbucks Anti-Firearm Boycott". Military Times. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Starbucks "$2 for 2A" Appreciation Day Going Viral". The Truth About Guns. Retrieved February 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "$2 bill increasing in use and shedding its 'play-money' image". USA Today. November 7, 2006. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Clemson University Traditions". Retrieved October 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Man arrested, cuffed after using $2 bills". WND.com. Retrieved June 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Little Girl Detained By Police After Trying to Buy School Lunch with Real $2 Bill". Reason.com. Retrieved June 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lunchroom Lunacy: ISD cops investigate $2 bill spent on school lunch". abc13.com. Retrieved Feb 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Series 1995 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Series 2003 $2". USpapermoney.info. Retrieved February 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "BEP to Raise Uncut Currency Sheet Prices". coinnews.net. Retrieved July 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Large Size. 1896. Silver Certificates. Bound Presentation Set of the First Educational Uncut Sheets. $1, $2, and $5. Fr-224, 247, and 268. PMG Photo Proof Certificates". stacksbowers.com. Retrieved July 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Woz and the Secret Service: "The infamous $2 bill incident"". Woz.org. Retrieved 2017-09-07.
Jump up ^ Woz's $2 bill sheets - The Engadget Show on YouTube (2011-02-01)
Jump up ^ "Wolfgang's Steakhouse". Wikipedia. 2018-03-15.
General
Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money, 17th edition published by Krause Publications
Arthur L. Friedberg, Ira S. Friedberg, David L. (INT) Ganz (2005). A Guide Book of United States Paper Money. Whitman Publishing, LLC. p. 432. ISBN 0-7948-1786-6. Retrieved February 9, 2011. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing website
USpapermoney.info
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2 United States dollar banknotes.
The U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing's website
USAToday: "$2 bill increasing in use and shedding its 'play-money' image" 2006-11-06.
The Two Dollar Bill project teaches Americans about the history of the $2 bill"
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Limestone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Limestone (disambiguation).
Limestone
Sedimentary rock
Limestone outcrop in the Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of Málaga, Spain
Composition
Calcium carbonate: inorganic crystalline calcite or organic calcareous material
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
About 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock.
Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, an essential component of concrete (Portland cement), as aggregate for the base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints, as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime, as a soil conditioner, or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens.
Contents
1 Description
2 Classification
2.1 Folk classification
2.2 Dunham classification
3 Limestone landscape
4 Uses
4.1 Occupational safety and health
4.1.1 United States
5 Degradation by organisms
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Description[edit]
Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA
Cutting limestone blocks at a quarry in Gozo, Malta
Limestone as building material
La Zaplaz formations in the Piatra Craiului Mountains, Romania.
Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts.
Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert (chalcedony, flint, jasper, etc.) or siliceous skeletal fragment (sponge spicules, diatoms, radiolarians), and varying amounts of clay, silt and sand (terrestrial detritus) carried in by rivers.
Some limestones do not consist of grains, and are formed by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i.e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular (oolite) appearance.
The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, building upon past generations. Below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters (see lysocline). Limestones may also form in lacustrine[1] and evaporite depositional environments.[2][3]
Calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases.
Impurities (such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces.
Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures.
Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells.
During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process (orogeny), limestone recrystallizes into marble.
Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group.
Classification[edit]
See also: List of types of limestone
Two major classification schemes, the Folk and the Dunham, are used for identifying limestone and carbonate rocks.
Folk classification[edit]
Main article: Folk classification
Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks. Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the grains and the second is the root. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample.[4]
Dunham classification[edit]
Main article: Dunham classification
The Dunham scheme focuses on depositional textures. Each name is based upon the texture of the grains that make up the limestone. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962; it focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles. Dunham names are essentially for rock families. His efforts deal with the question of whether or not the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.[5]
Limestone landscape[edit]
Main article: Karst topography
The Cudgel of Hercules, a tall limestone rock (Pieskowa Skała Castle in the background)
About 10% of all sedimentary rocks are limestones.[6][7]
Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. It is therefore usually associated with hills and downland, and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays.
Karst topography and caves develop in limestone rocks due to their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes. Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone. While draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in solution. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.
Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil record (see Taylor and Wilson, 2003).
Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight,[8] England; the Great Orme in Wales ; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States, Notch Peak in Utah, the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam and the hills around the Lijiang River and Guilin city in China.
The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.
Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden. Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden. Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers.
The world's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company in Rogers City, Michigan.[9]
Uses[edit]
The Megalithic Temples of Malta such as Ħaġar Qim are built entirely of limestone. They are among the oldest free-standing structures in existence.[10]
Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in Giza, Egypt, were made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were, and continue to be, constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.[11] On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was, for a long time, the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving.[12] Ancient American sculptors valued limestone because it was easy to work and good for fine detail. Going back to the Late Preclassic period (by 200–100 BCE), the Maya civilization (Ancient Mexico) created refined sculpture using limestone because of these excellent carving properties. The Maya would decorate the ceilings of their sacred buildings (known as lintels) and cover the walls with carved limestone panels. Carved on these sculptures were political and social stories, and this helped communicate messages of the king to his people.[13] Limestone is long-lasting and stands up well to exposure, which explains why many limestone ruins survive. However, it is very heavy, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material.
The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World had an outside cover made entirely from limestone.
Riley County Courthouse built of limestone in Manhattan, Kansas, USA
A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print.
Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a source of high quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone.
Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England.
Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid solutions, making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone. Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain. Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain, acting as a pH buffering agent. Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline-based cleaner.
Other uses include:
It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), cement and mortar.
Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils (agricultural lime).
Is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete.
Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;
As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution control.
Glass making, in some circumstances, uses limestone.[14]
It is added to toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler.
It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.
Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.
Calcium levels in livestock feed are supplemented with it, such as for poultry (when ground up).[15]
It can be used for remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.[16]
Used in blast furnaces, limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove them from the iron.
It is often found in medicines and cosmetics.
It is used in sculptures because of its suitability for carving.
Occupational safety and health[edit]
People can be exposed to limestone in the workplace by inhalation of and eye contact with the dust.
United States[edit]
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for limestone exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[17]
Degradation by organisms[edit]
The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa.[18]
Gallery[edit]
A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale. The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction.
Thin-section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah, U.S. The round grains are ooids; the largest is 1.2 mm in diameter. This limestone is an oosparite.
Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation (Upper Ordovician) near Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.
Biosparite limestone of the Brassfield Formation (Lower Silurian) near Fairborn, Ohio, U.S., showing grains mainly composed of crinoid fragments.
A concretionary nodular (septarian) limestone at Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, China.
Limestone from Lake Tai, used in gongshi, a Chinese stone art
See also[edit]
Chalk
Coral sand
Kurkar
In Praise of Limestone
Sandstone
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Roeser, Patricia; Franz, Sven O.; Litt, Thomas (1 December 2016). "Aragonite and calcite preservation in sediments from Lake Iznik related to bottom lake oxygenation and water column depth". Sedimentology. 63 (7): 2253–2277. doi:10.1111/sed.12306. ISSN 1365-3091. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Trewin, N. H.; Davidson, R. G. (1999). "Lake-level changes, sedimentation and faunas in a Middle Devonian basin-margin fish bed". Journal of the Geological Society. 156 (3): 535–548. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.156.3.0535.
Jump up ^ Oilfield Glossary: Term 'evaporite' Archived 31 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Glossary.oilfield.slb.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-25.
Jump up ^ Folk, R. L. (1974). Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Austin, Texas: Hemphill.
Jump up ^ Dunham, R. J. (1962). "Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures". In Ham, W. E. Classification of carbonate rocks. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1. pp. 108–121.
Jump up ^ "Calcite". mine-engineer.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
Jump up ^ Limestone (mineral). Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Isle of Wight, Minerals" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-08.
Jump up ^ Michigan Markers Archived 19 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.. Michmarkers.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-25.
Jump up ^ Cassar, Joann (2010). 'The use of limestone in historic context'. in Smith, Bernard J. (ed.), "Limestone in the Built Environment: Present-day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past" Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine.. Geographical Society of London. pp. 16–18. ISBN 1862392943. ISBN 9781862392946.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to the Limestone City". Archived from the original on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
Jump up ^ Cassar, Joann (2010). 'The use of limestone in historic context'. in Smith, Bernard J. (ed.), "Limestone in the Built Environment: Present-day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past" Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine.. Geographical Society of London. pp. 13–23. ISBN 1862392943. ISBN 9781862392946.
Jump up ^ Linda Schele and Mary Ellen Miller, “The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art,” Kimbell Art Museum. Page 41.
Jump up ^ Kogel, Jessica Elzea (2006). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses. SME. ISBN 9780873352338. Archived from the original on 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "A Guide to Giving Your Layer Hens Enough Calcium". PoultyOne. Archived from the original on 3 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Nutrient minerals in drinking-water and the potential health consequences of consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking-water: Consensus of the meeting". World Health Organization report. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007.
Jump up ^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Limestone". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
Jump up ^ Henry Lutz Ehrlich; Dianne K Newman (2009). Geomicrobiology, Fifth Edition. pp. 181–182. ISBN 9780849379079. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1–103.[1]
Folk RL, (1974) Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Hemphill Publishing, Austin, Texas
Dunham, R.J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures, in Ham W.E. (ed.), Classification of carbonate rocks: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1,p. 108–121
Robert S. Boynton – Chemistry and technology of lime and limestone – Wiley (1980) – 578 pages – ISBN 0471027715
External links[edit]
Media related to Limestone at Wikimedia Commons
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values: चूना पत्थर – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapnenac
Vapnenac – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamping
Gamping – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcare
Calcare – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: אבן גיר – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Әктас – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sw
display: none;

values: Акиташ теги – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klintis
Klintis – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein
Kalkstein – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-li
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mt
display: none;

values: ထုံးကျောက် – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksteen
Kalksteen – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: चुनढुङ्गा – Nepali

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ne
display: none;

values: सख्वाःल्वहं – Newari

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-new
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein
Kalkstein – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein
Kalkstein – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcari
Calcari – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcar
Calcar – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isku_rumi
Isku rumi – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
display: none;

values: Известняк – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values: හුණු ගල් – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apnenec
Apnenec – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuurad
Nuurad – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-so
display: none;

values: Кречњак – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapnenac
Vapnenac – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksten
Kalksten – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: சுண்ணக்கல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: หินปูน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Оҳаксанг – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

values: קאלכשטיין – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Limestone rootpage-Limestone skin-vector action-view