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Clackamas County, Oregon
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Clackamas County, Oregon
Clackamas County Courthouse in Oregon City

Seal

Location in the U.S. state of Oregon

Oregon's location in the U.S.
Founded
July 5, 1843
Seat
Oregon City
Largest city
Lake Oswego
Area
• Total
1,883 sq mi (4,877 km2)
• Land
1,870 sq mi (4,843 km2)
• Water
13 sq mi (34 km2), 0.7%
Population (est.)
• (2016)
408,062
• Density
201/sq mi (78/km²)
Congressional districts
3rd, 5th
Time zone
Pacific: UTC-8/-7
Website
www.clackamas.us
Clackamas County /ˈklækəmɪs/ is a county in the U.S. state of Oregon. As of the 2010 census, the population was 375,992,[1] making it Oregon's third-most populous county. Its county seat is Oregon City.[2] The county was named after the Native Americans living in the area, the Clackamas Indians, who were part of the Chinookan people.
Clackamas County is part of the Portland-Vancouver-Hillsboro, OR-WA Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is in the Willamette Valley.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
2.1 Major highways
2.2 Adjacent counties
3 Demographics
3.1 2000 census
3.2 2010 census
4 Communities
4.1 Cities
4.2 Census-designated places
4.3 Hamlet
4.4 Unincorporated communities
5 Law and government
6 Economy
7 Infrastructure
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Originally named Clackamas District, it was one of the four original Oregon districts created by Oregon's Provisional Legislature on July 5, 1843 along with Twality (later Washington), Champooick (later Marion), and Yamhill. The four districts were redesignated as counties in 1845. At the time of its creation, Clackamas County covered portions of four present-day U.S. states and a Canadian province. The Columbia River became the northern boundary of the county in 1844. Soon after John McLoughlin staked a land claim in Oregon City and built a house that in 2003 became a unit of the Fort Vancouver National Historic Site.
Oregon City was also the site of the only federal court west of the Rockies in 1849, when San Francisco, California was platted. The plat was filed in 1850 in the first plat book of the first office of records in the West Coast and is still in Oregon City.
In 1902, the Willamette Meteorite was recovered from a field just outside present-day West Linn.
In contrast with the more liberal and cosmopolitan Multnomah County to the north, and the more corporate Washington County to the west, some citizens of Clackamas county have espoused a blue-collar, yet conservative political outlook of the backlash mold described by Thomas Frank. It is the headquarters of Lon Mabon, whose Oregon Citizens Alliance has worked to pass a number of anti-homosexual initiatives, and where Bill Sizemore, who has championed various anti-government initiatives for most of the 1990s, had his base before he moved to Klamath Falls. However, it is a very mixed area overall, narrowly voting for Republican George W. Bush over Democrat John Kerry in 2004, but moderately voting for Democrat Barack Obama over Republican John McCain in 2008.
As of August 2005[update], Clackamas is the first county in Oregon to have four models of governance for its communities. Like the rest of Oregon, it has cities (which are formally incorporated) and rural communities (some of which for federal purposes are considered census-designated places).
After completion of a process that began late in 1999, the county adopted an ordinance on August 11, 2005 which defined hamlets and villages. By the November 30, 2005 deadline, three communities had submitted petitions to start the process of becoming one. Boring petitioned to become a village, but the application was rejected in a town hall referendum in August 2006. The communities along US 26 near Mount Hood from Brightwood to Rhododendron petitioned to become "The Villages at Mount Hood", and it was approved by residents in May 2006. Beavercreek petitioned to become a hamlet, and was officially recognized as such in September 2006.
Geography[edit]
Forest west of Clackamas River Valley.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,883 square miles (4,880 km2), of which 1,870 square miles (4,800 km2) is land and 12 square miles (31 km2) (0.7%) is water.[3]
The county includes parts of two national forests: Mount Hood National Forest and Willamette National Forest.
Major highways[edit]
Interstate 5
Interstate 205
U.S. Route 26
Oregon Route 35
Oregon Route 99E
Oregon Route 212
Oregon Route 213
Oregon Route 224
Adjacent counties[edit]
Multnomah County - north
Hood River County - northeast
Wasco County - east
Marion County - south
Yamhill County - west
Washington County - northwest
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Census
Pop.
%±
1850 1,859 —
1860 3,466 86.4%
1870 5,993 72.9%
1880 9,260 54.5%
1890 15,233 64.5%
1900 19,658 29.0%
1910 29,931 52.3%
1920 37,698 25.9%
1930 46,205 22.6%
1940 57,130 23.6%
1950 86,716 51.8%
1960 113,038 30.4%
1970 166,088 46.9%
1980 241,919 45.7%
1990 278,850 15.3%
2000 338,391 21.4%
2010 375,992 11.1%
Est. 2016 408,062 [4] 8.5%
U.S. Decennial Census[5]
1790-1960[6] 1900-1990[7]
1990-2000[8] 2010-2016[1]
2000 census[edit]
As of the census[9] of 2000, there were 338,391 people, 128,201 households, and 91,663 families residing in the county. The population density was 181 people per square mile (70/km²). There were 136,954 housing units at an average density of 73 per square mile (28/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 91.27% White, 2.45% Asian, 0.71% Native American, 0.66% Black or African American, 0.17% Pacific Islander, 2.28% from other races, and 2.46% from two or more races. 4.95% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 20.7% were of German, 11.6% English, 9.1% Irish and 7.5% American ancestry.
There were 128,201 households out of which 34.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.60% were married couples living together, 9.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.50% were non-families. 22.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.07.
In the county, the population was spread out with 26.20% under the age of 18, 8.00% from 18 to 24, 28.70% from 25 to 44, 26.00% from 45 to 64, and 11.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 97.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.90 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $52,080, and the median income for a family was $60,791. Males had a median income of $43,462 versus $30,891 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,973. About 4.60% of families and 6.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.60% of those under age 18 and 5.10% of those age 65 or over.
2010 census[edit]
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 375,992 people, 145,790 households, and 100,866 families residing in the county.[10] The population density was 201.0 inhabitants per square mile (77.6/km2). There were 156,945 housing units at an average density of 83.9 per square mile (32.4/km2).[11] The racial makeup of the county was 88.2% white, 3.7% Asian, 0.8% American Indian, 0.8% black or African American, 0.2% Pacific islander, 3.1% from other races, and 3.2% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 7.7% of the population.[10] In terms of ancestry, 24.9% were German, 14.5% were English, 13.3% were Irish, 5.0% were Norwegian, and 4.9% were American.[12]
Of the 145,790 households, 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.8% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 30.8% were non-families, and 24.1% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.04. The median age was 40.6 years.[10]
The median income for a household in the county was $62,007 and the median income for a family was $74,905. Males had a median income of $53,488 versus $39,796 for females. The per capita income for the county was $31,785. About 6.1% of families and 9.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.2% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over.[13]
Communities[edit]
Mount Hood reflected in Trillium Lake
Clackamas River flowing through Milo McIver State Park
See also: Portland metropolitan area
Several of the county's cities extend into other counties. Lake Oswego and Milwaukie include areas in Multnomah County. Lake Oswego, Rivergrove and Wilsonville include areas in Washington County. The cities of Portland and Tualatin extend into Clackamas County from Multnomah and Washington counties respectively.
In Clackamas County, hamlets and villages are models of local governance for unincorporated areas. The four hamlets in Clackamas County are Beavercreek, Molalla Prairie, Mulino, and Stafford. The county's only village is the Villages at Mount Hood.
Cities[edit]
Barlow
Canby
Estacada
Gladstone
Happy Valley
Johnson City
Lake Oswego
Milwaukie
Molalla
Oregon City (county seat)
Portland
Rivergrove
Sandy
Tualatin
West Linn
Wilsonville
Census-designated places[edit]
Beavercreek
Government Camp
Jennings Lodge
Mount Hood Village
Mulino
Oak Grove
Oatfield
Stafford
Sunnyside (former)
Hamlet[edit]
Molalla Prairie
Unincorporated communities[edit]
Barton
Boring
Brightwood
Bull Run
Carus
Carver
Cazadero
Cherryville
Clackamas
Colton
Cottrell
Damascus
Eagle Creek
Faubion
Jean
Kelso
Ladd Hill
Lakewood
Liberal
Logan
Lone Elder
Macksburg
Marmot
Marquam
Marylhurst
Milwaukie Heights
Mountain Air Park
Needy
New Era
Redland
Rhododendron
Ripplebrook
Riverside
Shadowood
Springwater
Wankers Corner
Welches
Wemme
Wildwood
Yoder
Zigzag
Law and government[edit]
Presidential Elections Results[14]
Year
Republican
Democratic
Third Parties
2016 41.3% 88,392 47.7% 102,095 11.0% 23,552
2012 46.8% 88,592 50.4% 95,493 2.8% 5,247
2008 43.6% 83,595 53.9% 103,476 2.5% 4,807
2004 50.1% 97,691 48.8% 95,129 1.1% 2,180
2000 47.8% 77,539 47.1% 76,421 5.1% 8,302
1996 41.0% 59,443 46.7% 67,709 12.4% 17,994
1992 34.8% 53,724 39.0% 60,310 26.2% 40,504
1988 49.8% 61,381 48.5% 59,799 1.8% 2,171
1984 59.1% 68,630 40.7% 47,254 0.3% 289
1980 49.4% 54,111 37.0% 40,462 13.6% 14,910
1976 50.7% 47,671 45.2% 42,504 4.0% 3,784
1972 53.5% 41,767 41.7% 32,540 4.8% 3,782
1968 50.6% 32,363 43.7% 27,939 5.7% 3,659
1964 37.3% 21,299 62.6% 35,711 0.1% 33
1960 54.5% 28,531 45.3% 23,679 0.2% 109
1956 55.4% 25,314 44.6% 20,416
1952 59.5% 24,174 39.9% 16,219 0.6% 227
1948 48.0% 14,431 47.4% 14,263 4.6% 1,389
1944 46.3% 12,492 52.1% 14,060 1.6% 435
1940 45.4% 11,416 53.9% 13,547 0.8% 190
1936 27.4% 5,830 66.7% 14,203 6.0% 1,270
1932 32.1% 5,964 62.2% 11,575 5.7% 1,069
1928 59.5% 9,216 38.2% 5,918 2.3% 352
1924 43.3% 5,864 22.9% 3,099 33.8% 4,585
1920 59.5% 6,928 32.1% 3,740 8.3% 971
1916 50.9% 6,349 42.8% 5,334 6.3% 788
1912 23.0% 1,503 33.2% 2,171 43.8% 2,858
1908 53.9% 2,776 36.2% 1,866 9.9% 507
1904 67.8% 2,783 16.7% 684 15.6% 639
Clackamas is a bellwether county having voted for the eventual winner for president in every election since 1920, with the exception of 1948, 1960, 1976 and 2016. There is a significant amount of third-party votes whenever there is a prominent third-party candidate (Ross Perot, Gary Johnson, John B. Anderson).
Elected Officials
Board of County Commissioners (one chair, four commissioners; nonpartisan)
Chair: Jim Bernard
Commissioner: Ken Humberston
Commissioner: Paul Savas
Commissioner: Martha Schrader
Commissioner: Sonya Fischer
Treasurer: Shari Anderson
Assessor: Bob Vroman
District Attorney: John Foote
County Clerk: Sherry Hall
Sheriff: Craig Roberts
Economy[edit]
Since the county's creation, agriculture, timber, manufacturing, and commerce have been the principal economic activities. Mount Hood, the only year-round ski resort in the United States and the site of Timberline Lodge, is a major attraction for recreation and tourism. The mountain and its rivers and forests offer outdoor recreation activities, from skiing and rafting to fishing and camping.
Infrastructure[edit]
The county supports the Library Information Network of Clackamas County. The urban areas of the county are also served by Metro.
See also[edit]
National Register of Historic Places listings in Clackamas County, Oregon
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "State & County QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Find a County". National Association of Counties. Archived from the original on 2011-05-31. Retrieved 2011-06-07.
Jump up ^ "2010 Census Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Retrieved February 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". Retrieved June 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Decennial Census". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on May 12, 2015. Retrieved February 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Historical Census Browser". University of Virginia Library. Retrieved February 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Forstall, Richard L., ed. (March 27, 1995). "Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved February 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. April 2, 2001. Retrieved February 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ Jump up to: a b c "DP-1 Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 Demographic Profile Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
Jump up ^ "Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2010 - County". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
Jump up ^ "DP02 SELECTED SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE UNITED STATES – 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
Jump up ^ "DP03 SELECTED ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS – 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
Jump up ^ http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS
Further reading[edit]
H.O. Lang (ed.), History of the Willamette Valley: Being a Description of the Valley and its Resources, with an Account of its Discovery and Settlement by White Men, and its Subsequent History; Together with Personal Reminiscences of its Early Pioneers. Portland: Himes and Lang, 1885.
Portrait and Biographical Record of the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Containing Original Sketches of Many Well Known Citizens of the Past and Present. Chicago: Chapman Publishing Co., 1903.
External links[edit]
Clackamas County, Oregon
Clackamas County hamlets and villages
Clackamas County Considering Hamlets and Villages, a September 2005 article from Oregon Public Broadcasting
[show]
Places adjacent to Clackamas County, Oregon
Washington County Multnomah County Hood River County
Yamhill County
Clackamas County, Oregon
Wasco County
Marion County
[show]
v
t
e
Municipalities and communities of Clackamas County, Oregon, United States
County seat: Oregon City
Cities
Barlow
Canby
Estacada
Gladstone
Happy Valley
Johnson City
Lake Oswego‡
Milwaukie‡
Molalla
Oregon City
Portland‡
Rivergrove‡
Sandy
Tualatin‡
West Linn
Wilsonville‡
Hamlets
Beavercreek
Molalla Prairie
Mount Hood Villages
Mulino
Stafford
CDPs
Clackamas
Government Camp
Jennings Lodge
Oak Grove
Oatfield
Other
unincorporated
communities
Barton
Boring
Brightwood
Bull Run
Carus
Carver
Cazadero
Cherryville
Colton
Cottrell
Damascus
Eagle Creek
Faubion
Jean
Kelso
Ladd Hill
Lakewood
Liberal
Logan
Lone Elder
Macksburg
Marmot
Marquam
Marylhurst
Milwaukie Heights
Mountain Air Park
Needy
New Era
Redland
Rhododendron
Ripplebrook
Riverside
Shadowood
Springwater
Sunnyside
Wankers Corner
Welches
Wemme
Wildwood
Yoder
Zigzag
Footnotes
‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
[show]
v
t
e
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Coordinates: 45°11′N 122°13′W / 45.19°N 122.21°W / 45.19; -122.21
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 138392597
LCCN: n82024065
ISNI: 0000 0004 0480 871X
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clackamas_County,_Oregon&oldid=796222392"
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National symbols of Brazil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This list contains national symbols of the Federative Republic of Brazil.
List of symbols[edit]
Symbol
Name
Image
References
Flag Flag of Brazil [1]
Seal National Seal of Brazil (color)
(without color) [citation needed]
National bird Rufous-bellied thrush [2]
National animal Jaguar [citation needed]
National anthem "Hino Nacional Brasileiro" [3]
Brazilian national motto
(official) "Ordem e Progresso" Ordem e Progresso (Portuguese) (English: "Order and Progress") [citation needed]
National floral emblem Tecoma chrysostricha [4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Brazil's National Flag". Brazil. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Brazil National Symbols". Brazil. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Anthem of Brazil". Brazil. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Brazil National Symbols". Brazil. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
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Wind wave
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Surface waves generated by wind that occur on the free surface of bodies of water
"Ocean wave" redirects here. For the film, see Ocean Waves (film).
Large wave
Play media
Video of large waves from Hurricane Marie along the coast of Newport Beach, California
Ocean waves
In fluid dynamics, wind waves, or wind-generated waves, are surface waves that occur on the free surface of bodies of water (like oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, canals, puddles or ponds). They result from the wind blowing over an area of fluid surface. Waves in the oceans can travel thousands of miles before reaching land. Wind waves on Earth range in size from small ripples, to waves over 100 ft (30 m) high.[1]
When directly generated and affected by local winds, a wind wave system is called a wind sea. After the wind ceases to blow, wind waves are called swells. More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not significantly affected by the local wind at that time. They have been generated elsewhere or some time ago.[2] Wind waves in the ocean are called ocean surface waves.
Wind waves have a certain amount of randomness: subsequent waves differ in height, duration, and shape with limited predictability. They can be described as a stochastic process, in combination with the physics governing their generation, growth, propagation, and decay—as well as governing the interdependence between flow quantities such as: the water surface movements, flow velocities and water pressure. The key statistics of wind waves (both seas and swells) in evolving sea states can be predicted with wind wave models.
Although waves are usually considered in the water seas of Earth, the hydrocarbon seas of Titan may also have wind-driven waves.[3]
Contents
1 Wave formation
2 Types of wind waves
3 Wave shoaling and refraction
4 Wave breaking
5 Physics of waves
6 Wind wave models
7 Seismic signals
8 Internal waves
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
11.1 Scientific
11.2 Other
12 External links
Wave formation[edit]
Aspects of a water wave
Wave formation
Water particle motion of a deep water wave
The phases of an ocean surface wave: 1. Wave Crest, where the water masses of the surface layer are moving horizontally in the same direction as the propagating wave front. 2. Falling wave. 3. Trough, where the water masses of the surface layer are moving horizontally in the opposite direction of the wave front direction. 4. Rising wave.
NOAA ship Delaware II in bad weather on Georges Bank
The great majority of large breakers seen at a beach result from distant winds. Five factors influence the formation of the flow structures in wind waves:[4]
Wind speed or strength relative to wave speed—the wind must be moving faster than the wave crest for energy transfer
The uninterrupted distance of open water over which the wind blows without significant change in direction (called the fetch)
Width of area affected by fetch[clarification needed]
Wind duration — the time for which the wind has blown over the water.
Water depth
All of these factors work together to determine the size of wind waves and the structure of the flow within them.
The main dimensions associated with waves are:
Wave height (vertical distance from trough to crest)
Wave length (distance from crest to crest in the direction of propagation)
Wave period (time interval between arrival of consecutive crests at a stationary point)
Wave propagation direction
A fully developed sea has the maximum wave size theoretically possible for a wind of a specific strength, duration, and fetch. Further exposure to that specific wind could only cause a dissipation of energy due to the breaking of wave tops and formation of "whitecaps". Waves in a given area typically have a range of heights. For weather reporting and for scientific analysis of wind wave statistics, their characteristic height over a period of time is usually expressed as significant wave height. This figure represents an average height of the highest one-third of the waves in a given time period (usually chosen somewhere in the range from 20 minutes to twelve hours), or in a specific wave or storm system. The significant wave height is also the value a "trained observer" (e.g. from a ship's crew) would estimate from visual observation of a sea state. Given the variability of wave height, the largest individual waves are likely to be somewhat less than twice the reported significant wave height for a particular day or storm.[5]
Wave formation on an initially flat water surface by wind is started by a random distribution of normal pressure of turbulent wind flow over the water. This pressure fluctuation produces normal and tangential stresses in the surface water, which generates waves. It is assumed that:[6]
The water is originally at rest.
The water is not viscous.
The water is irrotational.
There is a random distribution of normal pressure to the water surface from the turbulent wind.
Correlations between air and water motions are neglected.
The second mechanism involves wind shear forces on the water surface. John W. Miles suggested a surface wave generation mechanism which is initiated by turbulent wind shear flows based on the inviscid Orr-Sommerfeld equation in 1957. He found the energy transfer from wind to water surface is proportional to the curvature of the velocity profile of the wind at the point where the mean wind speed is equal to the wave speed. Since the wind speed profile is logarithmic to the water surface, the curvature has a negative sign at this point. This relation shows the wind flow transferring its kinetic energy to the water surface at their interface.
Assumptions:
two-dimensional parallel shear flow
incompressible, inviscid water and wind
irrotational water
slope of the displacement of the water surface is small[7]
Generally these wave formation mechanisms occur together on the water surface and eventually produce fully developed waves.
For example,[8] if we assume a flat sea surface (Beaufort state 0), and a sudden wind flow blows steadily across the sea surface, the physical wave generation process follows the sequence:
Turbulent wind forms random pressure fluctuations at the sea surface. Ripples with wavelengths in the order of a few centimetres are generated by the pressure fluctuations. (The Phillips mechanism[6])
The winds keep acting on the initially rippled sea surface causing the waves to become larger. As the waves grow, the pressure differences get larger causing the growth rate to increase. Finally the shear instability expedites the wave growth exponentially. (The Miles mechanism[6])
The interactions between the waves on the surface generate longer waves[9] and the interaction will transfer wave energy from the shorter waves generated by the Miles mechanism to the waves which have slightly lower frequencies than the frequency at the peak wave magnitudes, then finally the waves will be faster than the cross wind speed (Pierson & Moskowitz[10]).
hideConditions necessary for a fully developed sea at given wind speeds, and the parameters of the resulting waves
Wind conditions
Wave size
Wind speed in one direction
Fetch
Wind duration
Average height
Average wavelength
Average period and speed
19 km/h (12 mph) 19 km (12 mi) 2 hr 0.27 m (0.89 ft) 8.5 m (28 ft) 3.0 sec, 10.2 km/h (9.3 ft/sec)
37 km/h (23 mph) 139 km (86 mi) 10 hr 1.5 m (4.9 ft) 33.8 m (111 ft) 5.7 sec, 21.4 km/h (19.5 ft/sec)
56 km/h (35 mph) 518 km (322 mi) 23 hr 4.1 m (13 ft) 76.5 m (251 ft) 8.6 sec, 32.0 km/h (29.2 ft/sec)
74 km/h (46 mph) 1,313 km (816 mi) 42 hr 8.5 m (28 ft) 136 m (446 ft) 11.4 sec, 42.9 km/h (39.1 ft/sec)
92 km/h (57 mph) 2,627 km (1,632 mi) 69 hr 14.8 m (49 ft) 212.2 m (696 ft) 14.3 sec, 53.4 km/h (48.7 ft/sec)
NOTE: Most of the wave speeds calculated from the wave length divided by the period are proportional to the square root of the wave length. Thus, except for the shortest wave length, the waves follow the deep water theory. The 28 ft long wave must be either in shallow water or intermediate depth.
Types of wind waves[edit]
Classification of the spectrum of ocean waves according to wave period[11]
Surf on a rocky irregular bottom. Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal
Three different types of wind waves develop over time:
Capillary waves, or ripples
Seas
Swells
Ripples appear on smooth water when the wind blows, but will die quickly if the wind stops. The restoring force that allows them to propagate is surface tension. Sea waves are larger-scale, often irregular motions that form under sustained winds. These waves tend to last much longer, even after the wind has died, and the restoring force that allows them to propagate is gravity. As waves propagate away from their area of origin, they naturally separate into groups of common direction and wavelength. The sets of waves formed in this manner are known as swells.
Individual "rogue waves" (also called "freak waves", "monster waves", "killer waves", and "king waves") much higher than the other waves in the sea state can occur. In the case of the Draupner wave, its 25 m (82 ft) height was 2.2 times the significant wave height. Such waves are distinct from tides, caused by the Moon and Sun's gravitational pull, tsunamis that are caused by underwater earthquakes or landslides, and waves generated by underwater explosions or the fall of meteorites—all having far longer wavelengths than wind waves.
Yet, the largest ever recorded wind waves are common — not rogue — waves in extreme sea states. For example: 29.1 m (95 ft) high waves have been recorded on the RRS Discovery in a sea with 18.5 m (61 ft) significant wave height, so the highest wave is only 1.6 times the significant wave height.[12] The biggest recorded by a buoy (as of 2011) was 32.3 m (106 ft) high during the 2007 typhoon Krosa near Taiwan.[13]
Ocean waves can be classified based on: the disturbing force(s) that create(s) them; the extent to which the disturbing force(s) continue(s) to influence them after formation; the extent to which the restoring force(s) weaken(s) (or flatten) them; and their wavelength or period. Seismic Sea waves have a period of ~20 minutes, and speeds of 760 km/h (470 mph). Wind waves (deep-water waves) have a period of about 20 seconds.
[14]
Wave type
Typical wavelength
Disturbing force
Restoring force
Capillary wave < 2 cm Wind Surface tension
Wind wave 60–150 m (200–490 ft) Wind over ocean Gravity
Seiche Large, variable; a function of basin size Change in atmospheric pressure, storm surge Gravity
Seismic sea wave (tsunami) 200 km (120 mi) Faulting of sea floor, volcanic eruption, landslide Gravity
Tide Half the circumference of Earth Gravitational attraction, rotation of Earth Gravity
The speed of all ocean waves is controlled by gravity, wavelength, and water depth. Most characteristics of ocean waves depend on the relationship between their wavelength and water depth. Wavelength determines the size of the orbits of water molecules within a wave, but water depth determines the shape of the orbits. The paths of water molecules in a wind wave are circular only when the wave is traveling in deep water. A wave cannot "feel" the bottom when it moves through water deeper than half its wavelength because too little wave energy is contained in the small circles below that depth. Waves moving through water deeper than half their wavelength are known as deep-water waves. On the other hand, the orbits of water molecules in waves moving through shallow water are flattened by the proximity of the sea surface bottom. Waves in water shallower than 1/20 their original wavelength are known as shallow-water waves. Transitional waves travel through water deeper than 1/20 their original wavelength but shallower than half their original wavelength.
In general, the longer the wavelength, the faster the wave energy will move through the water. The relationship between the wavelength, period, and velocity of any wave is:
C = L / T {\displaystyle C={L}/{T}}
where C is speed (celerity), L is wavelength, and T is time, or period (in seconds). Thus the speed of the wave derives from the functional dependence L ( T ) {\displaystyle L(T)} of the wavelength on the period (the dispersion relation).
The speed of a deep-water wave may also be approximated by:
C = g L / 2 π {\displaystyle C={\sqrt {{gL}/{2\pi }}}}
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 meters (32 feet) per second squared. Because g and π (3.14) are constants, the equation can be reduced to:
C = 1.251 L {\displaystyle C=1.251{\sqrt {L}}}
when C is measured in meters per second and L in meters. Note that in both formulas the wave speed is proportional to the square root of the wavelength.
The speed of shallow-water waves is described by a different equation that may be written as:
C = g d = 3.1 d {\displaystyle C={\sqrt {gd}}=3.1{\sqrt {d}}}
where C is speed (in meters per second), g is the acceleration due to gravity, and d is the depth of the water (in meters). The period of a wave remains unchanged regardless of the depth of water through which it is moving. As deep-water waves enter the shallows and feel the bottom, however, their speed is reduced and their crests "bunch up," so their wavelength shortens.
Wave shoaling and refraction[edit]
See also: wave shoaling and refraction
As waves travel from deep to shallow water, their shape alters (wave height increases, speed decreases, and length decreases as wave orbits become asymmetrical). This process is called shoaling.
Wave refraction is the process that occurs when waves interact with the sea bed as the wave crests align themselves as a result of approaching decreasing water depths at an angle to the depth contours. Varying depths along a wave crest cause the crest to travel at different phase speeds, with those parts of the wave in deeper water moving faster than those in shallow water. This process continues until the crests become (nearly) parallel to the depth contours. Rays—lines normal to wave crests between which a fixed amount of energy flux is contained—converge on local shallows and shoals. Therefore, the wave energy between rays is concentrated as they converge, with a resulting increase in wave height.
Because these effects are related to a spatial variation in the phase speed, and because the phase speed also changes with the ambient current – due to the Doppler shift – the same effects of refraction and altering wave height also occur due to current variations. In the case of meeting an adverse current the wave steepens, i.e. its wave height increases while the wave length decreases, similar to the shoaling when the water depth decreases.[15]
Wave breaking[edit]
Big wave breaking
See also: surf wave, breaking wave, and Iribarren number
Some waves undergo a phenomenon called "breaking".[16] A breaking wave is one whose base can no longer support its top, causing it to collapse. A wave breaks when it runs into shallow water, or when two wave systems oppose and combine forces. When the slope, or steepness ratio, of a wave is too great, breaking is inevitable.
Individual waves in deep water break when the wave steepness—the ratio of the wave height H to the wavelength λ—exceeds about 0.17, so for H > 0.17 λ. In shallow water, with the water depth small compared to the wavelength, the individual waves break when their wave height H is larger than 0.8 times the water depth h, that is H > 0.8 h.[17] Waves can also break if the wind grows strong enough to blow the crest off the base of the wave.
In shallow water the base of the wave is decelerated by drag on the seabed. As a result, the upper parts will propagate at a higher velocity than the base and the leading face of the crest will become steeper and the trailing face flatter. This may be exaggerated to the extent that the leading face forms a barrel profile, with the crest falling forward and down as it extends over the air ahead of the wave.
Three main types of breaking waves are identified by surfers or surf lifesavers. Their varying characteristics make them more or less suitable for surfing, and present different dangers.
Spilling, or rolling: these are the safest waves on which to surf. They can be found in most areas with relatively flat shorelines. They are the most common type of shorebreak. The deceleration of the wave base is gradual, and the velocity of the upper parts does not differ much with height. Breaking occurs mainly when the steepness ratio exceeds the stability limit.
Plunging, or dumping: these break suddenly and can "dump" swimmers—pushing them to the bottom with great force. These are the preferred waves for experienced surfers. Strong offshore winds and long wave periods can cause dumpers. They are often found where there is a sudden rise in the sea floor, such as a reef or sandbar. Deceleration of the wave base is sufficient to cause upward acceleration and a significant forward velocity excess of the upper part of the crest. The peak rises and overtakes the forward face, forming a "barrel" or "tube" as it collapses.
Surging: these may never actually break as they approach the water's edge, as the water below them is very deep. They tend to form on steep shorelines. These waves can knock swimmers over and drag them back into deeper water.
When the shoreline is near vertical, waves do not break, but are reflected. Most of the energy is retained in the wave as it returns to seaward. Interference patterns are caused by superposition of the incident and reflected waves, and the superposition may cause localised instability when peaks cross, and these peaks may break due to instability. (see also clapotic waves)
Physics of waves[edit]
See also: Airy wave theory
Stokes drift in shallow water waves (Animation)
Wind waves are mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air; the restoring force is provided by gravity, and so they are often referred to as surface gravity waves. As the wind blows, pressure and friction perturb the equilibrium of the water surface and transfer energy from the air to the water, forming waves. The initial formation of waves by the wind is described in the theory of Phillips from 1957, and the subsequent growth of the small waves has been modeled by Miles, also in 1957.[18][19]
Stokes drift in a deeper water wave (Animation)
Photograph of the water particle orbits under a – progressive and periodic – surface gravity wave in a wave flume. The wave conditions are: mean water depth d = 2.50 ft (0.76 m), wave height H = 0.339 ft (0.103 m), wavelength λ = 6.42 ft (1.96 m), period T = 1.12 s.[20]
In linear plane waves of one wavelength in deep water, parcels near the surface move not plainly up and down but in circular orbits: forward above and backward below (compared the wave propagation direction). As a result, the surface of the water forms not an exact sine wave, but more a trochoid with the sharper curves upwards—as modeled in trochoidal wave theory. Wind waves are thus a combination of transversal and longitudinal waves.
When waves propagate in shallow water, (where the depth is less than half the wavelength) the particle trajectories are compressed into ellipses.[21][22]
In reality, for finite values of the wave amplitude (height), the particle paths do not form closed orbits; rather, after the passage of each crest, particles are displaced slightly from their previous positions, a phenomenon known as Stokes drift.[23][24]
As the depth below the free surface increases, the radius of the circular motion decreases. At a depth equal to half the wavelength λ, the orbital movement has decayed to less than 5% of its value at the surface. The phase speed (also called the celerity) of a surface gravity wave is – for pure periodic wave motion of small-amplitude waves – well approximated by
c = g λ 2 π tanh  ( 2 π d λ ) {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {{\frac {g\lambda }{2\pi }}\tanh \left({\frac {2\pi d}{\lambda }}\right)}}}
where
c = phase speed;
λ = wavelength;
d = water depth;
g = acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface.
In deep water, where d ≥ 1 2 λ {\displaystyle d\geq {\frac {1}{2}}\lambda } , so 2 π d λ ≥ π {\displaystyle {\frac {2\pi d}{\lambda }}\geq \pi } and the hyperbolic tangent approaches 1 {\displaystyle 1} , the speed c {\displaystyle c} approximates
c deep = g λ 2 π . {\displaystyle c_{\text{deep}}={\sqrt {\frac {g\lambda }{2\pi }}}.}
In SI units, with c deep {\displaystyle c_{\text{deep}}} in m/s, c deep ≈ 1.25 λ {\displaystyle c_{\text{deep}}\approx 1.25{\sqrt {\lambda }}} , when λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is measured in metres. This expression tells us that waves of different wavelengths travel at different speeds. The fastest waves in a storm are the ones with the longest wavelength. As a result, after a storm, the first waves to arrive on the coast are the long-wavelength swells.
For intermediate and shallow water, the Boussinesq equations are applicable, combining frequency dispersion and nonlinear effects. And in very shallow water, the shallow water equations can be used.
If the wavelength is very long compared to the water depth, the phase speed (by taking the limit of c when the wavelength approaches infinity) can be approximated by
c shallow = lim λ → ∞ c = g d . {\displaystyle c_{\text{shallow}}=\lim _{\lambda \rightarrow \infty }c={\sqrt {gd}}.}
On the other hand, for very short wavelengths, surface tension plays an important role and the phase speed of these gravity-capillary waves can (in deep water) be approximated by
c gravity-capillary = g λ 2 π + 2 π S ρ λ {\displaystyle c_{\text{gravity-capillary}}={\sqrt {{\frac {g\lambda }{2\pi }}+{\frac {2\pi S}{\rho \lambda }}}}}
where
S = surface tension of the air-water interface;
ρ {\displaystyle \rho } = density of the water.[25]
When several wave trains are present, as is always the case in nature, the waves form groups. In deep water the groups travel at a group velocity which is half of the phase speed.[26] Following a single wave in a group one can see the wave appearing at the back of the group, growing and finally disappearing at the front of the group.
As the water depth d {\displaystyle d} decreases towards the coast, this will have an effect: wave height changes due to wave shoaling and refraction. As the wave height increases, the wave may become unstable when the crest of the wave moves faster than the trough. This causes surf, a breaking of the waves.
The movement of wind waves can be captured by wave energy devices. The energy density (per unit area) of regular sinusoidal waves depends on the water density ρ {\displaystyle \rho } , gravity acceleration g {\displaystyle g} and the wave height H {\displaystyle H} (which, for regular waves, is equal to twice the amplitude, a {\displaystyle a} ):
E = 1 8 ρ g H 2 = 1 2 ρ g a 2 . {\displaystyle E={\frac {1}{8}}\rho gH^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}\rho ga^{2}.}
The velocity of propagation of this energy is the group velocity.
Wind wave models[edit]
The image shows the global distribution of wind speed and wave height as observed by NASA's TOPEX/Poseidon's dual-frequency radar altimeter from October 3 to October 12, 1992. Simultaneous observations of wind speed and wave height are helping scientists to predict ocean waves. Wind speed is determined by the strength of the radar signal after it has bounced off the ocean surface and returned to the satellite. A calm sea serves as a good reflector and returns a strong signal; a rough sea tends to scatter the signals and returns a weak pulse. Wave height is determined by the shape of the return radar pulse. A calm sea with low waves returns a condensed pulse whereas a rough sea with high waves returns a stretched pulse. Comparing the two images above shows a high degree of correlation between wind speed and wave height. The strongest winds (33.6 mph; 54.1 km/h) and highest waves are found in the Southern Ocean. The weakest winds — shown as areas of magenta and dark blue — are generally found in the tropical oceans.
Main article: Wind wave model
Surfers are very interested in the wave forecasts. There are many websites that provide predictions of the surf quality for the upcoming days and weeks. Wind wave models are driven by more general weather models that predict the winds and pressures over the oceans, seas and lakes.
Wind wave models are also an important part of examining the impact of shore protection and beach nourishment proposals. For many beach areas there is only patchy information about the wave climate, therefore estimating the effect of wind waves is important for managing littoral environments.
A wind generated wave can be predicted based on two parameters: wind speed at 10 m above the sea level and wind duration, which must blow over long periods of time to be considered fully developed. The significant wave height and peak frequency can then be predicted for a certain fetch length.[27]
Seismic signals[edit]
Main article: Microseism
Ocean water waves generate land seismic waves that propagate hundreds of kilometers into the land.[28] These seismic signals usually have the period of 6 ± 2 seconds. Such recordings were first reported and understood in about 1900.
There are two types of seismic "ocean waves". The primary waves are generated in shallow waters by direct water wave-land interaction and have the same period as the water waves (10 to 16 seconds). The more powerful secondary waves are generated by the superposition of ocean waves of equal period traveling in opposite directions, thus generating standing gravity waves – with an associated pressure oscillation at half the period, which is not diminishing with depth. The theory for microseism generation by standing waves was provided by Michael Longuet-Higgins in 1950, after in 1941 Pierre Bernard suggested this relation with standing waves on the basis of observations.[29][30]
Internal waves[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)
Main article: Internal wave
See also[edit]
Airy wave theory
Breakwater (structure)
Boussinesq approximation (water waves)
Clapotis
Cross sea
Gravity wave
Luke's variational principle
Mild-slope equation
Rogue wave
Shallow water equations
Tsunami
Wave power
Wave radar
Waves and shallow water
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Tolman, H. L. (23 June 2010). Mahmood, M.F., ed. "CBMS Conference Proceedings on Water Waves: Theory and Experiment" (PDF). Howard University, US, 13–18 May 2008: World Scientific Publications. ISBN 978-981-4304-23-8.
Jump up ^ Holthuijsen (2007), page 5.
Jump up ^ Lorenz, R. D.; Hayes, A. G. (2012). "The Growth of Wind-Waves in Titan's Hydrocarbon Seas". Icarus. 219: 468–475. Bibcode:2012Icar..219..468L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.03.002.
Jump up ^ Young, I. R. (1999). Wind generated ocean waves. Elsevier. p. 83. ISBN 0-08-043317-0.
Jump up ^ Weisse, Ralf; von Storch, Hans (2008). Marine climate change: Ocean waves, storms and surges in the perspective of climate change. Springer. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-540-25316-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Phillips, O. M. (2006). "On the generation of waves by turbulent wind". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 2 (5): 417. Bibcode:1957JFM.....2..417P. doi:10.1017/S0022112057000233.
Jump up ^ Miles, John W. (2006). "On the generation of surface waves by shear flows". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 3 (2): 185. Bibcode:1957JFM.....3..185M. doi:10.1017/S0022112057000567.
Jump up ^ Chapter 16, Ocean Waves
Jump up ^ Hasselmann, K.; et al. (1973). "Measurements of wind-wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP)". Ergnzungsheft zur Deutschen Hydrographischen Zeitschrift Reihe A. 8 (12): 95. hdl:10013/epic.20654.
Jump up ^ Pierson, Willard J.; Moskowitz, Lionel (15 December 1964). "A proposed spectral form for fully developed wind seas based on the similarity theory of S. A. Kitaigorodskii". Journal of Geophysical Research. 69 (24): 5181–5190. Bibcode:1964JGR....69.5181P. doi:10.1029/JZ069i024p05181.
Jump up ^ Munk, Walter H. (1950). "Proceedings 1st International Conference on Coastal Engineering". Long Beach, California: ASCE: 1–4.
Jump up ^ Holliday, Naomi P.; Yelland, Margaret J.; Pascal, Robin; Swail, Val R.; Taylor, Peter K.; Griffiths, Colin R.; Kent, Elizabeth (2006). "Were extreme waves in the Rockall Trough the largest ever recorded?". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (L05613). Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3305613H. doi:10.1029/2005GL025238.
Jump up ^ P. C. Liu; H. S. Chen; D.-J. Doong; C. C. Kao; Y.-J. G. Hsu (11 June 2008). "Monstrous ocean waves during typhoon Krosa" (PDF). Annales Geophysicae. European Geosciences Union. 26 (6): 1327–1329. Bibcode:2008AnGeo..26.1327L. doi:10.5194/angeo-26-1327-2008.
Jump up ^ Tom Garrison (2009). Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science (7th Edition). Yolanda Cossio. ISBN 978-0495391937.
Jump up ^ Longuet-Higgins, M. S.; Stewart, R. W. (1964). "Radiation stresses in water waves; a physical discussion, with applications". Deep-Sea Research. 11 (4): 529–562. Bibcode:1964DSROA..11..529L. doi:10.1016/0011-7471(64)90001-4.
Jump up ^ Gulrez, Tauseef; Hassanien, Aboul Ella (2011-11-13). Advances in Robotics and Virtual Reality. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783642233630.
Jump up ^ R.J. Dean and R.A. Dalrymple (2002). Coastal processes with engineering applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-60275-0. p. 96–97.
Jump up ^ Phillips, O. M. (1957). "On the generation of waves by turbulent wind". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 2 (5): 417–445. Bibcode:1957JFM.....2..417P. doi:10.1017/S0022112057000233.
Jump up ^ Miles, J. W. (1957). "On the generation of surface waves by shear flows". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 3 (2): 185–204. Bibcode:1957JFM.....3..185M. doi:10.1017/S0022112057000567.
Jump up ^ Figure 6 from: Wiegel, R. L.; Johnson, J. W. (1950). "Proceedings 1st International Conference on Coastal Engineering". Long Beach, California: ASCE: 5–21.
Jump up ^ For the particle trajectories within the framework of linear wave theory, see for instance:
Phillips (1977), page 44.
Lamb, H. (1994). Hydrodynamics (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45868-9. Originally published in 1879, the 6th extended edition appeared first in 1932. See §229, page 367.
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz (1986). Fluid mechanics. Course of Theoretical Physics. 6 (Second revised ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-033932-8. See page 33.
Jump up ^ A good illustration of the wave motion according to linear theory is given by Prof. Robert Dalrymple's Java applet.
Jump up ^ For nonlinear waves, the particle paths are not closed, as found by George Gabriel Stokes in 1847, see the original paper by Stokes. Or in Phillips (1977), page 44: "To this order, it is evident that the particle paths are not exactly closed ... pointed out by Stokes (1847) in his classical investigation".
Jump up ^ Solutions of the particle trajectories in fully nonlinear periodic waves and the Lagrangian wave period they experience can for instance be found in:
J. M. Williams (1981). "Limiting gravity waves in water of finite depth". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 302 (1466): 139–188. Bibcode:1981RSPTA.302..139W. doi:10.1098/rsta.1981.0159.
J. M. Williams (1985). Tables of progressive gravity waves. Pitman. ISBN 978-0-273-08733-5.
Jump up ^ Carl Nordling, Jonny Östermalm (2006). Physics Handbook for Science and Engineering (Eight ed.). Studentliteratur. p. 263. ISBN 978-91-44-04453-8.
Jump up ^ In deep water, the group velocity is half the phase velocity, as is shown here. Another reference is [1].
Jump up ^ Wood, AMM & Fleming, CA 1981, Coastal hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, New York
Jump up ^ Peter Bormann. Seismic Signals and Noise
Jump up ^ Bernard, P. (1941). "Sur certaines proprietes de la boule etudiees a l'aide des enregistrements seismographiques". Bulletin de l'Institut océanographique de Monaco. 800: 1–19.
Jump up ^ Longuet-Higgins, M. S. (1950). "A theory of the origin of microseisms". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 243 (857): 1–35. Bibcode:1950RSPTA.243....1L. doi:10.1098/rsta.1950.0012.
References[edit]
Scientific[edit]
G. G. Stokes (1880). Mathematical and Physical Papers, Volume I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–229.
Phillips, O. M. (1977). The dynamics of the upper ocean (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29801-6.
Holthuijsen, Leo H. (2007). Waves in oceanic and coastal waters. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86028-8.
Janssen, Peter (2004). The interaction of ocean waves and wind. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46540-3.
Other[edit]
Rousmaniere, John (1989). The Annapolis Book of Seamanship (2nd revised ed.). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-67447-1.
Carr, Michael (October 1998). "Understanding Waves". Sail. pp. 38–45.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wind wave
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ocean surface waves.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water waves.
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: High School Earth Science/Ocean Movements#Waves
Current global map of significant wave heights
"Anatomy of a Wave" Holben, Jay boatsafe.com captured 5/23/06
NOAA National Weather Service
ESA press release on swell tracking with ASAR onboard ENVISAT
Introductory oceanography chapter 10 – Ocean Waves
HyperPhysics – Ocean Waves
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values: c=\sqrt{\frac{g \lambda}{2\pi} \tanh \left(\frac{2\pi d}{\lambda}\right)}

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