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Ceremonial first pitch
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Woodrow Wilson, Washington Senators home opener v. New York Yankees, Griffith Stadium, April 20, 1916.
Richard Nixon, Opening Day, Washington Senators v. New York Yankees, RFK Stadium, April 7, 1969.
Ronald Reagan, Chicago Cubs v. Pittsburgh Pirates, Wrigley Field, September 30, 1988.
George W. Bush, 2001 World Series Game 3, Yankee Stadium, October 30, 2001.
The ceremonial first pitch is a longstanding ritual of baseball in which a guest of honor throws a ball to mark the end of pregame festivities and the start of the game. Originally, the guest threw a ball from his/her place in the grandstand to the pitcher or catcher of the home team, but the ritual changed after Ronald Reagan threw the first pitch on the field at an unscheduled appearance at a Baltimore Orioles game. Now, the guest stands in front of the pitcher's mound and throws towards home plate. He or she may also sometimes stand on the mound (as a pitcher would). The recipient of the pitch is usually a player from the home team.
The ceremonial thrower may be a notable person (dignitary, celebrity, former player, etc.) who is in attendance, an executive from a company that sponsors the team (especially when that company has sponsored that night's promotional giveaway), or a person who won the first pitch opportunity as a contest prize. Often, especially in the minor leagues, multiple first pitches are made.
The practice of having a mayor, governor, or other local celebrity throw out ceremonial "first pitches" dates back to at least 1890.[1] Governor William McKinley of Ohio, for example, "threw the ball into the diamond" before an opening day game between Toledo and Columbus in 1892.[2]
On April 23, 2012, the Texas Rangers executed a unique twist on the first pitch tradition. Before the Rangers' home game against the New York Yankees, the team held an official retirement ceremony for longtime catcher Iván Rodríguez. Instead of going to the pitcher's mound, he went behind home plate and threw the first "pitch" to longtime teammate Michael Young, who was standing at second base.[3]
Presidential first pitches[edit]
Former Japanese Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the first game of an American All-Star team's tour of Japan in 1908, making him possibly the first former chief executive of any country to throw out a first pitch.[1][4]
President William Howard Taft started the American tradition of Presidential first pitches in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every President from Taft to Obama has thrown out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch, either for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.[5] President Trump has yet to throw a ceremonial first pitch.
Presidential First Pitches
Year
President
Ballpark
Notes
1910 Opening Day William Howard Taft National Park First sitting President to participate in Opening Day ceremonies; preceded Washington Nationals–Philadelphia Athletics game on April 14.[6]
1911 Opening Day William Howard Taft National Park The National Park where the first-ever, Presidential Ceremonial first pitch was thrown burned down in March of 2011, and a new stadium, also called National Park at first, was built in its place. It would be renamed Griffith Stadium in 1923.
1912 Opening Day Vice President James S. Sherman National Park Taft did not attend because of the death of his friend Archibald Butt in the Titanic disaster.
1913 Opening Day Woodrow Wilson National Park
1915 Opening Day Woodrow Wilson National Park
1915 World Series Woodrow Wilson Baker Bowl
1916 Home Opener Woodrow Wilson National Park Washington Nationals defeated New York Yankees on April 20.[7]
1921 Opening Day Warren Harding Griffith Stadium First loss for the Senators with a President throwing out the first ball.
1922 Opening Day Warren Harding Griffith Stadium
1923 Opening Day Warren Harding Griffith Stadium Harding also threw out the first ball in the New York Yankees opening game, two days before.
1924 Opening Day Calvin Coolidge Griffith Stadium
1924 World Series Calvin Coolidge Griffith Stadium
1925 Opening Day Calvin Coolidge Griffith Stadium
1925 World Series Calvin Coolidge Griffith Stadium
1927 Opening Day Calvin Coolidge Griffith Stadium
1928 Opening Day Calvin Coolidge Griffith Stadium
1929 Opening Day Herbert Hoover Griffith Stadium
1929 World Series Herbert Hoover Shibe Park Game 5, October 14.
1930 Opening Day Herbert Hoover Griffith Stadium
1930 World Series Herbert Hoover Shibe Park
1931 Opening Day Herbert Hoover Griffith Stadium
1932 Opening Day Herbert Hoover Griffith Stadium
1933 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1934 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1935 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1936 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1937 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1937 All-Star Game Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1938 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1940 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium Roosevelt's pitch hit a Washington Post camera.[8]
1941 Opening Day Franklin D. Roosevelt Griffith Stadium
1946 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium
1947 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium
1948 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium
1949 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium
1950 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium Truman threw out two balls, one left-handed and one right-handed.
1951 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium
1952 Opening Day Harry Truman Griffith Stadium
1953 Opening Day Dwight Eisenhower Griffith Stadium Eisenhower skipped Opening Day to play golf at Augusta National, but the game was postponed by rain and he threw out the first ball at the rescheduled game.
1954 Opening Day Dwight Eisenhower Griffith Stadium
1955 Opening Day Dwight Eisenhower Griffith Stadium
1955 World Series Dwight Eisenhower Ebbets Field
1956 Opening Day Dwight Eisenhower Griffith Stadium
1958 Opening Day Dwight Eisenhower Griffith Stadium
1959 Opening Day Richard Nixon Griffith Stadium Nixon was vice president at the time; he was elected president in 1968.
1960 Opening Day Dwight Eisenhower Griffith Stadium
1961 Opening Day John F. Kennedy Griffith Stadium
1962 Opening Day John F. Kennedy D.C. Stadium First ball in new stadium
1963 Opening Day John F. Kennedy D.C. Stadium
1964 Opening Day Lyndon Johnson D.C. Stadium
1965 Opening Day Lyndon Johnson D.C. Stadium
1967 Opening Day Lyndon Johnson D.C. Stadium
1969 Opening Day Richard Nixon RFK Stadium
1970 All-Star Game Richard Nixon Riverfront Stadium All-Star Game in Cincinnati, Ohio
1973 Opening Day Richard Nixon Anaheim Stadium First Opening Day held outside of Washington, D.C.
1976 Opening Day Gerald Ford Arlington Stadium
1976 All-Star Game Gerald Ford Veterans Stadium American League vs. National League
1979 World Series Jimmy Carter Memorial Stadium
1984 Opening Day Ronald Reagan Memorial Stadium Reagan made an unannounced trip to Baltimore, after it was initially cancelled for security reasons. He watched the game from the third-base dugout.[9]
1986 Opening Day Ronald Reagan Memorial Stadium
1988 Regular Season Ronald Reagan Wrigley Field Reagan threw two pitches prior to the Chicago Cubs–Pittsburgh Pirates game on September 30, then joined Harry Caray for 1½ innings on the WGN telecast.[6]
1989 Opening Day George H. W. Bush Memorial Stadium President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak was Bush's special guest, but did not partake in the pregame ceremonies. The Baltimore Orioles defeated the Boston Red Sox 5–4 in 11 innings.[10]
1989 Japan Series Ronald Reagan Tokyo Dome Game 3 between the Kintetsu Buffaloes and Yomiuri Giants
1990 Opening Day George H. W. Bush SkyDome First Opening Day pitch to be thrown in Canada.
1991 Opening Day George H. W. Bush Arlington Stadium
1991 Opening Day Ronald Reagan Dodger Stadium
1992 Opening Day George H. W. Bush Oriole Park at Camden Yards First MLB game at Camden Yards.
1993 Opening Day Bill Clinton Oriole Park at Camden Yards Before this, most presidents threw from the stands or at the base of the pitcher's mound; Clinton was the first president to successfully throw from the pitcher's mound to the catcher.
1994 Opening Day Bill Clinton Jacobs Field First MLB Game at Jacobs Field.
1995 World Series Jimmy Carter Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium
1996 Opening Day Bill Clinton Oriole Park at Camden Yards
1997 Opening Day Bill Clinton Shea Stadium
2000 Opening Day Bill Clinton Pacific Bell Park
2001 Opening Day George W. Bush Miller Park MLB Commissioner Bud Selig (a former owner of the Brewers) threw out the first pitch to celebrate the opening of the new park; Bush threw the second pitch.
2001 World Series George W. Bush Yankee Stadium This was the first World Series game in New York since the September 11 attacks; Bush wore a bulletproof vest and a Secret Service agent dressed as an umpire so he could be on the field.
2003 Opening Day George H.W. Bush Great American Ball Park
2004 Opening Day Jimmy Carter Petco Park First MLB Game at Petco Park
2004 Opening Day George W. Bush Busch Stadium
2005 Opening Day George W. Bush RFK Stadium 2005 was the Nationals' first season, making Bush the first president to throw out first pitch in Washington since Richard Nixon in 1969.
2006 Opening Day George W. Bush Great American Ball Park First sitting President to participate on Opening Day in Cincinnati; preceded Reds–Cubs game on April 3.[6]
2008 Opening Day George W. Bush Nationals Park This was the first pitch in new stadium. Bush also participated in ESPN's TV broadcast of the game and called the ballpark's first home run, hit by the Braves' Chipper Jones in the 4th inning.
2009 Opening Day George W. Bush Rangers Ballpark in Arlington Bush had owned the Rangers in the early 1990s.
2009 All-Star Game Barack Obama Busch Stadium
2009 Japan Series George W. Bush Tokyo Dome Game 3 between the Hokkaido Nippon Ham Fighters and the Yomiuri Giants.
2010 Opening Day Barack Obama Nationals Park 100th anniversary of the first Presidential Opening Day ceremonial first pitch
2010 World Series George W. Bush Rangers Ballpark in Arlington Former President Bush was accompanied to the mound by his father, George H.W. Bush, and Texas Rangers team president Nolan Ryan.
2011 College World Series George W. Bush TD Ameritrade Park Omaha This pitch marked the first game at the new home of the College World Series, replacing the nearby Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium. Before Bush threw out the first pitch, his father, who played for Yale in the first CWS in 1947, delivered a video message christening the new stadium. He is the first President to have thrown ceremonial first pitches for amateur and professional (both North America and Japanese) championship matches.[11]
2015 American League Division Series George H. W. Bush Minute Maid Park Former President George H. W. Bush, aged 91, accompanied by his wife Barbara and in a wheelchair with a neck brace, threw the Houston Astros' first pitch at Game 3 of the ALDS against the Kansas City Royals.[12]
2017 World Series George W. Bush Minute Maid Park Former President Bush was accompanied and given the first pitch ball by his father, George H.W. Bush.
External links[edit]
"U.S. Presidents & Major League Baseball". Baseball Almanac. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ceremonial first pitch.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, Peter Jensen. "President Taft, Governor McKinley and the "Lucky Seventh" Inning – the History and Origins of the Ceremonial "First Pitch" and the "Seventh Inning Stretch"". Early Sports 'n' Pop-Culture History Blog. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Governor McKinley Started It". Omaha Daily Bee. April 17, 1892. p. 2.
Jump up ^ Durrett, Richard (April 24, 2012). "Ivan Rodriguez announces retirement". ESPN. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "American Baseball Team is Victorious". Los Angeles Herald. November 23, 1908. p. 6.
Jump up ^ Duggan, Paul (April 2, 2007). "Balking at the First Pitch". Washington Post. p. A01.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wallner, Jeff. "President Bush tosses Opening pitch", MLB.com, Monday, April 3, 2006
Jump up ^ President Woodrow Wilson Baseball Game Attendance Log Baseball Almanac
Jump up ^ "President Franklin Roosevelt Baseball Game Attendance Log". Baseball Almanac. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Putzel, Michael (April 3, 1984). "Reagan Makes A Surprise Visit". Associated Press. Retrieved 2013-05-29.
Jump up ^ Dowd, Maureen, "Bush Takes Mubarak Out to the Ball Game" The New York Times, Tuesday, April 4, 1989
Jump up ^ "Vanderbilt opens College World Series, new stadium with win". ESPN. Associated Press. June 18, 2011. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Pres. George H.W. Bush, 91, throws out first pitch at Royals-Astros game (+video)". Kansas.com. October 12, 2015. Retrieved October 20, 2015.
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Solid South
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Arkansas voted Democratic in all 23 presidential elections from 1876 through 1964; other states were not quite as solid but generally supported Democrats for president.
The Solid South or Southern bloc was the electoral voting bloc of the states of the Southern United States for issues that were regarded as particularly important to the interests of Democrats in the southern states. The Southern bloc existed especially between the end of Reconstruction in 1877 and the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. During this period, the Democratic Party controlled state legislatures; most local and state officeholders in the South were Democrats, as were federal politicians elected from these states. Southern Democrats disenfranchised blacks in every state of the former Confederacy at the turn of the century. This resulted essentially in a one-party system, in which a candidate's victory in Democratic primary elections was tantamount to election to the office itself. White primaries were another means that the Democrats used to consolidate their political power, excluding blacks from voting in primaries.[1]
The “Solid South” is a loose term referring to the states that made up the voting bloc at any point in time. The Southern region as defined by U.S. Census comprises sixteen states plus Washington, D.C.—Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington, D.C., West Virginia, Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. This definition of the Southern region does not necessarily correspond precisely to the states in the definition of the Solid South. Maryland was occasionally considered part of the Solid South, as was Missouri, although it is classified as a Midwestern state by the U.S. Census. A former slave state, it became dominated by Democrats.
After the 1960s and passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, ensuring federal enforcement of registration and voting, African Americans in the region were able to register and vote, rejoining the political system for the first time since the turn of the 20th century. While nearly six million African Americans had left the region by then in the Great Migration to other areas of the country, most of those who remained became affiliated with the Democratic Party. Its national leaders had supported the civil rights movement. Around the same time, white conservatives began to shift to the Republican Party, which by 2000 attracted most of the white voters. African Americans have elected numerous candidates of their choice, generally Democrats, from districts where their votes have been concentrated.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Oklahoma
1.2 West Virginia
2 Presidential voting
3 “Southern strategy”: end of Solid South
4 “Southern strategy” today
5 Solid South in Presidential elections
6 South in gubernatorial elections
7 See also
8 References
9 Notes
10 Further reading
History[edit]
United States during the Civil War. Blue represents Union states, including those admitted during the war; light blue represents border states; red represents Confederate states. Unshaded areas were not states before or during the Civil War
At the start of the American Civil War, there were 34 states in the United States, 15 of which were slave states. Eleven of these slave states seceded from the United States to form the Confederacy: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The slave states that stayed in the Union were Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and Kentucky, and they were referred to as the border states. In 1861, West Virginia was created out of Virginia, and admitted in 1863 and considered a border state. By the time the Emancipation Proclamation was made in 1863 Tennessee was already in Union control. Accordingly the Proclamation applied only to the 10 remaining Confederate states. Several of the border states abolished slavery before the end of the Civil War—the District of Columbia in 1862, Maryland in 1864,[2] Missouri in 1865,[3] one of the Confederate states, Tennessee in 1865,[4] and West Virginia in 1865.[5] However, slavery persisted in Delaware,[6] Kentucky,[7] and 10 of the 11 former Confederate states, until the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery throughout the United States on December 18, 1865.
Abolition of slavery was a condition of the return of local rule in those states that had declared their secession. The Reconstruction era came to an end in 1877.
Democratic dominance of the South originated in the struggle of white Southerners during and after Reconstruction to establish white supremacy and disenfranchise blacks. The U.S. government under the Republican Party had defeated the Confederacy, abolished slavery, and enfranchised blacks. In several states, black voters were a majority or close to it. Republicans supported by blacks controlled state governments in these states. Thus the Democratic Party became the vehicle for the white supremacist “Redeemers”. The Ku Klux Klan, as well as other insurgent paramilitary groups such as the White League and Red Shirts from 1874, acted as “the military arm of the Democratic party” to disrupt Republican organizing, and intimidate and suppress black voters.[8]
By 1876, Redeemer Democrats had taken control of all the state governments in the South. From then until the 1960s, state and local government in the South was almost entirely monopolized by Democrats. The Democrats elected all but a handful of U.S. Representatives and Senators, and Democratic presidential candidates regularly swept the region – from 1880 through 1944, winning a cumulative total of 182 of 187 states. The Democrats reinforced the loyalty of white voters by emphasizing the suffering of the South during the war at the hands of "Yankee invaders" under Republican leadership, and the noble service of their white forefathers in "the Lost Cause". This rhetoric was effective with many Southerners. However, this propaganda was totally ineffective in areas that had been loyal to the Union during the war, such as eastern Tennessee. Eastern Tennessee welcomed U.S. troops as liberators, and voted Republican after the war, even to the present.[9]
The “Solid South” from 1880–1912.
Even after white Democrats regained control of state legislatures, some blacks were elected to local offices and state legislatures in the South. Black U.S. Representatives were elected from the South as late as the 1890s, usually from overwhelmingly black areas. Also in the 1890s, the Populists developed a following in the South, among poor whites resentful of the Democratic party establishment. Populists formed alliances with Republicans (including blacks) and challenged the Democrat bosses, even defeating them in some cases.[10]
To prevent such coalitions in the future and to end the violence associated with suppressing the black vote during elections, southern Democrats acted to disfranchise both blacks and poor whites. From 1890 to 1910, beginning with Mississippi, southern states adopted new constitutions and other laws including various devices to restrict voter registration, disfranchising virtually all black and many poor white residents.[11] These devices applied to all citizens; in practice they disfranchised most blacks and also “would remove [from voter registration rolls] the less educated, less organized, more impoverished whites as well – and that would ensure one-party Democratic rules through most of the 20th century in the South.”[12][13] All the southern states adopted provisions that restricted voter registration and suffrage, including new requirements for poll taxes, longer residency, and subjective literacy tests. Some also used the device of grandfather clauses, exempting voters who had a grandfather voting by a particular year (usually before the Civil War, when blacks could not vote.)[14]
White Democrats also opposed Republican economic policies such as the high tariff and the gold standard, both of which were seen as benefiting Northern industrial interests at the expense of the agrarian South in the 19th century. Nevertheless, holding all political power was at the heart of their resistance. From 1876 through 1944, the national Democratic party opposed any calls for civil rights for blacks. In Congress southern Democrats blocked such efforts whenever Republicans targeted the issue.[15]
White Democrats passed “Jim Crow” laws which reinforced white supremacy through racial segregation.[16] The Fourteenth Amendment provided for apportionment of representation in Congress to be reduced if a state disenfranchised part of its population. However, this clause was never applied to southern states that disenfranchised blacks. No blacks were elected to any office in the South for decades after the turn of the century; and they were also excluded from juries and other participation in civil life.[11]
Democratic candidates won by large margins in the Southern states in every presidential election from the election of 1876 to 1948 except for 1928, when the Democrat candidate was Al Smith, a Catholic New Yorker; and even in that election, the divided South provided Smith with nearly three-fourths of his electoral votes. Scholar Richard Valelly credited Woodrow Wilson’s 1912 election to the disfranchisement of blacks in the South, and also noted far-reaching effects in Congress, where the Democratic South gained “about 25 extra seats in Congress for each decade between 1903 and 1953.”[a][11]
In the Deep South (South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas), Democrat dominance was overwhelming, with 80%–90% of the vote, and only a tiny number of Republican state legislators or local officials. Mississippi and South Carolina were the most extreme cases – between 1900 and 1944, only in 1928 when the three subcoastal Mississippi counties of Pearl River, Stone and George went for Hoover did the Democrats lose a single one of these two states’ counties in any presidential election.[17] In the remaining states, the German-American Texas counties of Gillespie and Kendall, and a number of counties in Appalachian parts of Arkansas, Alabama and Georgia would vote Republican in presidential elections through this period.[18] In the Upper South (Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia), Republicans retained a significant presence mainly in these remote Appalachian regions which supported the Union during the Civil War,[18] even winning occasional governorships and often drawing over 40% in presidential votes.
By the 1920s, as memories of the Civil War faded, the Solid South cracked slightly. For instance, a Republican was elected U.S. Representative from Texas in 1920, serving until 1932. The Republican national landslides in 1920 and 1928 had some effects. In the 1920 elections, Tennessee elected a Republican governor, elected Republicans to five of the state’s ten U.S. House seats and became the first former Confederate state to vote for the Republican candidate for U.S. President since Reconstruction. However, with the Democratic national landslide of 1932, the South again became solidly Democrat.
In the 1930s, black voters outside the South largely switched to the Democrats, and other groups with an interest in civil rights (notably Jews, Catholics, and academic intellectuals) became more powerful in the party. This led to the national Democrats adopting a civil rights plank in 1948. A faction of Deep South Democrats bolted the party, and ran their own “Dixiecrat” presidential ticket, which carried four states, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.[19] Even before then, a number of conservative Southern Democrats felt chagrin at the national party’s growing friendliness to organized labor during the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, and began splitting their tickets as early as the 1930s.
Southern demography also began to change. From 1910 through 1970, about 6.5 million black southerners moved to urban areas in other parts of the country in the Great Migration, and demographics began to change southern states in other ways. Florida began to expand rapidly, with retirees and other migrants from other regions becoming a majority of the population. Many of these new residents brought their Republican voting habits with them, diluting traditional Southern hostility to the Republicans. The Republican Party began to make gains in the South, building on other cultural conflicts as well. By the mid-1960s, changes had come in many of the southern states. Former Dixiecrat Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina changed parties in 1964; Texas elected a Republican Senator in 1961; Florida and Arkansas elected Republican governors in 1966. In the upper South, where Republicans had always been a small presence, Republicans gained a few House and Senate seats.
Republican President Richard Nixon adopted a “Southern Strategy” for the presidential election of 1972: continue enforcement of the civil rights legislation of the 1960s, but be quiet about it, so that offended Southern whites would continue to blame the Democrats, while talking up the Democrats’ increasing association with liberal views. He was aided by centrist Democrats’ attacks on the eventual nominee as a radical. This strategy was wildly successful – Nixon carried every southern state by huge margins.
The South was still overwhelmingly Democratic at the state level, with majorities in all state legislatures, and most U.S. Representatives as well. Over the next thirty years, this gradually changed. Veteran Democrat officeholders retired or died, and older voters who were still rigidly Democrat also died off. There were also increasing numbers of migrants from other areas, especially in Florida, Texas, and North Carolina. Via the “Republican Revolution” in the 1994 elections, Republicans captured a majority of Southern House seats for the first time.
Today, the South is considered a Republican stronghold at the state and federal levels, with Republicans holding majorities in every southern state after the 2014 elections. Political experts have often cited a southernization of politics following the fall of the “Solid South”.
Oklahoma[edit]
Oklahoma was not a state during Reconstruction, being admitted to the Union only in 1907. Since that time, its voting patterns has been similar to those of other Southern states, so it may be considered part of the Solid South.[citation needed]
West Virginia[edit]
For West Virginia “reconstruction, in a sense, began in 1861…”.[20] Unlike the other border states West Virginia did not send the majority of its soldiers to the Union.[21] The prospect of those returning ex-Confederates prompted the Wheeling state government to implement laws that restricted their right of suffrage, practicing law and teaching, access to the legal system, and subjected them to “war trespass” lawsuits.[22] The lifting of these restrictions in 1871 resulted in the election of John J. Jacob, a Democrat, to the governorship. It also led to the rejection of the war-time constitution by public vote and a new constitution written under the leadership of ex-Confederates such as Samuel Price, Allen T. Caperton and Charles James Faulkner. In 1876 the state Democratic ticket of eight candidates were all elected, seven of whom were Confederate veterans.[23] For nearly a generation West Virginia was part of the Solid South.[24][25]
However, Republicans returned to power in 1896, controlling the governorship for eight of the next nine terms, and electing 82 of 106 U.S. Representatives. In 1932, as the nation swung to the Democrats, West Virginia became solidly Democratic. It was perhaps the most reliably Democratic state in the nation between 1932 and 1996, being one of just two states (along with Minnesota) to vote Republican president as few as 3 times in that interval. Moreover, unlike Minnesota (or other nearly as reliably Democratic states like Massachusetts and Rhode Island), it usually had a unanimous (or nearly unanimous) congressional delegation and only elected two Republicans as Governor (albeit for a combined 20 years between them). West Virginia voters shifted toward the Republican Party from 1996 onward, as the Democratic Party became more strongly identified with environmental policies anathema to the state’s coal industry and with socially liberal policies, and it can now be called a solidly red state.[26][27]
Presidential voting[edit]
Missouri goes for Republican Theodore Roosevelt in the 1904 election. (Cartoon by John T. McCutcheon.)
The 1896 presidential election resulted in the first break in the Solid South. Florida politician Marion L. Dawson, writing in the North American Review, observed- "The victorious party not only held in line those States which are usually relied upon to give Republican majorities... More significant still, it invaded the Solid South, and bore off West Virginia, Maryland, and Kentucky; caused North Carolina to tremble in the balance and reduced Democratic majorities in the following States: Alabama, 39,000; Arkansas, 29,000; Florida, 6,000; Georgia, 49,000; Louisiana, 33,000; South Carolina, 6,000; and Texas, 29,000. These facts, taken together with the great landslide of 1894 and 1895, which swept Missouri and Tennessee, Maryland and Kentucky over into the country of the enemy, have caused Southern statesmen to seriously consider whether the so-called Solid South is not now a thing of past history;".[28]
In 1904, Missouri supported Republican Theodore Roosevelt, while Maryland awarded its electors to Democrat Alton Parker, despite Roosevelt's winning by 51 votes.[29]
By the 1916 election, disfranchisement of blacks and many poor whites was complete, and voter rolls had dropped dramatically in the South. Closing out Republican supporters gave a bump to southerner Woodrow Wilson, who took all the electors across the South, as the Republican Party was stifled without support by African Americans.[11]
The 1920 election was a referendum on President Woodrow Wilson's League of Nations. Pro-isolation sentiment in the South benefited Republican Warren G. Harding who won Tennessee and Missouri. In 1924, Coolidge won Kentucky and Missouri. In 1928, Hoover, perhaps benefiting from bias against his Roman Catholic Anti-Prohibition opponent Al Smith, won not only Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee, but also Florida, North Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. Maryland changed to the Republicans in the 1920s and would not vote Democratic again until Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s 1932 Presidential landslide over Republican President Herbert Hoover.
The South appeared "solid" again during the period of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s political dominance, as his welfare programs and military buildup invested considerable money in the South, benefiting many of its citizens, including during the Dust Bowl.
Democratic President Harry S. Truman's support of the civil rights movement, combined with the adoption of a civil rights plank in the 1948 Democratic platform, prompted many Southerners to walk out of the Democratic National Convention and form the Dixiecrat Party. This splinter party played a significant role in the 1948 election; the Dixiecrat candidate, Strom Thurmond, carried Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. In the elections of 1952 and 1956, the popular Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, commander of the Allied armed forces during World War II, carried several southern states, with especially strong showings in the new suburbs. In 1956, Eisenhower also carried Louisiana, becoming the first Republican to win the state since Rutherford B. Hayes in 1876. The rest of the Deep South voted for his Democratic opponent, Adlai Stevenson. The 1948 election also marked Maryland's permanent defection from the Solid South as the expansion of the federal government led to a population explosion in the state that changed Maryland politically into a Northeastern State.
In the 1960 election, the Democratic nominee, John F. Kennedy, continued his party's tradition of selecting a Southerner as the vice presidential candidate (in this case, Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas). Kennedy and Johnson, however, both supported civil rights. In October 1960, when Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested at a peaceful sit-in in Atlanta, Georgia, Kennedy placed a sympathetic phone call to King's wife, Coretta Scott King, and Robert Kennedy helped secure King's release. King expressed his appreciation for these calls. Although King made no endorsement, his father, who had previously endorsed Republican Richard Nixon, switched his support to Kennedy.
Because of these and other events, the Democrats lost ground with white voters in the South, as those same voters increasingly lost control over what was once a whites-only Democratic Party in much of the South. The 1960 election was the first in which a Republican presidential candidate received electoral votes in the South while losing nationally. Nixon carried Virginia, Tennessee, and Florida. Though Kennedy also won Alabama and Mississippi, slates of unpledged electors, representing Democratic segregationists, would award those states’ electoral votes to Harry Byrd.
The parties' positions on civil rights continued to evolve in the run up to the 1964 election. The Democratic candidate, Johnson, who had become president after Kennedy's assassination, spared no effort to win passage of a strong Civil Rights Act of 1964. After signing the landmark legislation, Johnson said to his aide, Bill Moyers: “I think we just delivered the South to the Republican Party for a long time to come.”[30] In contrast, Johnson's Republican opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, voted against the Civil Rights Act, believing it enhanced the federal government and infringed on the private property rights of businessmen. Goldwater did support civil rights in general and universal suffrage, and voted for the 1957 and 1960 Civil Rights Acts as well as the 24th Amendment, which banned poll taxes as a requirement for voting. This was one of the devices that states used to disfranchise minorities and the poor.
That November, Johnson won a landslide electoral victory, and the Republicans suffered significant losses in Congress. Goldwater, however, besides carrying his home state of Arizona, carried the Deep South: voters in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina had switched parties for the first time since Reconstruction. Goldwater notably won only in Southern states that had voted against Republican Richard Nixon in 1960, while not winning a single southern state which Nixon had carried, creating a complete inversion of the electoral pattern of the previous presidential election. Prior to the 1956 election, the region had almost always provided the only victories for Democratic challengers to popular Republican incumbent presidents. Now, however, the South had provided a Republican challenger with electoral victories against a popular Democratic incumbent.
According to a quantitative analysis for the National Bureau of Economic Research, racism played a central role in the decline in relative white Southern Democratic identification.[31]
“Southern strategy”: end of Solid South[edit]
Main article: Southern strategy
In the 1968 election, the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon, saw this trend and capitalized on it with his “Southern strategy.” His strategy was designed to appeal to white Southerners who were more conservative than the leaders of the national Democratic Party. As a result of the strategy and conservative Southerners' reactions against Democratic leaders, Hubert Humphrey was almost shut out in the South, carrying only Texas, with the rest of the South being divided between Nixon and the American Independent Party candidate George C. Wallace, the governor of Alabama, who had gained fame for opposing integration. Nationwide, Nixon won a decisive electoral college victory, although he received only a plurality of the popular vote. Nixon won the 1972 election in a landslide.
At the 1976 election, Jimmy Carter, a Southern governor, gave Democrats a short-lived comeback in the South, winning every state in the old Confederacy except for Virginia, which was narrowly lost. However, in his unsuccessful 1980 re-election bid, the only Southern states he won were his native state of Georgia and West Virginia. The year 1976 was the last year a Democratic presidential candidate won a majority of Southern electoral votes. The Republicans took all the region’s electoral votes in the 1984 election and every state except West Virginia in 1988.
In the 1992 election and 1996, when the Democratic ticket consisted of two Southerners, (Bill Clinton and Al Gore), the Democrats and Republicans split the region. In both elections, Clinton won Arkansas, Louisiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia, while the Republican won Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. Bill Clinton won Georgia in 1992, but lost it in 1996 to Bob Dole. Conversely, Clinton lost Florida in 1992 to George Bush, but won it in 1996.
In 2000, however, Gore received no electoral votes from the South, even from his home state of Tennessee. The popular vote in Florida was extraordinarily close in awarding the state's electoral votes to George W. Bush. This pattern continued in the 2004 election; the Democratic ticket of John Kerry and John Edwards received no electoral votes from the South, even though Edwards was from North Carolina, and was born in South Carolina. However, in the 2008 election, Barack Obama won the former Republican strongholds of Virginia and North Carolina as well as Florida; Obama won Virginia and Florida again in 2012 and lost North Carolina by only 2.04 percent.
While the South was shifting from the Democrats to the Republicans, the Northeastern United States went the other way. The Northeastern United States is defined by the US Census Bureau as Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and the New England States although politically the Northeast also includes Maryland and Delaware. Well into the 1980s, the Northeast was a bastion of the Republican Party. The Democratic Party made steady gains there, however, and in 1992, 1996, 2004, 2008 and 2012 all eleven Northeastern states, from Maryland to Maine, voted for the Democrats. The same trend can be observed on the West Coast and Upper Midwest (excluding The Dakotas and including Illinois and Iowa) of the nation, as they shifted from solidly Republican and swing-states, respectively, to a change in political party strength.
“Southern strategy” today[edit]
Although Republicans gradually began doing better in presidential elections in the South starting in 1952, Republicans did not finish taking over Southern politics at the nonpresidential level until the elections of November 2010. Today, the South is dominated by Republicans at both the state and presidential level. Republicans control all 22 of the other legislative bodies in the former Confederacy, and all but one in a border state. There are currently no white Democratic congressmen from the Deep South. Until November 2010, Democrats had a majority in the Alabama, North Carolina, Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana Legislatures, a majority in the Kentucky House of Representatives and Virginia Senate, a near majority of the Tennessee House of Representatives, and a majority of the U.S. House delegations from Arkansas, North Carolina, Mississippi, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, as well as near-even splits of the Georgia and Alabama U.S. House delegations. During the 2010 midterm elections, Republicans swept the South, successfully reelecting every Senate incumbent, electing freshmen Marco Rubio in Florida and Rand Paul in Kentucky, and defeating Democratic incumbent Blanche Lincoln in Arkansas for a seat now held by John Boozman. In the House, Republicans reelected every incumbent except for Joseph Cao of New Orleans and defeated several Democratic incumbents. Republicans are now the majority in the congressional delegations of every Southern state. Every Solid South state, with the exceptions of Arkansas, Kentucky, North Carolina, and West Virginia, also elected or reelected Republicans governors. Most significantly, Republicans took control of both houses of the Alabama and North Carolina State Legislatures for the first time since Reconstruction, with Mississippi and Louisiana flipping a year later during their off-year elections. Even in Arkansas, the GOP won three of six statewide down-ballot positions for which they had often not fielded candidates until recently; they also went from eight to 15 out of 35 seats in the State Senate and from 28 to 45 out of 100 in the State House of Representatives. In 2012, the Republicans finally took control of the Arkansas State Legislature and the North Carolina Governorship, leaving West Virginia as the last Solid South state with the Democrats still in control of the state legislature, as well as the governorship. In 2014, though, both houses of the West Virginia legislature were finally taken by the GOP, and most other legislative chambers in the South up for election that year saw increased GOP gains. Arkansas’ governorship finally flipped GOP in 2014 when the incumbent termed out, as did every other statewide office not previously held by the Republicans. Many analysts believe the so-called “Southern Strategy” that has been employed by Republicans since the 1960s is now virtually complete, with Republicans in firm, almost total, control of political offices in the South.[citation needed]
The biggest exception to this trend has been the state of Virginia. It got an earlier start in the trend towards the Republican party than the rest of the region. It voted Republican for president in eleven of the twelve elections between 1952 and 1996, while no other Southern state did so more than nine times (that state, Florida, is the other potential exception to the trend, but to a significantly lesser extent). Moreover, it had a Republican Governor more often than not between 1970 and 2002, and Republicans held at least half the seats in the Virginia congressional delegation from 1968 to 1990 (although the Democrats had a narrow minority throughout the 1990s), while with single-term exceptions (Alabama from 1965-1967, Tennessee from 1973-1975, and South Carolina from 1981-1983) and the exception of Florida (which had its delegation turn majority-Republican in 1989) Democrats held at least half the seats in the delegations of the rest of the Southern states until the Republican Revolution of 1994. However, thanks in large part to massive population growth in Northern Virginia and the orientation of that population with the political ideologies of the solidly Democratic Northeast, the Democratic party has won nearly every major statewide race since 2005, with the single exception being the Governor's race in 2009.[32]
Solid South in Presidential elections[edit]
While Republicans occasionally won southern states in elections in which they won the presidency in the Solid South, it was not until 1960 that a Republican carried one of these states while losing the national election.
Presidential l votes in southern states since 1876
Year
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia
1876 Tilden Tilden Hayes[b] Tilden Tilden Hayes[b] Tilden Tilden No election[c] Hayes[b] Tilden Tilden Tilden Tilden
1880 Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock No election Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock Hancock
1884 Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland No election Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland
1888 Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland No election Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland
1892 Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland No election Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland
1896 Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan McKinley Bryan Bryan Bryan No election Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan McKinley
1900 Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan No election Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan McKinley
1904 Parker Parker Parker Parker Parker Parker Parker Parker No election Parker Parker Parker Parker Roosevelt
1908 Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Bryan Taft
1912 Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson
1916 Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Wilson Hughes
1920 Cox Cox Cox Cox Cox Cox Cox Cox Harding Cox Harding Cox Cox Harding
1924 Davis Davis Davis Davis Coolidge Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Davis Coolidge
1928 Smith Smith Hoover Smith Hoover Smith Smith Hoover Hoover Smith Hoover Hoover Hoover Hoover
1932 Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt
1936 Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt
1940 Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt
1944 Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt Roosevelt
1948 Thurmond Truman Truman Truman Truman Thurmond Thurmond Truman Truman Thurmond Truman Truman Truman Truman
1952 Stevenson Stevenson Eisenhower Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Stevenson Eisenhower Stevenson Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Stevenson
1956 Stevenson Stevenson Eisenhower Stevenson Eisenhower Eisenhower Stevenson Stevenson Eisenhower Stevenson Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower
1960 Byrd[d] Kennedy Nixon Kennedy Nixon Kennedy Byrd Kennedy Nixon Kennedy Nixon Kennedy Nixon Kennedy
1964 Goldwater Johnson Johnson Goldwater Johnson Goldwater Goldwater Johnson Johnson Goldwater Johnson Johnson Johnson Johnson
1968 Wallace Wallace Nixon Wallace Nixon Wallace Wallace Nixon[e] Nixon Nixon Nixon Humphrey Nixon Humphrey
1972 Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon
1976 Carter Carter Carter Carter Carter Carter Carter Carter Ford Carter Carter Carter Ford Carter
1980 Reagan Reagan Reagan Carter Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Carter
1984 Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan
1988 Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Dukakis
1992 Bush Clinton Bush Clinton Clinton Clinton Bush Bush Bush Bush Clinton Bush Bush Clinton
1996 Dole Clinton Clinton Dole Clinton Clinton Dole Dole Dole Dole Clinton Dole Dole Clinton
2000 Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush
2004 Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush
2008 McCain McCain Obama McCain McCain McCain McCain Obama McCain McCain McCain McCain Obama McCain
2012 Romney Romney Obama Romney Romney Romney Romney Romney Romney Romney Romney Romney Obama Romney
2016 Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Trump Clinton Trump
Year
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia
Key
Democratic Party nominee
Republican Party nominee
Third-party nominee or write-in candidate
Bold denotes candidates elected as president
South in gubernatorial elections[edit]
Officials who acted as governor for less than ninety days are excluded from this chart. This chart is intended to be a visual exposition of party strength in the solid south and the dates listed are not exactly precise. Governors not elected in their own right are listed in italics.
The parties are as follows: Democratic (D), Farmers' Alliance (FA), Prohibition (P), Readjuster (RA), Republican (R).
Governors of southern states since 1877
Year
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia
1877
George S. Houston (D) William Read Miller (D) George F. Drew (D) Alfred H. Colquitt (D) James B. McCreary (D) Francis T. Nicholls (D) John M. Stone (D)[f] Zebulon Baird Vance (D) Unorganized territory Wade Hampton III (D) James D. Porter (D) Richard B. Hubbard (D)[g] James L. Kemper (D) Henry M. Mathews (D)
1878
Frederick W. M. Holliday (D)
1879
Rufus W. Cobb (D) Thomas Jordan Jarvis (D) William Dunlap Simpson (D)[g] Albert S. Marks (D) Oran M. Roberts (D)
1880
Luke P. Blackburn (D) Louis A. Wiltz (D)[h] Thomas Bothwell Jeter (D)
1881
Thomas James Churchill (D) William D. Bloxham (D) Samuel D. McEnery (D) Johnson Hagood (D) Alvin Hawkins (R) Jacob B. Jackson (D)
1882
Robert Lowry (D) Hugh Smith Thompson (D)[i] William E. Cameron (RA)
1883
Edward A. O'Neal (D) James Henderson Berry (D) Henry Dickerson McDaniel (D) William B. Bate (D) John Ireland (D)
1884
J. Proctor Knott (D)
1885
Simon Pollard Hughes, Jr. (D) Edward A. Perry (D) Alfred Moore Scales (D) (D) Emanuel Willis Wilson (D)[j]
1886
Fitzhugh Lee (D)
1887
Thomas Seay (D) John B. Gordon (D) Robert Love Taylor (D) Lawrence Sullivan Ross (D)
1888
Simon Bolivar Buckner, Sr. (D) Francis T. Nicholls (D)
1889
James Philip Eagle (D) Francis P. Fleming (D) Daniel Gould Fowle (D)
1890
John M. Stone (D) Governors of Oklahoma Territory
(appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the Senate)
Philip W. McKinney (D) Aretas B. Fleming (D)[k]
1891
Thomas G. Jones (D) William J. Northen (D) Thomas Michael Holt (D) John P. Buchanan (D) Jim Hogg (D)
1892
John Y. Brown (D) Murphy J. Foster (D)
1893
William Meade Fishback (D) Henry L. Mitchell (D) Elias Carr (D) Peter Turney (D) William A. MacCorkle (D)
1894
Charles Triplett O'Ferrall (D)
1895
William C. Oates (D) James Paul Clarke (D) William Yates Atkinson (D) Charles A. Culberson (D)
1896
William O. Bradley (R) Anselm J. McLaurin (D)
1897
Joseph F. Johnston (D) Daniel Webster Jones (D) William D. Bloxham (D) Daniel Lindsay Russell (R) Robert Love Taylor (D) George W. Atkinson (R)
1898
James Hoge Tyler (D)
1899
Allen D. Candler (D) Benton McMillin (D) Joseph D. Sayers (D)
1900
[l] William Wright Heard (D) Andrew H. Longino (D)
J. C. W. Beckham (D)[m]
1901
William J. Samford (D)[h] Jeff Davis (D) William S. Jennings (D) Charles Brantley Aycock (D) Albert B. White (R)
William D. Jelks (D)[n][o]
1902
Andrew Jackson Montague (D)
1903
Joseph M. Terrell (D) James B. Frazier (D)[p] S. W. T. Lanham (D)
1904
Newton C. Blanchard (D) James K. Vardaman (D)
1905
Napoleon B. Broward (D) Robert Broadnax Glenn (D) John I. Cox (D)[q] William M. O. Dawson (R)
1906
Claude A. Swanson (D)
1907
B. B. Comer (D) (D) M. Hoke Smith (D) Charles N. Haskell (D) Malcolm R. Patterson (D) Thomas Mitchell Campbell (D)
1908
Augustus E. Willson (R) Jared Y. Sanders, Sr. (D) Edmond Noel (D)
1909
Albert W. Gilchrist (D) George Washington Donaghey (D) Joseph M. Brown (D) William Walton Kitchin (D) William E. Glasscock (R)
1910
William Hodges Mann (D)
1911
Emmet O'Neal (D) [r] Lee Cruce (D) Ben W. Hooper (R) Oscar Branch Colquitt (D)
1912
James B. McCreary (D) Luther E. Hall (D) Earl L. Brewer (D)
1913
(D)[s] Park Trammell (D) John M. Slaton (D) Locke Craig (D) Henry D. Hatfield (R)
1914
George Washington Hays (D)[t] Henry Carter Stuart (D)
1915
Charles Henderson (D) Nathaniel E. Harris (D) R. L. Williams (D) Tom C. Rye (D) James E. Ferguson (D)[u]
1916
Augustus O. Stanley (D)[v] Ruffin G. Pleasant (D) Theodore G. Bilbo (D)
1917
Charles Hillman Brough (D) Sidney Johnston Catts (P) Hugh M. Dorsey (D) Thomas Walter Bickett (D) William P. Hobby (D)[m] John J. Cornwell (D)
1918
Westmoreland Davis (D)
1919
Thomas Kilby (D) James D. Black (D)[g] James B. A. Robertson (D) A. H. Roberts (D)
1920
Edwin P. Morrow (R) John M. Parker (D) Lee M. Russell (D)
1921
Thomas Chipman McRae (D) Cary A. Hardee (D) Thomas W. Hardwick (D) Cameron Morrison (D) Alfred A. Taylor (R) Pat Morris Neff (D) Ephraim F. Morgan (R)
1922
Elbert Lee Trinkle (D)
1923
William W. Brandon (D) Clifford Walker (D) Jack C. Walton[w] Austin Peay (D)[x]
1924
William J. Fields (D) Henry L. Fuqua (D)[h] Henry L. Whitfield (D)[h] Martin E. Trapp (D)[g]
1925
Tom Jefferson Terral (D) John W. Martin (D) Angus Wilton McLean (D) Miriam A. Ferguson (D) Howard M. Gore (R)
1926
Oramel H. Simpson (D)[g] Harry F. Byrd (D)
1927
Bibb Graves (D) John Ellis Martineau (D)[y] Lamartine G. Hardman (D) Dennis Murphree (D)[g] Henry S. Johnston (D)[z] Dan Moody (D)
1928
Harvey Parnell (D)[m] Flem D. Sampson (R) Huey Long (D) Theodore G. Bilbo (D) Henry Hollis Horton (D)[aa]
1929
Doyle E. Carlton (D) Oliver Max Gardner (D) William J. Holloway (D)[g] William G. Conley (R)
1930
John Garland Pollard (D)
1931
Benjamin M. Miller (D) Richard Russell, Jr. (D) William H. Murray (D) Ross S. Sterling (D)
1932
Ruby Laffoon (D) Alvin Olin King (D)[ab] Martin Sennett Conner (D)
1933
Junius Marion Futrell (D) David Sholtz (D) Eugene Talmadge (D) Oscar K. Allen (D)[h] John C.B. Ehringhaus (D) Harry Hill McAlister (D) Miriam A. Ferguson (D) Herman G. Kump (D)
1934
George C. Peery (D)
1935
Bibb Graves (D) Ernest W. Marland (D) James V. Allred (D)
1936
Happy Chandler (D)[ac] James A. Noe(D) Hugh L. White
1937
Carl Edward Bailey (D) Fred P. Cone (D) Eurith D. Rivers (D) Clyde R. Hoey (D) Gordon Browning (D) Homer A. Holt (D)
1938
James H. Price (D)
1939
Frank M. Dixon (D) Keen Johnson (D)[m] Leon C. Phillips (D) Prentice Cooper (D) W. Lee O'Daniel (D)[ad]
1940
Sam H. Jones (D) Paul B. Johnson, Sr. (D)[h]
1941
Homer Martin Adkins (D) Spessard Holland (D) Eugene Talmadge (D) J. Melville Broughton (D) Matthew M. Neely (D)
1942
Coke R. Stevenson (D)[m] Colgate Darden (D)
1943
Chauncey Sparks (D) Ellis Arnall (D) Dennis Murphree (D)[g] Robert S. Kerr (D)
1944
Simeon S. Willis (R) Jimmie Davis (D) Thomas L. Bailey (D)[h]
1945
Benjamin Travis Laney (D) Millard F. Caldwell (D) R. Gregg Cherry (D) Jim Nance McCord (D) Clarence W. Meadows (D)
1946
Fielding L. Wright (D)[m] William M. Tuck (D)
1947
Jim Folsom (D) Melvin E. Thompson (D) Roy J. Turner (D) Beauford H. Jester (D)[ae]
1948
Earle C. Clements (D)[v] Earl Long (D)
1949
Sid McMath (D) Fuller Warren (D) Herman Talmadge (D) W. Kerr Scott (D) Gordon Browning (D) Allan Shivers (D)[m] Okey L. Patteson (D)
1950
John S. Battle (D)
1951
Gordon Persons (D) Lawrence W. Wetherby (D)[m] Johnston Murray (D)
1952
Robert F. Kennon (D) Hugh L. White (D)
1953
Francis Cherry (D) Daniel T. McCarty (D)[h] William B. Umstead (D)[h] Frank G. Clement (D) William C. Marland (D)
1954
Charley Eugene Johns (D)[af] Luther Hodges (D)[m] Thomas Bahnson Stanley (D)
1955
Jim Folsom (D) Orval Faubus (D) LeRoy Collins (D) Marvin Griffin (D) Raymond D. Gary (D)
1956
Happy Chandler (D) Earl Long (D) James P. Coleman (D)
1957
Price Daniel (D) Cecil H. Underwood (R)
1958
James Lindsay Almond, Jr. (D)
1959
John Malcolm Patterson (D) Ernest Vandiver (D) J. Howard Edmondson (D) Buford Ellington (D)
1960
Bert T. Combs (D) Jimmie Davis (D) Ross Barnett (D)
1961
C. Farris Bryant (D) Terry Sanford (D) William Wallace Barron (D)
1962
Albertis S. Harrison, Jr. (D)
1963
George Wallace (D) Carl Sanders (D) Henry Bellmon (R) Frank G. Clement (D) John Connally (D)
1964
Edward T. Breathitt (D) John McKeithen (D) Paul B. Johnson, Jr. (D)
1965
W. Haydon Burns (D) Dan K. Moore Robert Evander McNair (D)[m] Hulett C. Smith (D)
1966
Mills E. Godwin, Jr. (D)
1967
Lurleen Wallace (D)[h] Winthrop Rockefeller (R) Claude R. Kirk, Jr. (R) Lester Maddox (D) Dewey F. Bartlett (R) Buford Ellington (D)
1968
Louie B. Nunn (R) John Bell Williams (D)
1969
Albert Brewer (D)[g] Robert W. Scott (D) Preston Smith (D) Arch A. Moore, Jr. (R)
1970
A. Linwood Holton, Jr. (R)
1971
George Wallace (D) Dale Bumpers (D) Reubin Askew (D) Jimmy Carter (D) David Hall (D) John C. West (D) Winfield Dunn (R)
1972
Wendell H. Ford (D)[v] Edwin Edwards (D) Bill Waller (D)
1973
James Holshouser (R) Dolph Briscoe (D)
1974
Mills E. Godwin, Jr. (R)
1975
David Pryor (D) George Busbee (D) Julian Carroll (D)[m] David L. Boren (D) James B. Edwards (R) Ray Blanton (D)
1976
Cliff Finch (D)
1977
James B. Hunt, Jr. (D) Jay Rockefeller (D)
1978
John N. Dalton (R)
1979
Fob James (D) Bill Clinton (D) Bob Graham (D) George Nigh (D) Richard Riley (D) Lamar Alexander (R) Bill Clements (R)
1980
John Y. Brown, Jr. (D) Dave Treen (R) William Winter (D)
1981
Frank D. White (R)
1982
Chuck Robb (D)
1983
George Wallace (D) Bill Clinton (D)[ag] Joe Frank Harris (D) Mark White (D)
1984
Martha Layne Collins (D) Edwin Edwards (D) William Allain (D)
1985
James G. Martin (R) Arch A. Moore, Jr. (R)
1986
Gerald L. Baliles (D)
1987
H. Guy Hunt (R)[ah] Bob Martinez (R) Henry Bellmon (R) Carroll A. Campbell, Jr. (R) Ned McWherter (D) Bill Clements (R)
1988
Wallace G. Wilkinson (D) Buddy Roemer (D/R)[ai] Ray Mabus (D)
1989
Gaston Caperton (D)
1990
Douglas Wilder (D)
1991
Lawton Chiles (D) Zell Miller (D) David Walters (D) Ann Richards (D)
1992
Brereton Jones (D) Edwin Edwards (D) Kirk Fordice (R)
1993
Jim Folsom, Jr. (D)[g] Jim Guy Tucker (D)[m][aj] James B. Hunt, Jr. (D)
1994
George Allen (R)
1995
Fob James (R) Frank Keating (R) David Beasley (R) Don Sundquist (R) George W. Bush (R)[ag]
1996
Paul E. Patton (D) Murphy J. Foster, Jr. (R)
1997
Mike Huckabee (R)[m] Cecil H. Underwood (R)
1998
Jim Gilmore (R)
1999
Don Siegelman (D) Jeb Bush (R) Roy Barnes (D) Jim Hodges (D)
2000
Ronnie Musgrove (D)
2001
Mike Easley (D) Rick Perry (R)[m] Bob Wise (D)
2002
Mark Warner (D)
2003
Bob Riley (R) Sonny Perdue (R) Brad Henry (D) Mark Sanford (R) Phil Bredesen (D)
2004
Ernie Fletcher (R) Kathleen Blanco (D) Haley Barbour (R)
2005
Joe Manchin (D)[ak]
2006
Tim Kaine (D)
2007
Mike Beebe (D) Charlie Crist (R/I)[al]
2008
Steve Beshear (D) Bobby Jindal (R)
2009
Beverly Perdue (D)
2010
Bob McDonnell (R)
2011
Robert Bentley (R) [am] Rick Scott (R) Nathan Deal (R) Mary Fallin (R) Nikki Haley (R) Bill Haslam (R) Earl Ray Tomblin (D)[an]
2012
Phil Bryant (R)
2013
Pat McCrory (R)
2014
Terry McAuliffe (D)
2015
Asa Hutchinson (R) Greg Abbott (R)
2016
Matt Bevin (R) John Bel Edwards (D)
2017
Kay Ivey (R) [ao] Roy Cooper (D) Jim Justice (R)
Year
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia
See also[edit]
Bible Belt
Tantamount to election
Yellow dog Democrat
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dewey W. Grantham, The Life and Death of the Solid South: A Political History (1992).
Jump up ^ "Archives of Maryland Historical List: Constitutional Convention, 1864". November 1, 1864. Retrieved 2012-11-18.
Jump up ^ "Missouri abolishes slavery". January 11, 1865. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved 2012-11-18.
Jump up ^ "Tennessee State Convention: Slavery Declared Forever Abolished". NY Times. January 14, 1865. Retrieved 2012-11-18.
Jump up ^ "On this day: 1865-FEB-03". Retrieved 2012-11-18.
Jump up ^ "Slavery in Delaware". Retrieved 2012-11-18.
Jump up ^ Lowell Hayes Harrison and James C. Klotter (1997). A new history of Kentucky. p. 180. In 1866, Kentucky refused to ratify the 13th Amendment. It did ratify it in 1976.
Jump up ^ George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (1984), p. 132
Jump up ^ Gordon B. McKinney, Southern Mountain Republicans, 1865–1900: Politics and the Appalachian Community (1998)
Jump up ^ C. Van Woodward, The Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (1951) pp 235–90
^ Jump up to: a b c d Richard M. Valelly, The Two Reconstructions: The Struggle for Black Enfranchisement University of Chicago Press, 2009, pp. 146–147
Jump up ^ Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, p.10, Accessed 10 Mar 2008
Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman, The Disenfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–136
Jump up ^ Michael Perman.Struggle for Mastery: Disenfranchisement (sic) in the South, 1888–1908 (2001), Introduction
Jump up ^ Jeffery A. Jenkins, Justin Peck, and Vesla M. Weaver. "Between Reconstructions: Congressional Action on Civil Rights, 1891–1940." Studies in American Political Development 24#1 (2010): 57–89. online
Jump up ^ Connie Rice: Top 10 Election Myths to Get Rid Of : NPR The situation in Louisiana was an example—see John N. Pharr, Regular Democratic Organization#Reconstruction & aftermath, and the note to Murphy J. Foster (who served as governor of Louisiana from 1892 to 1900).
Jump up ^ Presidential election of 1900 – Map by Counties (and subsequent years)
^ Jump up to: a b Sullivan, Robert David; ‘How the Red and Blue Map Evolved Over the Past Century’; America Magazine in The National Catholic Review; June 29, 2016
Jump up ^ Kari A. Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968 (2001).
Jump up ^ Foner, Eric, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, Harper Collins, 2002, pg. 38
Jump up ^ Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War. History Press, 2011, pg. 28
Jump up ^ Bastress, Robert M., The West Virginia State Constitution, Oxford Univ. Press, 2011, pg. 21
Jump up ^ Ambler, Charles Henry, A History of West Virginia, Prentice-Hall, 1937, pg. 376.
Jump up ^ Williams, John Alexander, West Virginia, a History, W.W. Norton, 1984, pg. 94
Jump up ^ Herbert, Hilary Abner Why the Solid South? Or, Reconstruction and Its Results, R.H. Woodward, 1890, pgs. 258–284
Jump up ^ Tumulty, Karen (26 October 2013). "A Blue State's Road to Red". The Washington Post. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Woodruff, Betsy (29 October 2014). "Goodbye West Virginia". Slate. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Marion L.,Will the South Be Solid Again?, The North American Review, Volume 164, 1897, pgs. 193–198 [1]
Jump up ^ Too Close to Call: Presidential Electors and Elections in Maryland, featuring the Presidential Election of 1904. Archives of Maryland Documents for the Classroom.
Jump up ^ Second Thoughts: Reflections on the Great Society New Perspectives Quarterly, Winter 1987
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Paul (December 8, 2015), "The South won the Civil War: White men, racial resentment, and how the Bitter Minority came to rule us all", Salon
Jump up ^ Farnswoth, Stephen and Hanna, Stephen (16 November 2012). "Why Virginia's purple is starting to look rather blue". Washington Post. Retrieved 24 July 2016. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Despite the South’s excessive representation relative to voting population, the Great Migration did cause Mississippi to lose Congressional districts following the 1930 and 1950 Censuses, whilst South Carolina and Alabama also lost Congressional seats after the former Census and Arkansas following the latter.
^ Jump up to: a b c Electoral votes awarded by the Electoral Commission
Jump up ^ Oklahoma was not a state until 1907 and did not vote in presidential elections until 1908
Jump up ^ Five of Alabama’s electoral votes went to John F. Kennedy.
Jump up ^ One North Carolina Republican elector switched his vote to Wallace.
Jump up ^ Since both the Governor and Lieutenant Governor had been impeached, the former resigning and the latter being removed from office, Stone, as president of the Senate, was next in line for the governorship. Filled unexpired term and was later elected in his own right.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j As lieutenant governor, filled unexpired term.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Died in office.
Jump up ^ Resigned upon appointment as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury.
Jump up ^ Did not run for re-election in 1888, but due to the election’s being disputed, remained in office until February 6, 1890.
Jump up ^ Elected in 1888 for a term beginning in 1891, an election dispute prevented Fleming from taking office until February 6, 1890
Jump up ^ William S. Taylor (R) was sworn in and assumed office, but the state legislature challenged the validity of his election, claiming ballot fraud. William Goebel (D), his challenger in the election, was shot on January 30, 1900. The next day, the legislature named Goebel governor. However, Goebel died from his wounds three days later.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n As lieutenant governor, acted as governor for unexpired term and was subsequently elected in his own right.
Jump up ^ As President of the state Senate, filled unexpired term and was subsequently elected in his own right.
Jump up ^ Gubernatorial terms were increased from two to four years during Jelks’ governorship; his first term was filling out Samford’s two-year term, and he was elected in 1902 for a four-year term.
Jump up ^ Resigned to take an elected seat in the United States Senate. March 21, 1905
Jump up ^ As Speaker of the Senate, ascended to the governorship.
Jump up ^ The elected governor, Hoke Smith, resigned to take his elected seat in the United States Senate. John M. Slaton, president of the senate, served as acting governor until Joseph M. Brown was elected governor in a special election.
Jump up ^ The elected Governor, Joseph Taylor Robinson, resigned on March 8, 1913 to take an elected seat in the United States Senate. President of the state Senate William Kavanaugh Oldham acted as governor for six days before a new Senate President was elected. Junius Marion Futrell, as the new president of the senate, acted as governor until a special election.
Jump up ^ Elected in a special election.
Jump up ^ Resigned on the initiation of impeachment proceedings. Aug. 25, 1917.
^ Jump up to: a b c Resigned to take an elected seat in the United States Senate.
Jump up ^ Impeached and removed from office. November 19, 1923
Jump up ^ Died in his third term of office. October 2, 1927.
Jump up ^ Resigned to be a judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas.
Jump up ^ Impeached and removed from office. March 21, 1929
Jump up ^ As Speaker of the Senate, ascended to the governorship. Subsequently elected for two full terms.
Jump up ^ Paul N. Cyr was lieutenant governor under Huey Long and stated that he would succeed Long when Long left for the Senate, but Long demanded Cyr forfeit his office. King, as president of the state Senate, was elevated to lieutenant governor and later governor.
Jump up ^ Resigned to take an appointed seat in the United States Senate.
Jump up ^ Resigned upon victory in the Democratic primary for the United States Senate, August 4, 1941.
Jump up ^ Died in office. July 11, 1949
Jump up ^ As President of the state Senate, filled unexpired term.
^ Jump up to: a b Resigned upon election to the Presidency of the United States.
Jump up ^ Removed from office upon being convicted of illegally using campaign and inaugural funds to pay personal debts; he was later pardoned by the state parole board based on innocence.
Jump up ^ Elected as a Democrat in 1987 but switched to Republican in 1991.
Jump up ^ Resigned after being convicted of mail fraud in the Whitewater scandal.
Jump up ^ Resigned to take an elected seat in the U.S. Senate. November 15, 2010
Jump up ^ Elected as a Republican, Crist switched his registration to independent in April 2010.
Jump up ^ Resigned April 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ As president of the Senate, served as acting governor until he won a special election in 2011.
Jump up ^ As Lieutenant Governor, succeeded to governorship upon resignation of Robert Bentley on April 10, 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Feldman, Glenn (2015). The Great Melding: War, the Dixiecrat Rebellion, and the Southern Model for America's New Conservatism. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.
Feldman, Glenn (2013). The Irony of the Solid South: Democrats, Republicans, and Race, 1864-1944. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.
Frederickson, Kari A. (2001). The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Grantham, Dewey W. (1992). The Life and Death of the Solid South. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.
Herbert, Hilary A., et al. (1890). Why the Solid South? Or, Reconstruction and Its Results. Baltimore, MD: R. H. Woodward & Co.
Sabato, Larry (1977). The Democratic Party Primary in Virginia: Tantamount to Election No Longer. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid_South&oldid=815489525"
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