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(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher
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For songs of a similar title, see Higher and Higher (disambiguation).
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"(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher"
Artwork for French release
Single by Jackie Wilson
from the album Higher and Higher
B-side
"I'm the One to Do It"
Released
August 1967 (original version)
June 17, 1998 (digitally remastered Dolby Surround re-release version)
Format
7" single, cassette single
Recorded
July 6, 1967, Columbia Studios, Chicago, Illinois
Genre
Chicago soul
Length
2:59
Label
Brunswick Records
55336
Songwriter(s)
Gary Jackson and Carl Smith[1]
Producer(s)
Carl Davis
Jackie Wilson singles chronology
"I've Lost You"
(1967) "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher"
(1967) "Since You Showed Me How to Be Happy"
(1967)
"I've Lost You"
(1967) "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher"
(1967) "Since You Showed Me How to Be Happy"
(1967)
"(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher" is an R&B song, originally performed and made a Top 10 Pop, #1 R&B hit by Jackie Wilson in 1967.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Release
3 Cover versions
3.1 Rita Coolidge version
4 Chart performance
4.1 Weekly singles charts
4.2 Year-end charts
5 References
Overview[edit]
As the song was originally used as a backing track for Wilson to use later, it was recorded on July 6, 1967, at Columbia's studios in Chicago. Produced by Carl Davis, the session, arranged by Sonny Sanders, featured bassist James Jamerson, drummer Richard "Pistol" Allen, guitarist Robert White, and keyboardist Johnny Griffith; these four musicians were all members of the Motown Records house band The Funk Brothers who often moonlighted on sessions for Davis to augment the wages paid by Motown.
According to Carl Davis, the Funk Brothers "used to come over on the weekends from Detroit. They'd load up in the van and come over to Chicago, and I would pay 'em double scale, and I'd pay 'em in cash." Similarly two of Motown's house session singers The Andantes, Jackie Hicks and Marlene Barrow, along with Pat Lewis (who was filling in for Andante Louvain Demps), performed on the session for "Higher and Higher".[citation needed]
The song was originally written by Chess Records' in-house writers and producers, Carl Smith and Raynard Miner, and initially recorded by The Dells for the label but not released. Another writer, Gary Jackson made some changes to the song and pitched it to Davis at Brunswick. When the singer recorded his vocal track, Davis recalls, Wilson originally sang the song "like a soul ballad. I said that's totally wrong. You have to jump and go with the percussion... If he didn't want to sing it that way, I would put my voice on the record and sell millions." After hearing Davis's advice, Wilson cut the lead vocal for "Higher and Higher" in a single take.[2]
A publishing deal for the song was reached with Brunswick after Chess producer/A&R head, Billy Davis intervened. Writing credits were agreed with Smith, Miner, Jackson and Billy Davis all named. Later, Davis removed his credit and BMI now lists the song as by the three other writers. The Dells' version appeared on their album, "There Is" for Chess subsidiary, Cadet the same year.
Release[edit]
Released in August 1967, the song reached No. 1 in the US Billboard R&B chart and, in November, peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 6.[3] In the UK Singles Chart, Wilson's version was a hit in 1969 (No. 11), 1975 (No. 25),[4] and 1987 (No. 15).
Brunswick Records then released an album titled Higher and Higher in November 1967. Its chart peak was No. 163 (Billboard 200) and No. 28 (Billboard R&B Albums chart.)[5]
The track was ranked No. 246 on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999.
Cover versions[edit]
The Dells included the song on their 1968 hit album There Is;[6] their version, recorded in 1967, is reputed to have been the original version, and was recorded with slightly different lyrics than the better-known Jackie Wilson hit version, but was not released as a single.[7] In a recorded interview with famed Cleveland/New York Dee-Jay Norm N. Nite, Jackie stated that when he first heard a tape of the song, "a vocal group was singing it". That group was quite probably The Dells.[8]
In 1970, the song was recorded under the title "Higher and Higher" by Canada Goose, a group from Ottawa who had been discovered by Jerry Ragovoy. This version, with a shared lead vocal by Barbra Bullard and John Matthews, became a hit in Canada (#44) and reached #92 on the Record World 100 Pop Chart.[9][10]
In 2008 the song, still known as "Higher and Higher", charted in Sweden due to Kevin Borg, the eventual winner of season 8 of Idol, performing it in the competition, and downloads of Borg's version secured it a #29 ranking.[11]
A live version of the song was released by Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band on their live album HSBC Arena, Buffalo, NY, 11/22/09. This version was recorded on November 22, 2009. This was the last show where longtime E Street Band saxophonist Clarence Clemons performed with the band before his death.[12]
Rita Coolidge version[edit]
"(Your Love Has Lifted Me) Higher and Higher"
Artwork for U.S., German, and Dutch releases
Single by Rita Coolidge
from the album Anytime...Anywhere
B-side
originally "I Don't Want to Talk About It" replaced on later pressings with "Who's To Bless And Who's To Blame"
Released
March 1977
Format
7" single
Length
3:30
Label
A&M Records
Songwriter(s)
Billy Davis, Gary Jackson, Raynard Miner and Carl Smith
Producer(s)
David Anderle
Rita Coolidge singles chronology
"Mean to Me"
(1975) "(Your Love Has Lifted Me) Higher and Higher"
(1977) "We're All Alone"
(1977)
"Mean to Me"
(1975) "(Your Love Has Lifted Me) Higher and Higher"
(1977) "We're All Alone"
(1977)
In 1977 Rita Coolidge remade the song as "(Your Love Has Lifted Me) Higher and Higher" for her album Anytime...Anywhere. Her version is more mid-tempo than the driving original and largely omits the chorus which is evidenced only in the background vocals sung under the repetition of the first verse with which she closes the song. Coolidge and her sister Priscilla Coolidge had sung background on a version of the song for a prospective album by Priscilla's husband Booker T. Jones; when that album was shelved Coolidge asked him if she could cut the song using his arrangement.[13]
Released as a single, her version became Coolidge's first major hit in nine years of recording: the track peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100. Cash Box ranked it at No. 1.[14][15] "Higher and Higher" also reached No. 1 in Canada. Both the song and a subsequent release, "We're All Alone", earned Coolidge gold records for each selling a million copies.
In the UK it was released as the follow-up single after "We're All Alone" which had reached No. 6, but it only achieved a peak of No. 48 there.[16]
Chart performance[edit]
Weekly singles charts[edit]
Chart (1977)
Peak
position
Australia KMR 6
Canada RPM Top Singles[17] 1
Canada RPM Adult Contemporary 3
New Zealand [18] 7
UK 48
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 [19] 2
U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary 5
U.S. Cash Box Top 100 [14] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1977)
Rank
Australia [20] 28
Canada [21] 13
New Zealand [22] 22
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 [23] 8
U.S. Cash Box [24] 8
Preceded by
"Best of My Love" by The Emotions Cash Box #1 on Top 100 Singles chart
September 10, 1977 Succeeded by
"Don't Stop" by Fleetwood Mac
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Record details at 45.cat". 45.cat.com. Retrieved January 29, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Jackie Wilson on Columbia Records". Archived from the original on July 20, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–2004. Record Research. p. 630.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Higher & Higher: The Chicago Soul of Jackie Wilson 1966–1976 – Rate Your Music". Retrieved October 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on July 5, 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-05.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on December 7, 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-05.
Jump up ^ "Jackie Wilson - The Man Behind The Music - Rare Interview". YouTube. 2010-12-22. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ Canoe.ca. "Canadian Pop Encyclopedia-Canada Goose". Archived from the original on May 10, 2009. Retrieved May 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ "100c". Archived from the original on July 24, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
Jump up ^ "Sweden Singles Top 60 (December 4, 2008) – Music Charts". Archived from the original on May 10, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band – November 22, 2009 HSBC Arena, Buffalo, NY".
Jump up ^ "Country Music People 10/06". Archived from the original on May 6, 2009. Retrieved May 4, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on July 29, 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-23.
Jump up ^ Cash Box Magazine (September 10, 1977). "Cash Box Top 100 9/10/77". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on August 14, 2012. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
Jump up ^ "(your love has lifted me) higher and higher: Full Official Chart History". Official Charts. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-12-20.
Jump up ^ "NZ Top 40 Singles Chart | The Official New Zealand Music Chart". Nztop40.co.nz. 1977-10-16. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2002
Jump up ^ "Australian Chart Book". Austchartbook.com.au. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Image : RPM Weekly - Library and Archives Canada". Bac-lac.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-10-28.
Jump up ^ "Top Selling Singles of 1977 | The Official New Zealand Music Chart". Nztop40.co.nz. 1977-12-31. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1977/Top 100 Songs of 1977". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved 2015-07-16.
Preceded by
"Funky Broadway" by Wilson Pickett Billboard Hot R&B Singles number-one single
October 7, 1967 Succeeded by
"Soul Man" by Sam & Dave
[show]
v
t
e
Jackie Wilson
Compilation albums
Mr. Excitement! (1992)
The Very Best of Jackie Wilson (1993)
Singles
"Reet Petite (The Finest Girl You Ever Want to Meet)" (1957)
"To Be Loved" (1957)
"I'm Wanderin'" (1958)
"We Have Love" (1958)
"Lonely Teardrops" (1958)
"That's Why (I Love You So)" (1959)
"I'll Be Satisfied" (1959)
"You Better Know It" (1959)
"(You Were Made For) All My Love" (1959)
"A Woman, a Lover, a Friend" (1960)
"Night" (1960)
"Doggin' Around" (1960)
"Am I the Man" (1960)
"My Empty Arms" (1960)
"The Tear of the Year" (1961)
"I'm Comin' on Back to You"
"Baby Workout" (1963)
"Shake a Hand" (1963)
"Danny Boy" (???)
"You'll Never Walk Alone" (1965)
"Whispers (Gettin' Louder)" (1966)
"(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher" (1967)
"Chain Gang" (1967)
"For Once in My Life"
"For Your Precious Love" (1967)
"I Get the Sweetest Feeling" (1968)
"This Love Is for Real (I Can Feel These Vibrations)" (1970)
Tributes
"Jackie Wilson Said (I'm in Heaven When You Smile)" (1972)
"Nightshift" (1985)
Related topics
Discography
Book:Jackie Wilson
[show]
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Rita Coolidge
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Compilation albums
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Singles
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"Loving Arms" (with Kris Kristofferson)
"(Your Love Has Lifted Me) Higher and Higher"
"We're All Alone"
"The Way You Do the Things You Do"
"Words"
"You"
"One Fine Day"
"I'd Rather Leave While I'm In Love"
"The Closer You Get"
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Related topics
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Walela
Book:Rita Coolidge
[show]
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Compilation albums
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Singles
"I Keep Forgettin' (Every Time You're Near)"
"No Lookin' Back"
"Sweet Freedom"
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine"
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
"Reach Out, I'll Be There"
"Baby I Need Your Lovin'"
"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)"
"Deck the Halls/Jingle Bells"
"Walk On By"
"(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher"
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas!"
Record labels
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Siamese fighting fish
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Siamese fighting fish (disambiguation).
Siamese fighting fish
Selectively bred halfmoon male displaying his flared opercula
Conservation status

Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Anabantiformes
Family: Osphronemidae
Genus: Betta
Species: B. splendens
Binomial name
Betta splendens
Regan, 1910
The Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens), also sometimes colloquially known as the betta, is a species in the gourami family which is popular as an aquarium fish. Bettas can be territorial fish and are prone to high levels of aggression towards each other. Two males in proximity will almost always attack each other, if they do not have the ability to escape this will usually result in the death of one or both of the fish. Female bettas can also become territorial towards each other if they are housed in too small an aquarium. It is typically not recommended to keep male and female bettas together, except temporarily for breeding purposes which should always be undertaken with caution.[1]
This species is native to the Mekong basin of Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand. The fish can be found in standing waters of canals, rice paddies and floodplains.[2] It is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.
They are called pla-kad (biting fish) in Thai and trey krem in Khmer.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Diet
3 Reproduction and early development
4 History
4.1 Fighting fish
4.2 Aquarium fish
4.3 Invasive species
5 In the aquarium
5.1 Water
5.2 Aquarium size and cohabitants
5.3 Varieties
5.4 Colors
5.5 Colour patterns[18]
5.6 Finnage variations[18]
6 Behaviour
6.1 Aggressive behaviour in females
6.2 Courtship behaviour
6.3 Metabolic costs of aggression
6.4 Effects of chemical exposure on behaviour
7 Name
8 In popular culture
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Description[edit]
B. splendens usually grows to a length of about 6.5 cm (2.6 in).[2] Although aquarium specimens are widely known for their brilliant colours and large, flowing fins, the natural coloration of B. splendens are generally dull green, brown and grey, and the fins of wild specimens are short. In captivity, they have been selectively bred to display a vibrant array of colours and tail types.[3]
Diet[edit]
Betta splendens feed on zooplankton, crustaceans, and the larvae of mosquitoes and other water-bound insects.[4] In captivity they can be fed a varied diet of pellets or frozen foods such as brine shrimp, bloodworms, daphnia and many others.
Despite myths that they will feed on any plant matter in the tank, they are naturally insectivores and do not typically or naturally consume vegetation.
Reproduction and early development[edit]
A pair spawning under a bubble nest in a breeder's tank
One-day-old larvae (their yolk sacs have not yet been absorbed) in a bubble nest
Betta splendens fish build bubble nests of varying sizes.
A 15-day-old, free-swimming fry is infected with Piscinoodinium sp. (velvet disease), a common killer of betta fry in captivity.
Male bettas will flare their gills, spread their fins and twist their bodies in a dance if interested in a female. If the female is also interested she will darken in colour and develop vertical lines known as breeding bars as a response. Males build bubble nests of various sizes and thicknesses at the surface of the water. Most tend to do this regularly even if there is no female present.
Plants or rocks that break the surface often form a base for bubble nests. The act of spawning itself is called a "nuptial embrace", for the male wraps his body around the female; around 10–40 eggs are released during each embrace, until the female is exhausted of eggs. The male, in his turn, releases milt into the water, and fertilization takes place externally. During and after spawning, the male uses his mouth to retrieve sinking eggs and deposit them in the bubble nest (during mating the female sometimes assists her partner, but more often she simply devours all the eggs she manages to catch). Once the female has released all of her eggs, she is chased away from the male's territory, as she will likely eat the eggs.[5] If she is not removed from the tank then she will most likely be killed by the male.
The eggs will remain in the male's care. He carefully keeps them in his bubble nest, making sure none fall to the bottom, repairing the bubble nest as needed. Incubation lasts for 24–36 hours; newly hatched larvae remain in the nest for the next two to three days until their yolk sacs are fully absorbed. Afterwards, the fry leave the nest and the free-swimming stage begins. In this first period of their lives, B. splendens fry are totally dependent on their gills; the labyrinth organ which allows the species to breathe atmospheric oxygen typically develops at three to six weeks of age, depending on the general growth rate, which can be highly variable. B. splendens can reach sexual maturity at an age as early as 4–5 months.
History[edit]
Fighting fish[edit]
Some people of Thailand and Malaysia are known to have collected these fish prior to the 19th century from the wild.
In the wild, betta spar for only a few minutes before one fish backs off. Bred specifically for heightened aggression, domesticated betta matches can go on for much longer, with winners determined by a willingness to continue fighting. Once a fish retreats, the match is over.
Seeing the popularity of these fights, the king of Thailand started licensing and collecting these fighting fish. In 1840, he gave some of his prized fish to a man who, in turn, gave them to Theodor Cantor, a medical scientist. Nine years later, Cantor wrote an article describing them under the name Macropodus pugnax. In 1909, the ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan, upon realizing a species was already named Macropodus pugnax, renamed the domesticated Siamese fighting fish Betta splendens.[6]
Aquarium fish[edit]
In 1892, this species was imported to France by the French aquarium fish importer Pierre Carbonnier in Paris, and in 1896, the German aquarium fish importer Paul Matte in Berlin imported the first specimens to Germany from Moscow.
Invasive species[edit]
In January 2014 a large population of the fish was discovered in the Adelaide River Floodplain in the Northern Territory, Australia.[7] As an invasive species they pose a threat to native fish, frogs and other wetland wildlife.[7]
In the aquarium[edit]
Water[edit]
Betta species prefer a water temperature of around 75–82 °F (24–28 °C) but have been seen to survive temporarily at the extremes of 56 °F (13 °C) or 95 °F (35 °C). When kept in colder climates, aquarium heaters are recommended.[8]
Bettas are also affected by the pH levels of the water. Ideal levels for Bettas would be at a neutral pH (7.0) However, Bettas are slightly tolerant towards the pH levels.[9] They have an organ known as the labyrinth organ which allows them to breathe air at the water's surface. This organ was thought to allow the fish to be kept in unmaintained aquaria,[10] but this is a misconception, as poor water quality makes all tropical fish, including Betta splendens, more susceptible to diseases such as fin rot.
Properly kept and fed a correct diet, Siamese fighting fish generally live between 3 and 5 years in captivity, but may live between 7 and 10 years in rare cases.
Aquarium size and cohabitants[edit]
It is popular to keep betta fish in very small containers, such as bowls for display around the home. Contrary to popular belief, this can cause health issues and lead to an early death for the fish.[11] Bettas prefer to be kept in larger tanks or community tanks. A commonly recommended tank size is 20 litres, or 5 gallons, and bigger is advisable, while 2.5 gallons is the minimum.[12]
Bettas can cohabit with fish that are bottom feeders. Male bettas should not be kept with other male bettas, and all bettas may not be compatible with other colorful fish species.[12]
Varieties[edit]
B. splendens can be hybridized with B. imbellis, B. mahachaiensis, and B. smaragdina, though with the latter, the fry tend to have low survival rates. In addition to these hybrids within the Betta genus, intergeneric hybridizing of Betta splendens and Macropodus opercularis, the paradise fish, has been reported. A fairly recent variety to hit the markets is the king betta, a variety of largely unknown provenance which may or may not be derived from crossing B. splendens with B. raja.[13]
Breeders around the world continue to develop new varieties. Often, the males of the species are sold preferentially in stores because of their beauty, compared to the females. Females almost never develop fins as showy as males of the same type and are often more subdued in coloration, though some breeders manage to get females with fairly long fins and bright colors.
Colors[edit]
A dalmatian orange male
Wild fish exhibit strong colours only when agitated. Breeders have been able to make this coloration permanent, and a wide variety of hues breed true. Colours available to the aquarist include red, orange, yellow, blue, steel blue, turquoise/green, black, pastel, white ("opaque" white, not to be confused with albino) and multi-coloured fish.
Bettas are found in many different colours due to different layers of pigmentation in their skin. The layers (from furthest within to the outer layer) consists of red, yellow, black, iridescent (blue and green), and metallic (not a colour of its own, but reacts with the other colours to change how they are perceived). Any combination of these layers can be present, leading to a wide variety of colours.[14]
The shades of blue, turquoise, and green are slightly iridescent, and can appear to change colour with different lighting conditions or viewing angles; this is because these colours (unlike black or red) are not due to pigments, but created through refraction within a layer of translucent guanine crystals. Breeders have also developed different colour patterns such as marble and butterfly, as well as metallic shades through hybridization[15] like copper, gold, or platinum (these were obtained by crossing B. splendens to other Betta species).
Purple and blue female
A true albino betta has been feverishly sought since one recorded appearance in 1927, and another in 1953. Neither of these was able to establish a line of true albinos. In 1994, a hobbyist named Kenjiro Tanaka claimed to have successfully bred albino bettas.[16]
Some bettas will change colours throughout their lifetime (known as marbling), attributed to a transposon.[17]
Common Colours[18]
Red
Blue
Yellow
Opaque
Black
White
Orange
Rarer Colours[18]
Metallic
Turquoise
Copper
Lavender
Mustard Gas
Grizzle
Kois
Marble
green
Colour patterns[18][edit]
A male crowntail betta
Solid – The entire fish is one colour with no variations
Bi-colour – The fins must be a different colour to the body to be a Bi-colour.
Cambodian – The body is pale, almost colourless, and the fins are a solid colour
Butterfly – The fins have distinct bands of colours
Marble – Irregular patterns throughout the body and fin
Piebald – pale flesh-coloured face irrespective of the body colour.
Full Mask – the face being the same colour as the body rather than what it would naturally be which would be darker than the body
Dragon – rich strong base colour with the scales on the main part of the body a pale iridescent
Multicolour – 3 or more colours on the body that does not fit into any other pattern category
Pastel – A light shade of colour seen only on the fins, body remains a flesh hue.
Finnage variations[18][edit]
A metallic, double-tail male
A crowntail male
Breeders have developed several different finnage and scale variations:
Veil tail - extended finnage length and non-symmetrical tail; caudal fin rays usually only split once; the most common tail type seen in pet stores.
Crown tail - fin rays are extended well beyond the membrane and consequently the tail can take on the appearance of a crown; also called fringetail
Comb tail - less extended version of the crown tail, derived from breeding crown and another finnage type
Half-moon - "D" shaped caudal fin that forms a 180° angle, the edges of the tail are crisp and straight
Over-half-moon or Super Delta tail - caudal fin is in excess of the 180° angle, byproduct of trying to breed half-moons, can sometimes cause problems because the fins are too big for the fish to swim properly[19]
Rose tail - halfmoon variation with so much finnage that it overlaps and looks like a rose
Feather tail - similar to the rose tail, with a rougher appearance
Plakat - short fins that resemble the fins seen in wild-type bettas
Half-moon plakat - short-finned half-moon; plakat and half-moon cross
Double tail or Full-moon - the tail fin is duplicated into two lobes and the dorsal fin is significantly elongated, the two tails can show different levels of bifurcation depending on the individual
Delta tail - tail spread less than that of a half-moon [<180]
Half-sun - combtail with caudal fin going 180°, like a half-moon
Elephant ear - pectoral fins are much larger than normal, often white, resembling the ears of an elephant
Spade tail - caudal fin has a wide base that narrows to a small point
Behaviour[edit]
A male attacking and flaring at his reflection in a mirror
Males and females flare or puff out their gill covers (opercula) to appear more impressive, either to intimidate other rivals or as an act of courtship. Other reasons for flaring can include when they are intimidated by movement or change of scene in their environments. Both sexes display pale horizontal bars if stressed or frightened. However, such colour changes, common in females of any age, are rare in mature males due to their intensity of colour. Females often flare at other females, especially when setting up a pecking order. Flirting fish behave similarly, with vertical instead of horizontal stripes indicating a willingness and readiness to breed (females only). Betta splendens enjoy a decorated tank, being a territorial fish it is necessary to establish territory even when housed alone. They may set up a territory centered on a plant or rocky alcove, sometimes becoming highly possessive of it and aggressive toward trespassing rivals. This is the reason why when kept with other fish the minimum tank size should be 45 litres (about 10 gallons). Contrary to popular belief, bettas are compatible with many other species of aquarium fish.[20] Given the proper parameters bettas will be known to only be aggressive towards smaller and slower fish than themselves such as guppies.[21]
The aggression of this fish has been studied by ethologists and comparative psychologists.[22] These fish have historically been the objects of gambling; two male fish are pitted against each other to fight and bets are placed on which one will win. One fish will arise the victor, the fight continuing until one participant is submissive. These competitions can result in the death of either one or both fish depending on the seriousness of their injuries. To avoid fights over territory, male Siamese fighting fish are best isolated from one another. Males will occasionally even respond aggressively to their own reflections in a mirror. Though this is obviously safer than exposing the fish to another male, prolonged sight of their reflection may lead to stress in some individuals. Not all Siamese fighting fish respond negatively to other males, especially when the tank is large enough for each fish to create their own designated territory.[23]
Several females in a community tank with mollies and rainbowfish
Aggressive behaviour in females[edit]
Thus far, the current article has mainly focused on the behaviours of male Siamese fighting fish. Therefore, it is important to consider the behaviours of the opposite sex. In general, studies have shown that females exhibit similar aggressive behaviours as their male counterparts; these behaviours are just less prevalent.[24] A group of female Siamese fighting fish were observed over a period of two weeks. During these two weeks, the following behaviours were recorded: attacking, displays, and biting food. The results of this observational study indicated that when females are housed in small groups, they form a stable dominance order. For example, the fish who was ranked at the top showed higher levels of mutual displays, in comparison to the fish who were of lower ranks. The researchers also found that the duration of the displays differed depending on whether an attack occurred.[25] The results of these studies indicate that female Siamese fighting fish should be considered as often as males, as there is evidently interesting variations in their behaviours as well.
Courtship behaviour[edit]
There has been numerous research in the area of courtship behaviour between male and female Siamese fighting fish. This research has focused on the aggressive behaviours of males during the courtship process. For example, one study found that when male fish are in the bubble nest phase, their aggression toward other females is quite low. This is due to the males attempting to attract potential mates to their nest, so eggs can successfully be laid.[26] It has also been found that in regards to mate choice, females often “eavesdrop” on pairs of male Siamese fighting fish while they are fighting. When females witness aggressive behaviour between a pair of males, the female is more likely to be attracted to the male who won. In contrast, if a female did not “eavesdrop” on aggressive behaviour between a pair of males, the female will show no preference in mate choice. In regards to the male fish, the “loser” fish are more likely to attempt to court the fish who did not “eavesdrop”. The “winner” fish have been found to show no preference in regards to female fish who “eavesdropped” and those who did not.[27]
One study considered the ways in which male Siamese fighting fish alter their behaviours during courtship when another male is present. During this experiment, a dummy female was placed in the tank. The researchers expected that males would conceal their courtship from intruders, however this surprisingly was not the case. It was found that when another male fish was present, the male was more likely to engage in courtship behaviours with the dummy female fish. When no barriers were present, the males were more likely to engage in gill flaring at an intruder male fish. Therefore, the researchers conclude that the male is attempting to court the female and communicate with the rival male present at the same time.[28] These results indicate the importance of considering courtship behaviour, as the literature has suggested there are many factors that can dramatically affect the ways in which both male and females can act in courtship settings.
Metabolic costs of aggression[edit]
Studies have found that Siamese fighting fish often begin with behaviours that require high cost, and gradually decrease their behaviours as the encounter proceeds.[26] This indicates that Siamese fighting fish will first begin an encounter using much metabolic energy, but will gradually decrease, as to not use too much energy, thus making the encounter a waste if the fish is not successful. Similarly, researchers have found that when pairs of male Siamese fighting fish were kept together in the same tank for a three-day period, aggressive behaviour was most prevalent during the mornings of the first two days of their cohabitation. However the researchers observed that the fighting between the two males decreased as the day progressed. The male in the dominant position initially had metabolic advantage; although as the experiment progressed, both fish became equal in regards to metabolic advantages.[29] In regards to oxygen consumption, one study found that when two male Siamese fighting fish fought, the metabolic rates of both fish did not differ before or during the fight. However, the fish who won showed higher oxygen consumption during the evening subsequent to the fight. Therefore, the results of this study indicate that aggressive behaviour in the form of fighting has long-lasting effects on metabolism.[30]
Effects of chemical exposure on behaviour[edit]
Chemicals such as hormones can have powerful effects on the behaviour of an individual. Researchers have considered the effect that such chemicals can have on Siamese fighting fish. This section will examine three studies, each of which indicates that chemicals can significantly affect the behaviours of Siamese fighting fish. In particular, these behaviour changes are most likely to occur in regards to aggression.
One study investigated the effect of testosterone on female Siamese fighting fish. Females were first given testosterone, which resulted in physical changes. This included fin length, body coloration and gonads. These physical changes resulted in the females resembling typical male fish. Next their aggressive behaviour was monitored. It was found that when these females interacted with other females, their aggression increased. In contrast, when the females interacted with males, their aggressive behaviour decreased. The researchers then allowed the female fish to interact socially with a group of other female fish, who had not been exposed to testosterone. It was found that when the female fish stopped receiving testosterone, those who were exposed to the female fish still exhibited the male typical behaviours. In contrast, the female fish who were kept isolated did not continue to exhibit the male typical behaviours after testosterone was discontinued.[31]
Another study exposed male Siamese fighting fish to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. The researchers were curious if exposure to these chemicals would affect the ways in which females respond to the exposed males. It was found that when shown videos of the exposed males, the females favoured those who were not exposed to the endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and avoided those male who were exposed. Therefore, the researchers concluded that exposure to these chemicals can negatively affect the mating success of male Siamese fighting fish.[32]
The last study investigated the effect of the SSRI, fluoxetine, on male Siamese fighting fish. It has been previously found that this chemical reduces aggressive behaviour; therefore, researchers were curious if this would occur in their experiment. As predicted, it was found that when exposed to fluoxetine, male Siamese fighting fish exhibited less aggressive behaviour than they would have if they had not been exposed to the chemical.[33]
Name[edit]
Although commonly called a betta in the aquarium trade, especially in North America, that is the name of a genus not only containing this fish, but also other species. B. splendens is more accurately called by its scientific name or "Siamese fighting fish", to avoid confusion with the other species in the genus.
In popular culture[edit]
The titular character in the novel Rumble Fish (novel) and subsequent film Rumble Fish is a Siamese fighting fish.[34] In both, the character Motorcycle Boy is fascinated with the creatures and dubs them "rumble fish." He speculates that if the fish were to be set free in the river, they wouldn't behave so aggressively. A common misconception on the fish is they should live in vases or bowls, but this has been proven it damages their health and lowers their mood.[35]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Guidelines released for keeping Fighters". Practical Fishkeeping Magazine. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2014). "Betta splendens" in FishBase. February 2014 version.
Jump up ^ "Bubbles & Bettas: Tail Types and Patterns". Bubbles & Bettas. Retrieved 2017-01-31.
Jump up ^ "betta food". Bettatalk.com. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ Sixth Phase: Post Spawning Procedures| Step by Step Guide to Breeding Bettas. Retrieved on March 08, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Betta Origins". Betta Fish Center. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Bray, Dianne. "Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta splendens". Fishes of Australia. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ideal Water Temperature for Betta Fish | The Aquarium Club". theaquarium.club. Retrieved 2017-11-19.
Jump up ^ "betta water". www.bettatalk.com. Retrieved 2015-10-05.
Jump up ^ Caller, Steven. "Betta Fish Introduction". My Betta Fish. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Why betta bowls are bad – Aquariadise". www.aquariadise.com. Retrieved 2017-01-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Ultimate One Page Guide to Betta Fish Care".
Jump up ^ Juniper Russo (2009): "King Betta" Variety Sold at Petco
Jump up ^ Griffin, Gerald (January 2016). "Betta Primer". Amazonas. Shelburne, VT: Reef to Rainforest Media. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Metallics and Masked". Betty
Splendens.
com.
Jump up ^ "Albino image". Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ http://www.ibcbettas.org/2012/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/IBC%20TA%20Articles/CS-02.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Colors & Patterns". Retrieved 2015-10-04.
Jump up ^ "Grundlegendes über die Fischgabel" (in German). Fischbesteck24.de.
Jump up ^ "7 Excellent Betta Tank Mates for Your Siamese Fighting Fish". Retrieved 2015-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Betta Fish Facts". Retrieved 2015-08-20.
Jump up ^ Bronstein, Paul M. (1998). "Agonistic Sequences and the Assessment of Opponents in Male Betta splendens". American Journal of Psychology. 265 (2): 163–177. JSTOR 1422809.
Jump up ^ "Complete Betta Fish Care Guide (Tank, Diet & Aggression)". Retrieved 2016-03-03.
Jump up ^ Elcoro, Mirari; Da Silva, Stephanie; Lattal, Kennon (2008). "Visual Reinforcement in the Female Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta Splendens". Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behaviour. 90 (1): 53–60. doi:10.1901/jeab.2008.90-53.
Jump up ^ Elwood, R.W.; Rainey, C.J. (1983). "Social Organization and Aggression Within Small Groups of Female Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta Splendens". Aggressive Behaviour. 9: 303–308. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1983)9:4<303::aid-ab2480090404>3.0.co;2-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Forsatkar, Mohammad; Nematollahi, Mohammad; Bron, Culum (August 2016). "Male Siamese Fighting Fish Use Gill Flaring As The First Display Towards Territorial Intruders". Journal of Ethology. 35: 51–59. doi:10.1007/s10164-016-0489-1.
Jump up ^ Herb, Brodie M.; Biron, Suzanne A.; Kidd, Michael R. (2003). "Courtship By Subordinate Male Simease Fighting Fish, Betta Splendens: Their Response to Eavesdropping and Niave Females". Behaviour. 140: 71–78. doi:10.1163/156853903763999908. JSTOR 4536011.
Jump up ^ Dzieweczynski, Teresa L.; Lyman, Sarah; Poor, Elysia A. (2008). "Male Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta Splendens, Increase Rather Than Conceal Courtship Behaviour When a Rival is Present". Ethology. 115: 186–195. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2008.01602.x.
Jump up ^ Haller, Jozesf (1994). "Biochemical Costs of a Three Day Long Cohabitation in Dominant and Submissive Male Betta Splenons". Aggressive Behaviour. 20: 369–378. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:5<369::aid-ab2480200504>3.0.co;2-f.
Jump up ^ Castro, Nidia; Ros, Albert F.H.; Becker, Klaus; Oliveira, Rui F. (2006). "Metabolic Costs of Aggressive Behaviour in the Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta Splendons". Aggressive Behaviour. 32: 474–480. doi:10.1002/ab.20147.
Jump up ^ Badura, Lori L.; Freidman, Herbert (1988). "Sex Reversal in Female Betta Splendons as a Function of Testosterone Manipulation and Social Influence". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 102 (3): 262–268. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.102.3.262.
Jump up ^ Dzieeczynski, Teresea L.; Kane, Jessica L. (2017). "The Bachorlette: Female Siamese Fighting Fish Avoid Males Exposed to an Estrogen Mimic". Behavioural Processes. 140: 169–173. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2017/05.005.
Jump up ^ Eisenreich, Benjamin; Greene, Susan; Szalda-Petree, Allen (2017). "Of Fish and Mirrors: Fluoxetine Disrupts Aggression and Learning For Social Rewards". Physiology & Behavior. 173: 258–262. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.02.021. PMID 28237550.
Jump up ^ Hinton, S.E. Rumble Fish. Delacorte Press. ISBN 0385375689.
Jump up ^ "Why betta bowls are bad". Aquariadise. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Simpson, M. J. A. (1968). "The display of the Siamese fighting fish Betta splendens". Animal Behaviour Monographs. 1: 1–73.
Thompson, T (1966). "Operant and Classically-Conditioned Aggressive Behavior in Siamese Fighting Fish". American Zoologist. 6: 629–741. doi:10.1093/icb/6.4.629.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Betta splendens.
The Wikibook Do-It-Yourself has a page on the topic of: Breed siamese fighting fish
Bettas at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q549
ADW: Betta_splendens
ARKive: betta-splendens
EoL: 211488
FishBase: 4768
GBIF: 2393998
iNaturalist: 95748
ITIS: 172611
IUCN: 180889
NCBI: 158456
Plazi: 7B12CFF4-8540-61D3-37E4-667F0E7B8919
WoRMS: 862539
ZooBank: E8822526-7D38-4343-AF06-608D9482A610
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siamese_fighting_fish&oldid=826123798"
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values: سمك الفايتر – Arabic

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