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Analytical Engine
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Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum (London)[1]
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The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage.[2][3] It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage's difference engine, a design for a mechanical computer.[4] The Analytical Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.[5][6] In other words, the logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era.[3]
Babbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and inadequate funding.[7][8] It was not until the late 1940s that the first general-purpose computers were actually built, more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering Analytical Engine in 1837.[3]
Contents
1 Design
2 Construction
3 Instruction set
4 Influence
4.1 Predicted influence
4.2 Computer science
5 Comparison to other early computers
6 In popular culture
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Design[edit]
Two types of punched cards used to program the machine. Foreground: 'operational cards', for inputting instructions; background: 'variable cards', for inputting data
Babbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device, the Difference Engine, was a special-purpose machine designed to tabulate logarithms and trigonometric functions by evaluating finite differences to create approximating polynomials. Construction of this machine was never completed; Babbage had conflicts with his chief engineer, Joseph Clement, and ultimately the British government withdrew its funding for the project.[9][10][11]
During this project, he realized that a much more general design, the Analytical Engine, was possible.[9] The work on the design of the Analytical Engine started in c. 1833.[12][4]
The input, consisting of programs and data ("formulae" and "data")[13][9] was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom.[14] For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell.[9] The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic.[9]
There was to be a store (that is, a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits[15] each (ca. 16.2 kB). An arithmetic unit (the "mill") would be able to perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots.[16] Initially (1838) it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side.[17] Later drawings (1858) depict a regularized grid layout.[18] Like the central processing unit (CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely upon its own internal procedures, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called "barrels", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program might specify.[7]
The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards. Babbage developed some two dozen programs for the Analytical Engine between 1837 and 1840, and one program later.[14][19] These programs treat polynomials, iterative formulas, Gaussian elimination, and Bernoulli numbers.[14][20]
In 1842, the Italian mathematician Luigi Federico Menabrea published a description of the engine based on a lecture by Babbage in French. In 1843, the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by Ada Lovelace, who had become interested in the engine eight years earlier. In recognition of her additions to Menabrea's paper, which included a way to calculate Bernoulli numbers using the machine, she has been described as the first computer programmer.
Construction[edit]
Henry Babbage's Analytical Engine Mill, built in 1910,[21] in the Science Museum (London)
Late in his life, Babbage sought ways to build a simplified version of the machine, and assembled a small part of it before his death in 1871.[7][1]
In 1878, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science described the Analytical Engine as "a marvel of mechanical ingenuity", but recommended against constructing it. The committee acknowledged the usefulness and value of the machine, but could not estimate the cost of building it, and were unsure whether the machine would function correctly after being built.[22][23]
In 1906,[24] Babbage's son Henry Prevost Babbage constructed a part of the mill and the printing apparatus, and calculated a (faulty) list of multiples of pi (published in 1910).[25] This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage. (Popular images of this section have sometimes been mislabelled, implying that it was the entire mill or even the entire engine.) Henry Babbage's "Analytical Engine Mill" is on display at the Science Museum in London.[21] Henry also proposed building a demonstration version of the full engine, with a smaller storage capacity: "perhaps for a first machine ten (columns) would do, with fifteen wheels in each".[26] Such a version could manipulate 20 numbers of 25 digits each, and what it could be told to do with those numbers could still be impressive. "It is only a question of cards and time", wrote Henry Babbage in 1888, "... and there is no reason why (twenty thousand) cards should not be used if necessary, in an Analytical Engine for the purposes of the mathematician".[26]
In 1991, the London Science Museum built a complete and working specimen of Babbage's Difference Engine No. 2, a design that incorporated refinements Babbage discovered during the development of the Analytical Engine.[5] This machine was built using materials and engineering tolerances that would have been available to Babbage, quelling the suggestion that Babbage's designs could not have been produced using the manufacturing technology of his time.[27]
In October 2010, John Graham-Cumming started a "Plan 28" campaign to raise funds by "public subscription" to enable serious historical and academic study of Babbage's plans, with a view to then build and test a fully working virtual design which will then in turn enable construction of the physical Analytical Engine.[28][29] As of May 2016, actual construction had not been attempted, since no consistent understanding could yet be obtained from Babbage’s original design drawings. In particular it was unclear whether it could handle the indexed variables which were required for Lovelace's Bernoulli program.[30] By 2017, the "Plan 28" effort reported that a searchable database of all catalogued material was available, and an initial review of Babbage’s voluminous Scribbling Books had been completed.[31]
Instruction set[edit]
Plan diagram of the Analytical Engine from 1840
Babbage is not known to have written down an explicit set of instructions for the engine in the manner of a modern processor manual. Instead he showed his programs as lists of states during their execution, showing what operator was run at each step with little indication of how the control flow would be guided.
Allan G. Bromley has assumed that the card deck could be read in forwards and backwards directions as a function of conditional branching after testing for conditions, which would make the engine Turing-complete:
...the cards could be ordered to move forward and reverse (and hence to loop)...[14]
The introduction for the first time, in 1845, of user operations for a variety of service functions including, most importantly, an effective system for user control of looping in user programs. There is no indication how the direction of turning of the operation and variable cards is specified. In the absence of other evidence I have had to adopt the minimal default assumption that both the operation and variable cards can only be turned backward as is necessary to implement the loops used in Babbage’s sample programs. There would be no mechanical or microprogramming difficulty in placing the direction of motion under the control of the user.[32]
In their emulator of the engine, Fourmilab say:
The Engine's Card Reader is not constrained to simply process the cards in a chain one after another from start to finish. It can, in addition, directed by the very cards it reads and advised by the whether the Mill's run-up lever is activated, either advance the card chain forward, skipping the intervening cards, or backward, causing previously-read cards to be processed once again.
This emulator does provide a written symbolic instruction set, though this has been constructed by its authors rather than based on Babbage's original works. For example, a factorial program would be written as:
N0 6
N1 1
N2 1
×
L1
L0
S1
-
L0
L2
S0
L2
L0
CB?11

where the CB is the conditional branch instruction or "combination card" used to make the control flow jump, in this case backwards by 11 cards.
Influence[edit]
Predicted influence[edit]
Babbage understood that the existence of an automatic computer would kindle interest in the field now known as algorithmic efficiency, writing in his Passages from the Life of a Philosopher, "As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of the science. Whenever any result is sought by its aid, the question will then arise—By what course of calculation can these results be arrived at by the machine in the shortest time?"[33]
Computer science[edit]
The incomplete Analytical Engine was put on display to the public at the 1862 International Exhibition in South Kensington, London.[34]
From 1872 Henry continued diligently with his father's work and then intermittently in retirement in 1875.[35] Percy Ludgate wrote about the engine in 1915[citation needed] and even designed his own Analytical Engine (it was drawn up in detail, but never built) about 1909.[24] Ludgate's engine would be much smaller than Babbage's of about 8 cubic feet (230 L), and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about six seconds.
Despite this groundwork, Babbage's work fell into historical obscurity, and the Analytical Engine was unknown to builders of electro-mechanical and electronic computing machines in the 1930s and 1940s when they began their work, resulting in the need to re-invent many of the architectural innovations Babbage had proposed. Howard Aiken, who built the quickly-obsoleted electromechanical calculator, the Harvard Mark I, between 1937 and 1945, praised Babbage's work likely as a way of enhancing his own stature, but knew nothing of the Analytical Engine's architecture during the construction of the Mark I, and considered his visit to the constructed portion of the Analytical Engine "the greatest disappointment of my life".[36] The Mark I showed no influence from the Analytical Engine and lacked the Analytical Engine's most prescient architectural feature, conditional branching.[36] J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly similarly were not aware of the details of Babbage's Analytical Engine work prior to the completion of their design for the first electronic general-purpose computer, the ENIAC.[37][38]
Comparison to other early computers[edit]
If the Analytical Engine had been built, it would have been digital, programmable and Turing-complete. It would, however, have been very slow. Luigi Federico Menabrea reported in Sketch of the Analytical Engine: "Mr. Babbage believes he can, by his engine, form the product of two numbers, each containing twenty figures, in three minutes".[39] By comparison the Harvard Mark I could perform the same task in just six seconds. A modern PC can do the same thing in well under a billionth of a second.
Further information: History of computing hardware § Early digital computer characteristics
Name
First operational
Numeral system
Computing mechanism
Programming
Turing complete
Memory
Difference Engine
Not built until the 1990s Decimal Mechanical Not programmable; initial numerical constants of polynomial differences set physically No Physical state of wheels in axes
Analytical Engine
Not yet built Decimal Mechanical Program-controlled by punched cards Yes Physical state of wheels in axes
Bombe (Poland, UK, US)
1939 (Polish), March 1940 (British), May 1943 (US) Character computations Electro-mechanical Not programmable; cipher input settings specified by patch cables No Physical state of rotors
Zuse Z3 (Germany)
May 1941 Binary floating point Electro-mechanical Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock In principle Mechanical relays
Atanasoff–Berry Computer (US)
1942 Binary Electronic Not programmable; linear system coefficients input using punched cards No Regenerative capacitor memory
Colossus Mark 1 (UK)
December 1943 Binary Electronic Program-controlled by patch cables and switches No Thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and thyratrons
Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC (US)
May 1944 Decimal Electro-mechanical Program-controlled by 24-channel punched paper tape (but no conditional branch) No Mechanical relays[40]
Zuse Z4 (Germany)
March 1945 (or 1948)[41] Binary floating point Electro-mechanical Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock Yes Mechanical relays
ENIAC (US)
July 1946 Decimal Electronic Program-controlled by patch cables and switches Yes Vacuum tube triode flip-flops
Manchester Baby (UK)
1948 Binary Electronic Binary program entered into memory by keyboard[42] (first electronic stored-program digital computer) Yes Williams cathode ray tube
In popular culture[edit]
This article may contain minor, trivial or unrelated fictional references. Trivia or references unimportant to the overall plot of a work of fiction should be edited to explain their importance or deleted. (August 2012)
The cyberpunk novelists William Gibson and Bruce Sterling co-authored a steampunk novel of alternative history titled The Difference Engine in which Babbage's Difference and Analytical Engines became available to Victorian society. The novel explores the consequences and implications of the early introduction of computational technology.
There is also mention of the Analytical Engine (or the Clockwork Ouroboros as it is also known there) in The Book of the War, a Faction Paradox anthology edited by Lawrence Miles. This machine was used to calculate a way into the "Eleven Day Empire". Its use resulted in the destruction of the original Houses of Parliament.
In the novel Perdido Street Station, by British author China Miéville, engines similar to Babbage's serve as "brains" for the robotic constructs of the city of New Crobuzon. One such engine even develops sentient thought due to a recursive algorithmic loop.
The British Empire of The Peshawar Lancers by S. M. Stirling features a massive water-powered analytical engine at Oxford, used by two of the main characters. It is noted that most of the engines run on steam, and that an even larger one is under construction at the British Capital in Delhi.
In the Michael Flynn novel In the Country of the Blind, a secret society calling itself the Babbage Society secretly financed the building of Babbage Engines in the mid-19th century. In the novel, the Society uses the Babbage engines along with a statistical science called Cliology to predict and manipulate future history. In the process, they predict the rise of the Nazis and accidentally start the US Civil War.
In the Neal Stephenson novel The Diamond Age, ubiquitous molecular nanotechnology is described to make use of "rod logic" similar to that imagined by Babbage's design for the Analytical Engine.
Moriarty by Modem, a short story by Jack Nimersheim, describes an alternate history where Babbage's Analytical Engine was indeed completed and had been deemed highly classified by the British government. The characters of Sherlock Holmes and Moriarty had in reality been a set of prototype programs written for the Analytical Engine. This short story follows Holmes as his program is rebooted on modern computers and he is forced to compete against his nemesis yet again in the modern counterparts of Babbage's Analytical Engine.[43]
A similar setting is used by Sydney Padua in the webcomic The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage.[44][45] It features an alternate history where Ada Lovelace and Babbage have built the Analytical Engine and use it to fight crime at Queen Victoria's request.[46] The comic is based on thorough research on the biographies of and correspondence between Babbage and Lovelace, which is then twisted for humorous effect.
Georgia on My Mind is a novelette by Charles Sheffield which involves two major themes: being widowed and the quest for a legendary Babbage computer.
Hugh Cook's fantasy novels The Wishstone and the Wonderworkers and The Wazir and the Witch feature an Analytical Engine created by the scientist Ivan Petrov. It is used to calculate income tax.
The Orion's Arm online project features the Machina Babbagenseii, fully sentient Babbage inspired mechanical computers. Each is the size of a large asteroid, only capable surviving in microgravity conditions, and processes data at 0.5% the speed of a human brain.[47]
The flying ships in the anime Last Exile are seen to have analytical engines inside of them. Although some have more advanced technology, the common ships use analytical engines, and even some of the advanced ships are seen to have clockwork mechanisms as well.
A working version of the Analytical Engine, created by fictional inventor Ernest Harding (and based on the Babbage concept) was featured on the Murdoch Mysteries (also called The Artful Detective), in Season 5, Episode 9, Invention Convention.[48]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1834-1871. (Trial model)". Science Museum. Retrieved 2017-08-23.
Jump up ^ John Graham-Cumming (2010-10-04). "The 100-year leap". O'Reilly Radar. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Babbage Engine: The Engines". Computer History Museum. 2016. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Bromley 1982, p. 196.
^ Jump up to: a b "Babbage". Online stuff. Science Museum. 2007-01-19. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer". opinion. New Scientist. 23 December 2010. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tim Robinson (2007-05-28). "Difference Engines". Meccano.us. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ Weber, Alan S. 19th Century Science, an Anthology. Google Books. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Collier 1970, p. chapter 3.
Jump up ^ Lee, John A.n. International Biographical Dictionary of Computer Pioneers. Google Books. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ Balchin, Jon. Science: 100 Scientists Who Changed the World. Google Books. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ Dubbey, J. M.; Dubbey, John Michael (2004-02-12). The Mathematical Work of Charles Babbage. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780521524766.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Henry Babbage's Analytical Engine Mill, 1910". Science Museum. 2007-01-16. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ * Report of the Forty-Eighth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Report). London: John Murray. 1879. pp. 92–102. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
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^ Jump up to: a b Horsburg, E. M. (Ellice Martin); Napier Tercentenary Exhibition (1914 : Edinburgh, Scotalnd) (1914). Modern instruments and methods of calculation : a handbook of the Napier Tercentenary Exhibition. Gerstein - University of Toronto. London : G. Bell. p. 127.
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Jump up ^ Tongue, Michael (2006). 3D Expo 1862. Discovery. p. 98. ISBN 9197211826.
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Jump up ^ "The Mark I Computer". Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments. Harvard University. Archived from the original on 2015-07-10. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
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Jump up ^ "The Manchester Small Scale Experimental Machine -- "The Baby"". School of Computer Science, University of Manchester. April 1999. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
Jump up ^ Nimersheim, Jack (1995). "Moriarty by Modem". cheznims.com. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
Jump up ^ "Dangerous experiments in comics". 2D Goggles. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Experiments in Comics with Sydney Padua". Tor.com. 2009-10-26. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ "The Client | 2D Goggles". Sydneypadua.com. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
Jump up ^ "Machina Babbagenseii". Orion's Arm. 2014. Retrieved 2016-05-07.
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Bibliography[edit]
Babbage, Charles (1864). "Chapter VIII - Of the Analytical Engine". Passages from the Life of a Philosopher. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green. pp. 112–141.
Babbage, Charles (1889). Babbage, Henry P., ed. Babbage’s Calculating Engines - Being a Collection of Papers Relating to Them; Their History, and Construction (PDF). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-00096-3.
Bromley, Allan G. (July–September 1982). "Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1838" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (3): 197–217. doi:10.1109/mahc.1982.10028.
Bromley, Allan G. (1990). "Difference and Analytical Engines" (PDF). In Aspray, William. Computing Before Computers. Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp. 59–98. ISBN 0-8138-0047-1.
Bromley, Allan G. (October–December 2000). "Babbage's Analytical Engine Plans 28 and 28a-The Programmer's Interface". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 22 (4): 5–19. doi:10.1109/85.887986.
Cohen, I. Bernard (2000). "8 - Aiken's Background in Computing and Knowledge of Babbage's Machines". Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 61–72. ISBN 9780262531795.
Collier, Bruce (1970). The Little Engines That Could've: The Calculating Machines of Charles Babbage (Ph.D.). Harvard University. Retrieved 2015-12-18.
Green, Christopher D. (2005). "Was Babbage's Analytical Engine intended to be a mechanical model of the mind?" (PDF). History of Psychology. 8 (1): 35–45. doi:10.1037/1093-4510.8.1.35. Retrieved 2015-12-25.
Hyman, Anthony (1982). Charles Babbage: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198581703.
Menabrea, Luigi Federico; Lovelace, Ada (1843). "Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage... with notes by the translator. Translated by Ada Lovelace". In Richard Taylor. Scientific Memoirs. 3. London: Richard and John E. Taylor. pp. 666–731.
Randell, Brian (October–December 1982). "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (4). doi:10.1109/mahc.1982.10042.
Wilkes, Maurice Vincent (1971). "Babbage as a Computer Pioneer". Proc. Babbage Memorial Meeting. London: British Computer Society. pp. 415–440.
External links[edit]
Computer programming portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Analytical Engine.
The Analytical Engine at Fourmilab, includes historical documents and online simulations
"Image of the "General Plan of Babbage's great calculating engine" (1840), plus a modern description of operational & programming features". Archived from the original on 2008-08-21.
Image of a later Plan of Analytical Engine with grid layout (1858)
First working Babbage "barrel" actually assembled, circa 2005
Special issue, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Volume 22, Number 4, October–December 2000 (subscription required)
Babbage, Science Museum, London
"The Marvellous Analytical Engine- How It Works". 2D Goggles. 2015-05-31. Retrieved 2017-08-23.
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2018 Preakness Stakes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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143rd Preakness Stakes
Preakness Stakes
Grade I stakes race
"The Middle Jewel of the Triple Crown"
"The Run for the Black-Eyed Susans"
Location
Pimlico Race Course
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
Date
May 19, 2018 (2018-05-19)
Distance
1 3⁄16 mi (9.5 furlongs; 1,900 m)
Winning horse
Justify
Winning time
1:55.93
Final odds
0.40-1
Jockey
Mike E. Smith
Trainer
Bob Baffert
Owner
China Horse Club, Head of Plains Partners, Starlight Racing, WinStar Farm
Conditions
Sloppy[1]
Surface
Dirt
Attendance
134,487[2]
← 2017
2019 →
The 2018 Preakness Stakes was the 143rd running of the Preakness Stakes, the second leg of the American Triple Crown. It was a Grade I stakes race with a purse of $1.5 million for three-year-old Thoroughbreds at a distance of 1 3⁄16 miles (1.9 km). It was held on May 19, 2018, at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland and was broadcast on NBC from 5:00 pm to 7:15 pm EDT with coverage of the undercard on NBCSN starting at 2:30 pm.[3]
It was a very muddy track and extremely foggy at post time with visibility down to a sixteenth of a mile. Out of the gate, Justify went to the early lead while Good Magic rushed up his inside to challenge. The two matched strides for the first mile before Good Magic tired somewhat down the stretch. Justify held off a fast closing Bravazo to win by half a length, keeping alive his hopes of winning the Triple Crown.
Contents
1 Field
2 Race Description
3 Results
4 Payout
5 See also
6 References
Field[edit]
Entries for the 2018 Preakness were taken on May 16. As is commonly the case with the Preakness, the field for the race featured the winner and other top horses from the Kentucky Derby, facing off with several "new shooters" – horses who either did not qualify for the Derby or whose connections chose to bypass that race to focus on the Preakness.[4][5]
The heavy favorite for the race was Justify, the 2018 Kentucky Derby winner,[4] even though he bruised his heel during the running of that race. His main rival was Good Magic, the champion two-year-colt of 2017 and runner-up in the Derby.[6] Six other horses completed the field: Quip, winner of the Tampa Bay Derby and second in the Arkansas Derby, bypassed the Kentucky Derby to focus on the Preakness; Bravazo (sixth in the Derby); Lone Sailor (eighth); Diamond King (winner of the Federico Tesio Stakes); Sporting Chance (fourth in the Blue Grass Stakes); and Tenfold (fifth in the Arkansas Derby).[7][8][9]
Race Description[edit]
Justify leads Good Magic past the stands for the first time in the 2018 Preakness
The conditions for the race were so poor that the Washington Post jokingly said the track "should have been downgraded from "sloppy" to "biblical"".[10] After heavy downpours over several days,[11] the rain finally stopped shortly before the race but then a heavy fog descended, limiting visibility to about a sixteenth of a mile.[2] Despite the weather, a crowd of 134,487 watched at the track, the third-largest attendance in history. Total wagering on the race was a record $61.97 million, boosted by increases in wagering on exotics such as the trifecta and superfecta. The NBC broadcast received a 5.5 overnight rating and 12 share, a 12% increase over 2017. The ratings during the race itself peaked at 6.6 overnight with a 15 share.[12]
The start was critical, and Justify broke well to take the early lead. To his inside, Good Magic rushed up to challenge and the two matched strides around the first turn and down the backstretch while setting moderate fractions. They picked up the pace rounding the final turn and opened a gap on the rest of the field. However in mid-stretch, Tenfold started closing ground rapidly to Justify's outside while Bravazo, who had trailed by five lengths in mid-stretch, was moving fastest of all in the center of the track. Justify dug in to win by half a length over Bravazo, with Tenfold just a neck further back in third, another neck in front of Good Magic.[2][1]
It was a record-tying seventh win of the Preakness for Justify's trainer, Bob Baffert.[2] Five of those wins came with horses who had just won the Kentucky Derby: Silver Charm, Real Quiet, War Emblem and American Pharoah. Of these, only American Pharoah went on to complete the Triple Crown by winning the Belmont Stakes.[11] Justify later duplicated this feat in the 2018 Belmont Stakes, making Baffert only the second person to train two Triple Crown winners.[13]
Results[edit]
Finish
PP
Horse
Jockey
Trainer
Morning
line odds[4]
Final
odds
Margin
(lengths)
Winnings
1
7 Justify Mike E. Smith Bob Baffert 1-2 0.40 $900,000
2
8 Bravazo Luis Saez D. Wayne Lukas 20-1 15.30 1⁄2 $300,000
3
6 Tenfold Ricardo Santana Jr. Steve Asmussen 20-1 26.10 3⁄4 $165,000
4
5 Good Magic Jose Ortiz Chad Brown 3-1 3.90 1 $90,000
5
2 Lone Sailor Irad Ortiz Jr. Tom Amoss 15-1 13.80 2 $45,000
6
3 Sporting Chance Luis Contreras D. Wayne Lukas 30-1 23.30 10 3⁄4
7
4 Diamond King Javier Castellano John Servis 30-1 20.70 12 1⁄4
8
1 Quip Florent Geroux Rodolphe Brisset 12-1 12.50 45 1⁄2
Winning owner: China Horse Club, Head of Plains Partners, Starlight Racing, WinStar Farm
Winning breeder: John D. Gunther
Track: Sloppy
Times: 1⁄4 mile – 0:23.11; 1⁄2 mile – 0:47.19; 3⁄4 mile – 1:11.42; mile – 1:36.10; final – 1:55.93.
Splits for each quarter-mile: (:23.11) (:24.08) (:24.23) (:24.68) (:19.83 for final 3⁄16)
Reference: Equibase Chart[1]
Payout[edit]
The 143rd Preakness payout schedule[1]
Pgm
Horse
Win
Place
Show
7 Justify $2.80 $2.80 $2.60
8 Bravazo – $7.60 $4.80
6 Tenfold – – $6.80
$2 Exacta (7–8) $27.40
$1 Trifecta (7–8–6) $148.30
$1 Superfecta (7–8–6–5) $372.50
$1 Super High Five (7–8–6–5–2) $1,370.20
See also[edit]
2018 Kentucky Derby
2018 Belmont Stakes
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Chart of the 2018 Preakness Stakes". Equibase. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Balan, Jeremy. "Justify Emerges From the Fog to Win Preakness". BloodHorse.com. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Preakness Stakes 2018". NBC Sports. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hoppert, Melissa (16 May 2018). "Preakness 2018 Draw and Odds: Justify Is Overwhelming Favorite". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "New Shooters in the Preakness". www.drf.com. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Balan, Jeremy. "Good Magic to Challenge Justify in Preakness". BloodHorse.com. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Wincze Hughes, Alicia. "Preakness Decisions Hang on Justify's Return to Track". BloodHorse.com. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Diamond King Heading to Preakness". BloodHorse.com. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Bonesteel, Matt (14 May 2018). "Justify and Good Magic will duel again at Preakness Stakes after 1-2 Kentucky Derby finish". Washington Post. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Sheinin, Dave (18 May 2018). "Justify enters Preakness Stakes chasing history in weather that could be biblical". Washington Post. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Justify wins Preakness; Triple Crown in sight". ESPN.com. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Hegarty, Matt. "Despite wet weather and short fields, Preakness Stakes wagering sets record". www.drf.com. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "With two Triple Crowns, is Bob Baffert now the greatest trainer of all time?". The Courier-Journal. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
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River valley civilization
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A river civilization or river culture is an agricultural nation or civilization situated beside a river. A river gives the inhabitants a source of water for drinking and agriculture. Additional benefits include fishing, fertile soil due to annual flooding, and ease of transportation.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Causes
3 Early civilizations
3.1 Mesopotamia
3.2 Egypt
3.3 Indus valley
3.4 Yellow River
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
History[edit]
The first great civilizations all grew up in river valleys, The oldest known civilization, 3300 to 2500 BCE, was along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East; the name given to that civilization, Mesopotamia, means "land between the rivers". The Nile valley in Egypt had been home to agricultural settlements as early as 5500 BCE, but the growth of Egypt as a civilization began around 3100 BCE. A third civilization grew up along the Indus River around 2600 BCE, in parts of what are now India and Pakistan. The fourth great river civilization emerged around 1700 BCE along the Yellow River in China, also known as the Huang-He River Civilization.[1][2]
Causes[edit]
Civilizations tended to grow up in river valleys for a number of reasons.The most obvious is access to a usually reliable source of water for agriculture and human needs. Plentiful water, and the enrichment of the soil due to annual floods, made it possible to grow excess crops beyond what was needed to sustain an agricultural village. This allowed for some members of the community to engage in non-agricultural activities such as construction of buildings and cities (the root of the word "civilization"), metal working, trade, and social organization.[3][4]
Early civilizations[edit]
Mesopotamia[edit]
Mesopotamia was the earliest river valley civilization, starting to form around 3500 BCE. The civilization was created after regular trading started relationships between multiple cities and states around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamian cities became self-run civil governments. One of the cities within this civilization, Uruk, was the first literate society in history. Eventually, they all joined together to irrigate the two rivers in order to make their dry land fertile for agricultural growth. The increase in successful farming in this civilization allowed population growth throughout the cities and states within Mesopotamia.[5]
Egypt[edit]
Egypt also created irrigation systems from its local river, the Nile River, more intricate than previous systems. The Egyptians would rotate legumes with cereal which would stop salt buildup from the fresh water and enhance the fertility of their fields. The Nile River also allowed easier travel among the civilization, eventually resulting in the creation of two kingdoms in the north and south areas of the river until both were unified into one society by 3000 BCE.[6]
Indus valley[edit]
Much of the history of the Indus valley civilization, discovered in the 1920s, is unknown. Discovered in the 1920s, Harappan society remains a mystery because the Harappan system of writing has not yet been deciphered. It was larger than either Egypt or Mesopotamia. Historians have found no evidence of violence or a ruling class; there are no distinctive burial sites and there is not a lot of evidence to suggest a formal military. However, historians believe that the lack of knowledge about the ruling class and the military is mainly due to the inability to read Harappan writing.[7]
Yellow River[edit]
The Yellow River (Huang He) area became settled around 4000 BC.[8] Many tribes settled along the river, sixth longest in the world, which was distinguished by its heavy load of yellow silt and its periodic devastating floods. Recorded Chinese history begins with the first great wall, the Xia Dynasty, which went through the Yellow River valley from 2100 to 1600 BC. A major impetus for the tribes to unite into a single kingdom was the desire to find a solution to the frequent deadly floods. The Xia dug canals to channel excess water away from the area, resulting in a strong civilization with bountiful harvests and powerful leaders. The Yellow River is often called "The Cradle of Chinese Civilization".[9]
See also[edit]
Hydraulic empire
Irrigation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ McCannon, John (2008). Barron's AP World History. Barron's Educational Series Inc. pp. 57–60. ISBN 978-0-7641-3822-5.
Jump up ^ "The River Valley Civilization Guide". rivervalleycivilizations.com. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Rivers and Civilization: What's the Link?. Mindsparks. 2007. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-57596-251-1.
Jump up ^ Mountjoy, Shane (2005). Rivers in World History: The Indus River. Chelsea House Publishers. p. 15.
Jump up ^ Adrian Cole and Stephen Ortega, The Thinking Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 83, 95-101.
Jump up ^ Adrian Cole and Stephen Ortega, The Thinking Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 83, 95-101.
Jump up ^ Adrian Cole and Stephen Ortega, The Thinking Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 106-108.
Jump up ^ The Yellow River, Rivervalleycivilizations.com
Jump up ^ Szczepanski, Kallie (March 29, 2017). "The Yellow River and its role in Chinese history". Thoughtco. Retrieved 12 June 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Clayton, Peter A. & Dent, John (1973). The Ancient River Civilizations: Western Man & the Modern World. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080172095
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No-fault divorce
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No-fault divorce is a divorce in which the dissolution of a marriage does not require a showing of wrongdoing by either party.[1][2] Laws providing for no-fault divorce allow a family court to grant a divorce in response to a petition by either party of the marriage without requiring the petitioner to provide evidence that the defendant has committed a breach of the marital contract.
Contents
1 History
2 Controversy
2.1 Arguments for no-fault divorce
2.2 Arguments against no-fault divorce
3 Laws by country
3.1 Australia
3.2 Canada
3.3 China
3.4 Malta
3.5 Mexico
3.6 Russia
3.7 Spain
3.8 Sweden
3.9 United States
3.9.1 Requirements for divorce prior to the enactment of no-fault divorce
3.9.2 Methods for bypassing the showing-of-fault requirements for divorce
3.9.3 Advocates for eliminating the showing-of-fault requirements for divorce
3.9.4 California's Family Law Act of 1969
3.9.5 The Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act
3.9.6 The adoption of no-fault divorce laws by the other states
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
The first modern no-fault divorce law was enacted in Russia in December 1917 following the October Revolution of the same year. Regarding marriage as a bourgeois institution, the new government transferred divorce jurisdiction from the Russian Orthodox Church to the state courts, which could grant it on application of either spouse.[3][4] A new family code was passed in 1926.[4][5]
With a law adopted in 1969, California became the first U.S. state to permit no-fault divorce.[6] California's law was framed on a roughly contemporaneous effort of the non-governmental organization National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, which began drafting a model of no-fault divorce statute for states to consider in 1967.[7]
Australia established no-fault divorce in 1975, with the only ground for divorce being irretrievable breakdown of marriage, evidenced by a twelve-month separation. Canada effectively permitted no-fault divorce in 1986 by reducing the separation period to one year.
Controversy[edit]
Arguments for no-fault divorce[edit]
Several studies have looked at the effect of no-fault divorce on divorce rates in the United States. The studies typically find an increase in the short-term rate, but little long-term casual relationship. The most frequent explanation given is that the older laws were ineffective and not followed anyway, though there are some differing viewpoints.[8][9] Economists Betsey Stevenson and Justin Wolfers, based on findings in their research, argue that domestic violence and female suicide decline in states that legalize no-fault divorce.[10] Specifically, they report that "states that adopted no-fault divorce experienced a decrease of 8 to 16 percent in wives' suicide rates and a 30 percent decline in domestic violence."[11] They also argue that their research proves that there is no permanent effect of no-fault divorce laws on divorce rates.[10]
Stephanie Coontz, a professor of history at Evergreen State College, states that "in the years since no-fault divorce became well-nigh universal, the national divorce rate has fallen, from about 23 divorces per 1,000 married couples in 1979 to under 17 per 1,000 in 2005."[11] She adds that "once you permit the courts to determine when a person's desire to leave is legitimate, you open the way to arbitrary decisions about what is or should be tolerable in a relationship, made by people who have no stake in the actual lives being lived."[11]
A 2010 New York Times editorial said that New York was "the only state where a court must find fault before granting a divorce unless the spouses have lived apart for a full year under a formal separation agreement — a proven formula for inviting false testimony, endless litigation and generally making divorce far more painful than it needs to be."[12] Later that year, New York became the final state to allow no-fault divorce. Lawyer L.M. Fenton states that "Feminist holdouts against New York's new [no-fault divorce] bill don't understand how family law affects women today", adding: "It also mystifies me that spouses could still, even in 2010, be forced to stay married to someone who refused to let go."[13] She adds:
Fault-based grounds usually include mental cruelty, but true mental cruelty has a psychological component that can make it very difficult for the abused spouse to articulate that abuse. More to the point, the abused spouse may be terrified to describe the relationship on paper and testify about it in a court. And of course, a controlling partner will always choose the path of most resistance to whatever it is that the other spouse wants.[13]
The state adopted no-fault divorce later that year.
Arguments against no-fault divorce[edit]
The National Organization for Women opposed the introduction of no-fault divorce in New York State because it would allow a party who actually is at fault to obtain a divorce in which "alimony, maintenance [and] property division" would be determined without the judge considering "the facts, behavior and circumstances that led to the break-up of the marriage".[14]
A paper published in the Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, written by Douglas Allen, on the economics of same-sex marriage, argues that the introduction of no-fault divorce led to a six-fold increase in just two years, after a century of rather stable divorce rates. Also, the law increased the rate at which women entered the workforce, increased the number of hours worked in a week, increased the feminization of poverty, and increased the age at which people married.[15]
Stephen Baskerville, a political scientist at Howard University, argues that no-fault divorce rewards wrongdoers, reduces the need of marital binding agreement contracts at the public's expense, and helps women take custody of their children at the husbands' expense in many cases where the man has done nothing wrong. He also adds that a ban on divorce will not work, because people will separate themselves and be in a permanent state of adultery, or they will create a hostile home environment for the children.[16][17]
Laws by country[edit]
Australia[edit]
Main article: Australian family law
Australia's laws on divorce and other legal family matters were overhauled in 1975 with the enactment of the Family Law Act 1975, which established no-fault divorce in Australia. Since 1975, the only ground for divorce is irretrievable breakdown of marriage, evidenced by a twelve-month separation. However, a residual "fault" element remains in relation to child custody and property settlement issues.
Canada[edit]
Prior to 1968, the only grounds for divorce were adultery or cruelty. However, in 1968, the Divorce Act was amended to permit divorce for other reasons, including physical and mental cruelty and separation for at least 3 years. The Divorce Act was amended in 1986 to reduce the separation period to one year, with no requirement to prove "fault" by either spouse. The fault grounds for divorce are also available.
China[edit]
China has allowed no-fault divorce since the adoption of the New Marriage Law in 1950. No-fault divorce has become much more common since the 1980s. The current marriage law provides that divorce shall always be granted if sought by both husband and wife. Divorce is also granted if one party can present evidence of incompatibility, such as separation for at least 2 years.
Divorce may be granted either by court or by a marriage registration office. The latter can only do so when both parties have reached an agreement on child custody and property settlement.
Malta[edit]
A Maltese law permitting no-fault divorce went into effect in October 2011, following a national referendum on the subject. This was the first Maltese law permitting any kind of divorce.[18]
Mexico[edit]
In Mexico City, this type of divorce is legally known as divorcio incausado o sin expresión de causa and colloquially as divorcio exprés. The law was passed for the first time in Mexico City in 2008 and held constitutional by the Supreme Court, which in 2015 established that any state law requiring to prove the case for a divorce was unconstitutional.[citation needed]
Russia[edit]
No-fault divorce was introduced by the Bolsheviks following the Russian Revolution of 1917.[5] Before the Revolution, religious institutions tended to define family life. It was the ecclesiastical law of the various denominations that controlled the family, marriage, and divorce. For example, the official registration of birth, death, marriage, and divorce was the responsibility of the parish church. Under these non-secular laws, divorce was highly restricted (but always somewhat available, as no major religion in Russia completely disallowed divorce).
The 1918 Decree on Divorce eliminated the religious marriage and the underlying ecclesiastical law, replacing them with civil marriage sanctioned by the state. Divorce was obtained by filing a mutual consent document with the Russian Registry Office, or by the unilateral request of one party to the court. The divorce law under the Bolsheviks did not penalize the husband with alimony, child support, or debtor's prison for non-payment, as every individual was to be provided for by the state anyway. The two partners were entirely free of legal obligations to each other after divorce.
Spain[edit]
In Spain, this type of divorce is legally known as divorcio incausado or divorcio unilateral and colloquially as divorcio exprés.
Sweden[edit]
Swedish law does not include a showing-of-fault requirement for divorce. The couple can file for divorce together or one party can file alone. If one party does not wish to get divorced or if they have children under 16 living at home, there is a required contemplation period of 6 to 12 months. During this period, they stay married and the request must be confirmed after the waiting period for the divorce to go through.[19]
United States[edit]
See also: Divorce in the United States
Today, every state plus the District of Columbia permits no-fault divorce, though requirements for obtaining a no-fault divorce vary.[20] California was the first U.S. state to pass a no-fault divorce law. Its law was signed by Governor Ronald Reagan, a divorced and remarried former movie actor, and came into effect in 1970.[21] New York was the last state to pass a no-fault divorce law; that law was passed in 2010.[22][23]
Before no-fault divorce was available, spouses seeking divorce would often allege false grounds for divorce.[24] Removing the incentive to perjure was one motivation for the no-fault movement.[25]
In the States of Wisconsin, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Nebraska, Montana, Missouri, Minnesota, Michigan, Kentucky, Kansas, Iowa, Indiana, Hawaii, Florida, Colorado and California, a person seeking a divorce is not permitted to allege a fault-based ground (e.g. adultery, abandonment or cruelty).[26]
Requirements for divorce prior to the enactment of no-fault divorce[edit]
Prior to the advent of no-fault divorce, a divorce was processed through the adversarial system as a civil action, meaning that a divorce could be obtained only through a showing of fault of one (and only one) of the parties in a marriage. This required that one spouse plead that the other had committed adultery, abandonment, felony, or other similarly culpable acts. However, the other spouse could plead a variety of defenses, like recrimination (essentially an accusation of "so did you"). A judge could find that the respondent had not committed the alleged act or the judge could accept the defense of recrimination and find both spouses at fault for the dysfunctional nature of their marriage.[27] Either of these two findings was sufficient to defeat an action for divorce, which meant that the parties remained married.[28]
In some states, requirements were even more stringent. For instance, under its original (1819) constitution, Alabama required not only the consent of a court of chancery for a divorce (and only "in cases provided for by law"), but equally that of two-thirds of both houses of the state legislature.[29] This requirement was dropped in 1861, when the state adopted a new constitution at the outset of the American Civil War. The required vote in this case was even stricter than that required to overturn the governor's veto in Alabama, which required only a simple majority of both houses of the General Assembly.[30]
Methods for bypassing the showing-of-fault requirements for divorce[edit]
These requirements could be problematic if both spouses were at fault or if neither spouse had committed a legally culpable act but both spouses desired a divorce by mutual consent. Lawyers began to advise their clients on how to create legal fictions to bypass the statutory requirements. One method popular in New York was referred to as "collusive adultery", in which both sides deliberately agreed that the wife would come home at a certain time and discover her husband committing adultery with a "mistress" obtained for the occasion.[31] The wife would then falsely swear to a carefully tailored version of these facts in court (thereby committing perjury). The husband would admit a similar version of those facts. The judge would convict the husband of adultery, and the couple could be divorced.
In many other states, especially California, the most popular allegation for divorce was cruelty (which was then unavailable in New York). For example, in 1950, wives pleaded "cruelty" as the basis for 70 percent of San Francisco divorce cases.[31] Wives would regularly testify to the same facts: their husbands swore at them, hit them, and generally treated them terribly.[31] This procedure was described by Supreme Court of California Associate Justice Stanley Mosk:
Every day, in every superior court in the state, the same melancholy charade was played: the "innocent" spouse, generally the wife, would take the stand and, to the accompanying cacophony of sobbing and nose-blowing, testify under the deft guidance of an attorney to the spousal conduct that she deemed "cruel."[32]
An even simpler practice for people living in states where divorce was difficult to obtain was to go "forum shopping." This meant one of the parties would move to another state where no-fault divorce was available, stay there long enough to become a resident, then file for divorce there. Nevada was extremely popular for this purpose as its residency period was only six weeks.[33] For some couples, if there really was no problem in settling the issues of their marriage, a weekend trip to Mexico was also an option. Or in some cases, a party deciding they wanted to marry someone else could combine a filing for divorce and a new marriage in one trip to Mexico. As no-fault became near-universal, the need to use Nevada or Mexico to evade restrictive divorce laws became less and less necessary.
Advocates for eliminating the showing-of-fault requirements for divorce[edit]
Many American lawyers and judges objected to the legal fictions used to satisfy the requirements for divorce, which were effectively rendering oaths meaningless and threatening to wreck the integrity of the American justice system by making perjury into a commonplace occurrence. As early as the 1930s, a treatise on American family law complained:
In divorce litigation it is well known that the parties often seek to evade the statutory limitations and thus there is great danger of perjury, collusion, and fraud . . . . In many cases no defense is interposed, and often when the case is contested the contest is not waged with vigor or good faith.[34]
In addition, advocates for no-fault divorce argued that the law should be changed to provide a straightforward procedure for ending a marriage, rather than forcing a couple who simply couldn't get along to choose between living together in "marital hell" or lying under oath in open court. The most prominent advocate of this position was feminist law professor Herma Hill Kay (who later became dean of UC Berkeley School of Law).[35]
At its convention in 1947, the National Association of Women Lawyers (NAWL) voted to draft and promote a bill that would embody the ideal of no-fault divorce and describes its efforts to promote the passage of no-fault divorce laws as "the greatest project NAWL has ever undertaken."[36]
Other states were slower to adopt no-fault divorce. For example, Pennsylvania did not introduce no-fault divorce until around 1980.[37]
California's Family Law Act of 1969[edit]
California adopted no-fault divorce with the Family Law Act of 1969, which became effective January 1, 1970.[38] The Act abolished California's action for divorce and replaced it with a proceeding for dissolution of marriage on the grounds of irreconcilable differences. The grounds of irreconcilable differences are accepted as true, and can be based on the assertions of one of the parties to the marriage.[39][40]
The Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act[edit]
At about the same time that California adopted no-fault divorce, the National Conference of Commissioners of Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) appointed a committee to draft a uniform marriage and divorce law for consideration by state legislatures, and the American Bar Association's Family Law Section was asked to appoint a committee to work with the committee from the NCCUSL.[41] The initial draft of the Uniform Marriage and Divorce Law written by the NCCUSL committee would direct judges to grant the petitioner's request to end the marriage if the judge found that the marriage was "irretrievably broken", a term which this draft did not define.[41] Since the term "irretrievably broken" was not defined, the committee from the American Bar Association (ABA) Family Law Section disapproved of this draft of the Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act.[41] In response, the NCCUSL committee added a 180-day separation requirement in order for judges to find that the marriage had been irretrievably broken.[41] However, the NCCUSL committee also added language to allow judges to grant a petitioner a divorce if "there is serious marital discord adversely affecting one or both parties toward the marriage."[41] A further problem with "irretrievably broken" is that it seems to assume that broken pieces are somehow acceptable if they can be retrieved, even though they are not put back together.[42]
The committee from the ABA Family Law Section objected to the ability of a petitioner to avoid the 180-day separation requirement by asserting "serious marital discord".[41] In his letter recommending that the American Bar Association House of Delegates not approve the amended draft proposed by the NCCUSL, Arnold J. Gibbs, the chairman of the ABA Family Law Section, stated that the NCCUSL's proposed draft created a rubber stamp type of divorce procedure. He wrote: "The creation of a mere 'rubber stamp type' of divorce procedure would not be in the best interests of the family, its individual members, and society in general."[43]
Copies of the recommendation to disapprove the NCCUSL's amended draft were provided to the National Conference of Commissioners of Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL), Young Lawyers Section and the National Association of Women Lawyers (NAWL).[43] The committee from the NCCUSL refused to further amend its draft of the Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act.[41][43]
At the 1974 midwinter meeting of the American Bar Association in Houston, Council members of the Family Law Section indicated dissatisfaction with the public image the section was getting from its opposition to the NCCUSL's draft of the Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act. In a policy statement, the ABA Family Law Section chose "to recognize separation only as conclusive evidence of marital breakdown and not as its unbending test", implying that "other kinds of evidence would be admissible to establish breakdown as well."[41]
The adoption of no-fault divorce laws by the other states[edit]
By 1977, nine states had adopted no-fault divorce laws,[36] and by late 1983, every state but South Dakota and New York had adopted some form of no-fault divorce (although some forms were not as easy to obtain as that in California).[44] South Dakota adopted no-fault divorce in 1985.[45] Until August 2010, New York still lacked a unilateral no-fault divorce statute; under New York divorce law, only if both parties executed and acknowledged a separation agreement and lived separately for one year could a judge convert it into a divorce. New York governor David Paterson signed a no-fault divorce bill on August 15, 2010. As of October 2010[update], no-fault divorce is allowed in all fifty states and the District of Columbia.
See also[edit]
Feminist movement
Fathers' rights movement
Men's rights movement
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "No Fault Divorce Law & Legal Definition". uslegal.com. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "No-fault divorce". Legal Information Institute. Cornell University Law School. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Schachner, Jill (2010-11-01). "And Then There Was None". Abajournal.com. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Russian Effort to Abolish Marriage". The Atlantic. July 1926. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Bolas, Donald M. (1975). "No-Fault Divorce: Born in the Soviet Union?". J. Fam. L. 14.
Jump up ^ Kay, Herma Hill (1987). "Equality and Difference: A Perspective on No-Fault Divorce and Its Aftermath". University of Cincinnati Law Review. 56 (1).
Jump up ^ A Reminiscence About The Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act-and Some Reflections About Its Critics and Its Policies, Robert J. Levy, 44 BYU L. Rev. 43 (1991)
Jump up ^ Katz, Sanford N. (1994). "Historical Perspective and Current Trends in the Legal Process of Divorce". Children and Divorce. 4 (1).
Jump up ^ Sanford N. Katz; John Eekelaar; Mavis Maclean (2000). Cross Currents: Family Law and Policy in the United States and England. Oxford University Press. pp. 351–352. ISBN 978-0-19-829944-8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Your Comment". The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b c Coontz, Stephanie (2010-06-16). "Divorce, No-Fault Style". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "New York's Moment for Divorce Reform". The New York Times. 2010-06-18.
^ Jump up to: a b "No-fault divorce? It's about time". salon.com. 18 June 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.nownys.org/leg_memos_2010/no_fault_divorce.pdf
Jump up ^ Allen, Douglas (22 June 2006). "An economic assessment of same-sex marriage laws" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy. 29. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Baskerville, Stephen (2009). "No-Fault Divorce Is Harmful". In Wilson, Mike. Divorce. Opposing Viewpoints. Detroit: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 978-0-7377-4204-6.
Jump up ^ Baskerville, Stephen (1 March 2005). "The No-Blame Game: Why No-Fault Divorce Is Our Most Dangerous Social Experiment". Crisis Magazine. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Mangion, Ann Marie (Spring 2012). "The Financial Aspect of Family Law". Bank of Valletta Review (45): 112.
Jump up ^ "Divorce". Sveriges Domstolar – Domstolsverket, Swedish National Courts Administration. 2007-03-07. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
Jump up ^ "An Overview of No Fault and Fault Divorce Law". FindLaw. Archived from the original on February 23, 2018. Retrieved September 20, 2018.
Jump up ^ Wilcox, W. Bradford (Fall 2009). "The Evolution of Divorce". National Affairs. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Consumer Reports News (October 13, 2010). "Divorce, American-style: No-fault is now the law in all 50 states". Consumer Reports. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved July 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ Bird, Beverly. "Which States Are No-Fault Divorce States?". Legal Zoom. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Glaberson, William. "New Divorce Law Would Allow Couples to Tell the Truth". Retrieved 25 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Trotta, Daniel (25 June 2010). "Proposed NY law could soon bring no-fault divorce". Reuters. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Which States Are No-Fault Divorce States?". Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ Stein, David D. "Technical Info About Divorce in the U.S". Liaise Divorce Solutions. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
Jump up ^ De Burgh v. De Burgh, 39 Cal. 2d 858 (1952). In De Burgh, the trial judge found both spouses guilty of cruelty against each other which had been provoked by the acts of the other. Therefore, both spouses were guilty of recrimination and neither was entitled to a divorce. The Supreme Court of California took advantage of this case to invalidate the defense of recrimination through the expansive application of equitable doctrines like clean hands, and remanded for a new trial.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of Alabama (1819), Article 6, Section 13". Legislature.state.al.us. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of Alabama (1819), Article 4, Section 16". Legislature.state.al.us. Retrieved 2017-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c Friedman, Lawrence M. (2002). American Law in the Twentieth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 435–36.
Jump up ^ In re: Marriage of McKim, 6 Cal. 3d 673 (1972) (Mosk, J., dissenting) opinion available online at online.ceb.com
Jump up ^ Clint McCullough, Nevada, 1987. Chapter 28. "Divorce was big business in Nevada. Hotels and a dozen dude ranches around Reno catered to the women who arrived almost daily to put a quick end to their marriages. It was even quicker for Nevadans, who didn’t have to wait out the six‑week residency requirement. A couple could fight at breakfast and be divorced by dinner time."
Jump up ^ Vernier, Chester. Section 80, "Proctors" of Divorce and Separation, Vol. 2 American Family Laws: A Comparative Study of the Family Law of the Forty-eight American States, Alaska, the District of Columbia, and Hawaii, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1932), p. 93.
Jump up ^ Bishop, Katherine. "Sweet Victory for Feminist Pioneer at Law School." The New York Times, 3 April 1992, sec. A, p. 19
^ Jump up to: a b Baskerville, Stephen (2007). Taken Into Custody – The War Against Fathers, Marriage and the Family. Cumberland House. p. 234. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Vosky, Denese Ashbaugh; Monroe, Pamela A. (Oct 2002). "The Effective Dates of No-Fault Divorce Laws in the 50 States" (PDF). Family Relations. 51 (4): 317–324. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2002.00317.x. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Sharon. "No-Fault Divorce: 10 Years Later, Some Virtues, Some Flaws." New York Times, 30 March 1979, sec. A, p. 22.
Jump up ^ "irreconcilable differences". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Divorce Reform in California" (PDF). California State Library. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Zuckman, Harvey L. "The American Bar Association Family Law Section v NCCUSL: Alienation, Separation and Forced Reconciliation over the Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act" (PDF). 24:61. Catholic University Law Review. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
Jump up ^ Henry Trawick, Florida Pleading and Procedure, at p. _____
^ Jump up to: a b c Gibbs, Arnold J. (February 1974). "American Bar Association Section of Family Law Recommendation" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-08-12.
Jump up ^ Gest, Ted. "Divorce: how the game is played now." U.S. News & World Report, 21 November 1983, pp. 39–42.
Jump up ^ Layug, Christine. "The No-Fault and At-Fault Process of Divorce," 10 July 2008, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-10-13. Retrieved 2010-01-12. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
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