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Advanced Encryption Standard
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Advanced Encryption Standard
(Rijndael)
The SubBytes step, one of four stages in a round of AES
General
Designers
Vincent Rijmen, Joan Daemen
First published
1998
Derived from
Square
Successors
Anubis, Grand Cru
Certification
AES winner, CRYPTREC, NESSIE, NSA
Cipher detail
Key sizes
128, 192 or 256 bits[1]
Block sizes
128 bits[2]
Structure
Substitution-permutation network
Rounds
10, 12 or 14 (depending on key size)
Best public cryptanalysis
Attacks have been published that are computationally faster than a full brute-force attack, though none as of 2013 are computationally feasible.[3]
For AES-128, the key can be recovered with a computational complexity of 2126.1 using the biclique attack. For biclique attacks on AES-192 and AES-256, the computational complexities of 2189.7 and 2254.4 respectively apply. Related-key attacks can break AES-192 and AES-256 with complexities 2176 and 299.5 in both time and data, respectively.[4]
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈrɛindaːl]),[5][6] is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001.[7]
AES is a subset of the Rijndael cipher[6] developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Vincent Rijmen and Joan Daemen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process.[8] Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes.
For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits.
AES has been adopted by the U.S. government and is now used worldwide. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES),[9] which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data.
In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001.[7] This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable (see Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details).
AES became effective as a federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by the Secretary of Commerce. AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module (see Security of AES, below).
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitive standards
2 Description of the cipher
2.1 High-level description of the algorithm
2.2 The SubBytes step
2.3 The ShiftRows step
2.4 The MixColumns step
2.5 The AddRoundKey step
2.6 Optimization of the cipher
3 Security
3.1 Known attacks
3.2 Side-channel attacks
4 NIST/CSEC validation
5 Test vectors
6 Performance
7 Implementations
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Definitive standards[edit]
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of:
FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)[7]
ISO/IEC 18033-3: Information technology – Security techniques – Encryption algorithms – Part 3: Block ciphers[10]
Description of the cipher[edit]
AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution-permutation network, a combination of both substitution and permutation, and is fast in both software and hardware.[11] Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael which has a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, the Rijndael specification per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits.
AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order matrix of bytes, termed the state, although some versions of Rijndael have a larger block size and have additional columns in the state. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field.
For instance, if there are 16 bytes, b 0 , b 1 , . . . , b 15 {\displaystyle b_{0},b_{1},...,b_{15}} , these bytes are represented as this matrix:
[ b 0 b 4 b 8 b 12 b 1 b 5 b 9 b 13 b 2 b 6 b 10 b 14 b 3 b 7 b 11 b 15 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}b_{0}&b_{4}&b_{8}&b_{12}\\b_{1}&b_{5}&b_{9}&b_{13}\\b_{2}&b_{6}&b_{10}&b_{14}\\b_{3}&b_{7}&b_{11}&b_{15}\end{bmatrix}}}
The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of repetitions of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of cycles of repetition are as follows:
10 cycles of repetition for 128-bit keys.
12 cycles of repetition for 192-bit keys.
14 cycles of repetition for 256-bit keys.
Each round consists of several processing steps, each containing four similar but different stages, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key.
High-level description of the algorithm[edit]
KeyExpansions—round keys are derived from the cipher key using Rijndael's key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more.
InitialRound
AddRoundKey—each byte of the state is combined with a block of the round key using bitwise xor.
Rounds
SubBytes—a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table.
ShiftRows—a transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.
MixColumns—a mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column.
AddRoundKey
Final Round (no MixColumns)
SubBytes
ShiftRows
AddRoundKey.
The SubBytes step[edit]
In the SubBytes step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, S; bij = S(aij).
In the SubBytes step, each byte a i , j {\displaystyle a_{i,j}} in the state matrix is replaced with a SubByte S ( a i , j ) {\displaystyle S(a_{i,j})} using an 8-bit substitution box, the Rijndael S-box. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over GF(28), known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., S ( a i , j ) ≠ a i , j {\displaystyle S(a_{i,j})\neq a_{i,j}} , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., S ( a i , j ) ⊕ a i , j ≠ FF 16 {\displaystyle S(a_{i,j})\oplus a_{i,j}\neq {\text{FF}}_{16}} . While performing the decryption, the InvSubBytes step (the inverse of SubBytes) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse.
The ShiftRows step[edit]
In the ShiftRows step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row.
The ShiftRows step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. For blocks of sizes 128 bits and 192 bits, the shifting pattern is the same. Row n {\displaystyle n} is shifted left circular by n − 1 {\displaystyle n-1} bytes. In this way, each column of the output state of the ShiftRows step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets). For a 256-bit block, the first row is unchanged and the shifting for the second, third and fourth row is 1 byte, 3 bytes and 4 bytes respectively—this change only applies for the Rijndael cipher when used with a 256-bit block, as AES does not use 256-bit blocks. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES degenerates into four independent block ciphers.
The MixColumns step[edit]
Main article: Rijndael MixColumns
In the MixColumns step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial c ( x ) {\displaystyle c(x)} .
In the MixColumns step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The MixColumns function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with ShiftRows, MixColumns provides diffusion in the cipher.
During this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state):
[ 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 2 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&3&1&1\\1&2&3&1\\1&1&2&3\\3&1&1&2\end{bmatrix}}}
Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are 8 bit bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order x 7 {\displaystyle x^{7}} . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial x 8 + x 4 + x 3 + x + 1 {\displaystyle x^{8}+x^{4}+x^{3}+x+1} . If processed bit by bit then after shifting a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in GF  ( 2 8 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2^{8})} .
In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over GF  ( 2 8 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2^{8})} and is then multiplied modulo z 4 + 1 {\displaystyle z^{4}+1} with a fixed polynomial c ( z ) = 03 16 ⋅ z 3 + z 2 + z + 02 16 {\displaystyle c(z)={03}_{16}\cdot z^{3}+z^{2}+z+{02}_{16}} . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from GF  ( 2 ) [ x ] {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2)[x]} . The MixColumns step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field GF  ( 2 8 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {GF} (2^{8})} . This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns.
The AddRoundKey step[edit]
In the AddRoundKey step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the XOR operation (⊕).
In the AddRoundKey step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR.
Optimization of the cipher[edit]
On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the SubBytes and ShiftRows steps with the MixColumns step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the AddRoundKey step.[12] Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations.
Using a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the SubBytes, ShiftRows, and MixColumns steps into a single round operation.[13]
Security[edit]
Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information:
The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.[14]
AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys.
By 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys.[15]
Known attacks[edit]
For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than a brute-force attack – i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence (see Cryptanalysis). A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against a widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006.[16]
The key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable, this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable.
AES has a fairly simple algebraic framework.[17] In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the "XSL attack", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components.[18] Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers.
During the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm "...we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications."[19] In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he did not "believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic".[20]
In 2009, a new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2119. In December 2009 it was improved to 299.5.[4] This is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 296 for one out of every 235 keys.[21] However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as a properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness.
Another attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier[22] on July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint[23] on August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 239 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 245 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 270 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks aren't effective against full AES.
The practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized,[24] for instance, by the paper on "chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle" attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010.[25]
In November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint.[26] This known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as the application of a so-called Super-Sbox. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 248, and a memory complexity of 232. 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack isn't effective against full AES-128.
The first key-recovery attacks on full AES were due to Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011.[27] The attack is a biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2126.2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2190.2 and 2254.6 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2126.0 for AES-128, 2189.9 for AES-192 and 2254.3 for AES-256,[28] which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES.
This is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128-bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128 bit key requires storing 288 bits of data (though this has later been improved to 256,[28] which is 9 petabytes). That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which is more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. As such this is a seriously impractical attack which has no practical implication on AES security.[29]
According to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES.[30]
At present, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented.
Side-channel attacks[edit]
Side-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES.
In April 2005, D.J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption.[31] The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts.[32] The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation); however, as Bernstein pointed out, "reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop the attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples."[31]
In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against AES.[33] One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES.
In December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 232.[34]
In November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described a practical approach to a "near real time" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL.[35] Like some earlier attacks this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering the root account.[36]
In March 2016, Ashokkumar C., Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a very efficient side-channel attack on AES that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions.[37] The proposed attack requires standard user privilege as previous attacks and key-retrieval algorithms run under a minute.
Many modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES, which would protect against timing-related side-channel attacks.[38][39]
NIST/CSEC validation[edit]
The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2 is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: "Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2."[40]
The Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments.
Although NIST publication 197 ("FIPS 197") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an "FIPS approved: AES" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules.
The Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP)[41] allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of the AES algorithm at a reasonable cost[citation needed]. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page.[42] This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation described below. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data.[40]
FIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally.[43] There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $30,000 US)[43] and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if the security functionality did not change to a more substantial set of re-testing if the security functionality was impacted by the change.
Test vectors[edit]
Test vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors.[n 1]
Performance[edit]
High speed and low RAM requirements were criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide variety of hardware, from 8-bit smart cards to high-performance computers.
On a Pentium Pro, AES encryption requires 18 clock cycles per byte,[44] equivalent to a throughput of about 11 MB/s for a 200 MHz processor. On a 1.7 GHz Pentium M throughput is about 60 MB/s.
On Intel Core i3/i5/i7 and AMD APU and FX CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be over 700 MB/s.[45]
Implementations[edit]
Main article: AES implementations
See also[edit]
Block cipher
Disk encryption
Distributed computing
distributed.net
Network encryption
Rijndael key schedule
Rijndael S-box
Whirlpool – hash function created by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors are available in Zip format within the NIST site here
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Key sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by the Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128, 192, and 256-bit key sizes are specified in the AES standard.
Jump up ^ Block sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by the Rijndael algorithm for each key size, but only the 128-bit block size is specified in the AES standard.
Jump up ^ "Biclique Cryptanalysis of the Full AES" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-08. Retrieved July 23, 2013. – Broken link!
^ Jump up to: a b Alex Biryukov and Dmitry Khovratovich, Related-key Cryptanalysis of the Full AES-192 and AES-256, [1]
Jump up ^ "Rijndael". Retrieved March 9, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Daemen, Joan; Rijmen, Vincent (March 9, 2003). "AES Proposal: Rijndael" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 1. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Announcing the ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD (AES)" (PDF). Federal Information Processing Standards Publication 197. United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). November 26, 2001. Retrieved October 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ John Schwartz (October 3, 2000). "U.S. Selects a New Encryption Technique". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Westlund, Harold B. (2002). "NIST reports measurable success of Advanced Encryption Standard". Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Archived from the original on 2007-11-03.
Jump up ^ "ISO/IEC 18033-3: Information technology – Security techniques – Encryption algorithms – Part 3: Block ciphers".
Jump up ^ Bruce Schneier; John Kelsey; Doug Whiting; David Wagner; Chris Hall; Niels Ferguson; Tadayoshi Kohno; et al. (May 2000). "The Twofish Team's Final Comments on AES Selection" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Efficient software implementation of AES on 32-bit platforms". Lecture Notes in Computer Science: 2523. 2003
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Jump up ^ Lynn Hathaway (June 2003). "National Policy on the Use of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) to Protect National Security Systems and National Security Information" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-15.
Jump up ^ John Kelsey, Stefan Lucks, Bruce Schneier, Mike Stay, David Wagner, and Doug Whiting, Improved Cryptanalysis of Rijndael, Fast Software Encryption, 2000 pp213–230 [2]
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Jump up ^ Niels Ferguson; Richard Schroeppel; Doug Whiting (2001). "A simple algebraic representation of Rijndael". Proceedings of Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2001, Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer-Verlag. pp. 103–111. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.28.4921  . Archived from the original (PDF/PostScript) on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
Jump up ^ Bruce Schneier, AES Announced, October 15, 2000
Jump up ^ Nikolić, Ivica (2009). "Distinguisher and Related-Key Attack on the Full AES-256". Advances in Cryptology – CRYPTO 2009. Springer Berlin / Heidelberg. pp. 231–249. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03356-8_14. ISBN 978-3-642-03355-1.
Jump up ^ Bruce Schneier (2009-07-30). "Another New AES Attack". Schneier on Security, A blog covering security and security technology. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
Jump up ^ Alex Biryukov; Orr Dunkelman; Nathan Keller; Dmitry Khovratovich; Adi Shamir (2009-08-19). "Key Recovery Attacks of Practical Complexity on AES Variants With Up To 10 Rounds". Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
Jump up ^ Agren, Martin (2012). On Some Symmetric Lightweight Cryptographic Designs. Dissertation, Lund University. pp. 38–39.
Jump up ^ Vincent Rijmen (2010). "Practical-Titled Attack on AES-128 Using Chosen-Text Relations" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Henri Gilbert; Thomas Peyrin (2009-11-09). "Super-Sbox Cryptanalysis: Improved Attacks for AES-like permutations". Retrieved 2010-03-11.
Jump up ^ Andrey Bogdanov; Dmitry Khovratovich & Christian Rechberger (2011). "Biclique Cryptanalysis of the Full AES" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Biaoshuai Tao & Hongjun Wu (2015). "Improving the Biclique Cryptanalysis of AES".
Jump up ^ Jeffrey Goldberg. "AES Encryption isn't Cracked". Retrieved 30 December 2014.
Jump up ^ SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany (28 December 2014). "Inside the NSA's War on Internet Security". SPIEGEL ONLINE. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Index of formal scientific papers". Cr.yp.to. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
Jump up ^ Bruce Schneier. "AES Timing Attack". Archived from the original on 12 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ Dag Arne Osvik; Adi Shamir; Eran Tromer (2005-11-20). "Cache Attacks and Countermeasures: the Case of AES" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-11-02.
Jump up ^ Dhiman Saha; Debdeep Mukhopadhyay; Dipanwita RoyChowdhury. "A Diagonal Fault Attack on the Advanced Encryption Standard" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
Jump up ^ Endre Bangerter; David Gullasch & Stephan Krenn (2010). "Cache Games – Bringing Access-Based Cache Attacks on AES to Practice" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Breaking AES-128 in realtime, no ciphertext required | Hacker News". News.ycombinator.com. Retrieved 2012-12-23.
Jump up ^ Ashokkumar C.; Ravi Prakash Giri; Bernard Menezes (2016). "Highly Efficient Algorithms for AES Key Retrieval in Cache Access Attacks".
Jump up ^ "Are AES x86 Cache Timing Attacks Still Feasible?" (PDF). cseweb.ucsd.edu.
Jump up ^ https://www.intel.in/content/dam/doc/white-paper/enterprise-security-aes-ni-white-paper.pdf Securing the Enterprise with Intel AES-NI
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/nstissp_11_fs.pdf
Jump up ^ "NIST.gov – Computer Security Division – Computer Security Resource Center". Csrc.nist.gov. Retrieved 2012-12-23.
Jump up ^ "Validated FIPS 140-1 and FIPS 140-2 Cryptographic Modules".
^ Jump up to: a b OpenSSL, openssl@openssl.org. "OpenSSL's Notes about FIPS certification". Openssl.org. Retrieved 2012-12-23.
Jump up ^ Schneier, Bruce; Kelsey, John; Whiting, Doug; Wagner, David; Hall, Chris; Ferguson, Niels (1999-02-01). "Performance Comparisons of the AES submissions" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-12-28.
Jump up ^ McWilliams, Grant (6 July 2011). "Hardware AES Showdown – VIA Padlock vs. Intel AES-NI vs. AMD Hexacore". Retrieved 2013-08-28.
Courtois, Nicolas; Pieprzyk, Josef (2003). "Cryptanalysis of Block Ciphers with Overdefined Systems of Equations". In Zheng, Yuliang. Advances in Cryptology — ASIACRYPT 2002: 8th International Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology and Information Security, Queenstown, New Zealand, December 1–5, 2002, Proceedings. Springer. pp. 268–287. ISBN 978-3-540-36178-7.
Daemen, Joan; Rijmen, Vincent (2002). The Design of Rijndael: AES — The Advanced Encryption Standard. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-42580-9.
Paar, Christof; Pelzl, Jan (2009). Understanding Cryptography: A Textbook for Students and Practitioners. Springer. pp. 87–122. ISBN 978-3-642-04101-3. alternate link (companion web site contains online lectures on AES)
External links[edit]
"256bit key — 128bit block — AES". Cryptography — 256 bit Ciphers: Reference source code and submissions to international cryptographic designs contests. EmbeddedSW.
"Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)" (PDF). Federal Information Processing Standards. US National Institute of Standards and Technology. 26 November 2001. doi:10.6028/NIST.FIPS.197. 197.
AES algorithm archive information – (old, unmaintained)
"Part 3: Block ciphers" (PDF). Information technology — Security techniques — Encryption algorithms (2nd ed.). ISO. 2010-12-15. ISO/IEC 18033-3:2010(E).
Animation of Rijndael – AES deeply explained and animated using Flash (by Enrique Zabala / University ORT / Montevideo / Uruguay). This animation (in English, Spanish, and German) is also part of CrypTool 1 (menu Indiv. Procedures -> Visualization of Algorithms -> AES).
Online tool for AES Encryption
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Convicts in Australia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about convicts transported to Australian penal colonies. For the Australian rules football team, see Australian Convicts.
Convicts in New Holland, 1793, by Juan Ravenet
Between 1788 and 1868, about 162,000 convicts were transported by the British government to various penal colonies in Australia.[1]
The British government began transporting convicts overseas to American colonies in the early 18th century. When transportation ended with the start of the American Revolution, an alternative site was needed to relieve further overcrowding of British prisons and hulks. Earlier in 1770, James Cook charted and claimed possession of the east coast of Australia for Britain. Seeking to pre-empt the French colonial empire from expanding into the region, Britain chose Australia as the site of a penal colony, and in 1787, the First Fleet of eleven convict ships set sail for Botany Bay, arriving on 20 January 1788 to found Sydney, New South Wales, the first European settlement on the continent. Other penal colonies were later established in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1803 and Queensland in 1824, while Western Australia, founded in 1829 as a free colony, received convicts from 1850. Victoria and South Australia remained free colonies. Penal transportation to Australia peaked in the 1830s and dropped off significantly the following decade. The last convict ship arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868.
Many convicts were transported for petty crimes, although also serious crimes, such as rape and murder, even if punishable by death, were transportable offences (a total of 148 convicted murderers and 119 convicted rapists were transported to Australia between 1833 and 1867).[2] Once emancipated, most ex-convicts stayed in Australia and joined the free settlers, with some rising to prominent positions in Australian society. However, convictism carried a social stigma, and for some later Australians, convict origins would be a source of shame. Attitudes became more accepting in the 20th century and it is now considered by many Australians to be a cause for celebration to have a convict in one's lineage. Around 20% of modern Australians are descended from transported convicts.[3] The convict era has inspired famous novels, films, and other cultural works, and the extent to which it has shaped Australia's national character has been studied by many writers and historians.[4]
Contents
1 Reasons for transportation
2 Penal settlements
2.1 New South Wales
2.2 Norfolk Island
2.3 Tasmania
2.4 Victoria
2.5 Queensland
2.6 Western Australia
3 Women
4 Political prisoners
5 Cessation of transportation
6 Legacy
6.1 Cultural depictions
7 Notable convicts transported to Australia
8 See also
9 Sources
10 References
11 External links
Reasons for transportation[edit]
Main article: Penal transportation
William Hogarth's Gin Lane, 1751
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, began rising considerably after 1740. By the time of the American Revolution, London was overcrowded, filled with the unemployed, and flooded with cheap gin.[5] Poverty, social injustice, child labor, harsh and dirty living conditions and long working hours were prevalent in 19th-century Britain. Dickens' novels perhaps best illustrate this; even some government officials were horrified by what they saw. Only in 1833 and 1844 were the first general laws against child labour (the Factory Acts) passed in the United Kingdom.[6] Crime had become a major problem and in 1784 a French observer noted that "from sunset to dawn the environs of London became the patrimony of brigands for twenty miles around."[7]
Prison hulks in the River Thames
Each parish had a watchman, but British cities did not have police forces in the modern sense. Jeremy Bentham avidly promoted the idea of a circular prison, but the penitentiary was seen by many government officials as a peculiar American concept. Virtually all malefactors were caught by informers or denounced to the local court by their victims.[citation needed] Pursuant to the so-called "Bloody Code", by the 1770s there were 222 crimes in Britain which carried the death penalty,[8] almost all of which were crimes against property. These included such offences as the stealing of goods worth over 5 shillings, the cutting down of a tree, the theft of an animal, even the theft of a rabbit from a warren.
The Industrial Revolution led to an increase in petty crime due to the economic displacement of much of the population, building pressure on the government to find an alternative to confinement in overcrowded gaols. The situation was so dire that hulks left over from the Seven Years' War were used as makeshift floating prisons.[9] Eight of every 10 prisoners were in jail for theft. The Bloody Code was gradually rescinded in the 1800s because judges and juries considered its punishments too harsh. Since lawmakers still wanted punishments to deter potential criminals, they increasingly applied transportation as a more humane alternative to execution.[10] Transportation had been employed as a punishment for both major and petty crimes since the seventeenth century. Around 60,000 convicts were transported to the British colonies in North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Transportation to the Americas ceased following Britain's defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The number of convicts transported to North America is not verified although it has been estimated to be 50,000 by John Dunmore Lang and 120,000 by Thomas Keneally. The British American colony of Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province.[11]
Penal settlements[edit]
New South Wales[edit]
Main article: History of New South Wales
The First Fleet arrives in Botany Bay, 21 January 1788, by William Bradley (1802)
The Costume of the Australasians by Edward Charles Close shows ten figures including the Governor’s aide-de-camp Lt John Watts; an officer; soldier; a bandsman of the 73rd Regiment, a wealthy colonial figure and convicts on government service.
Alternatives to the American colonies were investigated and the newly discovered and mapped East Coast of New Holland was proposed. The details provided by James Cook during his expedition to the South Pacific in 1770 made it the most suitable.
On 18 August 1786 the decision was made to send a colonisation party of convicts, military, and civilian personnel to Botany Bay under the command of Admiral Arthur Phillip who was to be the Governor of the new colony. There were 775 convicts on board six transport ships. They were accompanied by officials, members of the crew, marines, the families thereof and their own children who together totaled 645. In all, eleven ships were sent in what became known as the First Fleet. Other than the convict transports, there were two naval escorts and three storeships. The fleet assembled in Portsmouth and set sail on 13 May 1787.[12]
The fleet arrived at Botany Bay on 20 January 1788. It soon became clear that it would not be suitable for the establishment of a colony due to "the openness of this bay, and the dampness of the soil, by which the people would probably be rendered unhealthy" and Philip decided to examine Port Jackson, a bay mentioned by Captain Cook, about three leagues to the north. On 22 January a small expedition led by Phillips sailed to Port Jackson, arriving in the early afternoon:[12]
Here all regret arising from the former disappointments was at once obliterated; and Governor Phillip had the satisfaction to find one of the finest harbours in the world, in which a thousand sail of the line might ride in perfect security. The different coves of this harbour were examined with all possible expedition, and the preference was given to one which had the finest spring of water, and in which ships can anchor so close to the shore, that at a very small expence quays may be constructed at which the largest vessels may unload. This cove is about half a mile in length, and a quarter of a mile across at the entrance. In honour of Lord Sydney, the Governor distinguished it by the name of Sydney Cove.[12]
There they established the first permanent European colony on the Australian continent, New South Wales, on 26 January. The area has since developed into the city of Sydney. This date is still celebrated as Australia Day.
There was initially a high mortality rate amongst the members of the first fleet due mainly to shortages of food. The ships carried only enough food to provide for the settlers until they could establish agriculture in the region. Unfortunately, there were an insufficient number of skilled farmers and domesticated livestock to do this, and the colony waited for the arrival of the Second Fleet. The "Memorandoms" by James Martin (convict) provide a contemporary account of the events as seen by a convict on the first fleet.[13] The second fleet was an unprecedented disaster that provided little in the way of help and upon its delivery in June 1790 of still more sick and dying convicts, which actually worsened the situation in Port Jackson.
Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Bourke was the ninth Governor of the Colony of New South Wales between 1831 and 1837. Appalled by the excessive punishments doled out to convicts, Bourke passed 'The Magistrates Act', which limited the sentence a magistrate could pass to fifty lashes (previously there was no such limit). Bourke's administration was controversial, and furious magistrates and employers petitioned the crown against this interference with their legal rights, fearing that a reduction in punishments would cease to provide enough deterrence to the convicts.
Bourke, however, was not dissuaded from his reforms and continued to create controversy within the colony by combating the inhumane treatment handed out to convicts, including limiting the number of convicts each employer was allowed to seventy, as well as granting rights to freed convicts, such as allowing the acquisition of property and service on juries. It has been argued that the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840[14] can be attributed to the actions of Bourke and other men like Australian-born lawyer William Charles Wentworth. It took another 10 years, but transportation to the colony of New South Wales was finally officially abolished on 1 October 1850.[15]
If a convict was well behaved, the convict could be given a ticket of leave, granting some freedom. At the end of the convict's sentence, seven years in most cases, the convict was issued with a Certificate of Freedom. He was then free to become a settler or to return to England. Convicts who misbehaved, however, were often sent to a place of secondary punishment like Port Arthur, Tasmania or Norfolk Island, where they would suffer additional punishment and solitary confinement.
Norfolk Island[edit]
Main article: History of Norfolk Island
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2015)
Norfolk Island military barracks
Within a month of the arrival of the First Fleet at Sydney Cove, a group of convicts and free settlers were sent to take control of Norfolk Island, a small island 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) east of the coast of New South Wales. More convicts were sent, and many of them proved to be unruly; early 1789 saw a failed attempt to overthrow Lieutenant Philip Gidley King, the island's commandant. This was followed by the wreck of HMS Sirius on one of the island's reefs while attempting to land stores.
Tasmania[edit]
Main article: History of Tasmania
Penitentiary at the Port Arthur convict settlement, Tasmania
In 1803, a British expedition was sent from Sydney to Tasmania (then known as Van Diemen's Land) to establish a new penal colony there. The small party, led by Lt. John Bowen, established a settlement at Risdon Cove, on the eastern side of the Derwent River. Originally sent to Port Philip, but abandoned within weeks, another expedition led by Lieutenant-Colonel David Collins arrived soon after. Collins considered the Risdon Cove site inadequate, and in 1804 he established an alternative settlement on the western side of the river at Sullivan's Cove, Tasmania. This later became known as Hobart, and the original settlement at Risdon Cove was deserted. Collins became the first Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land.
When the convict station on Norfolk Island was abandoned in 1807-1808, the remaining convicts and free settlers were transported to Hobart and allocated land for re-settlement. However, as the existing small population was already experiencing difficulties producing enough food, the sudden doubling of the population was almost catastrophic.
Starting in 1816, more free settlers began arriving from Great Britain. On 3 December 1825 Tasmania was declared a colony separate from New South Wales, with a separate administration.
Macquarie Harbour Penal Station, depicted by convict artist William Buelow Gould, 1833
The Macquarie Harbour penal colony on the West Coast of Tasmania was established in 1820 to exploit the valuable timber Huon Pine growing there for furniture making and shipbuilding. Macquarie Harbour had the added advantage of being almost impossible to escape from, most attempts ending with the convicts either drowning, dying of starvation in the bush, or (on at least two occasions) turning cannibal. Convicts sent to this settlement had usually re-offended during their sentence of transportation, and were treated very harshly, labouring in cold and wet weather, and subjected to severe corporal punishment for minor infractions.
In 1830, the Port Arthur penal settlement was established to replace Macquarie Harbour, as it was easier to maintain regular communications by sea. Although known in popular history as a particularly harsh prison, in reality its management was far more humane than Macquarie Harbour or the outlying stations of New South Wales. Experimentation with the so-called model prison system took place in Port Arthur. Solitary confinement was the preferred method of punishment.
Many changes were made to the manner in which convicts were handled in the general population, largely responsive to British public opinion on the harshness of their treatment. Until the late 1830s most convicts were either retained by Government for public works or assigned to private individuals as a form of indentured labour. From the early 1840s the Probation System was employed, where convicts spent an initial period, usually two years, in public works gangs on stations outside of the main settlements, then were freed to work for wages within a set district.
Transportation to Tasmania ended in 1853 (see section below on Cessation of Transportation).
Victoria[edit]
William Buckley's transportation and escape to live with the Wathaurong in 1803, as depicted by 19th-century Aboriginal artist Tommy McRae.
In 1803 two ships arrived in Port Phillip, which Lt. John Murray in the Lady Nelson had discovered and named the previous year. The Calcutta under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Collins transported 300 convicts, accompanied by the supply ship Ocean. Collins had previously been Judge Advocate with the First Fleet in 1788. He chose Sullivan Bay near the present-day Sorrento, Victoria for the first settlement - some 90 km south of present-day Melbourne. About two months later the settlement was abandoned due to poor soil and water shortages and Collins moved the convicts to Hobart. Several convicts had escaped into the bush and were left behind to unknown fates with the local aboriginal people. One such convict, the subsequently celebrated William Buckley, lived in the western side of Port Phillip for the next 32 years before approaching the new settlers and assisting as an interpreter for the indigenous peoples.
A second settlement was established at Westernport Bay, on the site of present-day Corinella, in November 1826. It comprised an initial 20 soldiers and 22 convicts, with another 12 convicts arriving subsequently. This settlement was abandoned in February 1828, and all convicts returned to Sydney.[16]
The Port Phillip District was officially sanctioned in 1837 following the landing of the Henty brothers in Portland Bay in 1834, and John Batman settled on the site of Melbourne.
Between 1844 and 1849 about 1,750 convicts arrived there from England. They were referred to either as "Exiles" or the "Pentonvillians" because most of them came from Pentonville Probationary Prison. Unlike earlier convicts who were required to work for the government or on hire from penal depots, the Exiles were free to work for pay, but could not leave the district to which they were assigned. The Port Phillip District was still part of New South Wales at this stage. Victoria separated from New South Wales and became an independent colony in 1851.
Queensland[edit]
Main article: History of Queensland
In 1823 John Oxley sailed north from Sydney to inspect Port Curtis and Moreton Bay as possible sites for a penal colony. At Moreton Bay he found the Brisbane River, which Cook had guessed would exist, and explored the lower part of it. In September 1824, he returned with soldiers and established a temporary settlement at Redcliffe. On 2 December 1824, the settlement was transferred to where the Central Business District (CBD) of Brisbane now stands. The settlement was at first called Edenglassie. In 1839 transportation of convicts to Moreton Bay ceased and the Brisbane penal settlement was closed. In 1842 free settlement was permitted and people began to colonize the area voluntarily. On 6 June 1859 Queensland became a colony separate from New South Wales.
Western Australia[edit]
Main article: Convict era of Western Australia
Fremantle Prison gatehouse. The prison was built by convict labour in the 1850s.
Although a convict-supported settlement was established in Western Australia from 1826 to 1831, direct transportation of convicts did not begin until 1850. It continued until 1868. During that period, 9,668 convicts were transported on 43 convict ships. The first convicts to arrive were transported to New South Wales, and sent by that colony to King George Sound (Albany) in 1826 to help establish a settlement there. At that time the western third of Australia was unclaimed land known as New Holland. Fears that France would lay claim to the land prompted the Governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, to send Major Edmund Lockyer, with troops and 23 convicts, to establish a settlement at King George Sound. Lockyer's party arrived on Christmas Day, 1826. A convict presence was maintained at the settlement for over four years. On 7 March 1831 control of the settlement was transferred to the Swan River Colony, and the troops and convicts were withdrawn.[17]
In April 1848, Charles Fitzgerald, Governor of Western Australia, petitioned Britain to send convicts to his state because of labor shortages. Britain rejected sending fixed term convicts, but offered to send first offenders in the final years of their terms.
Most convicts in Western Australia spent very little time in prison. Those who were stationed at Fremantle were housed in the Convict Establishment, the colony's convict prison, and misbehaviour was punished by stints there. The majority, however, were stationed in other parts of the colony. Although there was no convict assignment in Western Australia, there was a great demand for public infrastructure throughout the colony, so that many convicts were stationed in remote areas. Initially, most offenders were set to work creating infrastructure for the convict system, including the construction of the Convict Establishment itself.
In 1852 a Convict Depot was built at Albany, but closed 3 years later. When shipping increased the Depot was re-opened. Most of the convicts had their Ticket-of-Leave and were hired to work by the free settlers. Convicts also manned the pilot boat, rebuilt York Street and Stirling Terrace; and the track from Albany to Perth was made into a good road. An Albany newspaper noted their commendable behaviour and wrote, "There were instances in which our free settlers might take an example".
Western Australia's convict era came to an end with the cessation of penal transportation by Britain. In May 1865, the colony was advised of the change in British policy, and told that Britain would send one convict ship in each of the years 1865, 1866 and 1867, after which transportation would cease. In accordance with this, the last convict ship to Western Australia, the Hougoumont, left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868.
Women[edit]
Main article: Convict Women in Australia
Approximately 20% of the transportees were women. For protection, most quickly attached themselves to male officers or convicts. Although they were routinely referred to as courtesans, relatively few had been prostitutes in England as prostitution, like murder, was not a transportable offence.[18][citation needed]
Political prisoners[edit]
Painting of the 1804 Castle Hill convict rebellion
Fenian convicts escape from Fremantle in the 1876 Catalpa rescue.
Political prisoners made up a small proportion of convicts. They arrived in waves corresponding to political unrest in Britain and Ireland. They included the First Scottish Martyrs in 1794; British Naval Mutineers (from the Nore Mutiny) in 1797 and 1801; Irish rebels in 1798, 1803, 1848 and 1868; Scots Rebels (1820); Yorkshire Rebels (1820 and 1822); leaders of the Merthyr Tydfil rising of 1831; the Tolpuddle Martyrs (1834); Swing Rioters and Luddites (1828–1833); American and French-Canadian prisoners from the Upper Canada rebellion and Lower Canada Rebellion (1839), and Chartists (1842).[19]
Cessation of transportation[edit]
With increasing numbers of free settlers entering New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) by the mid-1830s, opposition to the transportation of felons into the colonies grew. The most influential spokesmen were newspaper proprietors who were also members of the Independent Congregation Church such as John Fairfax in Sydney and the Reverend John West in Launceston, who argued against convicts both as competition to honest free labourers and as the source of crime and vice within the colony. Bishop Bernard Ullathorne, a Catholic prelate who had been in Australia since 1832 returned for a visit to England in 1835. While there he was called upon by the government to give evidence before a Parliamentary Commission on the evils of transportation, and at their request wrote and submitted a tract on the subject. His views in conjunction with others in the end prevailed. The anti-transportation movement was seldom concerned with the inhumanity of the system, but rather the hated stain it was believed to inflict on the free (non-emancipist) middle classes.
Transportation to New South Wales ended in 1840, by which time some 150,000 convicts had been sent to the colonies. The sending of convicts to Brisbane in its Moreton Bay district had ceased the previous year, and administration of Norfolk Island was later transferred to Van Diemen's Land.
The continuation of transportation to Van Diemen's Land saw the rise of a well-coordinated anti-transportation movement, especially following a severe economic depression in the early 1840s. Transportation was temporarily suspended in 1846 but soon revived with overcrowding of British gaols and clamour for the availability of transportation as a deterrent. By the late 1840s most convicts being sent to Van Diemen's Land (plus those to Victoria) were designated as "exiles" and were free to work for pay while under sentence. In 1850 the Australasian Anti-Transportation League was formed to lobby for the permanent cessation of transportation, its aims being furthered by the commencement of the Australian gold rushes the following year. The last convict ship to be sent from England, the St. Vincent, arrived in 1853, and on 10 August Jubilee festivals in Hobart and Launceston celebrated 50 years of European settlement with the official end of transportation.
Transportation continued in small numbers to Western Australia. The last convict ship, the Hougoumont, left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Western Australia on 10 January 1868. In all, about 164,000 convicts were transported to the Australian colonies between 1788 and 1868 on board 806 ships. Convicts were made up of English and Welsh (70%), Irish (24%), Scottish (5%) and the remaining 1% from the British outposts in India and Canada, Maoris from New Zealand, Chinese from Hong Kong and slaves from the Caribbean.
Only South Australia and the Northern Territory had never accepted convicts directly from England but they still accepted ex-convicts from the other states. Many convicts were allowed to travel as far as New Zealand to make a new life after being given limited freedom, even if they were not allowed to return home to England. At this time the Australian population was approximately 1 million and the colonies could now sustain themselves without the need for convict labour.[20]
Legacy[edit]
In 2010, UNESCO inscribed 11 Australian Convict Sites on its World Heritage List. The listing recognises the sites as "the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts."[21]
Cultural depictions[edit]
Marcus Clarke (c. 1866), author of For the Term of His Natural Life, Australia's most famous convict novel
Convict Alexander Pearce has inspired three feature films (drawings by convict Thomas Bock, 1824).
Convict George Barrington is (perhaps apocryphally) recorded as having written the prologue for the first theatrical play performed by convicts in Australia, one year after the First Fleet's arrival. It is known as "Our Country's Good", based on the now-famous closing stanza:
From distant climes, o'er wide-spread seas, we come,
Though not with much éclat or beat of drum,
True patriots all: for, be it understood:
We left our country for our country's good.
The poems of Frank the Poet are among the few surviving literary works done by a convict while still incarcerated. His best-known work is "A Convict's Tour of Hell". A version of the convict ballad "Moreton Bay", detailing the brutal punishments meted out by commandment Patrick Logan and his death at the hands of Aborigines, is also attributed to Frank. Other convict ballads include "Jim Jones at Botany Bay". The ballad "Botany Bay", which describes the sadness felt by convicts forced to leave their loved ones in England, was written at least 40 years after the end of transportation.
Perhaps the most famous convict in all of fiction is Abel Magwitch, a main character of Charles Dickens' 1861 novel Great Expectations. The most famous convict novel is Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), followed by John Boyle O'Reilly's Moondyne (1879). The Broad Arrow by Caroline Woolmer Leakey was one of the first novels to depict the convict experience, and one of the only to feature a female convict as its protagonist (Marcus Clarke drew on Leakey's book in writing For the Term of His Natural Life).[22] Thomas Keneally explores the convict era in his novels Bring Larks and Heroes (1967) and The Playmaker (1987). Convicts feature heavily in Patrick White's take on the Eliza Fraser story, the 1976 novel A Fringe of Leaves. Convictism is canvassed in Bryce Courtenay's "Australian trilogy": The Potato Factory (1995), Tommo & Hawk (1997) and Solomon's Song (1999). The title character of Peter Carey's 1997 novel Jack Maggs is a reworking of Dickens' Magwitch character. Many modern works of Tasmanian Gothic focus on the state's convict past, including Gould's Book of Fish (2001) by Richard Flanagan, a fictionalised account of convict artist William Buelow Gould's imprisonment at Macquarie Harbour. Kate Grenville based the novel The Secret River (2005) on the life of her convict ancestor Solomon Wiseman.
Along with bushrangers and other stock characters of colonial life, convicts were a popular subject during Australia's silent film era. The first convict film was a 1908 adaptiation of Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life, shot on location at Port Arthur with an unheard-of budget of £7000.[23] This was followed by two more films inspired by Clarke's novel: The Life of Rufus Dawes (1911), which draws on Alfred Dampier's stage production of His Natural Life, and the landmark For the Term of His Natural Life (1927), one of the most expensive silent films ever made.[23] W. J. Lincoln directed many convict melodramas including It Is Never Too Late to Mend (1911), an adaptation of Charles Reade's 1856 novel about cruelties of the convict system; Moodyne (1913), based on John Boyle O'Reilly's novel; and Transported (1913). Other early titles include Sentenced for Life, The Mark of the Lash, One Hundred Years Ago, The Lady Outlaw and The Assigned Servant, all released in 1911. Few convict films were made after 1930; even the Australian New Wave of the 1970s, with its emphasis on Australia's colonial past, largely avoided the convict era in favour of nostalgic period pieces set in the bush around the time of Federation. One exception is Journey Among Women (1977), a feminist imagining of what life was like for convict women.[23] Alexander Pearce, the infamous Tasmanian convict and cannibal, is the inspiration for The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce (2008), Dying Breed (2008) and Van Diemen's Land (2009).
Notable convicts transported to Australia[edit]
See also: List of convicts transported to Australia
George Barrington
William 'Billy' Blue, Jamaican convict, Sydney, 1834, J. B. East
Francis Howard Greenway, 1814-1837, unknown artist, pencil drawing
Jørgen Jørgensen
Moondyne Joe
Esther Abrahams – British Jew, who was one of the Jewish convicts (about 1,000 in all) and common law wife of a leader of the Rum Rebellion.
Samuel Barsby – first convict to be flogged[24]
Joseph Backler - transported for passing forged cheques, became a colonial painter
Billy Blue – black man from Jamaica, New York, established a ferry service
James Blackburn – Famous for contribution to Australian architecture and civil engineering
William Bland – naval surgeon transported for killing a man in a duel; he prospered and was involved in philanthropy, and had a seat in the legislative assembly.[25]
Mary Bryant – famous escapee
William Buckley – famously escaped and lived with Aboriginal people for many years
John Cadman – had been a publican, as a convict became Superintendent of Boats in Sydney; Cadmans Cottage is a cottage granted to him.
Martin Cash – Famous escapee and bushranger
William Chopin – a convict whose work in prison hospitals in Western Australia grounded him in chemistry; on receiving a ticket of leave he was appointed chemist at the Colonial Hospital, but preferred to open his own chemist shop. He was later convicted as an abortionist.
Daniel Connor – sentenced to seven years transportation for sheep stealing, became successful merchant, by the 1890s one of the largest landowners in central Perth.
Daniel Cooper – successful merchant.
William Cuffay (convict and tailor) – Black London Chartist leader who became an important workers' rights leader in Hobart.
John Davies – co-founded The Mercury newspaper.
Margaret Dawson – First Fleeter, "founding mother"
John Eyre – painter and engraver
William Field – notable Tasmanian businessman and landowner
Francis Greenway – famous Australian architect
William Henry Groom – successful auctioneer and politician, served in the inaugural Australian Parliament.
Laurence Hynes Halloran – founded Sydney Grammar School.
William Hutchinson – public servant and pastoralist.
John Irving – doctor transported on First Fleet, was the first convict to receive an absolute pardon.
Mark Jeffrey – wrote famous autobiography
Jørgen Jørgensen – eccentric Danish adventurer influenced by revolutionary ideas who declared himself ruler of Iceland, later became a spy in Britain.
Henry Kable – First Fleet convict, arrived with wife and son (Susannah Holmes, also a convict, and Henry) filed 1st lawsuit in Australia, became wealthy businessman
Lawrence Kavenagh – notorious bushranger
John "Red" Kelly – Irish convict and father of bushranger Ned Kelly
Solomon Levey – wealthy merchant, endowed Sydney Grammar School.
Simeon Lord – pioneer merchant and magistrate in Australia
Nathaniel Lucas – one of the first convicts on Norfolk Island, where he became Master carpenter, later farmed successfully, built windmills, and was Superintendent of carpenters in Sydney.
John Mitchel – Irish nationalist
Francis "Frank the Poet" McNamara – composer of various oral convict ballads, including The Convict's Tour to Hell
John Boyle O'Reilly
John Mortlock – former marine
Thomas Muir – convicted of sedition for advocating parliamentary reform; escaped from N.S.W and after many vicissitudes made his way to revolutionary France.
Isaac Nichols – entrepreneur, first Postmaster
Kevin Izod O'Doherty – Medical student, Young Irelander who was transported for treason.
Robert Palin – once in Australia, committed further crimes, and managed to be executed for a non-capital offence
Alexander Pearce – cannibal escapee
Joseph Potaskie – first Pole to come to Australia.
William Smith O'Brien – famous Irish revolutionary; sent to Van Diemen's Land in 1849 after leading a rebellion in Tipperary
John Boyle O'Reilly – Famous escapee, poet and writer; author of Moondyne
William Redfern – one of the few surgeon convicts
Mary Reibey – operated a fleet of ships
James Ruse – successful farmer
Henry Savery – Australia's first novelist; author of Quintus Servinton
Robert Sidaway – opened Australia's first theatre
James Squire – English Romanichal (Romany) – First Fleet convict and Australia's first brewer and cultivator of hops.
Joseph Sullivan – sentenced to fourteen years transportation for stealing, then killed for murdering his master and the other convicts in the area.
William Sykes – historically interesting because he left a brief diary and a bundle of letters.
John Tawell – served his sentence, became a prosperous chemist, returned to England after 15 years, and after some time murdered a mistress, for which he was hanged.
Samuel Terry – wealthy merchant and philanthropist.
James Hardy Vaux – author of Australia's first full length autobiography and dictionary.
Mary Wade – Youngest female convict transported to Australia (11 years of age) who had 21 children and at the time of her death had over 300 living descendants.
Joseph Wild – explorer
Solomon Wiseman – merchant and operated ferry on Hawkesbury River hence town name Wisemans Ferry.
See also[edit]
British prison hulks
Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania
Convict era of Western Australia
Convict assignment
Convict ships to New South Wales
Convict women in Australia
Convict hulk
Cyprus mutiny
French ship Neptune (1818)
First Fleet
List of convicts on the First Fleet
Port Arthur, Tasmania
Transport Board (Royal Navy)
Unfree labour
Sources[edit]
Alan Frost, Botany Bay: The Real Story, Collingwood, Black Inc, 2011, ISBN 978-1-86395-512-6
Alexander, Alison. Editor. The Companion to Tasmanian History. Hobart, 2005. ISBN 1-86295-223-X
Barnard, Simon, A-Z of Convicts in Van Diemen’s Land, Text Publishing, Melbourne, 2014. ISBN 9781922079343
Barnard, Simon, Convict Tattoos: Marked Men and Women of Australia, famous convicts seem to thank Miss Zoe Nguyen for their fame., Text Publishing, Melbourne, 2016. ISBN 9781925410235
Bateson, Charles, The Convict Ships, 1787–1868, Sydney, 1974.
Boyce, James, Van Diemen's Land, Black Inc, Melbourne, 2008. ISBN 9781863954914
Pardons & Punishments: Judge's Reports on Criminals, 1783 to 1830: HO (Home Office) 47, volumes 304 & 305, List and Index Society, The National Archives, Kew, England, TW9 4DU
Gillen, Mollie, The Founders of Australia: a biographical dictionary of the First Fleet, Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1989.
Gordon Greenwood, Australia: A Social and Political History, Angus and Robertson 1955.
Hughes, Robert, The Fatal Shore, London, Pan, 1988.
A Pictorial History of Australia, Rex & Thea Rienits, Hamlyn Publishing group, 1969.
Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish, Closing Hell's Gates: The Death of a Convict Station, Allen and Unwin, 2008. ISBN 9781741751499
Robson, Lloyd. History of Tasmania, 2 Volumes.
Edward Shann, An Economic History of Australia, Georgian House 1930.
John West, History of Tasmania, 1852
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Convicts and the British colonies in Australia". Government of Australia.
Jump up ^ "Crimes of Convicts transported to Australia". Convict Records. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
Jump up ^ "Online records highlight Australia's convict past", ABC News (25 July 2007). Retrieved 21 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Hirst, John (July 2008). "An Oddity From the Start: Convicts and National Character", The Monthly. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "BBC News - Booze". BBC.
Jump up ^ Del Col, Laura (1988). "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Ninteenth-Century [sic] England". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Highes, ibid, p. 28
Jump up ^ Part I: History of the Death Penalty Archived 27 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Floating Prison: British Prison Hulks". Gould Genealogy & History.
Jump up ^ By the Gallows Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Butler, James Davie (1896). "British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies". The American Historical Review. 2 (1): 12–33. doi:10.2307/1833611. JSTOR 1833611.
^ Jump up to: a b c Phillip, Arthur (1789). The Voyage Of Governor Phillip To Botany Bay With An Account Of The Establishment Of The Colonies Of Port Jackson and Norfolk Island (1789). Retrieved 31 January 2015.
Jump up ^ A free download of Memorandoms by James Martin, Edited by Tim Causer, UCL Press, ISBN 978-1-911576-81-5.
Jump up ^ bpwxhtml0508. "Tocal's convict 1822-1840". Tocal.
Jump up ^ Convicts Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Westernport Settlement of 1826–28"
Jump up ^ "King George's Sound Settlement". State Records. State Records Authority of New South Wales. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Hughes, ibid, p372
Jump up ^ "Convicts To Australia ... Research Guide - Political Prisoners". Convicts to Australia.
Jump up ^ "Convicts and the British colonies in Australia". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007.
Jump up ^ "Australian Convict Sites". World Heritage List. UNESCO. 2010. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Henry), Wilde, W. H. (William (1994). The Oxford companion to Australian literature. Hooton, Joy W., Andrews, B. G., 1943-1987. (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019553381X. OCLC 32470151.
^ Jump up to: a b c Byrnes, Paul. Prisons on Film, Australian Screen. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Kirby, Michael review of Collins, the Courts and The Colony, UNSW Press, 1996. on Law and Justice Foundation of New South Wales website
Jump up ^ D. Richards 'Transported to New South Wales: medical convicts 1788–1850' British Medical Journal Vol 295, 19–26 December 1987, p. 1609
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to convicts.
Searchable database of 123,000+ British Convicts sent to Australia - GenDatabase.com
Family History Convicts Research Guide – State Library of New South Wales
Convict life – State Library of New South Wales
Australian Convict Transportation Registers
The National Archives (UK)
Convict Transportation Registers database
The Albany Historical Society
Convict Queenslanders
Thomas J. Nevin's photographs of Tasmanian convicts 1870s at the State Library of Tasmania
Thomas J. Nevin's photographs of Tasmanian convicts at the National Library of Australia
Visualisation of the British Convict Transportation Registry
The Convict Stockade
"Convicts and the British Colonies". Australian Government. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
State Records NSW (2010). "Order-in-Council ending transportation to New South Wales, 22 May 1840". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 2 October 2015. [CC-By-SA]
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Popular culture
Music
"Botany Bay"
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Film
For the Term of His Natural Life (1908)
The Assigned Servant (1911)
It Is Never Too Late to Mend (1911)
The Lady Outlaw (1911)
The Life of Rufus Dawes (1911)
The Mark of the Lash (1911)
One Hundred Years Ago (1911)
The Romantic Story of Margaret Catchpole (1911)
Sentenced for Life (1911)
Moondyne (1913)
Transported (1913)
The Tenth Straw (1926)
For the Term of His Natural Life (1927)
To New Shores (1937)
Red Sky at Morning (1944)
Under Capricorn (1949)
Botany Bay (1953)
Adam's Woman (1970)
Journey Among Women (1977)
The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant (2005)
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Van Diemen's Land (2009)
The Nightingale (2017)
Television
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For the Term of His Natural Life (1983)
Banished (2015)
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Literature
Journals of the First Fleet
It's Never Too Late to Mend (1856)
Great Expectations (1861)
For the Term of His Natural Life (1872)
Moondyne (1879)
Bring Larks and Heroes (1967)
A Fringe of Leaves (1973)
The Playmaker (1987)
Remembering Babylon (1993)
The Potato Factory (1995)
Jack Maggs (1997)
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Our Country's Good (1988)
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