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Grand Slam (golf)
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The Grand Slam in professional golf is winning all of golf's major championships in the same calendar year.
Contents
[hide]
1 The Men's Grand Slam
1.1 Career Grand Slam
1.1.1 Pre-Masters era
1.1.2 Masters era
1.1.2.1 Men's missing major
2 The Women's Grand Slam
2.1 Women's Career Grand Slam
2.1.1 Super Grand Slam
2.1.2 Titleholders/Western Open era
2.1.3 du Maurier Classic era
2.1.4 Women's British Open Championship era
2.1.5 The Evian Championship era
2.1.5.1 Women's missing major
3 The Senior Grand Slam
4 See also
5 Notes and references
The Men's Grand Slam[edit]
Bobby Jones, who won the pre-Masters era Career Grand Slam once, and is the only golfer all-time to have won four majors in the same calendar year.
The Grand Slam in men's golf is an unofficial term used to describe a golfer who wins all four major championships in a calendar year.
In the modern era, the Grand Slam requires victories at the Masters Tournament, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship (also known as the British Open), and the PGA Championship in a single calendar year.
Prior to the creation of the Masters Tournament, the national amateur championships of the U.S. and the UK were considered major championships. During that earlier era, the Grand Slam comprised consecutive victories at the U.S. Amateur, British Amateur along with the U.S. Open and the Open Championship (the British Open).
Only Bobby Jones has ever completed a Grand Slam. No man has ever achieved a modern era Grand Slam. Tiger Woods won all four events major events consecutively within a 365-day period, but his victories were spread over two calendar years.
The term also refers to a former tour tournament, the PGA Grand Slam of Golf, an annual off-season tournament (that was cancelled after the 2014 tournament) contested by the winners of the four major championships.
In annual playing order, the modern major championships are:
April - Masters Tournament (weekend ending on the 2nd Sunday in April) - hosted as an invitational by and played at Augusta National Golf Club
June - U.S. Open (weekend ending on the 3rd Sunday in June) - hosted by the USGA and played at various locations in the USA
July - The Open Championship ("The Open", sometimes called "the British Open" outside the UK) (weekend containing the 3rd Friday in July) - hosted by The R&A and always played on a links course at various locations in the UK
August - PGA Championship (USPGA) (3rd weekend prior to Labor Day weekend) - hosted by the PGA of America and played at various locations in the USA.
The term "Grand Slam" was first applied to Bobby Jones' achievement of winning the four major golf events of 1930: The Open Championship, the U.S. Open, the U.S. Amateur and the British Amateur. When Jones won all four, the sports world searched for ways to capture the magnitude of his accomplishment. Up to that time, there was no term to describe such a feat because no one had thought it possible. The Atlanta Journal's O. B. Keeler dubbed it the "Grand Slam," borrowing a bridge term. George Trevor of the New York Sun wrote that Jones had "stormed the impregnable quadrilateral of golf." Keeler would later write the words that would forever be linked to one of the greatest individual accomplishments in the history of sports:
This victory, the fourth major title in the same season and in the space of four months, had now and for all time entrenched Bobby Jones safely within the 'Impregnable Quadrilateral of Golf,' that granite fortress that he alone could take by escalade, and that others may attack in vain, forever.
Jones remains the only man to have achieved the Grand Slam, since before the creation of The Masters and the advent of the professional era, the amateur championships were considered major championships.
Jack Nicklaus won the Career Grand Slam three times
Tiger Woods won the Career Grand Slam three times
The modern definition could not be applied until at least 1934, when the Masters was founded, and still carried little weight in 1953 when Ben Hogan won the Masters, U.S. Open, and Open Championship. That year, it was impossible to win all four as the PGA Championship preceded and overlapped with the Open Championship; the PGA's 36-hole match play semifinals and finals near Detroit were the same days as the mandatory 36-hole qualifier at Carnoustie in Scotland for the Open Championship; the only way to compete in both events was to lose an early match at the PGA. Hogan is the only player to have won the Masters, U.S. Open, and Open Championship in the same calendar year.
In 1960, Arnold Palmer won the Masters in April and U.S. Open in June. According to his autobiography, A Golfer's Life, he and his friend Bob Drum (of the Pittsburgh Press), while on the trans-Atlantic flight to The Open Championship at St Andrews, came up with the idea that adding it and the PGA Championship titles that July would constitute a modern Grand Slam. Drum spread the notion among the gathered media and it caught on.[1] Two years earlier, the PGA had changed to stroke play, and it started to be held two weeks after the Open Championship in 1960. Scheduling problems continued through the 1960s as the last two majors were held in successive weeks in July on five occasions. The PGA was played in August in 1965 but returned to July for the next three. With the formation of the Tournament Players Division in late 1968, now the PGA Tour, the PGA Championship permanently moved to August in 1969, except for the 1971 edition, held in late February to avoid the summer heat of Florida.
Tiger Woods came closest to meeting the modern definition of golf's Grand Slam by holding all four modern major championships simultaneously — the U.S. Open, Open Championship, and PGA Championship in 2000 and the 2001 Masters — although not in the same calendar year. This has been referred to as a Consecutive Grand Slam or, after the only player to achieve it, a Tiger Slam. In other sports with a four-major format, it is referred as a Non-calendar year Grand Slam, based on a 1982 decision.[2] In fact, even before Woods accomplished this, there was much debate over the definition of "Grand Slam." Fred Couples said, "I don't know how I can put it more simply . . . if he wins all four, it's a Slam." As noted above, however, because there is no official definition, there is no definitive answer.
Only five golfers have won all four of golf's modern majors at any time during their careers, an achievement which is often referred to as a Career Grand Slam: Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods. Woods and Nicklaus have won each of the four majors at least three times.
A number of dominant players of their eras have failed to achieve the Career Grand Slam because of their inability to win a particular major. Sam Snead and Phil Mickelson (through 2017) failed to win a U.S. Open; Arnold Palmer and Tom Watson failed to win a PGA Championship; Lee Trevino and Rory McIlroy (through 2017) failed to win The Masters; Byron Nelson and Raymond Floyd failed to win the Open Championship, at which the former competed only once. These shortcomings have been attributed to various factors: a particular major is ill-suited to a player's game (this was cited especially with regard to Trevino and The Masters); the player lacked the ability to fully adapt to that major; the player simply experienced bad luck (Mickelson finished second a record six times at the U.S. Open); or war had led to the cancellation of a major during the player's prime.
Career Grand Slam[edit]
Ben Hogan won a Career Grand Slam
Gary Player won a Career Grand Slam
Gene Sarazen won a Career Grand Slam
Deceased golfer †
Most overall ‡
Pre-Masters era[edit]
Player
GS
Titles
Grand
Slams
U.S. Amateur
U.S. Open
The Open
The Amateur
Bobby Jones † 13 1: 1930 5: 1924, 1925,
1927, 1928,
1930 ‡ 4: 1923, 1926,
1929, 1930 ‡ 3: 1926, 1927,
1930 1: 1930
Masters era[edit]
Player
GS
Titles
Career
Slams
Masters
U.S. Open
The Open
PGA
Jack Nicklaus 18 ‡ 3 ‡ 6: 1963, 1965,
1966, 1972,
1975, 1986 ‡ 4: 1962, 1967,
1972, 1980 ‡ 3: 1966, 1970,
1978 5: 1963, 1971,
1973, 1975,
1980‡
Tiger Woods 14 3 ‡ 4: 1997, 2001,
2002, 2005 3: 2000, 2002,
2008 3: 2000, 2005,
2006 4: 1999, 2000,
2006, 2007
Ben Hogan † 9 1 2: 1951, 1953 4: 1948, 1950,
1951, 1953 ‡ 1: 1953 2: 1946, 1948
Gary Player 9 1 3: 1961, 1974,
1978 1: 1965 3: 1959, 1968,
1974 2: 1962, 1972
Gene Sarazen † 7 1 1: 1935 2: 1922, 1932 1: 1932 3: 1922, 1923,
1933
Men's missing major[edit]
Player
Major Missing
GS Titles
Walter Hagen † ^ ∞ Masters Tournament 11
Jim Barnes † ∞ Masters Tournament 4
Lee Trevino Masters Tournament 6
Rory McIlroy Masters Tournament 4
/ Tommy Armour † ∞ Masters Tournament 3
Sam Snead † U.S. Open 7
Harold Hilton † U.S. Open 7
Phil Mickelson U.S. Open 5
Byron Nelson † The Open Championship 5
Raymond Floyd The Open Championship 4
Tom Watson PGA Championship 8
Arnold Palmer † PGA Championship 7
Jordan Spieth PGA Championship 3
^ Hagen co-holds the all-time record of five PGA Championship victories, which he shares with Jack Nicklaus, but all of his occurred during match-play.
∞ Barnes never got the chance to play in the Masters Tournament during his career, as it was established in 1934. He did, however, win three Western Open titles, which were considered as majors in the pre-War era of golf. Walter Hagen and Tommy Armour did compete in the Masters, toward the end of their careers, without success, but were also Western Open champions in the pre-Masters era, Hagen on five occasions between 1916 and 1932 and Armour in 1929.
The Women's Grand Slam[edit]
Karrie Webb won a super career grand slam
Juli Inkster won a career grand slam
Annika Sörenstam won a career grand slam
Women's golf also has a set of majors. No woman has completed a four-major Grand Slam, but Babe Zaharias won all three majors contested in 1950 and Sandra Haynie won both majors in 1974.
Seven women have completed the Career Grand Slam by winning four different majors. There are variations in the set of four tournaments involved as the players played in different eras, and the women's tournaments defined as "majors" have varied considerably over time in a way that has not been paralleled in the men's game. The seven are Pat Bradley, Juli Inkster, Inbee Park, Annika Sörenstam, Louise Suggs, Karrie Webb, and Mickey Wright. Webb is separately recognized by the LPGA as its only "Super Career Grand Slam" winner, as she is the only one of the group to have won five different tournaments recognized as majors.
Although other women's tours, notably the Ladies European Tour (LET) and the LPGA of Japan Tour, recognize a different set of "majors", the U.S. LPGA is so dominant in global women's golf that the phrase "women's majors", without further qualification, is almost universally considered as a reference to the U.S. LPGA majors.
The five current major championships are:
March/April—The ANA Inspiration (week ending in the first Sunday of April)—Founded by Dinah Shore, it is most remembered for the winners taking a "lake jump" into the water surrounding the 18th green, also called the "Green Jacket of the LPGA" in reference to the ceremony held at the Masters Tournament. It shares another trait with the Masters—it is held at the same venue every year, Mission Hills Country Club in Rancho Mirage, California.
June—The KPMG Women's PGA Championship (historically held in the week ending on the second Sunday in June; since 2010, finishing on the last Sunday of June)—hosted by the PGA of America since 2015 and played at various locations in the USA.
June/July—The U.S. Women's Open (historically three weeks after the LPGA Championship; in 2010, the week after and in 2011 two weeks after)—Hosted by the USGA, it is held at various golf courses around the nation. It is considered by some to be the biggest major in the LPGA circuit, despite the fact it is not sanctioned by the Ladies European Tour. It is held at various courses throughout the United States.
July/August—The Ricoh Women's British Open (historically the week of the first Sunday of August; since 2009, three weeks after the U.S. Women's Open)—It is hosted by the Ladies' Golf Union and has been hosted at a links course since 2002. 2007 marked the first time it was held at what is considered by many to be the greatest golf course in the world, and certainly the most historic, the Old Course at St Andrews. The 2012 edition was held in September to avoid conflict with the 2012 Summer Olympics in London; in 2013, it returned to its traditional July/August date. Before 2013, this was the only championship sanctioned as a major by both the LPGA and the LET.
September—The Evian Championship, an event held in France that was historically known as the Evian Masters, became the LPGA's fifth major championship in 2013.[3] The tournament has been an LET major since its inception in 1994, and was sanctioned as a regular LPGA tour event from 2000 to 2012.
Women's Career Grand Slam[edit]
Deceased golfer †
Most overall ‡
Super Grand Slam[edit]
Player
ANA Inspiration
LPGA Championship
U.S. Women's Open
du Maurier
Women's British Open
GS Titles
GS Times
Karrie Webb 2: 2000, 2006 1: 2001 2: 2000, 2001 1: 1999 1: 2002 7 1
Titleholders/Western Open era[edit]
Player
Women's Western Open
LPGA Championship
U.S. Women's Open
Titleholders Championship
GS Titles
GS Times
Mickey Wright 3: 1962, 1963, 1966 4: 1958, 1960, 1961, 1963 ‡ 4: 1958, 1959, 1961, 1964 ‡ 2: 1961, 1962 13 2 ‡
Louise Suggs 4: 1946, 1947, 1949, 1953 1: 1957 2: 1949, 1952 4: 1946, 1954, 1956, 1959 11 1
du Maurier Classic era[edit]
Player
Kraft Nabisco Championship
LPGA Championship
U.S. Women's Open
du Maurier
GS Titles
GS Times
Juli Inkster 2: 1984, 1989 2: 1999, 2000 2: 1999, 2002 1: 1984 7 1
Pat Bradley 1: 1986 1: 1986 1: 1981 3: 1980, 1985, 1986 ‡ 6 1
Women's British Open Championship era[edit]
Player
Kraft Nabisco Championship
LPGA Championship
U.S. Women's Open
Women's British Open
GS Titles
GS Times
Annika Sörenstam 3: 2001, 2002, 2005 ‡ 3: 2003, 2004, 2005 3: 1995, 1996, 2006 1: 2003 10 1
The Evian Championship era[edit]
Player
ANA Inspiration
Women's PGA Championship
U.S. Women's Open
Women's British Open
The Evian Championship
GS Titles
GS Times
Inbee Park A 1: 2013 3: 2013, 2014, 2015 2: 2008, 2013 1: 2015 – 7 1

A Inbee Park is recognized as achieving the career Grand Slam for winning four different major championships, even though The Evian Championship had since been designated as the fifth major championship.[4]
Women's missing major[edit]
Player
Major(s) Missing
GS Titles
Kathy Whitworth ANA Inspiration
U.S. Women's Open
du Maurier 6
Se Ri Pak ANA Inspiration 5
Laura Davies ANA Inspiration
Women's British Open 4
Sandra Haynie ANA Inspiration 4
Meg Mallon ANA Inspiration
Women's British Open 4
Jan Stephenson ANA Inspiration 3
Patty Berg †A LPGA Championship 15 ‡
Babe Zaharias † LPGA Championship 10
Amy Alcott ‡B LPGA Championship 5
Beverly Hanson U.S. Women's Open 3
Yani Tseng U.S. Women's Open
The Evian Championship 5
Betsy King ‡C du Maurier
Women's British Open 6
Patty Sheehan du Maurier 6
Betsy Rawls ‡D Titleholders Championship 8
A Patty Berg is the all-time record holder of the most Titleholders and Women's Western Open victories.
B Amy Alcott is tied for the most all-time ANA Inspiration wins.
C Betsy King is tied for the most all-time ANA Inspiration wins.
D Betsy Rawls is tied for the most all-time U.S. Women's Open wins.
Note: Mallon won two more Canadian Women's Open championships after it was replaced by the Women's British Open.
The Senior Grand Slam[edit]
Senior (i.e., 50 and over) men's golf also has a set of majors. Like the women's majors, the senior majors are not globally recognized. However, because the U.S.-based Champions Tour (operated by the PGA Tour) overwhelmingly dominates worldwide senior golf, its roster of majors is by far the most widely recognized.
Unlike the mainstream men's and women's (until 2013) Grand Slams, the senior version (as recognized by the Champions Tour) now contains five events, arguably making a senior Grand Slam a greater accomplishment than in mainstream men's golf.
In the current order of play, the five majors are:
The Tradition (ending on the third or fourth Sunday in May, depending on the calendar)
Senior PGA Championship (one week after The Tradition; ending the day before the U.S. holiday of Memorial Day, observed on the last Monday of May)
Senior Players Championship (ending on the last Sunday in June or the first Sunday in July, depending on the calendar)
U.S. Senior Open (ending on the Sunday in July two weeks before The Senior Open Championship)
The Senior Open Championship (ending on the last Sunday in July)
The Senior PGA is by far the oldest of the senior majors, having been founded in 1937, decades before the establishment of the Champions Tour (as the Senior PGA Tour) in 1980. The other events were all founded in the 1980s—the U.S. Senior Open in 1980, the Senior Players Championship in 1983, The Senior Open in 1987, and The Tradition in 1989. This era saw senior golf became a commercial success as the first golf stars of the television era, such as Arnold Palmer and Gary Player, reached their fifties. The Senior Open, however, was not recognized as a Champions Tour major until 2003.
The stability of the majors in senior golf falls somewhere between mainstream men's golf and the LPGA:
The roster of mainstream men's majors has not changed since the concept of the professional "Grand Slam" was generally recognized. The number of tournaments recognized by the LPGA as majors, as well as the identity of these events, has varied considerably over the decades. Two tournaments that were once considered as LPGA majors no longer exist, and a third lost its major status but survives as a regular tour event. In senior golf, the number of majors has changed over the years, but always by the addition of a new major.
In terms of in-season scheduling, the senior majors have been much less stable than those of mainstream men's golf or the LPGA, especially in recent years. With the exception of a one-off staging of the PGA Championship in February 1971, the mainstream majors have been held in the same order, and in almost exactly the same weeks of the year, since 1969. In women's golf, the scheduling of the majors has stabilized in recent years, with occasional minor changes of dates but no change of order. However, in senior golf, the order of the majors has changed five times since 2006. The Senior Players Championship, held in July in 2006, moved to October in 2007, August in 2011, and to late June/early July in 2012. The Tradition, previously held in late August, moved to early May in 2011, mid-June in 2012, and mid-May in 2013. The U.S. Senior Open moved from mid-July to August in 2008; it returned to mid-July in 2012. The Senior PGA Championship and The Senior Open have retained their dates (respectively late May and late July) throughout this period.
No man has ever won all of the senior majors contested in a year, even in the period between 1980 and 1982 when only two senior majors existed. Bernhard Langer is the only man to have won all five of the current senior majors in his career. Miller Barber won both of the 1980-1982 senior majors, the Senior PGA and U.S. Senior Open, during that time span, and won the inaugural Senior Players Championship in 1983. Those three tournaments would be the only senior majors until The Tradition was first played in 1989. Prior to the founding of The Tradition, Palmer and Player also completed that era's Career Senior Grand Slam. However, neither Barber, Palmer, nor Player would ever win The Tradition.
Jack Nicklaus is the only other player to have completed any era's Career Senior Grand Slam, doing so in his first two years on the Senior Tour. In his first year of eligibility in 1990, he won The Tradition and the Senior Players Championship. The next year, he defended his Tradition title and went on to win the Senior PGA and U.S. Senior Open. However, he failed to defend his Senior Players title and thus missed out on a calendar-year Grand Slam.
Nicklaus is the only player to have won four different senior majors in his career. Although Nicklaus never won The Senior Open, that event was not recognized as a U.S. senior major until 2003, which was also the only year he played the event. Player won The Senior Open three times before 2003, when it was considered a major by the European Senior Tour but not the Senior PGA/Champions Tour.
See also[edit]
Book: Men's major professional golf championships
Men's major golf championships
Women's major golf championships
Chronological list of men's major golf champions
List of men's major championships winning golfers
Triple Crown of Golf
PGA Grand Slam of Golf - an annual off-season tournament contested by the winners of the four men's major championships
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Cited by: Newport, John Paul (July 19, 2008), "Mr. O'Meara's Neighborhood", The Wall Street Journal
Jump up ^ "Tiger Slam"
Jump up ^ "LPGA Adds The Evian as a Major Championship in 2013" (Press release). LPGA. July 20, 2011. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kay, Emily (August 3, 2015). "Inbee Park's Women's British Open win sparks 'career grand slam' debate". SB Nation. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
[show]
v
t
e
Men's Career Grand Slam Champion Golfers
1930 Bobby Jones (1)
1935 Gene Sarazen (1)
1953 Ben Hogan (1)
1965 Gary Player (1)
1966 Jack Nicklaus (1)
1971 Jack Nicklaus (2)
1978 Jack Nicklaus (3)
2000 Tiger Woods (1)
2005 Tiger Woods (2)
2008 Tiger Woods (3)
[show]
v
t
e
Women's Career Grand Slam Champion Golfers
1957 Louise Suggs (1)
1962 Mickey Wright (1)
1963 Mickey Wright (2)
1986 Pat Bradley (1)
1999 Juli Inkster (1)
2001 Karrie Webb (1)
2003 Annika Sörenstam (1)
2015 Inbee Park (1)
[show]
v
t
e
Major golf championships
Current
Masters Tournament
U.S. Open
The Open Championship
PGA Championship
Past
British Amateur
U.S. Amateur
See also
Most wins
Chronological
Grand Slam
[show]
v
t
e
LPGA major golf championships
Current
ANA Inspiration
Women's PGA Championship
U.S. Women's Open
Women's British Open
The Evian Championship
Past
du Maurier Classic
Titleholders Championship
Women's Western Open
Related
British Ladies Amateur
U.S. Women's Amateur
See also
Most wins
Chronological
Grand Slam
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Emily Prentiss
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Emily Prentiss
Criminal Minds character
Paget Brewster as Emily Prentiss
First appearance
"The Last Word"
2x09, November 15, 2006
Created by
Edward Allen Bernero
Portrayed by
Paget Brewster
Information
Aliases
Lauren Reynolds
Occupation
Chief of the London Interpol Office (Former)
Title
FBI BAU Supervisory Special Agent
FBI BAU Unit Chief
Family
Unnamed father
Elizabeth Prentiss
(mother)
Seasons
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13
Emily Prentiss is a fictional character on the CBS crime drama Criminal Minds, portrayed by Paget Brewster. Prentiss first appeared in "The Last Word" (episode nine of season two), replacing Agent Elle Greenaway, who had quit in "The Boogeyman". Her role in the show's sixth season was reduced,[1] for what Brewster believed to be financial reasons.[2] However, reports on May 28, 2011 at Deadline confirmed that Brewster would be returning to her role for the show's seventh season.[3]
On February 15, 2012, Brewster revealed in a statement that the seventh season would be her final season on the show.[citation needed] Brewster's final episode as a main cast member on the show was on the May 16, 2012 episode "Run". Brewster reprised the role again in 2014 for the 200th episode.
On February 10, 2016, it was announced that Brewster would be returning as Prentiss for one episode during the spring of Season 11.[citation needed] On March 30, 2016, she returned following the departure of Shemar Moore for the episode "Tribute".
On July 21, 2016 at San Diego Comic-Con International, it was announced that Brewster will be returning in season 12 in a recurring role.[4] On August 30, 2016, it was confirmed that Brewster would once again be a series regular for the 12th season.[5] She was re-hired soon after Thomas Gibson had been dismissed from the show.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Relationships with colleagues
3 On the job
3.1 Ian Doyle and "Death"
3.2 Returning to the BAU
4 References
5 External links
Background[edit]
Prentiss was born to her unnamed father and Elizabeth, a US Ambassador.[6] Due to her mother's job postings, Prentiss spent her childhood in numerous places, including Ukraine, France, Italy, and various countries in the Middle East. Her father has never been referred to in any way.
She graduated from Yale before joining the FBI, and had worked for ten years before coming to the Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU). Prentiss is extremely well travelled due to her upbringing as an ambassador's daughter and her previous assignments while at Interpol. She is fluent in Arabic,[7] Spanish, French,[8] Italian,[9] Russian, and Greek.[10]
Prentiss first appeared in the season two episode "The Last Word". Her appearance surprised both SSA Aaron Hotchner and Jason Gideon, as neither supervisor had signed off on the transfer. Hotchner was immediately suspicious of the new agent, but Prentiss, insisting that her mother had not pulled any strings for her to get the assignment, convinced him to let her join the team on a probationary basis, and eventually proved her competence and gained the team's trust.
Prentiss confided to David Rossi that during her mother's diplomatic posting in Italy, she got pregnant at 15 and had an abortion. Though Prentiss does not explicitly state whether she struggled with her decision afterwards, she expressed a lot of grief and sorrow when recounting the past events. She also states that the friend who accompanied her to the clinic "saved [her] life".[9]
Relationships with colleagues[edit]
Paget Brewster (third from the right) filming in 2010
Initially upon joining the BAU, Prentiss feels like an outsider and often worries that people doubt her ability as a profiler. Over time, Prentiss proves herself through her sharp profiling skills, competence, and dedication to the work, gradually earning the trust and respect of her fellow BAU team members.
Prentiss has a good relationship with her supervisor Aaron Hotchner and establishes herself as one of the most reliable and capable agents on the BAU. Hotchner had previously worked as the Head of Security for Prentiss's Ambassador mother, Elizabeth Prentiss, but did not cross paths with Prentiss, because she was off to Yale. When she joins the BAU, they get off to a rocky start, but after a confrontation in his office about her feelings and opinions regarding politics and after she resigns instead of secretly feeding reports to Section Chief Erin Strauss, Hotchner begins to understand Prentiss and trust her more. Before leaving to be with the BAU on a case despite his suspension from the field, Hotchner stops by Prentiss's apartment to convince her to get on the plane with him to help their team catch the UNSUB.
In "52 Pickup", Hotchner is seen asking Prentiss for advice on how to deal with JJ's temporary substitute, Agent Jordan Todd, and acts on her suggestions, even giving Agent Todd another chance to prove herself.
For the most part, Prentiss has also developed friendly relationships with the other members of the BAU team.
Prentiss immediately bonds with Agent Derek Morgan due to their mutual love of Kurt Vonnegut books and they develop a close relationship. Their strong bond is most evident in the episodes leading up to and after Prentiss's death. Morgan is able to detect that Prentiss is worried about something and tries to get her to tell him what is bothering her. He also feels betrayed when Prentiss does not reveal the extent of her involvement with Doyle and the case and assumes she does not trust him enough. Rossi later tries to reason with him that Prentiss is merely trying to protect the BAU team. Morgan is also with Prentiss, holding her, when she is dying after being seriously injured by Doyle, and tells her that he understands what she did, and that she is brave, and he is proud of her. When he believes she has died, Morgan takes her death quite hard and expresses anger toward Doyle. When Emily returns to the BAU in season 7, Morgan shows concern for her safety and ability to protect herself in the field by making her sign up for re-certification.
Over time, she also forms a close relationship with Agent Jennifer "JJ" Jareau, especially when they are the only two female agents in the BAU in the field for several seasons. When Prentiss has to fake her death for the team's safety, JJ is the only one (aside from Hotchner) who knows the truth. JJ also flies to Paris and is involved in getting fake passports and setting up bank accounts for Prentiss to stay incognito. JJ expresses the most happiness when Prentiss came back from the dead and tells Prentiss how much she has missed her while she was gone. Prentiss later mentions to Hotchner that while she was away from the BAU and work, she played a lot of online Scrabble with someone with the online moniker "cheetobreath", implying it was JJ keeping her company. In the rare moments outside work, JJ and Prentiss have been seen having conversations about children and the men, or lack thereof, in Prentiss's life. Prentiss was also the first to congratulate JJ when she revealed she was pregnant with Henry.
After Spencer Reid returns to work following his abduction by serial killer Tobias Hankel, Prentiss experiences a falling out with the young agent due to his harsh behavior toward her (a function of the irritability resulting from Reid's use of narcotics to cope with his recent trauma). However, the agents eventually gain a mutual respect and even share light-hearted moments. Prentiss sometimes joins in with Morgan in good-natured teasing of Reid's genius. She also amazes Reid when she beats him at poker even though he is from Las Vegas and never loses. Another turning point in their relationship is when Prentiss and Reid are held captive by a cult group and Prentiss admits she is the FBI agent, causing her to suffer a beating from the cult leader. As a result, Reid feels guilty, but Prentiss reassures him everything is all right and that is not his fault. Prentiss is also the only one Reid tells about his recurring headaches. Reid is one of the most affected by Prentiss's death, sobbing on JJ's shoulder because he never got to say goodbye, and even thought about giving up since he felt the BAU had failed at protecting a member of their team. Later, when Prentiss comes back, Reid feels betrayed by Prentiss for not telling him the truth, but Prentiss confronts him and they eventually reconcile.
Prentiss is often seen hanging out with Jareau and Technical Analyst Penelope Garcia outside of work. Garcia looks up to Prentiss and never fails to vocalize her admiration, whether it is for Prentiss's fluency in Arabic, wit or the fact she took up salsa dancing classes. Garcia also notes that after four years with the team, Prentiss is a part of the “BAU family;” they hold a close friendship.
On the job[edit]
Prentiss is shown to be an extremely competent, level-headed agent. She is not as affected by the nightmares that come with the job and manages to keep her cool in hostile confrontations. She is also shown to put herself in the line of fire, for example, volunteering to enter into the unsub's house to rescue his young boy, and sacrifice herself for her teammates, as she did for Spencer Reid once in the season 4 episode, "Minimal Loss." She does not act rashly and there was only one rare occasion where she allowed her personal feelings interfere with investigations.[9] It has been mentioned by Morgan that she has problems trusting others, preferring to handle things independently instead of asking others to help, but it was revealed that this reluctance is due to her long background as an undercover agent.
Ian Doyle and "Death"[edit]
In the sixth season, Agent Prentiss is notified by her former superiors at Interpol that a man named Ian Doyle has escaped from prison in North Korea. Later, after returning home from work, Prentiss receives several hang-up calls on her home phone from an unknown caller. Upon her return home on a subsequent night, she finds an anonymous gift on her doorstep, containing a single purple flower. She experiences a flashback to a past undercover job in Italy, during which she was acting as his girlfriend and surveiling Doyle. Recognizing that the gift of the purple flower means Doyle knows where she lives, Prentiss flees. In "Coda", Prentiss enlists two former Interpol colleagues in hunting Doyle. Tsia Mosely, one of her Interpol colleagues, gets shot in the head by Doyle while visiting someone.[11] At the end of that episode, Prentiss sneaks out of a meeting in order to save her BAU colleagues from Doyle.
At the beginning of "Lauren", it is revealed that Prentiss had been a spy eight years previously, on a task force profiling terrorists; while undercover, she met Ian Doyle (an arms dealer) and became his lover. Her betrayal of Doyle led to his arrest and subsequent imprisonment, including time in a North Korean prison. Prentiss tracks down Doyle in Boston and tries to kill him, but he takes her hostage. Later, Rossi realized that she left their team meeting suddenly in order to protect them from Doyle as it was Prentiss that Doyle was after. Hotch says they will treat Doyle as an unsub and Prentiss as his victim, and profile them just as they would in any other case.
They eventually track them down to an abandoned building in Boston and arrive with a SWAT team. Prentiss reveals to Doyle that his son, whom Doyle believed had been killed, is actually alive, and that she staged photos of executing the boy in order to get Doyle to break under interrogation in North Korea. After an intense fight, Doyle manages to stab Prentiss in the abdomen with a broken table leg. Even though she is dying, she refuses to tell him where his son is hiding, and Doyle escapes shortly before Morgan reaches her. In the hospital, the BAU team is notified that Prentiss has died. They are seen attending her funeral. The last scene, however, reveals she is alive and in Paris, where JJ meets her and gives her an envelope with "passports from three different countries, and a bank account in each one to keep [her] comfortable."
Returning to the BAU[edit]
In the season seven premiere, Morgan captures Doyle and Emily returns to the BAU to assist the team in finding who kidnapped Doyle's son.[12] The team comes under fire from the judiciary panel for their retaliatory actions to avenge Prentiss's death, but everyone stands their ground to protect the team. Section Chief Erin Strauss later reveals to them that the committee was persuaded by Prentiss' defense and eventually decided to lift the BAU's suspensions although they will still be "keeping a close eye" on the members. Reid, who is still angry over her 'death' refuses to speak to her or JJ or even look them in the eye. At the end of "Proof", Prentiss talks it through with him and they make amends.[13] In the premiere it is also revealed that Garcia has been taking care of her cat, Sergio, and when she inquires about him, Garcia jokingly states that she wants visitation rights.
In the season seven finale, Prentiss receives an offer to run Interpol's London office. While still pondering her decision on the offer, Prentiss decides to leave the BAU. In the season eight premiere, Morgan and Garcia mention seeing her while they were in London and that Emily is doing fine.
Brewster returned for guest appearances in the season 9 episode, 200 in 2014 and the season 11 episode Tribute in early 2016 before returning as a regular cast member in the season 12 episode Taboo later in the year.[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael (June 14, 2010). "Breaking: 'Criminal Minds' drops A.J. Cook". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Archived from the original on June 16, 2010. Retrieved June 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ Wightman, Catriona (June 17, 2010). "'Criminal Minds' stars slam AJ Cook axe". Digital Spy. Retrieved June 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (May 2011). "Paget Brewster Returning To 'Criminal Minds' Next Season, Rachel Nichols Leaving". Deadline. Retrieved 2016-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Look Who's Back! Paget Brewster Returning to Criminal Minds". eonline.com. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Ausiello, Michael; Ausiello, Michael (30 August 2016). "Criminal Minds: Paget Brewster Upped to Series Regular in Season 12 Following Thomas Gibson's Firing". tvline.com. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Cold Comfort", Season 4 Episode 14
Jump up ^ "Lessons Learned", Season 2 Episode 10
Jump up ^ "Lauren" Season 6 Episode 18
^ Jump up to: a b c "Demonology", Season 4 Episode 17
Jump up ^ "Honor Among Thieves", Season 2 Episode 20
Jump up ^ "Valhalla", Season 6 Episode 17
Jump up ^ "It Takes a Village", Season 7 Episode 1
Jump up ^ "Proof", Season 7 Episode 2
Jump up ^ "Taboo", Season 11, Episode 3
External links[edit]
Emily Prentiss on IMDb
[hide]
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text:
Water chlorination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For swimming pool chlorination, see Swimming pool sanitation.
Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine (Cl
2) or hypochlorite to water. This method is used to kill certain bacteria and other microbes in tap water as chlorine is highly toxic. In particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Biochemistry
2.1 Principles
2.2 Shock chlorination
3 Drawbacks
4 Alternative methods for water disinfection
4.1 Chlorine dioxide
4.2 Ozonation
4.3 Chloramination
4.4 Bromination and iodinization
4.5 Home filtration
4.6 UV radiation
4.7 Ionizing radiation
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
In a paper published in 1894, it was formally proposed to add chlorine to water to render it "germ-free". Two other authorities endorsed this proposal and published it in many other papers in 1895.[1] Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1897 the town of Maidstone, England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine.[2]
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter and a contaminated water supply caused a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England.[3] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stop the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of so-called chloride of lime to the water being treated. This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but contained chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (dilute calcium hydroxide) to form calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime). The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.[4]
Manual Control Chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for water purification, early 20th century. From Chlorination of Water by Joseph Race, 1918.
The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir (on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey.[5] Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal, and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren Fuller.[6] Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world.[7]
The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a British officer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account, "It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory ... if suitable means could be found for using it.... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts."[8]
Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910.[9] This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification. Shortly after Darnall's demonstration, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water.
For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). The canvas "bag, water, sterilizing" was a common component of field kitchens, issued one per 100 persons, of a standard 36-gallon capacity that hung from an often-improvised tripod in the field. In use from World War I through the Vietnam War, it has been replaced by reverse osmosis systems that produce potable water by pressure straining local water through microscopic-level filters: the Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit (1980) and the Tactical Water Purification System (2007) for large-scale production, and the Light Water Purifier unit for smaller-scale needs that includes ultrafiltration technology to produce potable water from any source and uses automated backwash cycles every 15 minutes to simplify cleaning operations.
Chlorine gas was first used on a continuing basis to disinfect the water supply at the Belmont filter plant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by using a machine invented by Charles Frederick Wallace[citation needed] who dubbed it the Chlorinator. It was manufactured by the Wallace & Tiernan company beginning in 1913.[10] By 1941, disinfection of U.S. drinking water by chlorine gas had largely replaced the use of chloride of lime.[11][12]
Chlorination can also be practiced using sodium hypochlorite or various other chemicals.
Biochemistry[edit]
As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant, and is added to public water supplies to kill disease-causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks.[13] The microscopic agents of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery killed countless people annually before disinfection methods were employed routinely.[13]
Chlorine is manufactured from salt by electrolysis or other methods. It is a gas at atmospheric pressures but liquefies under pressure. The liquefied gas is transported and used as such.
As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the oxidation of organic molecules.[13] Chlorine and hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are neutrally charged and therefore easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of pathogens. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply.[14]
Principles[edit]
When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl):
Cl2 + H2O ⇌ HOCl + HCl
In acidic solution, the major species are Cl
2 and HOCl, whereas in alkaline solution, effectively only ClO− (hypochlorite ion) is present. Very small concentrations of ClO2−, ClO3−, ClO4− are also found.[15]
Shock chlorination[edit]
Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of hypochlorite into the water. The hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach (solution of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water). Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the water goes down to three parts per million (PPM) or until the calcium hypochlorite count goes down to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM.[citation needed]
Drawbacks[edit]
Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection by-products (DBPs). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by-products created from chlorination with two different types, bromoform and dibromochloromethane, which are mainly responsible for health hazards. Their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses.[16] Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. The World Health Organization has stated that "the risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection".[17]
There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its volatile nature which causes it to disappear too quickly from the water system, and organoleptic concerns such as taste and odor.
Alternative methods for water disinfection[edit]
Chlorine dioxide[edit]
The use of chlorine dioxide as an alternative to chlorine is now widespread in both municipal and industrial applications.[citation needed] It eliminates potential of harmful DBPs and is a highly efficient disinfectant.[citation needed]
Ozonation[edit]
Ozonation is used by many European countries and also in a few municipalities in the United States and Canada. This alternative is more cost effective but energy intensive. It involves ozone being bubbled through the water, breaking down all parasites, bacteria, and all other harmful organic substances. However, this method leaves no residual ozone to control contamination of the water after the process has been completed.[18]
The advantage of chlorine in comparison to ozone is that the residual persists in the water for an extended period of time. This feature allows the chlorine to travel through the water supply system, effectively controlling pathogenic backflow contamination. In a large system this may not be adequate, and so chlorine levels may be boosted at points in the distribution system, or chloramine may be used, which remains in the water for longer before reacting or dissipating.
Chloramination[edit]
Chloramination is also becoming increasingly common. Disinfection with chloramine produces less undesirable byproducts than chlorine (gas or hypochlorite). Chloramine has a longer half-life in the distribution system, and maintains effective protection against pathogens. Chloramines persist in the distribution because of their lower redox potential in comparison to free chlorine. Chloramine is formed by adding ammonia and chlorine into drinking water to form monochloramine and/or dichloramine. Whereas Helicobacter pylori can be many times more resistant to chlorine than Escherichia coli, both organisms are about equally susceptible to the disinfecting effect of chloramine.[19]
Bromination and iodinization[edit]
Chlorine in water is over three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and over six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine.[20]
Home filtration[edit]
Water treated by filtration and home filtration may not need further disinfection; a very high proportion of pathogens are removed by materials in the filter bed. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time. In general, these home filters remove over 90% of the chlorine available to a glass of treated water. These filters must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria within the filter unit.[18]
UV radiation[edit]
UV disinfection is gaining popularity. UV treatment leaves minimal residue in the water. In water UV generates ozone in situ and thus has many of the advantages of ozone disinfection. However, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation alone (as well as chlorination alone) will not remove toxins from bacteria, pesticides, heavy metals, etc. from water.
Ionizing radiation[edit]
Like UV, ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams) has been used to sterilize water.
See also[edit]
Drinking water
Safe Drinking Water Act
Sodium hypochlorite
Sterilization (microbiology)
Trichloroisocyanuric acid a.k.a. Symclosene, the chemical in chlorination tablets
Water filter
Water fluoridation
Water industry
Water pollution
Water purification
Water supply network
Water treatment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ F.E. Turneaure; and H.L. Russell (1901). Public Water-Supplies: Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works (1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 493.
Jump up ^ "Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone". Journal of the Sanitary Institute. 18: 388. October 1897.
Jump up ^ "A miracle for public health?". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ Reece, R.J. (1907). "Report on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5." In Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1905-6: Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1905-6. London: Local Government Board.
Jump up ^ Leal, John L. (1909). "The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J." Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100-9.
Jump up ^ Fuller, George W. (1909). "Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir." Proceedings AWWA. pp. 110-34.
Jump up ^ Hazen, Allen. (1916). Clean Water and How to Get It. New York: Wiley. p. 102.
Jump up ^ V. B. Nesfield (1902). "A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Affecting Potability". Public Health: 601–3. doi:10.1016/s0033-3506(02)80142-1.
Jump up ^ Darnall CR (November 1911). "The purification of water by anhydrous chlorine". Am J Public Health. 1 (11): 783–97. doi:10.2105/ajph.1.11.783. PMC 2218881  . PMID 19599675.
Jump up ^ http://library.rit.edu/findingaids/Inventories/WallaceAndTiernanCompanyRecords.pdf
Jump up ^ Hodges, L. (1977). Environmental Pollution (2nd ed.). New York: Rinehart and Winston. p. 189.
Jump up ^ Baker, Moses N. (1981). The Quest for Pure Water: the History of Water Purification from the Earliest Records to the Twentieth Century. 2nd Edition. Vol. 1. Denver: American Water Works Association. p. 341-342.
^ Jump up to: a b c Calderon, R. L. (2000). "The Epidemiology of Chemical Contaminants of Drinking Water". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 38 (1 Suppl): S13–S20. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00133-7. PMID 10717366.
Jump up ^ Kleijnen, R.G. (December 16, 2011). The Chlorine Dilemma (PDF). Eindhoven University of Technology. Retrieved January 18, 2014. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Shunji Nakagawara, Takeshi Goto, Masayuki Nara, Youichi Ozaqa, Kunimoto Hotta and Yoji Arata (1998). "Spectroscopic Characterization and the pH Dependence of Bactericidal Activity of the Aqueous Chlorine Solution". Analytical Sciences. 14 (4): 691–698. doi:10.2116/analsci.14.691. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Public Health Statement: Bromoform & Dibromochloromethane". ATSDR. 2011. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (PDF). Volume 1, Recommendations (third edition incorporating the first and second addenda ed.). World Health Organization. 2008. p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b Neumann, H. (1981). "Bacteriological safety of hot tap water in developing countries." Public Health Rep.84:812-814.
Jump up ^ Baker KH, Hegarty JP, Redmond B, Reed NA, Herson DS (2002). "Effect of Oxidizing Disinfectants (Chlorine, Monochloramine, and Ozone) on Helicobacter pylori" (PDF). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 68 (2): 981–984. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.2.981-984.2002. PMC 126689  . PMID 11823249.
Jump up ^ Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1 March 1966). "Comparison of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine as Disinfectants for Swimming Pool Water". Applied Microbiology. 14 (2): 276–279. PMC 546668  . PMID 4959984.
External links[edit]
City of Milwaukee, Wisconsin Water Works
Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water (US EPA)
National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine
Chlorinated Drinking Water (IARC Monograph)
NTP Study Report TR-392: Chlorinated & Chloraminated Water (US NIH)
American Chemistry Council's Chlorine Chemistry Division
Disinfection Practices
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Purple bacteria
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Purple bacteria or purple photosynthetic bacteria are proteobacteria that are phototrophic, that is, capable of producing their own food via photosynthesis.[1] They are pigmented with bacteriochlorophyll a or b, together with various carotenoids, which give them colours ranging between purple, red, brown, and orange. They may be divided into two groups – purple sulfur bacteria (Chromatiales, in part) and purple non-sulfur bacteria (Rhodospirillaceae).
Contents
[hide]
1 Metabolism
2 History
3 Evolution
4 Taxonomy
5 References
Metabolism[edit]
Photosynthesis takes place at reaction centers on the cell membrane, which is folded into the cell to form sacs, tubes, or sheets, increasing the available surface area.
Like most other photosynthetic bacteria, purple bacteria do not produce oxygen (anoxygenic), because the reducing agent (electron donor) involved in photosynthesis is not water. In some, called purple sulfur bacteria, it is either sulfide or elemental sulfur. The others, called purple non-sulfur bacteria (aka PNSB), typically use hydrogen although some may use other compounds in small amounts. At one point these were considered families, but RNA trees show the purple bacteria make up a variety of separate groups, each closer relatives of non-photosynthetic proteobacteria than one another.
The reaction centers create a charge separation through a series of favorable redox reactions, after the excitation of the special pigment pair P870. The reduction of quinones leads to the take up of 2 protons from the cytoplasm. When the quinones are eventually oxidized, they release the protons in the periplasmic side. This builds up a proton motive force that is used by ATP synthase to produce ATP from ADP and phosphate.The ATP is finally used in biosynthesis.[2]
History[edit]
Purple bacteria were the first bacteria discovered to photosynthesize without having an oxygen byproduct. Instead, their byproduct is sulfur. This was proved by first establishing the bacteria's reactions to different concentrations of oxygen. What was found was that the bacteria moved quickly away from even the slightest trace of oxygen. Then a dish of the bacteria was taken, and a light was focused on one part of the dish leaving the rest dark. As the bacteria cannot survive without light, all the bacteria moved into the circle of light, becoming very crowded. If the bacteria's byproduct was oxygen, the distances between individuals would become larger and larger as more oxygen was produced. But because of the bacteria's behavior in the focused light, it was concluded that the bacteria's photosynthetic byproduct could not be oxygen.
Evolution[edit]
Researchers have theorized that some purple bacteria are related to the mitochondria, symbiotic bacteria in plant and animal cells today that act as organelles. Comparisons of their protein structure suggests that there is a common ancestor.[3]
Taxonomy[edit]
Purple non-sulfur bacteria are found among the alpha and beta subgroups, including:
Rhodospirillales
Rhodospirillaceae e.g. Rhodospirillum
Acetobacteraceae e.g. Rhodopila
Rhizobiales
Bradyrhizobiaceae e.g. Rhodopseudomonas palustris
Hyphomicrobiaceae e.g. Rhodomicrobium
Rhodobiaceae e.g. Rhodobium
Other families
Rhodobacteraceae e.g. Rhodobacter
Rhodocyclaceae e.g. Rhodocyclus
Comamonadaceae e.g. Rhodoferax
Purple sulfur bacteria are included among the gamma subgroup, and make up the order Chromatiales. The similarity between the photosynthetic machinery in these different lines indicates it had a common origin, either from some common ancestor or passed by lateral transfer.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ D.A. Bryant & N.-U. Frigaard (November 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". Trends Microbiol. 14 (11): 488–96. PMID 16997562. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001.
Jump up ^ Blankenship, Robert (2009). Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 95–109. ISBN 978-0-632-04321-7.
Jump up ^ Bui, E. T.; Bradley, P. J.; Johnson, P. J. (3 September 1996). "A Common Evolutionary Origin for Mitochondria and Hydrogenosomes" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (18): 9651–9656. PMC 38483  . PMID 8790385. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.18.9651.
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