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Human fertilization
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The acrosome reaction for a sea urchin, a similar process. Note that the picture shows several stages of one and the same spermatozoon - only one penetrates the ovum
Illustration depicting ovulation and fertilization.
Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm, usually occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube. The result of this union is the production of a zygote cell, or fertilized egg, initiating prenatal development. Scientists discovered the dynamics of human fertilization in the nineteenth century.[1]
The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum. The most common sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation, follows with ovulation, and finishes with fertilization. Various exceptions to this sequence are possible, including artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, external ejaculation without copulation, or copulation shortly after ovulation.[2][3][4] Upon encountering the secondary oocyte, the acrosome of the sperm produces enzymes which allow it to burrow through the outer jelly coat of the egg. The sperm plasma then fuses with the egg's plasma membrane, the sperm head disconnects from its flagellum and the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process by which egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb, in vitro.
Contents
[hide]
1 Anatomy
1.1 Corona radiata
1.2 Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane
1.3 Sperm preparation
1.4 Zona pellucida
1.4.1 Cortical reaction
2 Fusion
2.1 Cell membranes
2.2 Transformations
2.3 Replication
2.4 Mitosis
3 Fertilization age
4 Diseases
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Anatomy[edit]
Corona radiata[edit]
The sperm binds through the corona radiata, a layer of follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte. Fertilization occurs when the nucleus of both a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell, known as zygote. The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism.
Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane[edit]
Where the spermatozoon is about to pierce, the yolk (ooplasm) is drawn out into a conical elevation, termed the cone of attraction or reception cone. Once the spermatozoon has entered, the peripheral portion of the yolk changes into a membrane, the perivitelline membrane, which prevents the passage of additional spermatozoa.[5]
Sperm preparation[edit]
Further information: Acrosome reaction
At the beginning of the process, the sperm undergoes a series of changes, as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize.[6] The sperm must undergo capacitation in the female's reproductive tract over several hours, which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane, preparing it for the acrosome reaction, the enzymatic penetration of the egg's tough membrane, the zona pellucida, which surrounds the oocyte.
Zona pellucida[edit]
After binding to the corona radiata the sperm reaches the zona pellucida, which is an extra-cellular matrix of glycoproteins. A special complementary molecule on the surface of the sperm head binds to a ZP3 glycoprotein in the zona pellucida. This binding triggers the acrosome to burst, releasing enzymes that help the sperm get through the zona pellucida.
Some sperm cells consume their acrosome prematurely on the surface of the egg cell, facilitating the penetration by other sperm cells. As a population, sperm cells have on average 50% genome similarity so the premature acrosomal reactions aid fertilization by a member of the same cohort.[7] It may be regarded as a mechanism of kin selection.
Recent studies have shown that the egg is not passive during this process.[8][9]
Cortical reaction[edit]
Once the sperm cells find their way past the zona pellucida, the cortical reaction occurs. Cortical granules inside the secondary oocyte fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell, causing enzymes inside these granules to be expelled by exocytosis to the zona pellucida. This in turn causes the glyco-proteins in the zona pellucida to cross-link with each other — i.e. the enzymes cause the ZP2 to hydrolyse into ZP2f — making the whole matrix hard and impermeable to sperm. This prevents fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. The cortical reaction and acrosome reaction are both essential to ensure that only one sperm will fertilize an egg.[10]
Fusion[edit]
Fertilization and implantation in humans.
After the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte (also called ovocyte), the tail and the outer coating of the sperm disintegrate and the cortical reaction takes place, preventing other sperm from fertilizing the same egg. The oocyte now undergoes its second meiotic division producing the haploid ovum and releasing a polar body. The sperm nucleus then fuses with the ovum, enabling fusion of their genetic material.
Cell membranes[edit]
The cell membranes of the secondary oocyte and fusion of sperm takes place
Transformations[edit]
In preparation for the fusion of their genetic material both the oocyte and the sperm undergo transformations as a reaction to the fusion of cell membranes.
The oocyte completes its second meiotic division. This results in a mature ovum. The nucleus of the oocyte is called a pronucleus in this process, to distinguish it from the nuclei that are the result of fertilization.
The sperm's tail and mitochondria degenerate with the formation of the male pronucleus. This is why all mitochondria in humans are of maternal origin. Still, a considerable amount of RNA from the sperm is delivered to the resulting embryo and likely influences embryo development and the phenotype of the offspring.[11]
Replication[edit]
The pronuclei migrate toward the center of the oocyte, rapidly replicating their DNA as they do so to prepare the zygote for its first mitotic division.[12]
Mitosis[edit]
Usually 23 chromosomes from spermatozoon and 23 chromosomes from egg cell fuse (half of spermatozoons carry X chromosome and the other half Y chromosome[13]). Their membranes dissolve, leaving no barriers between the male and female chromosomes. During this dissolution, a mitotic spindle forms between them. The spindle captures the chromosomes before they disperse in the egg cytoplasm. Upon subsequently undergoing mitosis (which includes pulling of chromatids towards centrioles in anaphase) the cell gathers genetic material from the male and female together. Thus, the first mitosis of the union of sperm and oocyte is the actual fusion of their chromosomes.[12]
Each of the two daughter cells resulting from that mitosis has one replica of each chromatid that was replicated in the previous stage. Thus, they are genetically identical.
Fertilization age[edit]
Fertilization is the event most commonly used to mark the zero point in descriptions of prenatal development of the embryo or fetus. The resultant age is known as fertilization age, fertilizational age, embryonic age, fetal age or (intrauterine) developmental (IUD)[14] age.
Gestational age, in contrast, takes the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) as the zero point. By convention, gestational age is calculated by adding 14 days to fertilization age and vice versa.[15] In fact, however, fertilization usually occurs within a day of ovulation, which, in turn, occurs on average 14.6 days after the beginning of the preceding menstruation (LMP).[16] There is also considerable variability in this interval, with a 95% prediction interval of the ovulation of 9 to 20 days after menstruation even for an average woman who has a mean LMP-to-ovulation time of 14.6.[17] In a reference group representing all women, the 95% prediction interval of the LMP-to-ovulation is 8.2 to 20.5 days.[16]
The average time to birth has been estimated to be 268 days (38 weeks and two days) from ovulation, with a standard deviation of 10 days or coefficient of variation of 3.7%.[18]
Fertilization age is sometimes used postnatally (after birth) as well to estimate various risk factors. For example, it is a better predictor than postnatal age for risk of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature babies treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.[19]
Diseases[edit]
Various disorders can arise from defects in the fertilization process.
Polyspermy results from multiple sperm fertilizing an egg.
However, some researchers have found[citation needed] that in rare pairs of fraternal twins, their origin might have been from the fertilization of one egg cell from the mother and eight sperm cells from the father. This possibility has been investigated by computer simulations of the fertilization process.
See also[edit]
Spontaneous conception, the unassisted conception of a subsequent child after prior use of assisted reproductive technology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Garrison, Fielding. An Introduction to the History of Medicine, pages 566-567 (Saunders 1921).
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-12-22. Retrieved 2016-01-24.
Jump up ^ http://www.americanpregnancy.org/preventingpregnancy/pregnancyfaqmyths.html
Jump up ^ Lawyers Guide to Forensic Medicine SBN 978-1-85941-159-9 By Bernard Knight - Page 188 "Pregnancy is well known to occur from such external ejaculation ..."
Jump up ^ "Fertilization of the Ovum". Gray's Anatomy. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Fertilization". Retrieved 28 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Angier, Natalie (2007-06-12). "Sleek, Fast and Focused: The Cells That Make Dad Dad". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Suzanne Wymelenberg, Science and Babies, National Academy Press, page 17
Jump up ^ Richard E. Jones and Kristin H. Lopez, Human Reproductive Biology, Third Edition, Elsevier, 2006, page 238
Jump up ^ "Fertilization: The Cortical Reaction". Boundless. Boundless. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Jodar, M.; Selvaraju, S.; Sendler, E.; Diamond, M. P.; Krawetz, S. A.; for the Reproductive Medicine Networks (2013). "The presence, role and clinical use of spermatozoal RNAs". Human Reproduction Update. 19 (6): 604–624. PMC 3796946  . PMID 23856356. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt031.
^ Jump up to: a b Marieb, Elaine M. Human Anatomy and Physiology, 5th ed. pp. 1119-1122 (2001). ISBN 0-8053-4989-8
Jump up ^ https://www.genderselectionauthority.com/blog/five-facts-about-xx-or-xy
Jump up ^ Wagner F, Erdösová B, Kylarová D (December 2004). "Degradation phase of apoptosis during the early stages of human metanephros development". Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 148 (2): 255–6. PMID 15744391. doi:10.5507/bp.2004.054.
Jump up ^ Robinson, H. P.; Fleming, J. E. E. (1975). "A Critical Evaluation of Sonar "crown-Rump Length" Measurements". BJOG: an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 82 (9): 702–710. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1975.tb00710.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Geirsson RT (May 1991). "Ultrasound instead of last menstrual period as the basis of gestational age assignment". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1 (3): 212–9. PMID 12797075. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.1991.01030212.x. [1]
Jump up ^ Derived from a standard deviation in this interval of 2.6, as given in: Fehring RJ, Schneider M, Raviele K (2006). "Variability in the phases of the menstrual cycle". J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 35 (3): 376–84. PMID 16700687. doi:10.1111/j.1552-6909.2006.00051.x.
Jump up ^ Jukic AM, Baird DD, Weinberg CR, McConnaughey DR, Wilcox AJ (2013). "Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation". Hum. Reprod. 28 (10): 2848–55. PMC 3777570  . PMID 23922246. doi:10.1093/humrep/det297.
Jump up ^ Alan H. Jobe, MD, PhD. Post-fertilizational age and IVH in ECMO patients. RadiologySource Volume 145, Issue 2, Page A2 (August 2004). PII: S0022-3476(04)00583-9. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.07.010.
External links[edit]
Fertilization (Conception)
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USS Gerald R. Ford
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
USS Gerald R. Ford
Gerald R. Ford underway on 8 April 2017
History
United States
Name: USS Gerald R. Ford
Namesake: Gerald R. Ford
Awarded: 10 September 2008
Builder: Newport News Shipbuilding
Cost: $12.8 billion + $4.7 billion R&D (estimated)[1]
Laid down: 13 November 2009[2]
Launched: 11 October 2013[3]
Sponsored by: Susan Ford[4]
Christened: 9 November 2013[5]
Acquired: 31 May 2017[6]
Commissioned: 22 July 2017[7]
Homeport: Norfolk, Virginia
Status: In active service, as of 2017
Badge:
General characteristics
Class and type: Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier
Displacement: About 100,000 long tons (110,000 short tons; 100,000 tonnes) (full load)[8]
Length: 1,106 ft (337 m)[9]
Beam:
134 ft (41 m) (waterline)
256 ft (78 m) (flight deck)
Height: nearly 250 ft (76 m)
Decks: 25
Installed power: Two A1B nuclear reactors
Propulsion: Four shafts
Speed: In excess of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph)
Range: Unlimited distance; 20–25 years
Complement: 2,600+[10]
Armament:
RIM-162 ESSM
RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile
Close-in weapon system (CIWS)
Aircraft carried: More than 75[11]
Aviation facilities: 1,092 ft × 256 ft (333 m × 78 m) flight deck
USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) is the lead ship of her class of United States Navy supercarriers. The ship is named after the 38th President of the United States, Gerald Ford, whose World War II naval service included combat duty aboard the light aircraft carrier Monterey in the Pacific Theater.[12]
The keel of Gerald R. Ford was laid down on 13 November 2009.[2] Construction began on 11 August 2005, when Northrop Grumman held a ceremonial steel cut for a 15-ton plate that forms part of a side shell unit of the carrier.[13] She was christened on 9 November 2013.[5] Gerald R. Ford entered the fleet replacing the inactive USS Enterprise (CVN-65), which ended her 51 years of active service in December 2012.[14][15] Originally scheduled for delivery in 2015,[16] Gerald R. Ford was delivered to the Navy on 31 May 2017[6] and formally commissioned by President Donald J. Trump on 22 July 2017.[7] She is expected to leave on her first deployment around 2020.[10][17]
Contents
[hide]
1 Naming
2 History
2.1 Construction
2.2 Performance improvements
2.3 Operational and major system testing
2.4 Delivery
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Naming[edit]
Ford in U.S. Navy uniform, 1945
In 2006, while Gerald Ford was still alive, Senator John Warner of Virginia proposed to amend a 2007 defense-spending bill to declare that CVN-78 "shall be named the USS Gerald Ford."[18] The final version signed by President George W. Bush on 17 October 2006[19] declared only that it "is the sense of Congress that ... CVN-78 should be named the U.S.S. Gerald R. Ford."[20] Since such "sense of" language is typically non-binding and does not carry the force of law, the Navy was not required to name the ship after Ford.[21]
On 3 January 2007, former United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced that the aircraft carrier would be named after Ford during a eulogy for President Ford at Grace Episcopal Church in East Grand Rapids, Michigan.[22] Rumsfeld indicated that he had personally told Ford of the honor during a visit to his home in Rancho Mirage a few weeks before Ford's death. This makes the aircraft carrier one of the few U.S. ships named after a living person. Later in the day, the Navy confirmed that the aircraft carrier would indeed be named after the former President.[23] On 16 January 2007, Navy Secretary Donald Winter officially named CVN-78 USS Gerald R. Ford. Ford's daughter Susan Ford Bales was named the ship's sponsor. The announcements were made at a Pentagon ceremony attended by Vice President Dick Cheney, Senators Warner (R-VA) and Levin (D-MI), Major General Guy C. Swan III, Bales, Ford's other three children, and others.[24]
The USS America Carrier Veterans Association (CVA) had pushed to name the ship USS America. The CVA is an association of sailors who served aboard USS America (CV-66). The carrier was decommissioned in 1996 and scuttled in the Atlantic, as part of a damage test of large deck aircraft carriers in 2005,[25] and LHA-6 was named America.
History[edit]
The 555-metric ton island in place after being lifted into position on the ship's flight deck during a ceremony at Newport News Shipbuilding in January 2013
Construction[edit]
On 10 September 2008, the U.S. Navy signed a $5.1 billion contract with Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding in Newport News, Virginia, to design and construct the carrier. Northrop had begun advance construction of the carrier under a $2.7 billion contract in 2005. The carrier was constructed at the Huntington Ingalls (formerly Northrop Grumman) Newport News Shipbuilding facilities in Newport News, Virginia, which employs 19,000 workers.[16]
The keel of the new warship was ceremonially laid on 14 November 2009 in Dry Dock 12[26] by Ford's daughter, Susan Ford Bales. In a speech to the assembled shipworkers and DoD officials, Bales said: "Dad met the staggering challenges of restoring trust in the presidency and healing the nation's wounds after Watergate in the only way he knew how—with complete honesty and integrity. And that is the legacy we remember this morning."[27]
In August 2011, the carrier was reported to be "structurally halfway complete".[28] In April 2012, it was said to be 75 percent complete.[29] On 24 May 2012, the important milestone of completing the vessel up to the waterline was reached when the critical lower bow was lifted into place.[30] This was the 390th of the nearly 500 lifts of the integral modular components (from which the vessel is assembled) that the ship's construction required. On 8 October 2012, the carrier reached over 88 percent of the complete structural construction. Huntington Ingalls reported (in an 8 Nov. 2012 press release) that they have "Reached 87 percent structural completion of CVN-78 Gerald R. Ford".[31] By 19 December 2012, construction had reached 90 percent structural completion. "Of the nearly 500 total structural lifts needed to complete the ship, 446 have been accomplished."[32]
Gerald R. Ford sitting in drydock during construction
The island was originally scheduled to land in 2012.[33] However, the island landing and ceremony actually took place on 26 January 2013.[33]
On 9 April 2013, the flight deck of the carrier was completed following the addition of the ship's upper bow section, bringing the ship to 96 percent structural completion.[34]
On 7 May 2013, the last of 162 superlifts was put in place, bringing the ship to 100 percent structural completion.[35] Remaining work that needed to be done included hull painting, shafting work, completion of electrical systems, mooring equipment, installation of radar arrays, and flooding of the dry dock.[36]
On 11 July 2013, a time capsule was welded into a small room just above the floor, continuing a long Navy tradition. The time capsule holds items chosen by President Ford's daughter, Susan Ford Bales, and includes sandstone from the White House, Navy coins, and aviator wings from its first commanding officer.[37]
The ship was originally scheduled for launch in July 2013 and delivery in 2015.[28] Production delays meant that the launch had to be delayed until 11 October 2013 and the naming ceremony until 9 November 2013,[38] with delivery in February 2016.[39]
On 3 October 2013, Gerald R. Ford had four 30-ton, 21 ft (6.4 m)-diameter bronze propellers installed. The installation of the propellers required more than 10 months of work to install the underwater shafting.[40]
Susan Ford Bales, daughter of President Gerald R. Ford, christens Gerald R. Ford.
On 11 October 2013, the ship's drydock was flooded for the first time in order to test various seawater-based systems.[41] Her launch date was set to be on the same day as her naming ceremony on 9 November 2013.[42]
On 9 November 2013, the ship was christened by Ford's daughter, Susan Ford Bales, with a bottle of American sparkling wine.[5][43][44]
As of 2013, construction costs were estimated at $12.8 billion, 22% over the 2008 budget, plus $4.7 billion in research and development costs. Because of budget difficulties, the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Jonathan Greenert, warned there might be a two-year delay beyond 2016 in completing Gerald R. Ford.[45] The GAO reported that the price cap would be met by the Navy accepting an incomplete ship for that cost.[46]
Gerald R. Ford on the James River on 11 June 2016
Gerald R. Ford Underway for Builder's Sea Trials on 8 April 2017
On 23 September 2015, the Navy announced that several weeks of testing delays would likely slip the delivery date into April or May 2016. In addition, construction was 93% complete as of September 2015.[47]
In July 2016, a memo was obtained by CNN from Michael Gilmore, the US Department of Defense's Director of Operational Testing and Evaluation indicating that problems with four major flight systems would further delay combat readiness of the ship.[48] The ship was not expected to be delivered until November 2016 and these issues were suggested to further delay that goal. Construction of the ship was described as 98% complete, with 88% of testing finished.
Performance improvements[edit]
Gerald R. Ford is intended to be the first of a class of aircraft carriers that offer significant performance improvements over the previous Nimitz class. Gerald R. Ford is equipped with an AN/SPY-3 active electronically scanned array multi-function radar, and an island that is shorter in length and 20 feet (6.1 m) taller than that of the Nimitz class; it is set 140 feet (43 m) further aft and 3 feet (0.91 m) closer to the edge of the ship. Replacing traditional steam catapults, the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) will launch all carrier aircraft. This innovation eliminates the traditional requirement to generate and store steam, freeing up considerable area below-deck. With the EMALS, Gerald R. Ford can accomplish 25% more aircraft launches per day than the Nimitz class and requires 25% fewer crew members. The Navy estimates it will save $4 billion in operating costs over a 50-year lifespan.[49] According to an Associated Press story:
“ ‘She is truly a technological marvel,' Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Jonathan Greenert said in a webcast ceremony at the Newport News, Va., shipyard where Gerald R. Ford is being built. 'She will carry unmanned aircraft, joint strike fighters, and she will deploy lasers.’[50] ”
These performance enhancements were problematic in Pentagon tests, but final software fixes for some of the problems were delayed until after the ship’s Post Shakedown Availability in 2019.[51][52][53]
Operational and major system testing[edit]
In January 2014, the annual Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) report recorded that critical ship systems in lab and test environments (including the EMALS, Advanced Arresting Gear (AAG), Dual Band Radar, and weapons elevators) were not reliable enough and needed more testing and improvements. Radar and weapons elevator test data were also below expectations. The Navy implemented a rigorous testing program to ensure performance issues would be resolved before the systems were installed on the aircraft carrier.
Major problems with the main turbine generators were found in June 2016.[54] The fix, requiring design changes, was installed and was verified during acceptance trials in May 2017.[55]
The Initial Operational Test & Evaluation milestone was achieved in April 2017.[56]
On 8 April 2017, Gerald R. Ford got underway under her own power for the first time as she headed to sea for builder's trials.[57][58] She completed the trials and returned to port at Naval Station Norfolk on 14 April 2017.[59]
On 24 May 2017, she got underway for acceptance trials and completed them on 26 May 2017.[60][6]
Delivery[edit]
On 31 May 2017, Newport News Shipbuilding delivered Gerald R. Ford to the U.S. Navy and her status was changed to Special, in service.[6][11] Gerald R. Ford was formally commissioned into the United States Navy on 22 July 2017.[7] She is expected to be deployed around 2020, after further extensive testing.[10][17]
On 28 July 2017, Lt. Cmdr. Jamie "Coach" Struck of Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 23 (VX-23) performed the first arrested landing and catapult launch from Gerald R. Ford in an F/A-18F Super Hornet.[53][61][62]
See also[edit]
List of aircraft carriers
List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ronald O'Rourke (22 October 2013). "Navy Ford (CVN-78) Class Aircraft Carrier Program: Background and Issues for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 4. Retrieved 8 February 2014. FY14 cost of CVN-79 (procured in FY13) in then-year dollars; the same budget puts the cost of CVN-78 (procured in FY08) at $12,829.3 million but that includes ~$3.3bn of development costs. CVN-80 is estimated at $13,874.2m, making the total cost of the first three Fords $38,041.9m, or $12.68bn each.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ford Keel Laid for Future Carrier, Class". Navy Times. 16 November 2009.
Jump up ^ "Newport News Shipbuilding to Flood Dry Dock and Float Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78)" (Press release). Huntingdon Ingalls Industries. 9 October 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Murray, Dave (13 November 2009). "Gerald R. Ford ship ceremony brings Susan Ford Bales, Family to Newport News, Virginia". The Grand Rapids Press. Archived from the original on 18 November 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c "PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Christening Ceremony". Navy Live. 8 November 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Huntington Ingalls Industries Delivers Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) To U.S. Navy" (Press release). Huntingdon Ingalls Industries. 1 June 2017. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "President Trump Commissions USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78)" (Press release). United States Navy. 22 July 2017. NNS170722-01. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Aircraft Carriers - CVN". Fact File. United States Navy. 12 January 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "787-Ton Superlift: Ford Upper Bow". Newport News Shipbuilding. Huntington Ingalls. 15 April 2013. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jenkins, Aric (22 July 2017). "The USS Gerald Ford Is the Most Advanced Aircraft Carrier in the World". Fortune. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Aircraft Carriers - CVN". U.S. Navy - Fact file. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Navy Names New Aircraft Carrier USS Gerald R. Ford - Official Announcement from Secretary of the Navy.
Jump up ^ "USS Gerald R. Ford CVN 78". U.S. Carriers. 8 March 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
Jump up ^ O'Rourke, Ronald (25 May 2005). "Navy CVN-21 Aircraft Carrier Program: Background and Issues for Congress". Naval Historical Center. Department of the Navy. Archived from the original on 1 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "USS Enterprise: Past Present And Future". The Official US Navy Blog. US Navy. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, Kathy (11 September 2008). "Newport News shipyard gets $5.1B contract for carrier Ford". Norfolk Virginian-Pilot. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b LaGrone, Sam (18 January 2017). "Delay in Aircraft Carrier Ford Testing Could Compress Workups for First Deployment". USNI News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
Jump up ^ United States Library of Congress. "Congressional Record, S5815". , Senate Amendment 4211. Retrieved 5 December 2006.
Jump up ^ Garamone, Jim (17 October 2006). "President Signs 2007 Defense Authorization Act". Defenselink. U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 30 November 2006.
Jump up ^ "House Resolution 5122, Section 1012" (PDF). United States Library of Congress. 2 January 2007. p. 292. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "C-SPAN's Capitol Questions: Sense of Congress". CSPAN. 28 March 2001. Archived from the original on 25 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "Donald Rumsfeld's Eulogy for President Ford". Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum. 3 January 2007.
Jump up ^ "Next Navy aircraft carrier to be named for late President Gerald Ford, buried Wednesday". Associated Press. 3 January 2007. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008.
Jump up ^ "Remarks by Susan Ford Bales at the Naming Ceremony for the USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78)". Gerald R. Ford Foundation. 16 January 2007. Archived from the original on 26 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "Name CVN78 USS America: A new flagship for America!". USS America Carrier Veterans Association. 21 January 2007. Retrieved 5 December 2008.
Jump up ^ 37°00′05″N 76°26′46″W / 37.0014°N 76.4462°W / 37.0014; -76.4462
Jump up ^ Frost, Peter, "Shipyard Lays Keel Of Carrier In Solemn Tribute To Gerald R. Ford", Newport News Daily Press, 15 November 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Navy's next aircraft carrier halfway complete". Signon San Diego. 18 August 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Topic Galleries". Daily press. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Bow piece for USS Gerald R. Ford lifted into place". WVEC Television. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Huntington Ingalls Industries Reports Third Quarter Results; Reaches Significant Milestones on Path to 2015 Financial Targets". 4 Traders. Huntington Ingalls Industries. 11 August 2012. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Gerald R Ford (CVN 78) Hits the 90 Percent Mark for Structural Completion", Industries reports, Huntington Ingalls, 19 December 2012 .
^ Jump up to: a b "Gerald R Ford CVN 78". Newport News Shipbuilding. Huntington Ingalls. Archived from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Newport News Shipbuilding Completes Flight Deck On Aircraft Carrier Gerald R. Ford". Navy Recognition. 16 April 2013. Archived from the original on 26 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Next milestone today for carrier USS Gerald R. Ford". ABC13 WVEC. 7 May 2013. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Aircraft Carrier's Primary Hull Structure Reaches 100 Percent Completion". Huntington Ingalls. 8 May 2013. Archived from the original on 7 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Vergakis, Brock (11 July 2013). "Time capsule welded into future USS Gerald R. Ford". Military Times. Newport News, VA: Associated Press. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Cavas, Christopher (3 October 2013). "New Ship News – Sub launched, Carrier prepped, LCS delivered". Defense News.
Jump up ^ "3rd elevator installed on USS Gerald R. Ford at Newport News Shipyard". 13News Now. 16 August 2013. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Newport News Shipbuilding Installs 30-Ton Propellers on Aircraft Carrier Gerald R. Ford Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. - WSJ.com, 3 October 2013
Jump up ^ Lessig, Hugh (11 October 2013). "Floating the Ford: New carrier meets the water". Daily Press.
Jump up ^ Ellison, Garret (13 October 2013). "Navy floods dry dock around USS Gerald R. Ford aircraft carrier ahead of Nov. 9 christening". Michigan Live.
Jump up ^ "Aircraft Carrier Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Christened At Newport News Shipbuilding". 12 November 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Time Lapse: Keel Laying to Christening of America's Next Carrier. Huntington Ingalls Industries. 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Statement of Admiral Jonathan Greenert, CNO" (PDF). U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee. 7 November 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Slavin, Erik (21 November 2014). "GAO: Navy carrier will be incomplete, cost more at delivery". Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Delivery of US Navy's USS Gerald R Ford aircraft carrier further delayed". Naval-technology.com. Kable. 23 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Navy's new $13B aircraft carrier can't fight". CNN. 25 July 2016. Archived from the original on 25 July 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "New Ford-class aircraft carrier: 25 percent more flights per day". CS monitor. 9 November 2013. Archived from the original on 9 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Vergakis, Brock (9 October 2013). "Navy christens next generation of aircraft carrier". Yahoo. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "In testing phase, new carrier plagued by problems". Stars and Stripes. 10 January 2014. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "EMALS/ AAG: Electro-Magnetic Launch & Recovery for Carriers". Defense Industry Daily. 28 July 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Woody, Christopher (31 July 2017). "Watch the Navy's newest, most sophisticated aircraft carrier land and launch its first aircraft" (Military and Defense). Business Insider. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Cavas, Christopher (18 September 2016). "Carrier Ford Has Serious Power Problem". Defense News. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Fabey, Michael (27 June 2017). "The US Navy's most expensive ship ever built still has a tough path to getting deployment-ready". Business Insider. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Navy Alerted to Ford-class Carrier Reliability Issues", DoD Buzz, 31 January 2014, archived from the original on 4 February 2014 .
Jump up ^ Future USS Gerald R. Ford Underway on Sea Trials. Huntington Ingalls Industries. Retrieved 2017-04-19.
Jump up ^ Heretik, Jack (10 April 2017). "America’s Newest Aircraft Carrier USS Gerald R. Ford Begins Sea Trials". Washington Free Beacon. Archived from the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Vergakis, Brock (14 April 2017). "Aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford completes builder's sea trials". The Virginian Pilot. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Lessig, Hugh. "Aircraft Carrier Ford Heads Out for Sea Trials". Military.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Domeck, Ann (29 July 2017). "Local man pilots first plane to land on U.S.S. Gerald Ford". Fox 8 Cleveland. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
Jump up ^ LaGrone, Sam (28 July 2017). "VIDEO: USS Gerald R. Ford Conducts First Arrested Landing, Catapult Launch". USNI News. U.S. Naval Institute.
This article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U.S. government publication, is in the public domain. The entry can be found here.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78).
Official website
Builder's website
2:07 long video of Capt. Meier on Ford: Nimitz Class vs. Ford Class
OSD Operational Testing and Evaluation Annual Reports re CVN78: FY2013 (January 2014), FY2014 (January 2015), FY2015 (January 2016), FY2016 (December 2016)
[show]
v
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[show]
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Gerald R. Ford
38th President of the United States (1974–1977)
40th Vice President of the United States (1973–1974)
U.S. Representative for MI-5 (1949–1973)
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Radagast
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about The Lord of the Rings character. For the German town, see Radegast. For other uses, see Radegast (disambiguation).
Radagast the Brown
Tolkien's legendarium character
Aliases
Aiwendil
Race
Maiar
Book(s)
The Hobbit 1937 (mentioned only)
The Fellowship of the Ring 1954
The Silmarillion 1977 (mentioned only)
Unfinished Tales 1980
Radagast the Brown is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. He is one of the Istari, also known as "Wizards", who were sent by the angelic Valar to aid the Elves and Men of Middle-earth in their struggle against the Dark Lord Sauron. Radagast appears in The Lord of the Rings and Unfinished Tales, and is mentioned in The Hobbit and The Silmarillion.
Contents
[hide]
1 Literature
1.1 Names and titles
2 Adaptations
2.1 In film
2.2 Others
3 References
4 External links
Literature[edit]
Unfinished Tales explains that Radagast, like the other Wizards, came from Valinor around the year 1000 of the Third Age of Middle-earth and was one of the Maiar. His original name was Aiwendil, meaning bird-friend in Tolkien's invented language of Quenya. The Vala Yavanna forced the wizard Saruman to accept Radagast as a companion, which, Tolkien says, may have been one of the reasons Saruman was contemptuous of him, to the point of scornfully calling him "simple" and "a fool".[1] However, he was an ally and confidant of Gandalf, who describes him in The Hobbit as his "cousin". He was also friends with the skin-changer Beorn, who deemed him to be "not a bad fellow as wizards go" and also said to Gandalf that he "used to see him [Radagast] now and again".[2][3]
Radagast lived for much of his time in Middle-earth at Rhosgobel in the Vales of Anduin, on the western eaves of Mirkwood, between Carrock and the Old Forest Road, near the Gladden Fields, its name deriving from Sindarin rhosc gobel meaning "brown village".[1] Radagast had a strong affinity for – and relationship with – wild animals, and it seemed his greatest concern was with the olvar and kelvar (flora and fauna) of Middle-earth. He was wiser than any Man in all things concerning herbs and beasts. It is said he spoke the many tongues of birds, and was a "master of shapes and changes of hue". Radagast is also described by Gandalf as "never a traveller, unless driven by great need", "a worthy Wizard", and "honest".[4]
In The Fellowship of the Ring, Radagast was unwittingly used by Saruman to lure Gandalf to his tower of Orthanc, where Gandalf was captured. Fortuitously, Radagast also helped rescue him by sending Gwaihir the Eagle to Orthanc with news of the movements of Sauron's forces. When Gwaihir saw that Gandalf was imprisoned on the top of the tower he carried him off to safety before Saruman realized he was gone.[4]
The only other reference to Radagast in The Lord of the Rings is after the Council of Elrond when it is decided to summon all the allies against Sauron together. Scouts are sent to look for help, and it is reported that Radagast is not at his home at Rhosgobel and cannot be found. Tolkien makes no mention of what has happened to Radagast, and he plays no further role in events.[5]
Tolkien wrote that Radagast gave up his mission as one of the Wizards by becoming too obsessed with animals and plants. He also wrote that he did not believe that Radagast's failure was as great as Saruman's.[6] However, Christopher Tolkien notes in Unfinished Tales that the assumption Radagast failed in his task may not be entirely accurate considering that he was specifically chosen by Yavanna, and he may have been assigned to protect the flora and fauna of Middle-earth, a task that would not end with the defeat of Sauron and the end of the War of the Ring.
Names and titles[edit]
According to the essay The Istari from the Unfinished Tales, the name Radagast means "tender of beasts" in Adûnaic, another of Tolkien's fictional languages. However, Christopher Tolkien indicates that his father intended to change this derivation and bring Radagast in line with the other wizard-names, Gandalf and Saruman, by associating it with the old language of the Men of the Vales of Anduin. No alternative meaning is provided with this new association – indeed, Tolkien stated that the name was "not now clearly interpretable". His title The Brown is simply a reference to his earth-brown robes; each of the wizards had a cloak of a different colour.[1]
In the real world, Radagast or Rodogast is extant as a variant of Radagaisus, the name of a Gothic warlord who led an invasion of Italy in 405. Radegast is also the name of a deity in Slavic mythology.
Adaptations[edit]
In film[edit]
Sylvester McCoy as Radagast in the Hobbit film series.
Radagast is not included in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. Gandalf's escape from Orthanc is instead instigated by a moth that Gandalf uses to convey a message to the Eagles.
In Jackson's The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, the character (played by Sylvester McCoy[7]) is greatly fleshed out, compared to the original book in which he is mentioned only once.[2] He is portrayed as an eccentric who prefers the company of animals to people, at one point using his powers to heal a dying hedgehog. Radagast is shown to be able to communicate with birds, some of which nest in his hair. In the film, Radagast is the first wizard to visit Dol Guldur after he realizes that an evil power has infected the wood he lives in. He discovers that a Necromancer (Sauron) has taken residence in the ruined fortress. In Dol Guldur he encounters the spirit of the Witch-king of Angmar, as well as the shadow of the Necromancer himself, and escapes with the Morgul blade taken from the Witch-king.
Radagast's means of transportation is a sled pulled by enormous rabbits (called "Rhosgobel rabbits"), a concept entirely original to the movie. Radagast meets Gandalf, Bilbo, and the Dwarves en route to Erebor (but in Rhudaur), tells them of his discovery in Dol Guldur, and gives Gandalf the dagger to present before the White Council. When Thorin's Company are attacked by Orcs riding wargs, Radagast mounts his sled and provides a distraction, leading the enemy on a chase while Gandalf and the others escape.
Later, Saruman makes contemptuous remarks about Radagast during a meeting with Gandalf, Elrond, and Galadriel. He accuses the Brown Wizard of indulging in mushrooms, and dismisses Radagast's claim about the Necromancer being a true threat.
In The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, Radagast appears with Gandalf in a few scenes. The two wizards investigate an empty tomb, determining that the Nazgûl are once again awake and have been summoned. Gandalf bids Radagast to go and tell Galadriel of all they find, and that the White Council must make a pre-emptive move on Dol Guldur. A worried Radagast watches as Gandalf enters Dol Guldur. Inside the ruins, Gandalf confronts the Necromancer and finds that he is indeed Sauron, just as Radagast had thought.
In The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies Radagast arrives in Dol Guldur as the White Council battle Sauron and the Nazgûl, and takes the wounded Gandalf to his house. Gandalf decides to go to Erebor and tells Radagast to gather the birds and beasts; in recompense Radagast gives Gandalf his staff as Sauron shattered his prior one. Later when the eagles arrive to help defeat the Orcs at the Battle of the Five Armies, Radagast is riding one of the eagles.
Others[edit]
Radagast appears as a non-player character in The Lord of the Rings Online: Shadows of Angmar in the city of Ost Guruth. In the epic quest line (Volume I Book II) the player aids Radagast in dealing with corruption in the Lone-Lands, ending in a confrontation with the Gaunt-Lord Ivar, who is bested by Radagast and driven away. After the instance, Radagast relocates to the tower of Barad Dhorn in Agamaur.
In the Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game, Radagast is portrayed as a user of subtle magics, contrasted with the more overt kinds used by Gandalf and Saruman. Nevertheless, he has certain unique powers.
In the video game The Lord of the Rings: War in the North, Radagast is portrayed as a bumbling and eccentric character, albeit very wise and powerful. After the player character rescues Radagast from the clutches of the spider-queen Saenathra, Radagast (with the help of his animal-friends) provides Eradan, Andriel and Farin with information on the location of the dragon Urgost.
In Lego The Lord of the Rings: The Video Game, Radagast is a playable character who can be found in the outskirts of Bree. In the portable versions of the title, he gives the player an optional quest to find three of his birds which have been captured by enemy forces. In battle, his abilities are similar to Gandalf the Grey's, though he lacks a sword. Radagast also appears as a character in Lego The Hobbit, but with an appearance closer to his film incarnation.
Radagast as shown in War in Middle Earth
In the 1988 game War in Middle Earth, Radagast is depicted identically to Gandalf, except for the color of his robes.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Tolkien, J. R. R. (1980), Christopher Tolkien, ed., Unfinished Tales, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, "The Istari", ISBN 0-395-29917-9
^ Jump up to: a b Tolkien, J.R.R. (1937), The Hobbit, "Queer Lodgings"
Jump up ^ Tolkien, J. R. R. (1937), Douglas A. Anderson, ed., The Annotated Hobbit, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 2002), ISBN 0-618-13470-0
^ Jump up to: a b Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954), The Fellowship of the Ring, The Lord of the Rings, Boston: Houghton Mifflin (published 1987), ISBN 0-395-08254-4
Jump up ^ The Fellowship of the Ring: The Ring Goes South.
Jump up ^ Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (1981), The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, # 156, ISBN 0-395-31555-7
Jump up ^ "Sylvester McCoy is Radagast the Brown". Filmonic. 27 October 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
External links[edit]
"Radagast". Tolkien Gateway.
"Christopher Lee discusses Gandalf, Saruman and the Lord of the Rings Trilogy" on YouTube
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