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Bacterial cell structure
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Bacteria, despite their simplicity, contain a well-developed cell structure which is responsible for some of their unique biological structures and pathogenicity. Many structural features are unique to bacteria and are not found among archaea or eukaryotes. Because of the simplicity of bacteria relative to larger organisms and the ease with which they can be manipulated experimentally, the cell structure of bacteria has been well studied, revealing many biochemical principles that have been subsequently applied to other organisms.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cell morphology
2 Cell wall
2.1 The gram-positive cell wall
2.2 The gram-negative cell wall
3 Plasma membrane
4 Extracellular (external) structures
4.1 Fimbriae and pili
4.2 S-layers
4.3 Glycocalyx
4.4 Flagella
5 Intracellular (internal) structures
5.1 The bacterial DNA and plasmids
5.2 Ribosomes and other multiprotein complexes
5.3 Intracellular membranes
5.4 Cytoskeleton
5.5 Nutrient storage structures
5.5.1 Inclusions
5.5.2 Gas vacuoles
5.5.3 Microcompartments
5.5.3.1 Carboxysomes
5.5.3.2 Magnetosomes
6 Endospores
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Cell morphology[edit]
Bacteria come in a wide variety of shapes
Perhaps the most elemental structural property of bacteria is their morphology (shape). Typical examples include:
coccus (spherical)
bacillus (rod-like)
coccobacillus (between a sphere and a rod)
spiral (DNA-like)
filamentous (elongated)
Cell shape is generally characteristic of a given bacterial species, but can vary depending on growth conditions. Some bacteria have complex life cycles involving the production of stalks and appendages (e.g. Caulobacter) and some produce elaborate structures bearing reproductive spores (e.g. Myxococcus, Streptomyces). Bacteria generally form distinctive cell morphologies when examined by light microscopy and distinct colony morphologies when grown on Petri plates.
Perhaps the most obvious structural characteristic of bacteria is (with some exceptions) their small size. For example, Escherichia coli cells, an "average" sized bacterium, are about 2 µm (micrometres) long and 0.5 µm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6–0.7 μm3.[1] This corresponds to a wet mass of about 1 picogram (pg), assuming that the cell consists mostly of water. The dry mass of a single cell can be estimated as 23% of the wet mass, amounting to 0.2 pg. About half of the dry mass of a bacterial cell consists of carbon, and also about half of it can be attributed to proteins. Therefore, a typical fully grown 1-liter culture of Escherichia coli (at an optical density of 1.0, corresponding to c. 109 cells/ml) yields about 1 g wet cell mass.[2] Small size is extremely important because it allows for a large surface area-to-volume ratio which allows for rapid uptake and intracellular distribution of nutrients and excretion of wastes. At low surface area-to-volume ratios the diffusion of nutrients and waste products across the bacterial cell membrane limits the rate at which microbial metabolism can occur, making the cell less evolutionarily fit. The reason for the existence of large cells is unknown, although it is speculated that the increased cell volume is used primarily for storage of excess nutrients.
Cell wall[edit]
The structure of peptidoglycan.
The cell envelope is composed of the plasma membrane and cell wall. As in other organisms, the bacterial cell wall provides structural integrity to the cell. In prokaryotes, the primary function of the cell wall is to protect the cell from internal turgor pressure caused by the much higher concentrations of proteins and other molecules inside the cell compared to its external environment. The bacterial cell wall differs from that of all other organisms by the presence of peptidoglycan which is located immediately outside of the cytoplasmic membrane. Peptidoglycan is made up of a polysaccharide backbone consisting of alternating N-Acetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) residues in equal amounts. Peptidoglycan is responsible for the rigidity of the bacterial cell wall and for the determination of cell shape. It is relatively porous and is not considered to be a permeability barrier for small substrates. While all bacterial cell walls (with a few exceptions e.g. extracellular parasites such as Mycoplasma) contain peptidoglycan, not all cell walls have the same overall structures. Since the cell wall is required for bacterial survival, but is absent in some eukaryotes, several antibiotics (notably the penicillins and cephalosporins) stop bacterial infections by interfering with cell wall synthesis, while having no effects on human cells which have no cell wall only a cell membrane. There are two main types of bacterial cell walls, those of gram-positive bacteria and those of gram-negative bacteria, which are differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics. For both these types of bacteria, particles of approximately 2 nm can pass through the peptidoglycan.[3] If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed, it is called a protoplast while if it's partially removed, it is called a spheroplast. β-Lactam antibiotics such as penicillin inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall. The enzyme lysozyme, found in human tears, also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body's main defense against eye infections.
The gram-positive cell wall[edit]
Gram-positive cell walls are thick and the peptidoglycan ( also known as murein) layer constitutes almost 95% of the cell wall in some gram-positive bacteria and as little as 5-10% of the cell wall in gram-negative bacteria. The gram-positive bacteria take up the crystal violet dye and are stained purple. The cell wall of some gram-positive bacteria can be completely dissolved by lysozymes which attacks the bonds between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine. In other gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, the walls are resistant to the action of lysozymes. They have O-acetyl groups on carbon-6 of some muramic acid residues. The matrix substances in the walls of gram-positive bacteria may be polysaccharides or teichoic acids. The latter are very widespread, but have been found only in gram-positive bacteria. There are two main types of teichoic acid: ribitol teichoic acids and glycerol teichoic acids. The latter one is more widespread. These acids are polymers of ribitol phosphate and glycerol phosphate, respectively, and only located on the surface of many gram-positive bacteria. However, the exact function of teichoic acid is debated and not fully understood. A major component of the gram-positive cell wall is lipoteichoic acid. One of its purposes is providing an antigenic function. The lipid element is to be found in the membrane where its adhesive properties assist in its anchoring to the membrane.
The gram-negative cell wall[edit]
Gram-negative cell walls are thin and unlike the gram-positive cell walls, they contain a thin peptidoglycan layer adjacent to the cytoplasmic membrane. Gram-negative bacteria are stained as pink colour. The chemical structure of the outer membrane's lipopolysaccharide is often unique to specific bacterial sub-species and is responsible for many of the antigenic properties of these strains.
Plasma membrane[edit]
The plasma membrane or bacterial cytoplasmic membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and thus has all of the general functions of a cell membrane such as acting as a permeability barrier for most molecules and serving as the location for the transport of molecules into the cell. In addition to these functions, prokaryotic membranes also function in energy conservation as the location about which a proton motive force is generated. Unlike eukaryotes, bacterial membranes (with some exceptions e.g. Mycoplasma and methanotrophs) generally do not contain sterols. However, many microbes do contain structurally related compounds called hopanoids which likely fulfill the same function. Unlike eukaryotes, bacteria can have a wide variety of fatty acids within their membranes. Along with typical saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, bacteria can contain fatty acids with additional methyl, hydroxy or even cyclic groups. The relative proportions of these fatty acids can be modulated by the bacterium to maintain the optimum fluidity of the membrane (e.g. following temperature change).
As a phospholipid bilayer, the lipid portion of the outer membrane is impermeable to charged molecules. However, channels called porins are present in the outer membrane that allow for passive transport of many ions, sugars and amino acids across the outer membrane. These molecules are therefore present in the periplasm, the region between the cytoplasmic and outer membranes. The periplasm contains the peptidoglycan layer and many proteins responsible for substrate binding or hydrolysis and reception of extracellular signals. The periplasm is thought to exist in a gel-like state rather than a liquid due to the high concentration of proteins and peptidoglycan found within it. Because of its location between the cytoplasmic and outer membranes, signals received and substrates bound are available to be transported across the cytoplasmic membrane using transport and signalling proteins imbedded there.
Extracellular (external) structures[edit]
Fimbriae and pili[edit]
Main article: Pilus
Fimbriae (sometimes called "attachment pili") are protein tubes that extend out from the outer membrane in many members of the Proteobacteria. They are generally short in length and present in high numbers about the entire bacterial cell surface. Fimbriae usually function to facilitate the attachment of a bacterium to a surface (e.g. to form a biofilm) or to other cells (e.g. animal cells during pathogenesis). A few organisms (e.g. Myxococcus) use fimbriae for motility to facilitate the assembly of multicellular structures such as fruiting bodies. Pili are similar in structure to fimbriae but are much longer and present on the bacterial cell in low numbers. Pili are involved in the process of bacterial conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or "sex pili". Type IV pili (non-sex pili) also aid bacteria in gripping surfaces. Pili are absent in gram-positive bacteria and present in gram-negative bacteria.
S-layers[edit]
Main article: S-layer
An S-layer (surface layer) is a cell surface protein layer found in many different bacteria and in some archaea, where it serves as the cell wall. All S-layers are made up of a two-dimensional array of proteins and have a crystalline appearance, the symmetry of which differs between species. The exact function of S-layers is unknown, but it has been suggested that they act as a partial permeability barrier for large substrates. For example, an S-layer could conceivably keep extracellular proteins near the cell membrane by preventing their diffusion away from the cell. In some pathogenic species, an S-layer may help to facilitate survival within the host by conferring protection against host defence mechanisms.
Glycocalyx[edit]
Main articles: Glycocalyx § Glycocalyx in Bacteria and Nature, and Glycocalyx
Many bacteria secrete extracellular polymers outside of their cell walls called glycocalyx. These polymers are usually composed of polysaccharides and sometimes protein. Capsules are relatively impermeable structures that cannot be stained with dyes such as India ink. They are structures that help protect bacteria from phagocytosis and desiccation. Slime layer is involved in attachment of bacteria to other cells or inanimate surfaces to form biofilms. Slime layers can also be used as a food reserve for the cell.
A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous;
Flagella[edit]
Main article: Flagellum
Perhaps the most recognizable extracellular bacterial cell structures are flagella. Flagella are whip-like structures protruding from the bacterial cell wall and are responsible for bacterial motility (i.e. movement). The arrangement of flagella about the bacterial cell is unique to the species observed. Common forms include:
Monotrichous – Single flagellum
Lophotrichous – A tuft of flagella found at one of the cell pole
Amphitrichous – Single flagellum found at each of two opposite poles
Peritrichous – Multiple flagella found at several locations about the cell
The bacterial flagellum consists of three basic components: a whip-like filament, a motor complex, and a hook that connects them. The filament is approximately 20 nm in diameter and consists of several protofilaments, each made up of thousands of flagellin subunits. The bundle is held together by a cap and may or may not be encapsulated. The motor complex consists of a series of rings anchoring the flagellum in the inner and outer membranes, followed by a proton-driven motor that drives rotational movement in the filament.
Intracellular (internal) structures[edit]
Cell structure of a gram positive bacterium
In comparison to eukaryotes, the intracellular features of the bacterial cell are extremely simple. Bacteria do not contain organelles in the same sense as eukaryotes. Instead, the chromosome and perhaps ribosomes are the only easily observable intracellular structures found in all bacteria. There do exist, however, specialized groups of bacteria that contain more complex intracellular structures, some of which are discussed below.
The bacterial DNA and plasmids[edit]
Main article: Plasmid
Unlike eukaryotes, the bacterial DNA is not enclosed inside of a membrane-bound nucleus but instead resides inside the bacterial cytoplasm. This means that the transfer of cellular information through the processes of translation, transcription and DNA replication all occur within the same compartment and can interact with other cytoplasmic structures, most notably ribosomes. The bacterial DNA is not packaged using histones to form chromatin as in eukaryotes but instead exists as a highly compact supercoiled structure, the precise nature of which remains unclear.[4] Most bacterial chromosomes are circular although some examples of linear DNA exist (e.g. Borrelia burgdorferi). Along with chromosomal DNA, most bacteria also contain small independent pieces of DNA called plasmids that often encode for traits that are advantageous but not essential to their bacterial host. Plasmids can be easily gained or lost by a bacterium and can be transferred between bacteria as a form of horizontal gene transfer. So plasmids can be described as an extra chromosomal DNA in a bacterial cell.
Ribosomes and other multiprotein complexes[edit]
Main article: Ribosome
In most bacteria the most numerous intracellular structure is the ribosome, the site of protein synthesis in all living organisms. All prokaryotes have 70S (where S=Svedberg units) ribosomes while eukaryotes contain larger 80S ribosomes in their cytosol. The 70S ribosome is made up of a 50S and 30S subunits. The 50S subunit contains the 23S and 5S rRNA while the 30S subunit contains the 16S rRNA. These rRNA molecules differ in size in eukaryotes and are complexed with a large number of ribosomal proteins, the number and type of which can vary slightly between organisms. While the ribosome is the most commonly observed intracellular multiprotein complex in bacteria other large complexes do occur and can sometimes be seen using microscopy.
Intracellular membranes[edit]
While not typical of all bacteria some microbes contain intracellular membranes in addition to (or as extensions of) their cytoplasmic membranes. An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes, but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy.[5] Examples of bacteria containing intracellular membranes are phototrophs, nitrifying bacteria and methane-oxidising bacteria. Intracellular membranes are also found in bacteria belonging to the poorly studied Planctomycetes group, although these membranes more closely resemble organellar membranes in eukaryotes and are currently of unknown function.[6] Chromatophores are intracellular membranes found in phototrophic bacteria. Used primarily for photosynthesis, they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids.
Cytoskeleton[edit]
Main article: Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is the collective name for all structural filaments in prokaryotes. It was once thought that prokaryotic cells did not possess cytoskeletons, but recent advances in visualization technology and structure determination have shown that filaments indeed exist in these cells.[7] In fact, homologues for all major cytoskeletal proteins in eukaryotes have been found in prokaryotes. Cytoskeletal elements play essential roles in cell division, protection, shape determination, and polarity determination in various prokaryotes.[8]
Nutrient storage structures[edit]
Most bacteria do not live in environments that contain large amounts of nutrients at all times. To accommodate these transient levels of nutrients bacteria contain several different methods of nutrient storage in times of plenty for use in times of want. For example, many bacteria store excess carbon in the form of polyhydroxyalkanoates or glycogen. Some microbes store soluble nutrients such as nitrate in vacuoles. Sulfur is most often stored as elemental (S0) granules which can be deposited either intra- or extracellularly. Sulfur granules are especially common in bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide as an electron source. Most of the above-mentioned examples can be viewed using a microscope and are surrounded by a thin nonunit membrane to separate them from the cytoplasm.
Inclusions[edit]
Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes. The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and pigments. Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate. These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue.
Gas vacuoles[edit]
Main article: Gas vesicle
Gas vacuoles are membrane-bound, spindle-shaped vesicles, found in some planktonic bacteria and Cyanobacteria, that provides buoyancy to these cells by decreasing their overall cell density. Positive buoyancy is needed to keep the cells in the upper reaches of the water column, so that they can continue to perform photosynthesis. They are made up of a shell of protein that has a highly hydrophobic inner surface, making it impermeable to water (and stopping water vapour from condensing inside) but permeable to most gases. Because the gas vesicle is a hollow cylinder, it is liable to collapse when the surrounding pressure increases. Natural selection has fine tuned the structure of the gas vesicle to maximise its resistance to buckling, including an external strengthening protein, GvpC, rather like the green thread in a braided hosepipe. There is a simple relationship between the diameter of the gas vesicle and pressure at which it will collapse - the wider the gas vesicle the weaker it becomes. However, wider gas vesicles are more efficient, providing more buoyancy per unit of protein than narrow gas vesicles. Different species produce gas vesicle of different diameter, allowing them to colonise different depths of the water column (fast growing, highly competitive species with wide gas vesicles in the top most layers; slow growing, dark-adapted, species with strong narrow gas vesicles in the deeper layers). The diameter of the gas vesicle will also help determine which species survive in different bodies of water. Deep lakes that experience winter mixing expose the cells to the hydrostatic pressure generated by the full water column. This will select for species with narrower, stronger gas vesicles.
The cell achieves its height in the water column by synthesising gas vesicles. As the cell rises up, it is able to increase its carbohydrate load through increased photosynthesis. Too high and the cell will suffer photobleaching and possible death, however, the carbohydrate produced during photosynthesis increases the cell's density, causing it to sink. The daily cycle of carbohydrate build-up from photosynthesis and carbohydrate catabolism during dark hours is enough to fine-tune the cell's position in the water column, bring it up toward the surface when its carbohydrate levels are low and it needs to photosynthesis, and allowing it to sink away from the harmful UV radiation when the cell's carbohydrate levels have been replenished. An extreme excess of carbohydrate causes a significant change in the internal pressure of the cell, which causes the gas vesicles to buckle and collapse and the cell to sink out.
Microcompartments[edit]
Bacterial microcompartments are widespread, membrane-bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes. provide a further level of organization; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells, rather than by lipid membranes. These "polyhedral organelles" localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism, a function performed by the membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes.
Carboxysomes[edit]
Main article: Carboxysome
Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments found in many autotrophic bacteria such as Cyanobacteria, Knallgasbacteria, Nitroso- and Nitrobacteria.[9] They are proteinaceous structures resembling phage heads in their morphology and contain the enzymes of carbon dioxide fixation in these organisms (especially ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, RuBisCO, and carbonic anhydrase). It is thought that the high local concentration of the enzymes along with the fast conversion of bicarbonate to carbon dioxide by carbonic anhydrase allows faster and more efficient carbon dioxide fixation than possible inside the cytoplasm.[10] Similar structures are known to harbor the coenzyme B12-containing glycerol dehydratase, the key enzyme of glycerol fermentation to 1,3-propanediol, in some Enterobacteriaceae (e. g. Salmonella).
Magnetosomes[edit]
Main article: Magnetosome
Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments found in magnetotactic bacteria that allow them to sense and align themselves along a magnetic field (magnetotaxis). The ecological role of magnetotaxis is unknown but is thought to be involved in the determination of optimal oxygen concentrations. Magnetosomes are composed of the mineral magnetite or greigite and are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane. The morphology of magnetosomes is species-specific.[citation needed]
Endospores[edit]
Main article: Endospore
Perhaps the best known bacterial adaptation to stress is the formation of endospores. Endospores are bacterial survival structures that are highly resistant to many different types of chemical and environmental stresses and therefore enable the survival of bacteria in environments that would be lethal for these cells in their normal vegetative form. It has been proposed that endospore formation has allowed for the survival of some bacteria for hundreds of millions of years (e.g. in salt crystals)[11][12] although these publications have been questioned.[13][14] Endospore formation is limited to several genera of gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium. It differs from reproductive spores in that only one spore is formed per cell resulting in no net gain in cell number upon endospore germination. The location of an endospore within a cell is species-specific and can be used to determine the identity of a bacterium. Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound which composes 5% to 15% of the dry weight of bacterial spores and is implicated in being responsible for the heat resistance of endospores. Archaeologists have found viable endospores taken from the intestines of Egyptian mummies and also from sediment of over seven thousand years old taken from Minnesota's Elk Lake.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kubitschek HE (1 January 1993). "Cell volume increase in Escherichia coli after shifts to richer media". J. Bacteriol. 172 (1): 94–101. PMC 208405  . PMID 2403552.
Jump up ^ Capaldo-Kimball F (1 April 1971). "Involvement of Recombination Genes in Growth and Viability of Escherichia coli K-12". J. Bacteriol. 106 (1): 204–212. PMC 248663  . PMID 4928007.
Jump up ^ Demchick, P; Koch, AL (1 February 1996). "The permeability of the wall fabric of Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis". J. Bacteriol. 178 (3): 768–73. PMC 177723  . PMID 8550511.
Jump up ^ Goldstein E, Drlica K (1984). "Regulation of bacterial DNA supercoiling: plasmid linking numbers very with growth temperature" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 81: 4046–4050. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.13.4046. PMC 345365  . PMID 6377307.
Jump up ^ Ryter A (1988). "Contribution of new cryomethods to a better knowledge of bacterial anatomy". Ann. Inst. Pasteur Microbiol. 139 (1): 33–44. doi:10.1016/0769-2609(88)90095-6. PMID 3289587.
Jump up ^ Fuerst J (2005). "Intracellular compartmentation in planctomycetes". Annu Rev Microbiol. 59: 299–328. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.59.030804.121258. PMID 15910279.
Jump up ^ Gitai Z (2005). "The new bacterial cell biology: moving parts and subcellular architecture". Cell. 120 (5): 577–86. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2005.02.026. PMID 15766522.
Jump up ^ Shih YL, Rothfield L (2006). "The bacterial cytoskeleton". Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 70 (3): 729–54. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00017-06. PMC 1594594  . PMID 16959967.
Jump up ^ Cannon GC, Bradburne CE, Aldrich HC, Baker SH, Heinhorst S, Shively JM (2001). "Microcompartments in prokaryotes: carboxysomes and related polyhedra". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67 (12): 5351–61. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.12.5351-5361.2001. PMC 93316  . PMID 11722879.
Jump up ^ Badger MR, Price GD (February 2003). "CO2 concentrating mechanisms in cyanobacteria: molecular components, their diversity and evolution". J. Exp. Bot. 54 (383): 609–22. doi:10.1093/jxb/erg076. PMID 12554704.
Jump up ^ Vreeland RH, Rosenzweig WD, Powers DW (October 2000). "Isolation of a 250 million-year-old halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal". Nature. 407 (6806): 897–900. doi:10.1038/35038060. PMID 11057666.
Jump up ^ Cano RJ, Borucki MK (May 1995). "Revival and identification of bacterial spores in 25- to 40-million-year-old Dominican amber". Science. 268 (5213): 1060–4. doi:10.1126/science.7538699. PMID 7538699.
Jump up ^ Fischman J (May 1995). "Have 25-million-year-old bacteria returned to life?". Science. 268 (5213): 977. doi:10.1126/science.7754393. PMID 7754393.
Jump up ^ Parkes RJ (October 2000). "A case of bacterial immortality?". Nature. 407 (6806): 844–5. doi:10.1038/35038181. PMID 11057647.
Further reading[edit]
Cell Structure and Organization
Madigan, Michael T.; Martinko, John M.; Brock, Thomas D. (2005). Brock biology of microorganisms (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-196893-9.
External links[edit]
Animated guide to bacterial cell structure.
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Ice hockey rink
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Detailed diagram of an ice hockey rink
An ice hockey rink is an ice rink that is specifically designed for ice hockey, a team competing sport. Alternatively it is used for other sports such as broomball, ringette and rink bandy. It is rectangular with rounded corners and surrounded by a wall approximately 1 meter (40–48 inches) high called the boards.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name origins
2 Dimensions
2.1 International
2.2 North American
2.3 Finland
2.4 Origins
3 Markings
3.1 Lines
3.2 Faceoff spots and circles
3.2.1 Spot and circle dimensions
3.3 Goal posts and nets
3.4 Crease
3.5 Goaltender trapezoid
3.6 Referee's crease
4 Zones
5 Half boards
6 Stanchion
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Name origins[edit]
Rink, a Scots word meaning 'course', was used as the name of a place where another game, curling, was played. Early in its history, ice hockey was played mostly on rinks constructed for curling. The name was retained after hockey-specific facilities were built.[1]
Dimensions[edit]
There are two standard sizes for hockey rinks: one used primarily in North America (NHL, AHL, ECHL, etc.), the other used in the rest of the world (IIHF). The two sizes are known as NHL (for the smaller version used primarily in North America), and Olympic (for international play).
International[edit]
Hockey rinks in most of the world follow the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) specifications, which are 61.0 metres (200 ft) × 30.0 metres (98.4 ft) with a corner radius of 8.5 metres (28 ft).
The surface is divided lengthwise by five lines marked on the ice surface: icing line, blue line, centre red line, blue line, icing line. The middle three lines mark the three zones of the rink and are the defending zone (icing line to blue line), the neutral zone (blue line to blue line), and the attacking zone (blue line to icing line).
The two icing lines are 4.0 metres (13.1 ft) from the end boards, and the blue lines are 22.86 metres (75.0 ft) from the end boards. [2]
North American[edit]
Most North American rinks follow the National Hockey League (NHL) specifications of 200 feet (61 m) × 85 feet (26 m) with a corner radius of 28 feet (8.5 m).[3] The distance from the end boards to the nearest goal line is 11 feet (3.4 m). The NHL attacking zones are expanded, with blue lines 64 feet (20 m) from the goal line and 50 feet (15 m) apart.[4] Canadian rinks may vary from NHL ones, especially in the goal crease shape (semi-circular), and in the rink dimensions which can accept widths from 85 to 100 feet.
Finland[edit]
In Finland the rink should be 60 metres (200 ft) long and between 26–30 metres (85–98 ft) wide. [5]
Origins[edit]
The rink specifications originate from the ice surface of the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal, constructed in 1862, where the first indoor game was played in 1875. Its ice surface measured 204 feet (62 m) × 80 feet (24 m). The curved corners are considered to originate from the design of the Montreal Arena, also in Montreal, constructed in 1898.
Markings[edit]
Lines[edit]
The centre line divides the ice in half crosswise. It is used to judge icing, meaning that if a team sends the puck across the centre line (red line), blue line and then across the goal line (that is to say, shoots or dumps the puck past the goal line from behind their own side of the centre line) it is said to be icing. It is a thick line, and in the NHL must "contain regular interval markings of a uniform distinctive design, which will readily distinguish it from the two blue lines." When discussing differences in the rules of the game, it is often said that a game is played with no red line. This simply means that there is no two-line pass violation. The centre line is still used to judge icing violations.
There are two thick blue lines that divide the rink into three parts, called zones. These two lines are used to judge if a player is offside. If an attacking player crosses the line into the other team's zone prior to the puck crossing, he is said to be offside.
Near each end of the rink, there is a thin red goal line spanning the width of the ice. It is used to judge goals and icing calls.
Faceoff spots and circles[edit]
There are 9 faceoff spots on a hockey rink. All faceoffs take place at these spots. There are two spots in each team's defensive zone, two at each end of the neutral zone, and one in the center of the rink.
There are faceoff circles around the center ice and end zone faceoff spots. There are hash marks painted on the ice near the end zone faceoff spots. The circles and hash marks show where players may legally position themselves during a faceoff or in game play,
Spot and circle dimensions[edit]
Both the center faceoff spot and center faceoff circle are blue. The circle is 9 metres (30 ft) in diameter, with an outline 5 centimetres (2.0 in) thick, and the faceoff spot is a solid blue circle 30 centimetres (12 in) in diameter.
All of the other faceoff spots and circles are colored red. Each spot consists of a circle 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) in diameter (as measured from the outermost edges) with an outline 5 centimetres (2.0 in) thick. Within the spot, two red vertical lines are drawn three inches (3”) from the left and right inner edges, and the area between these lines is painted red while the rest of the circle is painted white.
Goal posts and nets[edit]
At each end of the ice, there is a goal consisting of a metal goal frame and cloth net in which each team must place the puck to earn points. According to NHL and IIHF rules, the entire puck must cross the entire goal line in order to be counted as a goal. Under NHL rules, the opening of the goal is 72 inches (180 cm) wide by 48 inches (120 cm) tall, and the footprint of the goal is 40 inches (110 cm) deep.
Crease[edit]
The crease is a special area of the ice designed to allow the goaltender to perform without interference. It is the only large area of the ice painted blue to establish its presence. In most leagues, goals are disallowed if an attacking player enters the goal crease with a stick, skate, or any body part before the puck enters the crease. Goals are also disallowed if an attacking player obstructs the goalie from attempting to make a save. For the purposes of this rule, the crease extends vertically from the painted lines to the top of the goal frame. The rule preventing goals while an attacking player is in the crease was eliminated from the NHL and other North American professional leagues beginning in the 1999–2000 season — however, an NHL skater physically obstructing a goalie's movements within the crease can be called for a "goaltender interference" penalty for such a potential infraction in NHL play.
In amateur and international hockey, the goal crease is a half circle with radius of 1.8 m (6 ft). In the NHL and North American professional leagues, this goal crease is truncated along straight lines extending perpendicularly from the goal line 1 ft (30.5 cm) outside each goal post. In the NHL, there are also two red hashmarks 5 centimetres (2.0 in) thick located 4 ft from the goal line that extend 12.5 centimetres (4.9 in) into the crease from either side.
Note position of goaltender trapezoids behind the goal nets at each end of the rink.
Goaltender trapezoid[edit]
During the 2004–05 American Hockey League (AHL) season, an experimental rule was implemented for the first seven weeks of the season, instituting a goaltender trap zone, more commonly called the trapezoid in reference to its shape. Under the rule, it is prohibited for the goaltender to handle the puck anywhere behind the goal line that is not within the trapezoidal area. If they do so they are assessed a minor penalty for delay of game.
The motivation for the introduction of the trapezoid was to promote game flow and prolonged offensive attacks by making it more difficult for the goaltender to possess and clear the puck. The rule was aimed at reducing the effectiveness of goaltenders with good puck-handling abilities, most notably Martin Brodeur and Marty Turco.[6]
The area consists of a centred, symmetrical trapezoid. The bases of the trapezoid are formed by the goal line and the end boards. The base on the goal line measures 6.71 metres (22.0 ft) — widened from the original 5.5 metres (18 ft) for the 2014-15 NHL season onwards — and the base along the end boards measures 8.5 metres (28 ft), with the depth behind the goal line-to-boards distance specified at 3.35 metres (11.0 ft).[7]
The seven-week experiment proved so successful that the AHL moved to enforce the rule for the rest of the season, and then was approved by the NHL when play resumed for the 2005–06 season following the previous lockout. The ECHL, the only other developmental league in the Professional Hockey Players Association (along with the AHL) also approved the rule for 2005–06.
Referee's crease[edit]
The referee's crease is a semicircle ten feet in radius in front of the scorekeepers bench. Under USA Hockey rule 601(d)(5), any player entering or remaining in the referee's crease while the referee is reporting to or consulting with any game official may be assessed a misconduct penalty. The USA Hockey casebook specifically states that the imposition of such a penalty would be unusual, and the player would typically first be asked to leave the referee's crease before the imposition of the penalty.[8] The NHL has a similar rule, also calling for a misconduct penalty.[9] Traditionally, captains and alternate captains are the only players allowed to approach the referee's crease.
Zones[edit]
The blue lines divide the rink into three zones. The central zone is called the neutral zone or simply centre ice. The generic term for the outer zones is end zones, but they are more commonly referred to by terms relative to each team. The end zone in which a team is trying to score is called the attacking zone or offensive zone; the end zone in which the team's own goal net is located is called the defending zone or defensive zone.
The blue line is considered part of whichever zone the puck is in. Therefore, if the puck is in the neutral zone, the blue line is part of the neutral zone. It must completely cross the blue line to be considered in the end zone. Once the puck is in the end zone, the blue line becomes part of that end zone. The puck must now completely cross the blue line in the other direction to be considered in the neutral zone again.
Half boards[edit]
In a hockey rink, the boards are the sides of the rink. The "side boards" are the boards along the two long sides of the rink. The half boards are the boards halfway between the goal line and blue line.[10] The sections of the rink located behind each goal are called the "end boards." The boards that are curved (near the ends of the rink) are called the "corner boards." It is a popular misconception that the half boards are the entire section of boards on the sides of the rink.
Stanchion[edit]
Upright bars located at the ends of the team benches.
See also[edit]
Ice hockey portal
Ice rink
Ice hockey arena
Ice hockey rules
National Hockey League rules
Neutral zone trap
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Redmond, Gerald (1982). The sporting Scots of nineteenth-century Canada. Toronto, Ontario: Associated University Presses Inc. p. 271. ISBN 0-8386-3069-3.
Jump up ^ IIHF Rule Book 2014-2018
Jump up ^ "Rule 1 – The Rink". NHL. Retrieved 2009-04-16.
Jump up ^ "Rule 1 – The Rink". NHL. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Jump up ^ "JÄÄKIEKON VIRALLINEN SÄÄNTÖKIRJA 2014-2018" (PDF). Jaakiekkotuomarit.com. Retrieved 2017-03-21.
Jump up ^ "Yahoo Sports – Goalies at Vancouver Olympics adapt to freedom with no trapezoid behind net". sports.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2015-09-04.
Jump up ^ "National Hockey League – Official Rules 2014–2015". Nhl.com. National Hockey League. 2014. p. 4. Retrieved 2015-01-29.
Jump up ^ "USA Hockey Officiating Rulebook Mobile Site". Usahockeyrulebook.com. 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2017-03-21.
Jump up ^ "NHL rule 40.4(vi) Abuse of Officials". Nhl.com. Retrieved 2015-09-04.
Jump up ^ "Image: HalfBoards.jpg". commons.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2015-09-04.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ice hockey rinks.
Backyard Ice Hockey Rinks
NHL Official Rules: Rule 1 – Rink
Hockey Rinks Database of 5,500 Rinks in the U.S. and Canada
Hockey Arenas in Europe
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The Burning Beekeeper
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (December 2015)
"The Burning Beekeeper"
How I Met Your Mother episode
Episode no.
Season 7
Episode 15
Directed by
Pamela Fryman
Written by
Carter Bays & Craig Thomas
Production code
7ALH17
Original air date
February 6, 2012 (2012-02-06)
Guest appearance(s)
Martin Short (Garrison Cootes)
Chris Elliott (Mickey Aldrin)
Rebecca Creskoff (Geraldine)
Episode chronology
← Previous
"46 Minutes" Next →
"The Drunk Train"
"The Burning Beekeeper" is the 15th episode of the seventh season of the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother, and the 151st episode overall. It aired on February 6, 2012.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
3 Critical response
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the cold opening, Marshall and Lily discuss their upcoming housewarming party with Lily's father, Mickey, imploring him not to ruin the night. However, during the conversation, Mickey mentions that he has been keeping bees in the basement as part of a recent business venture, much to the couple's dismay. On the night of the party, Ted and Robin arrive in the midst of an argument, which they put on hold as they enter the house. Future Ted explains to his kids that the housewarming party fell apart in five minutes. He proceeds to describe those five minutes, going room by room.
In the Living Room, Lily stresses about how the party is going despite Marshall's reassurance until his boss Garrison Cootes informs him that they need to go back to work. Lily suggests that Cootes have some vegan spring rolls and he departs for the dining room, only to return and confront Ted about the supply of vegan food having already been eaten. Cootes, being a vegan, is angry because he is under the impression that Ted has eaten the spring rolls, nearly coming to blows before Lily steps in and advises Cootes of other possible food options. He then goes back to the dining room. Meanwhile, a distraught Barney confides in Robin about an issue that is unknown at the moment. Marshall enters with a block of gouda cheese, which Lily quickly destroys. She then sits down, convinced that her party has been a disaster, but Robin manages to convince her otherwise. Moments later, a man in a beekeeper outfit runs through the house on fire.
In the Dining Room, Barney has eaten all the spring rolls as he converses with a woman he deems is crazy until he sees that she is attractive. He then focuses on seducing her. Having fallen for his ploy, she tells him to meet her in the upstairs guest bedroom to engage in sex. After she departs, Cootes arrives and Barney blames Ted for the missing spring rolls, enraging Cootes who then goes into the living room to confront Ted. Having witnessed the conversation between Barney and the attractive woman, Lily demands that Barney talk to her privately in the kitchen. The scene then focuses on Marshall asking Robin for help in confronting Cootes, during which Robin struggles to prove she can maintain her composure over small issues that normally enrage her. Soon afterward, Lily and Barney both leave the kitchen upset and enter the living room. Cootes re-enters the dining room, where Marshall asks to speak with him privately in the kitchen. Eventually, he comes back into the dining room, where Mickey tells him he threw a good party. Again, the scene ends with a man in a beekeeper outfit running through the house on fire.
In the Kitchen, Ted and Robin continue their argument after putting the food they brought to the party in the oven and setting a five-minute timer. They argue over Robin's tendency to start arguments with strangers at the slightest provocation and Ted's tendency to run from confrontation, explaining why Ted continued to argue with Cootes in the living room. Unable to come to a resolution, they eventually disperse into the party to engage in the conversations shown in the previous scenes. Lily and Barney enter the kitchen where Lily informs him of the attractive woman, her neighbor Geraldine, and her history involving previous lovers. Lilly states specifically that the last man to have slept with Geraldine and not call afterward was hunted down and had a "certain part of his anatomy removed". As she warns him again not to have sex with Geraldine, the gouda cheese that Marshall served in the previous scene is accidentally knocked to the floor and almost immediately covered in mice. A shocked Lily flees in alarm, followed by Barney soon after he replaces the cheese on the kitchen counter.
Marshall and Cootes then enter the kitchen, where Marshall reveals that the recent long hours at the office have resulted in the neglect of his pregnant wife. He requests a night off to relax with family and friends, to which Cootes refuses, stating "Mother Earth doesn't get a night off". Marshall quits out of desperation, telling Cootes he needs to relax and find a hobby if he doesn't want to work himself to death, then leaves to serve the cheese. Realizing Marshall may have been right, Cootes, at the advice of Mickey, decides to don the beekeeper's outfit in an attempt to take up a hobby. However, based on Barney's apocryphal advice moments earlier, Mickey has doused the suit in kerosene to repel the bees. As Cootes begins to enter the basement, the five minute timer for Robin and Ted's dish goes off on the oven. Unaware of the danger, he opens the oven door and immediately bursts into flames. After a frantic run through the house, Cootes leaps into the snow-covered front yard to extinguish the blaze. Exhilarated at the feeling of being alive, he tells Marshall that they will take the night off. He then asks if he will see Marshall on Monday, to which Marshall replies in the affirmative. When Marshall attempts to re-enter the house, he realizes that Cootes has inadvertently allowed the bees to escape their basement enclosure.
Meanwhile, Barney and Geraldine have been upstairs having sex, oblivious to the action occurring in the rest of the house. Barney tries to sneak out when she begins describing their future. He sees the escaped bees in the hallway and hesitates over his escape. After Geraldine continues ranting about their relationship, Barney slinks off into the hallway, screaming at the insect stings.
Production[edit]
When asked in 2014 "What is the episode you regret the most? why?", show co-creator Carter Bays stated[2]
I wish we'd had an extra week of writing, an extra week of shooting, and an extra week of editing for "the Burning Beekeeper." It was a science project that we just ran out of time on. I want to turn it into a movie someday, just to get another crack at it.
Critical response[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2015)
The A.V. Club graded the episode at C+[3] and called it a "misfire".[4]
TV Fanatic gave the episode 5 out of 5 Stars.[5]
Ethan Alter from Television Without Pity gave the episode a C and said that "for all the energy on display there weren’t a lot of laughs".[6]
Paste Magazine's Adam Vitcavage also criticized the episode for being "complicated and mushy". It had 9.98 million viewers and was second in its timeslot behind The Voice on NBC.[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "CBS Schedule - CBS.com". Archived from the original on January 26, 2012. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bays, Carter; Thomas, Craig (February 3, 2014). "We Are Carter Bays and Craig Thomas, Creators and Executive Producers Of How I Met Your Mother. AUA!". Reddit. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ Donna Bowman (February 6, 2012). "The Burning Beekeeper - A.V. Club". A.V. Club. Retrieved February 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Donna Bowman (February 13, 2012). "The Drunk Train - A.V. Club". The A.V. Club. The Onion. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ Chris O'Hara (February 6, 2012). "Don't Sleep on the Gouda - TV Fanatic". TV Fanatic. Retrieved February 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Bees are Alive with the Sound of Gouda". Television Without Pity. NBCUniversal. Archived from the original on February 8, 2012. Retrieved February 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Adam Vitcavage (February 7, 2012). "How I Met Your Mother Review - Paste Magazine". Paste Magazine. Retrieved February 7, 2012.
External links[edit]
"The Burning Beekeeper" on IMDb
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