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Great Society
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For the 1960s band featuring Grace Slick, see The Great Society (band).
The Great Society was a set of domestic programs in the United States launched by Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964–65. The main goal was the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. President Johnson first used the term "Great Society" during a speech at Ohio University, then unveiled the program in greater detail at an appearance at University of Michigan.
New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, and transportation were launched during this period. The program and its initiatives were subsequently promoted by him and fellow Democrats in Congress in the 1960s and years following. The Great Society in scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Some Great Society proposals were stalled initiatives from John F. Kennedy's New Frontier.[citation needed] Johnson's success depended on his skills of persuasion, coupled with the Democratic landslide in the 1964 election that brought in many new liberals to Congress, making the House of Representatives in 1965 the most liberal House since 1938.[1]
Anti-war Democrats complained that spending on the Vietnam War choked off the Great Society. While some of the programs have been eliminated or had their funding reduced, many of them, including Medicare, Medicaid, the Older Americans Act and federal education funding, continue to the present. The Great Society's programs expanded under the administrations of Republican Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Economic and social conditions
1.1 Race
2 Johnson's speeches in Ohio and Michigan
3 The 1965 legislative program and the presidential task forces
4 The election of 1964
5 The two sessions of the Eighty-Ninth Congress
6 The major policy areas
6.1 Civil rights
6.2 The "War On Poverty"
6.2.1 The programs
6.3 Education
6.4 Health
6.4.1 Medicare
6.4.2 Medicaid
6.5 Welfare
6.6 The arts and cultural institutions
6.6.1 National endowments for the arts and the humanities
6.6.2 Public broadcasting
6.6.3 Cultural centers
6.7 Transportation
6.8 Consumer protection
6.9 The environment
6.10 Housing
6.11 Rural development
6.12 Labor
6.13 Conservative opposition
7 Legacy
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Bibliography
11 External links
Economic and social conditions[edit]
Unlike the old New Deal, which was a response to a severe financial and economic calamity, the Great Society initiatives came during a period of rapid economic growth. Kennedy proposed an across-the-board tax cut lowering the top marginal income tax rate in the United States by 20%, from 91% to 71%, which was enacted in February 1964, three months after Kennedy's assassination, under Johnson. The tax cut also significantly reduced marginal rates in the lower brackets as well as for corporations. The gross national product rose 10% in the first year of the tax cut, and economic growth averaged a rate of 4.5% from 1961 to 1968.[3]
Johnson's tax cut measure triggered[citation needed] what one historian described as "the greatest prosperity of the postwar years." GNP increased by 7% in 1964, 8% in 1965, and 9% in 1966. The unemployment rate fell below 5%, and by 1966 the number of families with incomes of $7,000 a year or more had reached 55%, compared with 22% in 1950. In 1968, when John Kenneth Galbraith published a new edition of The Affluent Society, the average income of the American family stood at $8,000, double what it had been a decade earlier.[4]
Disposable personal income rose 15% in 1966 alone. Federal revenues increased dramatically from $94 billion in 1961 to $150 billion in 1967. As the Baby Boom generation aged, two and a half times more Americans would enter the labor force between 1965 and 1980 than between 1950 and 1965.
Race[edit]
Social crisis confronted the nation. Racial segregation persisted in the Southern United States. The Civil Rights Movement was gathering momentum, and in 1964, urban riots began within black neighborhoods in New York City and Los Angeles. By 1968 hundreds[citation needed] of cities had major African-American riots that caused a severe conservative political backlash. Foreign affairs were generally quiet except for the Vietnam War, which escalated from limited involvement in 1963 to a large-scale military operation in 1968 that soon overshadowed the Great Society.
Johnson's speeches in Ohio and Michigan[edit]
Johnson's first public reference to the "Great Society" took place during a speech to students on May 7, 1964, at Ohio University in Athens, Ohio:
And with your courage and with your compassion and your desire, we will build a Great Society. It is a society where no child will go unfed, and no youngster will go unschooled.[5]
He later formally presented his specific goals for the Great Society in another speech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on May 22, 1964.
We are going to assemble the best thought and broadest knowledge from all over the world to find these answers. I intend to establish working groups to prepare a series of conferences and meetings—on the cities, on natural beauty, on the quality of education, and on other emerging challenges. From these studies, we will begin to set our course toward the Great Society.[6]
The 1965 legislative program and the presidential task forces[edit]
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Kennedy had employed several task forces composed of scholars and experts to craft New Frontier legislation and to deal with foreign affairs. The reliance on experts appealed to Johnson, in part because the task forces would work in secret and outside of the existing governmental bureaucracy and directly for the White House staff. Almost immediately after the Ann Arbor speech, 14 separate task forces began studying nearly all major aspects of United States society under the guidance of presidential assistants Bill Moyers and Richard N. Goodwin.
The average task force had five to seven members and generally was composed of governmental experts and academics.[7] Only one of the task forces on the 1965 legislative program addressed foreign affairs and foreign economic policy. The rest were charged with domestic policy (agriculture, anti-recession policy, civil rights, education, efficiency and economy, health, income maintenance policy, intergovernmental fiscal cooperation, natural resources, pollution of the environment, preservation of natural beauty, transportation, and urban problems).
After the task force reports were submitted to the White House, Moyers began a second round of review. The recommendations were circulated among the agencies concerned and were evaluated by new committees composed mostly of government officials. Experts on relations with Congress were also drawn into the deliberations to get the best advice on persuading the Congress to pass the legislation. In late 1964 Johnson reviewed these initial Great Society proposals at his ranch with Moyers and Budget Director Kermit Gordon. Many of them were included in Johnson’s State of the Union Address delivered on January 4, 1965.
The task-force approach, combined with Johnson's electoral victory in 1964 and his talents in obtaining congressional approval, were widely credited with the success of the legislation agenda in 1965. Critics later cited the task forces as a factor in a perceived elitist approach to Great Society programs. Also, because many of the initiatives did not originate from outside lobbying, some programs had no political constituencies that would support their continued funding.
The election of 1964[edit]
With the exception of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[8] the Great Society agenda was not a widely discussed issue during the 1964 presidential election campaign. Johnson won the election with 61% of the vote, and he carried all but six states. Democrats gained enough seats to control more than two-thirds of each chamber in the Eighty-ninth Congress, with a 68–32 margin in the Senate and a 295–140 margin in the House of Representatives.[4]
The two sessions of the Eighty-Ninth Congress[edit]
The political realignment allowed House leaders to alter rules that had allowed Southern Democrats to kill New Frontier and civil rights legislation in committee, which aided efforts to pass Great Society legislation. In 1965, the first session of the Eighty-Ninth Congress created the core of the Great Society. It began by enacting long-stalled legislation such as Medicare and federal aid to education and then moved into other areas, including high-speed mass transit, rental supplements, truth in packaging, environmental safety legislation, new provisions for mental health facilities, the Teacher Corps, manpower training, the Head Start program, aid to urban mass transit, a demonstration cities program, a housing act that included rental subsidies, and an act for higher education.[4] The Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in US congressional history.[9]
The major policy areas[edit]
Civil rights[edit]
President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Historian Alan Brinkley has suggested that the most important domestic achievement of the Great Society may have been its success in translating some of the demands of the civil rights movement into law.[10] Four civil rights acts were passed, including three laws in the first two years of Johnson's presidency. The Civil Rights Act of 1964[8] forbade job discrimination and the segregation of public accommodations.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 assured minority registration and voting. It suspended use of literacy or other voter-qualification tests that had sometimes served to keep African-Americans off voting lists and provided for federal court lawsuits to stop discriminatory poll taxes. It also reinforced the Civil Rights Act of 1964[8] by authorizing the appointment of federal voting examiners in areas that did not meet voter-participation requirements. The Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 abolished the national-origin quotas in immigration law. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned housing discrimination and extended constitutional protections to Native Americans on reservations.
The "War On Poverty"[edit]
Main article: War on Poverty
The August 1964 signing of the Poverty Bill
The most ambitious and controversial part of the Great Society was its initiative to end poverty. The Kennedy Administration had been contemplating a federal effort against poverty. Johnson, who, as a teacher, had observed extreme poverty in Texas among Mexican-Americans, launched an "unconditional war on poverty" in the first months of his presidency with the goal of eliminating hunger, illiteracy, and unemployment from American life. The centerpiece of the War on Poverty was the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which created an Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to oversee a variety of community-based antipoverty programs.
Federal funds were provided for special education schemes in slum areas, including help in paying for books and transport, while financial aid was also provided for slum clearances and rebuilding city areas. In addition, the Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1965 created jobs in one of the most impoverished regions of the country.[citation needed] The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 provided various methods through which young people from poor homes could receive job training and higher education.[11]
The OEO reflected a fragile consensus among policymakers that the best way to deal with poverty was not simply to raise the incomes of the poor but to help them better themselves through education, job training, and community development. Central to its mission was the idea of "community action", the participation of the poor in framing and administering the programs designed to help them.
The programs[edit]
The War on Poverty began with a $1 billion appropriation in 1964 and spent another $2 billion in the following two years. It gave rise to dozens of programs, among them the Job Corps, whose purpose was to help disadvantaged youth develop marketable skills; the Neighborhood Youth Corps, established to give poor urban youths work experience and to encourage them to stay in school; Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), a domestic version of the Peace Corps, which placed concerned citizens with community-based agencies to work towards empowerment of the poor; the Model Cities Program for urban redevelopment; Upward Bound, which assisted poor high school students entering college; legal services for the poor; and the Food Stamp Act of 1964 (which expanded the federal food stamp program).[12]
Programs included the Community Action Program, which initiated local Community Action Agencies charged with helping the poor become self-sufficient; and Project Head Start, which offered preschool education for poor children. In addition, funding was provided for the establishment of community health centers to expand access to health care,[13] while major amendments were made to Social Security in 1965 and 1967 which significantly increased benefits, expanded coverage, and established new programs to combat poverty and raise living standards.[14] In addition, average AFDC payments were 35% higher in 1968 than in 1960, but remained insufficient and uneven.[15]
Education[edit]
The most important educational component of the Great Society was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, designed by Commissioner of Education Francis Keppel. It was signed into law on April 11, 1965, less than three months after it was introduced. It ended a long-standing political taboo by providing significant federal aid to public education, initially allocating more than $1 billion to help schools purchase materials and start special education programs to schools with a high concentration of low-income children. During its first year of operation, the Act authorized a $1.1 billion program of grants to states, for allocations to school districts with large numbers of children of low income families, funds to use community facilities for education within the entire community, funds to improve educational research and to strengthen state departments of education, and grants for purchase of books and library materials.[16] The Act also established Head Start, which had originally been started by the Office of Economic Opportunity as an eight-week summer program, as a permanent program.
The Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963, which was signed into law by Johnson a month after becoming president,[17] authorized several times more college aid within a five-year period than had been appropriated under the Land Grant College in a century. It provided better college libraries, ten to twenty new graduate centers, several new technical institutes, classrooms for several hundred thousand students, and twenty-five to thirty new community colleges a year.[18]
This major piece of legislation was followed by the Higher Education Act of 1965, which increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships and low-interest loans for students, and established a national Teacher Corps to provide teachers to poverty-stricken areas of the United States. The Act also began a transition from federally funded institutional assistance to individual student aid.
In 1964, basic improvements in the National Defense Education Act were achieved, and total funds available to educational institutions were increased. The yearly limit on loans to graduate and professional students was raised from $1,000 to $2,500, and the aggregate limit was raised from $5,000 to $10,000. The program was extended to include geography, history, reading, English, and civics, and guidance and counselling programs were extended to elementary and public junior high schools.[12]
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 offered federal aid to local school districts in assisting them to address the needs of children with limited English-speaking ability until it expired in 2002.[19]
The Great Society programs also provided support for postgraduate clinical training for both nurses and physicians committed to work with disadvantaged patients in rural and urban health clinics.[20]
Health[edit]
Medicare[edit]
Main article: Medicare (United States)
President Johnson signs the Social Security Act of 1965.
The Social Security Act of 1965 authorized Medicare and provided federal funding for many of the medical costs of older Americans.[21] The legislation overcame the bitter resistance, particularly from the American Medical Association, to the idea of publicly funded health care or "socialized medicine" by making its benefits available to everyone over sixty-five, regardless of need, and by linking payments to the existing private insurance system.
Medicaid[edit]
Main article: Medicaid
In 1966 welfare recipients of all ages received medical care through the Medicaid program. Medicaid was created on July 30, 1965 under Title XIX of the Social Security Act of 1965. Each state administers its own Medicaid program while the federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) monitors the state-run programs and establishes requirements for service delivery, quality, funding, and eligibility standards.
Welfare[edit]
A number of improvements were made to the Social Security program in terms of both coverage and adequacy of benefits. The Tax Adjustment Act of 1966 included a provision for special payments under the social security program to certain uninsured individuals aged 72 and over. The Social Security Amendments of 1965 included a 7% increase in cash benefits, a liberalization of the definition of disability, a liberalization of the amount a person can earn and still get full benefits (the so-called retirement test), payment of benefits to eligible children aged 18–21 who are attending school, payment of benefits to widows at age 60 on an actuarially reduced basis, coverage of self-employed physicians, coverage of tips as wages, liberalization of insured-status requirements for persons already aged 72 or over, an increase to $6,600 the amount of earnings counted for contribution and benefit purposes (the contribution and benefit base), and an increase in the contribution rate schedule.[14]
The Social Security Amendments of 1967 included a 13% increase in old-age, survivors, and disability insurance benefits, with a minimum monthly benefit of $55 for a person retiring at or after age-65 (or receiving disability benefits), an increase from $35 to $40 in the special age-72 payments, an increase from $1,500 to $1,680 in the amount a person may earn in a year and still get full benefits for that year, monthly cash benefits for disabled widows and disabled dependent widowers at age 50 at reduced rates, a liberalization of the eligibility requirements for benefits for dependents and Survivors of women workers, and an alternative insured-status test for workers disabled before age 31.[14]
Additionally, new guidelines for determining eligibility for disability insurance benefits, additional non-contributory wage credits for servicemen, broadened coverage of clergy and members of religious orders who have not taken a vow of poverty, and an increase in the contribution and benefit base from $6,600 to $7,800, beginning in 1968. In addition, the Social Security Amendments of 1967 provided the first major amendments of Medicare. These social security amendments extended the coverage of the program to include certain services previously excluded, simplified reimbursement procedures under both the hospital and medical insurance plans, and facilitated the administrative procedures concerning general enrollment periods.[14]
The Food Stamp Act of 1964 made the program permanent, while the Social Security Amendments of 1967 specified that at least 6% of monies for maternal and child health should be spent on family planning. By 1967, the federal government began requiring state health departments to make contraceptives available to all adults who were poor. Meal programs for low-income senior citizens began in 1965, with the federal government providing funding for "congregate meals" and "home-delivered meals."[22] The Child Nutrition Act, passed in 1966, made improvements to nutritional assistance to children such as in the introduction of the School Breakfast Program.[23]
The arts and cultural institutions[edit]
National endowments for the arts and the humanities[edit]
In September 1965, Johnson signed the National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act into law, creating both the National Endowment for the Arts and National Endowment for the Humanities as separate, independent agencies. Lobbying for federally funded arts and humanities support began during the Kennedy Administration. In 1963 three scholarly and educational organizations—the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS), the Council of Graduate Schools in America, and the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa—joined together to establish the National Commission on the Humanities. In June 1964, the commission released a report that suggested that the emphasis placed on science endangered the study of the humanities from elementary schools through postgraduate programs. In order to correct the balance, it recommended "the establishment by the President and the Congress of the United States of a National Humanities Foundation."[24]
In August 1964, Representative William S. Moorhead of Pennsylvania proposed legislation to implement the commission's recommendations. Support from the White House followed in September, when Johnson lent his endorsement during a speech at Brown University. In March 1965, the White House proposed the establishment of a National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities and requested $20 million in start-up funds. The commission's report had generated other proposals, but the White House's approach eclipsed them. The administration's plan, which called for the creation of two separate agencies each advised by a governing body, was the version that the Congress approved. Richard Nixon dramatically expanded funding for NEH and NEA.[24]
Public broadcasting[edit]
Main article: Public Broadcasting Service
After the First National Conference on Long-Range Financing of Educational Television Stations in December 1964 called for a study of the role of noncommercial education television in society, the Carnegie Corporation agreed to finance the work of a 15-member national commission. Its landmark report, Public Television: A Program for Action, published on January 26, 1967, popularized the phrase "public television" and assisted the legislative campaign for federal aid. The Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, enacted less than 10 months later, chartered the Corporation for Public Broadcasting as a private, non-profit corporation.
The law initiated federal aid through the CPB for the operation, as opposed to the funding of capital facilities, of public broadcasting. The CPB initially collaborated with the pre-existing National Educational Television system, but in 1969 decided to start the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). A public radio study commissioned by the CPB and the Ford Foundation and conducted from 1968 to 1969 led to the establishment of National Public Radio, a public radio system under the terms of the amended Public Broadcasting Act.
Cultural centers[edit]
Two long-planned national cultural and arts facilities received federal funding that would allow for their completion through Great Society legislation. A National Cultural Center, suggested during the Franklin Roosevelt Administration and created by a bipartisan law signed by Dwight Eisenhower, was transformed into the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, a living memorial to the assassinated president. Fundraising for the original cultural center had been poor prior to legislation creating the Kennedy Center, which passed two months after the president's death and provided $23 million for construction. The Kennedy Center opened in 1971.[25]
In the late 1930s the U.S. Congress mandated a Smithsonian Institution art museum for the National Mall, and a design by Eliel Saarinen was unveiled in 1939, but plans were shelved during World War II. A 1966 act of the U.S. Congress established the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden as part of the Smithsonian Institution with a focus on modern art, in contrast to the existing National Art Gallery. The museum was primarily federally funded, although New York financier Joseph Hirshhorn later contributed $1 million toward building construction, which began in 1969. The Hirshhorn opened in 1974.[26]
Transportation[edit]
Transportation initiatives started during President Johnson's term in office included the consolidation of transportation agencies into a cabinet-level position under the Department of Transportation.[27] The department was authorized by Congress on October 15, 1966 and began operations on April 1, 1967. Congress passed a variety of legislation to support improvements in transportation including The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 which provided $375 million for large-scale urban public or private rail projects in the form of matching funds to cities and states and created the Urban Mass Transit Administration (now the Federal Transit Administration), High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 which resulted in the creation of high-speed rail between New York and Washington, and the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966—a bill largely taken credit for by Ralph Nader, whose book Unsafe at Any Speed he claims helped inspire the legislation.
Consumer protection[edit]
In 1964, Johnson named Assistant Secretary of Labor Esther Peterson to be the first presidential assistant for consumer affairs.
The Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965 required packages to carry warning labels. The Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 set standards through creation of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The Fair Packaging and Labeling Act requires products identify manufacturer, address, clearly mark quantity and servings. The statute also authorized the HEW and the FTC to establish and define voluntary standard sizes. The original would have mandated uniform standards of size and weight for comparison shopping, but the final law only outlawed exaggerated size claims.
The Child Safety Act of 1966 prohibited any chemical so dangerous that no warning can make it safe. The Flammable Fabrics Act of 1967 set standards for children's sleepwear, but not baby blankets.
The Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 required inspection of meat which must meet federal standards. The Truth-in-Lending Act of 1968 required lenders and credit providers to disclose the full cost of finance charges in both dollars and annual percentage rates, on installment loan and sales. The Wholesome Poultry Products Act of 1968 required inspection of poultry which must meet federal standards. The Land Sales Disclosure Act of 1968 provided safeguards against fraudulent practices in the sale of land. The Radiation Safety Act of 1968 provided standards and recalls for defective electronic products.
The environment[edit]
Joseph A. Califano, Jr. has suggested that the Great Society's main contribution to the environment was an extension of protections beyond those aimed at the conservation of untouched resources.[28] In a message he transmitted to Congress, President Johnson said:
The air we breathe, our water, our soil and wildlife, are being blighted by poisons and chemicals which are the by-products of technology and industry. The society that receives the rewards of technology, must, as a cooperating whole, take responsibility for [their] control. To deal with these new problems will require a new conservation. We must not only protect the countryside and save it from destruction, we must restore what has been destroyed and salvage the beauty and charm of our cities. Our conservation must be not just the classic conservation of protection [against] development, but a creative conservation of restoration and innovation.
—  Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty; February 8, 1965[29]
At the behest of Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall, the Great Society included several new environmental laws to protect air and water. Environmental legislation enacted included:
Water Quality Act of 1965
Clean Air Act of 1963
Wilderness Act of 1964
Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966
National Trails System Act of 1968
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968
Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Aircraft Noise Abatement Act of 1968
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
Housing[edit]
In 1964, the quality of the housing program was improved by requiring minimum standards of code enforcement, providing assistance to dislocated families and small businesses and authorizing below market interest loans for rehabilitating housing in urban renewal areas.[12] The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 included important elements such as rent subsidies for low-income families, rehabilitation grants to enable low-income homeowners in urban renewal areas to improve their homes instead of relocating elsewhere, and improved and extended benefits for relocation payments.[16] The Demonstration Cities Act of 1966 established a new program for comprehensive neighborhood renewal, with an emphasis on strategic investments in housing renovation, urban services, neighborhood facilities, and job creation activities.[30][31]
Rural development[edit]
A number of measures were introduced to improve socio-economic conditions in rural areas. Under Title III of the 1964 Economic Opportunity Act, Special Programs to Combat Rural Poverty, the Office for Economic Opportunity was authorized to act as a lender of last resort for rural families who needed money to help them permanently increase their earning capacity. Loans could be made to purchase land, improve the operation of family farms, allow participation in cooperative ventures, and finance non-agricultural business enterprises, while local cooperatives which served low-income rural families could apply for another category of loans for similar purposes.[32]
Title III also made loans and grants available to local groups to improve housing, education, and child care services for migrant farm workers, while Titles I and II also included potentially important programs for rural development. Title I established the Job Corps which enrolled school dropouts in community service projects: 40% of the corpsmen were to work in a Youth Conservation Corps to carry out resource conservation, beautification, and development projects in the National Forests and countryside. Arguably more important for rural areas were the Community Action Programs authorized by Title II. Federal money was allocated to States according to their needs for job training, housing, health, and welfare assistance, and the States were then to distribute their shares of the Community Action grants on the basis of proposals from local public or non-profit private groups.[32]
The Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965 reorganized the Areas Redevelopment Administration (ARA) into the Economic Development Administration (EDA), and authorized $3.3 billion over 5 years while specifying seven criteria for eligibility. The list included low median family income, but the 6% or higher unemployment applied to the greatest number of areas, while the Act also mentioned outmigration from rural areas as a criterion. In an attempt to go beyond what one writer described as "ARA’s failed scattershot approach" of providing aid to individual counties and inspired by the European model of regional development, the EDA encouraged counties to form Economic Development Districts (EDDs) as it was recognized that individual distressed counties (called RAs or Redevelopment Areas) lacked sufficient resources for their own development.[32]
EDDs encompassed from 5 to 15 counties and both planned and implemented development with EDA funding and technical assistance, and each EDD had a "growth center" (another concept borrowed from Europe) called a redevelopment center if it was located in an RA or development center if in another county. With the exception of the growth centers, EDD counties were ineligible for assistance unless they were RAs, but they were all expected to benefit from "coordinated districtwide development planning."[32]
Labor[edit]
The Amendments made to the 1931 Davis-Bacon Act in 1964 extended the prevailing wage provisions to cover fringe benefits,[33] while several increases were made to the federal minimum wage.[34] The Service Contract Act of 1965 provided for minimum wages and fringe benefits as well as other conditions of work for contractors under certain types of service contracts.[35] A comprehensive minimum rate hike was also signed into law that extended the coverage of the Fair Labor Standards Act to about 9.1 million additional workers.[33]
Conservative opposition[edit]
Despite conservatives who attacked Johnson's Great Society making major gains in Congress in the 1966 midterm elections, and with anger and frustration mounting over the Vietnam War, Johnson was still able to secure the passage of additional programs during his last two years in office. Laws were passed to extend the Food Stamp Program, to expand consumer protection, to improve safety standards, to train health professionals, to assist handicapped Americans, and to further urban programs.[36]
In 1968, a new Fair Housing Act was passed, which banned racial discrimination in housing[37] and subsidized the construction or rehabilitation of low-income housing units.[38] That same year, a new program for federally funded job retraining for the hardcore unemployed in fifty cities was introduced, together with the strongest federal gun control bill (relating to the transportation of guns across State lines) in American history up until that point.[39]
By the end of the Johnson Administration, 226 out of 252 major legislative requests (over a four-year period) had been met, federal aid to the poor had risen from $9.9 billion in 1960 to $30 billion by 1968, one million Americans had been retrained under previously non-existent federal programs, and two million children had participated in the Head Start program.
Legacy[edit]
Interpretations of the War on Poverty remain controversial. The Office of Economic Opportunity was dismantled by the Nixon and Ford administrations, largely by transferring poverty programs to other government departments.[40] Funding for many of these programs were further cut in President Ronald Reagan's Gramm-Latta Budget in 1981.[citation needed]
Alan Brinkley has suggested that "the gap between the expansive intentions of the War on Poverty and its relatively modest achievements fueled later conservative arguments that government is not an appropriate vehicle for solving social problems."[10] One of Johnson's aides, Joseph A. Califano, Jr., has countered that "from 1963 when Lyndon Johnson took office until 1970 as the impact of his Great Society programs were felt, the portion of Americans living below the poverty line dropped from 22.2 percent to 12.6 percent, the most dramatic decline over such a brief period in this century."[28]
The percentage of African Americans below the poverty line dropped from 55 percent in 1960 to 27 percent in 1968.[41] From 1964 to 1967, federal expenditures on education rose from $4 billion to $12 billion, while spending on health rose from $5 billion to $16 billion. By that time, the federal government was spending $4,000 per annum on each poor family of four, four times as much as in 1961.[42]
See also[edit]
Interest group liberalism
Modern liberalism in the United States
Social programs in the United States
Social safety net
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Life, November 5, 1965
Jump up ^ Riley, Jason L. (2008). Let Them In: The Case for Open Borders. p. 98.
Jump up ^ Revenue Act of 1964
^ Jump up to: a b c Chafe, William H. The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II
Jump up ^ "President Johnson's speech at Ohio University, May 7, 1964". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "President Johnson's speech at the University of Michigan from the LBJ Library". Lbjlib.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on June 2, 2002. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lester, Robert E., editor. Task Force Reports of the Johnson White House, 1963–1969 . LexisNexis, http://cisupa.proquest.com/ksc_assets/catalog/101686.pdf.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Civil Rights Act of 1964". Finduslaw.com. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Unger, Irwin, 1996: The Best of Intentions: the triumphs and failures of the Great Society under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon. Doubleday, p. 104.
^ Jump up to: a b Alan Brinkley, "Great Society" in The Reader's Companion to American History, Eric Foner and John Arthur Garraty eds., ISBN 0-395-51372-3, Houghton Mifflin Books, p. 472
Jump up ^ Lowe, Norman. Mastering Modern World History.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Voting Record-88th Congress, 2nd Session" (PDF). ADA World. Americans for Democratic Action. October 1964. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Rachman, Fred D. (August 28, 2010). "Quality Measures Workgroup Testimony" (PDF). Alliance of Chicago Community Health Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "History of SSA During the Johnson Administration 1963–1968". Social Security Administration. Retrieved July 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Backlash against welfare mothers: past and present by Ellen Reese
^ Jump up to: a b "Voting Record-89th Congress, 1st Session" (PDF). ADA World. Americans for Democratic Action. November 1965. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lyndon B. Johnson: Remarks Upon Signing the Higher Education Facilities Act. Presidency.ucsb.edu (December 16, 1963). Retrieved July 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Kennedy by Theodore C. Sorenson
Jump up ^ The Bilingual Education Act Archived 2006-08-07 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Fairman, Julie. Making Room in the Clinic: Nurse Practitioners and the Evolution of Modern ... Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Social Security Act Amendments (1965)". Ourdocuments.gov. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Poverty and the Government in America". google.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "Child Nutrition Act of 1966 - Food and Nutrition Service". usda.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b "How NEH got its start". National Endowment for the Humanities. September 29, 1965. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Living Legacy: Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts". WOSU. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Hirshhorn Story". Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden. Archived from the original on July 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ Grinder, R. Dale. "The United States Department of Transportation: A Brief History". U.S. Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on July 17, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b What Was Really Great About The Great Society: The truth behind the conservative myths Archived 2014-03-26 at the Wayback Machine. by Joseph A. Califano Jr.
Jump up ^ "Special Message to the Congress on Conservation and Restoration of Natural Beauty". Lbjlib.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on June 26, 2013. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Reality and Research: Social Science and U.S. Urban Policy Since 1960. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Conley, Richard Steven. The Presidency, Congress, and Divided Government: A Postwar Assessment. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Roth, Dennis. "The Johnson Administration and the Great Society". Federal Rural Development Policy in the Twentieth Century (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 24, 2014. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Bruno, Robert (January 3–5, 1998). "Presidential Labor Regimes: Democrats from Roosevelt to Clinton" (PDF). University of Illinois. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 21, 2013. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Boosting paychecks: the politics of supporting America's working poor by Daniel Paul Gitterman
Jump up ^ The COR/COTR Answer Book, Thi - Bob Boyd. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ M.J. Heale, The Sixties in America: History, Politics, and Protest (2001)
Jump up ^ The Housing status of black Americans By James Benjamin Stewart
Jump up ^ The Penguin Encyclopedia of American History by Robert A. Rosenbaum and Douglas Brinkley
Jump up ^ Truman to Carter: A post-War History of the United States of America by Peter J. Mooney and Colin Brown
Jump up ^ Bailey, Martha J.; Duquette, Nicolas J. (2014-06-01). "How Johnson Fought the War on Poverty: The Economics and Politics of Funding at the Office of Economic Opportunity". The Journal of Economic History. 74 (2): 351–388. doi:10.1017/S0022050714000291. ISSN 0022-0507.
Jump up ^ Mintz, S (2007). "The Great Society and the Drive for Black Equality". Digital History. University of Houston. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved May 13, 2009.
Jump up ^ LBJ: Archtitect of American Ambition by Randall B. Woods
References[edit]
Bibliography[edit]
John A. Andrew. Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society. I.R. Dee, 1998 ISBN 1-56663-184-X
Eli Ginzberg and Robert M. Solow (eds.) The Great Society: Lessons for the Future ISBN 0-465-02705-9 (1974), 11 chapters on each program, by experts
Jeffrey W. Helsing Johnson's War/Johnson's Great Society: the guns and butter trap Praeger Greenwood 2000 ISBN 0-275-96449-3
Marshall Kaplan and Peggy L. Cuciti; The Great Society and Its Legacy: Twenty Years of U.S. Social Policy Duke University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-8223-0589-5
Barbara C. Jordan and Elspeth D. Rostow (editors) The Great Society: a twenty year critique: Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs 1986 ISBN 0-89940-417-0
Gordon, Kermit (ed.) Agenda for the Nation, The Brookings Institution. (1968)
Lyndon B. Johnson My Hope for America: Random House, 1964 ISBN 1-121-42877-0
Sidney M. Milkis and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. The Great Society And The High Tide Of Liberalism (2005)
Irwin Unger The Best of Intentions: the triumphs and failures of the Great Society under Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon: Doubleday, 1996 ISBN 0-385-46833-4
External links[edit]
President Johnson's speech at the University of Michigan from the LBJ Library
80,000 people filled Michigan Stadium to hear President Lyndon Johnson
Social Studies help on the Great Society
Johnson's Great Society speech on CNN
John Gardner Architect of the Great Society on PBS
The Great Society Congress Digital Exhibition
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36th President of the United States (1963–1969)
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Map
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Map (disambiguation).
"Maps" redirects here. For other uses, see Maps (disambiguation).
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
World map (1689)
World map (2004)
A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes.
Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, while others are dynamic or interactive. Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or imagined, without regard to context or scale, such as in brain mapping, DNA mapping, or computer network topology mapping. The space being mapped may be two dimensional, such as the surface of the earth, three dimensional, such as the interior of the earth, or even more abstract spaces of any dimension, such as arise in modeling phenomena having many independent variables.
Although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times. The word "map" comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth and mundi the world. Thus, "map" became the shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the world.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographic maps
2 Orientation of maps
3 Scale and accuracy
4 Map types and projections
4.1 Electronic maps
5 Climatic maps
6 Conventional signs
6.1 Labeling
7 Non-geographical spatial maps
8 Non spatial maps
9 General-purpose maps
10 Types of maps
11 Legal regulation
12 See also
13 Notes
14 External links
Geographic maps[edit]
A celestial map from the 17th century, by the cartographer Frederik de Wit
Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface (see History of cartography), and one who makes maps is called a cartographer.
Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today, and form a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps. In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies. Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British Ordnance Survey: a civilian government agency, internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work.
In addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc.
Orientation of maps[edit]
The Hereford Mappa Mundi from about 1300, Hereford Cathedral, England, is a classic "T-O" map with Jerusalem at centre, east toward the top, Europe the bottom left and Africa on the right.
The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the corresponding compass directions in reality. The word "orient" is derived from Latin oriens, meaning east. In the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with east at the top (meaning that the direction "up" on the map corresponds to East on the compass). The most common cartographic convention is that north is at the top of a map.
Maps not oriented with north at the top:
Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the "top", but also at the centre, of the map. Labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head.[citation needed]
Medieval European T and O maps such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi were centred on Jerusalem with East at the top. Indeed, prior to the reintroduction of Ptolemy's Geography to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West. Portolan charts, for example, are oriented to the shores they describe.
Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top.
Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.
Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole; the direction North would be towards or away from the centre of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian towards the bottom of the page; maps of the Antarctic have the 0° meridian towards the top of the page.
Reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, reverse the North is up convention and have south at the top.
Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earth's sphere onto an icosahedron. The resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation.
Modern digital GIS maps such as ArcMap typically project north at the top of the map, but use math degrees (0 is east, degrees increase counter-clockwise), rather than compass degrees (0 is north, degrees increase clockwise) for orientation of transects. Compass decimal degrees can be converted to math degrees by subtracting them from 450; if the answer is greater than 360, subtract 360.
Scale and accuracy[edit]
A 'global view map' of Europe, Western Asia and Africa.
Many maps are drawn to a scale expressed as a ratio, such as 1:10,000, which means that 1 unit of measurement on the map corresponds to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground. The scale statement can be accurate when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, such as a city map. Mapping larger regions, where curvature cannot be ignored, requires projections to map from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane. The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane without distortion means that the map cannot have constant scale. Rather, on most projections the best that can be attained is accurate scale along one or two paths on the projection. Because scale differs everywhere, it can only be measured meaningfully as point scale per location. Most maps strive to keep point scale variation within narrow bounds. Although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for most purposes unless the map covers a large fraction of the earth. At the scope of a world map, scale as a single number is practically meaningless throughout most of the map. Instead, it usually refers to the scale along the equator.
Large scale maps, (e.g. 1:10,000), cover relatively small regions in great detail and small scale maps, (e.g. 1:10,000,000), cover large regions such as nations, continents and the whole globe. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions: 1/10,000 is larger than 1/10,000,000. There is no exact dividing line between large and small but 1/100,000 might well be considered as a medium scale. Examples of large scale maps are the 1:25,000 maps produced for hikers; on the other hand maps intended for motorists at 1:250,000 or 1:1,000,000 are small scale.
It is important to recognize that even the most accurate maps sacrifice a certain amount of accuracy in scale to deliver a greater visual usefulness to its user. For example, the width of roads and small streams are exaggerated when they are too narrow to be shown on the map at true scale; that is, on a printed map they would be narrower than could be perceived by the naked eye. The same applies to computer maps where the smallest unit is the pixel. A narrow stream say must be shown to have the width of a pixel even if at the map scale it would be a small fraction of the pixel width.
Cartogram: The EU distorted to show population distributions.
Some maps, called cartograms, have the scale deliberately distorted to reflect information other than land area or distance. For example, this map (at the right) of Europe has been distorted to show population distribution, while the rough shape of the continent is still discernible.
Another example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map. The basic geographical structure is respected but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations. Near the center of the map stations are spaced out more than near the edges of map.
Further inaccuracies may be deliberate. For example, cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely in order to enhance the clarity of the map. For example, a road map may not show railroads, smaller waterways or other prominent non-road objects, and even if it does, it may show them less clearly (e.g. dashed or dotted lines/outlines) than the main roads. Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter that the user is interested in easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy. Software-based maps often allow the user to toggle decluttering between ON, OFF and AUTO as needed. In AUTO the degree of decluttering is adjusted as the user changes the scale being displayed.
Map types and projections[edit]
See also: Category:Map types.
Map of large underwater features. (1995, NOAA)
Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type or land use including infrastructure such as roads, railroads and buildings. Topographic maps show elevations and relief with contour lines or shading. Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures. Maps that depict the surface of the Earth also use a projection, a way of translating the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the Mercator projection, originally designed as a form of nautical chart. Aeroplane pilots use aeronautical charts based on a Lambert conformal conic projection, in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped. The cone intersects the sphere (the earth) at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines. This allows the pilots to plot a great-circle route approximation on a flat, two-dimensional chart.
Azimuthal or Gnomonic map projections are often used in planning air routes due to their ability to represent great circles as straight lines.
Richard Edes Harrison produced a striking series of maps during and after World War II for Fortune magazine. These used "bird's eye" projections to emphasise globally strategic "fronts" in the air age, pointing out proximities and barriers not apparent on a conventional rectangular projection of the world.
Electronic maps[edit]
A USGS digital raster graphic.
From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer. Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographical maps. Having local information such as rainfall level, distribution of wildlife, or demographic data integrated within the map allows more efficient analysis and better decision making. In the pre-electronic age such superimposition of data led Dr. John Snow to identify the location of an outbreak of cholera. Today, it is used by agencies of the human kind, as diverse as wildlife conservationists and militaries around the world.
Relief map Sierra Nevada
Even when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps.
Interactive, computerised maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point. In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerised maps with route-planning and advice facilities which monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or a combination of:
replacing the map by a more detailed one
enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence showing more detail by removing less information compared to the less detailed version
enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is interpolation.
A world map in PDF format.
For example:
Typically (2) applies to a Portable Document Format (PDF) file or other format based on vector graphics. The increase in detail is, of course, limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines, arcs of circles or splines.
(2) may apply to text and (3) to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building.
(1) may apply to the text as needed (displaying labels for more features), while (2) applies to the rest of the image. Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in.
The map may also have layers which are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics. For a single raster graphics image (2) applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter (3) applies.
See also: Webpage (Graphics), PDF (Layers), MapQuest, Google Maps, Google Earth, OpenStreetMap or Yahoo! Maps.
Climatic maps[edit]
The maps that reflect the territorial distribution of climatic conditions based on the results of long-term observations are climatic maps. Climatic maps can be compiled both for individual climatic features (temperature, precipitation, humidity) and for combinations of them at the earth’s surface and in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Climatic maps afford a very convenient overview of the climatic features in a large region and permit values of climatic features to be compared in different parts of the region. Through interpolation the maps can be used to determine the values of climatic features in any particular spot.
Climatic maps generally apply to individual months and to the year as a whole, sometimes to the four seasons, to the growing period, and so forth. On maps compiled from the observations of ground meteorological stations, atmospheric pressure is converted to sea level. Air temperature maps are compiled both from the actual values observed on the surface of the earth and from values converted to sea level. The pressure field in free atmosphere is represented either by maps of the distribution of pressure at different standard altitudes—for example, at every kilometer above sea level—or by maps of baric topography on which altitudes (more precisely geopotentials) of the main isobaric surfaces (for example, 900, 800, and 700 millibars) counted off from sea level are plotted. The temperature, humidity, and wind on aeroclimatic maps may apply either to standard altitudes or to the main isobaric surfaces.
Isolines are drawn on maps of such climatic features as the long-term mean values (of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, total precipitation, and so forth) to connect points with equal values of the feature in question—for example, isobars for pressure, isotherms for temperature, and isohyets for precipitation. Isoamplitudes are drawn on maps of amplitudes (for example, annual amplitudes of air temperature—that is, the differences between the mean temperatures of the warmest and coldest month). Isanomals are drawn on maps of anomalies (for example, deviations of the mean temperature of each place from the mean temperature of the entire latitudinal zone). Isolines of frequency are drawn on maps showing the frequency of a particular phenomenon (for example, annual number of days with a thunderstorm or snow cover). Isochrones are drawn on maps showing the dates of onset of a given phenomenon (for example, the first frost and appearance or disappearance of the snow cover) or the date of a particular value of a meteorological element in the course of a year (for example, passing of the mean daily air temperature through zero). Isolines of the mean numerical value of wind velocity or isotachs are drawn on wind maps (charts); the wind resultants and directions of prevailing winds are indicated by arrows of different length or arrows with different plumes; lines of flow are often drawn. Maps of the zonal and meridional components of wind are frequently compiled for the free atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure and wind are usually combined on climatic maps. Wind roses, curves showing the distribution of other meteorological elements, diagrams of the annual course of elements at individual stations, and the like are also plotted on climatic maps.
Maps of climatic regionalization, that is, division of the earth’s surface into climatic zones and regions according to some classification of climates, are a special kind of climatic map.
Climatic maps are often incorporated into climatic atlases of varying geographic range (globe, hemispheres, continents, countries, oceans) or included in comprehensive atlases. Besides general climatic maps, applied climatic maps and atlases have great practical value. Aeroclimatic maps, aeroclimatic atlases, and agroclimatic maps are the most numerous.
Conventional signs[edit]
The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. Those signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.[1]
Some cartographers prefer to make the map cover practically the entire screen or sheet of paper, leaving no room "outside" the map for information about the map as a whole. These cartographers typically place such information in an otherwise "blank" region "inside" the map—cartouche, map legend, title, compass rose, bar scale, etc. In particular, some maps contain smaller "sub-maps" in otherwise blank regions—often one at a much smaller scale showing the whole globe and where the whole map fits on that globe, and a few showing "regions of interest" at a larger scale in order to show details that wouldn't otherwise fit. Occasionally sub-maps use the same scale as the large map—a few maps of the contiguous United States include a sub-map to the same scale for each of the two non-contiguous states.
See also: Japanese map symbols
Labeling[edit]
To communicate spatial information effectively, features such as rivers, lakes, and cities need to be labeled. Over centuries cartographers have developed the art of placing names on even the densest of maps. Text placement or name placement can get mathematically very complex as the number of labels and map density increases. Therefore, text placement is time-consuming and labor-intensive, so cartographers and GIS users have developed automatic label placement to ease this process.[2][3]
Non-geographical spatial maps[edit]
Maps exist of the Solar System, and other cosmological features such as star maps. In addition maps of other bodies such as the Moon and other planets are technically not geographical maps.
Non spatial maps[edit]
Diagrams such as schematic diagrams and Gantt charts and treemaps display logical relationships between items, and do not display spatial relationships at all.
Some maps, for example the London Underground map, are topological maps. Topological in nature, the distances are completely unimportant; only the connectivity is significant.
General-purpose maps[edit]
General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map. Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category. The following are some features that might be shown on general-purpose maps: bodies of water, roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks. These maps give a broad understanding of location and features of an area. The reader may gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.
Types of maps[edit]
Atlas
Climatic map
Physical map
Political map
Street map
Relief map
Thematic map
Topographical map
Weather map
World map
Geological map
Navigational map
Star map
Legal regulation[edit]
Some countries required that all published maps represent their national claims regarding border disputes. For example:
Within Russia, Google Maps shows Crimea as part of Russia.[4]
Both the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China require that all maps show areas subject to the Sino-Indian border dispute in their own favor.[5]
In 2010, the People's Republic of China began requiring that all online maps served from within China be hosted there, making them subject to Chinese laws.[6]
See also[edit]
Atlas portal
General
Automatic label placement
Cartography
Counter-mapping
Geography
Globe
Map–territory relation
Map designing and types
Aeronautical chart
Anthropomorphic maps
Cartogram
City map
Compass rose
Contour map
Dymaxion map
Estate map
Fantasy map
Floor plan
Geologic map
Hypsometric tints
Map design
Nautical chart
Pictorial maps
Plat
Reversed map
Road atlas
Street map
Thematic map
Transit map
Topographic map
World map
Modern maps
Censorship of maps
List of online map services
Cartography of the United States
NASA World Wind
Orthophotomap - A map created from Orthophotography
Map history
Early world maps
History of cartography
List of cartographers
Related topics
Aerial landscape art
Aerial photography
Automatic label placement
Digital geologic mapping
Geographic coordinate system
Index map
Map database management
Global Map
Notes[edit]
References
Jump up ^ Ordnance Survey, Explorer Map Symbols Archived 4 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine.; Swisstopo, Conventional Signs Archived 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine.; United States Geological Survey, Topographic Map Symbols.
Jump up ^ Imhof, E., “Die Anordnung der Namen in der Karte,” Annuaire International de Cartographie II, Orell-Füssli Verlag, Zürich, 93-129, 1962.
Jump up ^ Freeman, H., Map data processing and the annotation problem, Proc. 3rd Scandinavian Conf. on Image Analysis, Chartwell-Bratt Ltd. Copenhagen, 1983.
Jump up ^ Bill Chappell (12 April 2014). "Google Maps Displays Crimean Border Differently In Russia, U.S". NPR.org.
Jump up ^ "Google charts a careful course through Asia's maps". Reuters.
Jump up ^ Guanqun, Wang. "China issues new rules on Internet map publishing". news.xinhuanet.com. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
Bibliography
David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-07987-2
Denis E. Cosgrove (ed.) Mappings. Reaktion Books, 1999 ISBN 1-86189-021-4
Freeman, Herbert, Automated Cartographic Text Placement. White paper.
Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., “A program for automatic name placement,” Proc. AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983. 444-455.
Freeman, H., “Computer Name Placement,” ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449-460.
Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, ISBN 0-226-53421-9
O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson, The History of Cartography. Scotland : St. Andrews University, 2002.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutMapat Wikipedia's sister projects
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International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals
Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, by the staff of the U.S. Library of Congress.
Historical Maps from the Hargrett Library Collection (University of Georgia) - browse over 1000 maps from as early as 1544. DjVu format; requires free plugin or JAVA
The History of Cartography Project at the University of Wisconsin, a comprehensive research project in the history of maps and mapping
Mapping History Project - University of Oregon
Online map collections at the Bibliothèque nationale de France
Maps at The British Library
John H.W. Stuckenberg Map Digital Collection at Gettysburg College
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gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: मानचित्र – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemljovid
Zemljovid – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapo
Mapo – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peta
Peta – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunauraq
Nunauraq – Inupiaq
ik
ik
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landakort
Landakort – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mappa
Mappa – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9ta
Péta – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: გეოგრაფიული რუკა – Georgian

values: Географиялық карта – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramani
Ramani – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values: Географиялык карталар – Kyrgyz

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landkaart
Landkaart – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values: Географска карта – Macedonian

values: გეოგრაფიული რუკა – Mingrelian

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peta
Peta – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: Газрын зураг – Mongolian

values: မြေပုံ – Burmese

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kart
Kart – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kart
Kart – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarita
Xarita – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values: Географическая карта – Russian

values: Хаарта – Sakha

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map
Map – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harta
Harta – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map
Map – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemljevid
Zemljevid – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Географска карта – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karta
Karta – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas
Atlas – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartta
Kartta – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karta
Karta – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: நிலப்படம் – Tamil

values: Харита – Tatar

values: แผนที่ – Thai

values: Харита – Tajik

values: ᏅᏃᎯ ᏓᏟᎶᏍᏛᎢ – Cherokee

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harita
Harita – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Географічна карта – Ukrainian

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapa
Mapa – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonkoyoon
Lonkoyoon – Wolof
wo
wo
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
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