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Bible translations
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This article is about the general history of Bible translations. For translations into specific languages, see Bible translations by language.
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The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. As of October 2017[update] the full Bible has been translated into 670 languages, the New Testament alone into 1521 languages and Bible portions or stories into 1121 other languages. Thus at least some portion of the Bible has been translated into 3,312 languages.[1]
The Latin Vulgate was dominant in Western Christianity through the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages. English Bible translations also have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium.
Contents
[hide]
1 Original text
1.1 Hebrew Bible
1.2 New Testament
2 History of Bible translations
2.1 Ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible
2.1.1 Aramaic Targums
2.1.2 Greek Septuagint
2.2 Early translations in Late Antiquity
2.3 Middle Ages
2.4 Reformation and Early Modern period
3 Modern translation efforts
4 Differences in Bible translations
4.1 Dynamic or formal translation policy
4.2 Doctrinal differences and translation policy
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Original text[edit]
Hebrew Bible[edit]
The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. From the 6th century to the 10th century, Jewish scholars, today known as Masoretes, compared the text of all known biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels—their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.[2]
New Testament[edit]
The New Testament was written in Koine Greek.[3]
The discovery of older manuscripts, which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Attempts to reconstruct the original text are called critical editions. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to argue that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts.
The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the versions that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild[clarification needed]). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.
Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternative spelling, alternative word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was missing or for other reasons. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts.
Early manuscripts of the letters of Paul and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever.[4][5] The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text.
History of Bible translations[edit]
Ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible[edit]
Aramaic Targums[edit]
Main article: Targums
Some of the first translations of the Jewish Torah began during the first exile in Babylonia, when Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Jews. With most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues.
Greek Septuagint[edit]
Main article: Septuagint
By the 3rd century BC, Alexandria had become the center of Hellenistic Judaism, and during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC translators compiled in Egypt a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures in several stages (completing the task by 132 BC). The Talmud ascribes the translation effort to Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BC), who allegedly hired 72 Jewish scholars for the purpose, for which reason the translation is commonly known as the Septuagint (from the Latin septuaginta, "seventy"), a name which it gained in "the time of Augustine of Hippo" (354–430 AD).[6][7] The Septuagint (LXX), the very first translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, later became the accepted text of the Old Testament in the Christian church and the basis of its canon. Jerome based his Latin Vulgate translation on the Hebrew for those books of the Bible preserved in the Jewish canon (as reflected in the Masoretic text), and on the Greek text for the deuterocanonical books.
The translation now known as the Septuagint was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians.[8] It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted[by whom?] by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts; supposedly proving its accuracy.[9]
Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books not included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or of Hebrew variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than previously thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many[quantify] scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.[2]
Early translations in Late Antiquity[edit]
Origen's Hexapla placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament, including the 2nd century Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite. His eclectic recension of the Septuagint had a significant influence on the Old Testament text in several important manuscripts. The canonical Christian Bible was formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 (although it had been generally accepted by the church previously), confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363 (both lacked the book of Revelation), and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367 (with Revelation added), and Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between AD 382 and 420. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts.
Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions. The received text of the Christian New Testament is in Koine Greek,[a] and nearly all translations are based upon the Greek text.[citation needed]
Jerome began by revising the earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint.
The Bible was translated into Gothic in the 4th century by a group of scholars, possibly under the supervision of Ulfilas.[10], [11] In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the Bible using the Armenian alphabet invented by him. Also dating from the same period are the Syriac, Coptic, Old Nubian, Ethiopic and Georgian translations.[citation needed]
There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of Ge'ez, and in Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).
In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.[12]
Middle Ages[edit]
Main article: Bible translations in the Middle Ages
The Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Royal Library in Sweden.
When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions, additions, and variants (mostly in orthography).
The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible in Latin is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in 8th century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.
During the Middle Ages, translation, particularly of the Old Testament was discouraged. Nevertheless, there are some fragmentary Old English Bible translations, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which he is said to have prepared shortly before his death around the year 735. An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. Charlemagne in ca. 800 charged Alcuin with a revision of the Latin Vulgate. The translation into Old Church Slavonic was started in 863 by Cyril and Methodius.
Alfred the Great had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular in around 900. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these are called the Wessex Gospels. Around the same time, a compilation now called the Old English Hexateuch appeared with the first six (or, in one version, seven) books of the Old Testament.
Pope Innocent III in 1199 banned unauthorized versions of the Bible as a reaction to the Cathar and Waldensian heresies. The synods of Toulouse and Tarragona (1234) outlawed possession of such renderings. There is evidence of some vernacular translations being permitted while others were being scrutinized.
The complete Bible was translated into Old French in the late 13th century. Parts of this translation were included in editions of the popular Bible historiale, and there is no evidence of this translation being suppressed by the Church.[13] The entire Bible was translated into Czech around 1360.
The most notable Middle English Bible translation, Wycliffe's Bible (1383), based on the Vulgate, was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. A Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in the mid 15th century, and in 1478, a Catalan translation in the dialect of Valencia. Many parts of the Bible were printed by William Caxton in his translation of the Golden Legend, and in Speculum Vitae Christi (The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ).
Reformation and Early Modern period[edit]
See also: Early Modern English Bible translations
Czech Protestant Bible of Kralice (1593)
The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion.
During 1517 and 1519 Francysk Skaryna printed a translation of the Bible in Old Belarusian language in twenty-two books.[14]
In 1521, Martin Luther was placed under the Ban of the Empire, and he retired to the Wartburg Castle. During his time there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German. It was printed in September 1522. The first complete Dutch Bible, partly based on the existing portions of Luther's translation, was printed in Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesvelt.[15]
The first printed edition with critical apparatus (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text nunc ab omnibus receptum ("now received by all").
The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (see Chapters and verses of the Bible)
Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings.[16] Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original autographs. Their apparatus includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament.
Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations). For reasons of tradition, however, some translators prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the Majority Text which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative. Distrust of the textual basis of modern translations has contributed to the King-James-Only Movement.
The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible (1522), the Polish Brest Bible (1563), the Spanish "Biblia del Oso" (in English: Bible of the Bear, 1569) which later became the Reina-Valera Bible upon its first revision in 1602, the Czech Melantrich Bible (1549) and Bible of Kralice (1579-1593) and numerous English translations of the Bible. Tyndale's New Testament translation (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536) and his translation of the Pentateuch (1530, 1534) and the Book of Jonah were met with heavy sanctions given the widespread belief that Tyndale changed the Bible as he attempted to translate it. Tyndale's unfinished work, cut short by his execution, was supplemented by Myles Coverdale and published under a pseudonym to create the Matthew Bible, the first complete English translation of the Bible. Attempts at an "authoritative" English Bible for the Church of England would include the Great Bible of 1538 (also relying on Coverdale's work), the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorized Version (the King James Version) of 1611, the last of which would become a standard for English speaking Christians for several centuries.
The first complete French Bible was a translation by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, published in 1530 in Antwerp.[17] The Froschauer Bible of 1531 and the Luther Bible of 1534 (both appearing in portions throughout the 1520s) were an important part of the Reformation.
The first English translations of Psalms (1530), Isaiah (1531), Proverbs (1533), Ecclesiastes (1533), Jeremiah (1534) and Lamentations (1534), were executed by the Protestant Bible translator George Joye in Antwerp. In 1535 Myles Coverdale published the first complete English Bible also in Antwerp.[18]
By 1578 both Old and New Testaments were translated to Slovene by the Protestant writer and theologian Jurij Dalmatin. The work was not printed until 1583. The Slovenes thus became the 12th nation in the world with a complete Bible in their language. The translation of the New Testament was based on the work by Dalmatin's mentor, the Protestant Primož Trubar, who published the translation of the Gospel of Matthew already in 1555 and the entire testament by parts until 1577.
Following the distribution of a Welsh New Testament and Prayer Book to every parish Church in Wales in 1567, translated by William Salesbury, Welsh became the 13th language into which the whole Bible had been translated in 1588, through a translation by William Morgan, the bishop of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant. [19]
Samuel Bogusław Chyliński (1631–1668) translated and published the first Bible translation into Lithuanian.[20]
Modern translation efforts[edit]
See also: International Bible Society, Wycliffe Bible Translators, and Institute for Bible Translation
The Bible is the most translated book in the world. The United Bible Societies announced that as of 31 December 2007[21] the complete Bible was available in 438 languages, 123 of which included the deuterocanonical material as well as the Tanakh and New Testament. Either the Tanakh or the New Testament was available in an additional 1,168 languages, in some kind of translations, like the interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme translation (e.g. some Parallel Bible, with interlinear morphemic glossing).
In 1999, Wycliffe Bible Translators announced Vision 2025—a project that intends to commence Bible translation in every remaining language community by 2025. As of 1 October 2015 they estimate that around 165 - 180 million people, speak those 1,800 languages where translation work still needs to begin. Wycliffe also stated that parts of the Bible are available in approximately 2,900 out of the 6,877 known languages, and that there are currently 554 languages with a complete Bible translation. The New Testament is available in 1,333 languages and many more have at least one book of the Bible available.[22]
Differences in Bible translations[edit]
This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress
Further information: Dynamic and formal equivalence and Bible version debate
Dynamic or formal translation policy[edit]
A variety of linguistic, philological and ideological approaches to translation have been used. Inside the Bible-translation community, these are commonly categorized as:
Dynamic equivalence translation
Formal equivalence translation (similar to literal translation)
Idiomatic, or Paraphrastic translation, as used by the late Kenneth N. Taylor
though modern linguists, such as Bible scholar Dr. Joel Hoffman, disagree with this classification.[23]
As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, like all languages, have some idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is in some cases an ongoing critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the New American Bible, which is the English language Catholic translation, as well as Protestant translations like the King James Version, the Darby Bible, the New Revised Standard Version, the Modern Literal Version, and the New American Standard Bible are seen as more literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the New International Version and New Living Translation sometimes attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. The Living Bible and The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word for word translation, the easier the text becomes to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require. On the other hand, as one gets closer to a word for word translation, the text becomes more literal but still relies on similar problems of meaningful translation at the word level and makes it difficult for lay readers to interpret due to their unfamiliarity with ancient idioms and other historical and cultural contexts.
Doctrinal differences and translation policy[edit]
Further information: Tetragrammaton in the New Testament
In addition to linguistic concerns, theological issues also drive Bible translations. Some translations of the Bible, produced by single churches or groups of churches, may be seen as subject to a point of view by the translation committee.
For example, the New World Translation, produced by Jehovah's Witnesses, provides different renderings where verses in other Bible translations support the deity of Christ.[24] The NWT also translates kurios as "Jehovah" rather than "Lord" when quoting Hebrew passages that used YHWH. The authors believe that Jesus would have used God's name and not the customary kurios. On this basis, the anonymous New World Bible Translation Committee inserted Jehovah into the New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures (New Testament) a total of 237 times while the New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) uses Jehovah a total of 6,979 times to a grand total of 7,216 in the entire 2013 Revision New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures while previous revisions such as the 1984 revision were a total of 7,210 times while the 1961 revision were a total of 7,199 times.[25]
A number of Sacred Name Bibles have been published that are even more rigorous in transliterating the tetragrammaton, using Semitic forms to translate it in the Old Testament and also using the same Semitic forms to translate the Greek word Theos (God) in the New Testament, e.g. usually Yahweh and/or Elohim or some other variation, e.g. The Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition.
Other translations are distinguished by smaller, but distinctive, doctrinal differences. For example, the Purified Translation of the Bible, by translation and explanatory footnotes, promoting the position that Christians should not drink alcohol, that New Testament references to "wine" are translated as "grape juice".
See also[edit]
Bible portal
Ancient and classical translations:
Coptic versions of the Bible
Septuagint (Greek)
Syriac versions of the Bible
Targum and Peshitta (Aramaic)
Vetus Latina and Vulgate (Latin)
English Translations:
Early Modern English Bible translations
English translations of the Bible
Jewish English Bible translations
Old English Bible translations
Middle English Bible translations
Modern English Bible translations
Other languages:
Bible translations by language
Bible translations into Ladakhi
Bible translations into the languages of Africa
Bible translations into the languages of India
Bible translations into the languages of Indonesia
Difficulties:
Gender in Bible translation
Texas sharpshooter fallacy#Translation and interpretation
Translation#Fidelity and transparency
Others:
Bibledit
Bible version debate
Byzantine text-type
Exegesis
Hermeneutics
Institute for Bible Translation
List of languages by year of first Bible translation
Textus Receptus
Translation
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some scholars hypothesize that certain books (whether completely or partially) may have been written in Aramaic before being translated for widespread dissemination. One very famous example of this is the opening to the Gospel of John, which some scholars argue to be a Greek translation of an Aramaic hymn.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.wycliffe.net/statistics
^ Jump up to: a b Menachem Cohen, The Idea of the Sanctity of the Biblical Text and the Science of Textual Criticism in HaMikrah V'anachnu, ed. Uriel Simon, HaMachon L'Yahadut U'Machshava Bat-Z'mananu and Dvir, Tel-Aviv, 1979.
Jump up ^ Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar. Revised by Gordon M. Messing. ISBN 9780674362505. Harvard University Press, 1956. Introduction F, N-2, p. 4A
Jump up ^ http://greek-language.com/grklinguist/?p=657.
Jump up ^ http://www.stpaulsirvine.org/images/papyruslg.gif%7C shows an example of the text without punctuation
Jump up ^ Sundberg, Albert C., Jr. (2002). "The Septuagint: The Bible of Hellenistic Judaism". In McDonald, Lee Martin; Sanders, James A. The Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-56563-517-3.
Jump up ^ The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, chapter by Sundberg, page 72, adds further detail: "However, it was not until the time of Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) that the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures came to be called by the Latin term septuaginta. [70 rather than 72] Jerome began by revising the earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint. The New Testament and at least some of the Old Testament was translated into Gothic in the 4th century by Ulfilas. In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the Bible into Armenian. Also dating from the same period are the Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic and Georgian translations. In his City of God 18.42, while repeating the story of Aristeas with typical embellishments, Augustine adds the remark, "It is their translation that it has now become traditional to call the Septuagint" ...[Latin omitted]... Augustine thus indicates that this name for the Greek translation of the scriptures was a recent development. But he offers no clue as to which of the possible antecedents led to this development: Exod 24:1-8, Josephus [Antiquities 12.57, 12.86], or an elision. ...this name Septuagint appears to have been a fourth- to fifth-century development."
Jump up ^ Karen Jobes and Moises Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint, ISBN 1-84227-061-3 (Paternoster Press, 2001). - The as of 2001[update] standard introductory work on the Septuagint.
Jump up ^ Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A. Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004.
Jump up ^ Falluomini, Carla (2015). [10.1515/9783110334692 The Gothic Version of the Gospels and Pauline Epistles: Cultural background, transmission and character] Check |url= value (help). Berlin: De Gruyter.
Jump up ^ Ratkus, Artūras (2018). "Greek ἀρχιερεύς in Gothic translation: Linguistics and theology at a crossroads". NOWELE. 71 (1): 3–34. doi:10.1075/nowele.00002.rat.
Jump up ^ The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, pp. 414-415, for the entire paragraph.
Jump up ^ Sneddon, Clive R. 1993. "A neglected mediaeval Bible translation." Romance Languages Annual 5(1): 11-16 [1].
Jump up ^ Полная биография Георгия (Доктора медицинских и свободных наук Франциска) Скорины, Михаил Уляхин, Полоцк, 1994
Jump up ^ Paul Arblaster, Gergely Juhász, Guido Latré (eds) Tyndale's Testament, Brepols 2002, ISBN 2-503-51411-1, p. 120.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce R. Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Paleography (Oxford University Press, 1981) cf. Papyrus 52.
Jump up ^ Paul Arblaster, Gergely Juhász, Guido Latré (eds) Tyndale's Testament, Brepols 2002, ISBN 2-503-51411-1, pp. 134-135.
Jump up ^ Paul Arblaster, Gergely Juhász, Guido Latré (eds) Tyndale's Testament, Brepols 2002, ISBN 2-503-51411-1, pp. 143-145.
Jump up ^ J. Davies, "Hanes Cymru". 1990, p. 236
Jump up ^ S. L. Greenslade, The Cambridge History of the Bible: The West, from the Reformation to the Present Day. 1995, p. 134
Jump up ^ United Bible Society (2008). "Statistical Summary of languages with the Scriptures". Archived from the original on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
Jump up ^ "2015 Scripture Access Statistics" (PDF). Wycliffe Global Alliance. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence: A False Dichotomy"
Jump up ^ http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/new-world-translation-accurate/#?insight[search_id]=ab273185-8135-4ee9-a212-210cef439f3e&insight[search_result_index]=0
Jump up ^ New World Translation appendix, pp. 1564-1566. When discussing “Restoring the Divine Name,” the New World Bible Translation Committee states: “To know where the divine name was replaced by the Greek words Κύριος and Θεός, we have determined where the inspired Christian writers have quoted verses, passages and expressions from the Hebrew Scriptures and then we have referred back to the Hebrew text to ascertain whether the divine name appears there. In this way we determined the identity to give Kyʹri·os and The·osʹ and the personality with which to clothe them.” Explaining further, the Committee said: “To avoid overstepping the bounds of a translator into the field of exegesis, we have been most cautious about rendering the divine name in the Christian Greek Scriptures, always carefully considering the Hebrew Scriptures as a background. We have looked for agreement from the Hebrew versions to confirm our rendering.” Such agreement from Hebrew versions exists in all the 237 places that the New World Bible Translation Committee has rendered the divine name in the body of its translation.—NW appendix, pp. 1564-1566
Further reading[edit]
Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, The New Testament: A Translation, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34-35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament.
External links[edit]
Bible Translations
Bible translations at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Repackaging the Bible by Eric Marrapodi, CNN, December 24, 2008
Bible Versions and Translations on BibleStudyTools.com
Huge selection of Bibles in Foreign Languages - bibleinmylanguage.com
BibleGateway.com (has many translations to select)
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text:
Mexico–United States soccer rivalry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Mexico–United States soccer rivalry
Locale
North America (CONCACAF)
Teams
Mexico
United States
First meeting
May 24, 1934
Stadio Nazionale
Rome, Italy
(MEX 2–4 USA)
Latest meeting
June 11, 2017
Estadio Azteca
Mexico City, Mexico
(MEX 1–1 USA)
Statistics
Meetings total
68
Most wins
Mexico (35)
All-time series
35-19–14 (W–L–D) (Mexico)
Largest victory
September 4, 1949
(MEX 6–0 USA)
A sports rivalry exists between the national soccer teams of Mexico and the United States, widely considered the two major powers of CONCACAF. The first match was played in 1934, and the teams have met 68 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 35–19–14 (W–L–D), outscoring the U.S. 139–79.
Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. The U.S.-Mexico matches are widely attended; several matches at the Estadio Azteca in Mexico have drawn over 100,000 fans, and several matches at the Rose Bowl in the United States have drawn over 90,000 fans.
The most important matchups take place in quadrennial FIFA World Cup qualification matches and major tournaments such as the CONCACAF Gold Cup. The rivalry plays out often in annual friendlies scheduled during the early months in U.S. cities with large Mexican American populations such as Los Angeles, Houston, and Phoenix.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Origin
1.2 Recent years
2 Results
2.1 Summary
2.2 Gold Cup finals
2.3 List of matches
3 Player eligibility
4 Incidents
5 Women's soccer
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Origin[edit]
The first match between the two sides was a qualifying match in Italy for the final ticket to the 1934 World Cup. Where soccer was seen as a foreign sport in the United States, in Mexico, like many Latin American nations, it was embraced from the start as part of their culture. The U.S. had established a professional league in 1921, but it had folded in 1933. The final score was United States 4–2 Mexico. Three years later, Mexico began a winning streak over the U.S. in friendlies 7–2, 7–3, and 5–1 in Mexico City.
Recent years[edit]
Prior to 2012, Mexico had never lost to the United States at home and now owns a 23–1–2 (W–L–T) record on their native soil. Mexico has won in the United States seven times, compiling a record of 7–13–9 (W–L–T). The overall Mexican record in the U.S., however, does not reflect the current competitive nature of the series. Since their 1999 win in the U.S. Cup, Mexico has been 4–8–4 on U.S. soil.
In the 21st century, the rivalry added a new chapter with the nickname Dos a Cero (2–0) to U.S. fans. Starting in 2001 during the qualifying cycle for the 2002 World Cup, the U.S. hosted Mexico in Columbus, Ohio at Columbus Crew Stadium, now known as Mapfre Stadium. The first meeting between Mexico and the United States ended in a 2–0 win for the U.S. Following the victory, the U.S. hosted Mexico at Crew Stadium again in 2005, 2009, and 2013 for World Cup Qualifiers (2006, 2010, and 2014 qualifying cycles). Each time these teams met in Columbus, the U.S. has come out with a 2–0 win. Following the September 10, 2013 game the U.S. clinched a World Cup berth following a Panama-Honduras 2–2 draw. Their meeting in the round of 16 of the 2002 World Cup also ended in a U.S. win by the same score.[1] In addition, the U.S. has won three friendlies against Mexico by that score since 2000—in Los Angeles in 2000, the Phoenix area in 2007, and San Antonio in 2015.[2]
On November 11th, 2016, Mexico was finally able to win a hexagonal world cup qualifier in Columbus after beating the U.S. 1-2 with a late Rafael Marquez header.
Results[edit]
Summary[edit]
On a macro level, Mexico leads the series 35–19, with almost the double of goals to the U.S. (139–79).
On neutral territory, the United States leads the series 3–2. In addition, the lone World Cup match between the two countries, a Round of 16 meeting at the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea, resulted in a 2–0 victory for the United States.
Years
Matches
For Mexico
Draw
For USA
Goals
All Time 68 35 14 19 Mexico 139–79 United States
1930s–1940s 7 6 0 1 Mexico 38–12 United States
1950s–1960s 8 6 2 0 Mexico 30–8 United States
1970s–1980s 12 10 1 1 Mexico 27–7 United States
1990s 15 6 5 4 Mexico 15–18 United States
2000s 16 4 2 10 Mexico 13–23 United States
2010s 10 3 4 3 Mexico 13–14 United States
Main Championship Titles
Mexico
United States
FIFA Confederations Cup 1 0
CONCACAF Gold Cup 7 6
CONCACAF Cup 1 0
CONCACAF Championship* 3 0
*no longer played
Gold Cup finals[edit]
The United States and Mexico have met in five Gold Cup finals to date, with Mexico holding a four games to one lead over the United States.
CONCACAF Gold Cup finals
Tournament
Host
Winner
Final Score
Runner-up
1993 Mexico
Mexico 4–0
United States
1998 United States
Mexico 1–0
United States
2007 United States
United States 2–1
Mexico
2009 United States
Mexico 5–0
United States
2011 United States
Mexico 4–2
United States
List of matches[edit]
Date
Location
Competition
Result
Attendance
000000001934-05-24-0000May 24, 1934 Stadio Nazionale, Rome, Italy 1934 FIFA World Cup Qualifier 4–2 10,000
000000001937-09-12-0000September 12, 1937 Parque Asturias, Mexico City, D.F. Friendly 7–2 21,000
000000001937-09-19-0000September 19, 1937 Parque Necaxa, Mexico City, D.F. Friendly 7–3 22,000
000000001937-09-26-0000September 26, 1937 Parque España, Mexico City, D.F. Friendly 5–1
000000001947-07-13-0000July 13, 1947 Estadio Tropical, Havana, Cuba 1947 NAFC Championship 5–0
000000001949-09-04-0000September 4, 1949 Estadio de los Deportes, Mexico City, D.F. 1949 NAFC Championship[n 1] 6–0 60,000
000000001949-09-18-0000September 18, 1949 Estadio de los Deportes, Mexico City, D.F. 1949 NAFC Championship[n 1] 6–2 54,500
000000001954-01-10-0000January 10, 1954 Estadio de los Deportes, Mexico City, D.F. 1954 FIFA World Cup qualifier 4–0 60,000
000000001954-01-14-0000January 14, 1954 Estadio de los Deportes, Mexico City, D.F. 1954 FIFA World Cup qualifier 3–1 40,000
000000001957-04-07-0000April 7, 1957 Estadio Olímpico Universitario, Mexico City, D.F. 1958 FIFA World Cup qualifier 6–0 75,000
000000001957-04-28-0000April 28, 1957 Veterans Memorial Stadium, Long Beach, California 1958 FIFA World Cup qualifier 7–2 12,500
000000001960-11-06-0000November 6, 1960 Wrigley Field, Los Angeles, California 1962 FIFA World Cup qualifier 3–3 8,000
000000001960-11-13-0000November 13, 1960 Estadio Olímpico Universitario, Mexico City, D.F. 1962 FIFA World Cup qualifier 3–0 80,000
000000001965-03-07-0000March 7, 1965 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California 1966 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–2 19,337
000000001965-03-12-0000March 12, 1965 Estadio Olímpico Universitario, Mexico City, D.F. 1966 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–0 64,285
000000001972-09-03-0000September 3, 1972 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 1974 FIFA World Cup qualifier 3–1 29,891
000000001972-09-10-0000September 10, 1972 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California 1974 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–1 9,620
000000001973-10-16-0000October 16, 1973 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. Friendly 2–0 14,000
000000001974-09-05-0000September 5, 1974 Estadio Universitario, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León Friendly 3–1 25,000
000000001974-09-08-0000September 8, 1974 Cotton Bowl, Dallas Friendly 1–0 22,164
000000001975-08-24-0000August 24, 1975 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. Friendly 2–0
000000001976-10-03-0000October 3, 1976 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California 1978 FIFA World Cup qualifier 0–0 31,171
000000001976-10-15-0000October 15, 1976 Estadio Cuauhtémoc, Puebla, Puebla 1978 FIFA World Cup qualifier 3–0 35,000
000000001977-09-27-0000September 27, 1977 Estadio Universitario, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León Friendly 3–0 20,000
000000001980-11-09-0000November 9, 1980 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 1982 FIFA World Cup qualifier 5–1 90,000
000000001980-11-23-0000November 23, 1980 Lockhart Stadium, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 1982 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–1 2,126
000000001984-10-17-0000October 17, 1984 Estadio Neza 86, Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl, Estado de México Friendly 2–1
000000001990-05-10-0000May 10, 1990 Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada 1990 North American Nations Cup 1–0
000000001991-03-12-0000March 12, 1991 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California 1991 North American Nations Cup 2–2
000000001991-07-05-0000July 5, 1991 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California 1991 Gold Cup semifinal 2–0 41,103
000000001993-07-25-0000July 25, 1993 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 1993 CONCACAF Gold Cup final 4–0 120,000
000000001993-10-13-0000October 13, 1993 RFK Stadium, Washington, D.C. Friendly 1–1 23,927
000000001994-06-04-0000June 4, 1994 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California Friendly 1–0 91,123
000000001995-06-18-0000June 18, 1995 RFK Stadium, Washington, D.C. 1995 U.S. Cup 4–0 38,615
000000001995-07-17-0000July 17, 1995 Estadio Parque Artigas, Paysandú, Uruguay 1995 Copa América Quarterfinal 0–0 (4–1) PK 15,000
000000001996-06-16-0000June 16, 1996 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California 1996 U.S. Cup 2–2 92,216
000000001997-01-19-0000January 19, 1997 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California 1997 U.S. Cup 2–0 31,725
000000001997-04-20-0000April 20, 1997 Foxboro Stadium, Foxborough, Massachusetts 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–2 57,877
000000001997-11-02-0000November 2, 1997 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier 0–0 115,000
000000001998-02-15-0000February 15, 1998 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup final 1–0 91,255
000000001999-03-13-0000March 13, 1999 Qualcomm Stadium, San Diego, California 1999 U.S. Cup 2–1 50,234
000000001999-08-01-0000August 1, 1999 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 1999 Confederations Cup semifinal 1–0 aet (0–0) 65,000
000000002000-06-11-0000June 11, 2000 Giants Stadium, East Rutherford, New Jersey 2000 U.S. Cup 3–0 45,008
000000002000-10-25-0000October 25, 2000 Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles, California Friendly 2–0 61,072
000000002001-02-28-0000February 28, 2001 Columbus Crew Stadium, Columbus, Ohio 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–0 24,329
000000002001-07-01-0000July 1, 2001 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifier 1–0 110,000
000000002002-04-03-0000April 3, 2002 Invesco Field at Mile High, Denver Friendly 1–0 48,476
000000002002-06-17-0000June 17, 2002 Jeonju World Cup Stadium, Jeonju, South Korea 2002 FIFA World Cup Round Of 16 2–0 36,380
000000002003-05-08-0000May 8, 2003 Reliant Stadium, Houston, Texas Friendly 0–0 69,582
000000002004-04-28-0000April 28, 2004 Cotton Bowl, Dallas, Texas Friendly 1–0 45,048
000000002005-03-27-0000March 27, 2005 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–1 110,000
000000002005-09-03-0000September 3, 2005 Columbus Crew Stadium, Columbus, Ohio 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–0 24,685
000000002007-02-07-0000February 7, 2007 University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona Friendly 2–0 62,462
000000002007-06-24-0000June 24, 2007 Soldier Field, Chicago, Illinois 2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup final 2–1 60,000
000000002008-02-06-0000February 6, 2008 Reliant Stadium, Houston, Texas Friendly 2–2 70,103
000000002009-02-11-0000February 11, 2009 Columbus Crew Stadium, Columbus, Ohio 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–0 23,776
000000002009-07-26-0000July 26, 2009 Giants Stadium, East Rutherford, New Jersey 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup final 5–0 79,156
000000002009-08-12-0000August 12, 2009 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–1 110,000
000000002011-06-25-0000June 25, 2011 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup final 4–2 93,420
000000002011-08-10-0000August 10, 2011 Lincoln Financial Field, Philadelphia Friendly 1–1 30,138
000000002012-08-15-0000August 15, 2012 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. Friendly 1–0 56,000
000000002013-03-26-0000March 26, 2013 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier 0–0 85,500
000000002013-09-10-0000September 10, 2013 Columbus Crew Stadium, Columbus, Ohio 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–0 24,584
000000002014-04-02-0000April 2, 2014 University of Phoenix Stadium, Glendale, Arizona Friendly 2–2 59,066
000000002015-04-15-0000April 15, 2015 Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas Friendly 2–0 64,369
000000002015-10-10-0000October 10, 2015 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, California 2015 CONCACAF Cup 3–2 93,420
000000002016-11-11-0000November 11, 2016 MAPFRE Stadium, Columbus, Ohio 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier 2–1 24,650
000000002017-06-11-0000June 11, 2017 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, D.F. 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier 1–1 71,537
Player eligibility[edit]
The United States and Mexico also compete to convince players who are eligible to play for both the United States and Mexico (e.g., a player who was born in the United States to Mexican parents) to play for their particular national team. To date, only two players, Martín Vásquez and Edgar Castillo have played for both nations. Castillo, who was born in Las Cruces, New Mexico, debuted with the Mexican side in August 2007 for a match that was part of the 2008 CONCACAF Men Pre-Olympic Tournament. Castillo played his first game for the United States, a friendly against Denmark in 2009.
Incidents[edit]
Prior to an Olympic qualifying game in Guadalajara, Mexico, on February 10, 2004, Mexican media reported that U.S. player Landon Donovan urinated on the field during practice, which angered Mexican fans and media outlets.[3] Subsequent video showed Donovan actually urinated near some bushes outside the practice areas. Two days later, on February 12, 2004, Mexico defeated the U.S. 4–0, and the crowd was heard chanting "Osama, Osama, Osama", in reference to Osama bin Laden and the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.[4]
In a friendly held in Glendale, Arizona on February 7, 2007, Landon Donovan scored in injury time to give the U.S. a 2–0 lead and win over Mexico. After the goal, Mexico goalkeeper Oswaldo Sánchez tried to trip U.S. player Eddie Johnson as Johnson was running to celebrate the goal. No contact was made, and no reprimand resulted.[5]
On February 11, 2009, the first qualifier for the 2010 World Cup was held in Columbus Crew Stadium, and resulted in a 2–0 victory for the U.S. against Mexico. After the game, as both teams headed through the tunnels to the locker room, Mexican assistant coach Francisco "Paco" Javier Ramírez slapped Frankie Hejduk in the face.[6] Hejduk did not retaliate, and Ramirez was not reprimanded.
Women's soccer[edit]
The rivalry is less hostile in women's soccer but still important. Most games have been played on U.S. soil. However, games have been played between both teams in Mexico as well; including one at Estadio Azteca in 1999 which ended 0–0. Another was played during the 2008 CONCACAF Women's U-20 Championship at Puebla, Mexico, where the U.S. U-20 defeated the Mexico U-20 3–0. The Mexican women's team has only defeated the U.S. once, at the 2010 CONCACAF Women's Gold Cup semifinal, where they won 2–1. This win got the Mexican women to their second Women's World Cup. Mexico also defeated the U.S. at the 2007 Pan American Games in Brazil, where Mexico won 3–2 after being down 2 goals, though this match is not considered official by both associations and FIFA due to the U.S. fielding their U20 team in that tournament as opposed to their senior team.
In popular culture[edit]
A 2012 documentary, Gringos at the Gate / Ahi Vienen Los Gringos, written and directed by Pablo Miralles, Roberto Donati, and Michael Whalen,[7] focuses on the cultural differences between the United States and Mexico when it comes to soccer. This includes the conflict of Mexican-American players in the U.S. while their family might support Mexico.[8]
See also[edit]
Hexagonal (CONCACAF)
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Matches were also qualifiers for the 1950 World Cup.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Manfred, Tony (September 10, 2013). "DOS A CERO: USA Beats Mexico 2–0 Again, Qualifies For The 2014 World Cup". Business Insider. Retrieved September 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Legend of "Dos A Cero" lives on: Here's the full list of 2-0 wins by the US national team over Mexico". Major League Soccer. April 16, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "EU – México | Donovan orinó la cancha del Jalisco". Es.rec.deportes.futbol.narkive.com. February 11, 2004. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Whiteside, Kelly (February 12, 2004). "USATODAY.com – Notebook: Mexicans' behavior part of the game". Usatoday30.usatoday.com. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "USA v Mexico 2/7/07". YouTube. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Frankie Hejduk Gets Slapped By a Mexican Coach". Bleacher Report. February 13, 2009. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Gringos at the Gate (2012)". IMDb.com. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived November 1, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
External links[edit]
Archive of U.S. national team results 1885-1979
Archive of U.S. national team results 1980-
Gringos at the Gate Documentary film about the U.S. and Mexico soccer rivalry
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexico–United_States_soccer_rivalry&oldid=804749087"
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IBM Personal Computer XT
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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IBM Personal Computer XT
Also known as
IBM XT, PC XT, XT
Type
Personal computer
Release date
March 8, 1983; 35 years ago (1983-03-08)
Discontinued
April 1987 (1987-04)
Operating system
IBM BASIC / PC DOS 2.0-3.20 / PC/IX / SCO Xenix / Minix
CPU
Intel 8088 @ 4.77 MHz
Memory
128–640 KB RAM
Predecessor
IBM Personal Computer
Successor
IBM Personal Computer/AT
The IBM Personal Computer XT, often shortened to the IBM XT, PC XT, or simply XT, is a version of the IBM PC with a built-in hard drive. It was released as IBM Machine Type number 5160 on March 8, 1983. Apart from the hard drive, it was essentially the same as the original PC, with only minor improvements. The XT was mainly intended as an enhanced IBM PC for business users. Later floppy-only models would effectively replace the original model 5150 PC. A corresponding 3270 PC featuring 3270 terminal emulation was released later in October 1983. XT stands for eXtended Technology.
Contents
[hide]
1 Features
2 Revisions and variants
3 5161 expansion unit
4 IBM XT 286
5 Reception
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Features[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The IBM Personal Computer XT originally came with 128 KB of RAM, a 360 KB double-sided 5¼ inch floppy disk drive, a 10 MB Seagate ST-412 hard drive with Xebec 1210 Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) controller, an Asynchronous Adapter (serial card with 8250 UART), and a 130-watt power supply.[1] The motherboard had an Intel 8088 microprocessor running at 4.77 MHz, with a socket for an optional 8087 math coprocessor.
IBM recognized soon after the IBM PC's release in 1981 that its five 8-bit "I/O channel" expansion slots (later named Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) by IBM's competitors) were insufficient. An internal IBM publication stated in October 1981 about the number that "In my opinion, it could be a problem", reporting that others within IBM advised swapping cards if necessary.[2] Virtually every PC required at least a display adapter card and a floppy disk controller card, leaving only three slots available for a parallel printer port card (if the Color Graphics Adapter was used), a serial port card, memory expansion boards, a 3rd-party hard disk controller card, a second display adapter card, or possible other special adapter cards.
When IBM announced a successor product to the PC in early 1983, initial speculations were that it would be a next-generation machine possibly based on the Intel 80186 or include other advanced features. When the XT was actually unveiled however, there was mild disappointment that the new machine was merely an incremental improvement of the PC based on the same 8088 CPU and would in fact not replace it at all. A BYTE Magazine article commented that "DOS 2.0 is more revolutionary and advanced than the computer itself."
A Seagate ST-412 hard disk was standard equipment, and the XT was not offered in a floppy-only model for its first two years on the market, although the standard ribbon cable with two floppy connectors was still included. The only way to purchase an XT with factory-installed dual floppy drives was if the user also bought the optional 5161 expansion chassis and placed the hard disk in that, which in effect amounted to purchasing two hard disks as the 5161 also came with one standard. Unlike many hard disk systems on microcomputers at the time, the XT was able to boot directly off the drive and did not require a boot floppy. Aside from the hard disk, a serial port card was also standard equipment on the XT, all other cards being optional.
By the end of 1983, the XT was neck-and-neck with the original PC for sales and IBM were selling every one that they made.
The XT had eight slots. Two were behind the floppy drive, and shorter than the original PC's slots. The other six fit into the same space as the original PC's five slots. Most PC cards would not fit into the two short slots, and some would not fit into the six standard-length, but narrower, slots, particularly cards with double boards on them.[3] The floppy and hard drive adapters, the serial port card, and nearly always a display adapter board occupied slots. The basic specification was soon upgraded to have 256 KB of RAM as standard. Expansion slots could be used for I/O devices or for memory expansion. Available Video cards were initially the Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) and Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) (the same two cards that were available for the type 5150 PC), with Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) and Professional Graphics Controller (PGC) becoming available in 1984.
The XT had a desktop case similar to that of the IBM PC. It weighed 32 pounds and was approximately 19.5 inches wide by 16 inches deep by 5.5 inches high. The power supply of the original XT sold in the US was configured for 120 V AC only and could not be used with 240 V mains supplies.[1] XTs with 240V-compatible power supplies were later sold in international markets. Both were rated at 130 Watts.[4]
The operating system usually sold with the XT was PC DOS 2.0 or, by the time the XT was discontinued in early 1987, DOS 3.2. Like the original PC, the XT came with IBM BASIC in its ROM. Despite the lack of a cassette port on XTs, IBM's licensing agreement with Microsoft forced them to include BASIC on all their PCs, and the BASICA program that was included with DOS depended on the BASIC ROM. The XT BIOS also displayed a memory count during the POST, unlike the PC.
The XT was discontinued in the spring of 1987, replaced by the PS/2 Model 30.
Revisions and variants[edit]
XT motherboards came in two different versions. The original (1983–85) had 64 KB of 4164 RAM (64kx1 chips) socketed on it with further sockets to support up to 256 KB and any more RAM had to be put on an expansion card, of which the AST Research Six Pak was the most widespread and popular. XTs produced in 1983-84 shipped from the factory with 128 KB and in 1985, 256k. The second version (1986–87) had 256 KB socketed on it and could accommodate the entire 640 KB.[1] Later XTs used 4164 DRAMs only for the first 256k and the remainder of system memory consisted of larger 41256 DRAMs (256kx1). As a result, it took only 44 RAM chips to reach 640k versus the 80 chips needed on the original model XT.
There were also two or three revisions of the motherboard with minor differences between them. The first version (Model 084) incorporates a 470 ohm resistor to fix a race condition between the CPU and DMA controller which created the possibility of the system locking up.[5] In the spring of 1984, a revised motherboard (Model 083) was introduced which rearranged some components and also incorporated a better solution to the DMA race condition by utilizing a 74LS44 gate (most XT clones instead used a group of 74LS04 gates), however most of the remaining Model 084 motherboards were modified for this before the revised Model 083 appeared. The motherboard revision and that Model 086 came with the full 256 KB RAM (instead of only 128 KB RAM) from the factory were the only differences between the two first models. Unlike the IBM PC motherboard, the XT lacked the trimmer capacitor used to adjust the NTSC color burst for CGA video cards or the second set of DIP switches used to configure memory size. Slot 8 (the one closest to the power supply) was wired slightly differently for cards used to connect IBM 3270 terminals. As a result, some ISA cards will not work in Slot 8 and others included a DIP switch to accommodate it. This feature is unique to the XT and IBM Portable PC and not found on the IBM PC, AT, or any clones.
Beginning in 1985, the XT was offered in floppy-only models without a hard drive (Model 068 and 078) and the new Enhanced Graphics Adapter and Professional Graphics Adapter became available as video card options[1] In 1986, the 256–640KB motherboard models were launched, which switched to half-height drives and 101-key keyboards (essentially the IBM Model M, but in a modified variant that used the XT's keyboard protocol and lacked LEDs). 3.5" floppy drives became available and 20 MB Seagate ST-225 hard disks in 5.25" half-height size replaced the full-height 10 MB drives.
IBM PC XT 5160 Dual Floppy Drives with 5153 Color Monitor
Model 788 was the only XT sold with the Color Graphics Adapter as a standard feature.[4]
Models 568, 588, and 589 were used as basis for the XT/370; they had an additional (co-)processor board that could execute System/370 instructions.[4] An XT-based machine with a Series/1 co-processor board existed as well, but it had its own System Unit number, the IBM 4950.[6]
The XT had three BIOS revisions; the original dated November 8, 1982, the second dated January 10, 1986, and the third dated May 9, 1986. The latter two were the versions found on 256–640KB motherboards and added support for 3.5" floppies, 101 key keyboards, and a few other minor things such as a joystick input function (INT 15h Function 84h) and faster POST. The May 1986 BIOS was identical to the January 1986 revision except for bug fixes pertaining to keyboard input. XTs with the 1982 BIOS may be upgraded to the newer revision.
The XT BIOS added a few technical improvements over the 5150 BIOS, including displaying a memory count during the POST instead of a blank screen. In the interest of faster booting (a fully loaded 5150 with 640k could take over half a minute to complete the POST memory scan), the XT BIOS only attempts to read one bit each from the leftmost chip in each bank and if so, assumes that bank is filled.
While the 5150 had two DIP switch blocks, one for RAM size and the other for system configuration, the XT has one DIP block and just three possible RAM settings (128k, 128-256k, and greater than 256k).
5161 expansion unit[edit]
The 5161 was an expansion chassis that used an identical case and power supply as the XT but had instead of a system board a backplane with 8 card slots (and no microprocessor). The 5161 came with a 10 MB hard drive and had room for another one. The 5161 was connected to the 5160 using an Extender Card in the system unit and a Receiver Card in the Expansion Unit, connected by a custom cable. The Expansion Unit could also contain extra memory, but the Extender card inserted wait states for memory in the Expansion Unit, so it was preferable to install memory onto the XT system board or on memory cards in slots plugged into the XT system board directly. The 5161 could be connected to either an XT or to the earlier 5150 (the original IBM PC).[7] This expansion feature was not available for later machines like the IBM PC AT and in fact the 5161 is completely incompatible with anything but an 8088-based PC.
IBM XT 286[edit]
The IBM XT came with documentation giving the schematic diagrams, BIOS listing, character set, specifications, and other detailed technical information.
In 1986, the XT 286 (IBM 5162) with a 6 MHz Intel 80286 processor was introduced. Despite being marketed as a lower-tier model than the IBM AT, this system actually ran many applications faster than the ATs of the time with 6 MHz 286 processors, because the XT 286 had zero wait state RAM, which could move data more quickly.[1]:95 It came with standard 640 KB RAM on its system board (128 KB actually on board, plus two 256 KB SIMMs) and with an AT-style 1.2 MB high density diskette drive plus a 20 MB hard disk.[8][9] Despite these features, an InfoWorld review from March 1987 declared it a poor market value.[10]
The XT 286 used a 157 watt power supply, which could internally switch between 115 or 230 V AC operation.[8]
Reception[edit]
Byte in November 1983 stated that DOS 2.0 had changed more compared to its predecessor than the XT had. The magazine advised consumers to make sure that expansion cards fit the computer's shorter and narrower slots, and concluded that the XT was "competitively priced" and "solidly engineered, although technically modest, encore to the" IBM PC.[3]
See also[edit]
Amiga Sidecar
PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes#Personal Computer XT/370
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Scott Mueller, "Upgrading and Repairing PCs 2nd Edition" Que Books, 1992 ISBN 0-88022-856-3, pp. 59-79
Jump up ^ Dievendorff, Dick (1981). IBM Personal Computer Questions and Answers. IBM. pp. 9–10.
^ Jump up to: a b Archer, Rowland Jr. (November 1983). "The IBM PC XT and DOS 2.00". BYTE. pp. 294–304. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Personal Computer Family Service Information Manual (January 1989), IBM document SA38-0037-00, page 6-2
Jump up ^ "Purpose of U90 in XT second revision board". Vintage Computer Forum. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
Jump up ^ Personal Computer Family Service Information Manual (January 1989), IBM document SA38-0037-00, page 14-1
Jump up ^ Personal Computer Family Service Information Manual (January 1989), IBM document SA38-0037-00, pages 7-1 to 7-3
^ Jump up to: a b Personal Computer Family Service Information Manual (January 1989), IBM document SA38-0037-00, pages 8-1 to 8-2
Jump up ^ The AT Clone from IBM, PC Magazine, January 13, 1987
Jump up ^ InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. (23 March 1987). InfoWorld. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. p. 49. ISSN 0199-6649.
Notes
IBM (1983). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Personal Computer XT. IBM Part Number 6936831.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to IBM XT.
IBM 5160 information at www.minuszerodegrees.net
Photo galleries:
XT with 256 KB on system board
XT 286
Preceded by
IBM Personal Computer IBM Personal Computers Succeeded by
IBM Personal Computer AT
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_Personal_Computer_XT&oldid=840943185"
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Visit the main page

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/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
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/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
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https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC/XT
IBM PC/XT – Azerbaijani
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az
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https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC/XT
IBM PC/XT – Belarusian
be
be
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https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_XT
IBM PC XT – Korean
ko
ko
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values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_XT
IBM PC XT – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_XT
IBM PC XT – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC/XT
IBM PC/XT – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC/XT
IBM PC/XT – Russian
ru
ru
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
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https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC/XT
IBM PC/XT – Ukrainian
uk
uk
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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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