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United Nations peacekeeping
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United Nations Peacekeeping
UNPK logo
Founded
1948
Website
United Nations Peacekeeping
Leadership
Head of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations
Jean-Pierre Lacroix
Manpower
Active personnel
90,905 uniformed, 111,512 total[1]
Expenditures
Budget
$7.9 billion[2]
Related articles
History
United Nations peacekeeping missions
Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role held by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations as "a unique and dynamic instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions for lasting peace."[3] It is distinguished from peacebuilding, peacemaking, and peace enforcement although the United Nations does acknowledge that all activities are "mutually reinforcing" and that overlap between them is frequent in practice.[4]
Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.
The United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security. For this reason, the international community usually looks to the Security Council to authorize peacekeeping operations through Chapter VI authorizations.[5]
Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself, with troops serving under UN operational control. In these cases, peacekeepers remain members of their respective armed forces, and do not constitute an independent "UN army," as the UN does not have such a force. In cases where direct UN involvement is not considered appropriate or feasible, the Council authorizes regional organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),[5] the Economic Community of West African States, or coalitions of willing countries to undertake peacekeeping or peace-enforcement tasks.
Mr. Jean-Pierre Lacroix is the Head of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. He took over from the former Under-Secretary-General Mr. Hérve Ladsous on 1 April 2017. DPKO's highest level doctrine document, entitled "United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines" was issued in 2008.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Process and structure
2 Formation
2.1 Financing
2.2 Structure
3 History
3.1 Cold War peacekeeping
3.2 Since 1991
4 Participation
5 Results
6 Crimes by peacekeepers
6.1 Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced prostitution
6.2 Human rights violations in United Nations missions
7 Proposed reform
7.1 Brahimi analysis
7.2 Rapid reaction force
7.3 Restructuring of the UN secretariat
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Process and structure[edit]
Peacekeeping forces are contributed by member states on a voluntary basis. As of 31 December 2013, the total size of the peacekeeping force is 98,200 police, troops, and military experts. European nations contribute nearly 6,000 units to this total. Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh are among the largest individual contributors with around 8,000 units each. African nations contributed nearly half the total, almost 44,000 units.[7]
Every peacekeeping mission is authorized by the Security Council.
Formation[edit]
Guard of Honor during UN Medal Awarding Parade at Bunia, Orientale. Republique democratique du Congo by Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force
A multinational UN battalion at the 2008 Bastille Day military parade
Once a peace treaty has been negotiated, the parties involved might ask the United Nations for a peacekeeping force to oversee various elements of the agreed upon plan. This is often done because a group controlled by the United Nations is less likely to follow the interests of any one party, since it itself is controlled by many groups, namely the 15-member Security Council and the intentionally diverse United Nations Secretariat.
If the Security Council approves the creation of a mission, then the Department of Peacekeeping Operations begins planning for the necessary elements. At this point, the senior leadership team is selected. The department will then seek contributions from member nations. Since the UN has no standing force or supplies, it must form ad hoc coalitions for every task undertaken. Doing so results in both the possibility of failure to form a suitable force, and a general slowdown in procurement once the operation is in the field. Romeo Dallaire, force commander in Rwanda during the Rwandan Genocide there, described the problems this poses by comparison to more traditional military deployments:
He told me the UN was a "pull" system, not a "push" system like I had been used to with NATO, because the UN had absolutely no pool of resources to draw on. You had to make a request for everything you needed, and then you had to wait while that request was analyzed... For instance, soldiers everywhere have to eat and drink. In a push system, food and water for the number of soldiers deployed is automatically supplied. In a pull system, you have to ask for those rations, and no common sense seems to ever apply.
—  (Shake Hands With the Devil, Dallaire, pp. 99–100)
While the peacekeeping force is being assembled, a variety of diplomatic activities are being undertaken by UN staff. The exact size and strength of the force must be agreed to by the government of the nation whose territory the conflict is on. The Rules of Engagement must be developed and approved by both the parties involved and the Security Council. These give the specific mandate and scope of the mission (e.g. when may the peacekeepers, if armed, use force, and where may they go within the host nation). Often, it will be mandated that peacekeepers have host government minders with them whenever they leave their base. This complexity has caused problems in the field.
When all agreements are in place, the required personnel are assembled, and final approval has been given by the Security Council, the peacekeepers are deployed to the region in question.
Financing[edit]
Australian peacekeepers in East Timor
The financial resources of UN Peacekeeping operations are the collective responsibility of UN Member States. Decisions about the establishment, maintenance or expansion of peacekeeping operations are taken by the Security Council. According to UN Charter every Member State is legally obligated to pay their respective share for peacekeeping. Peacekeeping expenses are divided by the General Assembly based upon a formula established by Member States which takes into account the relative economic wealth of Member States among other things.[8] In 2017, the UN agreed to reduce the peacekeeping budget by $600 million after the US initially proposed a larger cut of approximately $900 million. [9]
Year
Funding sources by country/source
Description
Total
2015-2016 $8.3bn[10]
2016-2017 US 28.57%
China 10.29%
Japan 9.68%
Germany 6.39%
France 6.31%
United Kingdom 5.80%
Russian Federation 4.01%
Italy 3.75%
Canada 2.92%
Spain 2.44%
Less than 0.5% of world military expenditures (estimated at $1,747 billion in 2013). The resources financed 14 of the 16 United Nations peacekeeping missions with the two remaining ones getting financed through the UN regular budget.
Many countries have also voluntarily made additional resources available to support UN Peacekeeping efforts such as by transportation, supplies, personnel and financial contributions beyond their assessed share of peacekeeping costs.[8]
$7.87bn[8]
2017-2018 While many have praised the Ivory Coast UN peacekeeping mission's stabilizing effects on the country the mission was ended on 30 June 2017.[11] $7.3bn[9]
Structure[edit]
A United Nations peacekeeping mission has three power centers. The first is the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, the official leader of the mission. This person is responsible for all political and diplomatic activity, overseeing relations with both the parties to the peace treaty and the UN member-states in general. They are often a senior member of the Secretariat. The second is the Force Commander, who is responsible for the military forces deployed. They are a senior officer of their nation's armed services, and are often from the nation committing the highest number of troops to the project. Finally, the Chief Administrative Officer oversees supplies and logistics, and coordinates the procurement of any supplies needed.
History[edit]
Main article: History of United Nations peacekeeping
Cold War peacekeeping[edit]
Peacekeepers' Panhard armoured car in the Musée des Blindés, Saumur, France. These vehicles have served with the UN since the inception of UNFICYP.
A Pakistani UNOSOM armed convoy making the rounds in Mogadishu.
United Nations peacekeeping was initially developed during the Cold War as a means of resolving conflicts between states by deploying unarmed or lightly armed military personnel from a number of countries, under UN command, to areas where warring parties were in need of a neutral party to observe the peace process. Peacekeepers could be called in when the major international powers (the five permanent members of the Security Council) tasked the UN with bringing closure to conflicts threatening regional stability and international peace and security. These included a number of so-called "proxy wars" waged by client states of the superpowers. As of February 2009, there have been 63 UN peacekeeping operations since 1948, with sixteen operations ongoing. Suggestions for new missions arise every year.
The first peacekeeping mission was launched in 1948. This mission, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was sent to the newly created State of Israel, where a conflict between the Israelis and the Arab states over the creation of Israel had just reached a ceasefire. The UNTSO remains in operation to this day, although the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict has certainly not abated. Almost a year later, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was authorized to monitor relations between the two nations, which were split off from each other following the United Kingdom's decolonization of the Indian subcontinent.
As the Korean War ended with the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953,[12] UN forces remained along the south side of demilitarized zone until 1967, when American and South Korean forces took over.[citation needed]
Returning its attention to the conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors, the United Nations responded to Suez Crisis of 1956, a war between the alliance of the United Kingdom, France, and Israel, and Egypt, which was supported by other Arab nations. When a ceasefire was declared in 1957, Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs[13] (and future Prime Minister) Lester Bowles Pearson suggested that the United Nations station a peacekeeping force in the Suez in order to ensure that the ceasefire was honored by both sides. Pearson had initially suggested that the force consist of mainly Canadian soldiers, but the Egyptians were suspicious of having a Commonwealth nation defend them against the United Kingdom and her allies. In the end, a wide variety of national forces were drawn upon to ensure national diversity. Pearson would win the Nobel Peace Prize for this work, and he is today considered a father of modern peacekeeping.[citation needed]
In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations peacekeeping forces. The press release stated that the forces "represent the manifest will of the community of nations" and have "made a decisive contribution" to the resolution of conflict around the world.
Since 1991[edit]
Norwegian Peacekeeper during the Siege of Sarajevo, 1992 - 1993.
Indian soldiers patrol under UN mission in Congo, Africa
Indian Army doctors attend to a child in Congo
The end of the Cold War precipitated a dramatic shift in UN and multilateral peacekeeping. In a new spirit of cooperation, the Security Council established larger and more complex UN peacekeeping missions, often to help implement comprehensive peace agreements between belligerents in intra-State conflicts and civil wars. Furthermore, peacekeeping came to involve more and more non-military elements that ensured the proper functioning of civic functions, such as elections. The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations was created in 1992 to support this increased demand for such missions.
By and large, the new operations were successful. In El Salvador and Mozambique, for example, peacekeeping provided ways to achieve self-sustaining peace. Some efforts failed, perhaps as the result of an overly optimistic assessment of what UN peacekeeping could accomplish. While complex missions in Cambodia and Mozambique were ongoing, the Security Council dispatched peacekeepers to conflict zones like Somalia, where neither ceasefires nor the consent of all the parties in conflict had been secured. These operations did not have the manpower, nor were they supported by the required political will, to implement their mandates. The failures—most notably the 1994 Rwandan Genocide and the 1995 massacre in Srebrenica and Bosnia and Herzegovina—led to a period of retrenchment and self-examination in UN peacekeeping.
That period led, in part, to the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, which works to implement stable peace through some of the same civic functions that peacekeepers also work on, such as elections. The Commission currently works with six countries, all in Africa.[14]
Participation[edit]
Alpine Helicopters contract Bell 212 on UN peacekeeping duty in Guatemala, 1998.
San Martin Camp in Cyprus. The Argentine contingent includes troops from other Latin American countries.
Indian Army T-72 tanks with UN markings as part of Operation CONTINUE HOPE.
The UN Charter stipulates that to assist in maintaining peace and security around the world, all member states of the UN should make available to the Security Council necessary armed forces and facilities. Since 1948, close to 130 nations have contributed military and civilian police personnel to peace operations. While detailed records of all personnel who have served in peacekeeping missions since 1948 are not available, it is estimated that up to one million soldiers, police officers and civilians have served under the UN flag in the last 56 years. As of June 2013, 114 countries were contributing a total 91,216 military observers, police, and troops to United Nations Peacekeeping Operations.
As of 29 February 2016, 124 countries were contributing a total of 105,314 personnel in Peacekeeping Operations, with Ethiopia leading the tally (8,324), followed by India (7,695) and Bangladesh (7,525).[15] In June 2013. Pakistan contributed the highest number overall with 8,186 personnel, followed by India (7,878), Bangladesh (7,799), Ethiopia (6,502), Rwanda (4,686), Nigeria (4,684), Nepal (4,495), Jordan (3,374), Ghana (2,859), and Egypt (2,750).[16] As of 28 February 2015, 120 countries were contributing a total of 104,928 personnel in Peacekeeping Operations, with Bangladesh leading the tally (9446).[17] As of March 2008, in addition to military and police personnel, 5,187 international civilian personnel, 2,031 UN Volunteers and 12,036 local civilian personnel worked in UN peacekeeping missions.[18]
A peacekeeping soldier of Poland in Syria
Through April 2008, 2,468 people from over 100 countries have been killed while serving on peacekeeping missions.[19] Many of those came from India (127), Canada (114) and Ghana (113). Thirty percent of the fatalities in the first 55 years of UN peacekeeping occurred in the years 1993-1995. About 4.5% of the troops and civilian police deployed in UN peacekeeping missions come from the European Union and less than one percent from the United States (USA).[20]
The rate of reimbursement by the UN for troop-contributing countries per peacekeeper per month include: $1,028 for pay and allowances; $303 supplementary pay for specialists; $68 for personal clothing, gear and equipment; and $5 for personal weaponry.[21]
Results[edit]
According to scholar Page Fortna, there is strong evidence that the presence of peacekeepers significantly reduces the risk of renewed warfare; more peacekeeping troops leads to fewer battlefield deaths; and more peacekeeping troops leads to fewer civilian deaths.[22] There is also evidence that the promise to deploy peacekeepers can help an international organizations bring combatants to the negotiation table and increase the likelihood that they will agree to a cease-fire.[23]
Similarly, Nicholas Sambanis asserts that the presence of a UN peacekeeping mission is correlated with a positive effect on the achievement of peace, especially in the short-term. However, he notes that this effect is lessened over time. Thus, the longer that peacekeepers remain in a country, the greater the likelihood that peace will maintain. Acknowledging the success that UN peacekeeping operations have achieved in increasing political participation, Sambanis claims that a greater focus on economic development would further increase the efficacy of peacekeeping efforts.[24]
Another study, conducted by Magnus Lundgren, suggests that doubling the peacekeeping operation budget stronger peacekeeping operation mandates and a doubling of the PKO budget would reduce armed conflicts by up to two thirds relative to a scenario without PKOs.[25]
Crimes by peacekeepers[edit]
Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced prostitution[edit]
Further information: Peacekeeping § Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced prostitution
Reporters witnessed a rapid increase in prostitution in Cambodia and Mozambique after UN peacekeeping forces moved in. In the 1996 UN study "The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children", former first lady of Mozambique Graça Machel documented: "In 6 out of 12 country studies on sexual exploitation of children in situations of armed conflict prepared for the present report, the arrival of peacekeeping troops has been associated with a rapid rise in child prostitution."[26]
Gita Sahgal spoke out in 2004 with regard to the fact that prostitution and sex abuse crops up wherever humanitarian intervention efforts are set up. She observed: "The issue with the UN is that peacekeeping operations unfortunately seem to be doing the same thing that other militaries do. Even the guardians have to be guarded."[27]
Human rights violations in United Nations missions[edit]
Brazilian Army participating in a UN peacekeeping mission in Haiti.
The following table chart illustrates confirmed accounts of crimes and human rights violations committed by United Nations soldiers, peacekeepers, and employees.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]
A comparison of incidents involving United Nations peacekeepers, troops, and employees.
Conflict
United Nations Mission
Sexual abuse1
Murder2
Extortion/Theft3
Second Congo War United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo 150 3 44
Somali Civil War United Nations Operation in Somalia II 5 24 5
Sierra Leone Civil War United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone 50 7 15
Eritrean-Ethiopian War United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea 70 15 0
Burundi Civil War United Nations Operation in Burundi 80 5 0
Rwanda Civil War United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda 65 15 0
Second Liberian Civil War United Nations Mission in Liberia 30 4 1
Second Sudanese Civil War United Nations Mission in Sudan 400 5 0
Côte d'Ivoire Civil War United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire 500 2 0
2004 Haitian coup d'état United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti 110 57 0
Kosovo War United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo 800 70 100
Israeli–Lebanese conflict United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon 0 6 0
Proposed reform[edit]
Brahimi analysis[edit]
In response to criticism, particularly of the cases of sexual abuse by peacekeepers, the UN has taken steps toward reforming its operations. The Brahimi Report was the first of many steps to recap former peacekeeping missions, isolate flaws, and take steps to patch these mistakes to ensure the efficiency of future peacekeeping missions. The UN has vowed to continue to put these practices into effect when performing peacekeeping operations in the future. The technocratic aspects of the reform process have been continued and revitalised by the DPKO in its "Peace Operations 2010" reform agenda. This included an increase in personnel, the harmonization of the conditions of service of field and headquarters staff, the development of guidelines and standard operating procedures, and improving the partnership arrangement between the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), African Union and European Union. 2008 capstone doctrine entitled "United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines"[6] incorporates and builds on the Brahimi analysis.
Rapid reaction force[edit]
One suggestion to account for delays such as the one in Rwanda, is a rapid reaction force: a standing group, administered by the UN and deployed by the Security Council, that receives its troops and support from current Security Council members and is ready for quick deployment in the event of future genocides.[40]
Restructuring of the UN secretariat[edit]
The UN peacekeeping capacity was enhanced in 2007 by augmenting the DPKO with the new Department of Field Support (DFS). Whereas the new entity serves as a key enabler by co-ordinating the administration and logistics in UN peacekeeping operations, DPKO concentrates on policy planning and providing strategic directions.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
United Nations portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to United Nations peacekeeping missions.
UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations
International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers
List of United Nations peacekeeping missions
List of countries by number of UN peacekeepers
Multinational Force and Observers
Timeline of UN peacekeeping missions
List of non-UN peacekeeping missions
NATO peacekeeping
White Helmets Commission
PKSOI
International security
Responsibility to protect
Security-related bills
References[edit]
Jump up ^ UN Peacekeeping Fact Sheet: 30 June 2013; accessed: August 7, 2013
Jump up ^ "Financing peacekeeping".
Jump up ^ United Nations Peacekeeping
Jump up ^ "Peace and Security". United Nations. Retrieved 5/18/17. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Nau, Henry (2015). Perspectives on International Relations. Washington DC: CQ Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-1-4522-4148-7.
^ Jump up to: a b DPKO Capstone Doctrine
Jump up ^ "United Nations troop and police contributors archive (1990 - 2013)". Retrieved 11 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Financing peacekeeping. United Nations Peacekeeping". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-05-31.
^ Jump up to: a b Nichols, By Michelle. "U.N. states agree $7.3 bln peacekeeping budget, U.S. share cut 7.5 pct". Reuters. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "General Assembly Authorizes $8.3 billion for 15 Peacekeeping Operations in 2015/16 as It Adopts 25 Resolutions, 1 Decision in Reports of Fifth Committee | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "UN ends peacekeeping mission in Ivory Coast after 13 years". ABC News. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Korean War armistice". BBC News. 2015-03-05. Retrieved 2017-02-09.
Jump up ^ "Lester B. Pearson: 1957 Nobel Peace Prize Recipient".
Jump up ^ "Beyond Peace Deals: The United Nations Experiment in "Peacebuilding"".
Jump up ^ "Contribution to United Nations peacekeeping operations, 29th February, 2016" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Ranking of Military and Police Contributions to UN Operations accessed August 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Monthly Summary of Contributions (Police, UN Military Experts on Mission and Troops)accessed February, 2015.
Jump up ^ Background Note – United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Jump up ^ United Nations peacekeeping – Fatalities By Year up to 31 Dec 2008
Jump up ^ "Peacekeeping Fact Sheet". United Nations. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
Jump up ^ United Nations Peacekeepers - How are peacekeepers compensated?
Jump up ^ "Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping". Political Violence @ a Glance. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
Jump up ^ Lundgren, Magnus (2016). "Which international organizations can settle civil wars?". Review of International Organizations. DOI 10.1007/s11558-016-9253-0.
Jump up ^ Sambanis, Nicholas (2008). "Short- and Long-Term Effects of United Nations Peace Operations". The World Bank Economic Review. 22: 9–32.
Jump up ^ "Evaluating the conflict-reducing effect of UN peacekeeping operations" (PDF).
Jump up ^ The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children
Jump up ^ "Sex charges haunt UN forces; In places like Congo and Kosovo, peacekeepers have been accused of abusing the people they're protecting," Christian Science Monitor, 26 November 2004, accessed 16 February 2010
Jump up ^ 1 : compiled from the corresponding Wikipedia articles. When a range was given, the median was used.
Jump up ^ 2 http://www.unwire.org/unwire/20030411/33133_story.asp United Nations Foundation.
Jump up ^ 3https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A52333-2005Mar20.html Congo's Desperate 'One-Dollar U.N. Girls'
Jump up ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6195830.stm UN troops face child abuse claims
Jump up ^ http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/081zxelz.asp The U.N. Sex Scandal
Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/un-troops-buy-sex-from-teenage-refugees-in-congo-camp-756666.html UN troops buy sex from teenage refugees in Congo camp
Jump up ^ http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/199/40816.html UN Peacekeepers Criticized
Jump up ^ http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/190/32956.html Global Rules Now Apply to Peacekeepers
Jump up ^ http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3113&context=expresso Victims of Peace: Current Abuse Allegations against U.N. Peacekeepers and the Role of Law in Preventing Them in the Future
Jump up ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/27_05_08_savethechildren.pdf No One to Turn To - BBC Analysis
Jump up ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1538476/UN-staff-accused-of-raping-children-in-Sudan.html UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan
Jump up ^ https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2002/bosnia/ TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN AND GIRLS TO POST-CONFLICT BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA FOR FORCED PROSTITUTION - Human Rights Watch
Jump up ^ Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, 2000.
Further reading[edit]
Bureš, Oldřich (June 2006). "Regional Peacekeeping Operations: Complementing or Undermining the United Nations Security Council?". Global Change, Peace & Security. 18 (2): 83–99. doi:10.1080/14781150600687775.
Fortna, Virginia Page (2004). "Does Peacekeeping Keep Peace? International Intervention and the Duration of Peace After Civil War". International Studies Quarterly. 48 (2): 269–292. doi:10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00301.x.
Goulding, Marrack (July 1993). "The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping". International Affairs. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), Vol. 69, No. 3. 69 (3): 451–64. doi:10.2307/2622309. JSTOR 2622309.
Pushkina, Darya (June 2006). "A Recipe for Success? Ingredients of a Successful Peacekeeping Mission". International Peacekeeping. 13 (2): 133–149. doi:10.1080/13533310500436508.
Worboys, Katherine (2007). "The Traumatic Journey from Dictatorship to Democracy: Peacekeeping Operations and Civil-Military Relations in Argentina, 1989-1999". Armed Forces & Society. 33 (2): 149–168. doi:10.1177/0095327X05283843.
Dandeker, Christopher; Gow, James (1997). "The Future of Peace Support Operations: Strategic Peacekeeping and Success". Armed Forces & Society. 23 (3): 327–347. doi:10.1177/0095327X9702300302.
Blocq, Daniel. 2009. "Western Soldiers and the Protection of Local Civilians in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Is a Nationalist Orientation in the Armed Forces Hindering Our Preparedness to Fight?" Armed Forces & Society,abstract
Bridges, Donna and Debbie Horsfall. 2009. "Increasing Operational Effectiveness in UN Peacekeeping: Toward a Gender-Balanced Force." Armed Forces & Society, May 2009. abstract
Howard, Lise Morjé. 2008. UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.abstract
Fortna, Virginia Page; Lise Morjé, Howard (2008). "Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Future". Annual Review of Political Science. 11: 283–301. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022.
Reed, Brian; Segal, David (2000). "The Impact of Multiple Deployments on Soldiers' Peacekeeping Attitudes, Morale and Retention". Armed Forces & Society. 27: 57–78. doi:10.1177/0095327X0002700105.
Sion, Liora (2006). "'Too Sweet and Innocent for War'?: Dutch Peacekeepers and the Use of Violence". Armed Forces & Society. 32 (3): 454–474. doi:10.1177/0095327X05281453.

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text:
Timeline of particle discoveries
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This is a timeline of subatomic particle discoveries, including all particles thus far discovered which appear to be elementary (that is, indivisible) given the best available evidence. It also includes the discovery of composite particles and antiparticles that were of particular historical importance.
More specifically, the inclusion criteria are:
Elementary particles from the Standard Model of particle physics that have so far been observed. The Standard Model is the most comprehensive existing model of particle behavior. All Standard Model particles including the Higgs boson have been verified, and all other observed particles are combinations of two or more Standard Model particles.
Antiparticles which were historically important to the development of particle physics, specifically the positron and antiproton. The discovery of these particles required very different experimental methods from that of their ordinary matter counterparts, and provided evidence that all particles had antiparticles—an idea that is fundamental to quantum field theory, the modern mathematical framework for particle physics. In the case of most subsequent particle discoveries, the particle and its anti-particle were discovered essentially simultaneously.
Composite particles which were the first particle discovered containing a particular elementary constituent, or whose discovery was critical to the understanding of particle physics.
Time
Event
1800 William Herschel discovers "heat rays"
1801 Johann Wilhelm Ritter made the hallmark observation that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum were especially effective at lightening silver chloride-soaked paper. He called them "oxidizing rays" to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays" at the other end of the invisible spectrum (both of which were later determined to be photons). The more general term "chemical rays" was adopted shortly thereafter to describe the oxidizing rays, and it remained popular throughout the 19th century. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.[1]
1895 Discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet (later identified as photons) because it is strongly absorbed by air, by the German physicist Victor Schumann[2]
1895 X-ray produced by Wilhelm Röntgen (later identified as photons)[3]
1897 Electron discovered by J. J. Thomson[4]
1899 Alpha particle discovered by Ernest Rutherford in uranium radiation[5]
1900 Gamma ray (a high-energy photon) discovered by Paul Villard in uranium decay[6]
1911 Atomic nucleus identified by Ernest Rutherford, based on scattering observed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden[7]
1919 Proton discovered by Ernest Rutherford[8]
1931 Deuteron discovered by Harold Urey[9][10] (predicted by Rutherford in 1920[11])
1932 Neutron discovered by James Chadwick[12] (predicted by Rutherford in 1920[11])
Main article: Discovery of the neutron
1932 Antielectron (or positron), the first antiparticle, discovered by Carl D. Anderson[13] (proposed by Paul Dirac in 1927 and by Ettore Majorana in 1928)
1937 Muon (or mu lepton) discovered by Seth Neddermeyer, Carl D. Anderson, J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson, using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays[14] (it was mistaken for the pion until 1947[15])
1947 Pion (or pi meson) discovered by C. F. Powell's group, including César Lattes(first author) and Giuseppe Occhialini (predicted by Hideki Yukawa in 1935[16])
1947 Kaon (or K meson), the first strange particle, discovered by George Dixon Rochester and Clifford Charles Butler[17]
1950
Λ0
(or lamda baryon) discovered during a study of cosmic-ray interactions[18]
1955 Antiproton discovered by Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis[19]
1956 Electron antineutrino detected by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan (proposed by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain the apparent violation of conservation of energy in beta decay)[20] At the time it was simply referred to as neutrino since there was only one known neutrino.
1962 Muon neutrino (or mu neutrino) shown to be distinct from the electron neutrino by a group headed by Leon Lederman[21]
1964 Xi baryon discovery at Brookhaven National Laboratory[22]
1969 Partons (internal constituents of hadrons) observed in deep inelastic scattering experiments between protons and electrons at SLAC;[23][24] this was eventually associated with the quark model (predicted by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964) and thus constitutes the discovery of the up quark, down quark, and strange quark.
1974 J/ψ meson discovered by groups headed by Burton Richter and Samuel Ting, demonstrating the existence of the charm quark[25][26] (proposed by James Bjorken and Sheldon Lee Glashow in 1964[27])
1975 Tau discovered by a group headed by Martin Perl[28]
1977 Upsilon meson discovered at Fermilab, demonstrating the existence of the bottom quark[29] (proposed by Kobayashi and Maskawa in 1973)
1979 Gluon observed indirectly in three-jet events at DESY[30]
1983 W and Z bosons discovered by Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer, and the CERN UA1 collaboration[31][32] (predicted in detail by Sheldon Glashow, Mohammad Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg)
1995 Top quark discovered at Fermilab[33][34]
1995 Antihydrogen produced and measured by the LEAR experiment at CERN[35]
2000 Tau neutrino first observed directly at Fermilab[36]
2011 Antihelium-4 produced and measured by the STAR detector; the first particle to be discovered by the experiment
2012 A particle exhibiting most of the predicted characteristics of the Higgs boson discovered by researchers conducting the Compact Muon Solenoid and ATLAS experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider[37]
See also[edit]
Physics portal
List of baryons
List of mesons
List of particles
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hockberger, P. E. (2002). "A history of ultraviolet photobiology for humans, animals and microorganisms". Photochem. Photobiol. 76 (6): 561–579. doi:10.1562/0031-8655(2002)0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2. ISSN 0031-8655. PMID 12511035.
Jump up ^ The ozone layer protects humans from this. Lyman, T. (1914). "Victor Schumann". Astrophysical Journal. 38: 1–4. Bibcode:1914ApJ....39....1L. doi:10.1086/142050.
Jump up ^ W.C. Röntgen (1895). "Über ein neue Art von Strahlen. Vorlaufige Mitteilung". Sitzber. Physik. Med. Ges. 137: 1. as translated in A. Stanton (1896). "On a New Kind of Rays". Nature. 53 (1369): 274–276. Bibcode:1896Natur..53R.274.. doi:10.1038/053274b0.
Jump up ^ J.J. Thomson (1897). "Cathode Rays". Philosophical Magazine. 44 (269): 293–316. doi:10.1080/14786449708621070.
Jump up ^ E. Rutherford (1899). "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical Conduction Produced by it". Philosophical Magazine. 47 (284): 109–163. doi:10.1080/14786449908621245.
Jump up ^ P. Villard (1900). "Sur la Réflexion et la Réfraction des Rayons Cathodiques et des Rayons Déviables du Radium". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. 130: 1010.
Jump up ^ E. Rutherford (1911). "The Scattering of α- and β- Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom". Philosophical Magazine. 21 (125): 669–688. doi:10.1080/14786440508637080.
Jump up ^ E. Rutherford (1919). "Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms IV. An Anomalous Effect in Nitrogen". Philosophical Magazine. 37: 581.
Jump up ^ Brickwedde, Ferdinand G. (1982). "Harold Urey and the discovery of deuterium". Physics Today. 35 (9): 34. Bibcode:1982PhT....35i..34B. doi:10.1063/1.2915259.
Jump up ^ Urey, Harold; Brickwedde, F.; Murphy, G. (1932). "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass 2". Physical Review. 39: 164–165. Bibcode:1932PhRv...39..164U. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.39.164.
^ Jump up to: a b E. Rutherford (1920). "Nuclear Constitution of Atoms". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 97 (686): 374–400. Bibcode:1920RSPSA..97..374R. doi:10.1098/rspa.1920.0040.
Jump up ^ J. Chadwick (1932). "Possible Existence of a Neutron". Nature. 129 (3252): 312. Bibcode:1932Natur.129Q.312C. doi:10.1038/129312a0.
Jump up ^ C.D. Anderson (1932). "The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives". Science. 76 (1967): 238–9. Bibcode:1932Sci....76..238A. doi:10.1126/science.76.1967.238. PMID 17731542.
Jump up ^ S.H. Neddermeyer; C.D. Anderson (1937). "Note on the nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles". Physical Review. 51 (10): 884–886. Bibcode:1937PhRv...51..884N. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.51.884.
Jump up ^ M. Conversi; E. Pancini; O. Piccioni (1947). "On the Disintegration of Negative Muons". Physical Review. 71 (3): 209–210. Bibcode:1947PhRv...71..209C. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.71.209.
Jump up ^ H. Yukawa (1935). "On the Interaction of Elementary Particles". Proceedings of the Physico-Mathematical Society of Japan. 17: 48.
Jump up ^ G.D. Rochester; C.C. Butler (1947). "Evidence for the Existence of New Unstable Elementary Particles". Nature. 160 (4077): 855–857. Bibcode:1947Natur.160..855R. doi:10.1038/160855a0.
Jump up ^ The Strange Quark
Jump up ^ O. Chamberlain; E. Segrè; C. Wiegand; T. Ypsilantis (1955). "Observation of Antiprotons". Physical Review. 100 (3): 947–950. Bibcode:1955PhRv..100..947C. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.100.947.
Jump up ^ F. Reines; C.L. Cowan (1956). "The Neutrino". Nature. 178 (4531): 446–449. Bibcode:1956Natur.178..446R. doi:10.1038/178446a0.
Jump up ^ G. Danby; et al. (1962). "Observation of High-Energy Neutrino Reactions and the Existence of Two Kinds of Neutrinos". Physical Review Letters. 9 (1): 36–44. Bibcode:1962PhRvL...9...36D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.36.
Jump up ^ R. Nave. "The Xi Baryon". Hyperphysics. Retrieved 20 June 2009.
Jump up ^ E.D. Bloom; et al. (1969). "High-Energy Inelastic e–p Scattering at 6° and 10°". Physical Review Letters. 23 (16): 930–934. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23..930B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930.
Jump up ^ M. Breidenbach; et al. (1969). "Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron-Proton Scattering". Physical Review Letters. 23 (16): 935–939. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23..935B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935.
Jump up ^ J.J. Aubert; et al. (1974). "Experimental Observation of a Heavy Particle J". Physical Review Letters. 33 (23): 1404–1406. Bibcode:1974PhRvL..33.1404A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1404.
Jump up ^ J.-E. Augustin; et al. (1974). "Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in e+e− Annihilation". Physical Review Letters. 33 (23): 1406–1408. Bibcode:1974PhRvL..33.1406A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1406.
Jump up ^ B.J. Bjørken; S.L. Glashow (1964). "Elementary Particles and SU(4)". Physics Letters. 11 (3): 255–257. Bibcode:1964PhL....11..255B. doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0.
Jump up ^ M.L. Perl; et al. (1975). "Evidence for Anomalous Lepton Production in e+–e− Annihilation". Physical Review Letters. 35 (22): 1489–1492. Bibcode:1975PhRvL..35.1489P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1489.
Jump up ^ S.W. Herb; et al. (1977). "Observation of a Dimuon Resonance at 9.5 GeV in 400-GeV Proton-Nucleus Collisions". Physical Review Letters. 39 (5): 252–255. Bibcode:1977PhRvL..39..252H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.252.
Jump up ^ D.P. Barber; et al. (1979). "Discovery of Three-Jet Events and a Test of Quantum Chromodynamics at PETRA". Physical Review Letters. 43 (12): 830–833. Bibcode:1979PhRvL..43..830B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.43.830.
Jump up ^ J.J. Aubert et al. (European Muon Collaboration) (1983). "The ratio of the nucleon structure functions F2N for iron and deuterium". Physics Letters B. 123 (3–4): 275–278. Bibcode:1983PhLB..123..275A. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(83)90437-9.
Jump up ^ G. Arnison et al. (UA1 collaboration) (1983). "Experimental observation of lepton pairs of invariant mass around 7001950000000000000♠95 GeV/c2 at the CERN SPS collider". Physics Letters B. 126 (5): 398–410. Bibcode:1983PhLB..126..398A. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(83)90188-0.
Jump up ^ F. Abe et al. (CDF collaboration) (1995). "Observation of Top quark production in p–p Collisions with the Collider Detector at Fermilab". Physical Review Letters. 74 (14): 2626–2631. arXiv:hep-ex/9503002  . Bibcode:1995PhRvL..74.2626A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.2626. PMID 10057978.
Jump up ^ S. Arabuchi et al. (D0 collaboration) (1995). "Observation of the Top Quark". Physical Review Letters. 74 (14): 2632–2637. arXiv:hep-ex/9503003  . Bibcode:1995PhRvL..74.2632A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.2632. PMID 10057979.
Jump up ^ G. Baur; et al. (1996). "Production of Antihydrogen". Physics Letters B. 368 (3): 251–258. Bibcode:1996PhLB..368..251B. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(96)00005-6.
Jump up ^ "Physicists Find First Direct Evidence for Tau Neutrino at Fermilab" (Press release). Fermilab. 20 July 2000. Retrieved 20 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Boyle, Alan (4 July 2012). "Milestone in Higgs quest: Scientists find new particle". MSNBC. MSNBC. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
V.V. Ezhela; et al. (1996). Particle Physics: One Hundred Years of Discoveries: An Annotated Chronological Bibliography. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-56396-642-5.
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