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Bauhaus
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For other uses, see Bauhaus (disambiguation).
The three Bauhaus schools
Bauhaus building in Weimar
Bauhaus building in Dessau
Memorial plate Bauhaus Berlin
Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau
UNESCO World Heritage Site
ADGB Trade Union School in Bernau
Location
Germany
Criteria
Cultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference
729
Inscription
1996 (20th Session)
Extensions
2017
Area
8.1614 ha
Buffer zone
59.26 ha
Weimar
Dessau
Bernau
1921/2, Walter Gropius' Expressionist Monument to the March Dead
Typography by Herbert Bayer above the entrance to the workshop block of the Bauhaus, Dessau, 2005
Staatliches Bauhaus (German: [ˈʃtaːtlɪçəs ˈbaʊˌhaʊs] ( listen)), commonly known simply as Bauhaus, was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught.[1]
The Bauhaus was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. The German term Bauhaus—literally "construction house"—was understood as meaning "School of Building", but in spite of its name and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during its first years of existence. Nonetheless, it was founded with the idea of creating a "total" work of art (Gesamtkunstwerk) in which all arts, including architecture, would eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style later became one of the most influential currents in modern design, Modernist architecture and art, design and architectural education.[2] The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography.[3]
The school existed in three German cities: Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933, under three different architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928, Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime, having been painted as a centre of communist intellectualism. Although the school was closed, the staff continued to spread its idealistic precepts as they left Germany and emigrated all over the world.[4]
The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. For example, the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, even though it had been an important revenue source; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bauhaus and German modernism
1.1 Bauhaus and Vkhutemas
2 History of the Bauhaus
2.1 Weimar
2.2 Dessau
2.3 Berlin
3 Architectural output
4 Impact
4.1 The White City
5 Bauhaus staff and students
6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Bauhaus and German modernism[edit]
The Bauhaus Museum, Tel Aviv
Further information: New Objectivity (architecture)
Germany's defeat in World War I, the fall of the German monarchy and the abolition of censorship under the new, liberal Weimar Republic allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in all the arts, which had been suppressed by the old regime. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated: Gropius did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical.[5] Just as important was the influence of the 19th century English designer William Morris, who had argued that art should meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function.[6] Thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design.
However, the most important influence on Bauhaus was modernism, a cultural movement whose origins lay as early as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus—the radically simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass production was reconcilable with the individual artistic spirit—were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German national designers' organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 by Hermann Muthesius to harness the new potentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design in Germany, and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship versus mass production, the relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether or not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1,870 members (by 1914).
Bauhaus building in Chemnitz
The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen. Beginning in June 1907, Peter Behrens' pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark AEG Turbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel. Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period.
The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist had turned from emotional Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity. An entire group of working architects, including Erich Mendelsohn, Bruno Taut and Hans Poelzig, turned away from fanciful experimentation, and turned toward rational, functional, sometimes standardized building. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a "minimal dwelling" written into the new Weimar Constitution. Ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, and sometimes fierce public debate.
Bauhaus and Vkhutemas[edit]
Main article: Vkhutemas
The Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization and scope. The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner.[7] Both schools were state-sponsored initiatives to merge the craft tradition with modern technology, with a basic course in aesthetic principles, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture.[7] Vkhutemas was a larger school than the Bauhaus,[8] but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union and consequently, is less familiar in the West.[9]
With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus.[10] The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the two schools, while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in architecture. In addition, El Lissitzky's book Russia: an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there.
History of the Bauhaus[edit]
Weimar[edit]
The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906 and directed by Belgian Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde.[11] When van de Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, Hermann Obrist and August Endell as possible successors. In 1919, after delays caused by the destruction of World War I and a lengthy debate over who should head the institution and the socio-economic meanings of a reconciliation of the fine arts and the applied arts (an issue which remained a defining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating the two called the Bauhaus.[12] In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled "Exhibition of Unknown Architects", Gropius proclaimed his goal as being "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist." Gropius' neologism Bauhaus references both building and the Bauhütte, a premodern guild of stonemasons.[13] The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. In 1919 Swiss painter Johannes Itten, German-American painter Lyonel Feininger, and German sculptor Gerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of the Bauhaus. By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor and designer Oskar Schlemmer who headed the theater workshop, and Swiss painter Paul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painter Theo van Doesburg to Weimar to promote De Stijl ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architect El Lissitzky.[14]
The main building of the Bauhaus-University Weimar (built 1904–1911, designed by Henry van de Velde to house the sculptors’ studio at the Grand Ducal Saxon Art School. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996).
Foyer of the Bauhaus-University Weimar with Jugendstil staircase
From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and aesthetic ideas of Johannes Itten, who taught the Vorkurs or "preliminary course" that was the introduction to the ideas of the Bauhaus.[12] Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideas of Franz Cižek and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. He was also influenced in respect to aesthetics by the work of the Blaue Reiter group in Munich as well as the work of Austrian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka. The influence of German Expressionism favoured by Itten was analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate. This influence culminated with the addition of Der Blaue Reiter founding member Wassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1922. Itten was replaced by the Hungarian designer László Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote the Vorkurs with a leaning towards the New Objectivity favored by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate. Although this shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader, more gradual socio-economic movement that had been going on at least since 1907 when van de Velde had argued for a craft basis for design while Hermann Muthesius had begun implementing industrial prototypes.[14]
Gropius was not necessarily against Expressionism, and in fact himself in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this "new guild of craftsmen, without the class snobbery," described "painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of the hands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future." By 1923 however, Gropius was no longer evoking images of soaring Romanesque cathedrals and the craft-driven aesthetic of the "Völkisch movement", instead declaring "we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars."[15] Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent with mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic merit. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called Bauhaus and a series of books called "Bauhausbücher". Since the Weimar Republic lacked the quantity of raw materials available to the United States and Great Britain, it had to rely on the proficiency of a skilled labor force and an ability to export innovative and high quality goods. Therefore, designers were needed and so was a new type of art education. The school's philosophy stated that the artist should be trained to work with the industry.[16][17]
Weimar was in the German state of Thuringia, and the Bauhaus school received state support from the Social Democrat-controlled Thuringian state government. The school in Weimar experienced political pressure from conservative circles in Thuringian politics, increasingly so after 1923 as political tension rose. One condition placed on the Bauhaus in this new political environment was the exhibition of work undertaken at the school. This condition was met in 1923 with the Bauhaus' exhibition of the experimental Haus am Horn.[18] The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut the school's funding in half. On 26 December 1924 the Bauhaus issued a press release and setting the closure of the school for the end of March 1925.[19][20] At this point they had already been looking for alternative sources of funding. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, and in 1996 changed its name to Bauhaus-University Weimar.
Dessau[edit]
Gropius's design for the Dessau facilities was a return to the futuristic Gropius of 1914 that had more in common with the International style lines of the Fagus Factory than the stripped down Neo-classical of the Werkbund pavilion or the Völkisch Sommerfeld House.[21] During the Dessau years, there was a remarkable change in direction for the school. According to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architect Mart Stam to run the newly founded architecture program, and when Stam declined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague in the ABC group, Hannes Meyer.
Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928,[1] and brought the Bauhaus its two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School) in Bernau bei Berlin. Meyer favored measurements and calculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce costs. This approach proved attractive to potential clients. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in 1929.
But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aesthetic program, and forced the resignations of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and other long-time instructors. Even though Meyer shifted the orientation of the school further to the left than it had been under Gropius, he didn't want the school to become a tool of left-wing party politics. He prevented the formation of a student communist cell, and in the increasingly dangerous political atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Dessau mayor Fritz Hesse fired him in the summer of 1930.[22] The Dessau city council attempted to convince Gropius to return as head of the school, but Gropius instead suggested Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Mies was appointed in 1930, and immediately interviewed each student, dismissing those that he deemed uncommitted. Mies halted the school's manufacture of goods so that the school could focus on teaching. Mies appointed no new faculty other than his close confidant Lilly Reich. By 1931, the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) was becoming more influential in German politics. When they gained control of the Dessau City Council they moved to close the school.[23]
Berlin[edit]
In late 1932, Mies rented a derelict factory in Berlin (Birkbusch Street 49) to use as the new Bauhaus with his own money. The students and faculty rehabilitated the building, painting the interior white. The school operated for ten months without further interference from the Nazi Party. In 1933, the Gestapo closed down the Berlin school. Mies protested the decision, eventually speaking to the head of the Gestapo, who agreed to allow the school to re-open. However, shortly after receiving a letter permitting the opening of the Bauhaus, Mies and the other faculty agreed to voluntarily shut down the school[when?].[23]
Although neither the Nazi Party nor Adolf Hitler had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in 1933, Nazi writers like Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg had already labeled the Bauhaus "un-German" and criticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs. Increasingly through the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals. Indeed, a number of communist students loyal to Meyer moved to the Soviet Union when he was fired in 1930.
Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased. The Nazi movement, from nearly the start, denounced the Bauhaus for its "degenerate art", and the Nazi regime was determined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably Jewish influences of "cosmopolitan modernism".[1] Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, the Berlin Bauhaus was pressured to close in April 1933. Emigrants did succeed, however, in spreading the concepts of the Bauhaus to other countries, including the "New Bauhaus" of Chicago:[24] Mies decided to emigrate to the United States for the directorship of the School of Architecture at the Armour Institute (now Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago and to seek building commissions.[a] The simple engineering-oriented functionalism of stripped-down modernism, however, did lead to some Bauhaus influences living on in Nazi Germany. When Hitler's chief engineer, Fritz Todt, began opening the new autobahn (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stations were "bold examples of modernism"—among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe.[25]
Architectural output[edit]
A stage in the Festsaal, Dessau
Ceiling with light fixtures for stage in the Festsaal, Dessau
Dormitory balconies in the residence, Dessau
Mechanically opened windows, Dessau
The Mensa (Cafeteria), Dessau
The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the aim of all creative activity was building,[26] the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. During the years under Gropius (1919–1927), he and his partner Adolf Meyer observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the competition design for the Chicago Tribune Tower, which brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Apart from contributions to the 1923 Haus am Horn, student architectural work amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery.
In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards functionality. There were major commissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed "Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (ADGB Trade Union School) in Bernau bei Berlin. Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution.
Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius's "study of essentials", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s.
The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not accurate. Two projects, the apartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing also in Dessau, fall in that category, but developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhaus contemporaries Bruno Taut, Hans Poelzig and particularly Ernst May, as the city architects of Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany. The housing Taut built in south-west Berlin during the 1920s, close to the U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms Hütte, is still occupied.
Impact[edit]
Typewriter Olivetti Studio 42 designed by the Bauhaus-alumnus Alexander Schawinsky in 1936
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in Western Europe, the United States, Canada and Israel in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled, or were exiled by, the Nazi regime. Tel Aviv in 2004 was named to the list of world heritage sites by the UN due to its abundance of Bauhaus architecture;[27][28] it had some 4,000 Bauhaus buildings erected from 1933 onwards.
In 1928, the Hungarian painter Alexander Bortnyik founded a school of design in Budapest called Miihely (also "Muhely"[29] or "Mugely"[30]), which means "the studio".[31] Located on the seventh floor of a house on Nagymezo Street,[31] it was meant to be the Hungarian equivalent to the Bauhaus.[32] The literature sometimes refers to it—in an oversimplified manner—as "the Budapest Bauhaus".[33] Bortnyik was a great admirer of László Moholy-Nagy and had met Walter Gropius in Weimar between 1923 and 1925.[34] Moholy-Nagy himself taught at the Miihely. Victor Vasarely, a pioneer of Op Art, studied at this school before establishing in Paris in 1930.[35]
Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and Moholy-Nagy re-assembled in Britain during the mid 1930s to live and work in the Isokon project before the war caught up with them. Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Design and worked together before their professional split. Their collaboration produced The Aluminum City Terrace in New Kensington, Pennsylvania and the Alan I W Frank House in Pittsburgh, among other projects. The Harvard School was enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early 1930s, producing such students as Philip Johnson, I.M. Pei, Lawrence Halprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others.
In the late 1930s, Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed the sponsorship of the influential Philip Johnson, and became one of the pre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the New Bauhaus school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropist Walter Paepcke. This school became the Institute of Design, part of the Illinois Institute of Technology. Printmaker and painter Werner Drewes was also largely responsible for bringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at both Columbia University and Washington University in St. Louis. Herbert Bayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved to Aspen, Colorado in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects at the Aspen Institute. In 1953, Max Bill, together with Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, founded the Ulm School of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung—HfG Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus. The school is notable for its inclusion of semiotics as a field of study. The school closed in 1968, but the "Ulm Model" concept continues to influence international design education.[36]
The influence of the Bauhaus on design education was significant. One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology, and this approach was incorporated into the curriculum of the Bauhaus. The structure of the Bauhaus Vorkurs (preliminary course) reflected a pragmatic approach to integrating theory and application. In their first year, students learnt the basic elements and principles of design and colour theory, and experimented with a range of materials and processes.[37][38] This approach to design education became a common feature of architectural and design school in many countries. For example, the Shillito Design School in Sydney stands as a unique link between Australia and the Bauhaus. The colour and design syllabus of the Shillito Design School was firmly underpinned by the theories and ideologies of the Bauhaus. Its first year foundational course mimicked the Vorkurs and focused on the elements and principles of design plus colour theory and application. The founder of the school, Phyllis Shillito, which opened in 1962 and closed in 1980, firmly believed that "A student who has mastered the basic principles of design, can design anything from a dress to a kitchen stove".[39]
One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of modern furniture design. The ubiquitous Cantilever chair and the Wassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples. (Breuer eventually lost a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designer Mart Stam over the rights to the cantilever chair patent. Although Stam had worked on the design of the Bauhaus's 1923 exhibit in Weimar, and guest-lectured at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, he was not formally associated with the school, and he and Breuer had worked independently on the cantilever concept, thus leading to the patent dispute.) The single most profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.
The physical plant at Dessau survived World War II and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by the German Democratic Republic. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name of Bauhausbühne ("Bauhaus Stage"). After German reunification, a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s.[40] In 1979 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution.
Later evaluation of the Bauhaus design credo was critical of its flawed recognition of the human element, an acknowledgment of "… the dated, unattractive aspects of the Bauhaus as a projection of utopia marked by mechanistic views of human nature…Home hygiene without home atmosphere."[41]
The White City[edit]
The White City of Tel Aviv (Hebrew: העיר הלבנה, Ha-Ir HaLevana) refers to a collection of over 4,000 Bauhaus or International style buildings built in Tel Aviv from the 1930s by German Jewish architects who emigrated to the British Mandate of Palestine after the rise of the Nazis. Tel Aviv has the largest number of buildings in this style of any city in the world. In 2003, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) proclaimed Tel Aviv's White City a World Cultural Heritage site, as "an outstanding example of new town planning and architecture in the early 20th century."[42]
Established in 2000, Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv is an organization dedicated to the ongoing documentation of the architectural heritage.[43] In 2003, it hosted an exhibition on preservation of the architecture that showcased 25 buildings.[44] To further the architectural culture in the city, a small Bauhaus Museum opened in Tel Aviv in 2008, designed by Israeli architect Ron Arad.[45][46]
Bauhaus staff and students[edit]
People who were educated, or who taught or worked in other capacities, at the Bauhaus.
Further information: Category:Bauhaus teachers
Further information: Category:Bauhaus alumni
Further information: Women of the Bauhaus
See also[edit]
Bauhaus Archive
Bauhaus Dessau Foundation
Bauhaus Museum, Weimar
Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv
Bauhaus Museum, Tel Aviv
Haus am Horn
Max-Liebling House, Tel Aviv
Modern architecture
Art Deco architecture
International style (architecture)
Expressionist architecture
Constructivist architecture
New Objectivity (architecture)
Form follows function
Ulm School of Design
IIT Institute of Design
Neues Sehen (New Vision)
Design portal
Footnotes[edit]
a The closure, and the response of Mies van der Rohe, is fully documented in Elaine Hochman's Architects of Fortune.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "White City of Tel-Aviv -- the Modern Movement". whc.unesco.org.
Jump up ^ Edward Lucie-Smith, Late Modern: The Visual Arts Since 1945, London: Thames & Hudson, 1976, p. 164.
Jump up ^ William Chapin Seitz, Marla Price, Art in the Age of Aquarius, Smithsonian Inst Press, 1992, p. 92.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaston Diehl, Vasarely, New York: Crown, 1972, p. 12
Jump up ^ Jean Luc Daval, History of Abstract Painting, Paris: Hazan, 1989, p. 199.
Jump up ^ See: William Chapin Seitz, Marla Price, Art in the Age of Aquarius, Smithsonian Inst Press, 1992, p. 92; Edward Lucie-Smith, Late Modern: The Visual Arts Since 1945, London: Thames & Hudson, 1976, p. 164; Jean Louis Ferrier, Yann Le Pichon, Art of our century: the story of western art, 1900 to the present 1990, London : Longman, p. 521.
Jump up ^ Guitemie Maldonaldo, "Une réception différée et relayée. L'Atelier d'art abstrait et le "modèle-Bauhaus", 1950–1953", in: Martin Schieder, Isabelle Ewig, In die Freiheit geworfen: Positionen zur deutsch-französischen Kunstgeschichte nach 1945, Oldenbourg Verlag, 22 Nov 2006, p. 100.
Jump up ^ Jean Louis Ferrier, Yann Le Pichon, Art of Our Century: The Story of Western Art, 1900 to the Present, 1990, London: Longman, p. 521.
Jump up ^ Ulm, Ulmer Museum/HfG-Archiv. "HfG-Archiv Ulm - The HfG Ulm". www.hfg-archiv.ulm.de.
Jump up ^ Bayer, H., Gropius, W., & Gropius, I. (Eds.). (1975). Bauhaus 1919–1928. London: Secker& Warburg.
Jump up ^ Itten, J. (1963). Design and Form: The Basic Course at the Bauhaus and Later (Revised edition, 1975). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Z. (2013). "The Shillito Design School: Australia's link with the Bauhaus". The International Journal of Design in Society, 6(3), 149–159.
Jump up ^ "Bauhaus Dessau".
Jump up ^ Schjeldahl, Peter, "Bauhaus Rules," The New Yorker, November 16, 2009
Jump up ^ UNESCO, Decision Text, World Heritage Centre, retrieved 14 September 2009
Jump up ^ "The Bauhaus Center", Haaretz, 18 May 2008
Jump up ^ Esther Zandberg, Exhibition on Preservation of Bauhaus in Tel Aviv Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine., Haaretz, 15 October 2003
Jump up ^ Esther Hecht, "Bauhaus Museum Opens in Tel Aviv's White City", Architectural Record, 21 April 2008
Jump up ^ David Bachar, "Surroundings / Daniella Luxembourg's Bauhaus kiosk", Haaretz, 1 May 2008
Bibliography[edit]
Oskar Schlemmer. Tut Schlemmer, Editor. The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Translated by Krishna Winston. Wesleyan University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8195-4047-1
Stefan Boness, "Tel Aviv – The White City", Jovis, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-939633-75-4
Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, Editors. Bauhaus, Taschen America LLC, 2005. ISBN 3-8228-3649-4
Marty Bax. Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930–1933. Theory and practice of architectural training at the Bauhaus, based on the lecture notes made by the Dutch ex-Bauhaus student and architect J.J. van der Linden of the Mies van der Rohe curriculum. Amsterdam, Architectura & Natura 1991. ISBN 90-71570-04-5
Anja Baumhoff, The Gendered World of the Bauhaus. The Politics of Power at the Weimar Republic's Premier Art Institute, 1919–1931. Peter Lang, Frankfurt, New York 2001. ISBN 3-631-37945-5
Boris Friedewald, Bauhaus, Prestel, Munich, London, New York 2009. ISBN 978-3-7913-4200-9
Catherine Weill-Rochant, "Bauhaus": Architektur in Tel Aviv, Rita H. Gans. Ed., Kiriat Yearim, Zurich, 2008 (German and French)
'The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism' (Catherine Weill-Rochant)DOCOMOMO journal (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009.
Peder Anker (1 January 2010). From Bauhaus to Ecohouse: A History of Ecological Design. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-3551-8. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
Kirsten Baumann: "Bauhaus Dessau: Architecture Design Concept", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-939633-11-2
Monika Markgraf (Ed.): "Archaeology of Modernism: Renovation Bauhaus Dessau", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-936314-83-0
Torsten Blume / Burghard Duhm (Eds.): "Bauhaus.Theatre.Dessau: Change of Scene", JOVIS Verlag Berlin, ISBN 978-3-936314-81-6
Eric Cimino. Student Life at the Bauhaus, 1919-1933. M.A. Thesis, UMass-Boston, 2003.
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text:
Cotton-Eyed Joe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the Karen Dalton album, see Cotton Eyed Joe (album).
It has been suggested that Cotton Eye Joe (Rednex song) be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2017.
"Cotton-Eyed Joe"
Song
Published
before 1861
Genre
American folk music
Songwriter(s)
Unknown
"Cotton-Eyed Joe" (also known as "Cotton-Eye Joe") is a traditional American country folk song popular at various times throughout the United States and Canada, although today it is most commonly associated with the American South. In the Roud index of folksongs it is No. 942.
"Cotton-Eyed Joe" has inspired both a partner dance and more than one line dance that is often danced at country dance venues in the U.S. and around the world. The 1980 film Urban Cowboy sparked a renewed interest in the dance. In 1985, The Moody Brothers' version of the song received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Country Instrumental Performance". Irish group The Chieftains received a Grammy nomination for "Best Country Vocal Collaboration" for their version of the song with lead vocals by Ricky Skaggs on their 1992 album, Another Country. In 1994, a version of the song recorded by the Swedish band Rednex as "Cotton Eye Joe" became popular worldwide.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Select list of recorded versions
3 Rednex version
4 Modern "Cotton-Eyed Joe" versions
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The origins of this song are unclear, although it pre-dates the 1861–1865 American Civil War.[1] American folklorist Dorothy Scarborough (1878–1935) noted in her 1925 book On the Trail of Negro Folk-songs, that several people remember hearing the song before the war. Scarborough's account of the song came from her sister, Mrs. George Scarborough, who learned the song from "the Negroes on a plantation in Texas, and other parts from a man in Louisiana." The man in Louisiana knew the song from his earliest childhood and heard slaves singing it on plantations.[2] Both the dance and the song had many variants.[3] American publishing house Harper and Brothers published a version in 1882, heard by author Louise Clarke Pyrnelle (born 1850) on the Alabama plantation of her father when she was a child,[4] that was later republished in 1910:[5]
"Cotton-eyed Joe, Cotton-eyed Joe,
What did make you sarve me so,
Fur ter take my gal erway fum me,
An' cyar her plum ter Tennessee?
Ef it hadn't ben fur Cotton-eyed Joe,
I'd er been married long ergo.

"His eyes wuz crossed, an' his nose wuz flat,
An' his teef wuz out, but wat uv dat?
Fur he wuz tall, an' he wuz slim,
An' so my gal she follered him.
Ef it hadn't ben fur Cotton-eyed Joe,
I'd er been married long ergo.

"No gal so hansum could be foun',
Not in all dis country roun',
Wid her kinky head, an' her eyes so bright,
Wid her lips so red an' her teef so white.
Ef it hadn't ben fur Cotton-eyed Joe,
I'd been married long ergo.

"An' I loved dat gal wid all my heart,
An' she swo' fum me she'd never part;
But den wid Joe she runned away,
An' lef' me hyear fur ter weep all day.

O Cotton-eyed Joe, O Cotton-eyed Joe,
What did make you sarve me so?
O Joe, ef it hadn't er ben fur you,
I'd er married dat gal fur true."
By 1884, the same year Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published, the fiddle-based song was referred to as "an old, familiar air."[6] In 1925, another version was recorded by folklorist Dorothy Scarborough and published.[7]
Don't you remember, don't you know,
Don't you remember Cotton-eyed Joe?
Cotton-eyed Joe, Cotton-eyed Joe,
What did make you treat me so?
I'd 'a' been married forty year ago
Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton-eyed Joe!

Cotton-eyed Joe, Cotton-eyed Joe,
He was de nig dat sarved me so, —
Tuck my gal away fum me,
Carried her off to Tennessee.
I'd 'a' been married forty year ago
If it had n't a-been for Cotton-eyed Joe.

Hi's teeth was out an' his nose was flat,
His eyes was crossed, — but she did n't mind dat.
Kase he was tall, and berry slim,
An' so my gal she follered him.
I'd 'a' been married forty year ago
Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton-eyed Joe.

She was de prettiest gal to be found
Anywhar in de country round;
Her lips was red an' her eyes was bright,
Her skin was black but her teeth was white.
I'd 'a' been married forty year ago
Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton-eyed Joe.

Dat gal, she sho' had all my love,
An swore fum ne she'd never move,
But Joe hoodooed her, don't you see,
An' she run off wid him to Tennessee,
I'd 'a' been married forty years ago,
Ef it hadn't a-been for Cotton-eyed Joe."
Scarborough noted that the song seemed to be well known in the South prior to the Civil War, and parts of it had been sent in by various persons.[7]
"Cotton Eye Joe", performed by Gid Tanner and his Skillet Lickers (1929).
Over the years, many different versions of the song have been performed and/or recorded with many different versions of the lyrics (and many without lyrics). "Cotton-Eyed Joe", on occasion referred to as "The South Texas National Anthem", was played for minstrel-type jigs, and it has long been popular as a square dance hoedown and a couple dance polka.[8]
A resident of Central Texas who learned the dance in Williamson County in the early 1880s described it as nothing but a heel and toe "poker" with fringes added. These fringes added to the heel and toe polka were clog steps which required skill and extraversion on the part of the dancer.[9]
During the first half of the twentieth century the song was a widely known folk song all over English-speaking North America.
Cotton-Eyed Joe
A 1939 recording of the folk song
Problems playing this file? See media help.
One discography lists 134 recorded versions released since 1950.[10] In more recent decades, the song has waned in popularity in most regions except some parts of the American South where it is still a popular folk song.[11]
A list of the possible meanings of the term "cotton-eyed" that have been proposed includes: to be drunk on moonshine, or to have been blinded by drinking wood alcohol, turning the eyes milky white; a black person with very light blue eyes; someone whose eyes were milky white from bacterial infections of Trachoma or syphilis, cataracts or glaucoma; the contrast of dark skin tone around white eyeballs in black people;[12] and possibly pterygium, a reddish-white corneal overgrowth associated with chronic sun exposure.[citation needed]
Bob Wills and Adolph Hofner and His San Antonians both recorded the song, and Hofner's version (Columbia 37658), issued in 1941,[13] apparently[clarification needed] being the one that did the most to popularize the song.[14]
A 1967 instrumental version of the song (KIKR k202) by Al Dean, who recalled the song called "The Gingerbread Man" in South Texas, inspired a new round dance polka for couples. This dance was adapted into a simplified version as a nonpartner waist-hold, spoke line routine. Heel and toe polka steps were replaced with a cross-lift followed by a kick with two-steps. The lift and kick are sometimes accompanied by shouts of "whoops, whoops," or the barn yard term "bull shit", mimicking the act of kicking off barnyard muck.[8] The practice continues to this day. The Kickin′ album included "Cotton-Eyed Joe" by Dean. (KIK-R: 10012)
One version of a dance called "Cotton-Eyed Joe" can be found in the 1975 edition of Encyclopedia of Social Dance. This version has the men on the inside of a circle facing out, and the women on the outside facing in. The dance consists of eight kick steps, side, close left together, right together, and a series of struts.[15]
The spoke line version gained popularity not only in Texas, but across the US and overseas[clarification needed] in the 1980s.[8]
Ray Benson of the Western Swing band Asleep at the Wheel talks about playing the Bob Wills version of "Cotton-Eyed Joe" in Texas in the 1970s when the dance was very much alive.[16]
A Western "Craze" followed the 1980 release of Urban Cowboy.
"Cotton-Eyed Joe", and its continued popularity in Texas, was referred to in the lyrics to Alabama's song "If You're Gonna Play in Texas." "I remember down in Houston we were puttin' on a show when a cowboy in the back stood up and yelled, 'Cotton-Eyed Joe'!"
In Merle Haggard's "Texas Fiddle Song", the final verse makes reference to the "Cotton-Eyed Joe" and features the melody of both the Bob Wills and Al Dean versions.
The song has become a staple song played at many professional and college baseball games during the seventh-inning stretch with the preference going to the Rednex version.
Select list of recorded versions[edit]
1928: Gid Tanner's Skillet Lickers Columbia 15283D 4/10/1928[17]
1928: Carter Brothers Vocalion 5349 11/?/1928 [18]
1941: Burl Ives on the album, The Wayfaring Stranger
1942 Adolph Hofner and his San Antonians- JR Chatwell Fiddle
1947: Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys[19]
1959: Nina Simone on the album, Nina Simone at Town Hall
1960: Walter Brennan
1962: Karen Dalton on the album, Cotton Eyed Joe
1967: Al Dean & the All-Stars
1968: Terry Callier on the album, The New Folk Sound of Terry Callier
1976: Leona Williams on the album, San Quentin's First Lady
1976: The Country Roland Band
1980: Isaac Payton Sweat
1985: Asleep at the Wheel on their self-titled album, Asleep at the Wheel
1985: The Moody Brothers on their self-titled album, The Moody Brothers, Grammy-nominated
1992: The Chieftains with Ricky Scaggs on the album, Another Country, Grammy-nominated
1992: The Muldoon Brothers on the album, Back O' The Barn
1992: Michelle Shocked, adapted version, "Prodigal Daughter (Cotton Eyed Joe)", on the album Arkansas Traveler
1993: Bill Monroe & His Bluegrass Boys on the album, Off the Record
1994: Black Lace, released under the song title, Bullshit
1994: Rednex
2003: Vanessa-Mae on the album, The Ultimate Vanessa-Mae
2010: Josh Rouse on the album, "El Turista"
2010: Hot Club of Cowtown
2011: Bass and Infinity released an a cappella parody version[20]
2014: Lee Matthews, Country and Irish singer. His version topped the Irish Country Singles Chart.
Rednex version[edit]
Main article: Cotton Eye Joe (Rednex song)
Rednex single cover
In August 1994, Swedish recording group Rednex covered the song as "Cotton Eye Joe" for their album Sex & Violins, combining their style with traditional American instruments, such as banjos,[21] and fiddles. In 2002, "Cotton Eye Joe" was remixed in a dance version, and was released from Rednex's greatest hits album, The Best of the West.
The Rednex version of the song (using "Eye" instead of "Eyed"), along with a dance-mix version, was very successful in Europe, where it remained at number one in Norway for 15 weeks, Switzerland for 13 weeks, Germany for 10 weeks, Sweden for 8 weeks, Austria for 7 weeks, 3 weeks on the UK Singles Chart and 2 weeks on the Dutch Top 40. In Oceania, it topped the New Zealand Singles Chart for 6 consecutive weeks. In Australia it peaked at number 8 in April 1995. In the US, it peaked at number 25 in March 1995.
Modern "Cotton-Eyed Joe" versions[edit]
The Country and Irish singer Lee Matthews released his version of the song with new added lyrics. The single on his own independent label topped the Irish Country Singles Download Chart in January 2015.
See also[edit]
List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 1990s
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Everett, Holly: "The Many Lives of ‘Cotton Eyed Joe’", Canadian Society for Traditional Music Conference, 2002, Memorial University, St. John's, Newfoundland.
Jump up ^ Scarborough, Dorothy; Ola Lee Gulledge (1925). On the Trail of Negro Folk-songs. Harvard University Press. p. 289. ISBN 0-674-01262-3. Retrieved March 3, 2011. He said he had known it from his earliest childhood and had heard the slaves sing it on the plantations.
Jump up ^ Lloyd Shaw, The Round Dance Book, The Caxton Printers, Ltd, 1948, p. 314. No ISBN or catalogue number.
Jump up ^ Pyrnelle, Louise Clarke (1910). Diddie, shoots, and Tot: or, Plantation child-life. Harper and Brothers. p. vi. Retrieved March 3, 2011. The stories, plantation games, and Hymns are just as I heard them in my childhood
Jump up ^ Pyrnelle, Louise Clarke (1910). Diddie, Dumps, and Tot: or, Plantation child-life. Harper and Brothers. pp. 135–36. Retrieved March 3, 2011.
Jump up ^ Brotherhood of locomotive firemen and enginemen's magazine. 8. Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen. 1884. p. 534. Retrieved March 3, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Dorothy Scarborough, assisted By Ola Lee Quiledge (1925). "On The Trail of Negro Folk-Songs-online book. A collection of negro folk songs with lyrics, sheet music & commentaries". Traditionalmusic.co.uk. pp. 69–70. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dance Across Texas Betty Casey, University of Texas Press, 1985, p. 17. ISBN 0-292-71540-4
Jump up ^ Harris, Pittman, Waller, Dance a While. Handbook of Folk, Square, and Social Dancing. 1950, 1955, 1964, 1968. Burgess Publishing Company, Fourth Edition, p. 151.
Jump up ^ "Grateful Dead Family Discography:Cotton-Eyed Joe". Deaddisc.com. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ Everett, 2002
Jump up ^ "Information at The Fiddler's Companion". Ibiblio.org. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ "COLUMBIA 78rpm numerical listing discography: 37500 - 38000". 78discography.com. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ Bill C. Malone, Don't Get above Your Raisin′, University of Illinois Press, 2001, p. 313. ISBN 0-252-02678-0
Jump up ^ Albert and Josephine Bulter, Encyclopedia of Social Dance, New York: Albert Bulter Ballroom Dance Service. New York, New York, 1975.
Jump up ^ "Honky Tonks, Hymns, & the Blues". Honkytonks.org. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ http://78discography.com/COL15000D.htm
Jump up ^ http://78discography.com/VOC5000c.htm
Jump up ^ http://fiddlesessions.com/?p=72
Jump up ^ "Eye of Cotton Joe". www.youtube.com.
Jump up ^ "Cotton Eye Joe – Rednex". tralala.gr. Archived from the original on 2012-06-25. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
External links[edit]
"Cotton-Eyed Joe" in The Mudcat Cafe's Digital Tradition Folk Music Database
Grateful Dead Family Discography of recordings of "Cotton Eye Joe"
Samples from the Skillet Lickers and RedNex versions
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
Rednex
Albums
Sex & Violins
Farm Out
Compilations
The Best of the West
Singles
"Cotton Eye Joe"
"Old Pop in an Oak"
"Wish You Were Here"
"Wild 'N Free"
"Rolling Home"
"Riding Alone"
"The Way I Mate"
"The Spirit of the Hawk"
"Hold Me for a While"
"The Chase"
"Cotton Eye Joe 2002"
"Mama Take Me Home"
"Fe Fi (The Old Man Died)"
"Anyway You Want Me"
"Looking for a Star"
"Railroad, Railroad"
"Football Is Our Religion"
Discography
Discography
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cotton-Eyed_Joe&oldid=795332774"
Categories:
American folk dances
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Burl Ives songs
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