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Shabbat
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This article is about the rest day in Judaism. For Sabbath in the Bible, see Biblical Sabbath. For the Talmudic tractate, see Shabbat (Talmud).
"Oyneg Shabes" and "Oneg Shabbat" redirect here. For the collection of documents from the Warsaw Ghetto collected and preserved by the group known by the code name Oyneg Shabes, see Ringelblum Archive.
Shabbat candles
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Shabbat (/ʃəˈbɑːt/; Hebrew: שַׁבָּת [ʃa'bat], "rest" or "cessation") or Shabbos (['ʃa.bəs], Yiddish: שבת) or the Sabbath is Judaism's day of rest and seventh day of the week, on which religious Jews, Samaritans and certain Christians (such as Seventh Day Adventists and Seventh Day Baptists) remember the Biblical creation of the heavens and the earth in six days and the Exodus of the Hebrews, and look forward to a future Messianic Age. Shabbat observance entails refraining from work activities, often with great rigor, and engaging in restful activities to honor the day. Judaism's traditional position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution, though some suggest other origins. Variations upon Shabbat are widespread in Judaism and, with adaptations, throughout the Abrahamic and many other religions.
According to halakha (Jewish religious law), Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night.[1] Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles and reciting a blessing. Traditionally, three festive meals are eaten: in the evening, in the early afternoon, and late in the afternoon. The evening meal typically begins with a blessing called kiddush and another blessing recited over two loaves of challah. Shabbat is closed the following evening with a havdalah blessing. Shabbat is a festive day when Jews exercise their freedom from the regular labors of everyday life. It offers an opportunity to contemplate the spiritual aspects of life and to spend time with family.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Etymology
1.2 Biblical sources
1.3 Origins
1.4 Status as a holy day
2 Rituals
2.1 Welcoming Sabbath
2.2 Other rituals
2.3 Bidding farewell
3 Prohibited activities
3.1 Orthodox and Conservative
3.1.1 Electricity
3.1.2 Automobiles
3.1.3 Modifications
3.1.4 Permissions
3.2 Reform and Reconstructionist
4 Encouraged activities
5 Special Shabbatoth
6 Sabbath adaptation
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Etymology[edit]
Main article: Sabbath etymology
The word "Shabbat" derives from the Hebrew verb shavat (Hebrew: שָׁבַת). Although frequently translated as "rest" (noun or verb), another accurate translation of these words is "ceasing [from work]", as resting is not necessarily denoted. The related modern Hebrew word shevita (labor strike), has the same implication of active rather than passive abstinence from work. The notion of active cessation from labor is also regarded as more consistent with an omnipotent God's activity on the seventh day of Creation according to Genesis.
Biblical sources[edit]
Main article: Biblical Sabbath
Sabbath is given special status as a holy day at the very beginning of the Torah in Genesis 2:1–3. It is first commanded after the Exodus from Egypt, in Exodus 16:26 (relating to the cessation of manna) and in Exodus 16:29 (relating to the distance one may travel by foot on the Sabbath), as also in Exodus 20:8–11 (as the fourth of the Ten Commandments). Sabbath is commanded and commended many more times in the Torah and Tanakh; double the normal number of animal sacrifices are to be offered on the day.[2] Sabbath is also described by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, and Nehemiah.
Origins[edit]
A silver matchbox holder for Shabbat from the Republic of Macedonia
The longstanding traditional Jewish position is that unbroken seventh-day Shabbat originated among the Jewish people, as their first and most sacred institution.[3] The origins of Shabbat and a seven-day week are not clear to scholars; the Mosaic tradition claims an origin from the Biblical creation.[4][5]
Seventh-day Shabbat did not originate with the Egyptians, to whom it was unknown;[6] and other origin theories based on the day of Saturn, or on the planets generally, have also been abandoned.[7]
The first non-Biblical reference to Sabbath is in an ostracon found in excavations at Mesad Hashavyahu, which is dated 630 BCE.[8]
Connection to Sabbath observance has been suggested in the designation of the seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eight days of a lunar month in an Assyrian religious calendar as a 'holy day', also called ‘evil days’ (meaning "unsuitable" for prohibited activities). The prohibitions on these days, spaced seven days apart, include abstaining from chariot riding, and the avoidance of eating meat by the King. On these days officials were prohibited from various activities and common men were forbidden to "make a wish", and at least the 28th was known as a "rest-day".[9][10] The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia advanced a theory of Assyriologists like Friedrich Delitzsch[3] (and of Marcello Craveri)[11] that Shabbat originally arose from the lunar cycle in the Babylonian calendar[12][13] containing four weeks ending in Sabbath, plus one or two additional unreckoned days per month.[14] The difficulties of this theory include reconciling the differences between an unbroken week and a lunar week, and explaining the absence of texts naming the lunar week as Sabbath in any language.[7]
Status as a holy day[edit]
A challah cover with Hebrew inscription
The Tanakh and siddur describe Shabbat as having three purposes:
To commemorate God's creation of the universe, on the seventh day of which God rested from (or ceased) his work;
To commemorate the Israelites' redemption from slavery in ancient Egypt;
As a "taste" of Olam Haba (the Messianic Age).
Judaism accords Shabbat the status of a joyous holy day. In many ways, Jewish law gives Shabbat the status of being the most important holy day in the Jewish calendar:
It is the first holy day mentioned in the Bible, and God was the first to observe it with the cessation of Creation (Genesis 2:1–3).
Jewish liturgy treats Shabbat as a "bride" and "queen" (see Shekhinah).
The Sefer Torah is read during the Torah reading which is part of the Shabbat morning services, with a longer reading than during the week. The Torah is read over a yearly cycle of 54 parashioth, one for each Shabbat (sometimes they are doubled). On Shabbat, the reading is divided into seven sections, more than on any other holy day, including Yom Kippur. Then, the Haftarah reading from the Hebrew prophets is read.
A tradition states that the Jewish Messiah will come if every Jew properly observes two consecutive Shabbatoth.[15]
The punishment in ancient times for desecrating Shabbat (stoning) is the most severe punishment in Jewish law.[16]
Rituals[edit]
Welcoming Sabbath[edit]
Reciting blessing over Shabbat candles
Honoring Shabbat (kavod Shabbat) on Preparation Day (Friday) includes bathing, having a haircut and cleaning and beautifying the home (with flowers, for example). According to Jewish law, Shabbat starts a few minutes before sunset. Candles are lit at this time. It is customary in many communities to light the candles 18 minutes before sundown (tosefet Shabbat, though sometimes 36 minutes), and most printed Jewish calendars adhere to this custom. The Kabbalat Shabbat service is a prayer service welcoming the arrival of Shabbat. Before Friday night dinner, it is customary to sing two songs, one "greeting" two Shabbat angels into the house[17] and the other praising the woman of the house for all the work she has done over the past week.[18] After blessings over the wine and challah, a festive meal is served. Singing is traditional at Sabbath meals.[19] In modern times, many composers have written sacred music for use during the Kabbalat Shabbat observance, including Robert Strassburg.[20]
According to rabbinic literature, God via the Torah commands Jews to observe (refrain from forbidden activity) and remember (with words, thoughts, and actions) Shabbat, and these two actions are symbolized by the customary two Shabbat candles. Candles are lit usually by the woman of the house (or else by a man who lives alone). Some families light more candles, sometimes in accordance with the number of children.[21]
Other rituals[edit]
Shabbat is a day of celebration as well as prayer. It is customary to eat three festive meals: Dinner on Shabbat eve (Friday night), lunch on Shabbat day (Saturday), and a third meal (a Seudah Shlishit) in the late afternoon (Saturday). It is also customary to wear nice clothing (different from during the week) on Shabbat to honor the day.
Many Jews attend synagogue services on Shabbat even if they do not do so during the week. Services are held on Shabbat eve (Friday night), Shabbat morning (Saturday morning), and late Shabbat afternoon (Saturday afternoon).
With the exception of Yom Kippur, which is referred to in the Torah (Lev 23:32) as "Shabbat of Shabbatoth", days of public fasting are postponed or advanced if they coincide with Shabbat. Mourners sitting shivah (week of mourning subsequent to the death of a spouse or first-degree relative) outwardly conduct themselves normally for the duration of the day and are forbidden to display public signs of mourning.
Although most Shabbat laws are restrictive, the fourth of the Ten Commandments in Exodus is taken by the Talmud and Maimonides to allude to the positive commandments of Shabbat. These include:
Honoring Shabbat (kavod Shabbat): on Shabbat, wearing festive clothing and refraining from unpleasant conversation. It is customary to avoid talk about money or business matters on Shabbat.[22]
Recitation of kiddush over a cup of wine at the beginning of Shabbat meals, or at a reception after the conclusion of morning prayers (see the list of Jewish prayers and blessings).
Two homemade whole-wheat challahs covered by traditional embroidered Shabbat challah cover
Eating three festive meals. Meals begin with a blessing over two loaves of bread (lechem mishneh, "double bread"), usually of braided challah, which is symbolic of the double portion of manna that fell for the Jewish people on the day before Sabbath during their 40 years in the desert after the Exodus from Egypt. It is customary to serve meat or fish, and sometimes both, for Shabbat evening and morning meals. Seudah Shlishit (literally, "third meal"), generally a light meal that may be pareve or dairy, is eaten late Shabbat afternoon.
Enjoying Shabbat (oneg Shabbat): Engaging in pleasurable activities such as eating, singing, spending time with the family and marital relations.
Recitation of havdalah.
Bidding farewell[edit]
Main article: Havdalah
Observing the closing havdalah ritual in 14th-century Spain
Havdalah (Hebrew: הַבְדָּלָה, "separation") is a Jewish religious ceremony that marks the symbolic end of Shabbat, and ushers in the new week. At the conclusion of Shabbat at nightfall, after the appearance of three stars in the sky, the havdalah blessings are recited over a cup of wine, and with the use of fragrant spices and a candle, usually braided. Some communities delay havdalah later into the night in order to prolong Shabbat. There are different customs regarding how much time one should wait after the stars have surfaced until the sabbath technically ends. Some people hold by 72 minutes later and other hold longer and shorter than that.
Prohibited activities[edit]
Main article: Activities prohibited on Shabbat
Jewish law (halakha) prohibits doing any form of melakhah (מְלָאכָה, plural melakhoth) on Shabbat, unless an urgent human or medical need is life-threatening. Though melakhah is commonly translated as "work" in English, a better definition is "deliberate activity" or "skill and craftmanship". There are 39 categories of prohibited activities (melakhoth) listed in Mishnah Tractate Shabbat 7:2.
The term shomer Shabbat is used for a person (or organization) who adheres to Shabbat laws consistently. The shomer Shabbat is an archetype mentioned in Jewish songs (e.g., Baruch El Elyon) and the intended audience for various treatises on Jewish law and practice for Shabbat (e.g., Shemirat Shabbat ke-Hilkhata).
There are often disagreements between Orthodox Jews and non-Orthodox Jews as to the practical observance of the Sabbath. The (strict) observance of the Sabbath is often seen as a benchmark for orthodoxy and indeed has legal bearing on the way a Jew is seen by an orthodox religious court regarding their affiliation to Judaism. See Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik's "Beis HaLevi" commentary on parasha Ki Tissa for further elaboration regarding the legal ramifications.
The 39 categories of melakhah are:
plowing earth
sowing
reaping
binding sheaves
threshing
winnowing
selecting
grinding
sifting
kneading
baking
shearing wool
washing wool
beating wool
dyeing wool
spinning
weaving
making two loops
weaving two threads
separating two threads
tying
untying
sewing stitches
tearing
trapping
slaughtering
flaying
tanning
scraping hide
marking hide
cutting hide to shape
writing two or more letters
erasing two or more letters
building
demolishing
extinguishing a fire
kindling a fire
putting the finishing touch on an object, and
transporting an object (between private and public domains, or over 4 cubits within public domain)
The categories of labors prohibited on Shabbat are exegetically derived – on account of Biblical passages juxtaposing Shabbat observance (Ex. 35:1–3) to making the Tabernacle (Ex. 35:4 ff.) – that they are the kinds of work that were necessary for the construction of the Tabernacle. They are not explicitly listed in the Torah; the Mishnah observes that "the laws of Shabbat ... are like mountains hanging by a hair, for they are little Scripture but many laws".[23] Many rabbinic scholars have pointed out that these labors have in common activity that is "creative", or that exercises control or dominion over one's environment.[24]
Orthodox and Conservative[edit]
Different streams of Judaism view the prohibition on work in different ways. Observant Orthodox and Conservative Jews refrain from performing the 39 prohibited categories of activities. Each melakhah has derived prohibitions of various kinds. There are, therefore, many more forbidden activities on Shabbat; all are traced back to one of the 39 above principal melakhoth.
Given the above, the 39 melakhoth are not so much activities as "categories of activity". For example, while "winnowing" usually refers exclusively to the separation of chaff from grain, and "selecting" refers exclusively to the separation of debris from grain, they refer in the Talmudic sense to any separation of intermixed materials which renders edible that which was inedible. Thus, filtering undrinkable water to make it drinkable falls under this category, as does picking small bones from fish (gefilte fish is one solution to this problem).
Electricity[edit]
Main article: Electricity on Shabbat
Orthodox and some Conservative authorities rule that turning electric devices on or off is prohibited as a melakhah; however, authorities are not in agreement about exactly which one(s). One view is that tiny sparks are created in a switch when the circuit is closed, and this would constitute lighting a fire (category 37). If the appliance is purposed for light or heat (such as an incandescent bulb or electric oven), then the lighting or heating elements may be considered as a type of fire that falls under both lighting a fire (category 37) and cooking (i.e., baking, category 11). Turning lights off would be extinguishing a fire (category 36).
Another view is that a device plugged into an electrical outlet of a wall becomes part of the building, but is nonfunctional while the switch is off; turning it on would then constitute building (category 35) and turning it off would be demolishing (category 34). Some schools of thought consider the use of electricity to be forbidden only by rabbinic injunction, rather than because it violates one of the original categories.
A common solution to the problem of electricity involves preset timers (Shabbat clocks) for electric appliances, to turn them on and off automatically, with no human intervention on Shabbat itself. Some Conservative authorities[25][26][27] reject altogether the arguments for prohibiting the use of electricity. Some Orthodox also hire a "Shabbos goy", a Gentile to perform prohibited tasks (like operating light switches) on Shabbat.
Automobiles[edit]
Main article: Driving during Shabbat
Orthodox and many Conservative authorities completely prohibit the use of automobiles on Shabbat as a violation of multiple categories, including lighting a fire, extinguishing a fire, and transferring between domains (category 39). However, the Conservative movement's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards permits driving to a synagogue on Shabbat, as an emergency measure, on the grounds that if Jews lost contact with synagogue life they would become lost to the Jewish people.
A halakhically authorized Shabbat mode added to a power-operated mobility scooter may be used on the observance of Shabbat for those with walking limitations, often referred to as a Shabbat scooter. It is intended only for individuals whose limited mobility is dependent on a scooter or automobile consistently throughout the week.
Modifications[edit]
Seemingly "forbidden" acts may be performed by modifying technology such that no law is actually violated. In Sabbath mode, a "Sabbath elevator" will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without anyone having to press any buttons, which would normally be needed to work. (Dynamic braking is also disabled if it is normally used, i.e., shunting energy collected from downward travel, and thus the gravitational potential energy of passengers, into a resistor network.) However, many rabbinical authorities consider the use of such elevators by those who are otherwise capable as a violation of Shabbat, with such workarounds being for the benefit of the frail and handicapped and not being in the spirit of the day.
Many observant Jews avoid the prohibition of carrying by use of an eruv. Others make their keys into a tie bar, part of a belt buckle, or a brooch, because a legitimate article of clothing or jewelry may be worn rather than carried. An elastic band with clips on both ends, and with keys placed between them as integral links, may be considered a belt.
Shabbat lamps have been developed to allow a light in a room to be turned on or off at will while the electricity remains on. A special mechanism blocks out the light when the off position is desired without violating Shabbat.
The Shabbos App is a proposed Android app claimed by its creators to enable Orthodox Jews, and all Jewish Sabbath-observers, to use a smartphone to text on the Jewish Sabbath. It has met with resistance from some authorities.[28][29][30][31]
Permissions[edit]
Main article: Pikuach nefesh
In the event that a human life is in danger (pikuach nefesh), a Jew is not only allowed, but required,[32][33] to violate any halakhic law that stands in the way of saving that person (excluding murder, idolatry, and forbidden sexual acts). The concept of life being in danger is interpreted broadly: for example, it is mandated that one violate Shabbat to bring a woman in active labor to a hospital. Lesser rabbinic restrictions are often violated under much less urgent circumstances (a patient who is ill but not critically so).
We did everything to save lives, despite Shabbat. People asked, 'Why are you here? There are no Jews here', but we are here because the Torah orders us to save lives .... We are desecrating Shabbat with pride.
—  Mati Goldstein, commander of the Jewish ZAKA rescue-mission to the 2010 Haiti earthquake[34]
Various other legal principles closely delineate which activities constitute desecration of Shabbat. Examples of these include the principle of shinui ("change" or "deviation"): A violation is not regarded as severe if the prohibited act was performed in a way that would be considered abnormal on a weekday. Examples include writing with one's nondominant hand, according to many rabbinic authorities. This legal principle operates bedi'avad (ex post facto) and does not cause a forbidden activity to be permitted barring extenuating circumstances.
Reform and Reconstructionist[edit]
Generally, adherents of Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism believe that the individual Jew determines whether to follow Shabbat prohibitions or not. For example, some Jews might find activities, such as writing or cooking for leisure, to be enjoyable enhancements to Shabbat and its holiness, and therefore may encourage such practices. Many Reform Jews believe that what constitutes "work" is different for each person, and that only what the person considers "work" is forbidden.[35] The radical Reform rabbi Samuel Holdheim advocated moving Sabbath to Sunday for many no longer observed it, a step taken by dozens of congregations in the United States in late 19th century.[36]
More rabbinically traditional Reform and Reconstructionist Jews believe that these halakhoth in general may be valid, but that it is up to each individual to decide how and when to apply them. A small fraction of Jews in the Progressive Jewish community accept these laws much the same way as Orthodox Jews.
Encouraged activities[edit]
All Jewish denominations encourage the following activities on Shabbat:
Reading, studying, and discussing Torah and commentary, Mishnah and Talmud, and learning some halakha and midrash.
Synagogue attendance for prayers.
Spending time with other Jews and socializing with family, friends, and guests at Shabbat meals (hachnasat orchim, "hospitality").
Singing zemiroth or niggunim, special songs for Shabbat meals (commonly sung during or after a meal).
Marital relations between husband and wife.[37]
Sleeping.
Special Shabbatoth[edit]
Main article: Special Shabbat
The Special Shabbatoth are the Shabbatoth that precede important Jewish holidays: e.g., Shabbat haGadol (Shabbat preceding Pesach), Shabbat Zachor (Shabbat preceding Purim), and Shabbat Shuvah (or Teshuva) (the Shabbat between Rosh HaShanah and Yom Kippur).
Sabbath adaptation[edit]
Main articles: First-day Sabbath and Seventh-day Sabbath
Most Christians do not observe Saturday Sabbath, but instead observe a weekly day of worship on Sunday, which is often called the "Lord's Day". Several Christian denominations, such as the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of God (7th Day), the Seventh Day Baptists, and many others, observe seventh-day Sabbath. This observance is celebrated from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset.
The principle of weekly Sabbath also exists in other beliefs. Examples include the Babylonian calendar, the Buddhist uposatha, and the Unification Church's Ahn Shi Il.
See also[edit]
Baqashoth
Hebrew calendar
Jewish services for Sabbath
Jumu'ah
Moed
Sabbath breaking
Sabbath in Christianity
Sabbath in seventh-day churches
Shabbat in Karaism
Shabbat greetings
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim 293:2
Jump up ^ Every Person's Guide to Shabbat, by Ronald H. Isaacs, Jason Aronson, 1998, p. 6
^ Jump up to: a b Landau, Judah Leo. The Sabbath. Johannesburg, South Africa: Ivri Publishing Society, Ltd. pp. 2, 12. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
Jump up ^ Graham, I. L. (2009). "The Origin of the Sabbath". Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia. Archived from the original on December 3, 2008. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
Jump up ^ "Jewish religious year: The Sabbath". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-26. According to biblical tradition, it commemorates the original seventh day on which God rested after completing the creation. Scholars have not succeeded in tracing the origin of the seven-day week, nor can they account for the origin of the Sabbath.
Jump up ^ Bechtel, Florentine (1912). "Sabbath". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 13. New York City: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Sampey, John Richard (1915). "Sabbath: Critical Theories". In Orr, James. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Howard-Severance Company. p. 2630. Retrieved 2009-08-13.
Jump up ^ "Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon, c. 630 BCE". Retrieved 2012-09-12.
Jump up ^ "Histoire du peuple hébreu". André Lemaire. Presses Universitaires de France 2009 (8e édition), p. 66
Jump up ^ Eviatar Zerubavel (1985). The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-98165-7.
Jump up ^ Craveri, Marcello (1967). The Life of Jesus. Grove Press. p. 134.
Jump up ^ Joseph, Max (1943). "Holidays". In Landman, Isaac. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times. 5. Cohen, Simon, compiler. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc. p. 410.
Jump up ^ Joseph, Max (1943). "Sabbath". In Landman, Isaac. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times. 9. Cohen, Simon, compiler. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc. p. 295.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Simon (1943). "Week". In Landman, Isaac. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia: An authoritative and popular presentation of Jews and Judaism since the earliest times. 10. Cohen, Simon, compiler. The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Inc. p. 482.
Jump up ^ Shabbat 118
Jump up ^ See e.g. Numbers 15:32–36.
Jump up ^ Shabbat 119b
Jump up ^ Proverbs 31:10–31
Jump up ^ Ferguson, Joey (May 20, 2011). "Jewish lecture series focuses on Sabbath Course at Chabad center focuses on secrets of sabbath's serenity". Deseret News. The more we are able to invest in it, the more we are able to derive pleasure from the Sabbath." Jewish belief is based on understanding that observance of the Sabbath is the source of all blessing, said Rabbi Zippel in an interview. He referred to the Jewish Sabbath as a time where individuals disconnect themselves from all endeavors that enslave them throughout the week and compared the day to pressing a reset button on a machine. A welcome prayer over wine or grape juice from the men and candle lighting from the women invokes the Jewish Sabbath on Friday at sundown.
Jump up ^ "Strassburg, Robert". Milken Archive of Jewish Music. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 261.
Jump up ^ Derived from Isaiah 58:13–14.
Jump up ^ Chagigah 1:8.
Jump up ^ Klein, Miriam (April 27, 2011). "Sabbath Offers Serenity in a Fast-Paced World". Triblocal. Chicago Tribune.
Jump up ^ Neulander, Arthur (1950). "The Use of Electricity on the Sabbath". Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly. 14: 165–171.
Jump up ^ Adler, Morris; Agus, Jacob; Friedman, Theodore (1950). "Responsum on the Sabbath". Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly. 14: 112–137.
Jump up ^ Klein, Isaac. A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America: New York, 1979.
Jump up ^ Hannah Dreyfus (October 2, 2014). "New Shabbos App Creates Uproar Among Orthodox Circles". The Jewish Week. Archived from the original on October 7, 2014. Retrieved October 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ David Shamah (October 2, 2014). "App lets Jewish kids text on Sabbath – and stay in the fold; The 'Shabbos App' is generating controversy in the Jewish community – and a monumental on-line discussion of Jewish law". The Times of Israel. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ Daniel Koren (October 2, 2014). "Finally, Now You Can Text on Saturdays Thanks to New 'Shabbos App'". Shalom Life. Archived from the original on October 7, 2014. Retrieved October 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Will the Shabbos App Change Jewish Life, Raise Rabbinic Ire, or Both?". Jewish Business News. October 2, 2014. Retrieved October 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ 8 saved during "Shabbat from hell" Archived 2010-01-19 at the Wayback Machine. (January 17, 2010) in Israel 21c Innovation News Service Retrieved 2010–01–18
Jump up ^ ZAKA rescuemission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat' Religious rescue team holds Shabbat prayer with members of international missions in Port au-Prince. Retrieved 2010–01–22
Jump up ^ "ZAKA mission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat'". Ynetnews.com. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Faigin, Daniel P. (2003-09-04). "Soc.Culture.Jewish Newsgroups Frequently Asked Questions and Answers". Usenet. p. 18.4.7. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
Jump up ^ "The Sunday-Sabbath Movement in American Reform Judaism: Strategy or Evolution" (PDF). Americanjewisharchives.org. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Shulkhan Arukh, Orach Chaim 280:1
External links[edit]
Look up Shabbat or shabbat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Look up Sabbath in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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A detailed summary of the laws of Shabbat from Torah.org, based on the Shulchan Aruch
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Admiel Kosman: The structure of Hilkhot Shabbat according to RaMBaM and the later halakhic literature. In: Limudim. Ktav-Et virtualit le-Inyane Hinukh we-Hora`ah, (Sivan 2012), no. 4.
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Validity (statistics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Validity (disambiguation).
This article needs attention from an expert in statistics. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article. WikiProject Statistics may be able to help recruit an expert. (November 2008)
Validity is the extent to which a concept,[1] conclusion or measurement is well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real world. The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. The validity of a measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is considered to be the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure; in this case, the validity is an equivalent to accuracy.
In psychometrics, validity has a particular application known as test validity: "the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores" ("as entailed by proposed uses of tests").[2]
It is generally accepted that the concept of scientific validity addresses the nature of reality and as such is an epistemological and philosophical issue as well as a question of measurement. The use of the term in logic is narrower, relating to the truth of inferences made from premises.
Validity is important because it can help determine what types of tests to use, and help to make sure researchers are using methods that are not only ethical, and cost-effective, but also a method that truly measures the idea or construct in question.
Contents
[hide]
1 Test validity
1.1 Validity (accuracy)
1.2 Construct validity
1.3 Content validity
1.3.1 Face validity
1.4 Criterion validity
1.4.1 Concurrent validity
1.4.2 Predictive validity
2 Experimental validity
2.1 Statistical conclusion validity
2.2 Internal validity
2.3 External validity
2.3.1 Ecological validity
2.3.2 Relationship to internal validity
3 Diagnostic validity
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Test validity[edit]
Main article: Test validity
Validity (accuracy) [edit]
See also: Precision and accuracy
Validity[3] of an assessment is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. This is not the same as reliability, which is the extent to which a measurement gives results that are very consistent. Within validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar, as it does in reliability. However, just because a measure is reliable, it is not necessarily valid eg. A scale that is 5 pounds off is reliable but not valid. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Validity is also dependent on the measurement measuring what it was designed to measure, and not something else instead.[4] Validity (similar to reliability) is a relative concept; validity is not an all-or-nothing idea. There are many different types of validity.
Construct validity[edit]
Main article: Construct validity
Construct validity refers to the extent to which operationalizations of a construct (e.g., practical tests developed from a theory) measure a construct as defined by a theory. It subsumes all other types of validity. For example, the extent to which a test measures intelligence is a question of construct validity. A measure of intelligence presumes, among other things, that the measure is associated with things it should be associated with (convergent validity), not associated with things it should not be associated with (discriminant validity).[5]
Construct validity evidence involves the empirical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct. Such lines of evidence include statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test including the relationships between responses to different test items. They also include relationships between the test and measures of other constructs. As currently understood, construct validity is not distinct from the support for the substantive theory of the construct that the test is designed to measure. As such, experiments designed to reveal aspects of the causal role of the construct also contribute to construct validity evidence.[5]
Content validity[edit]
Content validity is a non-statistical type of validity that involves "the systematic examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured" (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997 p. 114). For example, does an IQ questionnaire have items covering all areas of intelligence discussed in the scientific literature?
Content validity evidence involves the degree to which the content of the test matches a content domain associated with the construct. For example, a test of the ability to add two numbers should include a range of combinations of digits. A test with only one-digit numbers, or only even numbers, would not have good coverage of the content domain. Content related evidence typically involves a subject matter expert (SME) evaluating test items against the test specifications. Before going to final administration of questionnaires, the researcher should consult the validity of items against each of the constructs or variables and accordingly modify measurement instruments on the basis of SME's opinion.
A test has content validity built into it by careful selection of which items to include (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Items are chosen so that they comply with the test specification which is drawn up through a thorough examination of the subject domain. Foxcroft, Paterson, le Roux & Herbst (2004, p. 49)[6] note that by using a panel of experts to review the test specifications and the selection of items the content validity of a test can be improved. The experts will be able to review the items and comment on whether the items cover a representative sample of the behaviour domain.
Face validity[edit]
Face validity is an estimate of whether a test appears to measure a certain criterion; it does not guarantee that the test actually measures phenomena in that domain. Measures may have high validity, but when the test does not appear to be measuring what it is, it has low face validity. Indeed, when a test is subject to faking (malingering), low face validity might make the test more valid. Considering one may get more honest answers with lower face validity, it is sometimes important to make it appear as though there is low face validity whilst administering the measures.
Face validity is very closely related to content validity. While content validity depends on a theoretical basis for assuming if a test is assessing all domains of a certain criterion (e.g. does assessing addition skills yield in a good measure for mathematical skills? To answer this you have to know, what different kinds of arithmetic skills mathematical skills include) face validity relates to whether a test appears to be a good measure or not. This judgment is made on the "face" of the test, thus it can also be judged by the amateur.
Face validity is a starting point, but should never be assumed to be probably valid for any given purpose, as the "experts" have been wrong before—the Malleus Malificarum (Hammer of Witches) had no support for its conclusions other than the self-imagined competence of two "experts" in "witchcraft detection," yet it was used as a "test" to condemn and burn at the stake tens of thousands men and women as "witches."[7]
Criterion validity[edit]
Criterion validity evidence involves the correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables) taken as representative of the construct. In other words, it compares the test with other measures or outcomes (the criteria) already held to be valid. For example, employee selection tests are often validated against measures of job performance (the criterion), and IQ tests are often validated against measures of academic performance (the criterion).
If the test data and criterion data are collected at the same time, this is referred to as concurrent validity evidence. If the test data are collected first in order to predict criterion data collected at a later point in time, then this is referred to as predictive validity evidence.
Concurrent validity[edit]
Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization correlates with other measures of the same construct that are measured at the same time. When the measure is compared to another measure of the same type, they will be related (or correlated). Returning to the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to current employees and then correlated with their scores on performance reviews.
Predictive validity[edit]
Predictive validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization can predict (or correlate with) other measures of the same construct that are measured at some time in the future. Again, with the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to applicants, all applicants are hired, their performance is reviewed at a later time, and then their scores on the two measures are correlated.
This is also when measurement predicts a relationship between what is measured and something else; predicting whether or not the other thing will happen in the future. This type of validity is important from a public view standpoint; is this going to look acceptable to the public or not?
Experimental validity[edit]
The validity of the design of experimental research studies is a fundamental part of the scientific method, and a concern of research ethics. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn.
Statistical conclusion validity[edit]
Statistical conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’. This began as being solely about whether the statistical conclusion about the relationship of the variables was correct, but now there is a movement towards moving to ‘reasonable’ conclusions that use: quantitative, statistical, and qualitative data.[8]
Statistical conclusion validity involves ensuring the use of adequate sampling procedures, appropriate statistical tests, and reliable measurement procedures.[9] As this type of validity is concerned solely with the relationship that is found among variables, the relationship may be solely a correlation.
Internal validity[edit]
Internal validity is an inductive estimate of the degree to which conclusions about causal relationships can be made (e.g. cause and effect), based on the measures used, the research setting, and the whole research design. Good experimental techniques, in which the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable is studied under highly controlled conditions, usually allow for higher degrees of internal validity than, for example, single-case designs.
Eight kinds of confounding variable can interfere with internal validity (i.e. with the attempt to isolate causal relationships):
History, the specific events occurring between the first and second measurements in addition to the experimental variables
Maturation, processes within the participants as a function of the passage of time (not specific to particular events), e.g., growing older, hungrier, more tired, and so on.
Testing, the effects of taking a test upon the scores of a second testing.
Instrumentation, changes in calibration of a measurement tool or changes in the observers or scorers may produce changes in the obtained measurements.
Statistical regression, operating where groups have been selected on the basis of their extreme scores.
Selection, biases resulting from differential selection of respondents for the comparison groups.
Experimental mortality, or differential loss of respondents from the comparison groups.
Selection-maturation interaction, etc. e.g., in multiple-group quasi-experimental designs
External validity[edit]
External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to be true for other cases, for example to different people, places or times. In other words, it is about whether findings can be validly generalized. If the same research study was conducted in those other cases, would it get the same results?
A major factor in this is whether the study sample (e.g. the research participants) are representative of the general population along relevant dimensions. Other factors jeopardizing external validity are:
Reactive or interaction effect of testing, a pretest might increase the scores on a posttest
Interaction effects of selection biases and the experimental variable.
Reactive effects of experimental arrangements, which would preclude generalization about the effect of the experimental variable upon persons being exposed to it in non-experimental settings
Multiple-treatment interference, where effects of earlier treatments are not erasable.
Ecological validity[edit]
Ecological validity is the extent to which research results can be applied to real-life situations outside of research settings. This issue is closely related to external validity but covers the question of to what degree experimental findings mirror what can be observed in the real world (ecology = the science of interaction between organism and its environment). To be ecologically valid, the methods, materials and setting of a study must approximate the real-life situation that is under investigation.
Ecological validity is partly related to the issue of experiment versus observation. Typically in science, there are two domains of research: observational (passive) and experimental (active). The purpose of experimental designs is to test causality, so that you can infer A causes B or B causes A. But sometimes, ethical and/or methological restrictions prevent you from conducting an experiment (e.g. how does isolation influence a child's cognitive functioning?). Then you can still do research, but it is not causal, it is correlational. You can only conclude that A occurs together with B. Both techniques have their strengths and weaknesses.
Relationship to internal validity[edit]
On first glance, internal and external validity seem to contradict each other – to get an experimental design you have to control for all interfering variables. That is why you often conduct your experiment in a laboratory setting. While gaining internal validity (excluding interfering variables by keeping them constant) you lose ecological or external validity because you establish an artificial laboratory setting. On the other hand, with observational research you can not control for interfering variables (low internal validity) but you can measure in the natural (ecological) environment, at the place where behavior normally occurs. However, in doing so, you sacrifice internal validity.
The apparent contradiction of internal validity and external validity is, however, only superficial. The question of whether results from a particular study generalize to other people, places or times arises only when one follows an inductivist research strategy. If the goal of a study is to deductively test a theory, one is only concerned with factors which might undermine the rigor of the study, i.e. threats to internal validity.
Diagnostic validity[edit]
In psychiatry there is a particular issue with assessing the validity of the diagnostic categories themselves. In this context:[10]
content validity may refer to symptoms and diagnostic criteria;
concurrent validity may be defined by various correlates or markers, and perhaps also treatment response;
predictive validity may refer mainly to diagnostic stability over time;
discriminant validity may involve delimitation from other disorders.
Robins and Guze proposed in 1970 what were to become influential formal criteria for establishing the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. They listed five criteria:[10]
distinct clinical description (including symptom profiles, demographic characteristics, and typical precipitants)
laboratory studies (including psychological tests, radiology and postmortem findings)
delimitation from other disorders (by means of exclusion criteria)
follow-up studies showing a characteristic course (including evidence of diagnostic stability)
family studies showing familial clustering
These were incorporated into the Feighner Criteria and Research Diagnostic Criteria that have since formed the basis of the DSM and ICD classification systems.
Kendler in 1980 distinguished between:[10]
antecedent validators (familial aggregation, premorbid personality, and precipitating factors)
concurrent validators (including psychological tests)
predictive validators (diagnostic consistency over time, rates of relapse and recovery, and response to treatment)
Nancy Andreasen (1995) listed several additional validators – molecular genetics and molecular biology, neurochemistry, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and cognitive neuroscience – that are all potentially capable of linking symptoms and diagnoses to their neural substrates.[10]
Kendell and Jablinsky (2003) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between validity and utility, and argued that diagnostic categories defined by their syndromes should be regarded as valid only if they have been shown to be discrete entities with natural boundaries that separate them from other disorders.[10]
Kendler (2006) emphasized that to be useful, a validating criterion must be sensitive enough to validate most syndromes that are true disorders, while also being specific enough to invalidate most syndromes that are not true disorders. On this basis, he argues that a Robins and Guze criterion of "runs in the family" is inadequately specific because most human psychological and physical traits would qualify - for example, an arbitrary syndrome comprising a mixture of "height over 6 ft, red hair, and a large nose" will be found to "run in families" and be "hereditary", but this should not be considered evidence that it is a disorder. Kendler has further suggested that "essentialist" gene models of psychiatric disorders, and the hope that we will be able to validate categorical psychiatric diagnoses by "carving nature at its joints" solely as a result of gene discovery, are implausible.[11]
In the United States Federal Court System validity and reliability of evidence is evaluated using the Daubert Standard: see Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. Perri and Lichtenwald (2010) provide a starting point for a discussion about a wide range of reliability and validity topics in their analysis of a wrongful murder conviction.[12]
See also[edit]
Concurrent validity
Content validity
Construct validity
Cross-validation (statistics)
External validity
Face validity
Internal validity
Predictive validity
Regression model validation
Statistical conclusion validity
Validity (logic)
Validity scale
Validation (disambiguation)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Brains, Willnat, Manheim, Rich 2011. Empirical Political Analysis 8th edition. Boston, MA: Longman p. 105
Jump up ^ American Educational Research Association, Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Jump up ^ National Council on Measurement in Education. http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorV
Jump up ^ Kramer, Geoffrey P., Douglas A. Bernstein, and Vicky Phares. Introduction to clinical psychology. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b Cronbach, Lee J.; Meehl, Paul E. (1955). "Construct validity in psychological tests". Psychological Bulletin. 52 (4): 281–302. doi:10.1037/h0040957. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 13245896.
Jump up ^ Foxcroft, C., Paterson, H., le Roux, N., & Herbst, D. Human Sciences Research Council, (2004). 'Psychological assessment in South Africa: A needs analysis: The test use patterns and needs of psychological assessment practitioners: Final Report: July. Retrieved from website: http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/output/outputDocuments/1716_Foxcroft_Psychologicalassessmentin%20SA.pdf
Jump up ^ The most common estimates are between 40,000 and 60,000 deaths. Brian Levack (The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe) multiplied the number of known European witch trials by the average rate of conviction and execution, to arrive at a figure of around 60,000 deaths. Anne Lewellyn Barstow (Witchcraze) adjusted Levack's estimate to account for lost records, estimating 100,000 deaths. Ronald Hutton (Triumph of the Moon) argues that Levack's estimate had already been adjusted for these, and revises the figure to approximately 40,000.
Jump up ^ Cozby, Paul C.. Methods in behavioral research. 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2009. Print.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Javid (6 November 2015). "Measurement validity and reliability". slideshare.net. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kendell, R; Jablensky, A (2003). "Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (1): 4–12. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.4. PMID 12505793.
Jump up ^ Kendler, KS (2006). "Reflections on the relationship between psychiatric genetics and psychiatric nosology". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 163 (7): 1138–46. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.7.1138. PMID 16816216.
Jump up ^ Perri, FS; Lichtenwald, TG (2010). "The Precarious Use Of Forensic Psychology As Evidence: The Timothy Masters Case" (PDF). Champion Magazine (July): 34–45.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Validity
Cronbach, L. J.; Meehl, P. E. (1955). "Construct validity in psychological tests". Psychological Bulletin. 52 (4): 281–302. doi:10.1037/h0040957. PMID 13245896.
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Korean pronouns
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Korean grammar
Phonology
Pronouns
Numerals
Postpositions
Verbs
Speech levels
Honorifics
v
t
e
Korean pronouns pose some difficulty to speakers of English due to their complexity. The Korean language makes extensive use of speech levels and honorifics in its grammar, and Korean pronouns also change depending on the social distinction between the speaker and the person or persons spoken to.
In general, Koreans avoid using second person singular pronouns, especially when using honorific forms.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview of pronouns
2 Pronouns in detail
3 Second person reference
4 See also
5 References
Overview of pronouns[edit]
Singular
Plural
First person
저 (jeo), 나 (na) 저희 (jeohui), 우리 (uri)
Second person
당신 (dangsin), 너 (neo) 당신들 (dangsindeul), 너희 (neohui)
Third person
(Basically, there are no third person pronouns, but the following have restrictive use in a certain writing genres.)
그, 그녀(f) (geu/geunyeo) 그들, 그녀들 (f) (geudeul/geunyeodeul)
For each pronoun there is a humble/honorific and an informal form for first and second person. In the above table, the first pronoun given is the humble one, which one would use when speaking to someone older or of high social status. dangsin (당신) is also sometimes used as the Korean equivalent of "dear" as a form of address. Also, whereas uses of other humble forms are straightforward, dangsin must be used only in specific social contexts, such as between two married partners. In that way, it can be used in an ironic sense when used between strangers, usually during arguments and confrontations. It is worth noting that dangsin is also an honorific third-person pronoun, used to refer to one's social superior who is not present.
Basically, there are no pure third-person pronoun systems in Korean. Instead of pronouns, personal names, titles, or kinship terms are used to refer to third persons in both oral and written communication. For this reason, repetitive use of names or titles in a discourse is allowed in Korean, which is very different feature from other languages such as English. For translation and creative writing, there is restrictive use of third-person pronouns "geu-nyeo" (그녀) and "geu" (그). The first has been coined in the combination of the demonstrative "geu" (그) [geu] 'that' and 녀(nyeo) 'woman' to refer anaphorically to a third person female. A gender-neutral third person pronoun, geu (그), which was originally a demonstrative, meaning 'that' could mean she or he. However, it has increasingly been interpreted as a "male" pronoun.
Although, in recent years, the pronoun geu-nyeo (그녀) is slowly gaining ground as a female counterpart from the influence of translations from European languages, it is almost restricted to specific styles of written language because Korean generally uses subjectless or modifier+noun constructions.
Pronouns in detail[edit]
Korean has personal pronouns for the 1st and 2nd person, with distinctions for honorifics, and it prefers demonstrative pronouns in the 3rd person, which make a three-way distinction between close, distant, and previously mentioned.
Personal pronouns
singular
plural
1st person familiar
나 (na) 우리 (uri)
우리들 (urideul)
2nd person familiar
너 (neo) 너희 (neohui)
너희들 (neohuideul)
3rd person familiar
그 (geu) 그들 (geudeul)
1st person humble
저 (jeo) 저희 (jeohui)
저희들 (jeohuideul)
2nd/3rd person respectful
(see below)
The plural suffix -deul is also used with pronouns, both if it is necessary, as in geudeul (그들, "they"), and sometimes in some cases, like urideul (우리들), in which it is redundant.
Geu (그) has a range of meanings, "he," "she," or "it." Ambiguity and the ability of the Korean language to drop pronouns which can be reconstructed from context make geu be seldom used by itself, but it has enjoyed a revival recently as the translation of "he" in works translated from European languages.
The monosyllabic pronouns na (나), neo (너), and jeo (저), add -i (이) or -i ga (이가) rather than the expected -ga (가) to form the nominative case (see below). That produces the forms nae (내), ne (네), and je (제).
Additionally, because many Koreans have lost the distinction between the vowels ae (애) and e (에), ne (네, "you") is dissimilating to ni (니).
In colloquial Korean, the topic forms naneun (나는, "me") and neoneun (너는, "you") are often pronounced and sometimes written as nan (난, "me") and neon (넌, "you").
Similarly, the accusative forms nareul (나를) and neoreul (너를) tend to become nal (날) and neol (널). The possessives na-ui (나의, "my"), neo-ui (너의, "your"), and jeo-ui (저의, "my") have the alternate forms nae (내), ne (네), and je (제).
The classifier jjog (쪽, "side") is also used when referring to people. Ijjog (이쪽, "this side") then means "this person, these people" (that is, he, she, or they), but it is further extended via "our side" as a polite form for "us" or "me".
Demonstratives
Prefix
Object
Place
Near
i- 이 igeot 이것 "this" igot 이곳, yeogi 여기 "here"
Given
geu- 그 geugeot 그것 "that" geogi 거기 "there"
Far
jeo- 저 jeogeot 저것 "that" jeogi 저기 "yonder"
Which?
eoneu 어느 mueot 무엇 "what?" eodi 어디 "where?"
The "given" series is often called "medial" and is said to be close to the addressee rather than the speaker. However, they actually refer to referents already established in the conversation, whether near or far. With new referents, the near or far forms will be used.
In colloquial speech, the object words, composed of the prefix followed by the generic noun classifier geos (것), frequently omit the final s (pronounced t), with proximate igeos (이것) becoming igeo (이거) That occurs before case clitics as well, with the nominative form igeos-i (이것이) becoming ige (이게), topical igeos-eun (이것은) becoming igeon (이건), and accusative igeos-eul (이것을) becoming igeol (이걸, "this").
In colloquial Korean, interrogative mu-eos (무엇) contracts to mwo (뭐, "what") (often pronounced meo, as w tends to drop after m), and the accusative mu-eos-eul (무엇을) contracts to mwol (뭘, "what"). In literature, another set of contraction for mu-eos is available for senior or archaic speakers: "mu-eo" (무어) for mu-eos, "mu-e" (무에) for mu-eos-i, "mu-eol" (무얼) for mu-eos-eul. In addition is "mwos" (뭣), seldom used.
The word for "who" is nugu (누구) whose nominative is nuga (누가). "How many" is myeoch (몇).
An archaic alternative for nuga is "nwi" (뉘).
Second person reference[edit]
Korean has a T-V distinction in the second person. Neo (너) is the pronoun corresponding to Latin tu, but instead of a single equivalent to vos, several strategies are used:
Leaving out the subject of the sentence if it can be implied by the context. In English, sentences need explicit subjects, but this is not so in conversational Korean.
Using the person's name when talking to someone younger. With older people, it is custom to use either a title or kinship term (see next point).
Using a kinship term: 언니 (eonni, "older sister" if speaker is female), 누나 (nuna, "older sister" if speaker is male), 오빠 (oppa, "older brother" if speaker is female), 형 (hyeong, "older brother" if speaker is male), 아줌마 (ajumma, "middle-aged woman"), 아주머니 (ajumeoni, also "middle aged woman" but more polite), 아저씨 (ajeossi, "middle-aged man"), 할머니 (halmeoni, "grandmother") of 할아버지 (harabeoji, "grandfather"). In Korea, it is common to use kinship terms for people who are not family at all. The term 아가씨 (agassi, "young lady") is preferable when addressing a young girl of unknown age. It is seen mostly used in public places like restaurants,but it will also sometimes be used by men in pick-up lines. By definition, the actual difference between 아가씨 and 아줌마 reside in marriage status and not age.
Using the appropriate title, usually ending in -nim: seonsaengnim ( 선생님, "teacher" although it is also often used as a general honorific term for other professions like managers) or gwajangnim (과장님 "director"), etc.
Using the plural yeoreobun (여러분, "ladies and gentlemen") where applicable.
If none of the above is possible, an honorific common noun, such as dangsin (당신, "said body") or jane (자네, "oneself") (used for "you" in the familiar speech level). The pseudo-pronoun dangsin is actually a noun, from the Sino-Korean loanword 當身 "the aforementioned body". There are many such pseudo-pronouns in Korean.
The methods are ambiguous: they can indicate a third person as well as a second person. For an honorific noun to be interpreted as a second person pronoun, it must agree with the speech level of the verb: the level of respect used must be consistent throughout the sentence. Korean verbs reflect the social status of the person being spoken to so if that same person or group of people listening is also mentioned in the sentence, neither reference should be higher than the other.
A lowly noun used with a high speech level, or an honorific noun used with a low speech level, will be interpreted as a third person pronoun.
For example, jane is used for "you" in the familiar speech level and is appropriate only as long as the familiar speech level itself is. The familiar speech level is used to talk in a friendly way to close friends and family who are younger or subordinate. In situations for which that speech level would be inappropriate or insulting, jane is too.
Even when the pronoun used and the speech level agree, there is still some possible ambiguity, but it can be resolved by context.
See also[edit]
Korean language
Korean grammar
Korean honorifics
Korean numerals
References[edit]
Dong Jae Lee. Some Problems in Learning Korean Second-Person Pronouns, in The Korean Language: Its Structure and Social Projection, Ho-min Sohn, editor. Hawaii: University of Hawaii, c1975.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_pronouns&oldid=782795902"
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To Build a Home
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the song by The Cinematic Orchestra. For the song by Jason Robert Brown, see The Bridges of Madison County (musical).
"To Build a Home"
Single by The Cinematic Orchestra featuring Patrick Watson
from the album Ma Fleur
B-side
Grey Reverend Version
"Child Song"
Released
29 October 2007
Format
7"
CD
Recorded
2006
Genre
Chamber pop
Length
6:11
Label
Ninja Tune
Domino
Songwriter(s)
Phil France
Jason Swinscoe
Patrick Watson
Producer(s)
Jason Swinscoe
The Cinematic Orchestra singles chronology
"Man with the Movie Camera"
(2003) "To Build a Home"
(2007) "Breathe"
(2007)
"Man with the Movie Camera"
(2003) "To Build a Home"
(2007) "Breathe"
(2007)
"To Build a Home" is a song by English electronic music group The Cinematic Orchestra, with vocals and piano performed by Canadian singer-songwriter Patrick Watson. It was released as the second single from the group's third studio album, Ma Fleur (2007), on 29 October 2007. In 2015, the song peaked at number 96 on the French Singles Chart.[1]
Contents
1 Composition
2 Release and reception
3 Track listing
4 Charts
5 References
6 External links
Composition[edit]
"To Build a Home" is a piano ballad[2] that serves as the opening track to its companion album, Ma Fleur,[3] though it serves as the closing track on the Domino-released versions of the album.[4] It features vocals from Canadian singer-songwriter Patrick Watson, who also has writing credits on the song alongside Phil France and Jason Swinscoe of the Cinematic Orchestra. Watson also performed piano for the song.[5] The instrumental begins with about three to four piano chords looped,[6] building up to a more loud and grand point, introducing strings. During this portion of the instrumental, Watson sings over both the piano and strings, eventually climaxing with falsetto vocals.[3] Lyrically, the song deals with Watson wanting to create a house for him and his lover. What happens with the house is unknown, resulting it to be merely metaphorical in place of a resting place for the two.[7]
Release and reception[edit]
The song was first released on 29 October 2007 as a 7" vinyl single by Ninja Tune in the United Kingdom. It was backed with a cover version of the song performed by Grey Reverend.[8] A 7" single was also released in the U.S. by the Domino Recording Company's U.S. division, which was backed with "Child Song".[9]
"To Build a Home" had a positive reception from music critics. Critics often saw Watson's vocal performance as a highlight on the song. For The Observer, Stuart Nicholson wrote that "Swinscoe transforms three- and four-chord vamps into something special."[6] Drowned in Sound's Shain Shapiro regarded the vocals as "bellowing [and] haunting", while Tyler Fisher of Sputnikmusic noted that Watson "nearly steals the show".[3] Maggie Fremont of Vulture called it "one of the most emotional songs ever performed."[10]
"To Build a Home" has been used in several different TV shows, including Friday Night Lights, Grey's Anatomy[11] Orange Is the New Black, Criminal Minds, and This Is Us.[12] At the 2018 Winter Olympics, figure skaters Julian Yee and Dmitri Aliev used the song in their respective performances.[13] It was reported in November 2016 that the song had been streamed over 60 million times.[14]
Track listing[edit]
Ninja Tune (ZEN7 200; UK 7" vinyl single)[8]
Side A
No.
Title
Length
1. "To Build a Home"
Side B
No.
Title
Length
1. "To Build a Home" (Grey Reverend Version)
Domino (DNO 148; U.S. 7" vinyl single)[9]
Side A
No.
Title
Length
1. "To Build a Home" (edit)
Side B
No.
Title
Length
1. "Child Song"
Charts[edit]
Chart (2012–2015)
Peak
position
France (SNEP)[1]
96
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Lescharts.com – The Cinematic Orchestra – To Build a Home" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Lynskey, Dorian (4 May 2007). "CD: Cinematic Orchestra, Ma Fleur". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fisher, Tyler (4 June 2007). "The Cinematic Orchestra – Ma Fleur (album review)". Sputnikmusic. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ma Fleur : The Cinematic Orchestra". Domino USA. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Ma Fleur (album liner notes). The Cinematic Orchestra. Ninja Tune / Domino. 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Nicholson, Stuart (21 April 2007). "CD: Cinematic Orchestra, Ma Fleur". The Observer. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Shain (4 May 2007). "Album Review: The Cinematic Orchestra – Ma Fleur". Drowned in Sound. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "To Build a Home (Versions) by the Cinematic Orchestra". Ninja Tune. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "To Build a Home : The Cinematic Orchestra". Domino USA. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Fremont, Maggie (13 March 2018). "The Weepiest Moments in This Is Us Season Two, Ranked". Vulture. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Glow in nu-jazz". Delano. 25 October 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Zellner, Xander (13 February 2018). "The Cinematic Orchestra Rules Top TV Songs Chart for January 2018". Billboard. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Rutherford, Kevin (27 February 2018). "Beth Hart, Ida Corr, Cinematic Orchestra & More Skate to Sales Gains in Final Days of Winter Olympics". Billboard.biz. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Richardson, Andy. "Cinematic Orchestra's Jason Swinscoe talks ahead of Birmingham O2 Institute show". Shropshire Star. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
"To Build a Home" at Discogs (list of releases)
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The Cinematic Orchestra
Jason Swinscoe
Phil France
Luke Flowers
Tom Chant
Nick Ramm
Stuart McCallum
Studio albums
Motion
Every Day
Man with a Movie Camera
Ma Fleur
Live albums
Live at the Royal Albert Hall
Remix albums
Remixes 98–2000
Soundtrack albums
The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos
Compilation albums
Late Night Tales: The Cinematic Orchestra
Songs
"All Things to All Men"
"To Build a Home"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=To_Build_a_Home&oldid=854854949"
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