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Second Temple
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Second Temple
בית־המקדש השני
Model of Herod's Temple (a renovation of the Second Temple) in the Israel Museum, created in 1966 as part of the Holyland Model of Jerusalem. The model was inspired by the writings of Josephus.
Alternate name
Herod's Temple
Location
Jerusalem
Coordinates
31°46′41″N 35°14′07″E / 31.778013°N 35.235367°E / 31.778013; 35.235367
Type
Temple
Part of
Herodian Temple Mount
Height
45.72 metres (150.0 ft)
History
Builder
Likely Zerubbabel, largely renovated by Herod the Great.
Material
local limestone
Founded
c. 537–516 BCE (construction)
Abandoned
70 CE (destroyed)
Periods
Early Roman Empire
Site notes
Excavation dates
1930, 1967, 1968, 1970–1978, 1996–1999, 2007
Archaeologists
Charles Warren, Benjamin Mazar, Ronny Reich, Eli Shukron, Yaakov Billig
Condition
Ruin, archaeological park
Ownership
Disputed, currently managed by the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf
Public access
Yes (limited)
The Second Temple (Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי, Beit HaMikdash HaSheni) was the Jewish Holy Temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. According to Jewish tradition, it replaced Solomon's Temple (the First Temple), which was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, when Jerusalem was conquered and part of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken into exile to Babylon.
The Second Temple was originally a rather modest structure constructed by a number of Jewish exile groups returning to the Levant from Babylon. However, during the reign of Herod the Great, the Second Temple was completely refurbished, and the original structure was totally overhauled into the large and magnificent edifices and facades that are more recognizable. Much like the First Temple, the Second Temple was destroyed alongside Jerusalem in 70 CE by the Romans, in retaliation to an ongoing Jewish revolt.
Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical narrative
2 Rabbinical literature
3 Rededication by the Maccabees
4 Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest
5 Herod's Temple
5.1 Construction
5.2 Platform
5.3 Court of the Gentiles
5.4 Pinnacle
5.5 Inside the Soreg
5.6 Temple sanctuary
6 Pilgrimages
7 Destruction
8 Archaeology
9 Second Temple Judaism
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Biblical narrative[edit]
Main article: Second Temple period
The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible.[1][2] According to the closing verses of the second book of Chronicles and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great (Ezra 1:1–4, 2 Chron 36:22–23), construction started at the original site of Solomon's Temple. After a relatively brief halt due to opposition from peoples who had filled the vacuum during the Jewish captivity (Ezra 4), work resumed c. 521 BCE under Darius the Great (Ezra 5) and was completed during the sixth year of his reign (c. 516 BCE), with the temple dedication taking place the following year.[citation needed]
These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.[1]
The original core of the book of Nehemiah, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era.[3]
The book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata and he travels to Jerusalem. There he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israel's enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem. He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law.
Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360,[4] having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple[5] and reinstituting the sacrificial rituals known as the korbanot.
On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm.[6] First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris which occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators (Haggai 2:3, Zechariah 4:10).[5]
The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the work. Zerubbabel and the elders, however, declined all such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple without help. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According to Ezra 4:5, the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.[5]
Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died (2 Chronicles 36:22–23) and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. On his death, the "false Smerdis", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion (Ezra 5:6–6:15), under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people (Ezra 6:15,16), although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power. The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first (Haggai 2:9).[5]
Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 597 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked the following holy articles:
The Ark of the Covenant[2][5] containing the Tablets of Stone, before which were placed[7] the pot of manna and Aaron's rod[5]
The Urim and Thummim[2][5] (divination objects contained in the Hoshen)
The holy oil[5]
The sacred fire.[2][5]
In the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim (Holy of Holies) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included:
The Menorah (golden lamp) for the Hekhal
The Table of Showbread
The golden altar of incense, with golden censers.[5]
According to the Mishnah (Middot iii. 6), the "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur.[2]
The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great.[5][8] According to the Babylonian Talmud (Yoma 22b),[2] however, the Temple lacked the Shekinah, the dwelling or settling divine presence of God, and the Ruach HaKodesh, the Spirit of Holiness, present in the first.
Rabbinical literature[edit]
Traditional rabbinic literature state that the Second Temple stood for 420 years and based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, placed construction in 350 BCE (3408 AM), 166 years later than secular estimates, and destruction in 70 CE (3829 AM).[9]
The fifth order, or division, of the Mishnah, known as Kodashim, provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected with Temple service including the sacrifices, the Temple and its furnishings, as well as the priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service. Tractates of the order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, and meal offerings, the laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as the sin offering and the guilt offering, and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple (tractate Middot), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple (tractate Tamid).[10][11][12]
Rededication by the Maccabees[edit]
Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Paneion.[13] Judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria. When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and its religious services stopped, Judaism was effectively outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also banned circumcision and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the Temple.[14]
Following the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire, the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean kingdom, as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah.
Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest[edit]
There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra, the queen of Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as the high priest of Judaea. Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was in line to be the king, agreed to be contented with being the high priest. Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III, king of the Nabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey, who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey's forces. The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.[15]
Solomon's Temple which was on the site prior to the building of the Second Temple
Herod's Temple[edit]
This picture shows the temple as imagined in 1966 in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem.
Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount. Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process.[16] When the Roman emperor Caligula planned to place his own statue inside the temple, Herod's grandson Agrippa I was able to intervene and convince him against this.
Construction[edit]
James Tissot – Reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple of Herod – Brooklyn Museum
A model of the southern wall and Royal Colonnade or Stoa
Eastern portion of the southern wall of the Temple Mount
Remains of the Hulda Gates
Marwan Mosque on the site of Solomon's Stables
Herod's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE.[17] Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem.[17]
The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. An agreement was made between Herod and the Jewish religious authorities: the sacrificial rituals, called offerings, were to be continued unabated for the entire time of construction, and the Temple itself would be constructed by the priests. Later the Exodus 30:13 sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax.
Platform[edit]
Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone "bricks" were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 feet by 11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons,[18][19] while most were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet (approximately 28 tons). King Herod had architects from Greece, Rome and Egypt plan the construction. The blocks were presumably quarried by using pickaxes to create channels. Then they hammered in wooden beams and flushed them with water to force them out. Once they were removed, they were carved into precise squares and numbered at the quarry to show where they would be installed. The final carving would have been done by using harder stones to grind or chisel them to create precise joints. They would have been transported using oxen and specialized carts. Since the quarry was uphill from the temple they had gravity on their side but care needed to be taken to control the descent. Final installation would have been done using pulleys or cranes. Roman pulleys and cranes weren't strong enough to lift the blocks alone so they may have used multiple cranes and levers to position them.[20] As the mountainside began to rise, the western side was carved away to a vertical wall and bricks were carved to create a virtual continuation of the brick face, which was continued for a while until the northern slope reached ground level. Part of the Antonian hill to the north of Moriah was annexed to the complex and the area between was filled up with landfill.
The project began with the building of giant underground vaults upon which the temple would be built so it could be larger than the small flat area on top of Mount Moriah. Ground level at the time was at least 20 ft. (6m) below the current level, as can be seen by walking the Western Wall tunnels. Legend has it that the construction of the entire complex lasted only three years, but other sources such as Josephus say that it took far longer, although the Temple itself may have taken that long. During a Passover visit by Jesus the Jews replied that it had been under construction for 46 years.[21] It is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 CE.
Court of the Gentiles[edit]
This area was primarily a bazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food, as well as currency changers, exchanging Roman for Tyrian money because the Jews were not allowed to coin their own money and they viewed Roman currency as an abomination to the Lord,[22] as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers when Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims.[23][24] Guides that provided tours of the premises were also available. Jewish males had the unique opportunity to be shown inside the temple itself.
The priests, in their white linen robes and tubular hats, were everywhere, directing pilgrims and advising them on what kinds of sacrifices were to be performed.
Behind them, as they entered the Court of the Gentiles from the south through the Huldah Gates, was the Royal Porch, which contained a marketplace, administrative quarters, and a synagogue. On the upper floors, the great Jewish sages held court, priests and Levites performed various chores, and from there, tourists were able to observe the events. The Royal Porch is widely accepted to be part of Herod's work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the first century BCE,[25] while the theory that Herod began the extension and the Royal Porch is based mainly on Josephus's possibly politically motivated claim. During Herod's reign the porch was not yet open to the public)
To the east of the court was Solomon's Porch, and to the north, the soreg, the "middle wall of separation",[26] a stone wall separating the public area from the inner sanctuary where only Jews could enter, described as being 3 cubits high by Josephus (Wars 5.5.2 [3b] 6.2.4).
Pinnacle[edit]
The accounts of Jesus' temptations in Matthew's and Luke's gospels both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more pinnacles (Greek: το πτερυγιον του ιερου):
Then he [Satan] brought Him to Jerusalem, set Him on the pinnacle of the temple, and said to Him, "If You are the Son of God, throw Yourself down from here."[27]
The Greek word used here is pterugion, which literally means a little wing, or by extension anything like a wing such as a battlement or parapet.[28] The archaeologist Benjamin Mazar thought it referred to the southeast corner of the Temple overlooking the Kidron Valley.[29]
Inside the Soreg[edit]
According to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate.[30] The gates were: On the south side (going from west to east) the Fuel Gate, the Firstling Gate, the Water Gate. On the north side, from west to east, are the Jeconiah Gate, the Offering Gate, the Women's Gate and the Song Gate. On the Eastern side, the Nicanor gate, which is where most Jewish visitors entered. A few pieces of the Soreg have survived to the present day.
Within this area was the Court of the Women, open to all Jews, male and female. Even a ritually unclean Cohen could enter to perform various housekeeping duties. There was also a place for lepers (considered ritually unclean), as well as a ritual barbershop for Nazirites. In this, the largest of the temple courts, one could see constant dancing, singing and music.
Only men were allowed to enter the Court of the Israelites, where they could observe sacrifices of the high priest in the Court of the Priests. The Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite priests.
Temple sanctuary[edit]
The Foundation Stone under the Dome of the Rock, a possible historical location for the Kodesh Hakodashim
Between the entrance of the building and the curtain veiling the Holy of Holies were the famous vessels of the temple: the menorah, the incense-burning altar, and various other implements.
Pilgrimages[edit]
Proposed reconstruction of Robinson's Arch
Roman triumphal procession with spoils from the Temple, depicted on the inside wall of the Arch of Titus in Rome
The Madaba Map depiction of 6th-century Aelia Capitolina has the Cardo Maximus, the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today's Damascus Gate, and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to "Nea Church".
Robinson's Arch – remains of the entrance built by Herod to the Royal Colonnade
Remnants of the 1st century Stairs of Ascent, discovered by archaeologist Benjamin Mazar, to the entrance of the Temple Courtyard. Pilgrims coming to make sacrifices at the Temple would have entered and exited by this stairway.
Stones from the Western Wall thrown down by Roman soldiers in 70 CE
See also: Pilgrimage § Judaism
Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa (now part of Tel Aviv), where they would join a caravan for the three-day trek to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries. Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money, the latter two considered religious.[31][32] The pilgrims would purchase sacrificial animals, usually a pigeon or a lamb, in preparation for the following day's events.
The first thing pilgrims would do would be to approach the public entrance on the south side of the Temple Mount complex. They would check their animals, then visit a mikveh, where they would ritually cleanse and purify themselves. The pilgrims would then retrieve their sacrificial animals, and head to the Huldah gates. After ascending a staircase three stories in height, and passing through the gate, the pilgrims would find themselves in the Court of the Gentiles.
Destruction[edit]
Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts). Looking southwest
View of Temple Mount looking southwest
View of the southern part of Temple Mount
Main article: Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)
In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire. Four years later, in 70 CE, Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The Arch of Titus, located in Rome and built to commemorate Titus' victory in Judea, depicts a Roman victory procession with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah. According to an inscription on the Colosseum, Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79 CE—possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.[33]
The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadducees.[34]
The destruction date according to the Hebrew calendar was the 9th of Av, also known as Tisha B'Av.[35] The Temple itself was located on the site of what today is the Dome of the Rock. The gates let out close to Al-Aqsa Mosque (which came much later).[16] Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new city called Aelia Capitolina. At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred and Jews were banned from living inside Jerusalem. A pagan Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herod's Temple.[15]
Archaeology[edit]
In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 × 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended unto those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the soreg separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:
ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ
ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ
ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ
ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ
ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ
ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ
ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ
Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities.
In 1936 a fragment of a similar Temple warning inscription was found. After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions' Gate. Thus, the Western Wall is not the only remaining part of the Temple Mount. Currently, Robinson's Arch (named after American Edward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. This had been used by the priests as an entrance. Commoners had entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side which led through colonnades to the top of the platform. One of these colonnades is still extant and reachable through the Temple Mount. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance. Recent archeological digs have found thousands of mikvehs (ceremonial bathtubs) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, as well as a grand stairway leading to the now blocked entrance. Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon's Stables, which still exist and whose current renovation by the Waqf is extremely controversial. The temple itself was constructed of imported white marble that gleamed in the daylight.
On September 25, 2007, Yuval Baruch, archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound which may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE. Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves.[36]
The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.[37]
Magdala Stone
Bar Kokhba tetradracm showing the Jerusalem Temple façade 132–135 CE
Arch of Titus showing spoils of Jerusalem Temple
The upper corner of Herod's temple colonnade with ancient Hebrew inscription
The Warning Inscription found in 1871
A copy of the inscription found in 1871
Fragment of Second Temple Warning
The Trumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43 × 1 m) with Hebrew inscription "To the Trumpeting Place" excavated by Benjamin Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount is believed to be a part of the Second Temple.
Second Temple Judaism[edit]
Main article: Second Temple Judaism
The period between the construction of the Second Temple in 515 BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE witnessed major historical upheavals and significant religious changes that would affect most subsequent Abrahamic religions. The origins of the authority of scripture, of the centrality of law and morality in religion, of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period.
See also[edit]
Herodian architecture
Jerusalem stone
List of artifacts significant to the Bible
List of megalithic sites
Replicas of the Jewish Temple
Temple of Peace, Rome
Timeline of Jewish history
Archaeological remnants of the Jerusalem Temple
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Albright, William (1963). The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra: An Historical Survey. HarperCollins College Division. ASIN 0061301027. ISBN 0-06-130102-7. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Temple, The Second". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
Jump up ^ Paul Cartledge, Peter Garnsey, Erich S. Gruen (editors), Hellenistic Constructs: Essays In Culture, History, and Historiography, p. 92 (University of California Press, 1997). ISBN 0-520-20676-2
Jump up ^ Ezra 2:65
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Temple, the Second". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
Jump up ^ Ezra 2
Jump up ^ Maimonides. "Mishneh Torah, Sefer Avodah, Beis Habechirah, Chapter 4, Halacha 1". Retrieved 2013-05-20.
Jump up ^ Ezra 1:7–11
Jump up ^ Goldwurm, Hersh. History of the Jewish people: the Second Temple era, Mesorah Publications, 1982. Appendix: Year of the Destruction, p. 213. ISBN 0-89906-454-X
Jump up ^ Birnbaum, Philip (1975). "Kodashim". A Book of Jewish Concepts. New York, NY: Hebrew Publishing Company. pp. 541–542. ISBN 088482876X.
Jump up ^ Epstein, Isidore, ed. (1948). "Introduction to Seder Kodashim". The Babylonian Talmud. vol. 5. Singer, M.H. (translator). London: The Soncino Press. pp. xvii–xxi.
Jump up ^ Arzi, Abraham (1978). "Kodashim". Encyclopedia Judaica. 10 (1st ed.). Jerusalem, Israel: Keter Publishing House Ltd. pp. 1126–1127.
Jump up ^ De Bellis Antiquitatis (DBA) The Battle of Panion (200 BC) Archived 2009-12-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews[permanent dead link] Jewish War i. 34
^ Jump up to: a b Lester L. Grabbe (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. pp. 19–20, 26–29. ISBN 9780567552488.
^ Jump up to: a b Secrets of Jerusalem's Temple Mount, Leen Ritmeyer, Kathleen Ritmeyer, 1998
^ Jump up to: a b Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War
Jump up ^ The History Channel cited the 16.5 depth 567 ton estimate in "Lost Worlds of King Herod"
Jump up ^ Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs, 2002
Jump up ^ "Modern Marvels: Bible tech" History channel
Jump up ^ Gospel of John 2:20
Jump up ^ Beasley-Murray, G. (1999). Word biblical commentary: John (2 ed., Vol. 36). Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson.
Jump up ^ Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. p. 249
Jump up ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.
Jump up ^ "Israel Antiquities Authority".
Jump up ^ In verse 14 of Ephesians 2:11–18
Jump up ^ Luke 4:9
Jump up ^ Strong’s Concordance 4419
Jump up ^ Benjamin Mazar,The Mountain of the Lord, Doubleday;1975, p 149
Jump up ^ Josephus, War 5.5.2; 198; m. Mid. 1.4
Jump up ^ Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993.
Jump up ^ Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
Jump up ^ Rome, By Bruce Johnston in. "Colosseum 'built with loot from sack of Jerusalem temple'".
Jump up ^ Alföldy, Géza (1995). "Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 109: 195–226. JSTOR 20189648.
Jump up ^ Simmons, Shraga. "Tisha B'Av – Ninth of Av". Retrieved 2013-05-20.
Jump up ^ Gaffney, Sean (2007-09-24). "USATODAY.com, Report: Herod's Temple quarry found". Usatoday.com. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
Jump up ^ Kershner, Isabel (8 December 2015). "A Carved Stone Block Upends Assumptions About Ancient Judaism". New York Times. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
Library resources about
Second Temple
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Further reading[edit]
Grabbe, Lester. 2008. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. 2 vols. New York: T&T Clark.
Nickelsburg, George. 2005. Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah: A Historical and Literary Introduction. 2nd ed. Minneapolis: Fortress.
Schiffman, Lawrence, ed. 1998. Texts and Traditions: A Source Reader for the Study of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV.
Stone, Michael, ed. 1984. The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Fortress.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Jewish temple in Jerusalem.
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second
4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism
Jerusalem Videos The Southern & Western walls in Jerusalem – The Temple Mount
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Temple Mount Photos The Temple Mount photos including sites below the Mount itself, off limits to any non-Muslims
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Herod and the Herodian Dynasty[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple of Herod
PBS Frontline: Temple Culture
Picture gallery of a model of the temple
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second
4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism
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Yellow line (road marking)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Yellow line road marking
Yellow lines are road markings used in various territories.
Contents
[hide]
1 Single yellow lines
2 Double yellow lines
2.1 Australia
2.2 Canada
2.3 Finland
2.4 Hong Kong
2.5 India
2.6 Ireland
2.7 Lebanon
2.8 Malaysia
2.9 Malta
2.10 Mauritius
2.11 Singapore
2.12 United Kingdom
2.12.1 History
2.13 United States
3 References
4 See also
Single yellow lines[edit]
Single yellow lines are common along residential streets near to workplaces
A single yellow line is a road marking that is present on the side of the carriageway in the United Kingdom. It indicates that parking or waiting at that roadside is prohibited at certain times of day. The exact times vary by area and are indicated by signs at the roadside. Stopping to load and to pick up or set down passengers is generally allowed unless additional restrictions apply.[1]
Countries formerly part of the British Empire are likely to retain a modified version of the British laws including the basic principles regarding road safety.[citation needed] In Malta for example, a single yellow line, means no waiting (i.e. no parking, but alighting of passengers is permitted). The sign is applicable all day.[2]
In New South Wales, Australia- single yellow lines indicate a clear way, where parking is strictly prohibited during certain times of the day and/or special events. Single yellow lines are also used in areas with high snow fall to mark the far left side of the road.
In Malaysia, single yellow line is used in most roads leading to cities or towns or busy areas to mark parking restriction for certain times.
In Canada, Japan, Lebanon, and in some areas in the United States a single yellow line is used to separate traffic coming from opposite directions, where passing is allowed but with extreme caution.
Double yellow lines[edit]
Australia[edit]
Yellow lines in Australia
Yellow road lines are used in the centre of the road in areas with large amounts of snow to contrast with the white colour of snow. These lines are white in areas where there is infrequent or no snow.
Canada[edit]
In Canada, a double yellow line in the centre of the road means that it is unsafe for traffic travelling in either direction to pass (overtake). This is usually found on rolling hills or through corners where visibility is limited.
In the province of British Columbia, it is against the law to touch or cross solid double yellow line at any time, except to avoid obstructions on the highway,[3] or when a vehicle is entering or exiting the highway, if the vehicle can safely do so without affecting the flow of other vehicles.[4]
Finland[edit]
In Finland, a double yellow line in the center of the road means that it is unsafe for traffic travelling in either direction to pass (overtake).
Hong Kong[edit]
Hong Kong is one of the regions outside the UK using double yellow lines on the side of carriageways.
India[edit]
A double yellow line, in contrast with a double white line, indicates a no-passing restriction. Double white is just a no-passing suggestion.
Ireland[edit]
Double yellow lines on the side of the road have a similar meaning (no parking at any time) as in the United Kingdom.[5] Single yellow line adjacent to a kerb means parking is restricted at certain times. A broken yellow line marks the edge of the carriageway.
Lebanon[edit]
In Lebanon, crossing a yellow line means you entered the area where traffic is coming from the opposite direction. A single solid yellow line means that passing is not advised but you may pass, with extreme caution. A single dashed yellow line means passing is allowed. A double solid yellow line means passing is not allowed under any circumstances. A double dashed line means passing is allowed only if there is no cars you can see coming from the opposite direction.
Malaysia[edit]
Malaysia was once part of the British Empire, and today still applies double yellow line to mark parking restriction for all times. This line can be found in major towns or cities like Kuala Lumpur.
Malta[edit]
A double yellow line means no stopping. This means that unloading of goods and alighting of passengers is not permitted.[2]
Mauritius[edit]
Mauritius was once a British colony, and today still applies double yellow lines to mark restricted parking areas at all hours on the sides of carriageways.
Singapore[edit]
Singapore, a former crown colony of the UK, also uses double yellow lines to indicate no parking at the sides.
United Kingdom[edit]
Double yellow lines in the UK indicate that parking is prohibited.
Double yellow lines along the edge of the carriageway indicate that waiting restrictions apply to the road[6] (which includes the carriageway, footway and verge). A driver may stop for passengers to board or alight and to load or unload (unless there are also 'loading restrictions' - see below). The regulation applies to all vehicles. The restriction applies from the centre of the carriageway to the back of the footway.
Loading and unloading is allowed on double yellow lines at any time, unless there are additional markings indicating that there are 'loading restrictions'. Two short yellow stripes at regular intervals across the kerb or edge of the carriageway indicate that loading and unloading is not permitted at any time (these are not accompanied by sign plates). A single short yellow stripe at regular intervals across the kerb or edge of the carriageway indicates that loading and unloading is not permitted at the times shown on accompanying black and white sign plates.[7] Loading/unloading time is restricted to either 20 or 40 minutes depending upon the location (borough) if loading is observed. One must not cause an obstruction to traffic or pedestrians.[8]
History[edit]
Double yellow lines mean no waiting at any time, unless there are signs that specifically indicate seasonal restrictions.[7] They were first introduced in the UK by section 51[9] of the Road Traffic Act 1960[10] (repealed in 1972 and replaced by later legislation).
Countries that were once part of the British Empire are likely to retain a modified version of the British laws including the basic principles regarding road safety.
United States[edit]
A double yellow center line in the United States indicates that passing is prohibited
A yellow line (solid or dashed) indicates that crossing the line will place a driver in a lane where opposing traffic is coming at the driver. A double yellow line is a painted marking separating two lanes of a road. It consists of two parallel, solid yellow lines, and its presence usually indicates a no-passing restriction or no passing zone, where crossing the line is prohibited. Obvious exceptions to this no-passing restriction include emergency maneuvers or temporary traffic flow changes due to road work. Often the double yellow line has sections where one of the lines becomes dashed (in which case it is no longer a "double yellow"), indicating to the drivers traveling on the side closest to the dashed line that they may pass when it is safe. Double-yellow lines may be used to separate lanes of traffic traveling in opposite directions where passing would be dangerous, or to restrict access to lanes traveling in the same direction, such as HOV and express lanes on a highway.
Two municipalities in the state of Rhode Island, Bristol and Warwick, replace the double yellow line with red, white, and blue striping along certain routes.
In some states, it is not against the law to overtake vehicles in the presence of solid yellow lines if it is safe to do so. For example, Vermont State Law also allows passing across the double yellow line when no traffic is on the opposing side, however, one must pass quickly and return to the proper side.[11] Pennsylvania does permit passing on double yellow lines when not also posted with "Do Not Pass" signage.[12][13] However, this is unusual as most states have a ban on crossing a double yellow line except when turning, when passing pedestrians or bicycles, or if an obstruction in the road makes it necessary. Overtaking another vehicle across a solid yellow line is usually considered a serious traffic violation in most states.[11]
Some parts of the US use a doubled set of double yellow lines to demarcate a painted median strip, which vehicles are not permitted to cross. This differs from a single set of double yellow lines, which may be crossed in certain circumstances.[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ UK Highway Code -Signs and markings
^ Jump up to: a b "Traffic signs & carriageway markings regulations". Government of Malta. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Motor Vehicle Act Section 155 BC Laws
Jump up ^ Motor Vehicle Act Section 156 BC Laws
Jump up ^ "Traffic signs & road markings for parking". Road Safety Authority. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Waiting and parking (238 to 252)". Retrieved 2013-04-30.
^ Jump up to: a b "Road markings" (PDF). direct.gov. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
Jump up ^ londoncouncils website
Jump up ^ "Road Traffic Act 1960 - 51 Traffic signs". Legislation.gov.uk.
Jump up ^ "Parking Meter Zones (Double Yellow Lines)". Hansard. Mr. Marples: Double yellow lines on the carriageway in a parking meter zone indicate a ban on waiting at all times, except for the picking up or setting down of passengers; they also indicate a ban on loading or unloading between 8.30 a.m. and midnight. I have authorised the use of these carriageway markings under the powers given to me in Section 51 of the Road Traffic Act, 1960.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.dmv.vermont.gov
Jump up ^ http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/pdotforms/vehicle_code/chapter33.pdf
Jump up ^ http://blogs.mcall.com/roadwarrior/2011/03/reversing-mondays-reversal-on-double-yellow-passing-.html
Jump up ^ "Crossing double yellow lines", Spokesman-Review, April 28, 2014 .
See also[edit]
Highway Code
Red route
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The Fox and the Grapes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The illustration of the fable by François Chauveau in the first volume of La Fontaine's fables, 1668
The Fox and the Grapes is one of the Aesop's fables,[1] numbered 15 in the Perry Index.[2] The narration is concise and subsequent retellings have often been equally succinct. The story concerns a fox that tries to eat grapes from a vine but cannot reach them. Rather than admit defeat, he states they are undesirable. The expression "sour grapes" originated from this fable.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 The fable
2 La Fontaine's Le Renard et les Raisins
3 Cognitive dissonance
4 Concise translations
5 Artistic uses
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
The fable[edit]
The fable of The Fox and the Grapes is one of the few which feature only a single animal protagonist. There are several Greek versions as well as one in Latin by Phaedrus (IV.3) which is terse and to the point:
Driven by hunger, a fox tried to reach some grapes hanging high on the vine but was unable to, although he leaped with all his strength. As he went away, the fox remarked 'Oh, you aren't even ripe yet! I don't need any sour grapes.' People who speak disparagingly of things that they cannot attain would do well to apply this story to themselves.[4]
In her version of La Fontaine's Fables, Marianne Moore underlines his ironic comment on the situation in a final pun, "Better, I think, than an embittered whine".[5]
Although the fable describes purely subjective behaviour, the English idiom "sour grapes" which develops from the story is now often used also of envious disparagement to others. Similar expressions exist in other languages,[6] but in the Scandinavian equivalent the fox makes its comment about rowanberries since grapes are not common in northern latitudes.[7]
La Fontaine's Le Renard et les Raisins[edit]
Pierre Julien's sculpture of La Fontaine with attendant fox
The French fable of La Fontaine (III.11) is almost as concise and pointed as the early versions of Babrius and Phaedrus and certainly contributed to the story's popularity. A century after its publication, this was the tale with which the sculptor Pierre Julien chose to associate its creator in his statue of La Fontaine (commissioned in 1782), now in the Louvre. The poet is represented in a famous episode of his life, when he was seen one morning by the Duchess of Bouillon seated against a tree trunk meditating. When she passed the same spot that evening he was still there in exactly the same position. Julien has portrayed him in an ample cloak, with a gnarled tree on which a vine with grapes is climbing. On his knee is the manuscript of the poem; at his feet, a fox is seated on his hat with its paw on a leather-bound volume, looking up at him.
Gustave Doré's illustration of the fable for the 1870 edition[8] pictures a young man in a garden who is looking towards the steps to a mansion in the distance on which several young women are congregated. An older man is holding up his thumb and forefinger, indicating that they are only little girls. The meaning of this transposition to the human situation hinges on the double meaning of 'unripe' (vert) in French, which could also be used of a sexually immature female. From this emerges the story's subtext, of which a literal translation reads
The gallant would gladly have made a meal of them
But as he was unable to succeed, says he:
'They are unripe and only fit for green boys.'
There is the same sexual ambiguity in the Greek of Babrius. The phrase there is "όμφακες εισίν" (omphakes eisin), the word omphax[9] having both the literal meaning of an unripe grape and the metaphorical usage of a girl not yet ripe for marriage.
Cognitive dissonance[edit]
Rather than admit his failure to reach the grapes, the fox rationalises that they are not really desirable. One commentator argues that the story illustrates the state of cognitive dissonance. The fox is taken as attempting to hold incompatible ideas simultaneously, desire and its frustration. In that case, the disdain expressed by the fox at the conclusion to the fable serves at least to reduce the dissonance through criticism. Jon Elster calls this pattern of mental behaviour "adaptive preference formation".[10]
Concise translations[edit]
Many translations, whether of Aesop's fable or of La Fontaine's, are wordy and often add details not sanctioned by the original. Two English authors have produced short poetical versions which still retain both the general lines of the story and its lesson. The first of these is a quatrain by Aphra Behn appearing in Francis Barlow's illustrated edition of the fables (1687):
The fox who longed for grapes, beholds with pain
The tempting clusters were too high to gain;
Grieved in his heart he forced a careless smile,
And cried, ‘They’re sharp and hardly worth my while.’[11]
The second also accompanies an illustrated edition, in this case the work of Walter Crane in Baby's Own Aesop (1887). Each fable has been reduced to a limerick by W.J.Linton and is enclosed within the design. "The Fox and the Grapes" has been given the moral 'The grapes of disappointment are always sour' and runs as follows:
This Fox has a longing for grapes:
He jumps, but the bunch still escapes.
So he goes away sour;
And, 'tis said, to this hour
Declares that he's no taste for grapes.[12]
By comparison, the Phaedrus version has six pentameter lines, of which two draw the moral, and Gabriele Faerno's Latin reworking has five lines and two more drawing the moral.[13] Both Babrius and La Fontaine have eight, the latter using his final line to comment on the situation. Though the emblematist Geoffrey Whitney confines the story to four lines, he adds two more of personal application: 'So thou, that hunt'st for that thou longe hast mist,/ Still makes thy boast, thou maist if that thou list.'[14]
The fable was also one that the French poet Isaac de Benserade summed up in a single quatrain, not needing to go into much detail since his verses accompanied the hydraulic statue of it in the labyrinth of Versailles. He can therefore afford a thoughtful, moralising tone:
Pleasures are dear and difficult to get.
Feasting the eye, fat grapes hung in the arbour,
That the fox could not reach, for all his labour,
And leaving them declared, they're not ripe yet.
But Benserade then adds another quatrain, speculating on the fox's mental processes; finally it admits that the grapes really were ripe but 'what cannot be had, you speak of badly'.[15]
Artistic uses[edit]
One of La Fontaine's early illustrators was the artist Jean-Baptiste Oudry,[16] who was also artistic director at both the Beauvais and the Gobelins tapestry works. In consequence of this a series based on La Fontaine's fables designed by Oudry was produced by them during the 1740s and included "The Fox and the Grapes". These stayed in production for some forty years and were imitated by other factories in France and abroad,[17] being used not just as wall hangings but for chair covers and other domestic purposes. Furniture craftsmen in France also used the fables as themes and took these with them when they emigrated. Among them was Martin Jugiez (d.1815), who had a workshop in the American city of Philadelphia where the still surviving Fox and Grapes chest of drawers was produced.[18]
A wooden panel from an 18th-century chest of drawers
The Sèvres porcelain works used the fables on their china as well as reproducing Pierre's Julien's statue from a preliminary model in 1784, even before the finished product was exhibited.[19] Another domestic use for the fable was as an architectural medallion on the outside of mansions, of which there is still an example dating from the turn of the 19th century on the Avenue Felix Fauré in Paris.[20] A medallion of another kind, cast in bronze by Jean Vernon (1897–1975), was produced as part of his renowned series based on the fables in the 1930s. That of "The Fox and the Grapes" features two foxes scrambling up a trellis with what looks like more success than La Fontaine's creation.[21]
There was as diverse a use of the fables in England and from as early a date. Principally this was on domestic china and includes a Chelsea candlestick (1750) and a Worcester jug (1754) in the 18th century;[22] a Brownhills alphabet plate (1888) in the 19th century;[23] and a collector's edition from the Knowles pottery (1988) in the 20th.[24] Series based on Aesop's fables became popular for pictorial tiles towards the end the 19th century, of which Minton Hollins produced a particularly charming example illustrating "The Fox and the Grapes". On this a vixen is accompanied by her cubs, who make ineffectual leaps at the grapes while the mother contemplates them with her paws clasped behind her.[25]
There have also been the following musical settings:
Louis-Nicolas Clerambault in the early 18th century
Benjamin Godard, the fifth of his Six Fables de La Fontaine for voice and piano (op. 17 1872-79)
Louis Lacombe in Fables de La Fontaine, (op. 72 1875)
Charles Lecocq, the first of his Six Fables de Jean de la Fontaine for voice and piano (1900)
Mario Versepuy (1882-1972) for voice and piano (1921)[26]
Marie.Madeleine Duruflé, the third of her 6 Fables de La Fontaine for a cappella choir (1960)[27]
Herbert Callhoff in German translation (1963)
Ned Rorem, one of the 'five very short operas' in his Fables (1971). A setting of Marianne Moore's translation of La Fontaine, this segment is more a cantata for chorus of two and tenor soloist (representing the fox); its action is all in the programmatic music.[28]
Andre Asriel, Der Fuchs und die Trauben, the fourth of his 6 Fabeln nach Aesop for mixed a cappella voices (1972).[29]
Bob Chilcott, among the five English translations in his Aesop's Fables for piano and choir (2008).[30]
Lefteris Kordis, the eighth of nine compositions for octet and voice in his "Aesop Project" (2010).[31]
See also[edit]
Novels portal
Cognitive dissonance
Rationalization (psychology)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fables ancient and modern, adapted for the use of children by Edward Baldwin. 1824.
Jump up ^ Aesopica
Jump up ^ Laura Gibbs (1 January 2009). Aesop's Fables in Latin: Ancient Wit and Wisdom from the Animal Kingdom. Bolchazy1-Carducci Publishers. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-1-61041-027-4.
Jump up ^ "Mythfolklore.net". Mythfolklore.net. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ The text appears on p.4 of the document at cfaitc.org
Jump up ^ The Concise Dictionary or European Proverbs, London 1998, p.989, proverb 986
Jump up ^ See the Wiktionary definition of the Swedish proverb and the YouTube animation of its Finnish equivalent: "Quite sour, said the fox of rowan berries". YouTube. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "etsystatic.com".
Jump up ^ "Perseus.tufts.edu". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ Elster, Jon. Sour Grapes: Studies in the Subversion of Rationality. Cambridge 1983, p. 123ff.
Jump up ^ Quoted in Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Salmun.cwahi.net". Salmun.cwahi.net. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ Fabulae Centum Fable XIX, p.47
Jump up ^ Choice of Emblemes (1586), p.98
Jump up ^ The French text is online, Fables (1678), p.15
Jump up ^ "Illustrations de Oudry des fables de la Fontaine". le renard et les raisins.
Jump up ^ Hunter, George Leland: Tapestries, their origin, history and renaissance, London, 1912, p.193-4; available online at archive.org
Jump up ^ "Antiquesandfineart.com". Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ John-whitehead.co.uk Archived October 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "60gp.ovh.net". Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Medalsoftheworld.com". Medalsoftheworld.com. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Google Books". Google.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Google Books". Google.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ "Creighton.edu". Creighton.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ The score is online
Jump up ^ A performance of the complete work on Vimeo
Jump up ^ Crabtree, Joseph Craig: An Investigation and Analysis of Ned Rorem's "Fables", Austin, 2001, pp.63-70. Available at repositories.lib.utexas.edu
Jump up ^ A performance on YouTube
Jump up ^ imuababe. "There is a performance on YouTube". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
Jump up ^ pankomusik. "Aesop Project - VIII. The Fox & the Grapes - Lefteris Kordis Octet". YouTube. Retrieved 2012-08-20.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Fox and the Grapes.
15th-20th century illustrations from books
Another set of illustrations
Elster, Jon: "Sour Grapes: Studies in the Subversion of Rationality" at Google Books
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